READING THE IMAGE

Alice G. Guillermo

III.

We begin with the basic premise that there are two interrelated aspects in the study of art. The first is
that art has its specificity: that is, its particular language or vocabulary that has to do with the mediums,
techniques, and visual elements of art that constitute it as a distinct area of human knowledge and
signifying practice. This is not just what is commonly called the formal aspect of art, but it is what
constitutes art as a particular human activity different from the others. The other aspect is that art, while
it has its specificity, is at the same time historically situated and shaped by social, economic, and political
forces. Both these aspects need to be taken into account so as to be able to fully understand and
appreciate art. For a study of the formal elements alone will not lead to a full understanding of the work,
in the same way that the exclusive study of the social determinants risks collapsing the artistic into the
sociological. A visual work as an iconic or pictorial sign has a unique and highly nuanced meaning, and
this uniqueness and semantic richness arises from the original use of the elements and resources of art.
Needless to say, the meaning, signification, or system of significations of a work is not statemental, nor is
the understanding of a work a reductive process which reduces meaning to a summary, statement, or
single insight. Meaning in art is a complex of intellectual, emotional, and sensory significations which the
work conveys and to which the viewer responds, bringing in the breadth of his or her cultural
background, artistic exposure and training, and human experience in a dialogic relationship with the art
work. One may speak of a work's "horizon of meaning" (Eagleton) which implies a range of possible
significations that a work may accomodate, at the same time that it suggests semantic parameters.

The analytic study of how the various elements and material features of the work produce meaning
should lead to a more stable and consensual field of meaning, away from erratic, whimsical, purely
subjective and impressionistic readings.

Having taken note of the information provided by the basic documentation of the work, we then
proceed to four planes of analysis: the basic semiotic, the iconic, the contextual, and the axiological or
evaluative planes.

A. THE BASIC SEMIOTIC PLANE

Semiotics is the study of "signs"--here the work of art is the iconic or pictorial sign. A sign consists of a
"signifier" or its material/physical aspect and its "signified" or non-material aspect as concept and value.
Related to these is the "referent" or object as it exists in the real world. A visual work. A visual work,
whether it be a two-dimensional pictorial space or a three-dimensional body, is an embodiment of signs
in which all physical or material marks and traces, elements, figures, notations are signifiers which bear a
semantic or meaning-conveying potential and which in relation to each other convey concepts and
values which are their signifieds. Their semantic potential is realized in the analysis or reading of the
integral work.

The basic semiotic plane covers the elements and the general technical and physical aspects of the work
with their semantic (meaning-conveying potential). It includes:

1. The visual elements and how they are used: line value, color, texture, shape, composition in space,
movement. Each element has a meaning-conveying potential which is realized, confirmed, and verified in
relation to the other elements which form the text of the work. While the elements usually reinforce one
another, there can also exist contrasting or contradictory relationships which may be part of the meaning
of a work. The elements and all material features are thus to be viewed in a highly relational manner and
not isolated or compartmentalized.

2. The choice of medium and technique. In contemporary art, medium enters more and more into the
meaning of the work. While the European academies or salons of the nineteenth century decreed the
choice of medium, today the artist exercises free choice in this respect, a choice determined less by its
availability as by its semantic potential. For instance, handmade paper with its organic allure,
irregularities of texture, and uneven edges is favored by a number of artists because it bears
significations conveying the uniquely personal, human, and intimate, in contrast to mass-produced
standard paper. Technique, of course, goes hand in hand with the nature of the medium. Likewise, there
are techniques which valorize the values of spontaneity and play of chance and accident, while there are
those whch emphasize order and control.

3. The format of the work. The very format of the work participates in its meaning. Again, in
contemporary art, format is no longer purely conventional but becomes laden with meaning. For
instance, the choice of a square canvas is no longer arbitrary but enters into the meaning of the work as
a symbolic element, the square signifying mathematical order and precision.
4. Other physical properties and marks of the work. Notations, traces, textural features, marks, whether
random or intentional, are part of the significations of the work.

The elements of the visual arts derive their semantic or meaning-conveying potential from two large
sources: a) human psychophysical experiences (psychological and physical/sensory) which are commonly
shared; and b) the socio-cultural conventions of a particular society and period (Matejka and Titunik
1976). As human beings, our sensory and physical experiences in general are intimately fused with our
psychological conditions and processes. Among our basic psychophysical experiences are those of day
and night, of warmth and cold, of weight or gravity, relative distance, pleasure and pain, with the
complex intellectual and emotional associations that go with these. Because of these humanly shared
experiences, it is possible to arrive at a general agreement of what these elements and their usage
convey in a work of art.

