GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

MODULE – II

Dr. K. M. KOUZER
Associate Professor in Civil Engg.
Engg

Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

Syllabus

● Index properties - Sieve analysis – Well graded, poorly

graded and gap graded soils - Stoke’s law - Hydrometer
analysis(no derivation required for percentage finer and
diameter) – numerical problems – Relative density
Consistency y - Atterbergg Limits – Practical Applications
pp -
numerical problems
● I.S.
I S classification of soils.
soils

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 WATER CONTENT BY OVEN DRYING
● Clean the container with lid, dry and weigh ( W1).
● Take the required quantity of the soil specimen in the
container crumbled and placed loosely, and weigh with lid
(W2).
)
● Then keep it in an oven with the lid removed, and
maintain the temperature of the oven at 110°± 5°C. Dry
the specimen in the oven for 24 h.
● Every time the container is taken out for weighing, replace
the lid on the container and cool the container in a
desiccator. Record the final weight (W3) of the container
with lid with dried soil sample.
p
● Then water content in percentage

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

SPECIFIC GRAVITY USING PYCNOMETER

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
● Pycnometer is cleaned, dried at a temperature of 105º C to
110 C and
110º d cooled
l d in
i the
h desiccator
d i and
d weighed
i h d (W1).)
● About 200 – 300 gm of oven dried soil sample, cooled in a
desiccator, is put in the bottle and the weight is taken (W2).
● The bottle is then filled with distilled water gradually,
g y,
removing the entrapped air by stirring the soil or shaking
the bottle. Water is filled upto the top and weight is taken
(W3).
● Finally,
Finally the bottle is emptied completely and thoroughly
washed, and clean water is filled to the top and weight is
taken (W4).)
● Specific Gravity can be computed as
W2 − W1
G=
(W2 − W1 ) − (W3 − W4 )
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

Ws W2 − W1
G it G =
S ifi Gravity
Specific =
Vs γ w (W4 − W1 ) − (W3 − W2 )

W2 − W1
=
(W2 − W1 ) − (W3 − W4 )
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY USING SPECIFIC GRAVITY BOTTLE

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

● The complete density bottle with stopper shall be dried at 105 to

110°C
110 C, cooled in the desiccator and weighed (W1).)
● About 5 to 10 g of oven-dried sample of soil is taken in the density
bottle and weighed (W2). ) If the sample contains particles of large size,
size
it shall be ground to pass a 2 mm sieve before the test.
● Distilled water is added to cover the sample.
sample The soil is allowed to
soak water for about 2 hours. More water is added until the bottle is
half full.
● Air entrapped in the soil is expelled by applying a vacuum pressure of
about 55 cm of mercuryy for about one hour in a vacuum dessicator.
Alternatively, the entrapped air can be removed by gentle heating.
● More water is added to the bottle to make it full. Stopper is inserted
and the weight is taken (W3). The temperature is also recorded.
● The bottle is emptied, washed and then refilled with distilled water.
The bottle must be filled to the same mark as in the previous case
and the weight is taken (W4).
● Specific Gravity is calculated as W2 − W1
G=
(W2 − W1 ) − (W3 − W4 ) 8
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 RANGE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

● G = 2.67 is commonly used for

cohesionless soils
● G = 2.7 for inorganic clay.
● Specific Gravity of solids is
generally reported at 27º C or at
4º C.

Specific Gravity of water at tº C

G 27 = G t
Specific Gravity of water at 27º C

G 4 = G t × Specific Gravity of water at tº C

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

FIELD DENSITY BY CORE CUTTER METHOD

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 CORE CUTTER METHOD

● Consisting of a steel cutter, 10 cm in diameter and about

13 cm high, and a 2.5 cm high dolly.
● The cutter is driven in the cleaned surface with the help p
of a suitable rammer, till about 1 cm of the dolly
protrudes above the surface.
● The cutter containing the soil, is dug out of the ground,
the dolly is removed and the excess soil is trimmed off.
off
● Weight of the soil in the cutter is found. By dividing it by
th volume
the l off the
th cutter,
tt theth bulk
b lk density
d it is
i determined.
d t i d
● The water content of the excavated soil is found in the
lab and the dry density is also computed.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

