3.

3 Choosing Between Flow Elements

If more than one type of flow element will meet application requirements, the flow
measurement system, including the flow element, should be evaluated. The system
includes primary elements, transmitters, installation cost and cost of operation
and maintenance.
3.4 Piping Installation Considerations
3.4.1 Some flow meters are sensitive to upstream and downstream velocity
profile conditions. Piping components such as fittings, reducers, expanders,
elbows, strainers, branch connections, valves, pipe lengths and spacing all effect
the fluid’s flowing velocity profile. Many possible configurations make it
difficult to predict changes in velocity profile. Flow meters’ installed
performance will be influenced by insufficient piping approaches and departures.
Straight runs before and after a primary flow element should meet established
minimum upstream and downstream requirements for the specific meter. Piping run
length for orifice meters can be applied to other meters as these will provide the
minimum necessary lengths to assure adequate velocity profile development.
Maximizing run lengths contributes to quality flow measurements. Use of less than
minimum lengths compromises metering performance. Refer to Table 2 for guidelines.
The metering piping design should consider the possibility of increased flow
resulting from debottlenecking or future process expansion. Maximizing meter run
piping lengths based on a high beta ratio will accommodate the increase in flow
without the added cost of piping revisions.
3.4.2 Temperature wells or connections should be located downstream of the
primary flow elements to minimize velocity profile distortion. In some cases it may
be necessary to insulate the piping to maintain temperature. Measure pressure and
temperature at or very near the meter when flow compensation is needed.
3.4.3 Piping should be arranged to ensure liquid flow meters are always full
of liquid (vapor free) and gas flow meters are always liquid free. Avoid turning
down after a meter in a liquid horizontal run or turning up after a meter in a
condensing vapor flow. In vertical piping runs, liquids should flow up while
condensing vapors should flow down.
3.4.4 Piping layout should consider meter dimensions, tap orientation and
access for maintenance service work.
3.5 Flow Conditioning
Installation of flow conditioning devices to reduce flow velocity distortion should
be avoided and should be considered only in extreme cases after all other
alternatives have been exhausted. Flow conditioning devices introduce pressure
drop, can be dislodged causing metering error or, if a failure occurs downstream,
may damage equipment.
3.6 Considerations for Removal of Insertion Type Flow Instruments
Insertion flow devices are typically used in large line sizes. Where the process
line cannot be practically shut down, safe meter removal should be provided using
flow assemblies that are fully retractable under line pressure and process
temperature. The packing assembly and isolation valve should be properly sized to
meet piping specifications. Blowout prevention should be considered as part of the
installation design.
3.7 Local Flow Indicator
Flow transmitters may have local flow indication. The flow indicator should be
located so it is easily readable by the operator when used in conjunction with
manual control of valves.
3.8 Differential Pressure (DP)
3.8.1 Ranges:
A preferred DP calibration range should be 0-100 inches of water. Other ranges may
be considered to meet the application requirements (e.g., low pressure gas or to
meet beta ratio constraints). High DP may cause deformation in orifice plates and
adds excessive energy loss. Fractional settings (e.g., 95.5 inches of water) should
be avoided.
3.8.2 Rangeability:
Flow rangeability (ratio of full scale flow to minimum flow but not zero flow)
should be considered carefully in choosing DP type flow meters. Use of smart
transmitters can improve turndown and accuracy for differential meters. If turndown
cannot be met with head meters, other meter types may be considered. In any case,
the meter performance at the minimum flow rate should be evaluated along with the
maximum flow rate.
3.8.3 Square root operation in calculating flows from head type meters should
be performed in the control system when using analog output of non-digital
transmitters. Smart transmitters and multivariable transmitters with digital output
may be used to provide a linearized output.
Comment: If the user wishes to use the transmitter to linearize the output signal,
care must be taken to avoid the problem of multiple square root extraction.
3.8.4 Transmitters should be located as close as practical to the primary
element for differential pressure measurement applications. Impulse line length,
temperature difference in the impulse lines and long piping configurations can
be detrimental to the measurement.
3.9 Static Pressure and Temperature
Static pressure and temperature measurements may be necessary for compensation of
flow to meet the process metering uncertainty levels or applicable flow metering
standards. Meter response behavior may change with variations of operating
temperature and pressure. As the process fluid density varies with pressure and
temperature, the metering accuracy may be influenced.
In gases both pressure and temperature effect the gas density so pressure and
temperature compensation may be necessary. In most liquid applications temperature
is the more dominant influence. Proper temperature compensation should reflect the
way temperature influences liquid density. Avoid applying gas law compensation
methods to liquids.
