Intelligent Systems

Zendi Iklima
[email protected]
 Rules & Contract
More than 15 minutes the door of
the classroom will be LOCKED

Quiz & Exercises 30%

Midterm Exam 30%
Final Exam 30%
 What is
“Intelligence”?
• "Intelligence denotes the ability of an individual to adapt
his thinking to new demands; it is the common mental
adaptability to new tasks and conditions of life" (William
Stern, 1912)

• Being "intelligent" means to be able to cognitively grasp

phenomena, being able to judge, to trade of between
different possibilities, or to be able to learn.

• An important aspect of "Intelligence" is the way and

efficiency how humans are able to adapt to their
environment or assimilate their environment for solving
problems.
• Intelligence manifests itself in logical thinking, computations,
the memory capabilities of the brain, through the application
of words and language rules or through the recognition of
things and events.

• The combination of information, creativity, and new problem

solutions is crucial for acting "intelligent".

• Machine intelligence has a computer follow problem solving

processes something like that in humans.

• Intelligent systems display machine-level intelligence,

reasoning, often learning, not necessarily self-adapting.
Testing “Intelligence” with
the Turing Test

Turing test is a proposal to

test a machine’s ability to
demonstrate “intelligence”
Turing test proceeds as follows:
• A human judge C engages in a natural
language conversation with one human B
and one machine A, each of which tries to
appear human.
• All participants are placed in isolated
locations.
• If the judge C cannot reliably tell the
machine A from the human B, the machine
is said to have passed the test.
• In order to test the machine's intelligence
rather than its ability to render words into
audio, the conversation is limited to a text-
only channel such as a computer keyboard
or screen.
Chinese Room
The “Chinese room” experiment developed by John
Searle in 1980 attempts to show that a symbol-
processing machine like a computer can never be
properly described as having a ”mind” or
“understanding”, regardless of how intelligently it may
behave.

With the “Chinese room” John Searle argues that it is

possible to pass the Turing Test, yet not (really) think.
Chinese Room
The “Chinese room” experiment
proceeds as follows:
• Searle, a human, who does not knows
Chinese, is locked in a room with an
enormous batch of Chinese script.
• Slips of paper with still more Chinese
script come through a slot in the wall.
• Searle has been given a set of rules in
English for correlating the Chinese
script coming through with the
batches of script already in the room.
Chinese Room
The “Chinese room” experiment
proceeds as follows:
• The scripts going in are called ‘the
questions’, the scripts coming out are
‘the answers’, and the rules that Searle
follows is ‘the program’.
• Suppose also that the set of rules, the
program is so good and Searle gets so
good at following it that Searle’s
answers are indistinguishable from
those of a native Chinese speaker.
Chinese Room
The result:
• It seems clear that Searle nevertheless
does not understand the questions or the
answers
• But Searle is behaving just a computer
does, “performing computational
operations on formally specified
elements”
Hence, manipulating formal symbols, which is
just what a computer running a program
does, is not sufficient for understanding or
thinking
 What is
“Artificial Intelligence”?
• Making computers that think?

• The automation of activities we associate with

human thinking, like decision making, learning ... ?

• The art of creating machines that perform functions

that require intelligence when performed by people ?

• The study of mental faculties through the use of

computational models ?
• The study of computations that make it possible to perceive,
reason and act ?

• A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate intelligent

behaviour in terms of computational processes ?

• A branch of computer science that is concerned with the

automation of intelligent behaviour ?