The semantic potential of line, for instance, does not merely lie in its orientation as horizontal, vertical,
diagonal, curvilinear, but also in its very quality, its thickness or thinness, density and porosity, regularity
or irregularity, its production by even or uneven pressure on a surface, as well as qualities determined by
the instruments producing it. A line made by a technical pen signifies a set of concepts and values
different from that made by a stick of charcoal. Likewise, the different orientations of line derive their
meaning from the positions of the body. At rest, one is horizontal, in readiness, vertical, and in action,
diagonal. In dance, one creates curved lines in space with one's body and limbs.

Our sense of tonal values from light through shades of gray to dark comes from our experience of the
cycle of night and day, from early dawn through the gradual series of light changes in the course of the
day until evening to darkest night. These changes in the light and dark of our environment have always
affected us psychologically; in general, dawn ushers in bright optimism, while night creates a sense of
mystery, melancholy, and respite. In our perception of color around us, warm hues that seem to advance
are associated with human warmth, congeniality, openness and spontaneity, while cool hues which seem
to recede are associated with remoteness, self-containment, quietness, and restraint. Shapes are also
linked to our physical experiences; geometric shapes, whether two- or three-dimensional are
measurable and circumscribed; organic shapes are drawn from natural living and growing forms, while
free shapes project, expand, and contract in all directions. Texture is associated with experiences of
pleasure and pain, pleasantness and unpleasantness, in tactile sensations of hard and soft, smooth and
rough, silky and gritty. Movement in the visual art, whether implied or actual, parallels human
experiences of movement within our own bodies or in relation to things around us. Rhythm is part of the
body's processes as an organic whole. Our sense of composition is affected by gravity and the relative
weights of things, as well as our physical experience of bodies massing, crowding or in isolation and
apartness; it is also determined by our sense of the relationship between figures or objects, as well as
between figures or objects and their intervals or intervening spaces within a given field.
Just as important, the meaning-conveying potential of the elements also comes from their socio-cultural
context with its conventions and traditions. As to social conventions, these have to do with symbolic
systems commonly understood by members of a society or group. These systems include those of color,
for instance, where apart from the signfications drawn from the basic psychophysical associations, they
acquire socially derived meanings. For the various hues possess differential semantic inflections in
different societies. A common example is black which is the color of mourning in western or western-
influenced societies, while it is white in many Asian societies. Likewise, groups and societies have their
own chromatic codes which have to do with the range of hues with their tones and saturations that
operate in their art and with prevalent or favored color combinations. For instance, the chromatic code
used by artists in urban areas is determined by the standard sets of colors industrially produced in the
west. On the other hand, the chromatic codes of the cultural communities are determined by their lore
of local dyes derived from available plants and minerals. Each cultural community has its own particular
chromatic code because it has its own lore of dyes, although there may be general similarities between a
number of communities. By bringing out the distinctiveness of each, one does not lump indigenous
qualities into one homogenous category. Conventions may also include formats, as in the Chinese
horizontal or vertical hanging scroll. The different writing conventions in different societies may influence
composition in space. Also important are cultural conventions in the use of space which is linked with
world views. There is, for instance, the dialogue between figure and space in the arts of China and Japan,
on one hand, and the phenomenon of horror vacui in the arts of India and Southeast Asia, on the other.
In abstract art, it is the basic semiotic plane which alone operates, but in figurative art, one proceeds to
two other planes.

According to de Saussure again, meaning is produced from the interplay of the signifiers of the work.
Following this, a number of observations arise. The first is that artistic analysis takes into account not
only the elements but also other material aspects, such as dimension, format, medium, frame, and
techniques, as signifiers or conveyors of meaning. The second is that there is developed a finer and more
sensitive perception of the elements as they are specifically and materially found in a particular work.
Line, for instance, is not just seen in its vertical, horizontal, or diagonal orientation, but is examined in its
particular properties of density, porosity, relative sharpness, etc. Third, the elements are not studied in a
sequential and compartmentalized manner but in a highly relational and interactive way in which the use
of line, color, texture, composition in space confirm or verify meanings or create semantic relationships
of similarity or contrast. And fourth, the signifiers go hand in hand with their signifieds, and thus one
does not limit oneself to a description of the elements in the way they are used but links their
particularities of usage with their primary significations, as well as with their intellectual and emotional
associations within the society. In the images of art and the media, the use of the elements affects us
subliminally or unconsciously and, especially in the media are part of what have been called the "hidden
persuaders" that influence choice and behavior. However, it is through art criticism that we become
highly conscious of the means and their effects and what they signify. It is also in semiotic analysis that
we work within the specific language of art. In contrast, the classical approach often overlooks the basic
language of art and bears heavily on the image, its iconography and descriptive details, as well as its
iconology and its narratives.

