Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools Thella Babu Rao, (Ph. D), LMISTE. Assistant Professor Mechanical Engineering GITAM UniversityChapter :5INTRODUCTION he > In conventional machining the ability of the cutting tool is utilized to stress the material beyond the yield point to start the material removal process. > This requires that the cutting tool material be harder than the work piece material. > The advent of harder materials for aerospace applications have made the removal process by convensional methods very difficult as well as time consuming. > This is because the metal removal rate decreases with the increased hardness of the work material. >» Hence machining processes which utilizes other methods are termed as unconventional or non-traditional machining methods. 1e Tools ByINTRODUCTION > 1. 2. 3. > NO&AAHNHA The main reasons for using non-traditional processes are : To machine high strength alloys To generate complex surfaces To achieve high accuracies and surface finish. Some of the common Unconventional Machining Methods are: Electrical Discharge Machining(EDM) Electro-chemical Machining (ECM) Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Electron Beam Machining (EBM) Laser Beam Machining (LBM) Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) Chemical Machining(CHM) 1e Tools ByINTRODUCTION he Selection of Process : > For selecting a particular process the following common parameters should be taken in to consideration. Shape and size required to be produced. Physical properties of the work material. Process Economy. Process Capabilities. Type of operations required (cutting, hole making etc.) AAHBNHAELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING(EDM) Bs fa Principle: > This process involves controlled erosion of electrically conducting materials by the initiation of rapid and rupture electrical discharge between the tool (cathode) and the work piece (anode) separated by a dielectric fluid mechanism. Tool feed row of ditch = J ‘Cavity created Sa oe Wor ® — Recast metal ® | --overcut (a) \e Tools ByELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING(EDM) Working: > > > A suitable gap between the tool and the work piece is maintained to cause the spark discharge. The gap can be varied to match the machining conditions such as MRR. As soon as the voltage gradient set up between the tool and the work piece is sufficient enough to break down the dielectric medium. A conducting electrical path is developed for spark discharge owing to ionization of the fluid medium and thereby causes the current flow. Current Rectifier control Servo control Power supply Theory of Metal Cuttir Th chine Tools ByELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING(EDM) 3. > Vv Vv The temperature of the spot hit by the spark may rise up to 10,000°C causing the work surface to melt and vaporize and ultimately to take the form of sphere as it is quenched by the surrounding fluid. If the tool is fed downwards, maintaining the predetermined gap, the tool shape profile will be reproduced on the work piece. The spark gap generally 0.01 to 0.1 mm. Higher gap increases the discharge energy but decrease the spark frequency. Workpiece —ElectrodeELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING(EDM) > The servo control unit is provided to maintain the predetermined gap. > It senses the gap voltage and compares it with the present value and the difference in voltage is then used to control the movement of servomotor to adjust the gap. Important Characteristics of EDM : > Tool Material : Copper, Brass an Graphite. » Work piece material : conducting materials and alloys. > Process parameters : Voltage, Capacitance, Spark Gap, Melting Temperature of work. >» Material Removal : Melting and Vaporization. Tt {Metal C 1e Tools ByELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING(EDM) Bs fa Advantages: 4. Machining time is /ess than the conventional machining process. 2. Any completed shape that can be made on the tool can be reproduced on the work piece. 3. The process can be employed for extremely hardened work pieces. 4. The process can be applied to a// electrically conducting metals and alloys irrespective of their melting points. 5. brittle and slender work pieces can be machined with out distortion. 6. Considerably easier and more economical polishing can be done on the catering type surfaces developed by EDM. 7. Fine hole can be easily drilled. 8. Enables high accuracy on tools and dies, because they can be machined in as hard condition. TheeELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING(EDM) Bs ta Disadvantages : 4. Itcan not be applied to non-conducting materials. 2. Power required id very high compared to conventional machining processes. In some materials surface cracking may be takes place. Sharp corners can not be produced. Material removal rate is low. Surface tend to be rough for larger removal rates. ne? hhine Tools ByELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING(EDM) Se fa Applications : V tELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) Bs fas Principle : > It is an inherently versatile Pump for circulating process of machining because electrolyte of its capability of stress free machining of various kinds of metals and alloys. > It can produce shapes and cavities which are costly and Insulating extremely difficult to machine coating "| with the conventional () machining process. > The true shape of the tool (cathode) can be made on the work piece (anode), by controlled dissolution of an Workpiece Electrolyte electrolytic cell. Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools By ‘Thella Babu RaoELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) Bs Laas Wot . Vv rking : An electrolyte (usually a neutral salt solution) is passed through a very small gap (0.05 to 0.03mm) created between the work piece and the tool where as a direct current flow is made between them. When sufficient electrical energy (6 eV) is available a metallic ion may be pulled out of the work piece surface. The +ve metallic ions will react with — ve ions present in the electrolytic solution forming metallic hydroxides and other compounds. Hence, the metal will be anodically dissolved with the formation of sludges and precipitates. Theory of Metal Cuttir ‘Thella B shine Tools ByELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) Bs ha Important Characteristics of ECM: Tool Material : Copper and Brass. Work piece material : conducting materials and alloys. Process parameters : Current, Voltage, feed rate and electrolyte. Material Removal : Electrolysis. ey Vv Pump for circulating electrolyte ‘Turbine wheel Process time: 12 min Tank Workpiece _ Electrolyte ‘Theory of Metal Cuttir Thell: chine Tools ByELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) Bs fa Advantages: = The process is capable of machining metals and alloys irrespective of their strength and hardness. Intricate and complex shapes can be easily machined. MRR is quite high in comparison to traditional machining. Wear on tool is insignificant or almost non-existent. No cutting forces are involved in this process. The machines work surface is free of stress. High surface finish of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 microns can be obtained. NE AARWN Theory of Metal Cuttin ‘Thella BELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) Bs fas Disadvantages : Nes It can not be applied to non-conducting materials. Power required id very high compared to conventional machining processes. Larger floor space is required. Higher the initial investment. Designing and fabrication of tools is relatively more difficult. Corrosion and rusting of work piece, machine tools, fixtures etc., by electrolyte is a constant maintenance. Paw shine Tools By Theory of Metal Cuttir ‘Thella BELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) Bs fa Applications : > Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. ese 5 (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk. © 14 holes 86 mm (@) Telescoping 7 cover Ram 140 ram Insulating Sy, 112 mm = layers. | "~~ Forging Machined workpiece Copper Electrode electrode carrier Theory of Metal Cuttir Th shine Tools ByULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM) Bs fae Principle : > Ultrasonic machining is a foliose process in which material is Workpiece Holder removed due to the action of abrasive grains. earl High-frequency oscillation Booster e i 1 X p ‘Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools By ‘Thella Babu RaoULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM) Bs Working : > The abrasive particle are driven into the ...|§ —___ work surface by a tool oscillating normal HOS on to the work surface at high frequency. > The tool is made of soft material, oscillated at frequencies of order of 20 to 30 kHz with an amplitude of about 0.02mm.s > Itis pressed against the work piece with a load of a few kg and fed downwards continuously as the cavity is cut in the work. > The tool is shaped as the approximate mirror image of the configuration of the cavity desired in the work. Theory of Metal Cuttir ‘Thella B shine Tools ByULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM) Bs Important Characteristics of USM: > Tool Materials : Brass and Mild steel. > Work piece material : hard and brittle materials like semiconductors glass and ceramics. Process parameters : Frequency, amplitude, grain size, slurry concentration and feed force. Material Removal : Fracture of work material due to impact of grains. Abrasive : Aluminum oxide, silicon carbide and boron carbide. Grain size : 100-800 mesh size. Uae Gap: 0.2 to 0.5 mm. v > ee Theory of Metal Cuttir Th chine Tools ByULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM) Bs “ay Advantages : 1. Noiseless operation. 2. Low metal removal cost. 3. Extremely hard and brittle materials can be easily machined. 4. Operation of the equipment is quite safe. 5. High accurate profiles and good surface finish can be easily obtained. The machined work pieces are free of stresses. iy Theory of Metal Cuttir shine Tools ByULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM) Bs “ay Disadvantages : High tooling cost. Low MRR. The size of the cavity can be machined is limited. High power consumption. The initial equipment cost is higher than the conventional machine tools. The process is unsuitable for heavy metal removal. 7. \tis difficult to machine softer materials. Ol NEE: iy Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools By la BULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM) Bs Laas Applications : > Muay oe Several machining operations like turning, threading, grinding, milling etc. Machining of hard to machine and brittle materials. Dentistry work - to drill fine holes of desired shape in teeth. Tool and die making, specially wire drawing and extrusion dies. Theory of Metal Cuttir shine Tools ByELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM) Bs Principle : a > \Is a process of machining materials with the use of < high velocity beam of electrons. > This process is best suited for micro cutting of materia (mg/s) because the evaporated area is function of the beam power and method of focusing which can be easily controlled. High voltage cable (30 kV, DC) Cathode grid Optical — Electron. stream viewing system Viewing port — Magnetic lens — Deflection coils High pump \e Tools ByELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM) Working : > Inthis process the material is removed with the help of a high velocity (160,000 km/s) focused stream of electrons which are focused magnetically upon a very small area. > These electrons heat and raise the crcsorvamsn temperature locally above the boiling point and thus me/t and vaporize the work material at the bombardment. > The electrons are obtained in free state by heating the cathode metal in vacuum to the temperature at which they attain sufficient speed for escaping to the space around the cathode. >» These can then be made to move under the effect of electric or magnetic field and can be accelerated greatly. > The acceleration is carried out by electric field and focusing and concentration is done by controllable magnetic fields. Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools By ‘Thella Babu Rao ervotae catie ie von I *ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM) Bs Important Characteristics of EBM: > - vvv v Work piece material : All materials. Material Removal : High speed electrons impinge on surface and K.E. of electrons produces intense heating to melt or vaporize the metal. Voltage : 150 kV. Power Density : 6500 billion Wimm?. Medium : Vacuum (10° mm of Hg) Specific power consumption : 500 Wimm3. Theory of Metal Cuttir ella B shine Tools ByELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM) Bs Advantages: 1. Itis excellent strategy for micro-machining. It can cut any unknown material, metal or non-metal that would exist in vacuum. No physical or metallurgical damage. There is no contact between the work and tool. Heat can be concentrated on a particular spot. Close dimensional tolerances can be achieved because there is no tool wear. N Caso as Co Theory of Metal Cuttir Th shine Tools ByELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM) Bs Disadvantages : Low MRR. High equipment cost. High operator skill required. Only small cuts are possible. High power consumption. Unsuitable for producing perfectly cylindrical deep holes. Work piece size Is limited due to requirement of vacuum in the chamber. St BONAR ONE ‘Theory of Metal Cuttir ella B shine Tools ByELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM) Bs Applications : Micro-machining operation on work piece of thin sections. > Micro-drilling operation (upto 0.002 mm) for thin orifices, dies for > wire drawing parts of electron microscopes, fiber spinners, injector holes for diesel engines etc. > Very effective for machining of metals of low heat conductivity and high melting point. shine Tools By Theory of Metal Cuttir ThLASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM) Bs Laas Principle : > The principle utilized in LBM is that under proper conditions light energy of a particular frequency is utilized to stimulate the electrons in an atom to emit additional light with exactly the same characteristics of the original light source. @ Flash. lamp Reflective end ———— \ Laser crystal Partially reflective end Lens WorkpieceLASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM) Working : > Vv The laser beam is focused with the help of the lens and the work piece is placed — 100% reecting miror near the focal point of the lens. hn A short pulse of laser melts and = ih vaporizes the material. tt The explosive escape of the vapourised metal in removing most of the molten 1] metal from the hole as tiny droplets. [Laser tant beam Any of the molten metal not removed will f J=— Fash tanp (oot sides ——— Pratt cattectng iro be resolidified along the walls of the “""" hole. 1 sii ‘Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools By ThLASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM) Bs Important Characteristics of LBM: > Tool: High powered focused laser beam. > Work piece material : All materials. > Process Parameters : power intensity of laser beam, focused diameter of laser beam, melting temperature of work piece material. >» Material Removal : Melting and vaporization. > Medium: Air. ‘Theory of Metal Cuttir ella B shine Tools ByLASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM) Bs Advantages: 1. No mechanical contact between the tool and the work. The beam can be projected through a transparent window. 3. The laser can be used with materials sensitive to heat shock (ceramics). 4. The work piece is not subjected to large mechanical forces. Can be effectively used for welding of dissimilar metals as well. 6. Operates in any medium like air, inert gas, vacuum and even in liquid. g ‘Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools By ‘Thella Babu RaoLASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM) Bs ha Disadvantages : The laser system is quite inefficient. Low production rate. High capital investment is required. Highly skilled operators are required. Limited to only thin sections and where the low MRR is required. Ol NEE: Theory of Metal Cuttir ella B shine Tools ByLASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM) Bs ha Applications : > Trimming of sheet metal plastic parts and carbon resisters. > Cutting patterns on thin films. > Drilling small holes (upto 0.005 mm dia.) in hard metals like tungsten. > Cutting complex profiles on thin and hard meterials. Theory of Metal Cuttir ‘Thella B shine Tools ByABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) Bs RR RS “s Principle and working : > This process consists of directing a stream of fine abrasive grains, mixed with compressed air or some other gas at high pressure through nozzle on to the surface of the work piece to be machined. > These particles impinge on the work surface at high speed and the erosion caused by their impact enables the removal of