Locational Analysis or Spatial analysis is a type of geographical analysis which

seeks to explain patterns of human behavior and its spatial expression in terms of
mathematics and geometry, that is, locational analysis.
Examples include nearest neighbor analysis
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Spatial Analysis is a module in the field of quantitative geography and geocomputation.

The module aims to deepen the knowledge in quantitative spatial data analysis
methods and their application to real data.
At the same time this module provides the technical tools and skills to study the spatial
dimension of various spatial phenomena from a geographic perspective.
It also aims to inform about current trends in spatial analysis and to give them the
foundation to be able to address contemporary research issues in the science of
geography.
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In human geography, the new approach became known as ―locational‖ or ―spatial
analysis‖ also known as, ―spatial science.‖
It focused on spatial organization, and its key concepts were embedded into the
functional region
the tributary area of a major node, whether a port, a market town, or a city shopping
Centre. Movements of people, messages, goods, and so on, were organized through
such nodal centers.
These were structured hierarchically, producing systems of places—cities, towns,
villages, etc.—whose spatial arrangement followed fundamental principles.
 Locational Analysis and concept of Geography

Objective of this course is

1. To describe the ordered ways in which the aggregate patterns of human
geography are arranged in space

2. To show by what methods these patterns may be detected

3. To suggest how such information may be used in an applied regional
context.
Geography: definition and tradition
- Geography is concerned to provide accurate, orderly and rational description
and interpretation of the variable character of the earth‘s surface. (Hartshorne)
- Vast majority of research problems in geography is simply ―to account for
spatial variation‖
- 1. Geography is concerned with earth as the environment of man, an
environment that influences how he lives and organizes himself, but which
is at the same time an environment that man himself has helped to modify
and build.
- 2. Geography focuses on man‘s spatial organization and his ecological
relationship to his environment.
- 3. Geography is sensitive to the richness and variety of the earth.
- It does not lead to blanket solutions to development problems.
Three approaches in the field of Locational Analysis
1. Spatial Approach
2. Ecological Approach
3. Regional Approach

Spatial Concept
- Geography is essentially a distributional Science.
- Strong dependence of geography on the concepts of geometry and
topological mathematics, e.g. analysis of transport network.
- Chappell (1975)Two dimensional spatial information is supplemented by
non spatial ‗ecological‘ information establishing the interrelations between
the spatial objectives and the processes which activate and produce them.
 Ecological Analysis
- It interrelates human and environmental variables and interprets their links.
- In this type of analysis geographers shift their emphasis from spatial
variation between areas to the relationship within a single, bounded,
geographical area.
Regional traditional and scale concept.
This approach to geography is by way of regional analysis, in which the results
of spatial and ecological analysis are combined.
3. Regional Approach

- Appropriate regional units are identified through aerial differentiation and

than the flows and links between pairs of regions are established.
- Sauer's (1925), argued that it was possible to break down the landscape of an
area into two separate components
- 1. the natural landscape (original landscape of an area before the entry of
man)
- The cultural land scape (that landscape transformed by man)
Stages in the analysis of nodal regional system.
A. Interaction
B. Networks
C. Nodes
D. Hierarchies
E. Surfaces
Stages in the analysis of nodal regional system
- Nodal region, means an area surrounds a human settlement and which is
tied to it in terms of its spatial organization.

B. Spatial Interaction
- Is between a settlement and its surrounding area in terms of the movements
of people, goods, finance, information and influence.
- These flows are usually channeled into discrete NETWORK, linking
together the individual settlements,
- The node, located on the networks.
- Since the nodes are not uniform, we consider how they are structured into
finely articulated Hierarchies.
- Integration of the individual elements-interaction, networks, nodes and
hierarchies, which views the nodal regional structure in terms of
continuous surface of variety values.
- Each describing some aspect of the human geography of the region.
- Finally, element of time is also introduced in to the static cultural
landscape by considering spatial change over time in terms of diffusion
processes.
Locational Analysis and Geographer
Geographer is interested in Spatial implications of phenomena in the form
of spatial patterns and distributions.
Spatial behavior and interrelationships which have spatial dimensions.
Geographer analysis spatial patterns of man-environment relationships.
Spatial analysis leads to spatial themes and models to offer geographical
explanation.
Spatial efficiency is such a principle which is able to offer explanation of
many human activities in space.