FIELD DENSITY BY SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
● The cylinder is filled, up to a height 1 cm below the top,
with dry and clean sand passing a 600 micron sieve and
retained on a 300 micron sieve and weight is taken (W1).
● The cylinder is placed over a plain surface f and the
shutter is opened. The sand runs out of the cylinder and
fills the cone. The shutter is closed when no further
movement of sand takes place and weight is taken (W2).
● The pouring cylinder is again filled to the initial weight. A
g container of Volume Vc is p
calibrating placed below the
pouring cylinder and the shutter is opened. The sand fills
the calibrating container and the cone. The shutter is
closed and the weight is again taken (W3).
● Density of sand filled in the calibrating container (γs) is
determined as
W − W3
γs = 2
Vc
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

● A tray with a central hole is placed on the prepared ground

surface which had been cleaned and properly levelled.
● A hole about 100 mm diameter and 150 mm deep is
excavated in the ground using the hole in the tray as a
pattern.
● The soil excavated is carefully collected and weighed (W5).
● The sand pouring cylinder is placed over the excavated hole.
The shutter is opened and the sand is filled in the cone and
the hole. When the sand stops running out, the shutter is
closed. The cylinder is weighed again (W4).

W2 − W4
● Volume of hole is calculated as Vh =
γs
W5
● Then the field density of in-situ soil is determined as γ f =
Vh
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 FIELD DENSITY BY WAX COATING METHOD
● A test specimen is trimmed to more or less a regular shape
and weighed (W)
● The soil sample is then coated with a thin layer of paraffin wax
by dipping it in the molten wax to make it impervious as the
soil mass disintegrates when it comes in contact with water.
p
The specimen is allowed to cool and weighed
g ((W1)).
● The waxed specimen is then immersed in a water-
displacement container. The volume of the waxed specimen is
equal to the volume of water which comes out of the outflow
tube ((V1)).
W −W
● Volume of specimen is determined as V = V1 − 1
γp
where γp is density of paraffin wax (approximately 0.998 gm/cc)
W
● Field Density is determined as γ=
V
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 GRAIN SIZES

Cohesive soils Cohesionless soils

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

● Grain Size Analysis, also known as mechanical analysis,
is a method of separation of soils into different fractions
based on the particle size.
● It expresses quantitatively the proportion,
proportion by weight,
weight of
various sizes of particles present in a soil.
● It is shown graphically on a Grain size distribution curve.
● Performed in two stages
– Sieve Analysis for Coarse Grained Soils and
– Sedimentation analysis
y or wet mechanical analysis
y for
Fine Grained Soils.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 SIEVE ANALYSIS
● Sieves are wire screens having square openings.
● As pper IS,, the sieve no. is the mesh width expressed
p in
mm for large sizes and in microns for small sizes. Size
varies from 75μ to 80 mm.
● Size > 4.75 mm is called as
gravel fraction and a set of
g
coarse sieves consisting of the
sieves of size 80 mm, 40 mm,
20 mm, 10 mm and 4.75 mm
are used.
● Size
Si between
b t 75 and
75μ d 4.75
4 75 mm
is called as sand fraction and a
set of sieves consisting of the
sieves of size 2 mm, 1 mm,
μ, 425μ,
600μ, μ, 212μ,μ, 150μμ and
75μ are used.
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

DRY SIEVE ANALYSIS

● Suitable for Cohesionless Soils
with little or no fines.
● Oven dried soil is used.
● Should not contain any lumps.
lumps If
necessary, it should be pulverised.
● Gravel fraction and Sand fraction is
sieved through the corresponding
sets of sieves.
sieves
● Various sieves arrange one over
the other with a pan at bottom and
a lid at top and sieved manually or
using a mechanical shaker.
● The weight of soil retained on each
sieve is obtained.
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 WET SIEVE ANALYSIS
● Recommended if the soil contains substantial quantity (say,
>5%) of fine particles.
● The dried sample is taken in a tray and soaked with water.
● Two grams of sodium hexameta-phosphate is added per
litre of water used for deflocculation.
● Sample is stirred and left for a soaking period of atleast 1 hr.
● Slurry is then sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve & washed
with a jet of water until the wash water becomes clear.
● Material retained on the sieve is the gravel fraction. Material
passing through 4.75 mm IS sieve is sieved through a 75μ μ
sieve. Material retained on 75μ sieve is sand fraction.
● The coarse fraction is dried in an oven and dryy sieve
analysis is carried out. The fine fraction passed through 75μ
sieve is utilised for hydrometer or pipette analysis.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

