1

CURRICULUM PLANNING PROCESS

INTRODUCTION:

Curriculum is a focus of study, consisting of various courses all designed to reach a particular proficiency
or qualification. A curriculum can consist of more than one course. Curriculum refers to the training
assigned to a student. Curriculum is a focus of study, consisting of various courses all designed to reach a
particular proficiency or qualification.

Those who consider the term as broad as experience it have defined as followings.

According to J.F.Kerr. (196S).

“All the learning which is planned and guided by the school. Weather it is carried on in groups or
individually, inside or outside the school”.

According to Stenhouse (1975) elaborates on his definition, by saying:

“A curriculum is the means by which the experience of attempting to put an educational proposal
into practice is made publicity available. It involves both content and method and in its widest
application takes account of the problem of implementation in the institutions of the educational
system”.

According to H.Rugg (1930).

“…the curriculum… is really the entire program of the school’s work. It is the essential means of
education. It is everything that you and your teachers do. Thus it is twofold in nature, being made
up of the activities the things done, and of the materials with which they are done”.

M.Johnson(1967)
“… Curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes. Curriculum prescribes (or at
least anticipates) the results of instruction. It does not prescribe the means i.e. the activities,
materials or even the instructional content, to be used in achieving the results. The central thesis
of the present paper is that curriculum has reference to what it is intended that you learn not what
it is intended that they do”.

CURRICULUM PLANNING

DEFFINITION :

What does curriculum planning involve?

Curriculum planning is a complex activity involving the interplay of ideas from the curriculum field and
other related disciplines. However, the ultimate purpose of curriculum planning is to describe the learning
opportunities available to students.
 2

Thus curriculum planning is ultimately concerned with the experiences of learners.

In any teaching/learning situation, however, the concern is not only with what students ought to learn, but
also with how they are going to learn it. Curriculum plans that define concepts or ideas without
considering action are incomplete since learning must eventually involve the application of what has been
learned. In the same way, plans that merely describe action without considering purposes are also
incomplete since otherwise, learning activity runs the risk of being aimless. This relationship of content
and process accentuates the need to consider curriculum and instruction not as distinct entities, but rather
as interdependent concepts in the planning process.

Therefore curriculum planning involves decisions about both content and process.
Further, within the areas of curriculum and instruction, there are many specific issues and topics that may
be subject to curriculum planning. Such areas might include identifying curriculum approaches that might
be used, carrying out a program, evaluating it or deciding about the need for new programs etc.

Besides, it concerns itself with various teaching/learning situations. It should be noted that curriculum
planning typically involves decisions about some combinations of areas and issues since it is difficult to
consider any one of these in isolation.

Therefore curriculum planning involves decisions about a variety of issues/topics.

Popular thinking in the early 1900’s was that curriculum planning was the prerogative of a few scholars
and the teacher’s role was to implement what has been planned. Due to of advances in thinking, it is now
considered that curriculum planning is not the sole responsibility or privilege of any one group. It is, in
essence, a product of team-work

Curriculum planning thus involves many groups of people and levels of operation and is a
continuous process
Now, if we put together what is presented in the above boxes, we shall arrive at a working definition of
the term ‘curriculum planning’. We can define the term ‘curriculum planning’ as a continuous process in
which participants contribute at various levels towards making decisions about:
● The purposes of learning
● How that purpose might be carried out through teaching – learning situations whether the purpose
identified and the means selected are both appropriate and effective.
Now, let us quickly touch upon a few other terms associated with curriculum planning. The terms
‘curriculum planning’ and ‘curriculum development’ are often used interchangeably. Some, however,
believe that they represent two different stages of an educational activity. According to this new,
curriculum planning is a blanket concept that may describe activity ranging from the identification of
broad goals to the description of experiences for specific teaching/learning situations. Curriculum
development is an activity concerned mainly with the design of actual teaching/learning situations. Based
upon the broad goals, at the development stage ‘we identify ways to translate those goals into a
coordinate’ and coherent program of learning experiences. Yet another term which we should familiarize
ourselves with is ‘instruction’. It is developed from broad goals and curriculum plans and focuses on
methodological questions such as teaching techniques and the implementation of activities, resources and
measuring devices used in specific teaching/ learning, situations. (We shall talk about this theme at length
in Block 3). Thus, curriculum planning is a generic concept that includes both curriculum development
and instructional design, and instructional design denotes a highly specific activity focused on methods of
teaching and learning.
 3

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Psychological Foundation
Psychology is a unifying element of the learning process. It forms the basis for the methods, materials
and activities for learning and subsequently serve as basis for many curriculum decisions.