The preference for the static pressure location, especially for differential
pressure type devices, is the upstream pressure tap. The upstream pressure tap for
line pressure is allowed by standards and for many applications. The upstream tap
will provide a steadier reading (less noise or pressure fluctuation) than the
downstream pressure tap. Also, the process design data given on data sheets are
typically given as upstream conditions unless otherwise indicated.
Comment: For low pressure gas applications, the user is advised to evaluate the
impact of the variation in Gas Expansion factor (Y) for head type meters. The
variability in Y2 is about one half that of Y1 over a flow turndown. Depending on
beta ratio, dp/static pressure and isentropic exponent value the variation in Y1
can be 1 to 2% while Y2 is 0.5 to 1%. Unless there is compensation for changes in Y
as well as compensation for the pressure effect on density, a more significant bias
in measurement will occur when using the upstream line pressure. For higher
metering accuracy applications there are multivariable smart transmitters and flow
computers
that provide expansion factor calculation. Refer to R.W. Miller “Flow Measurement
Engineering Handbook.”
3.10 Pressure Taps
3.10.1 Pressure taps should not be connected to the bottom of the pipe to avoid
plugging or fouling of the sensing line with materials that may settle on the
bottom of the pipe.
3.10.2 Pressure taps for liquid, steam or heat transfer media services are
preferred to be horizontal on the side of the line. This may require wider spacing
of
process piping at the orifice section. Or it may be necessary to raise or lower the
orifice run with respect to other piping for sufficient side clearance for the tap
connections. Alternatively the taps may be oriented 45 degrees down from
horizontal. The impulse lines should always slope toward the transmitter avoiding
traps. Review of piping layouts is advised.
3.10.3 Pressure taps for dry gas services should preferably be vertical up from the
top of the line with connecting instrument piping lines sloped up and avoid
pocketing. Optionally, the pressure taps may be horizontal on the side of the line
or 45 degrees downward from vertical. The flow transmitter should be located above
the taps with impulse lines always sloping so the lines are selfdraining to the
process pipe.
3.11 Control Valve Location
The preferred location of flow and pressure control valves is downstream of the
meter. This avoids flow profile disturbances on the meter. In liquid service,
locating the valve downstream of the meter can provide adequate back pressure to
avoid flashing in the meter.
3.12 Special Equipment
Some types of meters may require specialized testing and calibration equipment to
operate, calibrate and maintain. Installation, calibration and operation of the
special equipment should be considered as part of the engineering design.
4. Specific Considerations

4.1 Orifice Meters

Advantages:
• Easy to install
• Common transmitters regardless of pipe size (true with all head type meters)
• Relatively low cost
• Wide variety of types and materials available
• Easy to re-range and troubleshoot
• May provide a repeatable, controllable output below specified turndown
• Has large data base to support coefficient uncertainty Limitations:
• Limited turndown due to square root function
• Accuracy is severely degraded as the plate wears or fouls
• Straight runs of upstream and downstream piping required

• Subject to process leaks through tubing, fittings, valves, & taps

• Significant permanent pressure loss across meter
• Impulse lead lines subject to freezing/plugging
4.1.1 Concentric, square-edged orifice meters may be used for services in
which the Newtonian fluid is clean, homogeneous, low viscous liquid, vapor or gas
and in a single phase, such as:
a. Fluids in turbulent flow (pipe Reynolds number at minimum measured flow above
4000)
b. Corrosive fluids
c. Steam
d. Air
4.1.2 Retractable orifice holder assemblies may be used for concentric
orifices if there is a need to frequently inspect or change orifice plates (e.g.,
custody transfer applications).
4.1.3 Consider using quadrant edge or conic type orifice plates if the
maximum measured flow pipe Reynolds number is below 10,000 or if the anticipated
process viscosity changes would cause significant errors with standard squareedge
orifices.
4.1.4 If abrasive suspended solids are present, quadrant-edged orifice plates
should be considered.
4.1.5 For process conditions where occasional entrained liquid or gas can
exist, the use of a drain or vent hole is suggested. Consider using an eccentric or
segmental plate if suspended solids may be present.
4.1.6 The following tap types are preferred:
a. Flange taps for line sizes 2 inches and larger where higher metering accuracy
is needed
b. Corner tapped honed flow meter runs or integral orifices for 1.5 inches and
smaller line sizes
c. Other tap types may be considered for lower flange cost in large line sizes
or alloy piping installations and less metering accuracy is acceptable
4.1.7 Table 2 gives design guidelines for flange tap concentric, square-edged
orifice meters.