COMPUTATION OF PERCENTAGE FINER

Wt. of soil retained on that sieve
% Retained on a particular sieve = × 100
Total weight of soil
● Cumulative % retained = Sum of % retained on all sieves of
larger size and the particular sieve
● % Finer than the sieve = 100% - Cumulative % retained

● The results of the mechanical analysis are plotted on

semi-log
il plot
l t to
t gett a grain
i size
i di t ib ti
distribution curve with
ith
Percentage Finer on Y-axis and Grain size or particle
diameter on X-axis on a logarithmic scale.
● This curve gives an idea about the type and gradation of
the soil.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

TERMINOLOGIES
● D10 – Represents a size, in mm such that 10% of the
particles finer than this size.
size Also called as
Effective size or effective diameter.
● D30 – Represents a size,
size in mm such that 30% of the
particles finer than this size.
● D60 – Represents a size, in mm such that 60% of the
particles finer than this size.

y Coefficient C u =
● Uniformity
D 60
D10

● Coefficient of curvature Cc =
(D30 )2
D10 × D 60
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 DIFFERENT TYPES
● WELL GRADED - Good representation of grain sizes
over a wide range and its gradation
curve is smooth.
Cc between 1 and 3.
Cu > 4 for Gravels and > 6 for sands
● POORLY GRADED – If it has excess of certain particles
and deficiency of other, or if it has
most of the particles of about the
same size.
● UNIFORMLY GRADED – If it has most of the particles
of about the same size.
Cu is nearly unity.
● GAP GRADED – A curve with a hump represents the
soil in which some of the
intermediate size particles are missing.
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 USE OF GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
● Used in the classification of Coarse-grained Soils
● Approximate value of coefficient of permeability can be
determined from the particle size
● To know the susceptibility of a soil to frost action
● Required for the design of drainage filters
● Provides an index to shear strength of the soil. soil A well
graded compacted sand has high strength.
● Compressibility of a soil can also be judged.
judged A uniform soil
is more compressible than a well graded soil.
● Useful in soil stabilization and for the design of pavements.
pavements
● May indicate the age of residual soil deposit. With
increasing age,
age the average particle size decreases
because of weathering.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS
● Used for particle size distribution of soil particles finer
than 75μ based on Stoke
Stoke’s
s law.
law
● According to Stoke’s law, the velocity at which grains
settle out of suspension,
suspension all other factors being equal,
equal is
dependant upon the shape, weight and size of grains.
● Hence coarser particles settle more quickly than the finer
ones.
● If a single sphere is allowed to fall freely through a liquid
of infinite extent, its velocityy will first increase rapidly
p y
under the action of gravity, but a constant velocity called
terminal velocity
y is reached within a short time.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 STOKE’S LAW
● According to Stoke’s law
γs − γ l 2
v= D cm / sec
18η
Where
Wh
v = Terminal velocity of soil grain with diameter D (cm)
γs = Unit weight of soil grains (gm/cc) = G γw
γl = Unit weight of liquid (gm/cc)
μ
η = Viscocity of liquid (gm-sec/cm2) =
g
μ = Viscocity in poise (dyne-sec/cm
(dyne sec/cm2)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (cm/sec2)
D = Diameter of grain (cm)
[ 1 Dyne = 10-5 N = 1/981 gm]
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