• Anything in computing science that we don't yet know how

to do properly ? (!)
Many definitions exist, among them:
• “The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive, reason,
and act” (Winston, 1992)
• “A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate [human] intelligent
behaviour in terms of computational processes” (Schalkoff, 1990)

It is an interdisciplinary field that is based on results from philosophy,

psychology, linguistics, or brain sciences

Difference to “traditional” computer science: Emphasis on cognition,

reasoning, and acting

Generative theory of intelligence:

• Intelligence emerges from the orchestration of multiple processes
• Process models of intelligent behaviour can be investigated and simulated
on machines
Systems that act like humans: Turing Test
“The art of creating machines that
perform functions that require
intelligence when performed by people.”
(Kurzweil)

“The study of how to make computers do

things at which, at the moment, people
are better.” (Rich and Knight)
 Systems that act like humans: Turing Test
You enter a room which has a computer terminal. You have
a fixed period of time to type what you want into the
terminal, and study the replies. At the other end of the line
is either a human being or a computer system.

If it is a computer system, and at the end of the period you

cannot reliably determine whether it is a system or a
human, then the system is deemed to be intelligent.
 Systems that act like humans: Turing Test

The Turing Test approach

• a human questioner cannot tell if
there is a computer or a human answering his question, via
teletype (remote communication)
• The computer must behave intelligently

Intelligent behavior
• to achieve human-level performance in all cognitive
tasks
 Systems that act like humans: Turing Test
These cognitive tasks include:
• Natural language processing
for communication with human

• Knowledge representation
to store information effectively & efficiently

• Automated reasoning
to retrieve & answer questions using the stored information

• Machine learning
to adapt to new circumstances
 Total Turing Test
Includes two more issues:
• Computer vision
to perceive objects (seeing)

• Robotics
to move objects (acting)
Systems that think like humans: Cognitive Modeling
• Humans as observed from ‘inside’
• How do we know how humans think?
Introspection vs. psychological experiments
• Cognitive Science
• “The exciting new effort to make computers think …
machines with minds in the full and literal sense”
(Haugeland)
• “[The automation of] activities that we associate with
human thinking, activities such as decision-making,
problem solving, learning …” (Bellman)
 Systems that think ‘rationally’ "laws of thought"
• Humans are not always ‘rational’
• Rational - defined in terms of logic?
• Logic can’t express everything (e.g. uncertainty)
• Logical approach is often not feasible in terms of
computation time (needs ‘guidance’)
• “The study of mental facilities through the use of
computational models” (Charniak and McDermott)
• “The study of the computations that make it possible to
perceive, reason, and act” (Winston)
 Systems that act rationally: “Rational agent”
• Rational behavior: doing the right thing
• The right thing : that which is expected to
maximize goal achievement, given the available
information.
• Giving answers to questions is ‘acting’.
• I don't care whether a system:
✓ replicates human thought processes
✓ makes the same decisions as humans
✓ uses purely logical reasoning
 Systems that act rationally
Logic ➔ only part of a rational agent, not all of
rationality
• Sometimes logic cannot reason a correct conclusion
• At that time, some specific (in domain) human knowledge or
information is used

Thus, it covers more generally different situations of

problems
• Compensate the incorrectly reasoned conclusion
 Systems that act rationally

Study AI as rational agent – 2 advantages:

• It is more general than using logic only
Because: LOGIC + Domain knowledge

• It allows extension of the approach with more

scientific methodologies
Artificial ➔ Produced by human art or effort, rather than
originating naturally.

Intelligence ➔ is the ability to acquire knowledge and use it"

[Pigford and Baur]

So AI was defined as:

• AI is the study of ideas that enable computers to be
intelligent.
• AI is the part of computer science concerned with design
of computer systems that exhibit human
intelligence(From the Concise Oxford Dictionary)
Early Developments of AI
Two main aspects begin to manifest in the early
days of AI
• Cognitive modelling, i.e., the simulation of cognitive
processes through information processing models

• The construction of “intelligent systems” that make

certain aspects of human cognition and reasoning
available.
Strong AI vs Weak AI
Strong AI
• “An artificial intelligence system can think and have a mind. “ (John Searle
1986)
• “Machine intelligence with the full range of human intelligence” (Kurzweil
2005)
• AI that matches or exceeds human intelligence.
• Intelligence can be reduced to information processing.
• “Science Fiction AI”