The word efficiency signifies maximum work with minimum effort.

 Spatial efficiency
Combination of maximization of function or activity and minimization of
distance or transportation at one and the same time.
Spatial efficiency involves two parameters
i. Maximization of some function or activity as nominator and
ii. Minimization of distance as a denominator
Spatial Themes
i. There is a tendency to prefer shorter distances
to seek proximity
ii. There is strong distance decay element
iii. There are central and agglomerative tendencies
iv. There is competition for space in which
comparative advantages are sought
v. Improved technology increases efficiency
Maximization of Spatial Activity
Efficiency is related to maximization of work and spatial efficiency also has
the aim to maximize some spatial activity such as utilization of land or
resource, movement over space, distribution of people etc.
- It has to be compared against the minimization of distance which is
another parameter of it.
Minimization of Distance
Distance minimization is a very popular geographical theme used
in several spatial problems.
Man follow the law of minimum effort or the principal of least
effort in his activities, so that wasteful energy and time are saved
as far as possible.
Development of Locational Theory and Efficiency

Now the Geographers are using advanced technology or remote sensing and
aerial photos for interpretation of spatial phenomena.
Christaller was the first geographer to make a major contribution to location
theory.

Spatial efficiency is a valid spatial principle uses empirical data and is an

expression of general human tendency.
It has a potential to give maximum-minimum solutions to human spatial
problems and to make geography a result-oriented discipline.
 Spatial Efficiency in Location of Central Places
- Central places act as the centers of goods and services for the
surrounding region and perform the task of spatial organization of service
activities.
- On closer inspection, it will be found that the locational pattern of
central places is really controlled by the principle of spatial efficiency.
i.e. a compromise between the maximization of the goods and services
and minimization of distance.
 The Central Place Theory

- Chirstraller presumed certain premises or ideal conditions such as

isotropic surface and equal transportation facilitates.
- Than he propounded that the central places were located centrally with
in the clustered communities at points of minimum distance for the
populace.
- They carried out functions which population of the surrounding area
demanded.
- He recognize a whole hierarchy of the central places to from the
lowest to the highest on the basis of increasing threshold and range of
goods and services, that determine the varying intensity of centrality.
- The size of the hexagonal service areas would differ accordingly and
become nested into one another.
 Minimum distance concept in Central Location
- A central location in an actually or conceptually bounded area happens
to be a minimum distance position from all the sides and it require
minimum aggregate effort in travel, in keeping with the basic principle
of least effort in human organization of activities.
- A central location ion service area is thus, desirable to offer goods and
services in order to save distance for the costumers.
- Modern technology is affectively making movement easier and faster.
- Thereby, the service area of the central places is enlarging, and the
modern times are witnessing tremendous urban places, and their
tributaries areas.
- But the basic centrality or the control of the minimum distance
principle remain unchanged.
Distortion of regular distribution
- Empirical investigation revealed irregularities rather than
regularities in areal distribution of central places.
- The distortion from perfect regularity in the distribution of central
places is due to the irregular distribution of population, their income
and means of transport.
Spatial efficiency in the distribution of central places
- Christaller was actually putting up an argument for an efficient
arrangement.
- In envisaging a hexagonal shape of the tributary area of a central place
also, he adopted a spatially efficient shape.
- First he accorded to it a circular shape which is spatially most
efficient, but since the circular shape is impossible for the network in
reality as the circles do not fit with each other leaving either a gap or
overlap, he converted the circular to the hexagonal shape of areas.
- Haggett (1968) says that the hexagon retains most of the advantages of
the circle which is about four-fifths as efficient as circle in terms of
maximum radial distance and perimeter.
- The maximizing factor of spatial efficiency that distorts the regularity
in the Central Place Model is the distribution of population for whim
all the goods and services in the central places are meant.
- It will be found that densely populated region, the hexagon are more
regular and smaller as the central places are closer together than in a
sparsely populated one.
- There is much distortion in population distribution with varying
income levels and varying means of transportation.
• Principle of spatial efficiency can be successfully used to
simulate the location of any facility in a case for planning
purposes.