4.1.8 Orifices should typically have a beta ratio (ratio of orifice bore
diameter to pipe internal diameter) greater than or equal to 0.2 and less than or
equal to 0.7. See Table 2 for recommended beta ratio ranges for measurement
performance.
4.1.9 For best accuracy the flow sizing and calculation should be based on
actual meter tube internal dimensional data. Refer to Table 2.
4.2 Flow Nozzles
Advantages:
• Slightly lower permanent pressure loss than orifice at similar beta ratios
• Good for fluid flows with entrained solids
• Lower cost than venturi
• Dimensionally more stable at higher temperatures and velocities than an
orifice Limitations:
• Because flow nozzles are fabricated, quality of workmanship varies.
Inspection is generally desirable before shipment and required before installation.

4.2.1 Flow nozzles may be used in low viscosity, non-abrasive fluids at high
flow rates in which:
a. Lower head loss than an orifice plate is desired
b. A contoured element is needed for long service life where a sharp edge would
wear
4.2.2 Installation and removal of the nozzle should be considered in the piping
design. However in high pressure steam applications (greater than 1000 psig), the
flow nozzle should be welded directly into the pipe.
4.2.3 Orifice plate upstream and downstream piping criteria should apply to a flow
nozzle as it is a flow profile sensitive device.
4.3 Venturi (Classical and Proprietary Designs)
Advantages:
• Very low permanent pressure loss
• Good for fluid flows with entrained solids
• Upstream run length is less than for orifice meters Limitations:
• Expensive in larger sizes
• Big and heavy in larger sizes
• Because a venturi is fabricated, quality of workmanship varies. Inspection is
generally desirable before shipment and required before installation.
• Limited data set for coefficient and upstream straight pipe requirements
• Higher measurement uncertainty at pipe Reynolds numbers less than 100,000
4.3.1 A venturi may be used in low viscosity, non-abrasive fluids at high
flow rates where only a small pressure drop or permanent head loss is allowed.
4.3.2 Process conditions which can tolerate only a relatively small amount of
unrecovered losses of developed differential pressure may require a
proprietary low loss venturi tube. In some cases one of the proprietary design
meters may provide lower installation cost.
4.3.3 For high accuracy applications, the venturi should be flow
calibrated.
4.4 Averaging Pitot Elements
Advantages:
• Low cost
• Low permanent pressure loss
• Negligible flow obstruction
• May be installed using hot taps
• Shorter upstream and downstream piping requirements than for orifice
Limitations:
• Very low differential pressures developed, so signal may be noisy
• Impulse lines must be kept to minimum length due to low DPs involved
• Must be precisely aligned in pipe
• Turndown limited due to low differential pressure
• Subject to plugging or fouling
• Subject to vibration induced fatigue failure if maximum velocity limit is
exceeded
4.4.1 An averaging pitot tube may be an alternative to an orifice plate where
lower head loss is needed, lower cost is desired and less accuracy is acceptable.
4.4.2 Averaging pitot tubes are subject to plugging and should be limited to
clean process liquids and gases.
4.4.3 Depending on velocity profile characteristics, averaging pitot tubes
are more accurate than pitot tubes.
4.4.4 Maximum expected fluid velocity should be considered in the design to avoid
exceeding manufacturer’s recommended limits.
4.4.5 In large line sizes, where long traverse lengths may be encountered,
opposite side support should be provided or heavier walled elements used.
4.4.6 Since most designs of averaging pitot type devices only average flow
over a single plane of the full cross-section of the conduit, the flow profile
distortions can have an adverse effect on measurement accuracy.
4.4.7 If a failed pitot tube could enter and damage downstream rotating
equipment, another element type should be considered. If a pitot tube is used,
opposite side support should be considered.
4.5 Integral Orifice
Advantages:
• Good for very low flows
• Other meters may be more expensive or unavailable in small sizes Limitations:

• Subject to plugging
• May be less accurate unless flow calibrated
4.5.1 When low flow rates dictate a meter tube less than 2 inch, an integral
orifice assembly may be used.
4.5.2 Integral orifices and honed pre-fabricated meter tubes can be designed
in sizes that meter comparable flow rates. Selection between the two should be
based on cost (both hardware and installation), metallurgy requirements,
transmitter mounting options, on-line servicing requirements and metering accuracy
needs.
4.5.3 Integral orifices are available in two types of configurations. One
design type routes the process flow through one or both chambers of the
differential pressure transmitter. The other design is much like a standard orifice
flange except the transmitter connection is machined (like a manifold flange) so
the transmitter can be mounted directly up against the orifice assembly.
