Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Major Components And Functions

Of Boilers And Boiler Systems And
Applications Of Standards And Specifications

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Instrumentations For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI20101 J.L. Sprague
Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentations
Major Components And Functions
Of Boilers And Boilers Systems And
Applications Of Standards And Specifications

Contents Pages

INFORMATION .................................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1

BOILERS: PURPOSE, HISTORY, TYPES, HARDWARE, SYSTEM FUNCTIONS.......... 2

Purpose of Boilers..................................................................................................... 2
Uses of Steam................................................................................................ 2
World Energy Consumption........................................................................... 2
History of Boilers ...................................................................................................... 2
Boiler Efficiency ............................................................................................ 4
Boiler Safety.................................................................................................. 5
Benefits ......................................................................................................... 6
Boiler Control................................................................................................ 8
Types of Boilers ........................................................................................................ 9
Firetube Boilers ............................................................................................. 9
Watertube Boilers .......................................................................................... 9
Boiler Hardware Overview .......................................................................................10
Drum ............................................................................................................11
Mud Drum....................................................................................................12
Riser.............................................................................................................13
Downcomer..................................................................................................13
Superheater ..................................................................................................13
Burner ..........................................................................................................13
Economizer ..................................................................................................13
Air Heater.....................................................................................................13
Steam Coil Air Heater...................................................................................14
Forced Draft Fan ..........................................................................................14
Induced Draft Fan.........................................................................................14
Systems Functional Overview...................................................................................14
Steam-Water System.....................................................................................14
Draft System.................................................................................................14
Heat Transfer................................................................................................14

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COMPONENTS OF BOILER FLUID CIRCULATION SYSTEMS: FUNCTIONS

AND BASIC OPERATION.................................................................................................16
Feedwater Supply System.........................................................................................16
Condenser.....................................................................................................17
Feedwater Heaters ........................................................................................17
Deaerator Heater and Storage Tank ..............................................................18
Boiler Feed Pump .........................................................................................18
Economizer ..................................................................................................18
Feedwater Conditioning and Boiler Blowdown.........................................................18
Boiler Feedwater (BFW) Supply ...................................................................18
Chemical Treatment of BFW.........................................................................19
Boiler Blowdown Methods ...........................................................................20
Boiling Process and Steam Generation......................................................................20
Saturated Water and Saturated Steam ...........................................................21
Superheated Steam .......................................................................................24
Boiling Process .............................................................................................25
Natural Circulation .......................................................................................27
Steam drum internals....................................................................................29
COMPONENTS OF THE VARIOUS BOILER AIR AND DRAFT SYSTEMS:
FUNCTIONS AND BASIC OPERATION ..........................................................................31
Forced Draft and Natural Draft Systems ...................................................................32
Forced Draft Fan ..........................................................................................32
Natural Draft ................................................................................................32
Pressure and Draft Profile .............................................................................32
Furnace Air Pressure and Boiler Load...........................................................32
Balanced draft Systems.............................................................................................32
Air preheater.................................................................................................33
Induced Draft Fan.........................................................................................33
Pressure and Draft Profile .............................................................................33
Benefit of Balanced draft System ..................................................................34
Air Flow System.......................................................................................................34
Constant speed fan........................................................................................35

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Variable Speed Fan .......................................................................................35

COMPONENTS OF BOILER FUEL SYSTEMS: FUNCTION AND BASIC
OPERATION ......................................................................................................................36
Fuel Gas System.......................................................................................................36
Fuel Oil System ........................................................................................................36
APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRY AND SAUDI ARAMCO STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATIONS TO SAUDI ARAMCO BOILER CONTROL SYSTEMS.....................37
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards SAES-J-004, SAES-J-600 and SAES-J-
602...........................................................................................................................37
Aramco Materials System Specification 34-SAMSS-619 ..........................................38
American National Standards Institute/National Fire Protection Association
Standards NFPA 8501 and NFPA 85C .....................................................................38
American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice API-RP-551 ..........................38
American National Standards Institute/Instrument Society of America Standards
ANSI/ISA S77.41, ANSI/ISA S77.42 and ANSI/ISA S5.1.......................................39
Scientific Apparatus Manufacturer's Association Standard SAMA PMC 22.1-
1981.........................................................................................................................39
Burner Vendor Specification Sheet...........................................................................39
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................40

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Table of Figures Pages

Figure 1. Early Steam Boiler A.................................................................................. 3

Figure 2. Early Steam Boiler B .................................................................................. 4
Figure 3. Early Firetube Boiler................................................................................... 5
Figure 4 . Early Watertube Boilers............................................................................. 7
Figure 5. Early Inclined Watertube Boiler .................................................................. 8
Figure 6. Modern Day Boiler....................................................................................10
Figure 7. Steam Drum ..............................................................................................12
Figure 8. Basic Feedwater Supply System.................................................................16
Figure 9. Reverse Osmosis .......................................................................................19
Figure 10. Boiling Process and Steam Generation.....................................................21
Figure 11. Boiling point–Pressure Relationship.........................................................22
Figure 12. Saturation Curve–Boiling point–Pressure Relationship.............................23
Figure 13. Steam Quality ..........................................................................................24
Figure 14. Nucleate Boiling ......................................................................................25
Figure 15. Film Boiling.............................................................................................26
Figure 16. DNB Metal Curve ...................................................................................27
Figure 17. Natural Circulation ..................................................................................28
Figure 18. Effect of Flow versus Heat Input .............................................................29
Figure 19. Boiler Air and Draft System.....................................................................31
Figure 20. Pressure and Draft Profile–Balanced draft System–Includes Air
preheater ..................................................................................................34

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentations
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INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION

This module provides a foundation of the major components and functions of boilers and boiler
systems and applications of standards and specifications. The sections of this module include:
• Boilers: Purpose, History, Types, Hardware, System Functions
• Components of Boiler Fluid Circulation Systems: Functions and Basic Operation
• Components of Boiler Air and Draft Systems: Functions and Basic Operation
• Components of Boiler Fuel Systems: Functions and Basic Operation
• Applications of Industry and Saudi Aramco Standards and Specifications that Apply to
Saudi Aramco Boiler Control Systems

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentations
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BOILERS: PURPOSE, HISTORY, TYPES, HARDWARE, SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

This section will discuss the evolution and basic systems and hardware components of a boiler.

Specifically, this section will discuss:

• The purpose of boilers.
• The history of boilers.
• The types of boilers.
• Boiler hardware.
• Boiler system functions.
Purpose of Boilers

Uses of Steam

Steam has long been one of man's most dependable servants and is still used today to perform
many varied and vital functions. Over 90% of the new electric generating capacity being installed
in the United States utilizes steam. Steam also powers most of the world's naval vessels and is an
integral part of many industrial processes.

World Energy Consumption

All fuels can be related by the content of energy in them. An FOEB, or Fuel Oil Equivalent Barrel,
is one way to measure energy. An FOEB is equal to the amount of energy contained in a barrel of
oil; or 42 gallons per barrel times 150,000 BTU per gallon, which equals approximately 6,300,000
BTU's.