• The operational model measures spatial efficiency of the

existing facility and proposes its better location.

• Efficiency in traveling is always sought by man everywhere as

in case of central place location.

• The routes reuses for travel are important for the purpose.
 Spatial Efficiency in location of routes and movements
- Location of routes and route networks is vital in spatial organization of
human activities as they provide linkages for movement.

- For the geographer, the importance of transport routes lies in its being
on the principle factors affecting the distribution of social and
economic activities.

- Routes are more or less fixed channels of traffic flows between source
and destination points and the connected routes from the network.

- The networks of roads, railways, airlines pipelines, cable line etc. carry
goods, people ,information and messages.
- The work of Kansky (1963), Warntz (1966), Nystuen and Dacey
(1961), Taaffe, Marrill and Gould (1963), Garrison and Marble (1964)
have given a new dimension to the study of route networks.

- Technological improvement is being utmost felt in flows of

information through communication system.

- Satellites with great capacity for transmitting information and fiber

optic networks have proved their efficiency on the national as well as
international scale.
 Location of Routes
- There are several factors, influencing the location of routes
- The historical
- Technological
- Spatial
- Economic
- Political Factors.
In Pakistan the trunk railways were laid by the
British during the British rule which are still
serving the people.
- In the UK, the canal like the railways were
unable to match the advantages of road
haulage for industrial traffic and after 1920
they rapidly decline as the commercial roads.
- The channel tunnel built under water
between the UK and France is an example of
how technology can work wonders in route
building.
- Sptio-economic factor rules supreme in the location and construction
of route network which must be economically viable and spatially
suitable.

- Capital is invested in the construction of roads receiving the benefits

in terms of revenue and the potential for economic growth in the
region even in welfare projects.

- In 1869 the Suez canal and in 1914 the Panama Canal were expensive
to build, but their prospects for the shipping made then a worthwhile
investment.

- Geographers have studied the constraints of relief on the land routes

and how they avoid the high grade to minimize the building and
operating costs.
 Movement on the Routes

- Routes are created for the movement of people and goods and
movement is in in separable from the routes.
- Movement minimization has therefore, been a basic concept in
transportation and not the volume of movement as such.
- Man has contemplated movement minimization in two ways.
- A. by increasing speed
- B. by reducing distance
- To cut the distance short is a general tendency of man even in every
day life.
- For movement minimization, location of routes is very important.

- Routes should be laid in such a way that distance is minimized and so

is the movement along the route.
- Longer movements tend to be more costly and this is important giving
the tendency of the people to minimize cost.
 Spatial Efficiency in Location of Routes and Networks.

- Spatial efficiency in the location of routes and their networks is also

judged on the basis of its two factors.
- 1. minimization of distance or route length
- 2. maximization of activity or traffic flow.

- Gautheir (1974) also pronounces that efficient movement means

maximum possible movement with minimum possible effort in travel.
 Major Locational aspects of routes and their networks.
- Circuitry and connectivity
- Accessibility
- Detouring
- Circuitry and connectivity
- Interaction between places requires connecting
links which produce connectivity of the route
network between a set of origins and
destinations, an indispensable part of any
economy.
- More the connection better is the connectivity

- Circuitry denotes a closed path and a well-

connected network is often circuitous.
- Connectivity and circuitry may be taken as
complementary and co-varying terms.
- With better connectivity, the possibility of direct
and shortest routes between pairs of nodes
increases.
Accessibility
- Connectivity of the work and accessibility are closely related.
- A well-connected network leads to good accessibility since the places are
easily reached by routes.
- The spatial relationship between origin and destination in the form of links
is an essential component of accessibility and a measure of the extent to
which demand for transport is realized.
 Ideally, each place should be easily accessible to transport route, at best
within 5 kms from it.
Beyond it, accessibility decreases progressively.
- Accessibility of a place on the route or nodal accessibility according to
Morrill (Akpan, 1990, p.283) is the relative degree of ease with which it
may be reached from other places.
- In a way it is measured on the basis of its associated number, better
known as konig number which is the topological distance in terms of
number of edges from a place to the farthest point by the shortest path.
- Lesser the konig number, better is the accessibility of a place and the
most central place has the least konig number.