Weak AI
• Intelligence can partially be mapped to computational processes.
• Intelligence is information processing
• Intelligence can be simulated
Strong AI vs Weak AI
Two main aspects begin to manifest in the early
days of AI
• Cognitive modelling, i.e., the simulation of cognitive
processes through information processing models

• The construction of “intelligent systems” that make

certain aspects of human cognition and reasoning
available.
Strong AI vs Weak AI
Two main aspects begin to manifest in the early
days of AI
• Cognitive modelling, i.e., the simulation of cognitive
processes through information processing models

• The construction of “intelligent systems” that make

certain aspects of human cognition and reasoning
available.
Technical Solutions
Simbolyc, Subsymbolic AI
Knowledge-Based System
 Information Processing and symbolic representation

• Research on Information Processing in AI by

• Exact formulisations.
• Exemplary realisation via implementations.

• Core aspect: Representation and processing of symbols as

a foundation of internal processes.
 Symbolic AI
• Symbols are naming objects which provide access to meaning (Newell, 1958)

• “Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience, and written words are
the symbols of spoken words.” (Aristotle) [3]

• Mental abilities of humans can be inspected on a symbolic level independent

of neuronal architectures or processes.

• Subject of Symbolic AI is thus the meaning of processes (or their symbolic

representations respectively).

• Symbolic AI aims to imitate intelligence via formal models.

• Main persons behind symbolic AI are: Simon, Newell, Minsky

 The “(General) Intelligent Agent”
• Core paradigm of symbolic AI is the
“Intelligent Agent” [4]:
• has a memory and the capability to act in his
world based on it.
• has sensors to perceive information from his
environment.
• has actuators to influence the external
world. Image from Padgham/Winikoff
“Developing Intelligent Agents (Wiley 2004)

• has the capability to probe actions. By that

he is able to choose the best possible action.
• has internal memory for methods and the
exploration of the world is guided by
knowledge kept in it.
 Subsymbolic AI
• Subsymbolic AI (SSAI) aims to model intelligence empirically.
• SSAI was inspired by biological systems: A model which imitates neural
nets in the brain is the basis for the creation of artificial intelligence.
• Neural nets consist of a network of
neurons which have weighted connections
with each other.
• Early work by Rosenblatt (1962):
the “Perceptron” [6]
• Advantages of artificial neuronal nets:
• Distributed representation
• Representation and processing of fuzziness
• Highly parallel and distributed action Image: http://www.neuronalesnetz.de

• Speed and fault-tolerance

 KNOWLEDGE-BASED SYSTEMS

Development

1. General Problem Solver

2. Knowledge-is-power hypothesis

3. Knowledge levels
3a. Newell’s 3 levels of knowledge
3b. Brachman’s 5 levels of knowledge

4. Problem Solving Methods

40
 General Problem Solver
• The General Problem Solver (GPS) is a universal problem solving approach.

• GPS is the first approach that makes the distinction between knowledge of
problems domains and how to solve problems

• GPS is domain and task independent approach.

• GPS does not put any restrictions both on the domain knowledge and on the
task.

• Examples of GPS are: automated theorem proving and generic search methods
 Automated theorem proving

Real-world description Diagram by

• Automatic theorem
in natural language. Uwe Keller provers are GPS for which
Mathematical Problems
Program + Specification every problem can be
Formalization expressed as logical
Syntax (formal language).
inference
First-order Logic,
Dynamic Logic, …
Semantics Calculus
(truth function) (derivation / proof) • Automated theorem
Valid Correctness Provable
proving is about proving
Formulae Completeness Formulae of mathematical theorems
Modelling (automated) Deduction by a computer program
 Generic Search Methods
• Generic Search Methods are GPS for which every problem can be
expressed as search
• One particular example of a Generic Search Method is the A*
algorithm.