LIMITATIONS OF STOKE’S LAW TO GRAIN SIZE ANALSYSIS

● Assumed that the falling grains is spherical – In soils, the
finer particles are never truly spherical
● Suspension is assumed as infinite – Extent of liquid in
glass jar is limited
● Average value of specific gravity of grains is used –
Some of the grains may have different specific gravity
● The finer grains of the soil carry charge on their surface
and have a tendency for floc formation – Diameter
measured will be the diameter of the floc and not of the
individual grain.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 PROBLEM
● A soil sample ranging from 0.070 cm to 0.001 cm is put on surface of
still water tank 4 m deep. Find time required for the first and also the
last particle to reach the bottom of the tank. Assume G = 2.65 and
viscosity as 0.008 poise.
● Solution : γ −γ
v = s l D2 cm / sec
18η
γs = G γw = 2.65 gm/cc,
η = μ/g = 0.008/980.7 gm-sec/cm2
For largest particle, v = ( 2.65 − 1)
1 × 0.072 = 55.06 cm / sec
18 × (0.008 / 980.7)
∴ Time required for the first particle t1 = Depth / v1 = 400/55
to reach the bottom of tank = 7.27 sec
For smallest particle, v2 = 0.0112 cm/sec,
∴ t1 = 400/0.0112
400/0 0112 = 35596 sec = 593.27
593 27 min
i
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
● Soil sample is washed through a 75μ sieve.
● Transferred to 1000 ml capacity
sedimentation jar and filled to the 1000 ml
mark, by adding distilled water.
● Sedimentation jar is shaken vigorously and
is then kept vertical over a solid base.
base
● The stop watch is simultaneously started.
● Hydrometer is slowly inserted in the jar and
readings are taken at 0.5, 1 and 2 min. time
intervals.
intervals
● Hydrometer is then taken out. More
readings are taken by inserting it for 30 sec
at times of 4,8,15, 30 min and 1,2, 4 hours,
etc.
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 HYDROMETER READINGS
● Weight of solids present at any time
is calculated indirectlyy by
y reading
g the
density of soil suspension.
● As the soil suspension is opaque,
the reading is taken corresponding to
the upper level of the meniscus.
● Hydrometer Readings (RH) are
recorded as
RH = (Density -1) x 1000
RH
ie. Density = 1 +
1000
where 1 is the density of water γw
RH
ie. γ −γw =
1000
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

CALIBRATION OF HYDROMETER
● To establish a
relationship between the
hydrometer reading RH
and the effective depth
He for a given
hydrometer .
● Effective depth is the
distance from the
surface of the soil
suspension to the level
at which the density of
soil suspension is being
measured. d
● Effective depth of the
hydrometer keeps on
increasing as the
particles settle with time.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 CALIBRATION OF HYDROMETER
● Level aa rises to a1a1
● Rise aa1 = Vh/A
Where A = Area of jar
⎡ h V ⎤ V 1⎡ V ⎤
H e = ⎢H + + h ⎥ − h = H + ⎢h − h ⎥
⎣ 2 2A ⎦ A 2⎣ A⎦

● For various hydrometer

readings Rh, the depth H
can be measured and He
can be found out. out A
graph can be drawn with
He on Y-axis
Y axis and RH on
X-axis.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

CORRECTIONS OF HYDROMETER READING

● MENISCUS CORRECTION (+Cm)
– Reading between the top of the meniscus and the level of
suspension
● TEMPERATURE CORRECTION (±Ct)
– Hydrometers are generally calibrated at 27ºC. If temperature is
other than 27 C, correction ±Ct is applied to RH.
27ºC
● DISPERSING AGENT CORRECTION (-Cd)
– Correction due to rise in specific gravity of the suspension on
account of the addition of the deflocculating agent.

Corrected Hydrometer Reading R 'H = R H + C m ± C t − C d

where RH is the observed hydrometer reading.
reading RH’ is to be used in
the calibration graph to obtain the effective depth He.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 COMPUTATION OF PERCENTAGE FINER
● According to Stoke’s law
γs − γl 2
v= D cm / sec
18η

18η v
∴ D=
γs − γ w

● If a soil particle of diameter D falls through a height He (cm) in time t

(min)

He
v= cm/sec
60t

18η H e
∴ D (cm) =
γ s − γ w 60 t
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

W Ws + Ww Ws Ww
● Initial Density of suspension = γ i = = = +
V V V V

where
here Ws = Total weight
eight of solids in original suspension
s spension

Ww Vw γ w ( V − Vs ) γ w Vγ W 1
● But = = =γw − s w =γw − s
V V V V V G
Ws W 1 W ⎛ 1⎞ W ⎛ G −1⎞
● ie. γ i = + γ w − s = γ w + s ⎜1 − ⎟ = γ w + s ⎜ ⎟
V V G V ⎝ G⎠ V ⎝ G ⎠
R Hi Ws ⎛ G − 1 ⎞
● ie. γ i − γ w = = ⎜ ⎟
1000 V ⎝ G ⎠
RH W ⎛ G −1⎞
● Si il l γ − γ w =
Similarly = D⎜ ⎟
1000 V ⎝ G ⎠
where W
W’D = Weight of solids at depth He after time t
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 WD
● Percentage
g finer than D = N= × 100 %
Ws
RH
● ie.
ie N= × 100 %
R Hi