4.5.4 If the meter needs to be serviced while the process is on-line,
isolation valves must be installed. Process line block and bypass valves are
required for servicing the flow-through design while on-line. For an adjacent
transmitter design, root valves (or a flange by flange manifold) allow servicing
the transmitter. If the expected on-line servicing includes checking a small bore
for plugging, then the block and bypass arrangement are required for either
integral orifice design.
Comment: Even small leakage through a meter bypass will result in significant flow
measurement errors of small integral orifices. Ensure the bypass valve is capable
of zero leakage.
4.5.5 The fluid should be of low viscosity and contain no solids when small
bores are dictated. This may require a strainer installed upstream of the meter run
and be located beyond the manufacturers minimum recommended pipe diameters upstream
of the orifice. Normal process operating conditions as well as potential start up
contaminants (pipe scale, welding slag, etc.) should be considered.
4.5.6 If high accuracy is needed, the integral orifice should be flow tested
prior to use and a calibration curve developed.
4.6 Wedge Type Meters
Advantages:
• Excellent for slurries and very dirty fluids
• Relatively low permanent pressure loss
• Self-cleaning
• Good for low Reynolds number applications. Minimum Reynolds number of 500
• May be used in bi-directional service Limitations:
• Some installations may require remote seals
• More expensive than orifice installation
4.7 Turbine Meters (Liquid)
Advantages:
• High accuracy
• High turndown
• Easy to install
• Low permanent pressure loss
• Linear output (frequency or analog output available)
• Insertion style available, subject to special installation requirements
Limitations:
• Easily damaged
• Typically requires more maintenance than other meters due to moving parts
• Fluid must be clean
• Sensitive to viscosity changes
• Bearings wear and will reduce accuracy
• Requires special techniques for start-up
4.7.1 Turbine meters may be used in fluids that are clean, provide lubricity,
in single phase (not operated near the liquid vapor pressure), and are limited in
viscosity changes.
4.7.2 Full line sized turbines are typically used in lines 8 inches and
below. Insertion type turbine meters may be used on larger lines.
4.7.3 Bearing types and materials of construction should be evaluated for
fluid and process stream compatibility.
4.7.4 For high accuracy services, turbine meters used in low density or high
viscosity fluids may have to be operated over a reduced range of flows. Refer to
manufacturer’s guidelines.
4.7.5 Strainers, filters, air or vapor eliminators or other protective
devices should be provided upstream to remove solids or gases that will cause wear
and measurement errors.
4.7.6 Turbine meter damage can occur when the process lines are blown clear with
gas or steam. Special provisions may be required to protect the meter.
4.7.7 Liquid turbine meters should only be used in moderate to low viscosity
services. Turbine meters are velocity profile sensitive and flow profile
conditioning devices upstream of the turbine should be considered.
4.7.8 Refer to API MPMS Chapter 5 for high accuracy application guidelines.
For plant applications refer to ISA RP 31.1.
4.8 Turbine Meters (Gas)
Advantages:
• High turndown
• Easy to install
• Low permanent pressure loss
• Linear output (frequency or analog output available)
• Insertion style available, subject to special installation requirements
Limitations:
• Easily damaged
• Typically requires more maintenance than other meters due to moving parts
• Fluid must be clean
• Bearings wear and will reduce accuracy
• Requires special techniques for starting up
4.8.1 Gas turbine meters may be used in clean and liquid free gas services;
however, these meters are not typically used in chemical process service.
4.8.2 Gas turbine meter factors shift with density changes and should be used
only after calibration within intended density range.
4.8.3 In-line gas turbine meters should be provided with block and bypass
valves and piping for maintenance. The full bore block valves should be installed
so they do not introduce flow profile disturbances to the meter.
4.8.4 Manufacturer recommended upstream and downstream lengths should be
followed.
4.8.5 The insertion type gas turbine meter is available for use in large line
sizes. If on-line removal is required, refer to Section 3.6 of this document for
guidelines.
4.8.6 Liquid separation and removal from the stream ahead of the turbine
meter should be considered.
4.8.7 Gas turbine meters should not be installed in pulsating flow
conditions.
