orbits 6.

2
RADARSAT-1 and RADARSAT-2 are Earth-observation satellites designed and
commissioned by the Canadian Space Agency. Th ese “eyes in the skies” peer down
from orbit, capturing images and data that help scientists monitor environmental
changes and the planet’s natural resources. Examples of satellite monitoring include
detecting oil spills, tracking ice movements, identifying ships at sea, and monitoring
natural disasters. Figure 1 shows an image of RADARSAT-2.

Figure 1 RADARSAT-2 uses

sophisticated microwave-based
radar to collect images of Earth
day and night, even through
cloud cover.

Satellites and Space Stations

A satellite is an object or a body that revolves around another body that usually has satellite an object or a body that revolves
much more mass than the satellite. For example, the planets are natural satellites around another body due to gravitational
revolving around the Sun. Planetary moons, including Earth’s moon, are natural sat- attraction
ellites, too. Artificial satellites, on the other hand, are human-made objects that orbit artificial satellite an object that has been
Earth or other bodies in the solar system. CAREER LINK
intentionally placed by humans into orbit
RADARSAT-1 and RADARSAT-2 are examples of artifi cial satellites. Another well- around Earth or another body; referred to
known example of artifi cial satellites is the network of 24 satellites that make up the Global as “artificial” to distinguish from natural
Positioning System (GPS). By coordinating several signals at once, as shown in Figure 2, satellites such as the Moon
the system can locate an object on Earth’s surface to within 15 m of its actual position.

S3
S1 S1 S2 S1 S2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2 GPS satellites can determine the location of an object, in this case a boat. (a) The data
from one satellite will show that the location is somewhere along the circumference of a circle.
(b) Two satellites consulted simultaneously will refine the location to one of two intersection spots.
(c) With three satellites consulted simultaneously, the intersection of three circles will give the
location of the boat to within 15 m of its actual position.

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 The boat shown in Figure 2 on the previous page has a computer-controlled GPS
receiver that detects signals from three satellites simultaneously. The system calculates
distances based on signal speeds and transmission times. A single satellite can identify
the boat’s location somewhere along the circumference of a circle. Two simultaneous
satellite signals can pinpoint the location at one of two intersecting spots where two
circles intersect. With a third satellite—and therefore three intersecting circles—the
boat’s location can be pinpointed. This is referred to as triangulation.
space station  a spacecraft in which Another example of an artificial satellite in Earth orbit is a space station, a space-
people live and work craft in which people live and work. An example is the International Space Station
(ISS), shown in Figure 3. The ISS is a permanent orbiting laboratory that supports
many different research projects. In the process, scientists are also able to study
human responses to space travel and “zero” gravity or, more accurately, microgravity:
1 3 10–6 times the value of g. A microgravity environment is present when any object
is in free fall. So when you dive from a dive tower into a swimming pool, you are
in microgravity until you hit the water. Similarly, astronauts aboard the ISS are in a
constant state of free fall and are thus in a microgravity environment. It is important
to note the difference between microgravity and the gravitational field strength, since
the value of g at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 8.7 N/kg. Clearly, there is
still a significant gravitational force at that altitude and it is incorrect to say that the
Figure 3  The International Space astronauts are in zero gravity. A gravitational force of approximately zero would only
Station is an orbiting spacecraft in occur if you were extremely far away from any mass.
which astronauts live and work in space. The knowledge gained from research by orbiting space stations enables sci-
entists to design spacecraft that can safely transport people through space and
perform experiments in microgravity environments. These microgravity experi-
ments can lead to breakthroughs in medicine and chemistry.  CAREER LINK

Mini Investigation
Exploring
Mini Gravity and Orbits
Investigation
Skills: Performing, Observing, Analyzing, Communicating