• A* works for problems that can be represented as a state space i.e. a

graph of states. Initial conditions of the problem are represented as
start state, goal conditions are represented as end state
• A* is an informed search or heuristic search approach that uses the
estimation function:
f(n)=g(n)+h(n)
• g(n) the cost to get from the star state to current state n
• h(n) estimated cost to get from current state n to end state
• f(n) estimated total cost from start state through current state n to the end state
 GPS: General Problem Solver

However, GPS has a set of limitations:

• It works in theory but in practice works only
on toy problems (e.g. Tower of Hanoi)

• Could not solve real-world problems because

search was easily lost in the combinatorial
explosion of intermediate states
 Knowledge-is-power hypothesis

Knowledge-is-power hypothesis, also called the

Knowledge Principle was formulated by E.A.
Feigenbaum in 1977:

“knowledge of the specific task domain in which the

program is to do its problem solving was more
important as a source of power for competent problem
solving than the reasoning method employed” [15]
 Knowledge-is-power hypothesis
• The Knowledge-is-power hypothesis shifted the focus on how
to build intelligent systems from inference to the knowledge
base.
• Problem solving is guided by experiential, qualitative, heuristic
knowledge.
• The meaning of intelligence as knowledge is the common
meaning in English world.
• The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) defines intelligence as
knowledge.
• The Knowledge-is-power hypothesis lead to the emergence of
a new field i.e. expert systems and a new profession i.e.
knowledge engineer
 Knowledge levels: Newell’s 3 levels of knowledge
In his work from 1981, Newell tried to answer questions such
as
• How can knowledge be characterised?
• What is the relation of this characterisation and the
representation of knowledge?
• What is characteristic about a system which holds knowledge?

Newell distinguished 3 levels in the context of knowledge

representation:
• Knowledge Level
• Logical Level
• Implementation Level
Newell’s 3 levels of knowledge: Knowledge Level

• The most abstract level of representing

knowledge.
• Concerns the total knowledge contained in
the Knowledge Base

• Example:
The automated DB-Information system knows
that a trip from Innsbruck to Vienna costs 120€
 Newell’s 3 levels of knowledge: Logic Level
• Encoding of knowledge in a formal language.

• Example:
Price(Innsbruck, Vienna, 120)
Newell’s 3 levels of knowledge: Implementation
Level

• The internal representation of the

sentences.

• Example:
• As a String “Price(Innsbruck, Vienna, 120)”
• As a value in a matrix
 Knowledge levels: Brachman’s 5 Levels of Knowledge

• Brachman defines 5 levels for different types of

representations.
• Levels interpret the transition from data to knowledge.
• Each level corresponds to an explicit set of primitives
offered to the knowledge engineer.
• Ordering of knowledge levels from simple/abstract to
complex/concrete:
• Implementational Level
• Logical Level
• Epistemological Level
• Conceptual Level
• Linguistic Level
 Knowledge levels: Brachman’s 5 Levels of Knowledge

• Implementational Level
• The primitives are pointers and memory cells.
• Allows the construction of data structures with no a priority
semantics

• Logical Level
• The primitives are logical predicates, operators, and propositions.
• An index is available to structure primitives.
• A formal semantic is given to primitives in terms of relations
among objects in the real world
• No particular assumption is made however as to the nature of
such relations
 Knowledge levels: Brachman’s 5 Levels of Knowledge
• Epistemological Level
• The primitives are concept types and structuring relations.
• Structuring relations provide structure in a network of conceptual types
or units. (i.e. inheritance: conceptual units, conceptual sub-units)
• The epistemological level links formal structure to conceptual units
• It contains structural connections in our knowledge needed to justify
conceptual inferences.