'
⎛ G ⎞ RH V
● or N=⎜ ⎟ × × 100 %
⎝ G − 1 ⎠ 1000 Ws

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

Problem
1 D
1. During
i a sedimentation
di t ti test
t t for
f grain
i size
i analysis,
l i the
th corrected
t d
hydrometer reading in a 1000 cc uniformly mixed soil suspension
at the instant of starting of sedimentation (t = 0) was 1.030.
1 030 After
30 min, the corrected hydrometer reading at an effective depth of
10 cm was noted to be 1.015.
1 015 If the specific gravity of solids is
2.65 and viscosity of water is 0.01 dyne-sec/cm2, find (i) the total
weight of soil solids placed in the 1000 cc suspension,
suspension and (ii) the
diameter corresponding to the 30 min reading and (iii) the
percentage finer.
2. In a sedimentation analysis 48 gm of soil passing 75μ is
p
dispersed in 1000 ml of water in order to estimate the ppercentageg
of particles less than 0.003mm. How long after the
y
commencement of sedimentation, is the hydrometer reading
g is to
be taken? The centre of the hydrometer bulb is at an effective
depth of 165 mm below the surface of water. G = 2.72 and μ is
0.001 N sec/m2.
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
3. A dryy sample
p of weight
g 50 g is mixed with distilled water
to prepare a suspension of 1000 ml for hydrometer
analysis. The reading of the hydrometer taken after 5
min was 25 and the depth of the centre of the bulb below
the water surface when the hydrometer was in the jar
was 150 mm. The volume of the hydrometer was 62 cm3
and the area of cross section of the jar was 55 cm2.
Assuming G = 2.68 and η = 1.0 x 10-5 g-sec/cm2,
d t
determine
i the
th co-ordinates
di t off the
th point
i t corresponding
di tot
above observation.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

Relative Density or Density Index (Dr or ID)

● It is used to express the relative compactness of a
natural soil deposit only for a cohesionless soil

e max − e
Dr =
e max − e min
where
emax = void ratio in the
loosest state
emin
i = void ratio in the
densest state
Relative
<15 15 to 35 35 to 65 65 to 85 85 to 100
Density (%)
Very Medium Very
Type of Soil Loose Dense
Loose Dense Dense
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 Experiment

Sample
p
densified by
vibration

Measure Δ
height to
determine
new γd
Plate on which weight
sits during vibration
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

Problem

● A certain sandy soil has a maximum void ratio of 0.83

and a minimum void ratio of 0.15. If G = 2.65, determine
their max. and min. dry densities. If the in-situ dry
density of this sandy soil is 16 kN/m3, what is its Density
Index?

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 CONSISTENCY OF CLAYS
● Used to describe the degree of firmness of a soil in a
qualitative manner by using descriptions such as soft,
medium, stiff or hard.
● Indicates the relative ease with which a soil can be
deformed.
● The property of consistency is associated only with fine
fine-
grained soils, especially clays.
● Physical properties of clays are considerably influenced
by the amount of water present in them.
● Four states of consistency based on water content
– (i) Liquid state, (ii) Plastic state, (iii) Semi-solid state
((iv)) So
Solid
d state
● Boundary water contents called as “Consistency Limits”
or “Atterberg
o tte be g Limits”.
ts
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

CONSISTENCY STATES
● Liquid State – No resistance to flow. Soil has no shear strength.
● Plastic State – Soil can be moulded to different shapes without
rupturing it, due to its plasticity.
● Semi-solid State – Soil does not have plasticity. It becomes
brittle. When pressure is applied, the soil crumbles.
● Solid State – The sample begins to dry up at surface and the
soil is no longer fully saturated.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 ATTERBERG LIMITS
● Liquid Limit WL (LL) – Water content at which the soil
changes from the liquid state to the plastic state.
state
● Plastic Limit WP (PL) – Water content at which the soil
stops behaving as a plastic material.
material
or Arbitrary water content between Plastic and Semi-
solid state of soil.
● Shrinkage Limit WS (SL) – Maximum water content at
which a reduction of water content will not cause a
decrease in the volume of soil mass.
or Lowest water content at which the soil can be
completely saturated.

