CLASS :12TH PCB

I AM VERY GLAD TO HAVE THE OPPORTUNITY

TO MAKE THIS PROJECT AND EXPRESS MY
PROFOUND GRATITUDE AND DEEP REGARD
TO MY GUIDE MR. SALIL SETH FOR HIS
EXEMPLARY GUIDANCE, MONITERING AND
CONSTANT ENCOURAGEMENT THROUGHOUT
THIS PROJECT. I WOULD LIKE TO THANK THE
PEOPLE WHO HELP ME DIRECTLY OR
INDIRECTLY TO COMPLETE THE PROJECT.

I WOULD ALSO LIKE TO EXTEND MY GRATITUDE

TO MR. VINOD BHATT, PRINCIPAL NPS GONDA
FOR THEIR VALUABLE ENCOURANGEMENT
AND APPROVAL OF THE PROJECT WORK.

LASTLY, I THANK THE ALMIGHTY, MY PARENTS

FOR THEIR CONSTANT ENCOURAGEMENT.

ANKUR PANDEY
CLASS - 12TH PCB
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE PROJECT
“TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER AND
SWITCH” IS A GENUINE WORK OF “ANKUR
PANDEY” AND IS DONE UNDER MY
GUIDANCE AND SUPERVISION-

MR. SALIL SETH

NARAYANA PUBLIC
SCHOOL
 Introduction
The invention of the bipolar transistor in 1948
ushered in a revolution in electronics. Technical feats
previously requiring relatively large, mechanically
fragile, power-hungry vacuum tubes were suddenly
achievable with tiny, mechanically rugged, power-
thrifty specks of crystalline silicon. This revolution
made possible the design and manufacture of
lightweight, inexpensive electronic devices that we
now take for granted. Understanding how transistors
function is of paramount importance to anyone
interested in understanding modem electronics.
A bipolar transistor consists of a three-layer
sandwich" of doped (extrinsic) semiconductor
materials, either P-N-P in Figure below (b) or N-P-N
at (d). Each layer forming the transistor has a specific
name, and each layer is provided with a wire contact
for connection to a circuit. The schematic symbols
are shown in Figure below (a) and (d).

(a)PNP schematic symbol (b)layout, (c)NPN symbol (d)layout

The functional difference between a PNP transistor and
an NPN transistor is the proper biasing (polarity) of the
junctions when operating. For any given State of
operation, the current directions and voltage polarities
for each kind of transistor are exactly opposite each
other.
Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current
regulators, In other words, transistors restrict the
amount of current passed according to a smaller,
controlling current. The main current that is controlled
goes from collector to emitter, or from emitter to
collector, depending on the type of transistor it is (PNP
or NPN, respectively). The small current that controls
the main current goes from base to emitter, or from
emitter to base, once again depending on the kind Of
transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). According to
the standards of semiconductor symbology, the arrow
always points against the direction of electron flow.

Small Base-emitter current controls large Collector-

Emitter current flowing against emitter arrow,
Bipolar transistors are called bipolar because the main
flow of electrons through them takes place in two
types of semiconductor material: P and N, as the main
current goes from emitter to collector (or vice versa). In
other words, two
types of charge carriers—electrons and holes—
comprise this main current through the transistor.
As you can see, the controlling current and the
controlled current always mesh together through the
emitter wire, and their electrons always flow against
the direction of the transistor's arrow. This is the first
and foremost rule in the use of transistors: all currents
must be going in the proper directions for the device to
work as a current regulator. The small, controlling
current is usually referred to simply as the base current
because it is the only current that goes through the
base wire of the transistor. Conversely, the large,
controlled current is referred to as the collector current
because it is the only current that goes through the
collector wire. The emitter current is the sum of the
base and collector currents, in compliance with
Kirchhoff's Current Law.
 No current through the base of the transistor,
shuts it off like an open switch and prevents
current through the collector. A base current, turns
the transistor on like a closed switch and allows a
proportional amount of current through the
collector. Collector current is primarily limited by
the base current, regardless of the amount of
voltage available to push it. The next section will
explore in more detail the use of bipolar transistors
as switching elements
• For the first readings, VB is less than the collector voltage
Vc. Since the base voltage is less than the collector
voltage, we can say that the base - collector junction is
reverse biased. This is a necessary condition for the
transistor to be in the active region. The value of ß (hFE)
for this transistor should be between 100 - 400. The
calculated value, 358, lies in this range. This means that
the transistor is in the active region.
• So, in the active region, the transistor acts as an amplifier
as long as the base - emitter junction is forward biased and
the base - collector junction is reverse biased.
• Now, for the second reading, on comparing the base and
the collector voltages, we can see that the base voltage VB
is more than the collector voltage Vc. Since the base
voltage is more than the collector voltage, we can say that
the base - collector junction is forward biased. This is a
necessary condition for the transistor to be in the
saturation region.
Also, the collector voltage is close to zero volt (ground).
• The value of ß (hFE), 1.3, is less than the ideal gain (100)
of a transistor. This means, the transistor does not act as an
amplifier in this case, it acts like a switch. In the saturation
region, the collector - emitter voltage VCE is reduced to
almost O V. We can see that the value of the collector
voltage with respect to the emitter (ground) is 0.03 V. The
collector and emitter act as two terminals of the switch,
which get nearly shorted.
▪ In the active region, the transistor acts as
an amplifier as long as the base - emitter
junction is forward biased and the base -
collector junction is reverse biased.
▪ A transistor gets saturated when its base -
emitter junction and base - collector
junctions are forward biased. In
saturation, the potential difference
between the emitter and the collector is
approximately equal to zero volt. This
voltage across the collector emitter
junction is called the collector – emitter
saturation voltage. The value of the
saturation region for the NPN transistor
in my project is around 0.25 - 0.6 V.
For this, experiment we will use the transistors in the
common-emitter configuration. The input signal is applied
between the base and emitter, and the output is taken from
the collector and emitter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: TRANSISTOR AS AMPLIFIER AND SWITCH

