PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

MANUAL

PROCESS ENGINEERING

PTS 20.180G
DECEMBER 1991
 PREFACE

PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication,
of PETRONAS OPUs/Divisions.

They are based on the experience acquired during the involvement with the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of processing units and facilities. Where appropriate they are based
on, or reference is made to, national and international standards and codes of practice.

The objective is to set the recommended standard for good technical practice to be applied by
PETRONAS' OPUs in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants, chemical
plants, marketing facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical
and economic benefit from standardisation.

The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and
decision to implement. This is of particular importance where PTS may not cover every
requirement or diversity of condition at each locality. The system of PTS is expected to be
sufficiently flexible to allow individual operating units to adapt the information set forth in PTS to
their own environment and requirements.

When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use PTS they shall be solely responsible for the
quality of work and the attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In
particular, for those requirements not specifically covered, the Principal will expect them to follow
those design and engineering practices which will achieve the same level of integrity as reflected
in the PTS. If in doubt, the Contractor or Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting from his
own responsibility, consult the Principal or its technical advisor.

The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users :

1) PETRONAS and its affiliates.

2) Other parties who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate contractual
arrangements.
3) Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with
users referred to under 1) and 2) which requires that tenders for projects,
materials supplied or - generally - work performed on behalf of the said users
comply with the relevant standards.

Subject to any particular terms and conditions as may be set forth in specific agreements with
users, PETRONAS disclaims any liability of whatsoever nature for any damage (including injury
or death) suffered by any company or person whomsoever as a result of or in connection with the
use, application or implementation of any PTS, combination of PTS or any part thereof. The
benefit of this disclaimer shall inure in all respects to PETRONAS and/or any company affiliated
to PETRONAS that may issue PTS or require the use of PTS.

Without prejudice to any specific terms in respect of confidentiality under relevant contractual
arrangements, PTS shall not, without the prior written consent of PETRONAS, be disclosed by
users to any company or person whomsoever and the PTS shall be used exclusively for the
purpose they have been provided to the user. They shall be returned after use, including any
copies which shall only be made by users with the express prior written consent of PETRONAS.
The copyright of PTS vests in PETRONAS. Users shall arrange for PTS to be held in safe
custody and PETRONAS may at any time require information satisfactory to PETRONAS in order
to ascertain how users implement this requirement.
PREFACE TO THE PRODUCTION HANDBOOK, REVISION 1991

Objective
The objective of the Production Handbook is to contribute to efficient performance by all
Engineering, Petroleum Engineering and Operations staff, by providing quick access to and
practical guidance on their own and related disciplines' technology.

Being a comprehensive combination of condensed technical manuals, it provides a ready source

of information for reference and self-training.
It is not intended to replace detailed design manuals and state-of-the-art manuals; these should
remain the first source of reference for more experienced technical specialists. Neither can the
Production Handbook replace specialised training manuals.

Distribution
The Production Handbook should be available to all Engineering, Petroleum Engineering and
Operations staff at or above JG5, in Group E&P Operating Companies and SIPM. These staff
receive the Handbook as a personal loan; they may take it along when going on transfer within the
Group but must return it when leaving for other reasons. Staff of other Functions' parentages
temporarily working in E&P companies may use library copies.

The Handbook is confidential and holders should note the conditions stated opposite the title page.
Issue and recovery should be registered by company secretariats/libraries.

Reprinting and updating

The Production Handbook was first published by SIPM in 1986. It is the successor to the Field
Pocketbook versions of 1933,1947,1952 and 1955 and the Field Handbookof 1963. The 1986
version comprised 3000 pages in five A5 ringbinders; 6000 copies were distributed.
An update of some 250 revised pages was issued in 1987 and a list of further corrections was
published in the Production Newsletter of November 1988.

A complete reprint is necessary at this time (1991 ). For flexibility and cost-effectiveness this
updated reprint is in nine paperback volumes, each one dedicated to a major discipline with clear
'ownership' by the SIPM-EP department concerned. These ,custodian' departments will initiate
further updates of their respective volumes as and when necessary. Additional volumes and
state-of-the-art manuals in the same format may be added later as special supplements.

Suggestions for revising and updating the Handbook should be directed to the SIPM-EP custodian
department of the respective volume, using copies of the Specimen Amendment Sheet at the back
of each volume.
Overall editorial custodianship of the Handbook rests with SIPM-EPD/1 1.
CONTENTS LIST PRODUCTION HANDBOOK SERIES (1991)

SIPM Custodian
Volume I Production General
- Units and Conversion Factors EPO/71
- Health, Safety and Environment EPO/6
- Quality Management EPO/72
- Economic Analysis EPE/1
Volume 2 Drilling and Transport EPO/51
- Drilling
- Civil Engineering for drilling locations
- Transport in Production Operations
Volume 3 Petrophysical Engineering EPD/22
Volume 4 Reservoir Engineering EPD/22
Volume 5 Production Technology EPD/41
- Production Engineering
- Production Chemistry
Volume 6 Production Operations EPO/53
Volume 7 Process Engineering EPD/42
- Oil Processing
- Gas Processing
Custodian for Part 1, Ch. 7, Terminals: EPD/13
Volume 8 Pipelines EPD/61
Volume 9 Facilities and Maintenance
- Running Equipment EPD/62
- Piping Systems EPD/62
- Electrical Engineering EPD/63
- Instrumentation EPD/64
- Telecommunications EPD/76
- Reliability and Availability Assessment EPD/13-EPO/54
- Corrosion Engineering EPD/65
- Inspection Techniques and Maintenance Terminology EPO/54
- Diving and Underwater Operations EPO/54
- Air Conditioning MFSH/11
PREFACE TO VOLUME 7, PROCESS ENGINEERING, REVISION 1991

The subjects covered in this Volume were formerly included in the 1986 version of the Production
Handbook as Chapter 8, Oil Handling and Treating (now Part 1: Oil Processing) and Chapter 9,
Gas Handling and Treating (now Part II: Gas Processing), except those in the following former
Sections:
- 8.3 Process Control and Instrumentation
- 8.5 Piping Systems
- 8.6 Pumps
- 8.10 Air Conditioning
- 9.7 Running Equipment
which are now covered in Volume 9.

In the current update no significant alterations have been made to the remaining content. Where
appropriate, recent Process Engineering developments, e.g. in process modelling, have been
included. A more comprehensive revision to include the latest developments and to better align
this book with the new Process Engineering course structure is planned for 1993.

The current update in principle fully conforms to Sl rules, however some minor exceptions have
remained in the text as changing them at this stage would have considerably delayed the issue of
the Handbook. An example is the use of mass and weight. In several cases weight is mentioned
where mass is meant. Although not of importance for the underlying process concepts, the next
revision of the Process Engineering volume will address these changes as they will improve the
quality and consistency.

We are looking forward to your comments on this 'first' Process Engineering volume of the PHB
and hope to incorporate your feedback into the next revision.
VOLUME 7, PROCESS ENGINEERING, REVISION 1991

SUMMARY CONTENTS LISTING

Part 1: Oil Processing

- Detailed Contents Listing
- Oil Specifications for Production Facilities
- Flow Schemes
- Equipment Selection
- Terminals
- Dehydration and De-oiling of Produced Fluids
- Water and Steam Injection and Specialised Techniques
- References and Further Reading

Part II: Gas Processing

- Detailed Contents Listing
- General
- The Gas Consumer
- Gas Properties and Calculation Methods
- Gas Treating
- Natural Gas Liquids Recovery
- Design Rules for Equipment
- References and Further Reading
Volume 7

PROCESS ENGINEERING

PART I: OIL PROCESSING

CONTENTS

1 OIL SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRODUCTION FACILITIES

1.1 Wellhead Fluid Specifications
1.1.1 Flow Rates
1.1.2 Pressures
1.1.3 Temperatures
1.1.4 Viscosity
1.1.5 Water Cut
1.1.6 Analysis
1.1.7 General
1.2 Export Specifications
1.2.1 Vapour Pressure
1.2.2 Water Content
1.2.3 Salt Content

2 FLOW SCHEMES
2.1 Types of Scheme with Definitions
2.1.1 Process Flow Scheme (PFS)
2.1.2 Process Engineering Flow Scheme (PEFS)
2.1.3 Process Engineering Utility Flow Scheme (PEUFS)
2.1.4 Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme (PSFS)
2.2 Function of the Individual Schemes
2.2.1 Process Flow Scheme (PFS)
2.2.2 Process Engineering Flow Scheme (PEFS)
2.2.3 Process Engineering Utility Flow Scheme (PEUFS)
2.2.4 Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme (PSFS)
2.3 Development of Flow Schemes
2.3.1 Process Flow Scheme (PFS)
2.3.2 Process Engineering Flow Scheme (PEFS)
2.3.3 Process Engineering Utility Flow Scheme (PEUFS)
2.3.4 Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme (PSFS)
2.4 Relationship Between Process Flow Schemes and Project
Development
2.5 Legend and Symbols
2.6 Typical Examples
2.7 HAZOP Studies

3 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION relocated to Vol. 9

4 EQUIPMENT SELECTION
4.1 Duty
4.2 Sizing
4.3 Availability and Sparing
4.4 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
4.5 Specifications
4.6 Evaluation

5 PIPING SYSTEMS relocated to Volume 9

6 PUMPS relocated to Volume 9

7 TERMINALS
7.1 Crude Oil Loading Facilities
7.1.1 Jetty Type Facilities
7.1.2 Sea Islands
7.1.3 Conventional Buoy Mooring (CBM) or Multi-Buoy Moorings
7.1.4 Single Point Mooring (SPM)
7.1.5 Storage Tanker Loading System
7.2 Oil Storage Tank Farms
7.2.1 Layout
7.2.2 Tank Foundations
7.2.3 Storage Tanks
7.2.3.1 Types of Vertical Tanks
7.2.3.2 Selection of Vertical Tanks
7.2.3.3 Stability
7.2.3.4 Capacities of Storage Tanks
7.2.3.5 Pipeline Connections and Tank Fittings
7.2.3.6 Required Venting Capacity
7.2.4 Bund Walls
7.2.5 Loss Control and Safe Practice
7.3 Meteorological and Oceanographic Engineering Applications

8 DEHYDRATION AND DE-OILING OF PRODUCED FLUIDS

8.1 Dehydration of Crude Oil
8.1.1 Fundamentals of Dehydration
8.1.1.1 Water and Salt in Crude oil
8.1.1.2 Stokes Law
8.1.1.3 The Formation of Stable Emulsions
8.1.1.4 Destabilisation of the Emulsion
8.1.1.5 Coalescence
8.1.1.6 Desalting
8.1.2 Dehydration Equipment
8.1.2.1 Equipment Selection
8.1.2.2 Equipment Types and Application
8.1.2.3 Separators
8.1.2.4 Wash Tanks/Concentric Wash Tanks
8.1.2.5 Electrostatic Coalescers
8.1.2.6 Settling Tanks
8.1.3 Equipment Sizing
8.1.3.1 Sizing Criteria
8.1.3.2 Sizing Method
8.1.3.3 Liquid-liquid Separator in Free Water Knock-Out service
8.1.3.4 Liquid-liquid Separator in Dehydration service
8.1.3.5 Heater Treater
8.1.3.6 Wash Tank
8.1.3.7 Concentric Wash Tank
8.1.3.8 Electrostatic Coalescers
8.1.4 Nomenclature
8.2 De-Oiling of Water
8.2.1 Purpose of De-Oiling
8.2.2 API Interceptor
8.2.3 Parallel Plate and Corrugated Plate Interceptors (PPI and CPI)
8.2.4 Flotation Units
8.2.5 Flocculation Units
8.2.6 Loose-Media or Fibrous-Media Coalescers
8.2.7 Biotreaters
8.2.8 Nomenclature

9 WATER AND STEAM INJECTION AND SPECIALISED TECHNIQUES

9.1 Water Injection
9.1.1 Water Sources
9.1.2 Required Water Quality
9.1.3 Facilities for Water Injection
9.1.3.1 Lifting of Water
9.1.3.2 Filtration
9.1.3.3 Deaeration
9.1.3.4 Chemical Treatment
9.1.3.5 Installed Capacity of Equipment
9.1.4 Polymer Flooding
9.1.5 Micellar Flooding
9.2 Steam Injection
9.2.1 Recovery Techniques
9.2.2 Oil Field Steam Generators
9.2.3 Emission Control
9.2.4 Water Treatment for Once-Through Steam Generators
9.2.5 Characteristics of Thermally Produced Crude Oil
9.3 Insulation Techniques
9.3.1 Extent of Insulation
9.3.2 Materials
9.3.2.1 Insulation Materials
9.3.2.2 Fastening Materials
9.3.2.3 Sheet Materials
9.3.2.4 Special Purpose Materials
9.3.3 Insulation Thickness
9.3.3.1 Economic Insulation Thickness
9.3.3.2 Insulation Thickness Dictated by Personnel Protection
9.3.4 Methods of Application of Insulation Material
9.3.4.1 General
9.3.4.2 Piping to 400 mm Nominal Size (inclusive)
9.3.4.3 Piping over 400 mm Nominal Size, Tanks and Vessels
9.3.4.4 Flanges, Valves and Fittings
9.3.4.5 Covers
9.3.4.6 Sprayed Rigid Polyurethane Foam (PUF) for Tanks
9.3.5 Weatherproofing and Protection of Stationary Equipment
9.4 Techniques for Handling Waxy Crude Oils
9.4.1 Model Tests
9.4.2 Properties and Behaviour of Waxy Crudes
9.5 Heating Storage Tanks

10 AIR CONDITIONING relocated to Volume 9

11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

SPECIMEN AMENDMENT SHEET
TABLES

Table 7.2-1 Types of standard vertical tanks

Table 7.2-2 Cone roof tanks
Table 7.2-3 Dome roof tanks
Table 7.2-4 Selection of vertical storage tanks
Table 7.2-5 Nominal capacities of standard vertical cylindrical tanks
Table 7.2-6 Standard lengths for shell plates
Table 8.1-1 Dehydration equipment selection guidelines
Table 8.1-2 Standard vessel sizes
Table 8.1-3 Standard size heater treaters
Table 8.1-4 Standard vertical tank sizes
Table 8.1-5 Standard size electrostatic coalescers;
Table 8.1-6 Standard size electrostatic coalescers (int. heaters)
Table 8.2-1 De-oiling process selection guidelines
Table 8.2-2 Standard sizes of dispersed gas flotation units
Table 9.1-1 Characteristics of various types of water
Table 9.1-2 Facilities for water injection
Table 9.1-3 Typical filter characteristics
Table 9.1-4 Typical filter sizing (for sea water)
Table 9.1-5 Summary of advantages and disadvantages of water deaeration systems
Table 9.2-1 Comparison of NOX removal possibilities for a 15 MW steam generator
Table 9.2-2 Typical SO2 scrubbing conditions
Table 9.2-3 Typical ion exchange applications
Table 9.2-4 Sizing of strong cation exchangers
Table 9.2-5 Typical boiler feed water specification for thermal recovery project
Table 9.2-6 Summary of processes available for reduction/removal of common impurities
in feed water
Table 9.3-1 Typical insulation materials
Table 9.3-2 Properties of rigid polyurethane foam
Table 9.3-3 Sheeting materials
Table 9.3-4 Sheeting and fastening materials
FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Viscosity of stabilised crude oil

Figure 1-2 Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids
Figure 2.4-1 Flow schemes and project development
Figure 2.6-1 Typical PFS - gas/oil separation
Figure 2.6-2 Typical PEFS - crude oil dehydration unit
Figure 7.1-1 Jetty type terminal
Figure 7.1-2 Conventional buoy mooring system (CBM)
Figure 7.1-3 Single buoy mooring (SBM)
Figure 7.1-4 Exposed location single buoy mooring (ELSBM)
Figure 7.1-5 Spar type storage terminal
Figure 7.1-6 Single buoy storage system
Figure 7.1-7 Offshore storage/export system
Figure 7.2-1 Schematic diagram of typical tank foundation
Figure 7.2-2 World map showing high wind areas and maximum gust velocities
Figure 7.2-3 Determination of tank stability in high winds (1-minute wind gusts)
Figure 7.2-4 Nomenclature for fixed and floating roof tanks
Figure 7.2-5 Schematic diagram of typical bund wall construction
Figure 7.3-1 Overview of a production platform's metocean data flow and applications for
an OPU
Figure 8.1-1 Continuous droplet size distribution curve
Figure 8.1-2 Effect of mixing intensity on stable maximum droplet size
Figure 8.1-3 Desalting systems with and without recycle
Figure 8.1-4 Separators
Figure 8.1-5 Integral 'heater treater' unit
Figure 8.1-6 Conventional dehydration tank
Figure 8.1-7 Concentric dehydration tank
Figure 8.1-8 Electrostatic coalescers
Figure 8.1-9 Allowable liquid flux rates for FWKO tanks and separators
Figure 8.1-10 Allowable oil flux rates for tanks and separators
Figure 8.1-11 Heat capacity of normal pour point crudes
Figure 8.1-12 Allowable oil flux rates for electrostatic coalescers
Figure 8.2-1 API interceptor showing typical arrangement for two parallel basins
Figure 8.2-2 Viscosity of water - variation with temperature
VH
Figure 8.2-3 Recommended values of F for various values of
Vt
Figure 8.2-4 CPI interceptor
Figure 8.2-5 Dissolved gas flotation unit
Figure 8.2-6 Dispersed gas flotation unit
Figure 8.2-7 Flocculation unit
Figure 8.2-8 Activated sludge biotreater
Figure 9.1-1 Design and execution of a water injection scheme
Figure 9.1-2 Block flow scheme for a typical water flood
Figure 9.1-3 Solubility of oxygen from air in fresh water
Figure 9.1-4 Effect of salinity and temperature on solubility of oxygen in water (from air at
1 bar pressure)
Figure 9.1-5 Residual oxygen vs. temperature for typical system using a combination of
Roots blower and liquid ring vacuum pump
Figure 9.1-6 Reaction of sodium sulphite with dissolved oxygen at various pH's
Figure 9.3-1 Rigid insulation on vertical tanks, vessel and piping over 400 mm
Figure 9.3-2 Flexible insulation on vertical tanks, vessels and piping over 400 mm
Figure 9.3-3 Angular support ring for insulation with sheets on vertical tanks, vessels and
piping over 400 mm
Figure 9.3-4 Support pins for flexible insulation on horizontal vessels
Volume 7

PROCESS ENGINEERING

PART II: GAS PROCESSING

CONTENTS

1 GENERAL
1.1 Terminology
1.2 Project Development
1.2.1 Data Gathering
1.2.1.1 Fluid Properties and Performance Data
1.2.1.2 Environmental Data
1.2.2 Project Specifications and Process Evaluation
1.2.3 Detailed Engineering

2 THE GAS CONSUMER

2.1 Gas Consumption
2.1.1 Gas Turbines
2.1.2 Steam Turbines and Combined Cycle
2.1.3 LPG/NGL Plants
2.1.4 LNG Plants
2.1.5 Refineries
2.1.6 Chemicals and Petrochemicals
2.1.7 Non-Chemical Industries
2.1.7.1 Cement
2.1.7.2 Paper and Paperboard
2.1.7.3 Aluminium
2.1.7.4 Glass
2.1.7.5 Ceramics
2.1.7.6 Iron and Steel

2.2 Load Factor

2.3 Gas Contracts
2.3.1 Summary of Important Points
2.3.2 General Points
2.3.3 Guidelines
2.4 Gas Specifications
2.4.1 Pipeline Transport
2.4.2 Gas Lift
2.4.3 Gas Injection
2.4.4 Fuel/industrial Use
2.4.5 Domestic Use
2.4.6 LPG/NGL Plants
2.4.7 LNG Plants

3 GAS PROPERTIES AND CALCULATION METHODS

3.1 Calculating with Gas Volumes
3.1.1 Standard Conditions
3.1.2 Volumetric Relationships
3.1.3 PETRONAS Recommendations
3.2 Calculation of Compressibility Factors (Rough)
3.2.1 Engineering Calculations
3.2.2 Gas Volume Measurement for Fiscalisation
3.3 Hydrocarbon Phase Behaviour - an Understanding of Phase Envelopes
3.4 Flash Calculations
3.4.1 Types of Flash Calculations
3.4.2 Other Calculations
3.5 Computer Programs for the Process Engineer
3.5.1 General Purpose Simulation Programs
3.5.2 Hydrate Calculations
3.5.3 Calculation of Compressibility Factors (Accurate)
3.5.4 Heavy Hydrocarbon Characterisation
3.6 Gas Testing General
3.6.1 Hydrocarbon Sampling and Analysis
3.6.2 Non-Hydrocarbon Sampling and Analysis
3.7 Toxicity of Hydrogen Sulphide Gas
3.8 Radioactive Elements in Natural Gas
3.8.1 Occurrence of Radioactive Elements
3.8.2 The Investigation Level
3.8.3 Calculation of the Investigation Level
3.8.4 Natural Gas and LPG for Domestic Consumption
3.8.5 Contamination of Gas Processing Equipment
3.8.6 Monitoring

4 GAS TREATING
4.1 Hydrate Formation and Prevention
4.1.1 Prediction of Hydrates
4.1.2 Prevention of Hydrates
4.1.3 General Comments
4.2 Gas Dew Point Reduction
4.3 Triethylene Glycol Contacting Dehydration Systems
4.4 Dry Desiccant Dehydrators
4.4.1 Design
4.4.2 Operating and Design Considerations
4.4.3 Other Comments
4.5 Gas Treaters
4.5.1 Treating Processes
4.5.1.1 Sulfinol
4.5.1.2 Amine Processes
4.5.1.3 Molecular Sieves
4.5.1.4 Stretford Process
4.5.1.5 Iron Sponge
4.5.1.6 Zinc Oxide
4.5.2 General Comments
4.6 Condensate Drying
4.6.1 Available Processes
4.6.1.1 Molecular Sieves
4.6.1.2 Gas Stripping