• Conceptual Level
• The primitives are conceptual relations, primitive objects and actions.
• The primitives have a definite cognitive interpretation, corresponding to
language-independent concepts like elementary actions or thematic
roles
 Knowledge levels: Brachman’s 5 Levels of Knowledge

• Linguistic Level
• The primitives are words, and (lingustic) expressions.
• The primitives are associated directly to nouns and verbs of a
specific natural language
• Arbitrary relations and nodes that exist in a domain
 Problem Solving Methods
• Problem Solving Methods (PSM) abstract from details
of the implementation of the reasoning process

• Characteristics of PSM [10]:

• A PSM specifies which inference actions have to be carried out for
solving a given task.
• A PSM determines the sequence in which these actions have to be
activated.
• Knowledge roles determine which role the domain knowledge
plays in each inference action.
 Heuristic Classification
• Generic inference pattern “Heuristic Classification” describes the
problem-solving behaviour of these systems on the Knowledge Level
in a generic way.

Abstract heuristic Solution

observables match abstractions

abstract refine

observables solutions

inference role
 Propose & Revise
revise
knowledge

generate acceptable
revise solution

desired
requirements propose C-test violations
design

propose
inference constraints
knowledge
data and knowledge flow

data store (i.e.,

dynamic knowledge
role)

domain view (i.e.,

static knowledge role)
 Propose & Revise
• The propose & revise method is an efficient method for
solving the task of parametric design. (see more details in
[14])

• The method depends on the following inferences:

• propose – derives an initial design based on the requirements;
• C-test – requires knowledge that describes which possible designs
are valid (i.e., the domain constraints);
• revise – tries to improve an incorrect design based on the
feedback of the C-test step.
 Knowledge-based systems (KBS)
• KBS are realized based on a knowledge base (KB).
• KB contains a model represented in a (logical) formalism which
can be interpreted by an interpreter (inference engine) that is
able draw conclusions from it.
• KBs typically capture knowledge of a domain.
• Methodologies for the development of KBS: e.g. CommonKADS
• Examples: CYC
• One of the first systems that aimed to capture common knowledge in a
knowledge base
 Expert systems (ES)
• Special form of a KBS.
• Definition: An expert system is a software application that stores
knowledge about a certain domain. It is able to draw conclusions
from that knowledge and offers concrete solutions for problems in
that domain.
• ES simulate human experts and thus the knowledge base typically
consists of highly specialized expert knowledge.
• Reasoning of human experts vs. reasoning in ES:
• Human experts are able to master unforeseen effects and situations.
• Human experts are able to learn from experiences.
• Human experts expand their knowledge continuously.
• Human experts derive new knowledge not only based on drawn. conclusions
but via analogy and intuition.
POPULAR AI SYSTEMS

61
 ELIZA
• Early computer program capable of natural language processing.
• Written by J. Weizenbaum between 1964 and 1966.
• ELIZA simulated a psychotherapist by reformulating questions posed
by the user.
• Sample ELIZA conversation:
 SIRI
• Personal assistant - mobile app for the
iPhone "Just like a real personal
assistant Siri understands what you say,
fulfills tasks and adapts over time to the
preferences. Today, Siri can help you
find things and plan. "

• Launched in February 2010

• Siri was acquired by Apple in April 2010

 Deep Blue
• Chess-playing computer developed by IBM that won
against world champion Garry Kasparov in 1997.
• Applied a brute force strategy, processing
was highly parallel.
• Evaluation of 200 million positions per second.
• Deep Blue's knowledge base contained over
4,000 positions and 700,000 grandmaster
games.
• It was fine-tuned by chess grand masters.
• Admission from IBM: „Deep Blue, as it stands
• today, is not a "learning system." It is therefore
not capable of utilizing artificial intelligence to Link: http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/

either learn from its opponent or "think" about

the current position of the chessboard.“
 The Humanoid Robot COG
• Project at the MIT Artificial Intelligence
Lab
• The goal of the COG project was to build a
robot capable of interacting with humans
and objects in a human-like way.
• "As I pondered [this] and thought about
HAL, I decided to try to build the first
serious attempt at a robot with human-
level capabilities, the first serious attempt
at a HAL-class being." (Rodney Brooks,
Inventor of COG)