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

LIQUID LIMIT BY CASAGRANDE’S APPARATUS

TYPE A

TYPE B

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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 PROCEDURE
● About 120 gm of the soil specimen passing through 425μ sieve
is mixed thoroughly with distilled water to form a uniform paste.
● A portion of the paste is placed in the cup and a groove is cut in
the soil pat using suitable tool. With soils having low plasticity, it
is sometimes difficult to cut a smooth groove in the soil with
Type A grooving tool and Type B may be used in such cases.
● The handle is rotated @ 2 rev/sec
and the no. of blows counted until the
two parts of the soil sample come into
contact at the bottom of the groove
along a distance of 12 mm.
● Approximately 10 gm of soil from near
the closed groove is taken for water
content determination.

49
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

● The operations shall be repeated for at least three more

additional
ddi i l trials
i l by
b adding
ddi more water to make
k the
h soilil to a more
fluid condition.
● In each case,
case the number of blows shall be recorded and the
water content determined as before.
● The number of drops required to close the groove shall be not
less than 15 or more than 35.
● A graph, called as flow
curve, between no. of
blows on abscissa on a
logarithmic scale and
corresponding water
content
t t as ordinate
di t is
i
plotted and the water
content corresponding
to 25 blows is taken as
the liquid
q limit.
50
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 51
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

FLOW INDEX
● Slope of the flow w1 − w 2
IF =
curve ⎛N ⎞
log10 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ N1 ⎠

● Indicates the rate of

loss in shearing
strength upon
increase in water
content.
● Soil with a higher
value of flow index
possesses lower
shear strength.
strength
52
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 ONE POINT METHOD
● Take only one reading of water content and its
corresponding number of blows.
blows
e
⎛ n ⎞
wL = w ×⎜ ⎟
⎝ 25 ⎠
where w = water content corresponding to ‘ n ‘
number of blows
e = Index, varies from 0.068 to 0.121

53
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

LIQUID LIMIT BY CONE PENETROMETER

● A cone with 31º central angle and
total sliding mass of 148 gm is
made to penetrate the soil pat kept
in a 5 cm dia and 5 cm high g
cylindrical trough.
● Liquid
q limit corresponds
p to the water
content of a paste which would give
25 mm penetration.
p

WL = Wx + 0.01× (25 − x )× (Wx + 15)

where Wx = Water content

corresponding to a penetration of x.
● The above expression is applicable
only if ‘ x ‘ between 20 and 30 mm.
mm
54
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 PLASTIC LIMIT
● The soil specimen passing 425μ sieve is mixed thoroughly with
distilled water until the soil mass becomes plastic enough to be
easily
il moulded
ld d with
ith fingers.
fi
● A ball is formed with about 10 gm of this plastic soil mass and
rolled between the fingers and a glass plate to roll the mass
into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length.
● When a diameter of 3 mm is reached,
reached the soil is remoulded
again into ball.
● This process of rolling g
and remoulding is
repeated until the thread
starts just crumbling at a
diameter of 3 mm.
● The crumbled threads
are kept for water
content determination.
55
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

SHRINKAGE LIMIT

56
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 PROCEDURE
● About 30 gm of soil passing through 425μ sieve is taken
in an evaporating dish.
dish
● The soil is mixed with sufficient quantity of water to bring
the soil to a consistency that it may flow.
flow
● The soil mixture is placed in the shrinkage dish without
entrapping air bubbles. The excess soil is removed and
the dish is weighed with soil.
● The dish is placed in the oven at 110º C and dry weight
of soil is determined.
● The volume of dry pat of soil is measured by the mercury
displacement method.

57
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

MERCURY DISPLACEMENT METHOD

● VOLUME OF WET SOIL PAT
– The shrinkage dish is filled with mercury to overflow.
– A flat glass plate pressed over its top and the mercury in the
shrinkage dish is weighed. Weight divided by density of
mercury gives
i th volume
the l V1 off the
th wett soilil pat.
t
● VOLUME OF DRY SOIL PAT
– Th
The glass
l cup isi first
fi t filled
fill d with
ith mercury andd the
th excess
mercury is removed by pressing the glass plate with three
prongs firmly over the top of the cup.
cup The cup with mercury is
placed in an evaporating dish.
– The dry soil pat is placed on the surface of the mercury of the
cup and is carefully forced down by means of glass with
prongs.
– The weight of mercury so displaced is divided by density of
mercury gives the volume V2 of the dry soil pat.