In this investigation, you will use a simulation to create and A. What happens to the orbit of Earth when you increase the
explore different configurations of orbiting bodies. Move the size of the Sun?  T/I A
planets, moons, or the Sun to see how the orbital paths change. B. What happens to the Moon when you increase the size
Change the sizes of the objects and the distances between of the Sun? What happens when you increase the size of
them. Explore the variations that occur as the force of gravity Earth?  T/I A
is changed or when gravity is removed from the model.
C. What happens to Earth’s orbit when you increase the size of
Equipment and Materials: computer with Internet access Earth?  T/I A
1. Go to the Nelson Science website.  D. The MESSENGER probe mentioned at the beginning
2. Load the supporting software, if necessary. of this chapter made use of several gravity assists
3. Select the option to view the Sun, Earth, and Moon and the to reach Mercury without using too much of its own
options to show Gravity Force and the Path. energy. This method is also known as a gravitational
slingshot. It works by using the gravity of a celestial
4. Play the simulation and allow Earth to complete one full
body to accelerate, slow down, or redirect the path of
revolution around the Sun.
a spacecraft. Gravity assists can save fuel, time, and
5. Pause the simulation. expense. Try to design a system of orbiting elements
6. Using the slider bar, increase the size of the Sun and start within the simulation that demonstrates this effect. 
the simulation again. Observe the motion of Earth and the K/U T/I C A

Moon around the Sun for one full revolution.

7. Pause the simulation again. Return the Sun to its original WEB LINK
size and then increase the size of Earth.
8. Start the simulation again and observe Earth’s revolution.

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 Satellites in Circular Orbits
When Newton developed the idea of universal gravitation, he also theorized that the
same force that pulls objects to Earth also keeps the Moon in its orbit. One difference,
of course, is that the Moon does not hit Earth’s surface. The Moon orbits Earth at a
distance from Earth’s centre—called the orbital radius. The orbit of the Moon about orbital radius  the distance between the
Earth is another example of centripetal motion, which you studied in Chapter 3. centre of a satellite and the centre of its
The force of gravity on the Moon due to Earth is a centripetal force that pulls the parent body
Moon toward Earth’s centre. As the Moon orbits Earth, the Moon has velocity per-
pendicular to the radius vector. Without gravity, the Moon would fly off in a straight
line. Without its orbital velocity, however, the force of gravity would pull the Moon
straight to Earth’s surface. The orbital motion of the Moon depends on both the cen-
tripetal force due to gravity and the Moon’s orbital velocity.
The Moon’s orbit, similar to the orbits of the planets around the Sun, is actually
elliptical. We can closely approximate the orbits, however, by assuming that they
are circular. This approximation is useful for most problem-solving purposes. To
analyze the motion of a satellite in uniform circular motion, combine Newton’s law
of universal gravitation with the mathematical expression describing centripetal
acceleration. Using the universal law of gravitation from Section 6.1, we can say that
the gravitational field strength of Earth with mass mE at the location of a satellite at
height r above Earth’s centre is

Gm E
g5
r2

Recall from Chapter 3 that the formula for centripetal acceleration based on the
orbiting object’s speed v is

v2
ac 5
r
For a satellite in a circular orbit, the gravitational force provides the centripetal Unit TASK BOOKMARK
force. Combining the above two equations gives
You can apply what you have learned
ac 5 g about orbits and satellites to the Unit
v2 Gm E Task on page 422.
5 2
r r

Solving for the speed of the satellite and using only the positive square root gives

GmE
v5
Å r

This equation holds for an orbiting body in a central gravitational field. If a satellite
orbits around any other large body with mass m, we can replace the mass of Earth in
this equation and generalize it to

Gm
v5
Å r

This equation indicates that the speed of a satellite depends on its orbital radius
and is independent of the satellite’s own mass. For a satellite to maintain an orbit of
radius r, its speed v must be constant.

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 geosynchronous orbit  the orbit around A communications satellite in geosynchronous orbit—that is, a satellite orbiting
Earth of an object with an orbital speed Earth with a speed matching that of Earth’s own rotation—is an example of an artifi-
matching the rate of Earth’s rotation; cial satellite with a constant orbital radius (Figure 4). The orbital period, represented
the period of such an orbit is exactly by the symbol T, is the time it takes an object to complete one orbit around another
one Earth day object. A geosynchronous satellite’s orbital speed leads to an orbital period that
exactly matches Earth’s rotational period. To an observer on Earth, the satellite will
appear to travel through the same point in the sky every 24 h. A geostationary orbit is
a type of geosynchronous orbit in which the satellite orbits directly over the equator.
To an observer on Earth, a geostationary satellite will appear to remain fixed in the
same point in the sky at all times.  CAREER LINK

radius
force of
gravity

orbit
Figure 4  A satellite with a geosynchronous orbit travels at the same speed as Earth’s rotation.
Its orbital period is one Earth day.

In the following Tutorial you will explore how you can use the equation for orbital
speed in problem solving.