Link: http://groups.csail.mit.edu/lbr/humanoid-robotics-group/cog/
 CALO (Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes)
• DARPA funded project, “Personal assistant that learns” – program
• Involves 25 partners, 300+ researchers, including top researchers in AI
• 500+ publications in first four years
• “The goal of the project is to create cognitive software systems, that is, systems
that can reason, learn from experience, be told what to do, explain what they are
doing, reflect on their experience, and respond robustly to surprise. “
(calosystem.org)
• CALO assists its user with six high-level functions:
• Organizing and Prioritizing Information
• Preparing Information Artifacts
• Mediating Human Communications
• Task Management
• Scheduling and Reasoning in Time
• Resource allocation

Link: http://www.calosystem.org/
 HAL 9000
• An advanced device capable of performing a variety of tasks and
interacting with its human users (companions?).
• The HAL9000 communicates by voice and can control auxiliary
devices on a spaceship.
• It (he?) has an unfortunate tendency towards obsessing over
minor details or inconsistencies in the instructions given it,
however.
• In the events described in Arthur C. Clarke's “2001: A Space
Odyssey,” HAL's tendency toward obsessive literalism led to the
unfortunate death of most of its spaceship's human crew
 Further popular applications
• SEAS (“Synthetic Environment for Analysis and Simulation”)
• Can be used to simulate realistic events; has a world model
• http://www.krannert.purdue.edu/centers/perc/html/aboutperc/seasla
bs/seaslabs.htm
• SYSTRAN
• Early machine translation system
• Foundation for Yahoo’s Babelfish or Google Translator
• http://www.systransoft.com/
• VirtualWoman
• Virtual-reality based chatbot
• http://virtualwoman.net/
• For further references, see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_notable_artificial_intelligence_projec
ts
 Subdomains of AI
• Cognition as information • Machine Learning
processing • Knowledge Engineering
• Artificial neuronal networks • Natural Language Processing
• Heuristic search methods • Image Understanding
• Knowledge representation and • Cognitive Robotics
logic
• Software Agents
• Automatic theorem proving
• Non-monotonic reasoning
• Case-based reasoning
• Planning
 Cognition
• Deals with complex software systems that directly interact and
communicate with human users.
• Characteristics of cognitive systems (CS):
• CS are directly integrated in their environment, act in it, and are able to
communicate with it.
• CS are able to direct and adapt their actions based on the environment they
are situated in.
• CS typically represent system-relevant aspects of the environment.
• Their information processing capabilities are characterized through learning
aptitude and anticipation
• Examples of cognitive system:
• Organisms / biological cognitive systems
• Technical systems such as robots or agents
• Mixed human-machine systems
 Neural networks
• Neural networks are networks
of neurons as in the real
biological brain.
• Neurons are highly specialized
cells that transmit impulses within
animals to cause a change in a target
cell such as a muscle effector cell or glandular cell.
• The axon, is the primary conduit through which the neuron
transmits impulses to neurons downstream in the signal chain
• Humans: 1011 neurons of > 20 types, 1014 synapses, 1ms-10ms
cycle time
• Signals are noisy “spike trains” of electrical potential
 Neural networks
• What we refer to as Neural Networks in the course are mostly Artificial
Neural Networks (ANN).
• ANN are approximation of biological neural networks and are built of
physical devices, or simulated on computers.
• ANN are parallel computational entities that consist of multiple simple
processing units that are connected in specific ways in order to perform
the desired tasks.
• Remember: ANN are computationally primitive approximations of the
real biological brains.
• Application examples: e.g., handwriting recognition, time series
prediction, kernel machines (support vector machines, data
compression, financial predication, speech recognition, computer
vision, protein structures
 Search Method
• Search Methods are typically helping humans to solve complex tasks by
generating (optimal) plans (i.e. a set of operations / states) that includes
sequences / actions to reach a goal state.
• Example problem: Tower of Hanoi
• Initial status: ((123)()()) 1
2
• Goal status: (()()(123)) 3
A B C

• Definition: A search method is defined by picking the order of node expansion.