5 NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS RECOVERY

5.1 Principles of NGL Recovery
5.1.1 LTS Unit - Glycol Injection
5.1.2 LTS Unit - Hydrate Melting
5.1.3 Adsorption Unit
5.1.4 Refrigeration Plant
5.1.5 Turbo-Expander Plant
5.1.6 Lean Oil Plant
5.1.7 Method for Determining Potential Natural Gas Liquids in a Gas Stream
5.2 Light Ends Fractionation
5.3 Refrigeration Systems
5.4 NGL and LNG Product Specifications

6 DESIGN RULES FOR EQUIPMENT

6.1 Standard Specifications
6.2 Mechanical Design of Pressure Vessels
6.2.1 Design
6.2.2 Materials
6.2.3 Manufacture
6.2.4 Inspection and Testing
6.3 Gas/Liquid Separators
6.3.1 Service Applications
6.3.1.1 Knock-Out Drums
6.3.1.2 Demister Type Separators
6.3.1.3 Cyclone Separators
6.3.1.4 Filter Separators
6.3.1.5 Horizontal versus Vertical Vessels
6.3.2 Design Rules
6.3.2.1 Vessel Sizing General Rules
6.3.2.2 Surge Factors
6.3.2.3 Selection of Inlet Device
6.3.3 Sizing of Liquid-Filled Section of Vessels
6.3.3.1 Degassing
6.3.3.2 Liquid Slugs
6.3.3.3 Level Controls
6.3.4 Three-Phase Separation
6.3.4.1 Typical Examples
6.3.4.2 Three-Phase Separator Sizing
6.4 Heaters
6.4.1 Heating Systems
6.4.1.1 Direct
6.4.1.2 Indirect
6.4.2 Types of Heaters and Heat Transfer Systems
6.4.2.1 Fired Heaters
6.4.2.2 Bath Heaters
6.4.2.3 Electric Heaters
6.4.2.4 Waste Heat Recovery Units
6.4.2.5 Heaters for Steam Generation
6.4.3 Design Guidelines on Heaters and Associated Equipment
6.4.4 Testing
6.5 Heat Exchanger Sizing
6.5.1 Basic Equation
6.5.2 Approximate Sizing of Exchangers
6.5.3 Evaluation of Existing Exchangers
6.5.4 Specifying Heat Exchangers
6.6 Pressure Relief and Blowdown Systems
6.6.1 Applicable Codes
6.6.2 System Capacity
6.6.3 Temperatures During Blowdown
6.6.4 Blowdown of Vapours and Liquids
6.6.5 Flare Radiation
6.7 Utilities
6.7.1 Fuel Gas
6.7.2 Instrument Air
6.7.3 Heat Transfer Fluid Systems
6.7.4 Cooling Water Systems

7 RUNNING EQUIPMENT relocated to Volume 9

8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

SPECIMEN AMENDMENT SHEET

TABLES

Table 1.1-1 Gas terminology

Table 2.1-1 Gas turbine efficiencies
Table 2.1-2 Steam turbine combined cycle efficiencies
Table 2.1-3 LPG/NGL plants - variations in fuel gas requirements
Table 2.1-4 LNG ship boil-off rates
Table 2.1-5 LNG production patterns and fuel gas requirements
Table 2.1-6 Typical natural gas consumption rates
Table 2.1-7 Energy consumption in MJ/kg of cement
Table 2.1-8 Glass energy usage in MJ/kg
Table 2.2-1 Consumer demand load factor
Table 3.3-1 Composition of hydrocarbon mixtures in % mol
Table 3.6-1 Surface sampling and analysis of natural gas
Table 3.6-2 Sampling methods for non-hydrocarbon analysis
Table 3.6-3 Summary of required analysis
Table 4.2-1 Gas dew point reduction (a summary)
Table 4.3-1 Design of triethylene glycol (TEG) contacting dehydration system
Table 4.3-2 Operation of triethylene glycol contacting dehydration system
Table 6.3-1 General sizing rules
Table 6.3-2 Definition of symbols
Table 6.4-1 Heating systems - advantages, limitations and applications
Table 6.4-2 Indirect fired furnaces - dimensions and weights (approx.)
Table 6.4-3 Water-bath heater dimensions
FIGURES

Figure 2.1-1 Gas turbine drivers up to 10 MW

Figure 2.1-2 Gas turbine drivers over 10 MW
Figure 3.3-1 Pressure-temperature diagrams of hydrocarbon fluid systems
Figure 3.3-2 Multiple plot of reservoir fluid and separator gas phase envelopes
Figure 3.3-3 Multiple plot of treated gas phase envelopes
Figure 3.3-4 The effect of heavy-end characterisation on the medium-rich associated gas
phase envelope
Figure 3.3-5 The effect of heavy-end characterisation on the medium-rich non-associated
gas phase envelope
Figure 3.3-6 The effect of heavy-end characterisation on treated and untreated
medium-rich associated gas phase envelopes
Figure 3.3-7 Lean associated and very rich associated gas phase diagrams showing lines
of constant molar percent liquid
Figure 3.3-8 The effect of carbon dioxide on the medium-rich non-associated gas phase
envelope
Figure 3.3-9 The effect of hydrogen sulphide on the medium-rich non-associated gas
phase envelope
Figure 3.3-10 The effect of nitrogen on the medium-rich non-associated gas phase
envelope (dew point)
238
Figure 3.8-1 Decay scheme of the U natural series
Figure 6.2-1 Guide to BS 5500: unfired fusion welded pressure vessels
Figure 6.3-1 Vertical demister type separator
Figure 6.3-2 Horizontal demister type separator
Figure 6.3-3 SMS type separator
Figure 6.3-4 Minimum level control requirements for separators
Figure 6.3-5 Three-phase separation
Figure 6.3-6 Typical horizontal three-phase separator with parallel plates
Figure 6.4-1 Direct fired heating system
Figure 6.4-2 Indirect fired heating system
Figure 6.4-3 Typical bath heating system
Figure 6.4-4 Electric heater
PART I: OIL PROCESSING
1 OIL SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRODUCTION FACILITIES

1.1 Wellhead Fluid Specifications

In order to initiate the design of an oil handling and treating system the following information
should be obtained from the petroleum engineering department.

1.1.1 Flow Rates

3
The well flow rates of oil and associated gas may be separately expressed in m /s. Alternatively,
the oil flow rate may be given with the Gas/Oil Ratio (GOR) or the Gas/Liquid Ratio (GLR), both in
3 3
m /m .
The GOR is the volume of gas at standard conditions of pressure and temperature per unit of oil
production at the same conditions. The GLR relates the gas volume to the gross liquid flow of oil
and water. It should be recognised that the GOR after separation stages is not necessarily the
same as at wellhead conditions, so care must be taken to quote the relevant conditions.

1.1.2 Pressures

Closed In Tubing Head Pressure (CTHP) is the maximum pressure that a well will build up to,
following a prolonged shut-in of the well.
Flowing Tubing Head Pressure (FTHP) is the normal pressure at the wellhead during production.
Flow Line Pressure (FLP) is the pressure at the wellhead flow-line connecting point, downstream
of the wellhead choke.
Flow lines are normally designed with pressure relief valves for CTHP, but for sizing and flow
rates a value of 0.6 x FTHP is customary. These figures usually involve a compromise between
reservoir production (which favours a low back pressure and hence a low final FTHP) and oil
disposal and processing which require a higher flowing pressure.

1.1.3 Temperatures

The following information on temperature is required:

- Wellhead flowing temperature (°C).
- Local ambient temperature, e.g. to assess cooling in subsea flow lines.
1.1.4 Viscosity

Viscosity is expressed in mPa ⋅ s (which is equal to centipoise, cP) at wellhead temperature.

Related information will be the paraffin wax content (% by weight) and the associated Pour Point
(°C) and Cloud Point (°C). The Pour Point is the lowest temperature, expressed as a multiple of
3 °C (5 °F), at which the oil is observed to flow when cooled and examined under prescribed
conditions. The Cloud Point is that temperature, expressed as a multiple of 1 °C (2 °F), at which a
cloud or haze of wax crystals appears at the bottom of the test jar when the oil is cooled under
prescribed conditions.
A crude oil with viscosity greater than approximately 1 Pa ⋅ s (1000 cP) or a density greater than
3
960 kg/m or with a Pour Point above local ambient temperature can be identified as an oil
requiring special handling. There is a relationship between viscosity and relative density
(Figures 1-1, 1-2).

Note: Relative density in °API =

1.1.5 Water Cut

Water Cut is usually expressed as % by volume of gross production. Due provision should be
made in the design for the increase in water cut which normally occurs over the field's life.

1.1.6 Analysis

A complete analysis of the oil and gas is highly desirable. The gas composition should be
determined by gas liquid chromatography. The oil composition should be determined by a true
boiling point distillation which includes measurement of the density, molecular weight and weight
percent of each fraction. Particularly to be noted are any high values for sulphur in the oil or CO2,
H2S or N2 in the gas. H2S values above 70 mg/kg in oil or 5 mg/kg in gas may require special
treatment and equipment specification. (See Part II for gas specifications and toxicity of H2S
respectively.)

1.1.7 General

Other items to be highlighted, if applicable, are: - Sand production

- Decline of pressures and volumes during production
- Provisions for flaring, gas lift, water injection, gas injection, gas compression, sale and
fiscalisation metering requirements
- Regulatory effluent limits.
Figure 1-1 Viscosity of stabilised crude oil
nd
(Source : Gas Conditioning and Processing, 2 Ed., Campbell Petroleum Series, Inc., 1970)
Figure 1-2 Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids
(Source : GPSA SI Engineering Bata Book, 1980)
1.2 Export Specifications

1.2.1 Vapour Pressure

The vapour pressure limits at the loading port, during the loaded voyage and at the discharge port
all need to be taken into account before loading high vapour pressure cargoes.

At the loading port and during the loaded voyage a maximum permissible true vapour pressure
(TVP) of 110 kPa (16 psia) is acceptable. (This TVP limit corresponds to that set by Shell
International Marine but it is more or less consistent with that used by other crude carriers).

At the discharge port the TVP of the cargo should not exceed 83 kPa (12.5 psia) at the ship's
tanks offloading temperature (assume 27 °C for temperate climates).

Note that Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) is by definition quoted at 100 °F and is different from the
TVP due to air in the measurement cylinder. The RVP depends strongly on the actual cargo
composition. It is therefore advisable to establish the variation of TVP with temperature and the
corresponding RVP using a crude analysis and a process simulation program (to model the RVP
measurement procedure). This is preferable to using the TVP/RVP correlations commonly found
in the literature.

1.2.2 Water Content

Crude oil should be delivered 'technically dry' with minimum free water and a residual sediment
and water content (S and W) generally not exceeding 0.2% (by volume) for light crudes and 0.5%
for heavy crudes (1 Pa ⋅ s and below).

1.2.3 Salt Content

3
The salt content is normally limited to about 70 g/m (to control fouling of heating equipment in
refineries).
2 FLOW SCHEMES

2.1 Types of Scheme with Definitions

2.1.1 Process Flow Scheme (PFS)

The PFS is a document containing information on:

- Process conditions and physical data of the main process streams
- Main process equipment with design data
- Main process lines
- Main controls
- Mass (material) balance
- Heat balance (if applicable).

2.1.2 Process Engineering Flow Scheme (PEFS)

The PEFS is a document containing detailed design/engineering data on:

- Process equipment, lines, valves, drains, vents, instruments, controls, sample connections,
relief valves and on all other equipment directly related to the process.

2.1.3 Process Engineering Utility Flow Scheme (PEUFS)

The PEUFS is a document containing information on:

- Main distribution and/or collection arrangement of each individual utility system, except
electrical systems. Detailed design/engineering data are given as on the PEFS mentioned
above. In addition the PEUFS shows the mass and heat balances of the system concerned.
Note: The PEUFS is usually the first schematic document prepared for a certain utility. Only for
very large utility systems is a Process Utility Flow Scheme (PUFS) prepared first.

2.1.4 Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme (PSFS)

The PSFS is a document highlighting information on:

- Types and levels of protection offered by the devices installed and their interrelation to
demonstrate the plant's safety.
2.2 Functions of the Individual Schemes

2.2.1 Process Flow Scheme (PFS)

The PFS stating process conditions and physical data for design conditions shall serve as a basis
for:
- Advanced ordering of special/long delivery equipment/materials based on the Preliminary
Project Planning
- Obtaining a preliminary equipment summary list
- Composing preliminary plant layout
- Preparing preliminary cost estimate (25-40% accuracy)
- Preparation of the PEFS with data sheets.
- Preliminary risk analysis.

2.2.2 Process Engineering Flow Scheme (PEFS)

The PEFS based on the PFS shall contain detailed information (sizing and specification) required
for engineering purposes and serve as a basis for:
- Planning schedule
- Final plant layout development together with hazardous areas classification
- Preparing piping, instrument, safety relief valve and level gauge data sheets
- Construction contract specifications
- Developing piping layout drawings
- Bulk material ordering (piping, electrical, instrumentation, civil)
- Remaining equipment ordering
- Final capital cost estimate (engineering, purchasing and construction) 10% accuracy
- HAZOP studies/safety reviews
- Operations review
- Stating special requirements for start-up and shut-down.

2.2.3 Process Engineering Utility Flow Scheme (PEUFS)

The PEUFS shall state characteristics and consumption figures of the particular utility concerned,
cooling water, fire water, drinking water, steam, plant air, instrument air, fuel oil/gas, inert gas and
similar utilities. When serving different processing plants isolating facilities are to be provided for
each process plant.
The basic use of the PEUFS follows the general principles and details as described for the PEFS
above.
For an electrical utility system the electrical engineer prepares an electrical key diagram and
electrical load summary sheets. In principle these documents serve the same purpose as the
PEUFSs.

2.2.4 Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme (PSFS)

The PSFS shall state in detail identification and clarification of the essential detecting devices and
their relation to one another, as well as the related emergency shut-down facilities.
The PEFS contains all information required for a PSFS; however, the PSFS highlights protection
in case of extreme conditions and measures to be taken to safeguard personnel and environment.

Note: In general these schemes will only be made for complex installations like offshore process
platforms. For simple applications the information shown on the PEFS is usually sufficient to
highlight safety devices and aspects.
2.3 Development of Flow Schemes

2.3.1 Process Flow Scheme (PFS)

The set-up and arrangement of a PFS with legend, symbols, unit of measurement, etc. is in fact
the first step of translating the process principle by means of a schematic into process lines,
equipment and main control instruments, also showing the process values such as flow rates
under working/design conditions, temperatures, pressure, density, etc.
The schemes are to be set up in accordance with the appropriate PTS manuals.
The main steps for developing such schemes are:
- Collection of basic design data such as physical/chemical design data, product specification,
throughput, laboratory results, operating conditions, utilities, safety/pollution aspects, tie-ins,
etc
- Determination of main equipment to be applied
- Preparation of material balance and heat loads.

2.3.2 Process Engineering Flow Scheme (PEFS)

Using the PFS as a basis, steps for developing a PEFS are:

- Calculations on process equipment and pipelines for normal and alternative operating modes,
e.g. start-up, shut-down, drop-out and pressure relief mode
- Preparation of data, data requisition and summary sheets for equipment, instrumentation and
piping (for specimen data/requisition sheets see PTS 30.10.01.10)
- Determining and applying the relative standards and PTS manuals.

2.3.3 Process Engineering Utility Flow Scheme (PEUFS)

Using the PEFS as a basis, the steps for developing a PEUFS are basically identical to those of
the PEFS. Usually the PEUFS are complementary to the PEFS.

2.3.4 Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme (PSFS)

Using a PEFS as a basis, the PSFS serves to highlight equipment and instrument devices
required to provide protection against uncontrolled conditions/operations. Examples are: bypasses,
start-up lines, control stations, shut-down and blowdown systems. Instructions on how to use
these facilities can then be prepared.
2.4 Relationship Between Process Flow Schemes and Project Development

Activities to be planned during the development of process and utility flow schemes such as
project planning, estimate of capital cost, preliminary layout of plant and critical
equipments/material ordering are indicated in Figure 2.4-1. (See also E&P Project Management
Guideline.)
The extent to which each of these activities should be carried out must be in proportion to the size
of the operation and requires sound judgement in each particular application.

Figure 2.4-1 Flow schemes and project development

2.5 Legend and Symbols

For the various symbols to be used on flow schemes, refer to:

PTS 31.10.03.10. Symbols and identification system - Mechanical
PTS 32.10.03.10. Symbols and identification system - Instrumentation, Part 1 - Process
(engineering) flow schemes
PTS 33.10.03.10. Symbols identification systems - Electrical

2.6 Typical Examples

See Figures 2.6-1 and 2.6-2

Figure 2.6-1 Typical PFS - Gas/oil separation (HP/LP separation)

Figure 2.6-2 Typical PEFS - Crude oil dehydration unit
Figure 2.6-1 Typical Flow Scheme – gas/oil separation (see legend next page)
Figure 2.6-1 (continued) Legend)
Figure 2.6-2 Typical Process Engineering Flow Scheme – crude oil dehydration unit
2.7 HAZOP Studies

Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) studies can be defined as: A formal systematic critical
examination of the process design, engineering and operations intentions of a facility to assess the
hazard potential of maloperation or malfunction of individual items of equipment and the
consequential effects on the facility as a whole. (See also Volume 1 under 'Health, Safety and
Environment'.)

Study Description
Essentially the examination procedure works by using a full description of the process, and
systematically questioning every part of it to discover how deviations from the intention of the
design can occur and to decide whether these deviations can give rise to hazards.

The questioning is focused in turn on every part of the design. Each part is subjected to a number
of questions formulated around a number of 'guide words' which are derived from method study. In
effect, the 'guide words' are used to ensure that the questions which are posed to test the integrity
of each part of the design, will explore every conceivable way in which that design could deviate
from the design conditions. This usually produces a number of theoretical deviations and each
deviation is then considered separately to decide how it could be caused and what would be the
consequences.
Some of the causes may be unrealistic and so the derived consequences will be rejected as not
meaningful. Some of these consequences may be trivial and would not be considered further.

The deviations with causes that are conceivable and consequences that are potentially hazardous
or may give rise to operational problems, are then noted for remedial action.

Having examined one part of the design and recorded any potential hazards associated with it, the
study progresses to focus on the next part of the design. The examination is repeated until the
whole plant has been studied.

The quality control engineer and/or the safety engineer are the authorities to be contacted for the
set-up of a HAZOP study and team.
The project design engineer is responsible for taking the initiative at the right moment and
ensuring timely results.
SECTION 3 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION,
FORMERLY INCLUDED HERE, HAS BEEN INCORPORATED IN
VOLUME 9.
4 EQUIPMENT SELECTION

4.1 Duty

A first selection based on initial operating conditions should be made from process flow sheet data
(see 1 and 2) including:
- Volume
- Pressure
- Temperature
- Fluid characteristics and analysis for both upstream and downstream conditions.
This selection must be checked against alternative operating conditions. Allowance should be
made for intermittent operation, for start-up/shut-down etc., and for future changes which usually
include:
- Turndown ratio
- Declining pressures
- Declining volumes
- Declining temperatures
- Increasing water content
- Corrosion, wax build-up and other fouling.
Where thermodynamic processes are involved, e.g. heat exchangers, changes of water in oil
content are particularly significant.
Declining wellhead and separator pressures, increasing injection pressures and changing volumes
are all common during operating service life.

4.2 Sizing

Initial sizing will be developed as part of the duty requirements (4.1 above), taking into account
both initial and future service. Each component must also be seen as part of a functional system.
Hence the sizing will need to be adjusted to take account of:
- Flexibility of the equipment
- Required availability of plant
- Sparing policy (or maintenance strategy)
- Costs.
Remember that equipment cost is not linearly incremental with size, but jumps in discrete steps.
The economics of selecting more of smaller units or better-utilising the available capacity of larger
units must be studied.
(For sizing methods, see elsewhere in this and other Volumes.)
4.3 Availability and Sparing

The target (un)availability of different systems within a plant may be derived from their contribution
to overall production availability:

Vital services are defined as those which, in the event of failure (or reduced output), could lead to
a widespread and/or prolonged shutdown of other systems within the plant. These include most
life support and safety systems (see Chapter 11). Running equipment and ancillary services in
vital service should normally be 100% spared, i.e. full capacity available with one unit down.
Examples are: 2 x 100% units, 3 x 50%, 4 x 34%, etc.

Essential services are those which, in the event of failure, would result in the plant not being
available to process full throughput. Such items should be considered for 100% sparing.
Alternatively 2 x 75% or 2 x 50% capacity units could be installed to handle scheduled and
unscheduled shutdowns.

Non-essential services are those whose failure will not directly affect throughput or safety. Such
items are not normally spared.

It should be noted that ancillary services (such as instrument air) may be classified as vital and so
100% spared. Standby equipment may require particular starting conditions; e.g. fire pumps
should be 100% spared, one diesel and one electric drive.

The sparing policy needs careful consideration to maximise availability at minimum cost over the
whole design life. The production or revenue loss due to equipment unavailability should be
compared with the capital costs of redundant equipment and the operating costs of maintenance.