Tutorial 1  Solving Problems Relating to Circular Orbits

The Sample Problems in this Tutorial show how to determine the properties of an object
in a circular orbit within a gravitational field around a larger object.

Sample Problem 1: Calculating the Speed and Orbital Period of a Satellite

The International Space Station (ISS) orbits Earth at an altitude of about 350 km above
Earth’s surface.
(a) Determine the speed needed by the ISS to maintain its orbit.
(b) Determine the orbital period of the ISS in minutes.
Solution
 iven: G 5 6.67 3 10211 N·m2/kg2; mE 5 5.98 3 1024 kg; rE 5 6.38 3 106 m;
(a) G
hISS 5 350 km 5 3.5 3 105 m
Required: v
GmE
Analysis: v 5 ; r 5 rE 1 hISS 5 6.73 3 106 m
Å r
GmE
Solution: v 5
Å r
m# 2
kg # m
s2
° 6.67 3 10211 ¢ 15.98 3 1024 kg2
kg2
5
ï 6.73 3 106 m
v 5 7.698 3 103 m/s 1two extra digits carried2
Statement: The ISS requires a speed of 7.7 3 103 m/s to maintain its orbit.

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 (b) Given: v 5 7.698 3 103 m/s; r 5 6.73 3 106 m
Required: T
Analysis: The distance travelled in one period is 2pr. The orbital period, T, is the time
it takes for the space station to travel this distance, so it is the distance divided by the
2pr
speed, T 5 .
v
Solution:
2pr
T5
v
2p 16.73 3 106 m2 1 min
5 3
m 60 s
7.698 3 103
s
T 5 92 min
Statement: The ISS has an orbital period of 92 min.

Sample Problem 2: Calculating the Speeds of Planets around the Sun

Determine the speeds of Venus and Earth as they orbit the Sun. The Sun’s mass is
1.99 3 1030 kg. Venus has an orbital radius of 1.08 3 1011 m, and Earth has an orbital
radius of 1.49 3 1011 m.
Given: G 5 6.67 3 10–11 N·m2/kg2; mS 5 1.99 3 1030 kg; rV 5 1.08 3 1011 m;
rE 5 1.49 3 1011 m
Required: vV; vE
Gm
Analysis: v 5
Å r
Solution:
GmS
vV 5
Å rV
m# 2
kg # m
s2
° 6.67 3 10211 ¢ 11.99 3 1030 kg2
kg2
5
ï 1.08 3 1011 m
vV 5 3.51 3 104 m/s

GmS
vE 5
Å rE
m# 2
kg # m
s2
° 6.67 3 10211 ¢ 11.99 3 1030 kg2
kg2
5
ï 1.49 3 1011 m
4
vE 5 2.98 3 10 m/s
Statement: Venus orbits the Sun at a speed of 3.51 3 104 m/s, and Earth orbits the Sun
at a speed of 2.98 3 104 m/s.

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 Practice
1. Astronomers have determined that a black hole sits at the centre of galaxy
M87 (Figure 5). Observations show matter at a distance of 5.34 3 1017 m from
the black hole and travelling at speeds of 7.5 3 105 m/s. Calculate the mass of
the black hole, assuming the matter being observed moves in a circular orbit
around it. T/I A [ans: 4.5 3 1039 kg]

Figure 5

2. Mars orbits the Sun in a nearly circular orbit of radius 2.28 3 1011 m. The mass
of Mars is 6.42 3 1023 kg. Mars experiences a gravitational force from the Sun of
Investigation 6.2.1 magnitude 1.63 3 1021 N. Calculate the speed of Mars and the period of revolution
Design a Solar System (page 309)
for Mars in terms of Earth years. T/I A [ans: 2.41 3 104 m/s; 1.90 Earth years]
With what you have learned 3. Calculate the speed of a satellite in a circular orbit 600.0 km above Earth’s surface.
about orbits and the movement Determine the orbital period of the satellite to two significant digits. T/I A
of planetary bodies, you are [ans: 7.56 3 103 m/s; 97 min]
ready to take the next step. This
4. Satellites can orbit the Moon very close to the Moon’s surface because the Moon has
investigation will give you an
no atmosphere to slow the satellite through air resistance. Determine the speed of a
opportunity to create your own solar
system with a sun, several planets,
satellite that orbits the Moon just 25 m above the surface. (Hint: Refer to Appendix B
and moons. for radius and mass data for the Moon.) T/I A [ans: 1.7 3 103 m/s]

research This
Space Junk
SKILLS
Skills: Researching, Analyzing, Communicating HANDBOOK A4.1