4.9 Positive Displacement Meters (Liquid)
Advantages:
• High accuracy
• Wide rangeability
• Suitable for high viscosity
• No straight upstream piping required
• Linear volumetric output
• Good for local totalization
• Can be installed at remote locations without power Limitations:
• Moving parts are subject to wear which introduces measurement error
• Requires periodic maintenance
• High permanent pressure drop
• Not suitable for fluids with entrained or abrasive solids or gases
• May completely disrupt the flow if mechanical failure jams or locks the
moving parts of the meter
4.9.1 Strainers and air eliminators should be considered upstream of
the meter.
4.9.2 Liquid positive displacement meters may be used for custody transfer if
other meters capable of operating in the service conditions do not meet accuracy or
rangeability requirements.
4.9.3 Manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed for viscosity and
flow rate limitations.
4.10 Magnetic Flow Meters
Advantages:
• No flow obstruction
• Low or no pressure loss
• Good for plugging services and slurries
• Good for corrosive services by using liners
• Not effected by physical property changes in fluid other than conductivity
• Minimal straight piping requirements
• Can be set up for bi-directional flow Limitations:
• Fluid must have electrical conductivity (generally 2 micromhos per cm or
greater)
• Liners can be fragile or be easily damaged
• Cannot use on gases
• Grounding is a major concern to prevent errors due to stray field currents
• Requires separate power source
• Large meters are heavy
• Installed cost may be prohibitive on large meters
• Coating of electrodes may be a problem
• May be temperature limited
4.10.1 Magnetic flow meters may be used on conductive fluids that are:
a. Corrosive
b. Contain suspended or abrasive solids
c. Very low flow
4.10.2 Proper liner material and electrode selection is needed for process
fluid compatibility. The manufacturer should be consulted for material
availability.
4.10.3 A minimum fluid conductivity in micromhos/centimeter is needed for the
meter to operate properly. Consult with the manufacturer for the minimum
requirement.
4.10.4 Microprocessor based, digital magnetic flow meters are preferred.
4.10.5 The application of magnetic flow meters should be evaluated for startup
and cleanout conditions (fluids, conductivity, and temperature).
4.10.6 Grounding method should follow manufacturer’s recommendations.
4.10.7 Avoid liner damage due to over tightening of bolts and crushing the
liner during installation.
4.10.8 Do not subject the meter to thermal shock or exceed the meter’s
specified temperature limits.
4.10.9 Magnetic flow meters generally require a separate power source.
4.11 Mass Meters (Coriolis)
Advantages:
• Accurate direct mass measurement
• Good for just about all types of liquids and some high density gases
• Minimal restriction to flow, though in some cases head loss may be high
• Can measure density of fluid in addition to mass flow Limitations:
• High cost
• Installation may be more critical than other meters
• Somewhat more complex to maintain
• Slugs of gases will effect the measurement
• Typically temperature limited to 400° F
• Available in limited sizes
• High pressure drop
4.11.1 Coriolis meters should be sized for the desired accuracy at minimum and
normal flow rates without exceeding the permissible pressure drop at the maximum
flow rate.
4.11.2 Corrosion mechanisms should be given extra consideration. Vibration of the
meter tube increases the potential for stress related corrosion. Other alloy
materials may be required in applications where 316 SS would otherwise be
acceptable. Most meter tubes have no corrosion allowance, particularly galvanic
corrosion from dissimilar metals.
4.11.3 If the density measurement offered as an option by the manufacturer is to be
used, the accuracy provided should be evaluated for the application.
4.11.4 Adequate discharge back pressure should be insured in liquid service to
prevent flashing in meter tube.
4.11.5 Meters should not be located in areas susceptible to vibration. External
sources of vibration in frequency ranges and harmonics of the meter operating
frequency may effect meters. Installing two meters in series can be susceptible to
crosstalk. Consult with the meter manufacturer.
4.11.6 Care should be taken to avoid subjecting the meter body to piping induced
stresses.
4.11.7 When entrained gas is present, evaluation of the application with the meter
manufacturer is advised. Meter performance will deteriorate significantly due to
the presence of entrained gases in the liquid.
4.11.8 Secondary containment should be considered when using coriolis meters for
measuring highly corrosive or hazardous materials.
4.11.9 Coriolis meters to be used in highly viscous slurries, shear-sensitive
slurries, or fluids that could solidify or settle out to block the flow path may
require additional tube/sensor design considerations.
4.11.10 Coriolis meters are available with either or both digital and analog type
outputs. Care should be taken to insure that output is compatible with control
system I/O (i.e., pulse width, pulse height, edge trigger, etc.).
4.11.11 The application of coriolis meters should be evaluated for startup and
cleanout conditions (entrained gas, temperature extremes, plugging, slug flow,
etc.).