Today's (1990) world energy consumption is 166 million FOEB per day or 1.05 X 10 EX15 BTU
per day. This is the equivalent of 13,000 1000 megawatt electrical generating stations. Roughly
67% (122 Million FOEB or 7.7 X 10 EX14 BTU per day) of the total energy consumed by the
world is available for use by transportation, industry, residential, and commercial. 7% (11 Million
FOEB or 6.9 X 10 EX13 BTU per day) is available for nonenergy users. 26% (43 FOEB or 2.7 X
10 EX13 BTU/day) is lost because of conversion, transmission, and refinery use losses.

History of Boilers

Early steam boilers consisted of little more than kettles filled with water and were heated on the
bottom, similar to those shown in Figures 1 and 2. Boilers of the early 1700s still used the kettle
principle, but burned the fuel in an enclosed furnace to direct more heat to the boiler kettle.

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Haycock Boiler, 1720 33385

Figure 1. Early Steam Boiler A

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33386

Figure 2. Early Steam Boiler B

Boiler Efficiency

In the mid 1700s, boiler designers noted that nearly half of the heat from the fire was lost because
of short contact time between the hot gases and the boiling heating surface. To improve boiler
efficiency, an integral furnace was developed with the fuel actually burned in a container enclosed
within the water vessel (Figure 3). A smoke flue wound through the water from the combustion
chamber to the atmosphere much like a coil in a still. To prevent a deficiency of combustion air, a
bellows was used to force air to the combustion zone and gases through the flue in what was the
first application of forced draft.

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33387

Figure 3. Early Firetube Boiler

Boiler Safety

As the demand for power increased, the single flue was replaced by many gas tubes that increased
the heating surface. More water was subjected to the heat from the flue gases. While this firetube
design was popular until about 1870, it was also dangerous. Many disastrous explosions resulted
from the direct heating of the pressure shell that contained large amounts of water at saturation
temperature. Boiler designers recognized that one way to overcome the deficiencies of the
firetube boilers was to develop a watertube design in which the heating surface consist of water-
filled tubes. This design would limit the consequences of a pressure-part rupture.

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Benefits

While several watertube boiler designs were patented between the late 1700s and the mid 1800s
(Figure 4), it was not until 1856 that a significant breakthrough occurred. The design
incorporated inclined water tubes connecting water spaces at the front and rear of the furnace
with a steam space above (Figure 5). It provided a better water circulation and more heating
surface than other designs, along with the reduced steam explosion hazard.

42 in.

64 in.
Water-tube boiler of small tubes connected at one end to
a reservoir. John Stevens, 1803.

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64 in.
Water-tube boiler of small tubes connected at one end to
a reservoir. John Stevens, 1803.

46 in.

First water-tube boiler. Built and Water-tube boiler with tubes connecting
Patented by William Blakely in 1766. water chamber below and steam
chamber above. John Cox Stevens, 1805.
33388

Figure 4 . Early Watertube Boilers

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Inclined water tubes connecting front and rear water spaces complete circuit
with steam space above. Stephen Wilcox, 1856.
33389

Figure 5. Early Inclined Watertube Boiler

Boiler Control

Boiler control began in the late 1700s with the introduction of the "flyball" governor for speed
control of the first rotative steam engines. Also during this time, feedback control was used to
control the level in the boiler by regulating the water to the boiler. Feedback control was also
used to control steam pressure by using automatic draft regulation.

There were no further advances in boiler control until the early 1900s when integrated systems
were designed to control steam pressure, furnace draft, feedwater, combustion, and steam
temperature. During the 1950s burner control systems were developed to start and stop burners
and to include flame safety systems.

In the 1960s control switched from predominantly pneumatic analog control to predominantly
solid-state, discrete element, electronic analog control. Between 1950 and 1970 not much money
was invested into boiler control development because of the continual reduction in fuel prices
relative to the cost of boilers and boiler accessories. Beginning in the 1970s fuel economics have
influenced changes in boiler control. The high price of fuel has allowed a greater degree of control
sophistication than could be justified in 1970. In addition, the development of microprocessor
control has caused an advantageous transition to the greater precision of digital control.

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Types of Boilers

Firetube Boilers

In Firetube Boilers the hot flue gas products of combustion flow through boiler tubes surrounded
by water. Steam is generated by the heat transferred through the walls of the tubes to the
surrounding water. The flue gases are cooled as they flow through the tubes, transferring their
heat to the water.

Early firetube boilers consisted of a spherical or cylindrical pressure vessel mounted over the fire
with flame and hot gases around the boiler shell. To increase the heat transfer area and improve
the heat transfer coefficient, longitudinal tubes were installed in the pressure vessel and flue gases
were passed through the tubes. This horizontal return tubular (HRT) boiler is shown in Figures 2-
4 and 2-5 on page 22 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow. Other firetube
boilers include the Locomotive-type boiler and the Scotch Marine Boiler. The Scotch Marine
Boiler is designed with the combustion chamber as a long cylinder, jacketed by a larger cylinder
fitted with several passes of firetubes. Today, the most common firetube boilers are similar to the
Scotch marine boiler and are shown in Figures 2-9 and 2-10 on page 24 of The Control of
Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow. Figure 2-9 shows the Wetback Firetube Boiler in
which the combustion chamber is water-jacketed. Figure 2-10 shows the Dryback Firetube Boiler
in which the combustion chamber is lined with high temperature insulating material.

Watertube Boilers

Watertube Boiler's design features one or more relatively small drums with many tubes in which
the steam/water mixture circulates. Figures 2-14 on page 27 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd
Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow illustrates the circulation of a watertube boiler. The watertube boiler
steam-water system will be discussed further in the next two sections. Heating the riser tubes with
the hot flue gases causes the water to circulate and steam to be released in the boiler drum. Early
watertube boilers were shown in Figures 4 and 5 of this module.

Today a typical watertube boiler has a single burner with up to approximately 125,000 pounds per
hour steam flow but is available in sizes up to several million pounds per hour with more than one
burner.

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Boiler Hardware Overview

Drum

Circulating Water
Downcomer
Boiler

Riser Superheater

Mud Drum

Economizer
Feedwater
Riser

Burners

Air
Steam Coil
Air Heater Air Heater

To Stack
Gas Outlet
Gas Air

Induced Draft Fan Forced Draft Fan

33390

Figure 6. Modern Day Boiler

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Drum

Boilers operating below critical pressure are usually fitted with a steam drum, (Figure 7). In the
steam drum, saturated steam is separated from a recirculating steam/water mixture. The
recirculation flow is from the steam drum via downcomer tubes to either the mud drum or the
water wall header, and from there through riser tubes back to the steam drum. Most boilers rely
on natural convection for this flow, because of heat absorption by the risers from the furnace.
Some larger boilers use low head, high working pressure pumps to provide positive circulation.
The steam rises up through separation devices in the drum and exits to one or more superheating
passes through the furnace. The water from the steam/water mixture is then recirculated together
with the makeup feedwater to downcomer circuits. Water treatment chemicals may be added to
the steam drum and feedwater may be discharged, or "blown down" from the mud drum, to
reduce dissolved and undissolved solids in the boiler water. The primary purpose of the steam
drum however is to provide a free controllable surface for separation of steam from water and a
housing for any mechanical separating devices.