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 Ai = 𝒏𝒋=𝟏 𝒂𝒊
Ai= Accessibility index for node I,
Aij = the shortest path distance between nodes I and j (Akpan, 1990, pp.
283-284)

- The smaller the index, the more accessible is the node and hence the
higher its rank order.
Detouring
- The shortest route happens to be the least effort route and preferred by the
people.
- The shortest route is the straight one.
- That is the way the sea routes and air ways take a great circle course as far
as possible to be straight and short on the spherical earth.
- The land routes are hardly straight due to various reasons.
- They are bound to detour with bends and curves.
- The amount of detouring can be quantitatively expressed by the detour
index which is a simple ratio between the actual route distance and
straight-line or direct distance between two places in percent.
 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒
- Detour Index =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 −𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

- Less the ratio, less is detouring and straighter is the route.

- Thus, the detour index measures the deflection of route from the straight
course.
- Detouring is necessary when either there are barriers to avoid physical,
economic, political etc.
- The mountain barrier bends the route just as an optical lens would refract a
beam of light higher the refractive index, greater will be the amount of
deflection.
- Warntz (1961) also states that even airline routes are not simple straight-
line links between origin and destination because of pressure and wind
effects.
- The most common barrier to a land route is physical in the form of a
mountain, a water body or a forest which the route has to circumvent by
detouring.
- The maritime freight traffic is easier between the eastern and the western
sea coasts of USA through Panama Canal rather than the inland route
across the Rockies, through the former requires detouring.
Many time detouring is spatially efficient even though it increases the route
length or distance to be travelled.
- It is a common knowledge that the paths in the hilly areas are spiral to
avoid high grade.
- Such a detouring is spatially efficient because the shortest and straight path
up the hill is more difficult, demanding more effort than the longer winding
path.
- Spatial efficiency in detouring can be quantitatively measured by two
parameters
- 1. Traffic or population served en route
- 2. the detouring of the route as derived by the detour index.

- Spatial efficiency model proves to be useful in such primal-daul problem of

movement in various situations.
𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖
SEd=
𝐷𝐼

SEd = Spatial efficiency in detouring.

Pi = Population of ith place en route.
DI = Detour Index of the route.

Higher the value, better is spatial efficiency.

Spatial Efficiency in Location of
Industry
- We cannot think of modern economy without industries and their
locational structure forms an indispensible part of spatial organization of
human activity.
- Therefore, location of industries interest the economists and geographers
alike.

- The industrial production is an economic activity but its location implies

spatial relations.

- The major contributions to location theory have been made by

economists, mostly with a view to integrating location studies with the
main body of economic theory.

- Scientists were concerned in their location studies with efficiency and

profit-making

- In every manufacturing plant, an important factor bearing upon efficiency

is location.
- A well equipped and properly managed planned may fail in poor location
- Distance in terms of transportation cost and/or time of assembling
materials and delivering goods is an extremely important consideration
affecting the location of manufacturing and industry.

- The orientation index (v) of industry can be derived as:

- V= Qa/Qb
- Where Qa is assembly cost
- And Qb is the distribution cost.

- When V is greater than 1.00, the orientation of industry would be to the

source and when less than 1.00, it is to the destination.
 Industrial location theories

- The central aim of industrial location theories is to find an optimal

location for industry that gives highest profit with minimum cost.

- There are two approaches to the consideration of location of industry

- i. least cost approach
- Ii. Maximum revenue approach
- i The least cost theories.
- These theories imply perfect competition but hold market
demand constant.
- The only mean of profit maximization is by way of reducing the
transportation costs of both inputs and output.

- Alfred Webber
- Weber‘s theory seeks out that location for industry which
minimizes movement costs or procuring raw materials and
distributing the finished products.

- He suggested that the transport cost s were determined by the

weight of materials and product as well as by the distance to be
covered by them.
- ii. Maximum revenue or market area theories

- These theories assume market as a large area rather than a point in which
industries are located and compete to control as much area as possible.