• Search strategies are evaluated according to completeness, time complexity,
space complexity, optimality.
• Time and space complexity are measured in terms of maximum branching, depth
of the least-cost solution, maximum depth of the state space
• Distinction between informed / uninformed search techniques
 Knowledge Representation and Logic
• The term knowledge representation describes the design and
implementation of formalisms, to model a part of the reality (a domain).
• A model represented using formalisms and implemented by an interpreter is
often called a knowledge base.
• A knowledge base is a collection of facts and beliefs.
• Modelling of knowledge bases happens on a conceptual level.
• Intention: To model a domain of discourse and to draw inferences about the
objects in the domain (reasoning)
• Logic studies the principles of reasoning and offers
• Formal languages for expressing knowledge
• Well understood formal semantics
• Reasoning methods to make implicit knowledge explicit
 Automatic theorem proving
• Automatic theorem proving deals with the design and
implementation of computer programmes that are capable
of making mathematical proofs.
• Theorem provers deduce new formulas from given
formulas via logical deduction rules until the target formula
is found.
• Theoretical foundation of automated theorem proving:
mathematical logic; typically first-order-logic.
• Formulas are mathematically precisely defined via
interpretations (provide semantics for function and
predicate symbols via mappings and relations respectively)
 Planning
• What is Planning?
• “Planning is the process of thinking about the activities required to create a desired goal on
some scale”
• We take a more pragmatic view – planning is a flexible approach for taking complex decisions:
• decide about the schedule of a production line;
• decide about the movements of an elevator;
• decide about the flow of paper through a copy machine;
• decide about robot actions.
• By “flexible” we mean:
• the problem is described to the planning system in some generic language;
• a (good) solution is found fully automatically;
• if the problem changes, all that needs to be done is to change the description.
• Planning looks at methods to solve any problem that can be described in the language chosen for
the particular planning system.
• Approaches for the generation of action sequences: action planning and situated activity planning.
 Machine Learning
• Machine Learning (ML) is a central research area in AI to acquire
knowledge.
• ML deals with the computer-aided design and realisation of learning
problems.
• Learning is defined as the process that enables a systems to perform
better during solving of the same or similar tasks in the future (Simon,
1983)
• Reduction of learning to mathematical theories: Deduction, Induction,
Abduction.
• Learning task is typically characterized through the description of
inputs, expected outputs, and environmental conditions.
• Typical machine learning applications: Data mining, Speech recognition,
text analysis, control learning, hidden markov networks, etc.
 Knowledge Engineering
• Knowledge engineering is concerned with the acquisition, management,
use and transformation of knowledge.
• Goals are similar to software engineering, i.e. to systematically develop
expert systems using existing methods and tools.
• Core process in knowledge engineering: knowledge acquisition; During
knowledge acquisition knowledge is formalised, i.e. transformed from a
natural language representation to a formal representation.
• Process models for knowledge acquisition: Model by Puppe; model by
Buchanan; Harmon/Mauss/Morrissey; Waterman; or MIKE
• Methodical approachs and tools: D3; CommonKADS; MIKE; Protégé-II;
RASSI
• Application cases include the development of expert systems, workflow
systems or knowledge management
 Natural Language Processing
• Goal: Processing and understanding of speech or written
language.
• Early applications include question-answer systems, natural-
language based access to databases or speech-based control of
robots.
• Challenges include information re-construction from spoken
words or information selection and reduction during speech
production.
• Application areas: Tools for inter-human communication, tools
for text generation or text correction (i.e. identification of
grammatical errors based on language models), information
classification or filtering, or human-machine communication.
 Image Understanding
• Image Understanding (IU) deals with the analysis and interpretation of visual
information. IU denotes the reconstruction and interpretation of scenes based on
images.
• Early approaches based on pattern recognition (still one of the most important
foundations of this field)
• Prominent application: object recognition of still and moving objects