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Steam
Outlets

Secondary
Scrubber

Primary
Scrubber

Cyclone

Blowdown
Feedwater Inlet Chemical
Feed

Upcomer/Riser 33391

Figure 7. Steam Drum

Mud Drum

The mud drum is completely filled with water and is the low velocity point of the circulating
water. Unresolved solids that develop in the boiler gravitate to the bottom of the mud drum and
can be drawn off.

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Riser

Heat collecting surfaces constructed from tubing and conveying boiler circulating water upwards
to the steam drum are generally called risers. The risers may originate from either the water wall
header at the base of the furnace, or from the mud drum.

Boiler circulating water absorbs primarily radiant energy from the furnace fireball while resident in
risers jacketing the furnace. These heat absorption surfaces called water walls are fed from the
water wall header at the base of the furnace.

Downcomer

Water is carried down from the boiler drum to the mud drum or to the water wall feedwater
header through tubes called downcomers. The downcomers are not heated and are located
outside of the furnace cavity..

Superheater

The superheater is a flue gas to steam heat exchanger. Heat from the flue gases is added to the
saturated steam from the drum.

Burner

The burner is used to introduce fuel and air to the furnace at the required velocities, turbulence,
and concentration to maintain ignition and combustion of the fuel within the furnace.

Economizer

Feedwater from the condensate-feedwater system enters the economizer located in the furnace
flue gas ductwork. Waste heat from the flue gas is absorbed by the feedwater in order to improve
efficiency.

Air Heater

The steam-generator air heater improves boiler efficiency by transferring heat to incoming
combustion air from the flue gases before they pass to the atmosphere. The heat is transferred to
the air from the flue gas through a regenerative heat-transfer surface in a rotor that turns
continuously through the gas and airstreams.

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Steam Coil Air Heater

The steam coil air heater is a tublar steam to air heat exchanger in which auxiliary steam charges
the coil. Combustion air flows across the tubes in order to provide a minimum combustion air
temperature. The steam coil air heater is normally in service only during boiler startup, or possibly
low load conditions when the regenerative air heater cannot provide sufficient heat to the
combustion air.

Forced Draft Fan

The forced draft fan supplies low head air necessary for fuel combustion, and secondarily to make
up for air heater leakage and for some seal-air requirements.

Induced Draft Fan

The induced draft fan used in a balanced draft furnace exhausts combustion products from the
furnace. The induced draft fan creates a sufficient draft to establish a slight negative pressure in
the furnace.

Systems Functional Overview

A boiler is composed of two separate systems: the steam-water system and the draft system
(Figure 2-1 on page 20 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow).

Steam-Water System

Water enters the steam/water system, is heated, is converted to steam, and exits the system in the
form of steam.

Draft System

The draft system supplies the heat that is necessary to boil the water. Fuel and air enter the draft
system and are mixed and ignited in a furnace. The combustion converts the chemical energy of
the fuel to heat or to thermal energy.

Heat Transfer

In most tube steam generators, the radiant section of the furnace is lined with a heat transfer
surface of boiler circulating water tubes (water wall or mud drum risers.) The tubes receive
radiant heat from the fireball and transfer it to the steam/water system. Combustion flue gases are
cooled by the water wall and the boiler circulating water heat transfer surfaces.

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Flue gases exiting the furnace also transfer heat to the working fluid by conduction as they pass
through the various heat transfer surfaces. Additional heat is recovered from the flue gases by use
of the combustion air preheater (Figure 2-2, A Simple boiler plus Combustion Air preheater, on
page 20 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow) and the economizer (Figure
2-3, A Simple Boiler plus Economizer, on page 21 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by
Sam G. Dukelow). The combustion air preheater transfers heat from the hot flue gases to the
combustion air. The economizer transfers heat from the hot flue gases to the boiler feedwater.

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COMPONENTS OF BOILER FLUID CIRCULATION SYSTEMS: FUNCTIONS AND

BASIC OPERATION

The fluid circulation systems of a boiler are the following:

• Feedwater supply system
• Feedwater conditioning and boiler blowdown
• Boiling process and steam generation
This section will discuss the components of these systems and the functions of these components.

Feedwater Supply System

Figure 8 illustrates the basic feedwater supply system. The function of the feedwater supply
system is to continuously supply water to the boiler through piping to the steam drum.

To Process
Header
Intermediate
Intermediate Steam to Process
Pressure Turbine
Drive to BFP
Lo Pressure Lo Pressure
Turbine Steam to
Process

Condenser

Makeup
Superheater Deaerating Softened
Heater Condensate
Steam Storage
Drum Superheat Tank
Spray Valve
Economizer

Drive from
Condensate
Turbine
Feed Tank
Feedwater
Heater Boiler Deaerator
Feed Pump Storage Tank 33392

Figure 8. Basic Feedwater Supply System

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Relatively cool water leaves the condensate storage tank and enters the deaerating heater and is
deposited into a deaerator storage tank. The feedwater deaerator supplies the suction side of the
boiler feedwater pump(s). These high pressure pumps supply the economizer from the deaerator.
Boiler feedwater from the economizer enters the steam drum, and the boiler circulating water
system. Saturated steam from the drum passes through the superheater and is discharged to the
process as high pressure superheated steam. The steam may be used to supply power turbines or
manufacturing processes.

Some of the energy in the high pressure steam may be partially expended by the process of power
turbines. The resulting intermediate pressure steam is used for feedwater heating, processes using
low pressure steam, or low pressure power turbines. Supplements to the intermediate pressure
steam loads may be provided by steam pressure letdown and attemperation stations. Excess high
pressure steam, resulting from sudden load drops may also be routed through letdown stations
(sometimes referred to as steam bypasses) to the low pressure steam header.

Low pressure steam is phased back to liquid by the steam condenser and is stored in the
condensate storage tank.

Most pumps in an industrial or utility environment will have some form of working fluid
recirculation to prevent damage at "deadhead" or low flow conditions. The discharge side of the
pump is provided with a recirculation line back to the reservoir feeding pump, or occasionally
back to the suction side of the pump. The recirculation line may be fed by a mechanical pressure
relief valve, a shutoff valve and orifice, or modulating control valve.

Condenser

The steam condenser in the feedwater supply system is a heat exchanger used to transfer sufficient
heat from the low pressure steam to condense it back to its liquid phase. The heat exchanger may
be either air to steam or water to steam.

Feedwater Heaters

Feedwater heaters are used to heat the boiler feedwater so that less fuel is required to generate
steam. The heaters may be classified either as low pressure prior to the deaerator, or high
pressure after the boiler feedwater pumps. Heating the feedwater is also necessary for the process
of deaeration.

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Deaerator Heater and Storage Tank

The deaerator is used to eliminate air, oxygen, CO2, and other gases from the boiler feedwater.
These gases are removed by vigorous boiling and venting the gases to atmosphere. If CO2 were
allowed to remain in the water, the heat exchangers and condensate return piping would become
corroded. If oxygen were allowed to enter the boiler, serious corrosion could occur.

Boiler Feed Pump

The boiler feed pump is used to supply high pressure boiler feedwater to the drum. Boiler
feedpumps operate in a constant speed or variable speed manner. A variable speed pump's speed
can be driven by a variable speed motor, a magnetic or hydraulic coupling, or a steam turbine. A
recirculation line is open at low flow to keep the pump from cavitating and overheating.