Note: The definition of availability, both for components and systems, is:

Availability = ' up' time '

total ' downtime ' + ' up' time

In this definition, 'downtime' includes both scheduled and unprogrammed maintenance

shut-downs, while 'up' means actually 'up' or capable of being ‘up'.
4.4 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

For complex plant, significant failure modes should be identified and an evaluation made of their
effect on the production system (see also Volume 1 under HSE). The importance of subsystems
will be governed by the plant configuration, chosen from: -
(a) Single 100% stream
(b) Multi-stream  n × 100% 
 
 n 
(c) Redundant units  m from n × 100%  (n > m)
 
 n 
(d) Redundant capacity  n × 100%  (n > m)
 
 m 

When several systems are interdependent, a matrix of causes and effects is a useful form of
presentation. The selection of plant configuration is closely connected to the maintenance
strategy, and so is both a technical and an economic choice. A full FMEA should provide a
prediction of percentage availability.
When comparing large single units with multiple systems bear in mind that, although multiple units
may appear to offer better availability, this is reduced by the (un)reliability of shared peripheral
equipment (such as instrument air). Also, the larger number of units will be more maintenance
intensive.

4.5 Specifications

General specifications for equipment can be extracted from API or PTS references. Standard
specification sheets are normally available within Operating Companies or from Group Materials
(MA).
Specifications should be made on the basis of the expected extremes in ambient and operating
conditions. Where fluids to be handled are of a corrosive nature this should be highlighted and
allowed for in the material specifications. If sour service conditions are possible, this should be
allowed for in the original specification.
The area classification must be included in any specification covering moving equipment or
electrical/instrumentation items. Where running equipment is specified and purchased separately
from the driver, the coupling should be incorporated in the running equipment supply.
All a manufacturer's non-standard features, modifications or instruments needed must be
specified before purchase, as their cost will be much higher at a later date. (Before purchase, the
competition between bidders should keep the premium paid to a minimum). Included in the
purchase order should be operating manuals, start-up spares and first year maintenance spares.
4.6 Evaluation

When evaluating equipment proposals, besides comparing duty and specifications, the following
considerations apply:

Proven Reliability
Avoid purchasing prototypes, particularly offshore or where specialist personnel are not readily
available. Select equipment with proven reliability in similar duties and environment. (See also Vol.
9, under Availability and Reliability Assessment)

Maintainability
Equipment design should be checked for ease of maintenance:
- On-site maintenance vs. removal
- Accessibility of components/isolation requirements
- Modular replacement of components
- Availability of spare parts and exchange units
- Dimensions of largest component
- Availability of condition monitoring equipment
- Diagnostic connections.

Cost and Quality

It is emphasised that the equipment should be looked at from a comprehensive technical
standpoint, instead of automatically selecting the lowest bidder. Good specifications and bid
analysis should eliminate vendors who quote a low price, but pay little attention to the specification
and offer unsuitable or poor quality equipment. A satisfactory analysis of the bids requires detailed
spreadsheets to be prepared before a realistic selection can be made. When all serious bids have
been brought into line with the specification, there is usually only a very small price margin
between the bids.
Bid analysis for critical items should include an analysis of the vendor's Quality Assurance system
(see Volume 1), to ensure that the required quality will be consistently achieved. Vendors who do
not meet the criteria should have their bids penalised by an allowance for the additional inspection
costs which will be required.
SECTION 5 PIPING SYSTEMS, FORMERLY INCLUDED HERE,
HAS BEEN INCORPORATED IN VOLUME 9.
SECTION 6 PUMPS, FORMERLY INCLUDED HERE, HAS BEEN
INCORPORATED IN VOLUME 9.
7 TERMINALS

Terminals are defined as any installation, whether onshore or offshore, concerned with handling
and storage operations in PETRONAS context, involving primarily crude oil.
Various types of crude oil loading facilities are described and the principles of crude oil storage at
the interface are reviewed. However, it is beyond the scope of this handbook to deal with Floating
Production and Storage Units (FPSU) and Floating Storage Units (FSU) in any detail as such
design concepts are continually evolving and very site-specific (for the most recent developments
advice may be obtained from PETRONAS)
The importance of including reliable meteorological and oceanographic data when optimising
design/cost considerations, both for onshore and offshore structures, is emphasised.

7.1 Crude Oil Loading Facilities

For crude oil exports very large tankers are often used.
Depending on local sea conditions, tanker sizes and environmental conditions, terminals are
designed along the following lines:
- Land-site storage centres with land-site tanker berthing facilities
- Land-site storage centres with offshore tanker mooring and loading facilities
- Offshore storage centres with offshore mooring and loading facilities
Design considerations are:
- Type and location of facility
- Type of hydrocarbons to be handled
- Deballasting facilities
- Arrival pattern of tankers
- Type and size of tankers
- Location of shipping lanes
- Special loading facilities requirement
- Environmental considerations
• Prevailing winds
• Currents
• Waves
• Water depth
• General weather conditions
• Requirements of dredging operations
- Fire protection and safety requirements (Refs. 1, 2 and 3)*)

*) See also 'Health, Safety and Environment' in Volume 1.

- Oil pollution prevention and control (Ref. 2)*)
- Maintenance requirements
- Volume to be handled and consequence of downtime.

A partial list of the loading facilities includes:

- Jetty type facility (fixed berth)
- Sea islands (fixed berth)
- Conventional or multibuoy mooring system (fixed heading berth)
- Single point mooring (SPM)
- Storage tanker loading system.

7.1.1 Jetty Type Facilities

See Figure 7.1-1

Jetties are usually located in sheltered harbours or waterways and provide easy access between
ship and terminal (Ref. 4). The simplest of these is the T-head jetty built out into deep water. In a
protected area this is the most preferred system from an operational point of view, but its use is
restricted to comparatively sheltered areas where deep water lies close to shore. An additional
advantage is the minimum length for pipelines. The access bridge is a fixed structure, being land
fill or piles or both. Mooring and loading facilities are on the jetty. Tankers require tug assistance to
moor or unmoor. The advantage of jetty terminals is the easy accessibility to the tanker. Some of
the disadvantages of jetty terminals include:
- Location restricted to specific geographical areas
- Constant dredging of channel required
- Requirement of tug assistance
- Heavily used port facilities have traffic problems and usually limited docking space
- Some ship and jetty damage can occur during mooring, loading and unloading operations
- Unfavourable consequences of adverse current, wind and sea conditions.

7.1.2 Sea Islands

A fixed berth consisting of a platform with unloading facilities connected to the shore by submarine
pipelines, and provided with breasting and mooring dolphins, is called a sea island (Ref. 4).
The use of sea islands is restricted to comparatively sheltered locations where the effects of wind,
waves and currents on the ship's operations are minimised, e.g. depending on wind direction a
1-2 m wave height may be sufficient to prevent mooring, or cause unacceptable loads on moorings
resulting in evacuation of the berth.
7.1.3 Conventional Buoy Mooring (CBM) or Multi-Buoy Moorings

See Figure 7.1-2

In this system the ship is moored in a fixed position between a number of anchored buoys. Cargo
transfer takes place through cargo hoses connected to a submarine pipeline from the shore.
When berthing, the tanker makes use of one or more of her anchors to keep herself in position,
while anchor lines are brought out to the buoys by means of mooring launches.
After having manoeuvered and moored into position between the buoys, the tanker will pick up the
hoses lying on the sea bed and connected to a marker buoy.
Due to the fixed heading, the CBM has to be designed for unfavourable sea conditions striking the
tanker from any conceivable direction. Consequently many heavy anchor chains are required to
hold the tanker. This type of mooring operation becomes cumbersome and time consuming.

7.1.4 Single Point Mooring (SPM)

A Single Point Mooring (SPM) is a tanker berthing facility to which a tanker is moored and through
which it can load or discharge its cargo (Ref. 5). The tanker is free to swing around this centre
point, following the prevailing wind, current and waves acting on the tanker.
Mooring is a simple operation which makes tug assistance at most locations unnecessary. The
downtime comparison of a monobuoy versus a fixed berth varies dependent upon the particular
geographical area under consideration.
Although several types of SPMs have been developed, the most applied SPM is the catenary
anchor leg mooring (CALM) (see Figure 7.1-3).
The Single Buoy Mooring (SBM) includes a floating buoy carrying a mooring and loading swivel
and floating hoses.
The size of the buoy has to be sufficient to carry the weight of the anchor chains. Floating oil
hoses have to be of sufficient length to bridge the distance between the floating buoy and the
midship manifold at the tanker.
Berthing limitations are dictated by the operations of mooring launches required to connect
hawsers and hoses.
For rough and deepwater locations, column stabilised SPM facilities have been developed to
minimise weather downtime (see Figures 7.1-4 and 5). At these facilities self-mooring is applied,
making tanker berthing and loading feasible in fairly rough seas. As these facilities require the use
of dedicated tankers their application is limited mainly to North Sea locations.
7.1.5 Storage Tanker Loading System

In remote areas where terminal construction may take years or reserves do not justify the capital
investment for storage facilities, permanently moored tankers may be considered as floating
storage facilities. Such facilities can also be used as temporary facilities allowing the export of
crude while the terminal and pipeline connections are being constructed.
These systems require that a larger tanker be moored in position through a multiple anchor
system. Crude oil is delivered to the stationary tanker by pipeline from the platforms and/or
gathering centres (often the tanker itself is used as a gathering, separation and dehydration
centre).
Crude oil carriers berth alongside the stationary tanker and take on crude oil either directly or
through an SBM (see Figure 7.1-6).
Alternatively the stationary tanker can be moored to a SPM (see Figure 7.1-7).
The system has the advantages of being relatively fast to implement and has lower initial capital
investment. Disadvantages can include tanker rental or lease costs, weather restrictions on
operations, berthing problems, potential damages to both tankers and slow turnaround on loading
operations.
Figure 7.1-1 Jetty type terminal
Figure 7.1-2 Conventional buoy mooring system (CBM)
Figure 7.1-3 Single buoy mooring (SBM)
Figure 7.1-4 Exposed location single buoy mooring (ELSBM)
Figure 7.1-5 Spar type storage terminal
Figure 7.1-6 Single buoy storage system
Figure 7.1-7 Offshore storage/export system
7.2 Oil Storage Tank Farms

This Section considers the design, construction, operation, maintenance and safety aspects of
steel, vertical cylindrical storage tanks and applies to tanks and tank farms for crude oils. Oil
products (with the exception of LPG/LNG) are only handled to a minor degree in PETOTRONAS
operations, e.g. for utilities and transport systems.

7.2.1 Layout

The layout of storage tanks and their spacing should always take into consideration the
accessibility needed for fire-fighting and the potential value of a tank farm in providing a buffer
area between process plant and public roads, houses, etc. for safety and environmental reasons.
The location of tankage relative to process units must be such as to ensure maximum safety from
possible incidents.
Primary requirements for the layout of refinery tank farms are summarised as follows:

- Inter-tank spacings and separation distances between tank and boundary line and tank and
other facilities are of fundamental importance.
3
- All tanks shall be accessible by road (except tanks smaller than 600 m ) and/or footway.
- Suitable roadways should be provided for approach to tank sites by mobile fire-fighting
equipment and personnel.
- The fire-water system should be laid out to provide adequate fire protection to all parts of the
storage area and the transfer facilities.
- It is a requirement that each individual tank can be approached from two sides for
fire-fighting purposes.
- Bunding and draining of the area surrounding the tanks should be such that a spillage from
any tank can be controlled to minimise subsequent damage to the tank and its contents.
They should also minimise the possibility of other tanks being involved.
Tank farms should preferably not be located at higher levels than process units in the same
catchment area, but nevertheless at a sufficiently high level to ensure:
(a) Easy drainage of production water to the water treatment plant
(b) Sufficient NPSH to suction booster pumps. When establishing levels of bottom of tanks,
settlement should also be taken into account.

Storage tanks holding flammable liquids should be installed in such a way that any spill will not
flow towards a process area or any other source of ignition.
For spacing refer to latest issue of Institute of Petroleum, Refining Safety Code.
7.2.2 Tank Foundations

The main purpose of a tank foundation is to transmit the load of the tank and its contents to the
subsoil within the limited (even or uneven) settlement range which the tank structure is able to
withstand (see Figure 7.2-1). Another purpose is to keep the tank bottom free from ground water
and surface water. The tank pad height as a function of the above requirements shall normally, for
practical reasons, be not less than 0.50 m. A tank foundation generally consists of a tank pad of
well compacted granular material. The outer part of the pad is called the shoulder and is an
integral part of the foundation. It supports the tank wall and confines the tank pad body. Shoulder
surfacing is generally a flexible type of cladding that can adjust to settlement of the foundation and
deformation of the tank bottom.
This type of foundation is exposed to settlement particularly when subsoil is sensitive to load
effects. Piled tank foundations are not subject to this disadvantage.
When settlement (even or uneven) is excessive it may be necessary to:
- relevel the foundation under the tank shell to remove uneven settlement areas
- jack up the tank (approximately 2-2.5 m for access under the tank bottom) and to repair the
foundation. The tank is then lowered on to the repaired and relevelled foundation.
A typical tank foundation is shown in Figure 7.2-1.

7.2.3 Storage Tanks

Requirements are laid down in two PTS specifications, viz. PTS 34.51.01.31 for design and
fabrication, and PTS 64.51.01.31 for erection and testing.
Both PTSs are intended to instruct engineering contractors/tank manufacturers/suppliers in
fulfilling Group requirements and enable them to incorporate any applicable local standards
required by the authorities.

7.2.3.1 Types of Vertical Tanks

Standard vertical tanks are available in several types which differ in vapour saving efficiency and in
costs. The various types of standard vertical tank are shown in Table 7.2-1. It should be noted that
each type is not available in the full range of diameters.
Figure 7.2-1 Schematic diagram of typical tank foundation
Table 7.2-1 Types of standard vertical tanks

1
) The standard tank drawings are based on 2 m wide shell plates.
2
) To be used for these diameters only after consultation with PETRONAS.
All tanks in the standard range are designated by a reference code, which consists of a three-letter
prefix indicating the tank type, followed by a numerical group indicating the dimensions of the tank.
The initial letter B of the prefix indicates that the shell is butt-welded.
The first part of the numerical group indicates the diameter of the tank in metres, the second part
indicates the height of the tank in metres.
The following letter prefixes are used to identify the standard tanks described in this section.
BHC = High-pressure cone roof tank
BLC = Low-pressure cone roof tank
BNC = Non-pressure cone roof tank
BHD = High-pressure dome roof tank
BLD = Low-pressure dome roof tank
BND = Non-pressure dome roof tank
BOT = Open top tank
BOF = Open top tank with floating roof
Examples of the use of the code are as follows:
High-pressure cone roof tank,
15 m diameter, 12 m high BHC 15/12
Low-pressure cone roof tank,
33 m diameter, 16 m high BLC 33/16
Non-pressure cone roof tank,
42 m diameter, 18 m high BNC 42/18
High-pressure dome roof tank,
15 m diameter, 15 m high BHD 15/15
Low-pressure dome roof tank,
20 m diameter, 20 m high BLD 20/20
Non pressure dome roof tank,
36 m diameter, 18 m high BND 36/18
Open top tank,
17.5 m diameter, 15 m high BOT 17.5/15
Open top tank with floating roof,
48 m diameter, 22 m high BOF 48/22
The various types of standard tanks in order of increasing vapour-saving efficiency and the range
of diameters in which each types is available, are described below.

(a) Open top tanks (coded BOT)

This tank type has no roof and is therefore normally not recommended for storage of petroleum
products.
(b) Fixed roof tanks
Fixed roof tanks can be divided into cone roof and dome roof types. Each type can be divided into
non-pressure, low-pressure and high-pressure fixed roof tanks.
Non-pressure fixed roof tanks are suitable for storage at atmospheric pressure and are therefore
provided with open vents.
Low-pressure fixed roof tanks are designed to operate at low internal pressure or vacuum. They
are provided with pressure/vacuum breather valves set to be fully open at the design pressure.
High-pressure fixed roof tanks are designed to operate at higher internal pressure or vacuum and
are also fitted with pressure/vacuum breather valves set to be fully open at the design pressure.
This type of tank type always needs additional requirements to obtain stability (see 7.2.3.3).
For each type the maximum design conditions and the diameters available are given in Tables
7.2-2 and 7.2-3.

Table 7.2-2 Cone roof tanks

1
) This category shall only be used after consultation with Central Offices.

The roof structures for tanks of 3 to 12.5 m inclusive are self-supporting and consist of folded
sheets or flat sheets on an internal rafter frame. The roof structures for the larger sizes are also
self-supporting by using internal truss framing.
Roof sheets shall remain loose from the internal supporting frame and fixed by a seal weld at the
top curb angle of the tank shell only.

Table 7.2-3 Dome roof tanks

Note: This type of roof is supported by a frame of internal curved rafter beams. In general dome
roof tanks are used for special cases only.
Fixed roof tanks with internal floating cover
A fixed roof tank may be provided with an internal floating cover to reduce the vapour losses and
air pollution. It is recommended that their use is limited to tanks with a maximum diameter of 39 m.
In general the floating covers shall be in accordance with the requirements of BS 2654, i.e.
adequate ventilation is required in the upper part of the tank. In special cases closed fixed roof
tanks with pressure/vacuum valves may be used. Preferably the floating covers of the
self-buoyancy type shall be used. The advice of Central Offices is recommended. The tanks
provided with floating covers shall always be equipped with high level alarms.

(c) Floating roof tanks (coded BOF)

This type of tank operates at atmospheric pressure, the small rim vapour space being freely
vented. In general they are recommended for diameters of 15 m and over.
The diameter of a floating roof tank shall at least be equal to its height to enable the use of a
normal rolling ladder for access to the roof. Floating roofs are of the single deck pontoon type or of
the double deck type.
Floating roofs shall fulfil the design requirements specified in BS 2654. The true vapour pressure
(TVP) for products or crude stored in floating roof tanks should not exceed 86 kPa (12.5 psia) at
the storage temperature.

7.2.3.2 Selection of Vertical Tanks

Table 7.2-4 shows the types and ranges of tanks recommended for storage of different classes of
petroleum products. Products or crude to be stored in floating roof tanks shall have a TVP of 86
kPa (12.5 psia) maximum at the storage temperature.
Factors such as evaporation losses, pumping losses, climatic conditions, air pollution, soil
conditions and local regulations have also to be taken into consideration when selecting the most
suitable type(s) and size(s) of tanks.

7.2.3.3 Stability

Figure 7.2-2 shows a world map marked with local maximum wind gust velocities measured in
miles per hour; the values are approximate and should be accepted only as a rough indication of
the winds which may be encountered.
The standard range of tanks has been calculated to be stable in winds of up to 160 km per hour
with the following exceptions:
- All tanks coded BHC and BHD
Table 7.2-4 Selection of vertical storage tanks

Note: For tanks up to 39 m incl., when storing certain class I and II products, a fixed roof with floating cover may be used, especially as an
alternative for the BOF-type, when rain water penetrating between shell and seal may have an adverse effect on the quality of the product
stored.
Figure 7.2-2 World map showing high wind areas and maximum gust velocities
Figure 7.2-3 Determination of tank stability in high winds (1-minute wind gusts)

Notes:
1. As a rough indication it may be assumed that BNC, BLC, BND and BLD tanks in sizes above
the dotted line are stable in winds less than 160 km/h (100 mph) when at least 0.5 m of
product is present in the tank.
Such BNC, BND and BLD tanks in sizes marked with hatching are unstable in winds of
160 km/h (100 mph) or more.
2. Tanks coded BHC and BHD shall always be fitted with anchor bolts and concrete foundation
rings or shell-to-bottom brackets.
3. Detailed stability calculations shall be made to determine whether a tank of a certain size is
stable for a specified wind speed.
- Certain tanks coded BNC, BLC, BND, BLID with diameters less than 15 m, as listed in
Figure 7.2-3.

Unstable tanks shall be provided with anchor bolts and concrete foundation rings, or
shell-to-bottom brackets in order to prevent uplift. Shell-to-bottom brackets shall not be used for
tanks with diameters exceeding 12.5 metres. Uplift is caused by the internal vapour pressure
acting against the underside of the roof, and wind load. A stability calculation shall be made to
determine the number of anchor bolts required.
For the stability calculation (overturning) of the tank a 1-minute wind gust shall be applied. For the
buckling calculation of the shell plates a 3-second wind gust shall be applied. It shall be checked
by the manufacturer whether local regulations require more stringent requirements.

7.2.3.4 Capacities of Storage Tanks

Table 7.2-5 lists the capacities of all tanks in the standard range.

When selecting tank dimensions it shall be realised that the effective operational storage capacity
is increased when the ratio tank diameter tank height is decreased.
The tank height to be applied shall be based on the results of the soil investigation report. Uneven
settlements of the tank foundation shall be reduced to the minimum. The amount of expected
settlement of the tank foundation shall be considered and included in the overall tank concept.

The nomenclature for fixed roof and floating roof tanks is shown in Figure 7.2-4.