1.INTRODUCTION

2.EXPERIMENT

3.MATERIAL REQUIRED

4.PHOTO OF THE CIRCUIT

5.THEORY

6.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

7.PROCEDURE

8.CONCLUSION

9.RESULT

10.PRECAUTION

11.SOURCES OF ERROR

12.BIBLIOGRAPHY
if possible).
1. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
2. Now, set a particular input voltage (VI)
using the preset, and measure it. Also,
measure the voltages at the base (VB) and
collector (Vc) and compare them.
3. Measure the base current (IB) and the
collector current (Ic) and verify the
amplification factor.
4. Now, rotate the preset to a position, where
both the LEDs glow brightly. At this
position, measure the input voltage (VI) at
the middle terminal of the preset. Also,
measure the voltages at the base (VB) and
collector (Vc) and compare them.
5. Again, measure the base current (VB) and
the collector (Vc) current and verify the
amplification factor.
In common emitter circuit of a transistor, emitter base
makes input section and is forward biased and emitter
collector junction make output section and is reverse
biased.

The variation in the output voltage w.r.t. the variation in input

voltage for a transistor are shown in figure.

O Vi

The amount of amplification is decided by the ß (beta) of the

transistor.
β = hfe = IC/IB
Where,
• Ic is the collector current.
• IB is the base current.
ß is an intrinsic property of the transistor. Different transistors
have different betas.
1. For the first reading :-
• VI =3.02 V
• VB = 0.63 V
• VC=6.36 V
• IB=9µA
• Ic = 3.22 mA = 3220 µA

2. For the second reading :-

• VI= 8.29 V
• VB=o.89V
• VC= o.03V
• IB= 12.27 mA
• IC 15.98 mA

1. For the first reading :-

• Current Gain, β= hfe = Ic /IB = 3220/ 9 =358

• Voltage Gain, A = Vo / VI = 6.36/3.02 2.1
• Power Gain, P =β*A =358*2 =716
2. For the second reading :-

• Current Gain, β =hfe = Ic/IB =15.98/12.27 = 1.3

• Voltage Gain, A = Vo / VI = 0.03 / 8.29 3.6 X 10-3
• Power Gain, P = β*A = 1.3 * 3.6 X 10 = 359
-3
 1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The input voltage should be increases gradually.
3. Don’t connect the terminals of the battery to each
other.

• The transistor may be faulty.

• Guidance from Teacher

• NCERT Class 12 Physics Book
• Comprehensive physics practical book
• www.cooliunk.in/physics-project-kit
• www.google.com
EXPERIMEN
T
TRANSISTOR AS AMPLIFIER AND
SWITCH

• Breadboard
• Transistor: BC547 (NPN) -1
• Preset: 10 kΩ- 1LED - 2
• Resistor: 330 Ω - 2
• Colour Code: 330Ω —
Orange Orange Brown Gold
• 9V Battery — 1
• Connecting Wire Pieces
• Multimeter — 1