Economizer

Figure 2-3, A Simple Boiler plus Economizer, on page 21 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition,
by Sam G. Dukelow shows a simplified diagram of a boiler plus economizer. The economizer is
used to recover heat from the flue gas to the boiler feedwater. The flue gas exits the boiler and
enters the economizer where it transfers heat to the boiler feedwater. The flue gas temperature
decreases, and the boiler feedwater temperature increases.

Feedwater Conditioning and Boiler Blowdown

Feedwater conditioning and boiler blowdown are used to maintain a proper boiler chemical
balance. Feedwater conditioning includes flash evaporation and reverse osmosis of sea water and
the use of oxygen scavengers and corrosion inhibitors. Boiler blowdown can be continuous and is
used to remove impurities in the boiler water. There are various methods for the internal
treatment of boiler water. A blanket recommendation of any one method is not realistic. The type
of treatment to be used in a particular boiler should be based on the raw water supply, the percent
of make-up required, the nature of condensate returns, and other factors.

Boilers require high-purity feedwater. Careful monitoring of boiler feedwater as well as

condensate chemistries is crucial to boiler operations. The monitoring of PH, specification
conductivities, and dissolved oxygen (DO) are required for high-purity feedwater maintenance.

Boiler Feedwater (BFW) Supply

Flash Evaporator Sea Water - Feedwater conditioning removes dissolved salt and mineral solids
that tend to form ions in solution. One method that removes dissolved salts and minerals is flash
evaporation. The flash evaporator operates with its flash chamber under partial vacuum. Water
that enters the chamber is preheated sufficiently to cause water to flash into a vapor upon entering
the chamber. The vapor is condensed to form condensate and the precipitated solids removed and
disposed of.

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Reverse Osmosis of Sea Water- Another procedure that is used to remove dissolved salts and
minerals is reverse osmosis. Osmosis is based upon the principle that when two solutions of
different concentrations are separated by a semipermeable membrane, solvent (water) will be
transported from the dilute to the more concentrated side. Reverse osmosis is based upon the
principle that if pressure is applied to the more concentrated side the solvent will flow in the
reverse direction (Figure 9). If the solution is salt water and a membrane is chosen that is
permeable to water but not to salt, water will flow to the unpressurized side. The result will be a
solution that is more dilute than the original and a solution that is more concentrated than the
original.

Pressure
Applied

Semi-Permeable
Membrane

Water Water

Dilute Solution Concentrated Dilute Solution Concentrated

Osmosis Reverse Osmosis 33393

Figure 9. Reverse Osmosis

Chemical Treatment of BFW

Supplementing internal boiler water treatment is possible by injecting chemicals through the
chemical feed line into the steam drum. The chemical feed line discharges into a turbulent zone of
the drum for thorough mixing with the boiler water before the mixture enters the downcomers.
The continuous blowdownand chemical feed lines are separated so that the injected chemicals do
not flow directly to the blowdown line.

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Oxygen Scavengers - control corrosion by dissolved oxygen (DO). Corrosion by DO is more critical
in the feedwater system because corrosion rates increase with temperature. Sodium sulfite and
sodium sulfite that are catalyzed with cobalt have been applied in low-pressure cycles. Sulfite,
which is a reducing agent, functions strictly through reaction with DO. Hydrazine also functions
as an oxygen scavenger. Hydroquinone is an oxygen scavenger that has been applied in blends
with hydrazine to catalyze its reaction with DO, but hydroquinone may also be used as a
hydrazine substitute. Other chemicals such as carbodihydrazide decompose at feedwater
temperatures and form hydrazine as a by-product. Organic oxygen scavengers, such as erythorbic
acid and diethylhydroxylamine, are also available.

Corrosion Inhibitors - Hydrazine provides corrosion protection through the formation of magnetite
film on steel and through the formation of cypric oxide on copper alloys.

Boiler Blowdown Methods

Continuous blowdown - During normal operation, feedwater is constantly added to the drum as
steam is removed. The impurities in the feedwater and the impurities separated from the steam
will remain in the boiler water. If the impurities are not removed, these impurities will become
more concentrated and eventually deposit on internal tube surfaces. The formation of scale on
tube surfaces reduces heat transfer and can lead to overheating and possible tube failures.
Corrosion of the boiler can be caused by dissolved oxygen, organic-chemical-breakdown
products, acids, and excess caustic. Contaminants that can form deposits on boiler surfaces
include calcium, magnesium, iron, silica or silicates, phosphates, sulfates, oils, and organic
elements.

Boiler water solids are maintained at recommended limits by the continuous blowdown line. The
line is positioned internally, along the length of the drum, in a zone where solids tend to collect. A
calibrated flow control valve regulates the amount of blowdown to the drain system, based on
water solids concentration and feedwater flow. This process tends to remove the most
contaminated water in the system and replace it with fresh feedwater.

Intermittent blowdown - is performed by periodically opening a blowoff valve that is connected to

the lowest part of the mud drum. The primary purpose of the intermittent blowdown is to remove
undissolved solids that collect at the low velocity point of the boiler circulating water. The
intermittent blowdown may be operated anytime depending on the concentration of impurities in
the boiler water.

Boiling Process and Steam Generation

The process of boiling water to make steam is a familiar phenomenon. As heat is added to water,
the temperature of the water increases. When the water temperature reaches the boiling point, or
saturation temperature, some of the water begins to vaporize to steam.

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Saturated Water and Saturated Steam

When water just begins to boil, it is called saturated water (Figure 10). As more heat is added (at
constant pressure), the fluid temperature will remain at the saturation temperature until all of the
water is converted to steam.

Superheated
Steam
Temp ( F)
o

Saturated
Water
Constant Pressure Saturated
470
500 psi Steam

450 1205
Enthalpy (BTU/lb) 33394

Figure 10. Boiling Process and Steam Generation

Once the conversion from water to steam is complete (but before the temperature is raised above
saturation temperature) the fluid is called saturated steam. The speed of conversion depends on
the rate of heat that is being added. It must be remembered that heat and temperature are not the
same thing. A considerable amount of heat is added to the fluid while its temperature remains
constant at the boiling point saturation temperature. Although the temperature remains constant,
the heat being applied is not lost or wasted. It is being utilized to convert water into steam. The
heat input or Enthalpy necessary to convert saturated water to saturated steam is called the heat
of vaporization. The conversion of water to steam requires much more energy beyond that
required to reach the boiling point.

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Boiling point - The term boiling point is most frequently used to identify conditions at atmospheric
pressure (29.92 inches of mercury.) For instance, the boiling point of water at atmospheric
pressure is 212 degrees Fahrenheit, however, pressure increases when steam is generated in a
closed vessel. The boiling point is actually a function of pressure and increases as pressure
increases, as illustrated in Figures 11 and 12. At higher pressures, more heat energy is required to
raise the fluid temperature to the boiling point.

Enthalpy - The amount of heat energy contained in the fluid is termed Enthalpy and is measured in
BTUs/lb.