Figure 7.2-4 Nomenclature for fixed and floating roof tanks

Table 7.2-5 Nominal capacities of standard vertical cylindrical tanks
Table 7.2-5 (continued)
Notes:
Nominal capacities of tanks are calculated on the assumption that the tank has a flat bottom and is filled to the top of the shell plates.
The net capacity of fixed roof tanks should take into a dead stock at the bottom of approx. 0.3 m and the fact that the maximum safe working
level at the top is taken 0.2 m below the top curb angle.
The diameter of a floating roof tank should at least be equal to its height (see 7.2.3.1(c))
The net capacity of a floating roof tank is less than the tabulated nominal capacity by approx. 2.0 of its height. This is because the dead stock
of approx. 1.2 m to keep the roof floating and the fact that the maximum working level at the top is approx. 0.8 m below the top curb angle.
When a wind skirt is applied at the top of the shell the net capacity is less than the tabulated nominal capacity by approx. 1.2 m of its height.
The next capacity of a fixed roof tank with a floating cover is considerably less than the tabulated nominal capacity.
A dead stock of approx. 1.6 m is needed to keep the cover floating. For dome roofs and cone roofs up to 12.5 m a maximum safe working
level at the top is taken 0.6 m below the top curb angle and for cone roofs over 15 m diameter this max. safe working level is 0.8-2 m below
the top curb angle, as the roof trusses protrude below the top of the shell.
In Table 7.2-5 the capacities are shown for a standard range of diameters. These diameters are
based on the application of the following standard lengths for shell plates (Table 7.2-6):

Table 7.2-6 Standard lengths for shell plates

The standard plate lengths are selected in accordance with plate lengths generally used in
Europe. The heights have not been standardised and Table 7.2-5 shows capacities for every
metre of tank height.
For a given tank height the manufacturer may choose the number of courses and the plate widths
to obtain the most economical solution.
It is strongly recommended that the standard diameters given above should be used.
Standardisation will reduce the possibility of errors in design, fabrication and erection as well as
the time required for approval of design drawings by the principal and authorities. For diameters
3 up to 60 m incl., standard drawings of fixed cone roofs are available; see PTS 34.51.01.31.

7.2.3.5 Pipeline Connections and Tank Fittings

Pipelines connected to the nozzles of tank shells made from medium high tensile steel shall be
designed in such a way that no significant bending moments or loads are acting on the nozzle.
The settlement of the tank, the outward movement of the shell and the inclination of the nozzle
under full hydrostatic load shall also be taken into account. For nozzles 50 cm (20 in.) and more in
diameter the use of bellows and balanced supports should be considered.
Large size shell nozzle connections, e.g. > 60 cm (24 in.) diameter, may influence the lowest
position of a floating roof and increase the 'dead stock'. In such a case it is recommended to
consider whether the application of two smaller shell nozzles is possible to reduce the 'dead
stock'.
For further reference on piping see PTS 31.38.01.11.
For tank fittings see PTS 34.51.01.31, Dec. 1983.
7.2.3.6 Required Venting Capacity

The venting capacity required shall be determined in accordance with the rules specified in
API Std 2000. These requirements shall be considered as minimum requirements. The capacity
of vents and relief valves shall always be more than adequate.
The venting requirements shall include the following conditions:
- Inbreathing resulting from a maximum outflow of oil from the tank.
- Inbreathing resulting from contraction of vapours caused by a maximum decreased in
atmospheric temperature; see also (a) below.
- Outbreathing resulting from a maximum inflow of oil into the tank and maximum evaporation
caused by such inflow.
- Outbreathing resulting from expansion and evaporation due to a maximum increase in
atmospheric temperature (thermal breathing).
- Outbreathing resulting from fire exposure*)

(a) Thermal venting

Special attention is required to the influence of a sudden drop in temperature due to rainfall, on the
venting requirements of tanks containing warm oil and tanks in tropical areas. A drop of 15-20 °C
or more in 15 minutes may be experienced.
Where these conditions apply the venting capacity for tanks with low pumping rates in particular,
shall be increased by at least 20% of the thermal venting capacity requirements.

(b) Breather valves and free vents

The number and sizes of breather valves and free vents required should be specified separately
owing to the large variations in pumping rate requirements, etc. The flow capacities of the breather
valves shall be based on data received from the valve manufacturer.
The maximum flow through a breather valve, when the pallet is fully open, occurs at a pressure
higher than that at which the valve pallet just commences to open, by an amount dependent on the
design of the valve and the weight of the pallet. The weight should be adjusted so that the pallet is
fully open when the pressure** just equals the pressure rating of the tank, i.e. 20 mbar for a
low-pressure tank or 56 mbar for a high-pressure tank, and just equals the vacuum rating of the
tank, i.e. 6.0 mbar for low-pressure and high-pressure tanks.

*) Tanks with a weak roof-to-shell attachment, which is the standard detail for tanks designed in
accordance with this specification, will most probably fail at this roof-to-shell connection preferably
than at any other joint. In this way excess pressure will be safely relieved, if normal and emergency
pressure relief valves should prove inadequate.
**) this is differential pressure = P inside tank minus P outside tank.
When deciding on the number of free vents required, their capacity shall be taken at a pressure of
7.5 mbar and a vacuum of 2.5 mbar.
Wire netting in the openings of free vents and breather valves to prevent nesting of birds shall
have minimum openings of 6 mm square. The use of fine-mesh screens as anti-flash protection is
not recommended because of the danger of blockage, especially under winter conditions.

(c) Roof nozzles

The flow characteristics of breather valves and free vents are influenced by the profile and length
of the roof nozzle. The taper nozzle allows a higher flow through the valve than an ordinary straight
nozzle. The increased flow may reduce the number of valves required, and this should be taken
into account when comparing capacity ratings.

(d) Increasing heights of tanks

When the storage capacity of an existing tank is increased by fitting additional courses of shell
plates, the venting capacity of the enlarged tank should be checked and increased, if necessary.
Relevant PTSs on vertical cylindrical storage tanks which give more information are listed under
Further Reading at the end of Part 1.

(e) Gas Blanketing

Gas blanketed tanks shall be at least BLC type tanks to enable pressure vacuum valves to be
fitted to safeguard the tanks independently of the pressure control system.

7.2.4 Bund Walls

The purpose of bund walls surrounding a tank or groups of tanks is to enable control of possible
spillage from any tank or as associaled pipework to minimise subsequent damage (see
Figure 7.2-5). Consequently bund walls serve as a first line of defence in case of an incident, e.g.
tank bottom failure or rupture of the filling/suction system by containing the spillage in the first
instance, thus providing time for corrective action to be implemented.
The height of the bund wall as measured from the outside ground level should be sufficient to
afford protection to personnel when engaged in firefighting and the wall should be located so that
reasonably close approach can be made to a tank fire to allow use of mobile fire-fighting
equipment. Generally bund walls are constructed from well compacted granular material covered
with a 5-10 cm (2-4 in.) layer of bitumen, cement or bitumen sand mixture (dependent on the
product). The bund wall top should be 0.75 m wide, with a maximum downward gradient of 1 to
1.5.
Figure 7.2-5 Schematic diagram of typical bund wall construction
Two or more tanks may be bunded by one wall.
The total capacity of the tanks in one bunded area should however be restricted to the following
maximum figures:
Single tanks - no restriction
Groups of floating roof tanks - 120 000 M3
Groups of fixed roof tanks - 60 000 M3
Crude oil tanks - not more than two tanks of greater individual capacity than
3
60 000 m .
For further capacity and other requirements refer to Institute of Petroleum Refining Safety Code.

7.2.5 Loss Control and Safe Practice

Hydrocarbon vapour and/or liquid losses which can occur during the storage and transfer of crude
oils (and products) are uneconomic, may create a fire and safety hazard and are environmentally
unacceptable.
Such losses can be minimised by suitable equipment design and construction described above,
and by sound operating and maintenance practice. Breathing and filling vapour losses are a
function of the crude oil composition (vapour pressure) and the variation in ambient temperature.
In the case of fixed-roof tanks, breathing losses can be reduced by installing pressure/vacuum
relief valves (see 7.2.3.6). In the case of floating-roof tanks, breathing losses are virtually
eliminated since evaporation is confined to the gap between the roof seal and the tank shell.
However, floating-roof tanks are more expensive than fixed-roof tanks and are more sensitive to
uneven soil setlement. This must be borne in mind when selecting the most suitable tank for a
given application.
Liquid losses can be minimised by efficient inspection and maintenance procedures and by strict
control of routine draining operations.
Potential settlement and the condition of the tanks and their fittings should be checked at regular
intervals, including the tank compound, drainage channels, bund walls, grass, etc.
it is of utmost importance to keep the drain valve connecting the bunded area with the site
drainage system closed when not attended. This will ensure that an unforeseen release of crude
oil, e.g. due to tank overflow, mechanical failure etc., will be contained within the tank compound.
7.3 Meteorological and Oceanographic Engineering Applications

Engineers need meteorological and oceanographic (or 'metocean') data for many applications,
particularly for defining design parameters for offshore or onshore terminals, for field economic
studies and for sea-loading operations.
As an example, offshore installations need to be designed to withstand the 100 year storm
condition, particularly the highest expected wave height during that storm and the highest wind
speeds and currents. However wind speeds below 2 m/s can have a serious effect on the sizing of
the hazardous areas.
To solve problems such as these, engineers require a good quality data base of winds and waves
lasting for at least three years and data on currents for about a six month period, at the locations of
interest as well as meteorological data, e.g. air temperature, rainfall, solar radiation and tidal
elevation. The longer the period of the measured data base, the more reliable and less
conservative the extreme values will be, resulting in overall lower system costs. It is a relatively
straightforward exercise to calculate the economic benefit of data collection/analysis costs against
savings in construction, installation and maintenance costs for under- or over-designed terminals.
At the start of a new venture, a basic data set should start to be collected at the earliest possible
opportunity. These data will not only assist during the exploration activities but also highlight any
areas where problems might be expected, e.g. high currents affecting mooring systems, and
drilling or production risers, in later phases of a field's development. On land the data will provide
statistics for structural design, drainage and construction scheduling (see for example 7.2.3).
At terminal sites, metocean data collection systems for operational and statistical purposes
nowadays are usually based on a small microprocessor which collects signals from the various
sensors, performs simple checks and displays parameters for the operator's immediate reference,
e.g. significant wave height, mean wave period, wind speed and direction, current speed and
direction, barometric pressure and air temperature. These parameters are needed for many
real-time operational applications such as improving the reliability of an OPU weather forecasts,
for helicopter flight information, and for deciding on when operations need to be halted for the
safety of the personnel and to prevent damage to equipment. Figure 7.3-1 gives for reference an
overview of the principal types of metocean data and a summary of some applications, both
operational and statistical.
To reduce unnecessary conservatism on design extreme values, increased attention is nowadays
being paid to quantifying the probability of the joint occurrence of extreme events, e.g. the
simultaneous occurrence of high waves and strong currents, impinging on a structure and the
occurrence of high waves from specific directions. Efforts are being made to develop techniques
to take these into account and to have them accepted by Certifying Authorities, since considerable
cost savings in the construction of new platforms and strengthening of existing platforms will be
possible through the use of these statistics.
Figure 7.3-1 Overview of a production platform’s metocean data flow and applications for an OPU
8 DEHYDRATION AND DE-OILING OF PRODUCED FLUIDS

8.1 Dehydration of Crude Oil

8.1.1 Fundamentals of Dehydration

8.1.1.1 Water and Salt in Crude Oil

Crude purchasers place limits on the salt and water contents of the crude they buy, typically:
Water 0.2 to 0.5% vol.
3
Salt 70 g/m
Since salt is dissolved in the water phase, dehydration is also effectively desalting. However, for
salty crudes some specialised desalting may be required in addition to normal dehydration
(see 8.1.1.6).
Dehydration is not a simple process. During production the oil and water are mixed and one phase
disperses as droplets (dispersed phase) in the other (continuous phase). Maximum mixing occurs
at the points of high energy dissipation, e.g. at flow beans, valves and pumps; such items of
equipment should be kept to a minimum, especially upstream of dehydration equipment.

8.1.1.2 Stokes Law

Water and oil are separated by virtue of their different densities; gravity is the driving force. For
laminar flow conditions the settling velocity (VT) of an unhindered dispersed phase droplet is given
by Stokes Law:

where:
VT = terminal velocity of droplet, m/s
2
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s
d = diameter of droplet, m
η = dynamic viscosity of the continuous phase, Pa ⋅ s
ρw
3
= density of water, kg/m
ρo
3
= density of oil, kg/m
The parameters controlling separation are:

Gravitational Force (g)

This can be increased by the use of centrifuges, cyclones or other such devices, although this is
unusual in oilfield practice.

Density Difference and Viscosity (ρw - ρo and η)

Large density differences between oil (ρo) and water (ρw) and low oil viscosities (η) are favourable
for easy separation and therefore light crudes separate faster than heavy crudes. An increase in
temperature causes a reduction in viscosity, therefore the application of heat can be used to
accelerate the separation of a heavy crude.

Droplet Size (d)

The settling rate depends on the square of the droplet diameter. Drop to drop coalescence
increases droplet diameter and for this reason coalescence is a key factor in successful
dehydration. Unfortunately, however, many oilfield dispersions resist coalescence and are known
as 'stable dispersions' or ‘stable emulsions'.

8.1.1.3 The Formation of Stable Emulsions

Oil and water mixtures would be highly unstable were it not for naturally occurring surface active
agents (surfactants) and finely divided particles which are adsorbed at oil/water interfaces to form
rigid films which resist coalescence. In this way surfactants stabilise fine droplets which then
accumulate to form emulsions. The droplet size distribution of a typical stable emulsion is shown
in Figure 8.1-1.

Water in oil emulsions are known as 'normal'; most oilfield emulsions are in this category. Oil in
water emulsions are termed 'reverse'.

Successful dehydration of a crude oil is carried out in three steps:

- Destabilisation of the emulsion
- Coalescence of small drops into large drops
- Settling out of large drops and separation of the two phases.
Figure 8.1-1 Continuous droplet size distribution curve

8.1.1.4 Destabilisation of the Emulsion

Stable interfacial films can be broken down by:

- Chemical demulsifiers
- Heat treatment
- pH treatment
- Increased salinity.
The use of chemical demulsifiers is now the main approach for treating stable oilfield emulsions,
often in combination with heat treatment. Demulsifiers are most effective when added prior to the
formation of an emulsion, i.e. downhole.

8.1.1.5 Coalescence

Mixing Intensity
When subject to mixing, droplets break up and coalesce simultaneously, eventually reaching
equilibrium. The degree of mixing can be measured by mixing intensity, which is defined as the
work done on the crude per unit time and unit mass. The effect of mixing intensity on maximum
droplet size is shown in Figure 8.1-2.
Figure 8.1-2 Effect of mixing intensity on stable maximum droplet size

High mixing intensities produce fine dispersions and are undesirable. Moderate mixing intensities,
as experienced in pipelines, provide gentle agitation. This can be used to advantage if a fine
dispersion exists as it will quickly raise the average droplet size.

Coalescer Pipes
In many cases mixing conditions in transport pipelines are of the required magnitude to promote
coalescence. However, when an emulsion is destabilised close to the point of emulsion formation,
coalescence can be provided for by a purpose-built coalescer pipe.

8.1.1.6 Desalting

Salt in crude oil leads to corrosion of pipelines and fouling of heat exchangers. Desalting is usually
carried out in refineries although many refineries set an upper limit on the salt content of the crude
to be processed and desalting in the field may be necessary or desirable.
Salt is dissolved in the water phase and therefore if the percentage by volume of residual water
and its salt content are known, the amount of salt per unit volume of crude oil can be estimated
from the equation:
 K
⋅ Y g/m
3
Crude oil salt content =
100

where:
3
K = salt concentration of residual water, g/m
Y = residual water, % vol.

A dehydrated crude is usually desalted in two steps:

- Residual water in the crude oil is diluted by the addition of water of lower salt concentration.
- The crude oil is dehydrated again.
It is important that the dilution water is thoroughly mixed with the crude oil. Adequate mixing is
usually provided by premixers and control valves. Proper control of mixing conditions is crucial.
Typical desalting process flow schemes are given in Figure 8.1-3.

The amount of dilution water required in these processes can be found from the following
equation:

Dilution water required

(as % of crude flow) = (K1 − K 3 ) ⋅ Y

(K 3 −K 2 ) E

where:
3
K1 = Salt concentration of residual water (before desalting), g/m
3
K2 = Salt concentration of dilution water, g/m
K3 = Salt concentration of water in the desalted crude needed to give the required crude oil
3
salt content, g/m
Y= residual water, % vol.
E= Mixing efficiency, found empirically (typically 0.5 to 0.6)
Figure 8.1-3 Desalting systems with and without recycle
8.1.2 Dehydration Equipment

8.1.2.1 Equipment Selection

Dehydration involves one or more of the following mechanisms: demulsification, application of

heat, application of an electric field, coalescence and settling. Process units used to carry out
dehydration in practice are:
- Separators: 'free water knock-out' (FWKO) type; 'dehydration' type; heater treaters.
- Wash tanks; concentric wash tanks; settling tanks.
- Electrostatic coalescers.
Tests should be run to determine the best course of treatment and help optimise operating
conditions. Usually the simplest system is the most efficient and economical. Equipment selection
guidelines are given in Table 8.1-1.

Table 8.1-1 Dehydration equipment selection guidelines

8.1.2.2 Equipment Types and Application

The selection and design of appropriate dehydration equipment for a given duty depends on many
factors such as nature of the feed, product specifications, location and operating philosophy. In
this respect it should be noted that in one area dehydration may be limited to tankage at the export
terminal, whilst in other areas dehydration vessels in the field may be preferred. Unfortunately, no
single recommendation can be made. However, most duties can be met by utilisation of one or
more of the units discussed below.

8.1.2.3 Separators

Separators are prefabricated pressure vessels which are suitable for separating oil, water and gas
(if applicable). Typical designs are shown in Figure 8.1-4.

Separators can be designed for 'free water knock-out' (FWKO) or 'dehydration' service. Both look
similar in appearance, but, for a given throughput the dimensions of a vessel in dehydration
service are necessarily larger.

A separator designed for free water knock-out service will generally only remove free water from
the feed stream. The rest of the water will remain dispersed in the crude, typically 5 to 10% vol. for
3 3
light crudes (ρo < 850 kg/m ) and 10 to 20% vol. for heavy crude (ρo > 900 kg/m ).

A separator designed for 'dehydration service' will dehydrate crudes down to low water content
levels, typically 1 to 3% vol. for a liquid-liquid separator and 1 to 5% vol. for a three-phase
separator.

Operating temperatures above 100 °C are possible provided the vessel operates under pressure in
order to prevent steam formation. This capability is often utilised for the intensive treatment of
difficult emulsions or very viscous crudes. The feed heater can be located upstream of the
separator, or be an integral part of the separator. The latter is called a heater treater and is shown
in Figure 8.1-5.

To improve performance, separators can be fitted with parallel plate internals.

Figure 8.1-4 Separators
Figure 8.1-5 Integral 'heater treater' unit

8.1.2.4 Wash Tanks/Concentric Wash Tanks

Wash tanks are usually the preferred choice for general purpose dehydration of light and medium
3
density crude oils (ρo < 900 kg/m ) on land. The water content of the crude at the outlet is typically
1 to 3% vol. Operating temperatures above 85 °C are not usual because of unacceptable loss of
light ends.

A conventional wash tank is shown in Figure 8.1-6. Note that 'free gas' is removed upstream of the
tank in a gas boot. If deeper dehydration is required then either a separate degassing tank should
be installed instead of the gas boot, or consideration should be given to using a concentric wash
tank.

Concentric wash tanks are a relatively recent development and are particularly suitable for the
dehydration of heavy/viscous crudes.

A typical concentric wash tank is shown in Figure 8.1-7. The tank is an extension of the
conventional design. The outer tank acts as a degasser, thermal insulator and free water
knock-out, which allows undisturbed separation in the inner tank.
Figure 8.1-6 Conventional dehydration tank

Figure 8.1-7 Concentric dehydration tank

8.1.2.5 Electrostatic Coalescers

Electrostatic coalescers are pressure vessels fitted with electric grid internals and are suitable for
deep dehydration of crude oil. The water content of the crude oil at outlet is typically in the range
0.1 to 0.5% vol. The units are relatively compact and therefore suitable for use offshore.

Typical electrostatic coalescer designs are shown in Figure 8.1-8. Bulk oilwater separation occurs
in the lower half of the vessel and relatively dry crude moves up into the grid section. Deep
dehydration occurs in the grid section due to the enhanced coalescence conditions which are
created by the action of the electrostatic field. Conventional electrostatic coalescers feature an AC
field whereas some of the later designs use a AC-DC field combination which have higher
throughput capabilities. Both types can handle feed water cuts in excess of 20% vol.

A relatively recent development in electrostatic coalescer design is the bielectric unit. In this case
the feedstream is introduced directly into two grid sections, effectively doubling the throughput
potential. In practice, however, throughputs 50% higher than the conventional design can be
achieved. In this case the water cut of the feedstream should be limited to 10% vol. otherwise
electrical shortcircuiting will occur.

8.1.2.6 Settling Tanks

Crude oil is often 'batch' settled in storage tanks for final dehydration down to export quality prior to
3
shipment. Light crude (ρo < 850 kg/m ) may be at export quality (see 1.2.2) after a few hours
settling. For heavier crudes, one or two days storage may be necessary.
Figure 8.1-8 Electrostatic coalescers
8.1.3 Equipment Sizing

8.1.3.1 Sizing Criteria

Flux rate
The capacity of a dehydrator is mainly a function of disengagement area at the oil-water interface.
For an 'empty' unit the disengagement area corresponds to the horizontal cross-sectional area of
the separation compartment.

A well-designed dehydrator should have sufficient horizontal cross-sectional area to produce

crude and water of the required quality under the maximum flowrate conditions. In this case, the
flux rate (volumetric flow rate divided by horizontal cross-sectional area) should not exceed the
value recommended for the given feed condition and required product specifications.