Space junk is debris from artificial objects orbiting Earth. It B. Describe what happens when a satellite drifts so low
is just one example of how beneficial technology can have that it enters Earth’s atmosphere. C A
unwanted environmental effects. In this activity, you will research C. Are there any ways to avoid creating space
space junk and discover how an orbiting body can go from being junk? T/I C
a functioning satellite to being space junk.
D. Are there any effective ways to get rid of existing
1. Research the mechanisms that satellites have to maintain space junk? C A
speed and orbital radius.
E. Compose an email to a friend describing what space
2. Research methods of dealing with different forms of space junk. junk is. Include the interesting example you researched
3. Explore one story of space junk that catches your interest. in Step 3. C
A. Review this chapter’s formulas pertaining to the relationship
between orbital speed and orbital radius. Describe effects
that could make a satellite slow down in its orbit and slip WEB LINK
into a lower orbit. C A

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 6.2 Review
Summary
• Satellites can be natural, such as moons around planets, or artificial, such as
the RADARSAT satellites and the International Space Station.
• The speed, v, of a satellite in uniform circular motion around a central body
depends on the mass of the central body, m, and the radius of the orbit, r:
Gm
v5
Å r
• For a given orbital radius, a satellite in circular orbit has a constant speed.

Questions
1. What is the difference between natural and artificial 10. The orbital radius of one exoplanet is 4.03 3 1011 m,
satellites? Give an example of each.  K/U with a period of 1100 Earth days. Calculate the mass
2. Explain what microgravity is.  K/U of the star around which the exoplanet revolves.  T/I A
3. Explain in your own words how GPS satellites 11. Phobos (Figure 6), one of Mars’s moons, has
work.  K/U an elliptical orbit around Mars with an orbital
radius that varies between 9200 km and 9500 km.
4. (a) What is a geosynchronous orbit?
Calculate the orbital period of Phobos in Earth days,
(b) How does a satellite in geosynchronous orbit assuming a circular orbit of radius 9.38 3 106 m.
appear to an observer on Earth? The mass of Mars is 6.42 3 1023 kg.  T/I A
(c) How does a satellite in geostationary orbit
appear to an observer on Earth?  K/U C
5. Calculate the orbital radius of a satellite in
geosynchronous orbit.  K/U T/I A
6. Neptune orbits the Sun in 164.5 Earth years in
an approximately circular orbit at a radius of
4.5 3 109 km.  T/I A
(a) Determine the orbital speed of Neptune.
(b) Determine the mass of the Sun.
7. Saturn makes one complete orbit of the Sun every Figure 6
29 Earth years with a speed of 9.69 km/s. Calculate 12. Determine the speed of a satellite, in kilometres per
the radius of the orbit of Saturn. Assume a circular hour, that is in a geosynchronous orbit about Earth.
orbit.  T/I A (Hint: Use the equation for the speed of an object
8. The region of the solar system between Mars and in circular motion and equate that to the speed of
Jupiter, called the Asteroid Belt, contains many a satellite in orbit around a central body. Rearrange
asteroids that orbit the Sun. Consider an asteroid in the equation to solve for the radius. Use the radius
a circular orbit of radius 5.03 3 1011 m.  T/I A to calculate the speed.)  K/U T/I A
(a) Calculate the speed of the asteroid around 13. (a) Calculate the orbital speeds of the planets
the Sun. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars using the
(b) Calculate the period of the orbit in years. solar system data in Appendix B.
9. In recent years, astronomers have discovered (b) What can you conclude about the speed of the
that a number of nearby stars have planets of planets in orbit farther from the Sun?  T/I A
their own, called exoplanets. A newly discovered 14. Scientists wish to place a geosynchronous satellite
exoplanet orbits a star with our Sun’s mass near a moon at an altitude of 410 km. The mass of
(1.99 3 1030 kg) in a circular orbit with an orbital the moon is 7.36 3 1022 kg and it has a radius of
radius of 4.05 3 1012 m. What is the orbital speed 1.74 3 106 m. Calculate the velocity and the period
of the exoplanet in kilometres per hour?  T/I A of the satellite.  T/I A

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