800

700 2500
Temp ( oF)

2000
600 1500
1000
500
500 psi

400
160 psi

300
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Enthalpy (BTU/lb) of Saturated Water 33395

Figure 11. Boiling point–Pressure Relationship

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1200

1100

1000

900

800
Temp ( F)

Length of line = hfg

o

Saturated Curve
700

600 2000 psi

Boiling
Points
500 500 psi
400
200 psi
300 100 psi
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
33396

Figure 12. Saturation Curve–Boiling point–Pressure Relationship

Heat of Vaporization - The points at which all of the water has been converted to steam are
indicated by the saturated steam line (Figure 12). The heat input or Enthalpy necessary to convert
saturated water to saturated steam is termed the heat of vaporization and is indicated for a given
temperature by the horizontal constant pressure lines.

For example, water begins to boil at about 470 degrees Fahrenheit when the pressure is 500
pounds per square inch. The Enthalpy at this point is about 450 BTU per pound. As more heat is
added (at constant pressure), the Enthalpy increases and more water is converted to steam. The
temperature remains constant until all the water has been converted to saturated steam. This point
would be at the same pressure and temperature (500 pounds per square inch, 470 degrees
Fahrenheit), but the Enthalpy would be increased to 1205 BTU per pound. The heat of
vaporization would then be the Enthalpy of the saturated steam minus the Enthalpy of the
saturated water or 1205 - 450 = 755 BTU per pound.

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Steam quality - The measure of how far the conversion from saturated water to saturated steam has
progressed is called quality and is shown in Figure 13. Quality is the percent by weight of vapor in
a steam/water mixture. As more water is converted to steam, quality increases. Water on the
saturated water line has a quality of 0%. Superheated and saturated steam have a quality of 100%.
Water that has been heated to saturation and has sufficient additional heat added to convert half of
it to steam has a quality of 50%.

1200

1100

1000
Superheated
900 Steam
800
Temp ( F)
o

700
Saturated
600 Water
(0% Quality)
Constant Pressure Line
500 Saturated
20 40 60 80 Steam
400 (100% Quality)

300
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

Enthalpy (BTU/lb) 33397

Figure 13. Steam Quality

Superheated Steam

If still more heat is added to saturated steam, the temperature will again begin to rise. This is
shown by the dotted lines to the right of the saturated steam lines in Figure 10. The fluid in this
area is said to be superheated steam. The superheaters derive their name from their function of
heating steam above the saturation curve. Steam is sometimes referred to as having a number of
degrees of superheat. The number of degrees of superheat describes how far the steam has been
heated above the saturation curve.

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Boiling Process

Two types of boiling processes exist. One is nucleate boiling. The second is film boiling.
Nucleate boiling is preferred over film boiling.

Nucleate Boiling - As a water cooled tube is heated, steam bubbles form at the tube's inner surface.
The steam bubbles condense quickly in the main stream, giving up their heat to raise the
temperature of the water. Normally these bubbles diffuse well and mix with the water in the center
of the tube as shown in Figure 14. This process is referred to as nucleate boiling and promotes
two benefits: (1) it heats the fluid inside the tube to saturation, and (2) it maintains tube metal
temperature at saturation keeping the tube cool.

Tube Wall

Steam Bubbles
(Mixing)
33398

Figure 14. Nucleate Boiling

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Film Boiling - With high heat input levels and high steam quality, the nucleate boiling process
breaks down. The bubbles of steam forming on the hot tube surface will begin to interfere with
the flow of water to the surface and the bubbles of steam eventually coalesce to form a film of
superheated steam over part or all of the tube surface. This condition is known as film boiling
(Figure 15). Little heat will be transferred from the tube metal through the film to the water in the
center of the tube. The tube metal temperature will rapidly increase, resulting in a failure.

Tube Wall

Steam Film
(No Mixing) 33399

Figure 15. Film Boiling

Departure From Nucleate Boiling - The point at which nucleate boiling stops and film boiling begins
is determined by the heat input and steam quality. The point is termed Departure from Nucleate
Boiling or DNB. Metal temperatures are shown in Figure 16 as a function of steam quality for
several heat input levels. As the curves illustrate, only moderate heat inputs can be tolerated at
high quality levels (Area B); however, much higher heat input levels can be tolerated at lower
qualities (Area A). This means that high heat inputs, which result in higher levels of circulation
and steam generation, can be used at low quality levels.

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Subcooled Superheated
Increased Metal Temperature

Water Steam

nput
Heat I
h
Hig

put
Heat In
Low

Area A Area B

0% 100%
Quality 33400

Figure 16. DNB Metal Curve

Research into DNB has found several parameters that affect DNB:
A. High fluid velocities decrease the occurrence of DNB at a given fluid quality.
B. Fluid quality has a great effect on DNB. Lower qualities afford greater margins of
safety and reduce the possibilities of the occurrence of DNB.
C. Wall construction or location of heat flux also affects DNB. Heating a wall from one
side could allow a steam film to form on the heated side of the tube, causing
overheat.
D. Tube type has a major impact on the prevention of DNB.
E. Research and experience has shown that DNB is more likely to occur at operating
pressures above 2000 psig.
F. Higher heat flux also increases the possibility of DNB caused by the higher qualities
generated.
Natural Circulation

Modern watertube boilers were developed from the early firetube designs. Modern watertube
boilers not only have a larger surface area available for heat transfer, but by proper design, a
natural circulation effect is created with water continuously moving within the boiler tubes to
remove and replace the generated steam. In a natural circulation system, circulation increases with
increased heat input until a point of maximum fluid flow is reached.

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Natural circulation is based on the difference in density between water and steam. Steam is
significantly less dense than water. Water is supplied from a drum to the furnace wall tubes
through downcomers. The downcomers are not heated. As the unit is fired, a steam/water mixture
is generated in the furnace wall tubes. The steam/water mixture in the wall tubes is less dense than
the water in the downcomers and forced up the steam drum by the heavier water as shown in
Figure 17. The process continuously repeats with a steam/water mixture being generated in the
furnace tubes and being replaced with heavier water in the downcomers.

Steam
Outlet

Steam
Drum

Water/Steam

Downcomer Furnace Walls

(Unheated) (Heated)

Furnace Wall Supplies

Figure 17. Natural Circulation

As more heat is added to the furnace tubes, the quality of the fluid increases. Because the density
difference becomes greater, more pumping power is available from the natural circulation effect.
Up to a point, circulation will naturally increase with increased heat input and provide more flow
to keep furnace tubes cooled as more steam is generated. Beyond a certain level, friction in the
tubes overcomes the difference in density and circulation is reduced with additional heat input as
shown in Figure 18. Natural circulation boilers are designed to operate in the left region of the
curve so that circulation increases with heat input.

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Inc reasing Flow Normal Operation Possible Overheat

Increasing Heat Input 33402

Figure 18. Effect of Flow versus Heat Input

Natural circulation also provides an additional benefit. It partially compensates for normal
imbalances in the heat input to the furnace. As shown in the left portion of Figure 17, if one tube
receives more heat than adjacent tubes, it will generate more steam with a lower density and thus
will receive more flow to keep it cool. Within normal limits, tubes exposed to higher heat levels
will receive more cooling flow. If the heat imbalance becomes too great, flow will be reduced and
the tube will overheat.