- MaCarty and Lindberg (1966) call it competitive marketing which refers to the
selection of locations with a view to maximize revenues rather than minimizing
costs.

- The consumers and behavior get more importance in the locational decisions.

- Weber considered only distance to one market and not its demand, n\but there
are many markets with varying demands, exerting their own pull on the location
of the industry.

- Alonso (1964) the best location of market-oreinted industry which minimizes

the sum of distances to its costumers is median, which is the point of minimum
access to the greatest numbers of costumers.
- Now-a-days input – output analysis is becoming popular among
geographers like location-allocation models.

- With rising importance of market as the determinant of location of

industry along with cost of transportation, actually spatial efficiency is
being sought even if it is not so called.
Spatial efficiency in Location of Industry
- The trend in model building of industrial location from minimum movement
to maximum revenue has brought into focus the demand for the consumer
factor.

- An industry is a profit-marking business and profits could be earned by

minimizing transport costs and maximizing revenue.

- That is why an industrialist has to carefully choose a spatially efficient

location for the industry.

- Continuous technological progress had an indisputable effect on the location

of industry in the 20th century.

- Cheaper and faster transport and advanced mechanization added to the

competitive capacity of a producer in the market, and increase the flexibility
of location choice with market becoming more influential factor.
- however, underlining all trends and changes, the economic motive of
profit-making or in spatial sense, that of spatial efficiency remains
unchanged.

- Estall and Buchanan (1968) also opine that location choices can change
greatly, but the central problem of finding the location that gives the best
combination of advantages remain the same.
 Spatial Efficiency Measure
- There are two maximum-minimum parameters to use in the measurement of
spatial effeciency of industrial location.

- 1. maximum factor – Each source and market has its own ―pull‖ according to
tits potential.

- 2. minimum factor – distance or transportation cost

- In respect of material – oriented industry, there are various resources or

inputs used in varying quantities and having different costs.

- Input Index or net distance input for each source – The costs of each per unit
of production multiplied by its assembly cost or transportation cost according
to its weight from each source

- The higher value gravitates the industry to itself and that source may be
called spatially more efficient.
- In respect of market oriented industry, it is a multi-market
problem to determine which place has more market potential
and stronger pull on the industry.

- Population of each urban market is presumed to be

equivalent to its demand when the actual demand is not
known.

- The objective function is to find the maximum market

potential among the competing large urban centres as
markets with the formula.

𝑃𝑖
- MPi = 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑤 𝑑𝑖𝑟
𝑟=1
- where Mpi =Market Potential of place I,
- Pi = Population of Place I
- Wdir = weighted distance from I to source r (assembly of
resources or net distance input)
- Spatial efficiency can be determined for each urban centre according to its
own pull or market potential and the pulls of market potential of other
vying urban centres.

𝑀𝑃𝑖
- SEli = 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑀𝑃𝑗/𝑑𝑖𝑗
𝑟=1

- Seli = Spatial efficiency of industry at place I,

- Mpi = Market potential at place I
- Dij = distance from I to j

- A unique location of industries at port cities every where in the world

combines the advantage of export and import, and many ports like Karachi,
Nagasaki, Nagoya, Bombay, London, Boston etc.. Have become industrial
giant.
 SPATIAL EFFECIENCY IN SHAPES AND
BOUNDARIES
- Boundaries are Political as well as administrative diving lines, determining
the areas of authority and organization and at the same time separating
territories and people.

- Spatially efficient boundaries are those which are short and clear-cut so that
there arise minimum boundary problems .

- To keep the boundary uncontroversial either it is generally drawn, as far as

possible, along an existing physical divide such as a ridge or a river or a
cultural divide such as roads, railways or language/ religion differences or
kept straight.

- Boundaries are seldom straight unless planned that way.

 Spatial Efficiency of Shapes and Boundaries
- In regular polygons a circle which is the most compact shape is spatially
most efficient and so is the circular boundary.

- The second best shape is the hexagon in a lattice/frame

- India and Nigeria have quite different values, deviating differently from
circularity, i.e. 100 percent.

- India has star shape, far away from circulatory but Nigeria is closer to it.