Major Theories of Learning

Behaviorism Cognitive development Phenomenology

1. Edward Thorndike 1. Jean Piaget 1. Abraham Maslow

2. Ivan Pavlov 2. John Dewey 2. Carl Rogers
3. Burrhus Frederic 3. Jerome Bruner 3. Lois Raths
Skinner

Behaviorism and Curriculum

 Curriculum should be organized so students experienced success in mastering the subject matter.
 Highly prescriptive and diagnostic in approach
 Rely on step-by-step procedure, structured methods of learning
 For students who have difficulty learning, curriculum and instruction can be broken down into
small units with appropriate sequencing of task and reinforcement of desired behavior.

Cognition and Curriculum

 The cognitive approach constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.
 The approach is rooted in the tradition of subject matter.
 Educators have been trained in cognitive approaches and they have better understanding of them.

Phenomenology and Curriculum

 Phenomenologist view the individual in relation to the field of which he or she operates.
 Different things to different people.
 Phenomenologist attempt to rescue learning theory from the narrow the rigid behaviorist and
from overstress on cognitive process,
 The raw data of personal experiences are vital to understanding learning.
 4

Philosophical Foundation
Philosophy is an important foundation of curriculum because philosophy advocated or reflected by a
particular school and its officials influences its goal or aims and content as well as the organization of its
curriculum.

Differing View of Education

Traditional Progressive
5
 6

C. Socio-Cultural
Curriculum discussion should consider the social setting especially the relationship between the
schools and society and its influence on curriculum decision. Social astuteness is essential for
curriculum planners and developers today .Curriculum decisions takes place in a complex social
setting through demands that are imposed by society and that filter down to schools.

Influence of Society and Culture

a. Inhibit change through traditions

b. Rate and direction of change
c. Correspond to societal changes
d. Apply pressure through societal demands

Societal Changes

a. Science and technology

b. Improved communication
c. Change family roles
d. Population explosions
e. Social mobility
f. Value crisis
g. Subject matter related to events
h. Facilities/ materials product of technology
i. Active participation of stakeholders
j. Accountability

D. Historical Foundations

The Historical Foundations of curriculum reflects the educational focus prevalent during a particular period or event
in Philippine history. This focus could be made or model for curriculum development of recent years.

CURRICULUM PROCESS
A. Curriculum Planning

1. Determinants for Curriculum Planning

a) Learners- the consumer of education
b) Society- any society to progress economically must progress educationally
c) Knowledge-set up an environment which will challenge all students to master knowledge

2. Needs Assessment
Needs assessment is completed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the existing
curriculum situations and to provide directions for their improvement. It is systematic exploration
of the way things are and the way they should be.
 7

3. Formulating Goals
Goals are statement of endpoints or outcomes of education- statement of purposes by analyzing
school goals, we can determine the scope its entire educational program.
a) Learners- The purpose, interest, developmental needs and characteristics of the learners
should guide the choice of appropriate goals.
b) Society- The values and behaviors defined as desirable by a given society help shape goals of
education in that society.
c) Fund of Knowledge- human knowledge that has been accumulated and organized for
universal use and should be taken into account in shaping goals.

Levels of Goals
a) Institutional Goals
b) School Level or department Goals
c) Program or curricular goals
d) Classroom or Institutional level

A. Curriculum Designing (Curriculum Organization)

Curriculum design is concerned with the nature and arrangement of the four basic curricular parts.
(Also called components or elements)

The components of Design

Objectives

Subject Matter Method and

Organization

Evaluation

1. Sources of Design
a) Science- The scientific method provides meaning for the curriculum design
b) Society- School should draw its ideas for the curriculum from the analysis of the social
situation.
c) Eternal and Divine Sources- designers should simply draw on the past for guidance as to
what is appropriate content.
d) Knowledge- “What knowledge is of most worth?”
e) Learner- Curriculum should be derived from what we know about the learners, how he or
she learns, from attitudes generates interests develop values.
 8

2. Dimension of Curriculum Design (BASIC)

Basic- equitable distribution of content, time, experience and other elements of design
Articulation- Interrelatedness of various aspect of the curriculum (Vertical and Horizontal)

Scope- the breaths and depths of the curriculum

Integration- refers to the liking of all types of knowledge and experiences contained within the
curriculum plan.