4.12 Mass Meters (Thermal)
Advantages:
• Good for low velocity pure component gas or air measurement
• Very low pressure loss
• Probe type thermal meters are cost effective for large flows
• Cost effective flow switch Limitations:
• May be effected by coatings on probe-fluid should be relatively clean
• Some designs are fragile
• Relatively slow response time
• Generally used in gas and vapor service
• Must be flow calibrated for accuracy
• Cost is generally higher for low flow applications (flow-through type meters)

• May be difficult to maintain

• Accuracy extremely effected by fluid composition and property changes
• Entrained liquids in gas streams can render this technique unacceptable
• Insertion type is a point measurement device
4.12.1 Thermal sensors should only be applied where the fluid thermal conducting
properties are well known. Changes in thermal conductivity will give cause for
shift in sensor response and give false readings of flow. The thermal conductivity
for most process streams is not listed nor readily available.
4.12.2 To obtain stated accuracy, the meter should be calibrated using the actual
fluid being measured.
4.12.3 Thermal mass meters (insertion probe type) should be easily removable for
cleaning while line is in service.
4.12.4 Insertion probe type thermal meters have been successfully used as flow
switches in large process lines.
4.13 Ultrasonic Meters
Advantages:
• Some liquid models can be installed outside the pipe, so there is no contact
with process fluid and can be installed while process is running
• No pressure drop
• Can be bi-directional
• Depending on technology, good for clean (transit time technology) or dirty
(Doppler technology) fluids
• Portable strap-on models are available
• May provide high turndown (transit time) Limitations:
• Straight piping runs required
• Installation more critical than other meters
• Sensors are somewhat limited on temperature
• Meter must be matched with fluid, and fluid properties must be consistent
(i.e., always clean or always dirty, bubbles always present or never present).
• Clamp-on devices may have limited accuracy
Application and installation requirements for ultrasonic meters depend on
parameters such as:
• Process fluid speed of sound characteristics
• Presence or absence of echo particles in the fluid
• Number of transducers
• Minimum and maximum distance between transducers
• Single path or multiple chords
• Acoustical characteristics in the piping system
• Piping dimension data
The manufacturer should assist in the system design and the installation should
adhere to the manufacturer’s specifications and recommendations.
4.13.1 Transit Time
4.13.1.1 The fluid flow should be fully turbulent and clean.
4.13.1.2 Transducer configurations should be determined based on the application
requirements.
4.13.1.3 Manufacturer’s recommendations for minimum numbers of straight diameters
upstream and downstream of the sensors varies but should always be followed.
4.13.1.4 Meters with cavities (recesses for transducers) should not be used
if a significant amount of solids in liquids, or liquids or solids in gases, is
present. Check with the manufacturer for suitability and signal degradation
effects.
4.13.1.5 If it is not possible to shut down a line to install a meter, strap-on
type meters may be used for liquid service. The sensors must have solid acoustic
contact with the pipe wall through the use of conducting grease or material.
Comment: Pipe wall thickness information is often needed data.
4.13.1.6 These meters should not be used on piping systems that generate
noise upstream of the meter. They perform best on “acoustically quiet”
installations.
4.13.1.7 Ultrasonic meters should not be used on lined pipe and may not work
properly on thick walled pipe.
4.13.2 Doppler
Ultrasonic Doppler meters should be used only in fluids that always contain
acoustically reflective medium, e.g., particulate or bubbles homogeneously
dispersed.
4.14 Vortex Meters
Advantages:
• High accuracy
• Low installed cost
• High rangeability
• No moving parts (most vendors)
• Linear output
• Low pressure drop Limitations:
• Minimum Reynolds number velocity required to operate properly
• Not suitable for high viscosity service
• Can be effected by vibration in the pipe
4.14.1 Vortex shedding meters may be used on relatively clean, low viscosity,
nonabrasive fluids and can provide higher turndown than orifice meters.
4.14.2 Vortex meters are generally applicable to liquids of low viscosity.
Accuracy, turndown, and pressure drop requirements should be carefully reviewed for
gas service applications (vortex meters are often unsuitable for low density
gases).
4.14.3 Sizing should consider minimum flow rates as well as maximum. The minimum
value of the pipe Reynolds number at the lowest expected flow should exceed 10,000
for liquids and 50,000 for gases. Below these values the vortex meter may not
generate a reliable flow signal. These Reynolds number limitations may vary between
manufacturers.
4.14.4 Line size vortex meters are available in pipe sizes 16 inches or less.
Insertion type meters are available for larger line sizes.