8.1.3.2 Sizing Method

It is important that all possible operating conditions are considered. Usually maximum net oil flow,
maximum net water-flow and minimum temperature are the critical parameters. However, for
three-phase separators, conditions at the maximum operating temperature must also be
considered to ensure that gas handling requirements are met.

The first step of the sizing method is to establish an allowable flux rate based on ∆ρ/η. This can
then be adjusted up and down based on other factors such as emulsion stability, product
specifications, droplet size distribution, etc. In some of the sizing routines upper and lower design
limit are suggested. These limits correspond to:

Upper design limit

- relaxed BS&W (Basic Sediment & Water) specification (more than, say, 3%);
- no emulsion problems;
- coarse dispersion;
- little gas break-out.
Lower design limit
- tight BS&W specification (less than 3%);
- emulsion problems;
- fine dispersion;
- substantial gas break-out.

Sizing routines for the determination of dehydration unit dimensions are given in the following
sections.

8.1.3.3 Liquid-liquid Separator in Free Water Knock-Out service

The following data are required:

3
Total liquid flow: q1 m /s
ρo kg/m
3
Oil density:
ρw kg/m
3
Water density:
Water viscosity: ηw Pa ⋅ s

The sizing routine is as follows:

Step 1
Calculate ∆ρ = ρw - ρo and ∆ρ/ηw

Step 2
Find the maximum allowable flux rate (q1/A)* from Figure 8.1-9.

Step 3
Calculate the minimum required horizontal cross-sectional area of the separation compartment:
2
Ahmin = q1/(q1/A)* m

Step 4
Select suitable vessel dimensions to satisfy Ahmin. The vessel L/D ratio should be in the range 3 to
5. Standard pressure vessel sizes are given in Table 8.1-2. For vessels fitted with a weir the
separation compartment will be approximately one metre shorter than the tan-to-tan length.
Figure 8.1-9 Allowable liquid flux rates for two FWKO tanks and separators
Table 8.1-2 Standard vessel sizes
8.1.3.4 Liquid-liquid Separator in Dehydration service

The following data are required at the minimum operating temperature:

3
Net oil flow qo m /s
3
Total liquid flow q1 m /s
ρo kg/m
3
Oil density
ρw kg/m
3
Water density
Oil viscosity ηo Pa ⋅ s
Water viscosity ηw Pa ⋅ s

The sizing routine is as follows:

Step 1
Calculate the terms: ∆ρ = ρw - ρo, ∆ρ/ηo and ∆ρ/ηw

Step 2
Find the maximum allowable flux rates (q1/A)* and (qo/A)* from Figure 8.1-9 and Figure 8.1-10.

Step 3
Calculate the minimum required horizontal cross-sectional area of the separation compartment:

2
Ah = q1 (q1/A)* m
2
Ah = qo/(qo/A)* m

Select the highest value for Ahmin.

Step 4
Select a vessel with suitable dimensions to satisfy Ahmin requirement. The L/D ratio should be in
the range 3 to 5. For standard pressure vessel sizes see Table 8.1-2.

For vessels fitted with a weir the separation compartment will be approximately one metre shorter
than the tan-to-tan length.
Figure 8.1-10 Allowable oil flux rates for tanks and separators
8.1.3.5 Heater Treater

The following data are required:

3
Net oil flow qo m /s
3
Total liquid flow q1 m /s
ρo kg/m
3
Oil density
ρw kg/m
3
Water density
Oil viscosity ηo Pa ⋅ s
Water viscosity ηw Pa ⋅ s
Inlet temperature ti °C
Optimum operating temperature: t °C
Specific heat of crude Cp kJ/kg °C

Step 1
Calculate the required heat input

H = qo ρo Cp (t - ti) KJ/s

Cp values for normal pourpoint crudes are given in Figure 8.1-11.

Figure 8.1-11 Heat capacity of normal pour point crudes

Step 2
Calculate the required horizontal cross-sectional area for the separation compartment as
described in Section 8.1.3.4 for a liquid separator in dehydration service.

Step 3
Select a vessel size which satisfies the above requirements from Table 8.1-3.

Table 8.1-3 Standard size heater treaters

8.1.3.6 Wash Tank

The following data are required at the minimum operating temperature:

3
Net oil flow qo m /s
3
Total liquid flow q1 m /s
ρo kg/m
3
Oil density
ρw kg/m
3
Water density
Oil viscosity ηo Pa ⋅ s
Water viscosity ηw Pa ⋅ s

The sizing routine is as follows:

Step 1
Calculate the terms ∆ρ/ηo and ∆ρ/ηw for the oil and water phases respectively.

Step 2
Find the maximum allowable oil and water flux rates (q1/A)* and (qo/A)* from Figure 8.1-9 and
Figure 8.1-10 respectively.

Step 3
Calculate the minimum required horizontal cross-section area for dehydration and deoiling:

2
Ah = q/(q/A)* m

Select the highest value for Ahmin.

Step 4
Select a suitable tank size to satisfy Ahmin. Suitable standard tank sizes are given in Table 8.1-4.
Table 8.1-4 Standard vertical tank sizes
8.1.3.7 Concentric Wash Tank

The following data are required at the minimum operating temperature:

3
Net oil flow qo m /a
ρo kg/m
3
Oil density
ρw kg/m
3
Water density
Oil viscosity ηo. Pa ⋅ s

The sizing routine is as follows:

Step 1
Calculate the term ∆ρ/ηo for the oil phase.

Step 2
Find the maximum allowable oil flux rate (qo/A)* from Figure 8.1-10.

Step 3
Calculate the minimum required horizontal cross-section area of the inner tank:

2
Ahmin = qo/(qo/A)* m

Step 4
Select a suitable size for the inner tank to satisfy Ahmin. Suitable standard tank sizes are given in
Table 8.1-4.

The diameter, Do of the outer tank is then calculated using the 'rule of thumb':

Do = 1.3 Di
8.1.3.8 Electrostatic Coalescers

Electrostatic coalescers are propriety devices and sizing will be done by the vendor. However, the
following procedure should be used as a check.

Feed inlet water cut is usually restricted to 20% for AC and AC-DC units, and 10% for bi-electric
units, otherwise shortcircuiting of the grids may occur. It is not usual to consider water flux rates
since these are nearly always satisfied.

The following data are required at the minimum operating temperature:

3
Net oil flow qo m /s
ρo kg/m
3
Oil density
ηw kg/m
3
Water density
Oil viscosity ηo Pa ⋅ s

The sizing routine is as follows:

Step 1
Calculate the term ∆ρ/ηo for the oil phase.

Step 2
Find the maximum allowable oil flux rate (qo/A)* from Figure 8.1-12. Note that AC-DC and
bi-electric units have a higher rating than the conventional DC units.

Step 3
Calculate the minimum required horizontal cross-section area of the separation compartment:

2
Ahmin = qo/(qo/A)* m

Step 4
Select a suitable electrostatic coalescer to satisfy Ahmin. Suitable standard sizes are given in
Table 8.1-5 and Table 8.1-6.

For an electrostatic coalescer with an integral heating coil, the required heat input is calculated as
described in Section 8.1.3.5.
Figure 8.1-12 Allowable oil flux rates for electrostatic coalescers
Table 8.1-5 Standard size electrostatic coalescers
Table 8.1-6 Standard size electrostatic coalescers (Integral heaters)
8.1.4 Nomenclature

2
A horizontal cross-sectional area m
Cp specific heat kJ/(kg. °C)
d diameter of droplet m
D diameter of tank m
Di inner tank diameter m
Do outer tank diameter m
E mixing efficiency -
2
9 acceleration due to gravity m/s
h height of tank m
H heat input kJ/s
3
K salt concentration of residual water g/m
3
q1 total liquid flow m /s
3
qo net oil flow rate m /s
VT terminal velocity of droplet m/s
3
V volume m
ρo
3
density of oil kg/m
ρW
3
density of water kg/m
ti inlet temperature °C
t optimum temperature °C
q1 total liquid flux rate m/s
A
qo oil flux rate m/s
A
η viscosity of continuous phase Pa ⋅ s
ηo viscosity of oil Pa ⋅ s
ηw viscosity of water Pa ⋅ s
8.2 De-Oiling of Water

8.2.1 Purpose of De-Oiling

De-oiling equipment is required for the treatment of water effluent containing small quantities of oil,
prior to disposal or process use, e.g. steam raising, water injection. The choice and performance
of a de-oiler system depends
on:
(i) The water quality at the inlet to the treating unit.
(ii) The water quality required at the outlet of the treating unit.
Simple gravity de-oilers (primary treating facilities) can only remove suspended oil. A knowledge of
particle size distribution at the inlet is useful for good design. More sophisticated tertiary treating
facilities can also remove soluble oil. If high quality water effluent is required a combination of
primary and secondary treatment usually produces the best results (see also 'Health, Safety and
Environment' in Volume 1).

Process units currently used to carry out de-oiling are:

- API interceptors
- Parallel plate and corrugated plate interceptors (PPI and CPI)
- Flotation units
- Coalescers
- Biotreaters.

Process selection guidelines are given in Table 8.2-1. The following sections describe the above
equipment and give guidelines for first estimate sizing.

8.2.2 API Interceptor

The development of the API interceptor was the first conscious step towards water effluent
treatment; the layout of a typical unit is shown in Figure 8.21.

Water passes through the interceptor under conditions approximating to laminar flow and
separates according to Stokes Law (see 8.1.1.2).
API interceptors are usually designed to remove 95% of all oil droplets above 150 µm. These units
cannot be expected to remove finely dispersed particles or emulsified oil.
Table 8.2-1 De-oiling process selection guidelines

Sizing
Data required:

ρo
3
Density of oil kg/m
ρw
3
Density of water kg/m
3
Water flow rate qw m /h
Water viscosity ηw Pa ⋅ s (see Figure 8.2-2.)

Step 1; Calculate the settling velocity (VT) of a 150 µm droplet using Stokes Law:

VT = 44 × 10 − 6
(ρw − ρo ) m / h
ηw
Figure 8.2-1 API interceptor showing typical arrangement for two parallel basins
Figure 8.2-2 Viscosity of water - variation with temperature (Source: API)

Step 2; Calculate the maximum allowable horizontal velocity (VH):

VH ≤ 15 VT or 55 m/h (whichever smaller)

Step 3; Calculate minimum vertical cross-sectional area (AV):

AV = qw m
2

VH

Step 4; Calculate the number of channels (n):

The largest practical channel is one of:

2
6.0 m wide x 2.5 m high = 15 m

∴n= q w (rounded up to nearest whole number)

15 VH
Step 5; Choose interceptor height and width (h and w):
Dimensions must fall within the following ranges

(a) 0.3 ≤ h ≤ 0.5

w
(b) 1.0 ≤ h ≤ 2.5 m
(c) 2.0 ≤ w ≤ 6.0 m

Step 6; Calculate length of channel (I):

Figure 8.2-3 Recommended values of F for various values of VH

Vt
8.2.3 Parallel Plate and Corrugated Plate Interceptors (PPI and CPI)

The PPI and CPI were developed by Shell; a typical construction of a CPI is shown in
Figure 8.2-4.
In the PPI each parallel plate section performs similarly to an individual settler, thus enhancing
performance. The CPI is an extension of the PPI principal, the corrugated sections making more
compact and robust.
PPIs and CPls are usually designed to remove 95% of all droplets above 60 µm diameter. These
units cannot be expected to remove finely dispersed droplets.
Lifting equipment should be installed to facilitate removal of plate packs for cleaning purposes.

Sizing
3
Each standard CPI pack is designed to handle a normal effluent flow of approx. 30 m /h and
3
maximum flow of 60 m /h.

8.2.4 Flotation Units

Flotation units separate oil and water using the principle that rising gas bubbles distributed
throughout the water will attach themselves to oil droplets and carry them to the surface where
they will tend to coalesce and can be separated. The flotation process is enhanced by upstream
injection of chemical demulsifiers and de-oilers, and by chemicals which promote the formation of
a stable froth on the surface. Current units commercially available fall into two categories.

(i) Dissolved Gas Units - gas is dissolved into water under pressure, then released as bubbles
by pressure reduction.
(ii) Dispersed Gas Units - gas is injected into the water by means of a rotating impeller.

The typical construction of dissolved and dispersed gas flotation units are shown in Figures 8.2-5
and 6. The dispersed gas unit is divided into four cells operating in series, with a design residence
time of 1 minute per cell.
Dispersed gas flotation units are typically designed to remove 95% of all droplets down to a size of
15 µm.

Sizing
A list of standard sizes and capacities for dispersed gas units is given in Table 8.2-2.
Figure 8.2-4 CPI interceptor
Table 8.2-5 Dissolved gas flotation units

Table 8.2-2 Standard sizes of dispersed gas flotation units

Figure 8.2-6 Dispersed gas flotation unit
8.2.5 Flocculation Units

Suspended liquid and solid matter can be removed from water by chemical flocculation. A typical
flocculation unit is shown in Figure 8.2-7. In the first chamber chemical coagulants are mixed with
the feed. These chemicals destabilise suspended particles and encourage them to coagulate and
form microflocs. In the floc growth chamber the micro-flocs are given the opportunity to collide and
form larger flocs. These are subsequently removed from the water by either gravity separation
(sedimentation) or dissolved air flotation (D.A.F.).
To-date the use of flocculation within PETRONAS has been restricted to the treatment of
water for re-injection purposes.

Figure 8.2-7 Flocculation unit

8.2.6 Loose-Media or Fibrous-Media Coalescers

In these systems the coalescence of finely dispersed oil droplets is promoted by passing the
stream through an oleophilic medium, consisting of either fine granular material, or of fibrous
material. Coalesced oil may then be removed downstream by additional separators or by
back-washing the coalescer. In the latter case high temperature water or a detergent may be
required. Disposal of oil contaminated back-wash water may present a problem.
3
Operation of this equipment in other than a polishing duty, i.e. inlet water containing < 50 g/m oil,
has so far proved unreliable; however this type of equipment may become attractive in the future
when these problems are overcome.
8.2.7 Biotreaters

This process uses bacteria to remove dissolved organic contaminants (including dissolved oil). It
should be preceded by gravity separation and/or flotation units to ensure almost complete removal
of free oil prior to the biotreaters.
The water to be treated is contacted with bacteria and sufficient oxygen has to be supplied
(aeration) to activate biochemical reactions. There are two main biotreatment processes which can
be applied.
(i) Treatment in an activated sludge basin followed by a clarifier (see Figure 8.2-8). In this
process the raw water is mixed with water containing a high concentration of bacteria and
thoroughly mixed and aerated. After allowing time for biodegradation to take place the water
is routed to a settling basin where clarified water and water concentrated with bacteria flocs
(activated sludge) are separated. Part of the activated sludge is recycled into the raw water
feed.

Figure 8.2-8 Activated sludge biotreater

(ii) Treatment in a trickle filter followed by a clarifier. Here the water is sprayed over an activated
bed, of lava rocks for example. On these rocks bacteria will develop and basically the same
biochemical reaction occurs as in the activated sludge process. The trickle filter effluent
passes through a clarifier to remove bacteria flocs.

8.2.8 Nomenclature

2
Av vertical cross-sectional area m
d diameter of droplet m
F short circuiting factor for APIs -
h height of interceptor m
I length of interceptor m
n number of channels -
3
qw water flow rate m /h
VT terminal velocity of droplet m/h
VH horizontal velocity m/h
w width of interceptor m
ρo
3
density of oil kg/m
ρw
3
density of water kg/m
ηw viscosity of water Pa ⋅ s
9 WATER AND STEAM INJECTION AND SPECIALISED TECHNIQUES

9.1 Water Injection

Water may be injected into subsurface strata for two principal reasons:
- Pressure maintenance and/or supplementary recovery of oil from a producing formation
- Disposal of water (normally production water) where technically less demanding and lower
cost methods of disposal are not possible, e.g. where disposal into surface water must be
avoided on environmental grounds.

Each water flood project must be designed as an individual case in view of the potential variations
in water quality and the acceptance characteristics of the receiving formation. This requires a
multidisciplinary approach from the beginning of each project. The responsibilities and interactions
of the various functions are shown in Figure 9.1-1. Only following a careful analysis of the source
water and an objective assessment of the water quality required by the receiving formation can the
facilities be designed for processing the source water to a suitable quality for injection.

In view of the relatively high cost and long delivery times of some of the equipment involved, it is
advisable to begin planning for a water flood project well in advance of the start up date, allowing
sufficient time for a pilot scale injectivity test, if necessary. It is recommended that expert advice is
sought early in the execution of any water injection project. The following text is provided to
highlight some of the options which may be available, but should not be treated as a design guide.

9.1.1 Water Sources

Possible sources of water for injection are:

(i) Sea water
(ii) Fresh surface water
(iii) Produced water
(iv) Aquifer water - not from the oil producing formation

Typical analyses of water from the listed sources are shown in Table 9.1-1 to illustrate the wide
variation in water quality possible.

There must be sufficient water available to last the lifetime of the project (not applicable to sea
water).
Figure 9.1-1 Design and execution of water injection scheme
Thorough testing of the source water should be performed to establish its characteristics. In the
case of waters subject to biological conditions which may vary during the course of the year, e.g.
sea/river, analyses should be taken throughout a complete twelve-month cycle, and in any case
analyses of the source water should be taken over an extended time period.
Location of the water intake point should be carefully chosen to minimise the effect of natural
variations in water composition and to avoid taking in debris from other operations. In a sea water
flood the best location is approximately mid-water depth and upstream (with respect to prevailing
current) of any discharges from the platform.

Table 9.1-1 Characteristics of various types of water

*) After 7 days at 32 °C
9.1.2 Required Water Quality

The principal parameters to be investigated during testing are:

(i) Dissolved Solids

Changes in pressure, temperature, ionic strength, pH, CO2 content can all cause precipitation of
solids or scaling of equipment. Such changes can take place during injection of water or during
the mixing of two different waters either on the surface or downhole. From a knowledge of the
composition of the water or mixture of two waters it is possible to predict the precipitation of
calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium sulphite, barium sulphate and iron sulphide (also
see Volume 5, Part 11).

(ii) Suspended Solids

Typical suspended material in water consists of silts, clays, shale, oil, bacteria and other small
living creatures. A knowledge of the type, quantity and size distribution is important to determine
whether facilities should be included for filtration and if so, what type (see also 9.1.3.2).

(iii) Suspended Oil

When production water is re-injected it is unlikely that a few g/M3 residual suspended oil alone will
impair injectivity. In combination with suspended solids, which are inevitably present, oil can act as
a binder and forms a filter cake at the injection face.

(iv) Bacteria
In cases where water is injected into a formation of small pore size, bacterial deposits may
contribute to formation plugging. The presence of sulphate reducing bacteria may lead to souring
of the reservoir.

9.1.3 Facilities for Water Injection

Facilities are required for water injection for two reasons:

(a) To move the water from its initial location to the formation in which it is required and to
increase the pressure sufficiently to inject it.
(b) To modify the characteristics of the source water to be acceptable to the receiving formation
and to the installed equipment.

Figure 9.1-2 shows a block flow scheme for a typical sea water flood where both the above criteria
need to be satisfied.

Methods commonly used to modify the characteristics of the source water are listed in
Table 9.1-2.
Figure 9.1-2 Block flow scheme for a typical water flood
Table 9.1-2 Facilities for water injection

9.1.3.1 Lifting of Water

It is necessary to position the water intake upstream of any production discharges, the dump for
drilling cuttings and spent mud. Generally the intake is positioned at mid-water depth, the point at
which the water composition tends to be most stable with time.

Offshore various types of supply pumps are used, the selection depending largely on the type of
substructure employed. The pump selection must be flexible enough to ensure that adequate
water is supplied for all modes of operation.

9.1.3.2 Filtration

Filtration is the process of removing suspended solids from water. Typical characteristics for the
filters discussed are shown in Tables 9.1-3 and 9.14.
Table 9.1-3 Typical filter characteristics

Table 9.1-4 Typical filter sizing (for sea water)

1. Cartridge Filters.
This application is generally limited to filtering of waters containing only very small amounts of
filterable material or in final polishing of water as a wellhead safety check. Usually such filters are
not backwashable and replacement cartridges are expensive. Units are generally light weight.
Cartridge filters may be suitable for pilot test applications.
2. Single Media Filters.

(a) Downflow
In its simplest form a downflow filter consists of a sand bed in which the direction of water
3 3
flow is from fine to coarse sand. Polyelectrolyte addition (typically 0.5-5 cm /m ) may be
required to achieve the required filtration efficiency. Few operational difficulties are generally
experienced but these filters are bulky, very heavy and easily fouled by oil. Backwash with
detergent may be required when oil is retained in the media.

Single media filters are also available in which sand grains of various sizes are
homogeneously mixed to give a deep bed filtration effect. Homogeneity of mixing is achieved
by backflushing with air in addition to water.

(b) Upflow
A sand bed filter in which the direction of water flow is through coarse to fine sand.
Performance is similar to downflow filters (including much flexibility in the particle sizes that
can be removed) but, because of the deep bed filtration effect, they are less bulky and much
lighter than the downflow type. Filtration rate is however limited by the necessity of not
fluidising the sand bed and ensuring sand is not carried over with the filtrate.

3. Multi-Media Filters.
These consist of beds of sand-anthracite, sand-garnet, or garnet-anthracite, the latter proving the
most successful combination for water filtration. The layers of different media are arranged such
that the least dense media also has the largest particle size giving a deep bed filtration effect when
used in downflow mode. They operate at high flux rates and produce good water quality. Few
operational difficulties are experienced and they are lighter and less bulky than the single media,
but are easily fouled by oil (particularly garnet-anthracite). If excessive oil build-up is allowed
before backwashing, or if heavy/viscous/waxy crudes are allowed to cool around the media
particles, then backwashing may become impossible.