Continuity- vertical repletion and requiring the content

Sequence-provide continuous and cumulative learning

Principle of Sequence
a) Simple to complex
b) Prerequisite learning
c) Whole to part
d) Chronological

3. Selection of the Curricular Elements

1) Selection of Objectives
 Should descriptive behavior
 Stated analytically and specifically
 Developmental rather than terminal
 SMART
 Consider the three objective domains

2) Selection of Content
 Criteria for selecting content
i. Validity- if it is authentic
ii. Significance/relevance- consistent with social realities, pursues needs of the
time.
iii. Balance of breadths and depths- coverage
iv. Learnability- adjustable to learners’ ability
v. Utility-useful on the performance of life activities
vi. Appropriateness- parallel with learner needs and interest

3) Selection of Learning Experiences

 Criteria for selecting experiences
a.) Appropriateness- should be appropriate and suitable to the content, activities and
level of development of the learners.
b.) Variety- should include minds on, hands on, and authentic learning experiences.
c.) Optimal value- should encourage the learners to continue learning on their own.
d.) Feasibility- in terms of human, physical and financial resources
 9

4) Grade Placement
 Involves allocation of content to definite time for subject/course; amount of time given to
subject.
 Considers such factors as; child’s ability, difficulty of item importance of content, maturation,
mental age, experiential background.

5) Time allotment
 Refers to specification of definite time for subject/course; amount of time given to a subject.
 Considers such factors as; importance of subject; child’s ability; grade level average number
of days/hours.

Curriculum Implementation

Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the program and those who are charged
to deliver it. According to Omstein and Hunkins (1998), implementation:
 Requires educators to shift from the current program which they are familiar with to the new
or modified program
 Involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people
 Can be seen as a process of professional development and growth involving ongoing
interactions, feedback and assistance.
 Is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come to understand and practice
a change in attitudes and behaviors; often involving using new resources
 Involves change which requires effort and will produce certain amount of anxiety and to
minimize these, it is useful to organize implementation into manageable events and to set
achievable goals
 Requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open communication between
administrators, teachers, educators and where risk-taking is encouraged.

A. Curriculum Evaluation
 The process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging decision
alternatives
 Involves value judgment about the curriculum
 “Did we do what we wanted to do?”

Type of Evaluation
1. According to approach
Humanistic vs. Scientific
2. According to scope
Evaluation of learning vs. Program Evaluation
3. According to timing
Formative vs. Summative

Why Evaluate
 10

1) Meet demands that current educational reforms have made

2) Provide direction, security, and feedbacks to all concerns
3) Determine appropriate and available resources, activities, content, method or whether
curriculum has coherence, balance, articulation, scope, integration, continuity and sequence
in order to meet curriculum goals/objectives
What areas in curriculum are quantified for evaluation?
1) Mission statement (philosophy)
2) Sequence (order)
3) Continuity (without disruptors)
4) Scope (depth/variety of content)
5) Articulation (how parts fit)
6) Balance (quantitative and qualitative aspects of content)
7) Coherence ( relationships among different components)

B. Curriculum Improvement

- Enriching, modifying certain aspects without changing fundamental

conceptions/ elements/ structure.
Levels of Operation for Improvement
1) Substitution- substituting a new book for the current series
2) Alternation- adding to instructional time
3) Variations- transferring a successful programme
4) Restructing- organizing teams for teacher and specialist
5) Value orientation change- shifting from routine instruction to
computer assisted instruction
Action that facilitate Curriculum Improvement
1) Change climate and working conditions to encourage
improvement
2) Maintain appropriate tempo
3) Change for variety of activities
4) Build evaluation procedure

C. Curriculum Change
 Refers to the basic alteration in the structure and design of learning experiences based on
conceptions which may be at the school, district or national level.
 To make different by shifting to new goals and means

Principles that guide change process

1) People improve when they detect the desire of the stimulator to improve himself
2) Direction of improvement should be determine cooperatively
3) People must identify and examine each other’s centrally held values
4) People improve through experience
5) Divide time between contact individual and with go group.
 11

6) People’s resistance to efforts of others constitutes major individual differences

7) Create a climate of freedom
8) Keep channels of communication offer
9) Use power with great care
10) Operate on a limited number of fronts at a given time.
 12

NEEDS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING

 Curriculum development is a purposeful activity.