4.14.5 The meter body inside diameter is normally available in nominal pipe
schedules. Upstream and downstream piping design should match the schedule. Care
must be taken to ensure that the meter factors are calculated based on the piping
schedule used. The meter should be centered in the piping.
4.14.6 Welds on mounting flanges must be ground smooth, and gaskets between the
mounting flanges and the vortex meter should be full face. Ensure that no part of
the gasket protrudes into the flowing stream.
4.14.7 The upstream and downstream straight run piping requirements for the vortex
meter should be in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
4.14.8 The installed cost of vortex meters through 4 inch is typically less than
for orifice meters. Vortex meters 6 inches and larger may have higher costs than
orifice meters.
4.14.9 Vortex meters have low flow cut-off. In other words, there is zero reading
until flow reaches high enough level to register on the meter.
4.15 Variable Area Meters (Rotameters)
Advantages:
• Low cost
• Direct indicating
• No electrical power needed
• Minimal upstream and downstream piping requirements Limitations:
• Limited accuracy
• Must be vertically mounted
• Gas use requires minimum back pressure
• Requires accessories for data transmission
• May be high maintenance items
4.15.1 Rotameters may be used if:
a. Fluid measured is clean
b. Fluid flow rate is so small that use of a differential pressure type primary
element is impractical
c. Flow of fluid is not pulsating
d. Local flow indication is needed
4.15.2 Glass type meters should not be used for measuring fluids that contain
hot or strong alkali, strong acids, steam, hydrocarbons, or other fluids that are
hazardous to equipment or personnel. The use of armored type rotameters is
preferred. Owner’s approval is required for use of glass type rotameters.
4.15.3 For purge meter applications, a check valve should be installed on the
outlet of the meter to prevent back flow.
5. Custody Transfer Metering Considerations

Custody Transfer generally applies to those flow metering applications where fiscal
or custodial information is developed. Metering information is used for exchange of
moneys, materials, or trades between two parties, companies, business units, or
financial institutions. The design of a custody transfer measurement system usually
has a requirement for higher integrity and accuracy than conventional process
measurement. Industry standards such as American Petroleum Institute are available
as a resource.
Table 1
Selection of Flow Elements
Service Conditions
Clean fluid, low-viscous

PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines ossibly resulting in a
low Reynolds Numbe ended in the fluid June 1998 e material in the fluid
rosive fluid
Gas in liquid or liquid in gas
Low accuracy (2%+) is accepta
Low flow rates Medium flow rate High flow rat
Primary Flow Element
(>5 to
Orifice, Concentric Y P N N P N N Y P N
Y Y P Y
Orifice, Eccentric or Segmental N N P N P P N Y
N N Y Y N Y
Orifice, Quadrant or Conic Edge P Y P Y P N N Y
N N Y Y N Y
Flow Nozzles Y N P P P P P P P N Y
Y P Y
Venturi Y N P Y P P Y P P N Y Y
P Y
Averaging Pitot R N N N P N Y Y N N Y
Y N Y
Wedge Meters N Y Y Y P P P Y N P Y
Y N Y
Integral Orifice R N N N P N N Y N Y N
N P Y
Turbine Meters (Liquid) R N N N P N P P Y
Y Y Y Y Y
Turbine Meters (Gas) R N N N N N P P Y Y
Y Y Y Y
Positive Displacement Meters (Liquid) Y Y N N P N N
 P Y Y Y P Y N
Magnetic Flow Meters (Conductive fluids only) Y N Y P Y N
Y Y N Y Y Y Y P
Mass Meters (Coriolis) Y Y Y P P N N Y Y Y
Y N Y N
Mass Meters (Thermal) P N P N P N Y P N P
Y Y N Y
Ultrasonic (Transit-Time) Y N N N P N Y P P
Y Y Y P Y
Ultrasonic (Doppler) N N R P P R Y P N N
Y Y P Y
Vortex Shedding Meters Y N P N P P P Y P N
Y P Y Y
Variable Area Meters Y N N N P N N Y N Y
P N Y N

Low pressure drop (or high recovery) required

High accuracy is required
(1% or better)
High rangeability required
1)
Straight run length needed?
Legend
Y = Yes, primary flow element is used in this service.
N = No, primary flow element is not used in this service.
P = Possibly acceptable to use primary flow element in this service.
R = These service conditions are required for satisfactory use of this primary flow
element. Table 2
Flange Tap Orifice Meter Run Requirements
The following data are recommendations for the design of orifice meter runs. These
can be modified by engineering judgment provided the overall metering performance
meets the designated meter classification. Owner's approval is required when
deviations are needed.