4. Diatomaceous Earth (DE) Filters.

DE is nearly pure silica formed from single cell marine organisms and when applied to a
supporting medium provides a very effective filtration medium.
The physical properties of typical diatomaceous earth are:
3
Wet bulk density 240-320 kg/m
3
Dry bulk density 112-240 kg/m

When correctly operated a DE filter produces excellent water quality. DE filters will also remove
entrained oil from water, but to avoid rapid bed fouling this technique should only be used for final
3
polishing (removal of less than 10 g/m residual oil). Although DE gives excellent filtration the
equipment tends to be operator and maintenance intensive. There is always a possibility that
mechanical failure or maloperation can lead to break through of the filter material, which may result
in formation damage. Where weight and space limitations are critical a pre-coat filter may provide
the best solution in spite of its apparent complexity.
Operation of DE filters is cyclical, starting from a clean filter the operating sequence is:
Stage 1. Build-up a layer of pre-coat on the filter surface support material by pumping a slurry of
DE in water through the filter.
Stage 2. Switch feed from pre-coat to the water which must be filtered and continuously bleed
into the unfiltered water a slurry of DE in water. (This technique is called 'body feed',
and continuously creates new filter area on the surface, giving an extended cycle time).
A positive flow must always be maintained through the filter to keep the precoat on the
support.
Stage 3. When a predetermined, pressure differential is reached (or when too much of the space
between the filter material supports is occupied by deposited DE), filtration is stopped
and the filter backwashed. Various techniques are available for ensuring all DE is
removed from the supports, e.g. water backwash, high pressure surface water spray, a
back-pressure pulse of air. Typical cycle lengths vary from 6-36 hours depending on
the contamination present in the water.

Note:
When filtering oxygen free water, the backwash stage offers a potential source of oxygen ingress.

Pre-chlorination of the water is often used to:

(i) Prevent microbial growth in the filters
(ii) Assist in floculation of suspended organic solids.

3
Chlorine levels required are normally in the range 1-3 g/m depending on level of pollution, to
3
maintain a residual concentration of about 0.4 g/m .
Chlorine can be generated by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution. Typically, the energy
consumption is ca. 4.5 kW ⋅ h/kg Cl2 produced.

9.1.3.3 Deaeration

Oxygen in water floods can cause severe corrosion in the water injection facilities and plugging of
-3 3
the formation by corrosion products. Removal of oxygen to less than 5 x 10 g/m is essential.

The solubility of oxygen in water is a function of temperature, pressure and salinity. These
relationships are shown in Figures 9.1-3 and 4.
Figure 9.1-3 Solubility of oxygen from air in fresh water
(Source: Removal of Oxygen by Chemical Means in Oil Production Operations, MATERIAL PERFORMANCE, June 1981, p. 45)
Figure 9.1-4 Effect of salinity and temperature on solubility of oxygen in water (from air at 1 bar
pressure)
(Source: Removal of Oxygen by Chemical Means in Oil Production Operations, MATERIALS
PERFORMANCE, June 1981, p. 45)
If oxygenated water must be used at any stage then corrosion resistant equipment is essential.

Three main types of deaeration are used:

(i) Gas Stripping

This is performed in towers containing packed or perforated trays, which provide good surface
contact. Oxygen may be removed by passing gas through the water in co-current or
counter-current flow, the latter being more effective. Usually clean natural gas is used if H2S and
CO2 contents are low. The stripping gas requirements may be estimated from the equation:

3
C = original oxygen content, g/m
3
C0 = oxygen content after stripping, g/m

R = gas constant, 8.1 Pa ⋅ m (St)/(mol ⋅ K)

3

T = absolute temperature, K
-5
H = Henry's constant, 0.987 x 10 Pa/mol
t = contact time, s
2
s = contact surface area, m
k = mass transfer coefficient
3 3
G = Gas/water ratio, m (St)/m .

(ii) Vacuum Stripping

This is performed in similar towers to gas stripping. Leakproof sealing of all lines and vessels is
essential. Liquid seal vacuum pumps are frequently used in combination with a secondary vacuum
device, e.g. an ejector.

For a given vacuum plant capacity, the level of residual oxygen is determined by the feed
temperature and the oxygen content. Typical values are shown in Figure 9.1-5.
Figure 9.1-5 Residual oxygen vs. temperature for typical system using a combination of Roots
blower and liquid ring vacuum pump

(iii) Chemical Scavenging

The addition of chemicals to the water which react with the oxygen to form non-corrosive products
is called chemical scavenging.

Sodium sulphite and ammonium bisulphite are commonly used oxygen scavengers. The overall
reaction to remove (scavenge) O2 requires 7.9 parts (weight) Na2SO3 per part O2 .In practice an
excess of suIphite is needed to aid the removal of final trace amounts of O2 in acceptable reaction
3
times. To handle potential O2 ingress, flow rate fluctuations, etc. a ratio of 20 g/m Na2SO3
3
per g/m O2 is usually required.

The effect of pH on the rate of reaction of sodium sulphite with dissolved oxygen is shown in
Figure 9.1-6. Below pH 6.0 the reaction is too slow for practical use, and between pH 6.0 and 7.0
the reaction is probably fast enough provided an excess of sodium sulphite is used.
Figure 9.1-6 Reaction of sodium sulphite with dissolved oxygen at various pH’s
(copyright 1971 SPE-AIME. Snavely, E.S., J. Pet. Tech., April 1971)
The sulphite-oxygen reaction is susceptible to numerous chemical compounds including some
used in oilfield water treatment. It is essential to test for interference of scavenging in the presence
of treating chemicals, prior to injection.
Table 9.1-5 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the deaeration methods outlined above.

Table 9.1-5 Summary of advantages and disadvantages of water deaeration systems

9.1.3.4 Chemical Treatment

Chemical treatment of water (and particularly sea water) can be complex and a major operating
cost. The purpose of the chemicals that may be utilised is briefly discussed below.
1. Chlorination
Chlorination is widely used because it is one of the least expensive and most effective biocides.
When added to water, chlorine hydrolyses to form hypochlorous and hydrochloric acids:

+ -
Cl2 + H2O = H - Cl + HOCI

The hypochlorous acid then ionises to form hydrogen ions and hypochlorite ions:

+ -
HOCI = H + OCI

The degree of ionisation is dependent on the pH and the higher the pH, the less effective is a
given quantity of chlorine as shown below:

3
pH Chlorine residual required for 10 minute 'Kill' (g/m )
6-8 0.2
8-9 0.4
9-10 0.8
The chlorine residual or 'free' chlorine is the total amount of chlorine present as Cl2, HOCl and
-
OCI .

Chlorine is a strong oxidising agent and thus reacts with many materials. The quantity used up by
the system is termed the 'chlorine demand' which includes the chlorine used up by:
- oxidising ferrous to ferric ion
- reacting with H2S to form H2SO4
- reacting with some organic corrosion inhibitors and scale inhibitors
- reacting with sulphite oxygen scavengers.
3
A residual chlorine of 0.4 g/m is required to ensure bacterial control.

2. Polyelectrolytes
Polyelectrolytes are large water soluble organic molecules made up of small building blocks called
monomers, repeated in a long chain. They usually incorporate in their structures ion exchange
sites which give the molecule an ionic charge. Those having a positive charge are cationic, and
those with a negative charge are anionic. These molecules react with colloidal solids in the water
by neutralising charge or by bridging (tying together) individual particles to form a visible, insoluble
precipitate or floc. These chemicals therefore greatly enhance the efficiency of filtration systems.

Ferric chloride is also used as a coagulant prior to the water filtration treatment step. It is, however,
very sensitive to pH.
3. Oxygen Scavengers
Residual oxygen not removed by vacuum deaeration or gas stripping may be ‘scavenged'
chemically. One of the most widely used chemicals is ammonium bisulphite, as follows:

2NH4 HSO3 + O2 = (NH4)2 SO4 + H2SO4

It does not require a catalyst and does not react with air.

The rate at which scavengers react with oxygen is a function of temperature; the hotter the water,
the faster the reaction.

4. Corrosion Inhibitors
If oxygen is present in a treatment system, a number of alternatives are available:
(i) Remove the oxygen mechanically or chemically
(ii) Prevent oxygen ingress into the system
(iii) Coat or line the system
(iv) Use an organic inhibitor

There are a large number of chemicals available from the Service Companies and inhibitor
selection must be tailored to each specific system.

5. Scale Inhibitors
Most scale inhibitors in use are organic. The common alternatives are:
(i) Organic phosphate esters. Not effective above 100 °C
(ii) Organic phosphonates. Effective up to about 175 °C
(iii) Organic polymers. High temperature application.

6. Biocides
Additional bacterial protection can be provided by injection of biocides. Microbiology is a very
complex subject and expert advice should be sought when designing a bacterial control system.
The introduction of sulphate reducing bacteria into a reservoir may cause souring of the reservoir:
the implications of this can obviously be severe.

7. Antifoam
This is occasionally used to break the foam on deaerator tower trays.

8. Chemicals Testing
- All chemicals must be tested to ensure they can function properly in the actual environment
in which they are to be used.
- All chemicals must be tested to ensure they are compatible with other chemicals in the
system.
- Where applicable, it is recommended that the chemicals are tested at the temperature and
pressure at which they are expected to perform. - Typical points of chemical injection were
shown in Figure 9.1.2.

9.1.3.5 Installed Capacity of Equipment

Allowance should be made in the capacity of installed equipment to cope with planned and
unplanned shut-downs. It should be recognised that following a shut-down involving other
production facilities, recommissioning the water injection equipment will not be the highest priority
and allowance should be made for this. In a complex installation to design on the basis of
approximately 75% stream factor may be reasonable, requiring that the total installation (including
pipelines/injection wells etc.) is designed to operate at approximately 133% of its average required
capacity.

9.1.4 Polymer Flooding

When the oil is less mobile than the displacing water the latter tends to bypass the oil which leads
to early water production, poor sweep efficiency and low oil recovery. For such reservoirs polymer
flooding could be considered for improving sweep efficiency. By dissolving a polymer in the
injection fluid the water mobility is reduced, bypassing of water surpressed and oil recovery
improved accordingly.

Two main types of polymers are available:

1. Biopolymer of the polysaccharide type
2. Synthetic polymers predominantly polyacrylamides

The polymer flooding process is still in its infancy. Whilst the principles governing actual injection
of the polymer solution are similar to those developed for water flooding, the preparation and
handling of polymer solutions involves a technology which is new to oilfield operations. With the
present level of experience it is essential to carry out a pilot flood in order to demonstrate the
viability of a large scale flood. It is recommended that expert advice is sought before embarking on
such a venture.

9.1.5 Micellar Flooding

At suitable concentrations in water the molecules of certain surfactants will cling together to form
clusters or 'micelles'. When oil is encountered by this system, e.g. when such a surfactant water
mixture is forced through a reservoir which contains residual oil not produced by primary means or
bypassed by water flooding, microscopic droplets of oil can be entrained in the centre of the
micelles. The resulting oil bank is driven through the reservoir to a producing well by a polymer
drive solution.
The technology required to exploit this technique is in its infancy and since it presents a significant
departure from established oilfield techniques, expert advice should be taken before embarking on
a micellar flood project.

It is worth noting that chemicals which are required to perform in the reservoir for long time periods
should be highly stable and non-degrading. This presents a significant environmental problem if
such chemicals are spilled or otherwise allowed to enter surface waters, and this should be
carefully considered during the design of facilities. It should be further noted that surfactant
chemicals may be toxic to certain marine life at very low concentrations.
9.2 Steam Injection

It is recommended that expert advice is sought early in the execution of any steam injection
project.

9.2.1 Recovery Techniques

Steam injection is a well established enhanced oil recovery technique with existing large scale
application in USA and Venezuela. Two modes of operation are used:

(i) Steam Soak

Where steam is injected into a well for typically 7-15 days and, following a requisite soak time, the
same well is produced. The cycle is repeated as required. Typically the energy needed to generate
the steam for this process is 3-4% of the oil produced.

(ii) Steam Drive

Where steam is continuously injected into a well and production is taken from adjacent wells.
Typically the energy requirement for steam drive is equivalent to ca. 30% of the produced oil.

9.2.2 Oil Field Steam Generators

Steam generator designs have been specifically developed for thermal recovery applications based
on forced circulation, once-through concept, where the pressure is contained in relatively small
tubes. Units are generally designed to produce approximately 80% steam quality in a single pass
5
typically at 30-170 x 10 Pa pressure. Steam of this quality may be injected directly into the
formation or the approximately 20% residual water may be separated in an external separator
vessel and disposed of, leaving steam of essentially 100% quality for injection. (See also Part 11,
Section 6.4) The injection of blowdown water depends on reservoir and well completion
characteristics.

Steam generators for thermal flooding applications differ from conventional steam boilers in that
feed water containing a relatively high percentage of solids may be used provided that the solids
have been converted to a soluble form and will remain in solution whilst in the generator tubes. In
general control systems are relatively simple and the operator attention required is less than for a
conventional boiler.
Feed Water Temperature. The temperature of the feed water as supplied to the high pressure
supply pumps will depend on its source and whether or not a thermal deaerator is installed. If the
latter is installed it may be desirable to cool the water a few degrees before the high pressure
pumps in order to reduce the net positive suction head on the pumps and to assist in selection of
gland packings when a piston pump is used. It is often necessary to raise the temperature of the
feed water to approximately 120 °C before entering the convection section of the boiler, to prevent
condensation of acidic vapours on the tubes.

Pressure Drop. In order to maintain high velocities in a single series flow coil, a pressure drop
5
typically in the range 6-12 x 10 Pa is required.

Generator Fuel. A wide range of fuels can be used, from gas through crude to heavy residues.
Multi-fuel burners are available. When using crude or heavier fuels, pre-heating is required,
normally utilising a portion of the feed water leaving the convection section. Special facilities
(generally electric heating) are required during start-up. To facilitate ignition of the main burner, a
pilot burner (either continuous or intermittent) is normally installed, which operates on gas.

9.2.3 Emission Control

Three principal contributors to atmospheric emissions can be identified.

(i) NOx, which is produced via two principal mechanisms; atmospheric nitrogen fixation and fuel
nitrogen conversion. Methods of NOx reduction (where necessary) include low NOx burners
(staged combustion) and selective reduction of NOx to N2 and NH3 either with or without a
catalyst. A comparison of NOx, removal possibilities is given in Table 9.2-1 for an example of
an oilfield steam generator.

Table 9.2-1 Comparison of NOx removal possibilities for a 15 MW steam generator

*Selective non-catalytic reduction

(ii) SOx, may be removed, when necessary, using a flue gas scrubber, where the acid gases are
neutralised by either NaOH or NaCO3. There is a significant problem with disposal of sludge
formed in the unit. Early SOx, scrubbers suffered from extensive corrosion problems. Typical
conditions pertaining to a 15 x 10 MW unit operating with ca. 1 % sulphur crude oil as fuel
are shown in Table 9.2-2.

Table 9.2-2 Typical SO2 scrubbing conditions

The consumption of NaOH and the quantity of slurry for disposal will be proportional to the sulphur
content of the fuel.

(iii) Particulate matter. Some particulate matter will be removed in an SOx, scrubber, see (ii)
above. In areas particularly sensitive to this problem it could be necessary to install flue gas
filters, cyclones or electrostatic precipitators.

9.2.4 Water Treatment for Once-Through Steam Generators

Feed water must be treated to prevent scale deposition and/or corrosion of the generator internals
and the downstream equipment.

Hardness
3
Hardness values are normally expressed as g/m CaCO3. Calcium and magnesium ions should be
3
removed as far as possible to zero (below 1 g/m as CaCO3). This inevitably requires the use of
an ion exchange process, the complexity of which will depend on the total dissolved solids (TDS)
content of the water. Typical applications are shown in Table 9.2-3.
Table 9.2-3 Typical ion exchange applications

The hardness is removed from strong cation resins by regeneration with sodium chloride solution
(brine) typically at approximately 15% weight concentration. Weak cation (carboxylic acid) resins
are regenerated using hydrochloric acid followed by sodium hydroxide. Regenerant washes are
followed by water washes prior to re-entry of the resin into service.

Regeneration can be either co-current or counter-current to the process flow, the latter leading to
lower hardness leakage but lower efficiency for the regenerant.

Ion exchange processes are equilibrium processes and hardness leakage will vary during the
process cycle and will depend on the amount of salt used for regeneration.

Sizing of strong cation exchangers (which are the most frequently used) would typically be based
on the criteria shown in Table 9.2-4.
Table 9.2-4 Sizing of strong cation exchangers

Silica
With conventional steam boilers where the steam is often used to drive a turbine, the deposition of
silica (which is carried over with the steam) on the turbine blades is a potentially serious problem.

In thermal recovery processes, there is no known case where silica carryover has caused a
problem with the downstream equipment or the formation, due to the relatively gradual changes in
steam pressure compared with the high pressure drop which occurs in a steam turbine.

Iron and other Heavy Metals

These should be reduced as far as possible to zero. Iron may form scales of complex salts of the
type Na.Fe.SiO2. Soluble iron will be absorbed on strong cation softening resins, and will lead to
fouling of the resin since it is not removed by brine during regeneration.

Fouling may be removed by periodic regeneration with HCI followed by NaOH.

The presence of Cu salts in feedwater will seriously impair the possibility of making future welds
on the tubes.

Alkalinity
Bicarbonates break down into caustic soda and carbon dioxide at boiler operating temperatures.
Provided the solubility product of CaCO3 or MgCO3 is not exceeded, this is not a problem in a
once-through generator. Subsequentially, if the blowdown water is separated from the steam,
there is a potential corrosion problem associated with the steam distribution system since the CO2
will separate with the steam and dissolve in any eventual condensate which is formed.
Dissolved Gases
Oxygen must be reduced as close to zero as possible to prevent corrosion in the boiler tubes.
Chemical oxygen scavenging either alone or in combination with physical deaeration can be used.

Hydrogen sulphide is unlikely to exist in any appreciable quantity at the pH which is normally
present in the boiler. If necessary, it may be removed by stripping at pH < 7. Residual traces of
3 3
H2S (up to ca. 5 cm /m ) may be removed with chlorine.

Oil
Suspended oil should be removed as far as possible to prevent carbonization of the tubes.

Suspended Solids
These should be removed to prevent foaming in the generator tubes.

Water Quality Specification

5
A typical feed water quality specification for a generator operating at ca. 150 x 10 Pa pressure is
shown in Table 9.2-5. Actual specifications for a particular application will depend on the required
steam pressure, the generator selected and the combination of contaminants, present in the feed
water.

Table 9.2-5 Typical boiler feed water specification for thermal recovery project

A summary of the processes available for reduction/removal of common impurities in feed water is
shown in Table 9.2-6.
Table 9.2-6 Summary of processes available for reduction/removal of common impurities in feed
water

9.2.5 Characteristics of Thermally Produced Crude Oil

Thermal production of crude oil leads to some modification of the crude properties. An increase in
the proportion of light end hydrocarbons is observed and considerable quantities of H2, CO2 and
H2S may be generated. The formation of latter gases should be borne in mind when sizing
equipment and when selecting materials for construction.

The density and viscosity of the crude oil are reduced due to thermal decomposition.

Emulsions formed from thermally affected crude oil can be very stable and can show abnormally
high viscosities leading to difficult dehydration.
9.3 Insulation Techniques

9.3.1 Extent of Insulation

Insulation is required for:

(a) Heat conservation of equipment and piping, if economically justified.
(b) Personnel protection from surfaces with a temperature of 70 °C or higher when these
present a danger.
(c) Temperature control of processes or products, e.g. to avoid condensation, solidification, or
too high a viscosity.
(d) Winterisation

The minimum requirements for external thermal insulation of above-ground surfaces of tanks,
columns, vessels, heat exchangers, piping, etc., operating above ambient temperature, either for
heat conservation, for the protection of personnel, or to control temperatures of processes or
products, are contained in Ref. 1.

Flanges for hydrogen service shall NEVER be insulated.

Special attention is drawn to:

(a) The restrictions when stripping asbestos or asbestos-containing materials (see Ref. 2).
(b) The insulation with rigid polyurethane foam (PUF) of shells of aboveground storage tanks
(see 9.3.5).
(c) Weatherproofing (see 9.3.5).

9.3.2 Materials

The materials for insulation, fastenings, sheets, coatings and bandages shall be selected from the
materials described below in Table 9.3-1.

No flammable materials shall be attached to the insulation.

Insulation materials shall be free from asbestos.

Some material constants are shown in Tables 9.3-1 and 2.

Table 9.3-1 Typical insulation materials

Table 9.3-2 Properties of rigid polyurethane foam

9.3.2.1 Insulation Materials

(a) Mineral wool insulation

- Mineral wool blankets incl. mineral wool blanket-type pipe insulation (metal-mesh
covered)
- Mineral wool preformed pipe insulation
- Mineral fibre block and board thermal insulation.

(b) Asbestos-free calcium silicate preformed block and pipe sections.

(c) Glass wool insulation
- Glass wool blankets
- Glass wool preformed pipe insulation
- Glass wool preformed block insulation.
(d) Sprayed rigid polyurethane foam (PUF) for tanks.
9.3.2.2 Fastening Materials

(a) Galvanised steel materials shall NEVER be used for fastening insulation to stainless steel
piping and equipment.
(b) The following fastening materials may be used:
- binding wire, strapping bands, self-tapping screws, rivets, clips and quick release
toggles, support rings.