 It is undertaken to design or redesign for the realization of certain specific educational objectives.
 The curriculum is the heart of the student’s college/school experience.
 The curriculum should be reviewed and revised on a regular basis so that it is able to serve the
changing needs of both students and society.
 Following points iterates the needs and importance of curriculum development.

1. Clear purpose and goals:- Curriculum construction provide written curricular goals which are
nothing but intended student development outcomes. These goals and objectives are specified in
considerable detail and in behavioral language.
2. Continuous assessment and improvement of quality:- Valid and reliable assessment of
curriculum is necessary. The curriculum followed by an institution should be reviewed regularly
in order to maintain it’s effectiveness in regards to changing needs of the society as a whole.
3. A rational sequence:- In a curriculum educational activities are carefully ordered in
developmental sequence. This developmental sequence helps to form a well-planned (or
coherent)curriculum based on intended goals and outcomes of the curriculum and its constituent
courses.
4. Making strategy in teaching and learning:- Curriculum development helps in suggesting
suitable teaching-learning strategies, teaching methods, instructional materials etc. It helps in
providing for the proper implementation of the curriculum on the part of teachers and learners.
5. Helps in the selection of learning experiences:- Curriculum development is needed for
appropriate selection and organization of learning experiences. It helps in the selection of study
matter and other activities so that learners are able to acquire goals and objectives of teaching.
6. The process of curriculum development is needed for conceptualizing a curriculum in terms of
the determination of educational objectives for teaching-learning at a particular grade of school
education.
7. Helps in continuous and comprehensive education:-

Curriculum development considers the need of providing a scheme of education for CCE of the teaching-
learning outcomes. With proper feedback, it helps to bring necessary improvement in the teaching-
learning process and environment.
 13

NEEDS OF SETTING GOALS, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Writing curriculum can be confusing. So what are the basic differences between these components
referred to as aims, goals and objectives? A.G.O. is not only an easy acronym, it is an easy way to
remember the correct progression from larger ideas to smaller instructional components. In everyday
English we tend to use these terms interchangeably. Within the educational lexicon of curriculum
development, for the past 3 decades scores of curriculum scholars, planners and administrators have been
trying to standardize terms so that they refer to very specific curricular components. The following
definitions are broadly accepted by groups trying to standardize curricular terms so that they are not
confusing to readers and users.

Aims
Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational action. Aims are usually
written in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know, understand, appreciate, and these are not
directly measurable. Aims may serve as organizing principles of educational direction for more than one
grade. Indeed these organizing principles may encompass the continuum of educational direction for
entire programs, subject areas or the district.

Example;

These are intended to be a bit extreme, but perhaps you will get the points.

Students will understand and become proficient at identifying the different types of spoken English.

Goals
Goals are statements of educational intention which are more specific than aims. Goals too may
encompass an entire program, subject area, or multiple grade levels. They may be in either amorphous
language or in more specific behavioral terms.

Examples;

Students will be able to identify and use American slang terms and phrases.(This example is a subset of
the aim above, but the area becomes more specific. This goal moves from generic spoken English to the
more detailed area of American slang. One verb used is still “identify,” although this goal does not
specify how students are to identify, and the verb “use” has been added. The objectives related to this goal
should specify how the students will identify and use new knowledge.)

Objectives
Objectives are usually specific statements of educational intention which delineate either general or
specific outcomes. There are advantages and disadvantages to different types of objectives.

· Behavioral objectives
· Holistic objectives
· Non-behavioral objectives
· Problem solving objectives
· Expressive activities that lead to expressive outcomes.
 14

All of the above are legitimate ways to write curriculum and lesson plans. However, currently, most
objectives are written in behavioral terms. Behavioral objectives usually employ observable verbiage and
can be divided into specific domains — cognitive (head), affective (heart), and physical (hand)

*Note: The examples to the right are meant to be a bit silly intentionally as to help my students remember
them. Of course I would not do this in a classroom, although I am sure students would think it
rather fun!

Objectives can be written in a number of ways. Currently, most objectives are written in behavioral terms.
Behavioral objectives usually employ observable verbiage and can be divided into specific domains —
cognitive (head), affective (heart), and physical (hand).

Samples:

· Cognitive: Students will identify and list 5 slang terms they have heard from their peers.

· Affective: Student will choose 3 of the most offensive slang terms from a list developed by the entire
class.

· Physical: Students will create expressive gestures to go with their favorite slang terms.