metal. > The metal removal rate depends up on the flow rate and size of abrasive particles. Powder supply and_mixer Hood Hand holder cs SG, ie ee aa... Theory of Metal Cuttir Th shine Tools ByABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) Bs Laas Principle and working : > The abrasive may be Al,03, SiC, Sodium bicarbonate, dolomite, glass beads etc. > The abrasive particles should have irregular shape consisting of short edges of size 10 to 50 microns. > The carrier is usually air, CO, or No. » Round particles are useless. Gas-abrasive mixture Q” Hand-held nozzle assembly Exhaust system Gas-abrasive stream ———>~ shine Tools By Theory of Metal CuttirBo ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) Rs ta Important Characteristics of AJM: > Process Parameters : Abrasive flow rate and velocity, nozzle tip distance, abrasive grain size. >» Material Removal : By impinging abrasive grains at high speed. Theory of Metal Cuttir Machine Tools By ‘Thella BABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) Bs a Advantages: 1. Low capital investment required. Brittle materials of thin sections may be easily machined. 3. Intricate cavities and holes of any shape can be machined in materials of any hardness. 4. There is no direct contract between the tool and the work piece. 5. Normally inaccessible portions can be machined with fairly good accuracy. Theory of Metal Cuttir Th shine Tools ByABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) Bs a Disadvantages : 1. Low MRR. . Unsuitable for machining of ductile materials. 3. The abrasive powder used in the process can not be reclaimed or reused. 4. Machining accuracy is relatively poor. 5. There is always a danger of abrasive particles getting embedded in the work material. Hence, cleaning needs to be necessarily done after the operation. Theory of Metal Cuttir shine Tools By ThABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) Bs ha Applications : > Machining of intricate profiles on hard and fragile materials. Fine drilling and micro-welding. Frosting and abrading of glass articles. Aperture drilling for electronic microscopes. Machining of semiconductors. eee W Theory of Metal Cuttir ‘Thella B shine Tools ByCHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM) Bs ha Principle and working : > It is a process used to dissolve the work piece material in chemical solutions. > Metal can be removed from selected portions or from the entire surface of the work piece according to the requirement. If selective machining is desired, the portion required to be left unmachined are covered with a resisting material called a resist or maskant which can be stripped away after machining. v 8) Edge of maskant Steps aa Sed nd Tt Material indercut removed | ole ashe mi Workpiece ‘Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools By ‘Thella BabiCHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM) Bs a The chemical machining process can be classified as follows: >» Chemical blanking : it is used for cutting out parts from thin sheet metal. > Chemical contour machining : it is also known as chemical milling and is employed for selective or overall metal removal from thicker work pieces. > Chemical engraving. A typical chemical operation entails the following steps: > Clean the work piece thoroughly so as to ensure that the masking material will adhere to the work piece well to reduce any possibility of possibility of stray etching due to material is to be removed. > Apply a chemical resistance mask on the work piece surface where no material is to be removed. > Dip the work piece in to the chemical solutions called etchant and leave it for sufficient time to get the necessary depth of etching. >» Remove the mask and clean the work piece. Theory of Metal Cuttir Th shine Tools ByCHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM) Bs Advantages: Very low tool cost. Low design change cost. Complex contours can be easily machined. Tooling time is substantially reduced. Both faces of the work piece can be machined simultaneously. The part produced is free of burrs. Hard and brittle materials can be machined. Itis a flexible process from design point of view. COREE oS) Theory of Metal Cuttir Th shine Tools ByCHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM) Bs ha Disadvantages : It is slow process. Large floor space is required. Skilled operators is required. Sharp corners cannot be produced. High manufacturing cost. Metal thickness that can be machined is limited. OO NE Theory of Metal Cuttir ella B shine Tools ByCHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM) Bs a Applications : > This process is generally used when very small amounts of material are to be removed from the surface in any application. > In aerospace application a \arge volume of unwanted material is removed from the surface to reduce the weight, thereby increasing the strength to weight ratio which is conveniently done with chemical machining. 4 mm (before machining) 2 mm (after machining) Che machined’ area Section, Theory of Metal Cuttir Th shine Tools ByMECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING References: 4. A course on Work shop Technology, Volume -II by B.S. Raghuwanshi. 2. Elements of Work shop Technology, Volume -II Machine tools by S.K. Hajra choudary, A.K. Hajra choudary, Nirjhar Roy. 3. A Text Book of Manufacturing Technology by R.K. Rajput. 4. A Text Book of Production Engineering by K.C.Jain, A.K. Chitale. 5. Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology by Rajendar Singh. 6. Machining Technology : Machine Tools and Operations by Helmi A. Youssef, Hassen El-Hofy. Theory of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools By Thella Babu Rao