Drum boilers operate in the area on or under the saturation curve. Steam quality leaving the riser
tubes and entering the steam drum is usually 5 to 30%, depending on the boiler load and pressure.
This means that of the water that flowed down the downcomers, between 5 and 30% will be
converted to steam by the time it reaches the top of the furnace. Staying at low quality levels is
necessary to protect the tubes from overheat failures caused by the nature of the boiling process.

Steam drum internals

In modern drum boilers (Figure 6 of this module), the separation of steam from the steam/water
mixture generated in the furnace usually takes place in two steps. Primary separation removes
nearly all of the water from the mixture, so that in effect, no steam is recirculated to the boiler
water; however, the steam may still contain solid contaminants that must be removed or reduced
in amount before the steam is sufficiently pure for use. This step is called secondary separation or
steam scrubbing. When wide load fluctuations and variations in water quality are suspected,
secondary scrubbers may also be installed to provide nearly perfect steam separation.

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Cyclone Steam Separators - Primary steam separation is accomplished with cyclone steam
separators. The cyclones, essentially cylindrical in form, are arranged internally along the length of
the drum. The steam/water mixtures enters the cyclone steam separator tangentially. Centrifugal
force throws the more dense water to the outside of the cylinder where it forms a layer against the
cylinder wall. The less dense steam moves to the core of the cylinder and moves upward. The
water flows down the cylinder wall and is discharged from the cyclone through an annulus located
below the water level. The separated water returns to the boiler cycle virtually free of steam
bubbles, thus providing a maximum available head for producing flow through natural circulation.

Primary Scrubbers - The upward rising steam from the cyclones passes through the primary
scrubbers at the top of the cyclones for secondary steam separation. After primary separation, the
steam may still contain dissolved solids suspended in tiny water droplets. These water droplets
that contain solids are removed from the steam as it passes through the corrugated plate elements
of the primary scrubber.

Secondary Scrubbers - Further steam scrubbing of any trace amounts of water contaminants in the
steam is achieved by the secondary scrubbers. Secondary scrubbers are corrugated plates that are
located at the top of the steam drum, and provide a large surface to intercept water particles as
the steam weaves through the closely fitted plates. Steam velocity through the corrugated plate
assembly is very low, so that re-entrainment of water is avoided. The collected water is drained
from the bottom of the scrubber assembly to the water below.

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COMPONENTS OF THE VARIOUS BOILER AIR AND DRAFT SYSTEMS:

FUNCTIONS AND BASIC OPERATION

This section will discuss the functions and components of the various boiler air and draft systems
(Figure 19).

Steam
Coil Air
Heater
Stack
Forced
Draft Scrubber
Air

Vent Air Heater

Gas Gas
Precipitator Induced
Supply Dryer
(Optional) Draft
Fan

Windbox Boiler/
Furnace
33681

Figure 19. Boiler Air and Draft System

The function of the air and draft system is to provide an adequate flow of air and combustion
gases for the complete combustion. Air flow is controlled by the stack and fans. The differential
pressure required for air flow is produced by a combination of the stack and fans. In Figure 19, air
flows from the forced draft fan through a steam coil air heater into the boiler. Combustion
products exit the boiler and flow through an induced draft fan to the scrubber and the stack.

Specifically, this section will discuss:

• The function and components of the boiler forced draft system.
• The function and components of the boiler balanced draft system.
• The function and components of the air flow system.

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Forced Draft and Natural Draft Systems

Figure 14-5, Pressure-Fired Boiler, on page 214 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam
G. Dukelow illustrates a forced draft system. A forced draft system or a pressure fired boiler,
operates with the air and combustion products that are maintained above atmospheric pressure.

Forced Draft Fan

The forced draft fan provides sufficient pressure to force the air and flue gas through the system.

Natural Draft

Natural draft occurs as a result of the stack effect. Hot air or hot gases rise through vertical
ducts. Hot flue gases, that have a lower density than the outside air rise through vertical ducts and
create a suction that causes combustion air to flow through the boiler.

Pressure and Draft Profile

A pressure and draft profile of a forced draft system is shown in Figure 20. The negative pressure
at the right side of the profile is caused by the natural draft of the stack. A pressure and draft
profile of a forced draft system without an air preheater is shown in Figure 14-6, Profile of
Pressure and Draft of a Pressure-Fired Boiler (Typical-No Air preheater), on page 214 of The
Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow. A pressure and draft profile of a forced
draft system with an air preheater is shown in Figure 14-7, Profile of Pressure and Draft of a
Pressure-Fired Boiler (Typical-Includes Air preheater), on page 214 of The Control of Boilers,
2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow.

Furnace Air Pressure and Boiler Load

Additional draft losses cause the forced draft system to operate at higher pressure at all loads and
to be under positive pressure except at very low loads. At 70% boiler load the draft losses are
approximately 50% of the full load draft losses.

Balanced draft Systems

Balanced draft systems have a forced draft fan at the system inlet and an induced draft fan near
the system outlet (Figure 14-8, Balanced draft Boiler (With Air preheater), on page 215 of The
Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow).

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Air preheater

The air preheater is used for flue gas heat recovery and adds additional draft losses to both the
combustion air and the flue gas sides of the boiler. The air preheater does not change the
controlled furnace draft setpoint.

Induced Draft Fan

The induced draft fan takes suction at the flue gas exit. The induced draft fan reduces the furnace
pressure and ensures that it is negative.

Pressure and Draft Profile

A pressure and draft profile for the balanced draft system is shown in Figure 14-9, Profile of
Pressure and Draft of a Balanced draft Boiler (Typical-No Air preheater), on page 216 of The
Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow. The forced draft fan and the induced draft
fan work to maintain the balance point or pressure in the furnace. The pressure is slightly negative
for all boiler loads and is not affected by the addition of an air preheater (Figure 20 of this
module).The air preheater does add additional draft losses to the combustion air and flue gas sides
of the boiler.

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Pressure D
A
C
(+)
B

0
Balance
Point

(-)

F.D. Air Windbox Furnace Boiler Air I.D. Stack

Fan Preheater Outlet Preheater Fan
Out Inlet Outlet Outlet

High Load - (100%) A

Reduced Load - (70%) B
Change Balance by Increasing Induced and Reducing Forced C

Change Balance by Decreasing Induced and Increasing Forced D

33404

Figure 20. Pressure and Draft Profile–Balanced draft System–Includes Air preheater
Benefit of Balanced draft System

The benefit of balanced draft system is that negative operating pressures cause any leakage to be
cool air leaking into the furnace rather than hot combustion gases leaking out. The negative
furnace pressure condition is cooler and cleaner, which results in a better environment for the
furnace housing, the auxiliary equipment, and the operating personnel.

Air Flow System

Air flow requirements of the combustion control system require that fans operate at different
pressures and volume discharge rates. To meet these requirements, some means of varying the fan
output is required such as a constant speed fan with damper or inlet vane control or a variable
speed fan.

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Constant speed fan

A constant speed fan used with damper control or inlet vane control introduces sufficient variable
resistance in the system to alter the fan output as required. The constant speed fan is attractive
because of its low initial cost, however, a constant speed fan consumes significantly more energy
than a forced draft fan at low boiler rates.

Variable Speed Fan

The variable speed fan is attractive because it reduces energy at reduced flow rates. The variable
speed fan significantly improves fan efficiency during periods when the boiler is operating at less
than its maximum load. Even so, variable speed fans require a higher initial cost than constant
speed fans that may not be offset by lower power requirements.