Uncertainty: 1% 2% Not Designated (9)
Orifice Run (1) tolerance Per API MPMS, Chap.- 14.3 Part 2 1991 Per API
MPMS, Chap. -14.3 Part 2 1991
Straight Run - Upstream and Downstream per PIP PCCFL001: Based on Beta = 0.75
Table 1 Based on Beta = 0.75
Table 2 Based on Beta
Table 2
Orifice Plate Specs. API 14.3 Part 2 API 14.3 Part 2 API 14.3 Part 2
Static Press. Tap Location: High Side Flange Tap
(Low side if per contract) High Side Flange Tap High Side Flange Tap if
required
Temp. Measurement Location: 5 to 12 DIA Downstream of
Orifice(2) 5 to 12 DIA Downstream of
Orifice(2) 5 to 15 DIA Downstream of
Orifice(2) if required
Design Guidelines
Range of Beta 0.2 to 0.6 0.2 to 0.6 0.2 to 0.7
Flow Coeff. Calculation Using Measured Pipe ID and Measured Orifice Bore
Using Measured Pipe ID and Measured Orifice Bore Using Published Pipe ID
and Calculated Orifice Bore
Pipe Bore Reynolds No.
at Mid DP Flow (3):
Liquid RD > 20,000 RD > 10,000 RD > 10,000
Vapor, Gas RD > 100,000 RD > 50,000 RD> 10,000
Rangeability or Turndown (4) Flow Rate 3 to 1 4 to 1 10 to 1
Differential Pressure 9 to 1 16 to 1 100 to 1
Orifice Run Insulation (10) 50 DIA Upstream of Orifice to
1 DIA Downstream of
Temperature Element or
Densitometer Connection As Required by Process As Required by Process
Transmitters
Flow (DP) - Mfr stated
Accuracy at Calibrated Span +/- 0.10 % of Span or Better +/- 0.15 % of Span
+/- 0.15 % of Span
Differential Limit, Gases 1 inch H20 per PSIA line pressure 1 inch H20 per
PSIA line pressure 2 inch H20 per PSIA line pressure
Max. Nominal Differential (6) 0-20 to 0-200 inch w.c. 0-10 to 0-400 inch
w.c. 0-10 to 0-400 inch w.c.
Maximum Density Uncertainty 1.5 percent 2.0 percent 4.0 percent
Density Tolerance (5) (8) (Compensation usually req'd) (Compensation often
req'd) (Compensation usually not req'd)
Temperature element Calibrated Platinum RTD Platinum RTD Thermocouple
or RTD if req'd
Temperature-Controlled Instrument Housing Often required (7) Generally
not required (7) Not required
Flow Computation Flow Computer, DCS or as required by Contract Flow Computer, DCS
or Process Computer DCS
PIP PCEFL001
Flow Measurement Guidelines June 1998
NOTES
(1) Orifice runs are designed to satisfy appropriate run specification and the
governing piping codes.
(2) Orifice runs NPS 2 or smaller can have the temperature sensor located 10 to
25 pipe diameters downstream of the orifice.
(3) Mid DP flow is defined as the flow rate at which the differential pressure is
50 percent of the calibrated span for the transmitter.
(4) Maximum rangeability based on stated accuracy differential pressure
transmitters. Use of digital or multiple transmitters may exceed these limits.
(5) The flowing fluid density is a function of the pressure, temperature, and
composition of the fluid. The density can be determined by direct measurement or
calculated from the pressure, temperature and composition.
(6) 0 - 100 inches of water is the preferred starting design point.
(7) The inaccuracy of the transmitters is also a function of the ambient
temperature including exposure to sun and rain. This has a fairly large effect on
each measurement. High quality, smart transmitters can often be used without a
housing. Shields or opensided housings may be required to meet uncertainty 1% and
2%.
(8) Pressure and temperature measurements used for flow compensation should be
capable of limiting the density uncertainties sufficiently to meet the required
flow meters performance classification.
(9) The uncertainty of measurement can range from 5 to 10% or even greater.
Limited or no testing validation exists for all possible installation and
operational combinations. Measurement is influenced by variation in process
conditions away from design if uncompensated. Operating near multiple requirement
limits (e.g., Beta at 0.7 and Reynolds No. at 10,000 and DP at 2 inches per PSIA)
will result in measurement errors greater than 10% for portions of the measurement
range.
(10) Insulating the orifice run is not always necessary and depends on the fluid
and the stream condition. The ideal is constant temperature as the fluid passes
through the meter run.