B. THE ICONIC PLANE OR THE IMAGE ITSELF

This is still part of the semiotic approach since it is still based on the signifier-signified relationship. But
here it is not that material elements of the work that are dealt with as in the basic semiotic plane, but
this has to do with the particular features, aspects, and qualities of the image which are the signifiers.
The image is regarded as an "iconic sign" which means, beyond its narrow associations with religious
images in the Byzantine style, that it is a unique sign with a unique, particular and highly nuanced
meaning, as different from a conventional sign such as a traffic or street sign which has a single literal
meaning.

The iconic plane includes the choice of the subject which may bear social and political implications. An
example in art history is the French realist artist Gustave Courbet's choice of workers and ordinary
people in his paintings, instead of the Olympian gods and goddesses or heroes from Greek and Roman
antiquity that were the staple of classical and academic art up to the nineteenth century. We can ask the
question: Is the subject meaningful in terms of the socio-cultural context, does it reflect or have a
bearing on the values and ideologies arising in a particular place and time?

One proceeds to consider the presentation of the image and its relationship to the viewer. If the subject
is a human figure, does it address the viewer directly; is it self-contained or self-absorbed? What kind of
subject-viewer relationship is implied by the subject through his facial expression, body language,
costume and accessories, natural or social background? Is it a relationship of peers or one of dominance
and subordination? Is it a friendly, ironic, aggressive, or hostile relationship, and all possible nuances
thereof? Most examples of Philippine genre, for instance, are based on the concept of the stage or
tableau which is oriented towards a large public audience which it is aware of and directly addresses—a
mark of the social cohesiveness of rural peasant society as well as the extended Filipino family system in
which all members of society have their kinship appellations. John Berger in his Ways of Seeing has an
engrossing study of paintings with the female nude as subject, many of which he demonstrates as
stemming from sexist attitudes reifying (reducing to object status) or commodifying women with respect
to the implied male viewer.

Also part of the iconic plane is the positioning of the figure or figures, whether frontal, in profile, three-
fourths, etc. and the significations that arise from these different presentations. Does the painting show
strong central focusing with the principal figure occupying the center space or is it decentered and the
painting asymmetrical in composition? How do these presentations contribute to different meanings?
Does the subject or subjects have a formal or a casual air? How does one describe the central figure's
stance: poised, relaxed, indifferent, provocative, or aloof? How much importance is given to
psychological insight into character? to costume and accessories? to the setting, natural, social or
domestic? What is the relative scaling of the figures from large to small? What bearing does this have to
the meaning of the work? Luna's Tampuhan brings to the fore the artist's sensitivity to body language.
How do the postures of the man and the woman convey their emotional attitudes?

In portraits, where is the gaze of the subject directed? This is important not only in defining the
relationship of subject and viewer but also in describing pictorial space. Degas' painting Woman with
Chrysanthemums shows a middle-aged woman beside a large vase of flowers. More importantly, her
intense and scheming look projects an imaginary line to a figure or figures that are the objects of her
gaze outside the pictorial field of the painting into an implied open and expanded space. This work
deconstructs the classical conventions of portraiture.

Is there cropping of the figure or figures? What is the significance of the kind of cropping used? Some
kinds of cropping are intended to create a random, arbitrary effect as against the deliberate and
controlled. Other kinds isolate a segment of the subject, such as the hand or the feet, in order to draw
attention to its physical qualities--when a part stands for the whole, a peasant's bare feet can tell us
about an entire life of labor and exploitation. Some artists use cropping as a device to imply the
extension of the figure into the viewer's space.

Here one also takes into account the relationship of the figures to one another, whether massed,
isolated, or juxtaposed in terms of affinity or constrast. A painting may expand or multiply its space by
having not just one integral image but several sets of images in montage form, from the same or
different times and places. These may occur in temporal sequence to constitute a narrative or may take
the form of simultaneous facets or aspects of reality. Serial images which show an image multiplied
many times, as in Andy Warhol's Marilyn Monroe or Campbell Soup Cans, convey significations arising
from the blatant consumerism of the advanced capitalist societies of the First World.