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COMPONENTS OF BOILER FUEL SYSTEMS: FUNCTION AND BASIC OPERATION

This section will discuss the boiler fuel oil and fuel gas systems. Specifically, this section will
discuss:
• The function and components of the fuel gas system.
• The function and components of the fuel oil system.
Fuel Gas System

The most common gaseous fuel is natural gas. Waste gas or gas produced as a process byproduct
can also be used. Figure 5-1, Gas Pressure-Reducing and Metering Arrangement, on page 51 of
The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow illustrates a fuel gas system. Natural gas
is transported through pipelines and is delivered by the suppliers as it is used.

Fuel Oil System

The most common oils used for boiler fuel are the lightweight Number 2 fuel oil and the Number
6 grade of heavy residual fuel oil. Figure 5-3, Typical Fuel Oil Pumping and Heating
Arrangement, on page 53 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow illustrates
the fuel oil system. It is usually necessary to heat Number 6 fuel oil so that it can be pumped
through the system. It is normally not necessary to heat Number 2 fuel oil. Fuel oil is pumped
through the fuel oil system, and the boiler control system regulates the BTU input by a control
valve. The amount of heat (BTU) liberated per unit quantity of gas or oil is called the Higher-Heat
Value (HHV). The HHV for a fuel, typically in units of BTU per pound, can be found in the
Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation Handbook.

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APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRY AND SAUDI ARAMCO STANDARDS AND

SPECIFICATIONS TO SAUDI ARAMCO BOILER CONTROL SYSTEMS

This section will discuss the standards and specifications that apply to Saudi Aramco boiler
control systems. Specifically, this section will discuss:
• Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards SAES-J-004, Instrument Symbols and
Identification, SAES-J-600, and SAES-J-602, Boiler Safety Systems For Watertube
Types.
• Aramco Materials System Specification 34-SAMSS-619, Flame Monitoring and Burner
Management Systems.
• American National Standards Institute/National Fire Protection Association Standards
NFPA 8501, Single Burner Boiler Operation, and NFPA 85C, Prevention of Furnace
Explosions/Implosions in Multiple Burner Boiler-Furnaces.
• American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice API-RP-551, Process
Measurement Instrumentation.
• American National Standards Institute/Instrument Society of American Standards
ANSI/ISA S77.41, Fossil Fuel Power Plant Boiler Combustion Controls, ANSI/ISA
S77.42, Fossil Fuel Power Plant Feedwater Control System - Drum Type, and
ANSI/ISA S5.1, Instrument Symbols and Identification.
• Scientific Apparatus Manufacturer's Association Standard SAMA PMC 22.1-1981,
Functional Diagramming of Instrument and Control Systems.
• Burner Vendor Specification Sheet.

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards SAES-J-004, SAES-J-600 and SAES-J-602

SAES-J-004, SAES-J-600 and SAES-J-602 are contained in Course Handout 1.

SAES-J-004 establishes the Aramco system instrument identification and instrument symbols for
use on Process Flow Diagrams, Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams, and construction drawings.
The identification is also used as equipment tag (mark) numbers on equipment and for material
requisitions, specification sheets, instrument installation schedules, records, and forms.

SAES-J-600 prescribes mandatory requirements governing the design and installation of safety
and relief devices except for residential and commercial water heating equipment.

SAES-J-602 establishes the minimum requirements for the design, construction and installation of
safety systems for single and multiple burner watertube boiler furnaces. Specifically, SAES-J-602
contains feedwater system design information used to calculate drum level.

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SAES-J-602 applies to the firing of gaseous, vaporized, and liquid fuels only, such as natural gas,
refinery gas, LPG, and fuel oils, including diesel. For the firing of other fuels such as by-products
derived from NGL processing plants and refineries (e.g. crude waste fuels), prior written approval
of the Aramco Chief Engineer, Dhahran, shall be obtained.

Aramco Materials System Specification 34-SAMSS-619

34-SAMSS-619 (contained in Course Handout 3) defines the requirements for Flame Monitoring
and Burner Management Systems (BMS) for boilers. Specifically, 34-SAMSS-619 describes
ignitor and flame sensor, BMS control logic, and BMS logic requirements.

American National Standards Institute/National Fire Protection Association Standards

NFPA 8501 and NFPA 85C

NFPA 8501 (contained in Course Handout 4) is titled Single Burner Boiler Operation. NFPA
8501 establishes the minimum standards for the design, installation, operation and maintenance of
single burner boiler-furnaces, their fuel-burning systems, and related systems, to contribute to
operating safety, and, in particular, to prevent furnace explosions. Specifically, NFPA 8501 is
used to determine furnace pressure control strategies, implosion prevention requirements, the
acceptability of BMS fuel piping, instrumentation and valves and the acceptability of the ignitor
and flame sensor.

NFPA 85C (also contained in Course Handout 4) is titled Prevention of Furnace

Explosions/Implosions in Multiple Burner Boiler-Furnaces. The puRPose of NFPA 85C is to
contribute to operating safety and to prevent furnace explosions and implosions. NFPA 85C
establishes the minimum standards for the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of
boiler furnaces and their fuel burning, air supply, and combustion product removal systems.
Specifically, NFPA 85C is used to determine furnace pressure control strategies, implosion
prevention requirements, the acceptability of BMS fuel piping, instrumentation and valves, and the
acceptability of the ignitor and flame sensor.

American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice API-RP-551

API-RP-551 (contained in Course Handout 5) discusses recommended practices for the

installation of the flow instruments in the refining process industry to indicate, record, and
transmit flow measurements.

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American National Standards Institute/Instrument Society of America Standards

ANSI/ISA S77.41, ANSI/ISA S77.42 and ANSI/ISA S5.1

ANSI/ISA S77.41 (contained in Course Handout 4) is titled Fossil Fuel Power Plant Boiler
Combustion Controls. The purpose of ANSI/ISA S77.41 is to establish the minimum
requirements for the functional design specification of combustion control systems for drum-type
fossil-fueled power plant boilers. ANSI/ISA S77.41 discusses the major combustion control
subsystems in boilers with steaming capabilities of 200,000 pounds per hour or greater. The
subsystems include furnace pressure control (balanced draft) and air and fuel flow controls.
ANSI/ISA S77.41 does not include discussion of development of boiler energy demand, all burner
control, interface logic systems, and associated safety systems.

ANSI/ISA S77.42 (also contained in Course Handout 4) is titled Fossil Fuel Power Plant
Feedwater Control System - Drum Type. The purpose of ANSI/ISA S77.42 is to establish
minimum criteria for the control of levels, pressures, and flow for the safe and reliable operation
of drum-type feedwater systems in fossil power plants. ANSI/ISA S77.42 discusses the
development of design specifications covering the measurement and control of feedwater systems
in boilers with steaming capacities of 2000,000 pounds per hour or greater.

ANSI/ISA S5.1 (also contained in Course Handout 4) is titled Instrumentation Symbols and
Identification. ANSI/ISA S5.1 establishes a uniform means of designating instruments and
instrumentation systems used for measurement and control.