58
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
● Fig(a) represents the soil sample in plastic state
● As the sample is gradually dried, the water content at a
certain stage
g becomes equal
q to the shrinkage
g limit. [[Fig
g ((b)]
)]
● The sample continues to dry with no further volume
decrease and reached the dry state as in Fig (c).
(c)
59
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

CALCULATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT

● Shrinkage limit ws is the water content in Fig (b).
ie ws = Ww/Ws

WW = (W1 – Ws) – (V1 – V2)γ

) w

ws =
(W1 − Ws ) − (V1 − Vd ) γ w
× 100 %
Ws

60
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 PLASTICITY INDEX PI (IP)
● It indicates the degree of plasticity of a soil
IP = wL – wP
● Coarse grained soils cannot achieve plastic state of
consistency and their liquid limit and plastic limit may be
said to coincide.
coincide ie.
ie IP = 0.
0

61
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

CONSISTENCY INDEX OR RELATIVE CONSISTENCY IC

w L − w n ● If wn = wL , Ic = 0 and If wn = wP , Ic = 1
IC = ¾ For plastic state Ic = 1 to 0
IP
¾ If Ic is negative, soil mass behaves like a liquid
¾ If Ic >1, Soil is in a semi solid state

LIQUIDITY INDEX IL
w −w
I L = n P = 1 − I C ¾ For plastic state IL = 0 to 1
IP

62
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 SHRINKAGE RATIO (SR)
( V1 − V2 ) / Vd Where
SR = × 100
w1 − w 2 V1 = Volume
V l off soilil att w = w1
V2 = Volume of soil at w = w2
Vd = Volume of dry soil mass
limit V2 = Vd and w2 = ws, SR = ( V1 − Vd ) / Vd × 100
At shrinkage limit,
w1 − w s
( V1 − V2 ) γ w
Change in water content w1 − w 2 =
Ws
Ws 1 γ
∴ SR = = d
Vd γ w γ w
( Vd − Vs ) γ w 1 1 1 1
But SL = w s = = − = −
Ws Ws /( Vd γ w ) Ws /( Vs γ w ) SR G
1 1
ws = −
SR G 63
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE (VS)

V1 − Vd
VS = × 100 = ( w1 − w 2 ) × SR
Vd

TOUGHNESS INDEX (IT)

IP ● Indicates shear strength of a soil at
IT = plastic limit
IF
● Generally 0 – 3 for most soils.
soils

SHRINKAGE INDEX (IS)

IS = w P − w S

64
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 Problems
1. A soil has the liquid limit and plastic limit of 47% and
33% respectively. If the volumetric shrinkage at the liquid
limit and plastic limit are 44% and 29%, determine the
g limit.
shrinkage
2. A sample of clay has the liquid limit of 60% and
Shrinkage limit of 25%.
25% If the sample has a volume of 10
ml at LL, a volume of 6.4 ml at SL, determine the specific
gravity of solids.
solids
3. The shrinkage limit of a clay is 22%, its moisture content
34 7% and its specific gravity
34.7% gra it is 2.73.
2 73 Calculate
Calc late the
decrease to be expected in a unit volume of clay, if the
moisture
i t content
t t is
i reduced
d d by
b evaporation
ti to
t 18.2%.
18 2%

65
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

IS Classification of Soils
NECESSITY OF CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
● To arrange various types of soils into groups according
t their
to th i engineering
i i properties
ti
y
● Considered as a system of labelling
g soils, which would
convey the same meaning universally
● It should
h ld be
b possible
ibl to
t grade
d the
th soilil for
f its
it suitability
it bilit for
f
a specific engineering project

66
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
● General Classification as Cohesionless and Cohesive or
Coarse grained and Fine grained are too general and
include a wide range of engineering properties.
● Additional means of categorization are necessary to
make the terms more meaningful in engineering practice.
● Several classification systems were evolved by different
organizations having a specific purpose as the object.
– INDIAN STANDARD (IS) CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
– UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
– AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

67
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

INDIAN STANDARD CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

● IS 1498-1970 : CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION
OF SOILS FOR GENERAL ENGINEERING PURPOSES

SOIL

Coarse Grained Fine Grained Peat

Soil Soil

≥50% retained > 50% passes Highly Organic

on 75μ IS sieve μ IS sieve
75μ Soils and Other
Miscellaneous
Soil Materials

68
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 IS CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GRAIN SIZE