- Therefore, Nigeria is spatially more efficient than India as far as shape is

concerned.
 Location of the Capital or the Headquarters
- Ideally, its location should be in the centre of the region, which is the least
distance point, most accessible for the whole area.

- The most useful place for internal organization and governance.

- A central location is advisable for a state capital from defense point of view
also.

- Many capitals generally have a location quite inside the territory.

- Capital have also been shifted inside, Islamabad in Pakistan, Ottawa in

Canada.

- A capital or a is spatially efficient if it is located near the population gravity

centre of the region because it is then at the minimum distance from number
of people it govern.
 SPATIAL EFFECIENCY IN URBAN LANDUSE
- Urban studies deal with urban entities from the point of view of their
location and function on the one hand and their morphology or internal
structure on the other.

- It emphasizes the two main themes of study

- The town as a distributed feature
- town as a feature with internal structure

- The town or city carries out various functions and the urban land is
utilized for these functions.
- Beside the large urban population, engaged in various urban activities,
use the land for its residence which is also taken to be a kind of urban
function.
- These functions, along with the streets and routes and open spaces also,
give rise to specific land occupancy which is known as the urban land
use pattern.
 URBAN LANDUSE
- The urban landuse is given over to commercial, residential, industrial, socio-
cultural, professional and administrative functions which interact vie with
each other for the urban land and in the process get spatially organized in a
typical fashion through the intra-urban transport system and daily rhythm of
movement to produce a characteristic spatial pattern of urban land uses.
- the urban land use patterns are again controlled by man‘s basic tendency for
spatial efficiency.

- Man strive for maximum of landuse and minimum of distance to the centre
of the city which is discernable in the competition for the urban land, land
value, and centripetal centrifugal forces which are so very distinct in the
western cities or those of the developed countries, but also prevalent in the
cities of the east or the developing world.
 Urban Land Use
- The urban land is given over to
- Commercial
- Residential
- Industrial
- Socio-cultural
- Professional and administrative functions

- Which interact with each other for the urban land and in the process get
spatially organized in a typical fashion through the intra-urban transport
system and daily rhythm of movement to produce a characteristic spatial
pattern of urban land uses.
- The urban land use pattern are again controlled by man‘s basic tendency for spatial
efficiency.

- Man strives for maximization of land use and minimization of distance to the center
of the city which is discernible in the competition for the urban land, land values,
- and centripetal and centrifugal forces which are so very distinct in the western
cities or those of the developed countries, but also prevalent in the cities of the east
or the developing world.

- Most of the urban land that is used for various purposes is built-up area, called as
brick and mortar that is used for commercial residential, administrative and the like
activities.

- It also includes open spaces as parks and gardens, playground and even agricultural
land known as green belt.

- Urban land use patterns are various but generally speaking, they are found to be
closely related to economic development of the societies.

- They are more or less similar in the developed countries, popularly called as
western world and those in the developing countries are quite different from their
western counterpart.
 The Urban Landuse in the West
- The developed countries in the west are most urbanized and have developed a land
use pattern that follow a definite course.

- The urban activities, first, compete for central location in the city, but the
commercial activities get the better of the others in the intense competition and
occupy the prime location of the center.

- This commercial part is called the Central Business Zone (CBD).

- The land is so intensely used for commercial purposes in the CBD that its value
soars high and the buildings also rise high.
 The Urban Landuse in the West
- Other activities move outward, especially the high class residences and industries,
which prefer certain spatial advantages of large open land and peaceful environment
outside, facilitated by fast means of transport.

- The middle and low class residences do not afford to move as much away as the
high class residences.
- But they follow them by succession.

- Residential areas are, thus, segregated according to class or income of the

residents.

- These common features of the urban land use in the west, are not so well
developed in the developing countries, especially in the orient.

- They have developed the land use pattern suited to their own conditions.
 Developing Urban Scene
- The developing countries lag behind the developed countries of Europe and north
America in urbanization and urban development as well as economic development.

- Mc Gee (1975) remarks that in developing areas the sequences of events leading to
urbanization is perhaps different from that noted in 19th century Europe and north
America.

- There are certain typical features of urban places of the developing countries.

- In the first place, developing countries are less urbanized countries of the world.