9.3.2.3 Sheet Materials

(a) The following sheeting materials may be used:

- aluminium sheet, galvanised steel sheet (shall NEVER be used on stainless steel
piping and equipment), aluminium steel sheet, stainless steel sheet.
(b) The thickness of the sheets shall be as shown in Table 9.3-3.

Table 9.3-3 Sheeting materials

(c) Removable covers for flanges, valves, etc., shall be made of 1.0 mm sheets, independently
of the type of material used.
(d) The combinations of sheeting and fastening materials shown in Table 9.3-4 shall be used:
Table 9.3-4 Sheeting and fastening materials

9.3.2.4 Special Purpose Materials

For suitable materials for use as coatings, bandages and sealing materials, see Ref. 1.

9.3.3 Insulation Thickness

9.3.3.1 Economic Insulation Thickness

A computer program is available commercially or via PETRONAS to calculate the economic

optimum thickness and the thickness required for personnel protection.
The economic insulation thickness shall be determined by means of the following formula:

where:
Q= insulation cost price per unit of flat surface or unit of pipe length, including material,
fastening, weatherproofing, labour, packing, transportation and tax costs (variable
costs) at the time of installation. It is not necessary to consider fixed costs, such as
scaffolding, metal surface preparation costs.
Since large insulation thicknesses may result in considerable extra capital costs for pipe
bridges, civil work, etc., the extra costs per unit of insulation thickness shall also be
included in Q.
C= Capital charge in %
P= Annual cost of heat loss per unit of flat surface or unit of pipe length.
In view of the large differences in heat costs, plant piping and associated equipment shall be
divided into Group A and Group B.

Group A
Piping and equipment of which the heat loss costs can be related to fuel prices, i.e. piping and
equipment carrying LP steam, fluids heated in furnaces, etc.

Group B
Piping and equipment of which the heat loss costs can be related to MP/HP steam prices, i.e.
piping and equipment carrying MP/HP steam, fluids heated by MP/HP steam, etc.

Using the insulation thicknesses determined for new piping and equipment for upgrading the
insulation of the existing units may not be the most economical solution as the extra cost for
removing old insulation, scaffolding, replacing of insulation support rings on equipment, special
shaping of insulation in cramped areas etc. have to be taken into account. Upgrading of insulation
(retro-fitting) can be defined as:
(a) New insulation after old insulation has been removed
(b) New insulation over existing previously uninsulated surfaces
(c) Additional insulation over existing insulation. This could be considered provided existing
insulation is in good condition.

9.3.3.2 Insulation Thickness Dictated by Personnel Protection

The maximum wall temperature for personnel protection must not exceed 70 °C, with a wind
velocity of 2 m/s. The insulation thickness shall not be less than 25 mm. Wire mesh may also be
used instead of insulation.

9.3.4 Methods of Application of Insulation Material

9.3.4.1 General

All steel surfaces to be insulated shall be dry, clean and free from rust, loose mill scale, grease
and dirt before the insulation is applied.
Ingress of rain water into or condensation of water vapour in the insulation can cause severe
corrosion of carbon steel and low-alloy equipment, vessels and piping operating up to 120 °C or
used occasionally. To prevent this corrosion, the steel surface shall be suitably painted
(see Ref. 3).

Austenitic stainless steel vessels, equipment and piping need special attention in coastal areas or
where corrosive products, e.g. chlorides and hydrogen chlorides are being handled (Ref. 1).

9.3.4.2 Piping to 400 mm Nominal Size (inclusive)

(a) Rigid Insulation

Rigid insulation materials on this piping shall be applied in preformed sections or segments and
shall be fastened to the pipe with binding wire at intervals of 25 cm. All joints shall be closely
butted. Circumferential joints between segments in adjacent lengths shall be staggered.

On vertical pipes of nominal size 100 mm and larger, welded or clamped support rings shall be
applied at the lower end above each flange. Additional rings may be required, at approximately 6 m
intervals.

At pipe bends the sections shall be mitred and where required crevices filled with insulating
cement so that parts fit closely. Except for piping with an outside diameter of insulation below
60 mm the insulation shall be weatherproofed with sheeting as described in 9.3.5.

(b) Flexible Insulation

The blankets, cut to adequate size, shall be applied and be fastened into position with steel wire.
For vertical piping with more than one insulation layer the wire mesh of each blanket shall be
fastened to the upper support ring. After application the blankets shall have the required insulation
thickness.

On vertical pipes of nominal size 100 mm and larger, welded or clamped support rings shall be
applied at the upper end and under each flange, with additional rings as required.
Except for piping with an outside diameter of insulation below 60 mm, the insulation shall be
weatherproofed with sheeting as described in 9.3.5.

9.3.4.3 Piping over 400 mm Nominal Size, Tanks and Vessels

(a) Rigid Insulation (not applicable for rigid PUF)

On vertical piping over 400 mm nominal size welded or clamped support rings shall be applied at
the lower end and above each flange, with additional rings as required at 4 metre intervals.
For tanks and vessels angular support rings spaced at intervals of 2.85 - 4.75 m (depending on
the rigidity of the insulation) are required for vertical surfaces. These rings support the insulation
and form a break in the insulation to allow for wall expansion (see Figures 9.3-1 and 2).

All joints shall be closely butted.

When excessive expansion is to be expected, space for expansion filled with loose insulating
material shall be left under each angular support ring. The insulation shall be weatherproofed as
described in 9.3.5 (see Figures 9.3-1 and 9.3-3).

(b) Flexible Insulation

Welded angular support rings for blankets are needed for vertical surfaces at intervals of
approximately 2.0 m (see Figures 9.3-2 and 3). The blankets shall be applied with the wire mesh
on the outside and placed into position with strapping bands at intervals of 50 cm. After application
the blankets shall be compressed by not more than 3 mm.

Insulation on horizontal vessels shall be supported by three pins, tackwelded to the bottom side of
the shell or to carbon steel strips, bolted around the vessel circumference, at intervals of 50cm.
The insulation shall be pressed over the pins and the protruding ends bent over at right angles, as
shown in Figure 9.3-4. Loose distance rings fitted at intervals of approximately 1.0 m, shall be
used to support the metal sheets.

9.3.4.4 Flanges, Valves and Fittings

If flanges, etc., have to be insulated, these shall be provided with removable boxes. The thickness
of the insulation over the flanges shall be minimum 25 mm or equal to the thickness for personnel
protection.

9.3.4.5 Covers

All covers, e.g. of heat exchangers and manholes, liable to comparatively frequent removal shall be
provided with a box of metal sheets, lined with insulation slabs having a minimum thickness of
50% of that of the vessel insulation.

Each box shall be made of one or more pieces, each piece being of such a size and shape that it
can be easily handled by 2 men. They should be secured using quick-release toggles.
9.3.4.6 Sprayed Rigid Polyurethane Foam (PUF) for Tanks

Sprayed rigid polyurethane foam is intended for use on shells of tanks operating at temperatures
above ambient and up to 90 °C. It should be applied only when over-spray cannot cause damage
to third parties or adjacent objects, or when adequate protection against over-spray is feasible.
The insulation shall end at a sufficient height above the tank base to prevent contact between
ground water insulation, e.g. after rainfall. Junctions between permanent and removable insulation
shall be properly sealed against ingress of moisture.

Sprayed rigid PUF without metal sheet covering shall not be used on roofs of tanks, since
otherwise static electricity induced by walking over the PUF will cause severe corrosion of the roof
plates.
Further installation detail can be obtained in Ref. 1.

9.3.5 Weatherproofing and Protection of Stationary Equipment

All insulated equipment such as tanks, columns, vessels, heat exchangers and piping (except for
rigid PUF on tank shells), shall be protected with sheeting (see 9.3.2.3) which should be formed to
the correct size and furrowed in both longitudinal and circumferential direction, with a minimum
overlap of 50 mm so that rain water cannot penetrate. Openings in the sheets for nozzles, etc.,
shall be provided for. These openings shall be properly closed to prevent ingress of water.
Figure 9.3-1 Rigid insulation on vertical tanks, vessel and piping over 400 mm
Figure 9.3-2 Flexible insulation on vertical tanks, vessels and piping over 400 mm
Figure 9.3-3 Angular supporting ring for insulation with sheets on vertical tanks, vessels and
piping over 400 mm

Figure 9.3-4 Support pins for flexible insulation on horizontal vessels

9.4 Techniques for Handling Waxy Crude Oils

World-wide there are approximately 1500 different crude oils of which 10 to 20% are considered
waxy. No two waxy crudes are alike. The severity of the problems which they may pose in field
operations depends upon the composition and thermal history of the oil and on the operating
requirements (and hence design details) of the gathering/production station.

9.4.1 Model Tests

It is strongly recommended that laboratory tests simulating field conditions be carried out by a
competent laboratory with previous experience with waxy crudes.

9.4.2 Properties and Behaviour of Waxy Crudes

Reference should be made to Volume 8 PIPELINES where waxy crudes are discussed from the
hydraulics viewpoint.
Nevertheless some cautionary advice is given below. Gelling results in a yield stress representing
a minimum shear stress below which the crude oil will not flow. Simultaneously the viscosity
during flow becomes high.

(a) The yield stress of the gel must not exceed the maximum allowable pipeline pressure or
installed pumping pressure.
(b) The NPSH requirement (as stated by the vendor) is increased by the yield stress and the
actual suction head pressure must not be less.
(c) Heating/recooling of waxy crude oil should be avoided, because it may destroy a favourable,
low viscous wax structure. Such effects are less pronounced in the presence of a fluidity
improver.
(d) When cooling is minimal continuous circulation of waxy crude, e.g. in a storage tank and in
piping, will assist in preventing the formation of a gel.
(e) Compared to slow, controlled cooling, rapid temperature reductions/ fluctuations increase
restart and other pumping problems.
(f) The minimum restart pressure is less in the presence of gas (free or dissolved) or separated
water, but water-in-oil emulsions exhibit a high viscosity.
(g) Poorly maintained equipment 'encourages' waxing problems, hence adequate cleaning
facilities must be designed into a system, for example; manholes, sufficient number of
cleaning hatches, heating coils, steam connections, insulation.
(h) Ensure availability of high pressure, low throughput, standby (reciprocating) pumps for
potential assistance during restart.
9.5 Heating Storage Tanks

Under normal field operating conditions, heating is used for the following applications:
(a) Finished product storage; where the ambient temperature is close to or below the pour point
of the product.
(b) Waxy crude (see 9.4).
(c) Process heating; for example prior to dehydration (see 8.1).

The heating of storage tanks containing export quality crude is abnormal.

Specialist advice should be sought if there is a requirement to heat a storage tank which falls
outside (a) to (c) above (see Volume 8 for pipeline heating).
SECTION 10 AIR CONDITIONING, FORMERLY INCLUDED HERE,
HAS BEEN INCORPORATED IN VOLUME 9.
11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

OIL SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRODUCTION FACILITIES (1)

References

1. Recommended Practice for Design and Installation of Offshore Production Platform Piping
Systems. API RP 14E.

TERMINALS (7)

Crude Oil Loading Facilities (7.11)

References

1. International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals. ICS OCIMF, 1978
2. The Effect on the Operation of Tanker Terminals Following International Tanker Safety and
Pollution Prevention Standards. OCIMF, 1981
3. Safety Inspection Guidelines and Terminal Safety Check List for Gas Carriers. OCIMF,
1979
4. Guidelines and Recommendations for the Safe Mooring of Large Ships at Piers and Sea
Islands. OCIMF, 1978
5. Standards for Equipment Employed in the Mooring of Ships at Single Point Moorings.
OCIMF, 1978

Further Reading

- Production Supervisor Training, Oil Terminals. SIPM Training Division

- Standards for Oil Tanker Manifolds and Associated Equipment. OCIMF, 1981
- Hose Standards. OCIMF, 1978
- Buoy Mooring Forum Hose Guide. OCIMF, 1974
- Buoy Mooring Forum SPM Hose Ancillary Equipment Guide. OCIMF, 1975
- Buoy Mooring Forum SPM Hose System Design Commentary. OCIMF, 1975
- Design and Construction Specifications for Marine Loading Arms. OCIMF, 1980
Oil Storage Tanks (7.2)

Further Reading

- Standard Vertical Tanks Design and Fabrication. PTS 34.51.01.31

- Standard Vertical Tanks Erection and Testing. PTS 64.51.01.31
- Field Inspection Methods and Repairs of Vertical Steel Storage Tanks.
PTS 70.51.10.11.
- Demolition of Storage Tanks. PTS 34.51.90.10.

DEHYDRATION AND DE-OILING OF PRODUCED FLUIDS (8)

Dehydration of Crude Oil (8.1)

Further Reading

- Guidelines and Design Procedures. PEGS G-13160, Shell Oil Company

De-oiling of Water (8.2)

Further Reading

- Treatment of Ballast Water. CONCAWE Report no. 2/78

- Treatment of Production Water. EP Forum Report, 1982 (see also 'Health, Safety and
Environment' in Volume 1)
- Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes (Liquid Waste, Volumes 5 and 6), API
- Drainage and Primary Treatment Systems. PTS 34.14.20.31.
- Specification for Oil and Gas Separators. API Spec 12J, Fifth Edition, January 1982
- de Wit, H. P., New Design Wash Tank for Dehydration and Desalting of Large Volumes of
Crude Oil. SPE-4848, 1974
- Barnea, E. and Mizrahi, J., Separation Mechanism of Liquid-Liquid Dispersions in a
Deep-Layer Gravity Settler. Parts I-IV, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng., Vol. 53, 1975
- Arnold, K., Designing Oil and Gas Production Systems. World Oil, December 1984
- Stires, J. L., Design of High-Rate, High-Volume Oil-Water Separators. SPE-8307, 1979
- Schweitzen, Handbook of Separation Techniques for Chemical Engineers. McGraw-Hill,
1979

WATER AND STEAM INJECTION AND SPECIALISED TECHNIQUES (9)

Water Injection (9.1)

Further Reading

- Water Flood Systems. PEGS G. 15202.03, Shell Oil Co., April 1978
- Patton, C. C., Oilfield Water Systems. Campbell Petroleum Series, 1977
- Miron, R. L., Removal of Aqueous Oxygen by Chemical Means in Oil Production
Operations. Material Performance, June 1981, pp. 45-50
- Gravely, E. S., Chemical Removal of Oxygen from Natural Waters. J. Pet. Tech., April
1971, pp. 443-446
- Recommended Practice for Biological Analysis of Subsurface Injection Waters. API RP 38,
Third Edition, December 1975 (Reissued March 1982)
- NACE Materials Code, RP.04.75
- Miron, R. L., New Design Considerations for New Water Treating and Oil Dehydration
Facilities. West Coast Operations, Shell Oil Company (when published)
Insulation Techniques (9.3)

References

1. Thermal Insulation for Hot Services. PTS 30.46.00.31.

2. Safe Handing of Asbestos. Shell Safety Committee (1981)
3. Painting and Coating for New Construction Projects. PTS 30.48.00.31.
 SPECIMEN AMENDMENT SHEET
PRODUCTION HANDBOOK

VOLUME 7 PROCESS ENGINEERING

PART 1: OIL PROCESSING

___________________________________________________________________________
A Company ____________________________________________________________
Reference Indicator ____________________________________________________
Name _______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

B Page number _________________________________________________________

Section number _______________________________________________________
Title (Section, Table, Figure) _____________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

C Comments

___________________________________________________________________________
Note: Comments by letter or telex should include all the above information and be sent to the
PETRONAS custodian department (see title page) concerned.
PART II: GAS PROCESSING
1 GENERAL

Natural gas is found in structures similar to those containing crude oil and, from the production
viewpoint, may be placed in two main categories:
1. Associated gas -from reservoirs where gas is found dissolved in crude oil (solution gas) or
in contact with gas-saturated crude oil (gas-cap gas). Gas production rates depend on oil
output.
2. Non-associated gas - either from structures capable of producing only gas, or from
condensate reservoirs which yield relatively large amounts of gas per m3 of light liquid
hydrocarbons.

Natural gas normally consists mainly of hydrocarbons, together with usually minor proportions of
other gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen and sometimes hydrogen sulphide. The principal
hydrocarbon is methane with ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and heavier fractions usually
present in decreasing proportions (see 1.1(b)).
Natural gas is usually treated to remove any undesirable constituents for technical reasons and/or
to meet customers' gas quality standards. Easy combustion control and low emission of sulphur
oxides make natural gas a particularly suitable fuel for a wide range of high-grade industrial
applications, as well as its established uses for domestic purposes such as cooking and heating.

1.1 Terminology

(a) LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas)

Natural gas can be liquefied by cooling to minus 161 °C at atmospheric pressure. This reduces its
volume to about one six-hundredth of the original gaseous state and makes shipping possible in
cases where it is economically or physically impossible to transport natural gas by pipeline. LNG is
shipped in special insulated LNG carriers to storage terminals near the consuming centres where
it is re-gasified and distributed in accordance with market demand.

(b) NGL (Natural Gas Liquids)

The term NGL, not to be confused with LNG (liquefied natural gas), comprises those heavier
hydrocarbon fractions extracted in liquid form from natural gas usually at or near the point of gas
production or in a separate processing or treatment plant. NGL can be further classified into
ethane, liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) - mainly propane and butane - and condensate (natural
gasoline), the latter being in liquid form at atmospheric temperature and pressure. A summary of
gas terminology is shown in Table 1.1-1
Table 1.1-1 Gas terminology
1.2 Project Development

This Section provides a check-list for the preparation of specifications for PETRONAS gas projects.
Three aspects are considered:
1. Data gathering
2. Project specifications and procedures
3. Detailed engineering aspects

1.2.1 Data Gathering

1.2.1.1 Fluid Properties and Performance Data

(a) Reservoir Fluid Data

- Accurate sampling is essential during well testing, as well as accurate measurement of flow
rate, pressure and temperature.
- Establish that representative sampling has been carried out, using a special test manifold,
etc.
- The analyses required for accurate determination of fluid composition and properties must be
specified, i.e. components up to C20, heavy ends characterisation Of C20+ ,H2S, CO2, RSH
(mercaptans), Hg, Po (polonium), Rn (radon), He, H2, N2, H2O, benzene, toluene and
xylenes (all at reservoir conditions), wax content and pour point of liquids (see 3.6).

(b) Reservoir Performance Data

- Establish the Flowing Tubing Head Pressure (FTHP) versus well flow performance and the
FTHP versus cumulative production of field and tubing head temperature curve. Also
establish the Closed In Tubing Head Pressure (CITHP).
- Establish a forecast over the foreseeable well life for Gas/Oil Ratio or Gas/Liquid Ratio.
- Check the possibility of water coning, free water production per well and sand production.
- Determine whether H2S, CO2, etc. could be expected in future as a result of enhanced oil
recovery methods.

(c) Other Fluid Property Data

Data on fluids to be handled by the project facilities, when not flowing directly from the well(s),
should be established by the procedures described in 3.6, i.e. pressure, temperature and
composition data and their variations with time.
(d) Production Data
Establish production patterns over 5, 10 and 20 years to calculate the load factor, cumulative
production and minimum and maximum flow rates. Investigate the possibility of additional
production from known fields/new fields. Prepare a field development programme, outlining the
development phases of the field, which can serve as a reference document for the project (see 2
for information on specifications).

1.2.1.2 Environmental Data

(a) Weather Data

Collect information on:
- maximum and minimum daily temperatures (ever recorded)
- daily average temperatures, over the year (plot curve)
- wind velocity/direction distribution, over the year
- rainfall distribution, over the year
- black bulb temperatures (dry, wet - relative humidity)
- average and minimum seabed temperature.

(b) Site Data

Collect data on:
- soil conditions (load bearing capacity, etc.)
- earthquake risk/iceberg risk/flooding risk
- sandstorm data/snowstorm data/saltspray/icing
- accessibility for heavy transport, air transport, maximum dimensions/weight
- population density
- surrounding plant risks (radiation, smoke, fire, explosion)
- power supply (quantity, reliability)
- water supply (quality, quantity, supply reliability)
- fuel supply situation.

(c) Local Support Data

Investigate if:
Design engineering facilities are present or could be established.
Contractors transport capabilities are adequate/crane capacities/Customs Agents available.
Local manufacturers/agents of major equipment/spare parts services are established/can be
utilised.
1.2.2 Project Specifications and Process Evaluation

(a) Evaluate potential processes taking into account future conditions

Additional future equipment requirements should be estimated, such as:
- chemical injection in the well, in the facilities, effects downstream
- extra air cooling/mechanical refrigeration
- wellstream compression (upstream of plant)
- pipeline compression (downstream of plant)
- extreme ambient conditions (process to remain on line or to be shut down)
- addition of facilities/extension of capacity (offshore structural concepts)
- central control room/controls at site (check Hazardous Area Classification)
- corrosive products of enhanced oil recovery methods (H2S, CO2 appearing in gas. (Design
normally to NACE-MR-01-75.)
- any other requirements.

(b) Establish the product specification:

- is it constant with time?
- is it variable with seasons, e.g. with soil temperature, influence of gas on pipeline
specification?

(c) Establish the plant specification:

- what is the effect on facilities of (short term) process disruptions?, e.g. plant to shut down,
plant to go on standby, measures to detect or prevent process disruptions such as material
selection for untreated gas accidentally entering facilities.
- what is the flexibility required (short term and long term) to allow for variations in flow,
pressure, fluid composition?.
- what is the minimum gas specification required?, e.g. field dehydration only, dehydration and
hydrocarbon dew point control, or sweetening (for gas specifications see 2.4).
-

(d) Review alternative processes

Then select a process and facility type/size with regard to existing equipment standards, operating
and maintenance philosophy, etc. Spares policy should be reviewed for incorporation in the project
guidelines/specification. (See also Volume 9.)