Cohesive soils Cohesionless soils

69
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

70
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 FINE GRAINED SOILS

L - Low I – Intermediate H - High

Compressibility Compressibility Compressibility
LL < 35 35 < LL < 50 LL > 50

Eqn. of “A”
Eqn A Line :
Ip = 0.73 x (wL – 20)

71
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

COARSE GRAINED SOILS

Gravels Sands

> 50% of the coarse > 50% of the coarse

faction is larger faction is smaller
than 4.75
4 75 mm IS than 4.75
4 75 mm IS
sieve size. sieve size.

GW - Cu > 4,
4 Cc – 1 to 3 SW - Cu > 6,
6 Cc – 1 to 3
If fines ≤ 5%
GP SP
GM GC
GM, SM SC
SM, If fines ≥ 12%
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Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
PRIMARY GROUP DESCRIPTIONS
DIVISIONS SYMBOL
GRAVELS : Over GW Well graded Gravel
COARSE 50% off coarse
GRAINED material retained on GP Poorly graded Gravel
SOILS - 4.75 mm IS sieve
Sands / GM Silty Gravels
Gravels
O
Over 50% GC Clayey Gravels
retained on 75μ SAND : SW Well graded Sand
IS sieve Over 50% of coarse
material passed 4.75 SP Poorly graded Sand
mm IS sieve
SM Silty Sand

SC Clayey Sand

73
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

74
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 DUAL SYMBOLS
● FOR EQUAL PERCENTAGE OF COARSE GRAINED
AND FINE GRAINED FRACTIONS
– GM-ML, GM-MI, GM-MH, GC-CL, GC-CI, GC-CH,
SM-ML SM-MH,
SM-ML, SM-MH SC-CL,
SC-CL SC-CI,
SC-CI SC-CH
● IF BETWEEN 5% AND 12% PASSES THROUGH 75μ
SIEVE
– GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GC, GP-GM,
SW SM SW
SW-SM, SW-SC,
SC SP
SP-SC,
SC SP
SP-SM
SM

75
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

PROBLEMS
● Classify following three soils as per IS

Sl. No. Gravel Sand Silts & Cu Cc WL WP

Si
Size Si
Size Cl Size
Clay Si
% % %
1. 4 7 89 - - 55 23

2. 2 95 3 4.5 1.5 - -

3. 6 3 91 - - 30 25

76
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 SOLUTION
Soil No. 1
% of Silt and Clay = 89% > 50%
∴ Fine Grained Soil
Li id Limit
Liquid Li i WL = 55% % > 50%
0%
∴ High compressibility (H)
Plastic Limit WP = 23%,
∴ Plasticity Index IP = WL - WP = 55 – 23 = 32%
Value of IP on A-line = 0.73 x (WL – 20) = 0.73 x (55 – 20)
= 25.55
25 55 < 32
ÎAbove A-line
∴ Clayey Soil (C)
∴ Soil is classified as CH, ie Clay with High compressibility
77
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode

SOLUTION
Soil No. 2
% of Coarse grained fraction = 95 + 2 = 97% > 50%
∴ Coarse Grained Soil
% off Sand
S d = 95%
9 % > 0.5
0 x 97
9 = 48.5%
48 %
∴ Sandy Soil (S)
% of Silt and Clay = 3% < 5%
Cu = 4.5 < 6, Cc = 1.5 , ie . Between 1 and 3
∴ Poorly Graded (P)

∴ Soil is classified as SP, ie Poorly Graded Sand

78
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode
 SOLUTION
Soil No. 3
% of Silt and Clay = 91% > 50%
∴ Fine Grained Soil
Li id Limit
Liquid Li i WL = 30% <35% 3 %
∴ Low compressibility (L)
Plastic Limit WP = 25%,
∴ Plasticity Index IP = WL - WP = 30 – 25 = 5%
Value of IP on A-line = 0.73 x (WL – 20) = 0.73 x (30 – 20)
= 7.3
73>5
ÎBelow A-line
∴ Silty Soil (M)
∴ Soil is classified as ML, ie Silt with Low compressibility
79
Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Govt. Engg. College, Kozhikode