• Application areas: symbol recognition, medical image analysis, vehicle navigation,

image archiving, gesture recognition,
 Cognitive Robotics
• AI deals with the development of robots as
autonomous and intelligent systems.
• Robotic covers many sub-areas of AI and involves
interdisciplinary work including mechanic and
electrical design and cognitive areas.
• Types of robots: static robots, mobile robots, and
humanoid robots.
• Application areas: construction, planning, or
observation.
 Software Agents
• Core paradigm in AI.
• Definition: A software agent is a long-term operating program
whose function can be described as autonomous execution of
tasks or tracing of goals via interaction with his environment.
• Agent (see earlier slide)
• has a memory and the capability to act in his world based on it.
• has sensors to perceive information from his environment.
• has actuators to influence the external world.
• has the capability to probe actions
• has internal memory for methods and the exploration of the world is guided by knowledge kept in it.
• Applications: Data collection and filtering, event notification,
planning and optimization in various application areas
(commerce, production, military, education)
 Summary
• Birth of AI in the 1950s
• Broad spectrum of subdomains and combination of
disciplines
• Distinction between
• Weak and strong AI
• Symbolic and subsymbolic AI
• Central role: symbols and knowledge representation
• Knowledge-based systems and intelligent agents are core
concepts in AI

85
 References
• Mandatory reading:
• [1] G. Görz, C.-R. Rollinger, J. Schneeberger (Hrsg.) “Handbuch der künstlichen Intelligenz”
Oldenbourg Verlag, 2003, Fourth edition

• Further reading:
• [2] A. Turing. "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", Mind LIX (236): 433–460, Ocotober, 1950.
• [3] Aristotle “On Interpretation”, 350 B.C.E, see:
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/interpretation.html
• [4] A. Newell, H.A. Simon, “Human Problem Solving” Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1972
• [5] A. Newell. “The Knowledge Level”, AI Magazine 2 (2), 1981, p. 1-20.
• [6] F. Rosenblatt. “Strategic Approaches to the Study of Brain Models” In: Förster, H.: Principles of
Self-Organization. Elmsford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press, 1962.
• [7] S. Russell, E.H. Wefald. "Do the Right Thing: Studies in Limited Rationality" MIT Press, 1991.
• [8] C. Beierle and G. Kern-Isberner "Methoden wissensbasierter Systeme. Grundlagen,
Algorithmen, Anwendungen" Vieweg, 2005.
 References
• [9] J. Weizenbaum. "ELIZA - A Computer Program For the Study of Natural Language
Communication Between Man And Machine", Communications of the ACM 9 (1): p. 36–45, 1966.
• [10] W. Birmingham and G. Klinker “Knowledge Acquisition Tools with Explicit Problem-Solving
Methods” The Knowledge Engineering Review 8, 1 (1993), 5-25
• [11] A. Newell and H. Simon "GPS, a program that simulates human thought" In: Computation &
intelligence: collected readings, pp. 415 - 428, 1995.
• [12] R. J. Brachman “On the Epistemological Status of Semantic Networks” In: N.V. Findler (ed.):
Associative Networks: Representation and Use of Knowledge by Computers. New York: Academic
Press, 1979, 3-50.
• [13] G. Brewka, I. Niemelä, M. Truszczynski “Nonmonotonic Reasoning” In: V. Lifschitz, B. Porter, F.
van Harmelen (eds.), Handbook of Knowledge Representation, Elsevier, 2007, 239-284
• [14] D. Fensel “Problem-Solving Methods: Understanding, Description, Development and Reuse”,,
Springer LNAI 1791, 2000
• [15] E.A. Feigenbaum. “The Art of Artificial Intelligence: Themes and Case Studies of Knowledge
Engineering,” Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence,
Cambridge, MA, 1977
• [16] W.J. Clancey. “Heuristic Classification”, Artificial Intelligence, 27:289-350, 1985
 Thank You
Zendi Iklima
[email protected]