The style of figuration is an important part of the iconic plane. The figurative style is not mere caprice,
passing fashion, or the artist's personal ecriture; beyond these, it implies a particular re-presentation or
interpretation of the world, a world view, if not ideology. Classical figuration basically follows the
proportion of 7 1/2 to 8 heads to the entire figure in its pursuit of ideal form, as in a formal studio
portrait with the subject enhanced by make-up, all imperfections concealed. Realist figuration is based
on the keen observation of people, nature, and society in the concern for truth of representation, thus
creating true portraits of individuals or exposing the poverty and squalor that arise from social
inequities. Impressionist figuration is fluid and informal, often catching the subject unawares like a
candid camera. Expressionist figuration follows emotional impulses and drives, thus often involving
distortion that comes from strong emotion. However, the viewer should not be too anxious to find
precise stylistic labels, for contemporary art has seen the development of highly original styles that have
gone far beyod the School of Paris. It is important to be sensitive to the meaning-conveying potential of
highly individual styles. In the basic semiotic plane which deals with the material aspect of the work and
in the iconic plane which deals with the features of the image itself, one can see that as the signifier
cannot be separated from the signified, concrete fact or material data cannot be divorced from value; in
other words, fact is value-laden and value or ideological meaning is derived from material fact.

C. THE CONTEXTUAL PLANE

Here one proceeds from the basic semiotic and iconic planes and the knowledge and insights one has
gained from these into the social and historical context of the work of art. Resituating the work in its
context will bring out the full meaning of the work in terms of its human and social implications. The
viewer draws out the dialogic relationship of art and society. Art sources its energy and vitality from its
social context and returns to it as a cognitive force and catalyst for change. If one does not view the work
in relation to its context, but chooses to confine analysis to the internal structure of the work, one
truncates its meaning by refusing to follow the trajectories of the work into the larger reality that
surrounds it. One prevents the work from reverberating in the real world.

As has been said earlier, the meaning of a work is a complex that involves concepts, values, emotions,
attitudes, atmospheres, sensory experiences that arise from the three planes. The experience of a work
cannot be reduced or paraphrased to a statement, such as a moral lesson or message, but is a total
experience involving the faculties of the whole person--not just his eyes or his senses, but his mind and
emotions as well. The work of art has its horizon of meaning which is narrower or larger depending on
the degree of cultural literacy, cultural breadth, art exposure and training, and intellectual and emotional
maturity of the viewer. Art involves cognition or learning; it is an important way of learning about
people, life, and society. Does the work expand our knowledge of reality as a whole? Is its experience
liberative artistically, psychologically, humanly, or socially?

A broad knowledge of history and the economic, political and cultural conditions, past and present, of a
society is called upon in the contextual plane. With this comes a knowledge of national and world art
and literatures, mythologies, philosophies, and different cultures and world views. The work of art may
contain references and allusions, direct or indirect, to historical figures and events, as well as to religious,
literary, and philosophical ideas and values which are part of the meaning of the work.

The different symbolic systems which are culture-bound also come into play. Although we have been
strongly influenced by western symbolic systems, we have to move towards a greater awareness of our
many indigenous and Asian/Southeast Asian, Malay animist and Islamic symbolic systems which must be
given even greater value for they are part of our social context. These systems may have to do with color,
shape, design, as well as cultural symbols associated with the belief systems of the different ethnic
groups. Figures may also bear rich and distinct intellectual and emotional associations built around them
in the course of the history of a group.

The contextual plane likewise situates the work in the personal and social circumstances of its
production. The work may contain allusions to personal or public events, conditions, stages, as well as
influences, such as persons and literary texts, that have been particularly meaningful to the artist.
Themes and sub-themes may be derived from biographical experiences significant to the artist and
particular biographical data may play an important part in understanding the work and its view of reality.

The work is firmly situated in a particular society and time, "in its social and historical coordinates"
(Wolff 1983). The work is viewed or studied in relation to its epoch, to the prevailing world views,
ideologies, issues, concern, trends, and events of the day. It situates the artist with respect to the
debates of his time. The work may have allusions or references to the personalities and events of a
particular period, and convey attitudes of espousal, approval, indifference, or rejection with respect to
these. For the work of art conveys values, artistic, religious, social or political. Art then is not value-free.
All art contains values of one kind or another. Abstract art, likewise, may express world views and values,
as Mondrian's abstraction conveyed his neo-platonism, as he considered his paintings symbolic of the
underlying harmony and order in the universe. On the contrary, Pollock's gestural abstraction valorizes
spontaneity and the release of kinetic energy and non-rational impulses. Values such as spontaneity as
against discipline and order, mystery and elusiveness as against clear definition, informality as against
the formal, transitoriness as against permanence--these may be found in abstract art, at the same time
that these can be viewed in the light of the events and intellectual trends of the time.

Finally, a single work of art is often more completely understood when it is viewed in the context of the
artist's entire body of work, when it is juxtaposed and compared on the semiotic, iconic, and contextual
planes with works of the artist in the same period, in different periods of his/her career, and then with
the work of contemporaries. This is because the meaning of one work may become part of a larger body
or work or of an integral artistic vision. In comparative intertextuality, the work of art reveals its
numerous ramifications of meaning.