- Secondly, the mobility of the towns people is quite low, much less than that the
western countries because of the poorer conditions of the people and also poorer
transport facilities.

- Thirdly, many town have large populations but they lack truly urban living and
nothing more than enlarge villages.
- The so called commercial core of the town is considerably mixed up with
residences and industries.

- It is quite common to find, residential, industrial and commercial

activities, all taking place in the same lot or in the same block.

- Often a shopkeeper lives at the back of his shop, a convenience that

eliminated the journey to work.

- Mc Gee (1967) identified three different patterns of growth of cities in

the developing countries.

- The indigenous city, reflecting oriental urbanization,

- the colonial city, reflecting western elements
- Modern city, reflecting planned features.
 The street pattern
- The streets and railways, form and important part of urban land
use which provide the necessary links for intra urban interaction.

- Broadly there are three main types of street patters,

- 1 the rectangular or the grid

- 2. the radial concentric

- 3. irregular

- They are grossly represented as the grid by the American cities,

- the radial concentric by the European cities
- And the irregular by the developing and the oriental cities.

- There is a recent addition in the pattern by the construction of

flyovers especially in the developed countries
- The street pattern is crucial for the traffic that
flows over it.

- Urban traffic problems are cropping up.

- The nature of the streets, including the width

the surfacing and the conditions of them, along
with their pattern, deserves due considerations
in the traffic problems.

- Another newly developed issue which is

related to streets and traffic, especially in the
developed countries and raising its head in the
big cities of the developing countries as well is
the provision of the parking lots.
 The Urban Land Use Models
- Burgess proposed in 1925 that urban land uses displayed a zonal
arrangement in concentric circles around the center.

- Thus, a city develops five zones with the CBD in the center.

- Working class is found in the inner zone grading to the highest

income group in the periphery.

- The cities of the developing countries in the orient which intrigued

both oriental and accidental scholars, have heterogeneous land use
and they do not display the features outlined in these models.
- Spatial Efficiency in Urban Land Use Pattern

- Urbanity is distinguished on the basis of secondary, tertiary and even quaternary

functions which occupy urban land in different parts of town or city.

- Urban population is engaged in these urban activities and it occupies much of the
urban land for residence.

- Thus, urban land is used results from a multitude of decisions made by individuals
about location.

- Spatial efficiency is reached by the best use of land which yields highest return
with minimum possible distance for the people.

- The cities in the developed and developing countries have evolved different types
of land use pattern in urban areas according to their own socio-economic
conditions.

- They strive for spatial efficiency and best use of land suited to the given situation
but reach different level of it.
 Spatial Efficiency in Agricultural Land Use
- Agriculture is an economic activity which is essentially rural, needing large areas of
land for utilization.

- Like urban land use, agricultural land use has also spatial significance a it occupies
space and evolves a spatial pattern.

- Agricultural landuse evolves a cropping pattern, suitable to the land and the region.

- It is, nevertheless thoroughly influenced by natural conditions of soil and the climate
and it reflects adaptation with them as efficiently as possible.

- Farmers work includes not only natural factors but also the methods of agriculture,
irrigation, technological innovations, land rents and other socio-economic factors.

- The basic contributing factor to low production efficiency is the little application of
modern technology in the form of various improved production inputs.

- Irrigation, marketing, fertilizing etc. which leads to efficiency.

- Agricultural land use pattern is controlled by:

- i. The uses of resources.

- ii. The exchange of goods even in so called subsistence economy.

- iii. Decision of farming system, methods of production, transportation and

technology.
 Agricultural Landuse Pattern

- The locational aspect is primary for the distribution of crops in the field
creates the pattern.

- The farmer has to decide which crop and cropping system has to be adopted
within the given set so that maximum benefit is derived.

- Locational consideration are important for efficiency but they merit

particular attention where commercialization is concerned.

- The locational decision for subsistence crops may be different from

commercial crops.

- A large part of agriculture in the world is subsistence type and a large portion
of the world‘s food output never enters commercial channels.

- the subsistence farming is intensive. In densely populated countries of the

South and South East Asia double cropping and multiple cropping are usual.
Models of Agricultural Landuse