Scientific Apparatus Manufacturer's Association Standard SAMA PMC 22.1-1981

SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 (contained in Course Handout 6) is titled Functional Diagramming of

Instrument and Control Systems. SAMA PMC 22.1-1981 establishes uniformity of symbols and
practices in diagramming measuring, controlling, and computing systems.

Burner Vendor Specification Sheet

The Burner Vendor Specification Sheet contains burner control system design specifications.
Specifically, the Burner Specification Sheet contains design conditions for the electrical power
supply, instrument air supply and ambient conditions, basic system design, and operational
principles.

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GLOSSARY

air The mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases that with
varying amounts of water vapor, forms the atmosphere of the
earth.

air heater Heat transfer apparatus through which air passes and is heated
by a medium of higher temperature, such as the products of
combustion (flue gases) or steam.

air preheater A steam coil or similar heat exchange device used to keep the
temperature of the flue gas above its dew point to minimize
corrosion to the air heater.

ANSI American National Standards Institute.

API American Petroleum Institute.

balanced draft A system of furnace pressure control in which the inlet

combustion air flow and the outlet flue gas flow is controlled to
maintain the furnace pressure at a fixed value (typically slightly
below atmosphere).

blowdown Removal of a portion of boiler water to reduce chemical

concentration, or to discharge sludge.

boiler A closed vessel in which water is heated, steam is generated,

steam is superheated, or any combination thereof, under
pressure or vacuum by heat from combustible fuels in a self-
contained or attached furnace.

boiler feedpump A pump that is used by the boiler system to supply high pressure
boiler feedwater to the steam drum.

boiling point The temperature that a liquid changes to vapor for a given
pressure.

BTU British Thermal Unit.

burner A device or group of devices for the introduction of fuel and air
into a furnace at the required velocities, turbulence, and
concentration to maintain ignition and combustion of the fuel
within the furnace.

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Applications Of Standards And Specifications

circulation The movement of water and steam within a steam generating

unit.

condenser A heat exchange device that is used to condense steam. A

condenser is used to condense the exhaust steam from turbines.

constant speed fan A fan with a single-speed motor that uses damper control or
inlet vane control to vary air flow.

continuous blowdown The continuous blowing down of water.

control Any manual or automatic device for the regulation of a machine

to keep it at normal operation. If automatic, the device is
motivated by variations in temperature, pressure, water level,
time, light, or other influences.

corrosion The wasting away of metals caused by a chemical action that is

usually caused by the presence of O2, CO2, or an acid.

deaerator A device that is used to remove air and gases from boiler
feedwater prior to its introduction into a boiler.

DNB Departure from Nucleate Boiling: The point at which nucleate

boiling stops and film boiling begins.

downcomer The lines that carry cold water from the steam drum to the mud
drum of the furnace for heating.

draft The difference between atmospheric pressure and some lower

pressure existing in the furnace or gas passages of a steam
generating unit.

drum A cylindrical shell closed at both ends designed to withstand

internal pressure.

economizer An energy-saving heat exchanger that is commonly used on all

large boilers to provide additional heat to the feedwater prior to
the water entering the boiler. Heat input comes from the hot flue
gases passing the tubes (containing feedwater) just before going
to the air heater.

efficiency The ratio of the output to the input. The efficiency of a steam

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Applications Of Standards And Specifications

generating unit is the ratio of the heat absorbed by water and

steam to the heat in the fuel fired.

Enthalpy The amount of heat energy that is contained in a fluid or gas in

BTU/lb.

feedwater Water that is introduced into a boiler during operation. It

includes make-up and return condensate.

feedwater heater A tube-shell heat exchanger used to heat boiler feedwater.

Specified as low and high pressure heaters that use main turbine
extraction steam to heat water.

film boiling A condition where steam forming on a hot tube's surface begins
to interfere with the flow of water to the surface by coalescing
to form a film of superheated steam over part or all of the tube
surface.

flash evaporator A device that is used with boilers operating at 1000 gal or over
to purify boiler water by an evaporation technique.

forced draft The furnace draft that is caused by forcing air into the furnace
with a fan.

forced draft fan A fan that is used to force a flow of air into the boiler furnace.

fuel A substance that contains combustible materials that are used

for generating heat.

fuel oil equivalent barrels Unit of energy management equivalent to energy in a barrel of
oil, or approximately 6,300,000 BTU.

furnace Combustion chamber of a boiler.

heat exchanger A device for transferring heat energy from one medium to
another.

heat of vaporization The heat input or Enthalpy necessary to convert saturated water
to saturated steam.

HHV Higher Heating Value. The number of heat units that are
liberated per unit of quantity of fuel burned.

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Applications Of Standards And Specifications

induced draft The furnace draft produced by drawing the flue gases out of the
furnace by an induced draft fan. The furnace pressure is usually
controlled at less than atmospheric pressure with the fan.
induced draft fan A fan that is used to produce a flow of air through the furnace
by creating a lower pressure. An induced draft fan is commonly
used to aid the exhaust of flue gases.

intermittent blowdown The blowing down of boiler water at intervals to remove

suspended solids. Intermittent blowdown is achieved by
periodically opening a blowoff valve located at the bottom of
the mud drum.
makeup Water that is added to replace losses, blowdown, etc.
mud drum Lowest boiler drum in which suspended solids collect.
natural circulation The circulation of water in a boiler that is caused by differences
in density.
natural draft A furnace draft that is caused solely by the effect of the stack.
NFPA National Fire Protection Association.
nucleate boiling The process of steam bubbles at a tube's inner surface
condensing and giving up their heat to raise the temperature of
the water.
oxygen scavengers Chemicals that are used to control boiler corrosion.
PMC Process Measurement & Control.
pressurized furnace A furnace that is operated above the atmospheric pressure by
using just a forced draft fan.
quality Quality is the percent by weight of vapor in a steam/water
mixture.
recirculation The reintroduction of part of the flowing fluid to repeat the
cycle of circulation.
reverse osmosis A procedure that is used to remove dissolved salts and minerals
in a solution.
risers The tubes that are heated through which the steam/water
mixture moves from the lower or mud drum to the boiler drum.

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RP Recommended Practice.
SAES Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard.
SAMA Scientific Apparatus Manufacturer's Association Standard.
SAMSS Saudi Aramco Materials System Specification.
saturated steam Steam that is at the boiling point temperature that corresponds
to a particular pressure, without any water present.
saturated water Water at the temperature of its boiling point.
scrubber An apparatus for the removal of solids from gases by
entrainment in water.
specific volume The volume that a pound of steam or water occupies at a given
pressure or temperature.
stack The flue, vent or passage through which smoke or heated air,
etc. escapes.
stack effect The movement of hot flue gases out of the stack caused by
differences in density between these flue gases and the cooler air
surrounding the stack.
steam coil air heater A tubular recuperative air heater in which gas flows vertically
through tubes. Air flows horizontally across the tubes in order
to provide heat transfer.
steam drum internals All apparatus within a drum.
steam quality The percent by weight of vapor in a steam and water mixture.
superheated steam Steam that is at a higher temperature than its saturation
temperature.
superheater A device that is used to raise the temperature of steam above its
saturation temperature.
variable speed fan A fan with a variable speed drive that is used to change speed to
vary air flow.

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