1.2.3 Detailed Engineering

For equipment specifications see 4, 5, 6 and Volume 9.

2 THE GAS CONSUMER

2.1 Gas Consumption

2.1.1 Gas Turbines

Figures 2.1-1 and 2.1-2 show graphs of fuel consumption versus energy (ISO) rating for various
types of base loaded gas turbines for power generation or as prime movers for pumps and
3
compressors. The fuel consumptions are based on a net heating value of 37.3 MJ/m (st)
3
(1,000 Btu/Sft gas) at ISO rating conditions (15°C ambient temperature and at sea level). The
wide variations which are dependent upon the manufacturer and model should be noted.
Typical efficiencies for combustion gas turbines and aircraft derivative gas turbines in power
generation applications are shown in Table 2.1-1.

Table 2.1-1 Gas turbine efficiencies

2.1.2 Steam Turbines and Combined Cycle

3
Typical efficiencies and fuel gas consumptions assuming a net heating value of 37.3 MJ/m (st) for
base load steam turbines and combined cycle power generation are shown in Table 2.1-2.
Figure 2.1-1 Gas turbine drivers up to 10 MW
Figure 2.1-2 Gas turbine drivers over 10 MW
Table 2.1-2 Steam turbine combined cycle efficiencies

2.1.3 LPG/NGL Plants

For LPG/NGL plants the typical fuel consumption is 2 to 5% weight of inlet gas. NGL storage
tanks and ships have vapour recovery facilities and therefore in general there are no storage or
transfer losses. Fuel gas requirements vary significantly with location, process condition, and the
end products required. Examples are shown in Table 2.1-3.

Table 2.1-3 LPG/NGL plants - variations in fuel gas requirements

2.1.4 LNG Plants

For LNG base load plants the typical fuel consumption is about 10% weight of inlet gas. Thermal
efficiency is about 80-85%. LNG storage loss is about 2% weight per day and is used as fuel gas.
LNG loading loss is about 1% weight of load and is used as fuel gas. LNG ship's boil-off is
compressed and used as fuel. Typical boil-offs are shown in Table 2.1-4.

Table 2.1-4 LNG ship boil-off rates

Examples of feed rates, LNG product outputs and fuel gas requirements are shown in Table
2.1-5.

Table 2.1-5 LNG production patterns and fuel gas requirements

*) Pre-1984 design
2.1.5 Refineries

For refineries the typical fuel consumption ranges from 4 to 12% weight of equivalent inlet feed.

2.1.6 Chemicals and Petrochemicals

Table 2.1-6 shows typical gas consumption rates for various natural gas applications.

Table 2.1-6 Typical natural gas consumption rates

1
) Thermal efficiency = net heating value of product per kg .
net heating value of natural gas consumed per kg of product
2
) The higher figures are expected scale-ups of existing technology.

2.1.7 Non-Chemical Industries

The following industries are all very energy-intensive. Not mentioned are the relatively small scale,
high value industrial applications of gas, where gas commands a higher price than competing
fuels because of its inherently superior qualities, such as cleanliness (no air pollution or product
contamination), controllability, etc. This group of premium industrial uses of gas is prevalent in
Europe and Japan. On the other hand, the energy-intensive industries mentioned below would
presumably use gas only in countries where gas is inexpensive, that is in gas-producing countries.
2.1.7.1 Cement

A typical plant built today would produce 3000 t/d cement. Table 2.1-7 shows the energy required
for cement production. The significant improvement in energy efficiency over time should be
noted.

Table 2.1-7 Energy consumption in MJ/kg of cement

2.1.7.2 Paper and Paperboard

World-wide, the average amount of energy consumed in the paper and board industry, purchased
plus self-generated, amounted to 37 MJ/kg in 1980.

Per country there are appreciable differences:

Canada (1979) 26 MJ/kg (of which 50% self-generated)
Sweden (1979) 24 MJ/kg (of which 50% self-generated)
USA (1979) 41 MJ/kg (of which 50% self-generated)
Japan (1979) 28 MJ/kg (of which 25% self-generated)

The different energy consumptions are due to differences in energy efficiencies, end-usage of the
paper (communications, wrapping and packaging, household, sanitary, etc.) and type of pulp.
2.1.7.3 Aluminium

Aluminium is the second most widely used metal in the world. It has several advantageous
properties, in particular its lightness and malleability, which, combined with its steadily falling price
in real terms, has resulted in it penetrating a wide range of markets. Its main end-uses world-wide
are construction and transport (20-25% each), packaging (15-20%) and electrical (10-15%).

About 75% of the aluminium used in the world is primary aluminium; the rest is made from
recycled material. Primary aluminium is made from alumina, which in turn is made from bauxite. It
requires roughly two kg of bauxite to produce one kg of alumina and two kg of alumina to produce
one kg of aluminium.

The most important requirement for aluminium production is the availability of inexpensive energy.
Of the energy required to make finished fabricated aluminium products, 14% goes into making
alumina, 65% into smelting, 6% into holding and reheating ingots, slabs and billets and 15% into
fabrication. Typical capacities of modern aluminium plants range from 100 000 to 250 000 t/a. For
a 155 000 t/a aluminium plant, approximately the equivalent of 22 PJ of natural gas is required
(equivalent to a dedicated 272 MW power plant).

2.1.7.4 Glass

90% of all glass manufactured is soda-lime glass. Glass is made from inexpensive raw materials,
the main cost component being freight. The cost of energy, mainly in the form of fuel, accounts for
some 10-20% of the manufacturing cost (see Table 2.1-8). This is so mainly because efficiencies
of furnaces which operate at the high temperatures necessary for glass making are rather poor.
The major end-uses of glass are containers (two thirds of the total) and flat glass.

Table 2.1-8 Glass energy usage in MJ/kg

Other kinds of glass products require more energy to produce, e.g. fibres 25-40, domestic, tubing
20-25, lead crystal glassware 80-90 (all in MJ/kg).
A typical glass plant capacity is 100 000 t/a product.

2.1.7.5 Ceramics

Ceramic products are made by drying and firing clay which has been plasticised with water. The
clay can be either of two types:
- red burning clay and shales, used to produce common building brick, tile and pipe
- white or light burning kaolin clays, the basic raw material for pottery and clay refractories.

At least 90% of all the energy required in making bricks is used for drying and firing. The other
operations; crushing, grinding, mixing, forming, etc. require only about 0.14 MJ/kg of product
(mainly as electrical energy).

The quantity of energy required for drying and firing depends largely on the type of clay that is
used. Oxford clays for instance, used extensively in the UK to make so-called Fletton bricks,
contain much carbonaceous matter which burns in the firing kiln and produces about 2 MJ/kg final
product. Some net energy consumptions for drying and firing are:

USA 1975 average 3.6 MJ/kg

UK 1978 average 2.2 MJ/kg
UK 1978 Fletton bricks 1.2 MJ/kg
UK 1978 non-Fletton 3.6 MJ/kg
France 1979 2.2-2.7 MJ/kg

Typical brick plant capacities are in the range of 50 000 to 100 000 t/a product.

2.1.7.6 Iron and Steel

There are two important routes for iron and steel making in current practice:
- iron ore reduction in a blast furnace with coke and steel production in a basic oxygen furnace
- steel production in an electric arc furnace, fed primarily with sponge iron and scrap.
The route which uses sponge iron in an electric arc furnace is clearly the most attractive in
locations with abundant supplies of cheap natural gas. The alternative route via a blast furnace
requires a much larger investment since its economic plant size is greater. Moreover it relies on
the availability of inexpensive coking coal and involves more difficult environmental problems,
especially in the production of coke.
An indication of the energy required to produce steel slabs in the USA in 1975 is shown below.
The figures include both energy which is used directly in the various processes as well as energy
required to produce auxiliary materials, materials of construction, transport and electrical energy.
Energy required in MJ/kg to produce steel slabs (USA 1975):
1. Via ingots
(a) Electric arc furnace 14.8
(b) Blast furnace/open hearth 30.4
(c) Blast furnace/basic oxygen 31.7
2. Continuous casting
(a) Electric arc furnace 11.3
(b) Blast furnace/open hearth 24.7
(c) Blast furnace/basic oxygen 25.8

2.2 Load Factor

The load factor for gas production is commonly defined as:

Total yearly production divided by 365

Maximum production over 24 hours

A gas supplier favours a high supply load factor, to provide efficient use of his facilities and hence
the potential for a higher return on investment.
However the demand load factor of the end-consumer depends appreciably on the type of
application (see Table 2.2-1) and will in many cases be lower than the preferred supply load factor.
Table 2.2-1 Consumer demand load factor

The gas distributing company that purchases the gas from the supplier and sells it to the
end-consumer can use various methods of matching the supply with the demand load factor, such
as by:
• requesting the gas supplier to supply at the demand load factor of the combined
end-consumers (this usually requires installation of higher production capacity)
• selling part of the gas under 'interruptible' sales contracts (this means that the gas
supply to certain customers, e.g. a dual-fuel power plant, can be interrupted when the
limit of the supply capacity is reached)
• utilising 'line pack' (surge capacity) to cover sudden fluctuations
• storing gas near the market, e.g. underground storage, LNG peakshaving to cover
longer term fluctuations (monthly, yearly)
• meeting localised high peak demands by propane/air injection.

The preferred solution will depend on the economic evaluation of the alternatives and the outcome
of negotiations between the supplier and the distributing company.
Also the type of gas supply ('associated' versus 'non-associated', high cost versus low cost
supply) will influence the load factors that can be economically accomodated by the supplier.
2.3 Gas Contracts

2.3.1 Summary of Importants Points

(a) The FIRST DRAFT of the contract is often PREPARED by the SELLER (assuming
‘PETRONAS' is seller). The party that develops the first draft of the contract usually
has an advantage in the negotiations.
(b) The SELLER OWNS the METERING facilities.
(c) The DELIVERY POINT is at the DOWNSTREAM FLANGE of the METERING
STATION.
(d) OWNERSHIP of the GAS changes at the DELIVERY POINT.
(e) The BUYER must install HIS own EQUIPMENT TO SAFEGUARD his facilities against
operational mishaps in Seller's facilities.
(f) The SELLER has NO LIABILITY for any damage downstream of the delivery point.

2.3.2 General Points

The gas contract must contain all rights and obligations of importance. It is where all relevant facts
must be consolidated into a binding enforceable written legal document. In order to have a sound
economic venture, the document must be all-encompassing, yet clear and precise. Listed below
are points to consider.

Scope (preamble)
Buyer/Seller, participation percentages, others using (partially) the same facilities, type of
agreement (sale of a given volume or depletion type sale).

Definitions of terms and attachments

Facilities
Location and type of facilities, buyers obligations as to their facilities, sellers obligations as to their
facilities.

Period of agreement
Timing, duration, termination, extension of agreement.

Quantities l commitments
Range of flow (max./min.), phasing, commissioning, daily/monthly/yearly nominations, dedicated
supply, priority of supply, additional allocation, reduction, change of volume at short notice,
make-up volumes and periods, rights of substitution, minimum payment obligations, take or pay.
Delivery point
Transfer of title, transfer of risk.

Price/price adjustment
Currency unit, contract price formulas, escalation.

Billing and payment

Accounting period, records, invoices, periodic statement, government take, sales tax, royalty,
adjustment for metering errors, interest for overdue payments, renegotiation.

Measurement and testing

Units of measurement; applicable international standards; corrections for temperature, pressure,
density, and heating value; method of metering; accuracy; significant figures/round-off; calculation
formulas; adjustment procedure for errors; frequency of verification and inspection; maintenance
and operating responsibilities; access rights to measurement results and test results; verification
of measuring procedure.

Gas quality
Specifications on temperature (max./min.); pressure (max./min.); heating value (max./min.);
Wobbe index (max./min.); oxygen; nitrogen; sulphur (hydrogen sulphide, total sulphur,
mercaptans, carbonyl sulphide, inorganic sulphur); carbon dioxide; inert gas; hydrocarbon
composition (max./min.); hydrocarbon dew point; water dew point; other impurities (ammonia, me-
thanol, glycol, mercury, objectionable odours, cyanides, dust/solids, waxy/ gummy materials);
standard test methods.

Force majeure

Exchange of information
Production forecast, reserve forecast, sample analyses, maps, layouts.

Assignment

Arbitration
Appointment of expert arbitrators, power and duties, applicable laws, legal language.
Confidentiality

Notices
Addresses, confirmation in writing.

Miscellaneous provisions
Co-mingling of products, extraction rights for gas liquids, employment and training, manpower
composition and staffing.

2.3.3 Guidelines

The more important technical aspects of the gas contract are discussed below. Generally,
technical detail specifications are covered in the attachments to the contract. Usually the
specifications vary considerably and are ‘customised' to the particular source(s) and user(s) of the
gas, so general specifications are difficult to develop. Bearing this in mind, typical guidelines are:

Measurement and testing

Units of measurement. The PETRONAS group preference is for SI units. Alternatively (second
best) all calculations can be made in SI units and converted to a final figure, such as the amount
3
of energy in J or quantity of gas in kg or m (st), into the units requested by the client, such as Btu,
3 3
kcal, therms, MMsft , Nm , etc.

Method of metering. The standard device at present is the orifice meter. Under certain
circumstances the use of turbine meters can be considered. Ultrasonic flow meters may find
acceptance in the future. In most cases, gas will be sold on a heating value basis. In general the
larger the quantity of gas, the more sophistication is applied in the design of the metering station.
Usually to increase overall accuracy potential and to achieve higher metering station availability
and reliability and ease of maintenance, additional facilities are incorporated in the design. Such
additional features would include multiple meter runs, spare meter run(s), redundant
instrumentation, self-testing facilities, built-in verification/calibration facilities, etc.

Applicable international standards. PETRONAS group preference is to follow ISO standards.

Accuracy. The uncertainty in the measurement of the total volume delivered through the metering
station, which is calculated according to ISO 5167, depends upon a number of factors. Under
ideal conditions of constant flow rate, fixed pressure and temperature, and known gas
composition, the calculated measurement uncertainty could be as low as ± 0.8 to 1.0% vol. Under
less ideal conditions the uncertainty could be as high as ± 1.5 to 2.0% vol. Generally, for dry
natural gas using orifice meters an uncertainty range of ± 1.0 to 1.5% vol. of measurement can be
assumed.
Calibration/inspection/access rights. At an agreed interval (often monthly) representatives of the
parties involved view the facilities and verify the accuracy of the measuring equipment. At any
time, the Buyer can ask for verification, but he will bear the costs should the instrument be found
to be within its allowed tolerance limits. The measuring equipment is always recalibrated when
necessary but corrections to past readings will only be made if the results indicate an overall
measurement error of, say, 2% vol. Results from the inspection are made available to all
participants.

Gas quality
Pressure. This depends upon the requirements of the Buyer. Typical values are:
Gas transmission pipeline ≈ 70 bar (± 1,000 psia)
Gas feed to an LNG plant ≈ 55 bar (± 800 psia)
Gas feed to an NGL plant ≈ 40 bar (± 600 psia)
Gas as fuel for gas turbines ≈ 20 bar (± 300 psia)
Gas as fuel to boilers/furnaces ≈ 3 bar (± 40 psia)

Temperature. Typical range 0 °C to 60 °C (32 °F to 140 °F)

Heating value. The required gross heating value range can vary widely from client to client
(see 2.4), but within an agreed range gas heating value variations of 10 to 25% are usually
acceptable to most users. In general, contract prices are tied to the gross heating value of the gas.

Wobbe index. Generally, a variation of ± 10 to 25% is acceptable.

Oxygen. Typically a max. of 0.1 to 0.5% mol.

Inert gases (nitrogen, argon, helium, etc.). Usually these components total under 1% mol, but N2
has been found in some fields to be much higher. Because removal is very costly, it is preferable
to have no specification of the level of inerts. Should the client insist on this then either very large
margins or special conditions must be agreed upon.
Carbon dioxide. Even although it is an inert gas, CO2 is usually specified separately because of its
corrosive nature in the presence of water. In some cases CO2 is removed by the producer or gas
transporter. Usually the client takes measures to accommodate CO2 or remove the CO2 (such as
in LNG plants to prevent CO2 freeze out or for controlling the heating value or Wobbe index).

Sulphur. Due to its corrosive nature in the presence of water, toxicity (see 3.7) and 'rotten egg'
odour, there are specifications on its various chemical forms (H2S, mercaptans, carbonyl sulphide,
3
inorganic sulphur). Typical industrial and domestic specifications for H2S are about 5 mg/m (st)
3
which is close to the '¼ grain per 100 sft ' specification used in the USA. A separate specification
for mercaptans is not often given, but instead a figure for 'Total Sulphur' of between 30 and
3
150 mg/m (st) is common. These figures vary from country to country. For dedicated gas
supplies for industrial use much higher H2S and total sulphur figures (in the % vol. range) can be
negotiated.

Hydrocarbon composition. Often a relative density range or actual ranges for each hydrocarbon
component are given. For supplies to a gas pipeline system, this may be limited by hydrocarbon
dew point requirements. Often the LNG plant will remove heavier hydrocarbons to prevent
freeze-out and meet the LNG specification. Some LNG plants may have a minimum ethane and
propane specification to be able to produce the refrigerant make-up.

Hydrocarbon dew point. This specification is to eliminate or reduce hydrocarbon condensation in

the system over a range of pressures. The specification is made to account for the ambient
condition (temperature) surrounding the gas line. A typical European specification is about -3 °C at
1 to 70 bar. For hot climates the temperature may be much higher.

Water dew point. This controls water drop-out, hydrate formation, and corrosion for a specified
temperature and pressure in the system. For Europe, water dew point is specified at gas
distribution conditions of typically -8 °C and 70 bar. For the USA, a typical gas transmission
6 3 3
system specification is 7 lbs of water per 10 ft which is approximately 110 mg/m (st) which is
equivalent to a dew point of 0 °C at 70 bar.
Other impurities. These include ammonia, methanol, glycol, mercury, objectionable odours,
cyanides, dust/solids, waxy/gummy materials, inhibitors, free liquids etc. These are miscellaneous
specifications which the user may require. For example, a methanol concentration of 100 mg/kg
can reduce the effective life of an expensive platinum catalyst in refinery processes. Because it is
extremely difficult to measure these impurities, great effort is justified to avoid these specifications
in the contract. Furthermore, they are present in small quantities often in the vapour phase and it is
nearly impossible to remove them economically. A clause saying that 'the gas will be technically
free from …' should leave enough room for minute quantities to be allowed. Also the words
'commercially free from' are used.
A mercury specification may be justified in LNG feed gas contracts because a mercury
concentration of less than 0.01 mg/kg can have detrimental effects on the cryogenic section of an
LNG plant. Usually if mercury is present the LNG plant would remove it, the extent of removal
being dependent upon the particular situation involved.

Standard test methods. To verify that the above specifications are satisfied, mutually agreed
standard test methods (ASTM, ISO, SMS, etc.) are used.

Ownership of the metering facilities

The Seller often owns the facilities. In the USA the Buyer often owns the facilities.

Operation of metering facilities

Metering facilities are always close to and often within the same fence as gas scrubbing or other
liquid removal facilities. Although the Seller is the owner/ operator of these facilities he may make a
separate operating agreement with the Buyer, if this is convenient, to operate the facilities on his
behalf. There should always remain a possibility to end this operating agreement without affecting
the main sales contract.

Delivery point
The point where ownership and risk of the gas changes from Seller to Buyer is the downstream
flange of the gas metering station. When the metering station is a separate fenced-in station, the
meter should be located close to the fence.

Liability
Both Seller and Buyer are normally only liable for damage caused by the gas that is owned by
them, that is, Seller upstream and Buyer downstream of the delivery point. However, there is a
tendency in legislation to increase the producer's liability. Regardless of what has been specified
as delivery conditions, the Buyer must include equipment in his part of the facilities in order to be
protected against over-pressure, off-specification gas, etc. The Seller cannot be made liable for
consequential damages downstream of the delivery point.
Design of facilities
When Seller's and Buyer's facilities are at a close distance it is a practice to include a clause that
allows the Seller to check the design of the Buyer's gas receiving facilities and vice versa. An
agreement on applicable codes to be used in the design, at an early stage, is advisable.
2.4 Gas Specifications

This Section gives an overview of typical gas specifications, as a function of the gas user.

Note:
Produced gases and liquids will contain many components and trace elements that will not be
acceptable to some consumers (as specified below). Thus, it is imperative that adequate sampling
and analysis of the source gas is done in order to allow design of treating facilities to meet sales
gas specifications.

Sampling and analysis should not only cover the usual determination of hydrocarbon and
non-hydrocarbon components (including sulphur compounds) but should also include, where
appropriate, analysis of trace components, sand, salt and other solids.

Lastly, due attention should be paid to possible components which are not in the original analysed
gas, but which may be added by the production process, such as corrosion products, corrosion
inhibitors, carried-over crude oil, molecular sieve material, glycol, methanol, etc.

2.4.1 Pipeline Transport

Pressure
The minimum downstream pipeline pressure is generally determined by the end-user (see 2.4.5).
The actual upstream and downstream pressures, (which may be much higher than the minimum
requirement of the end-user) are normally selected on the basis of an optimisation study, which
involves pipeline and facilities cost.

To allow for offtake fluctuations, shut-down requirements and problems during plant start-up, the
design pressure upstream of the delivery point may sometimes be considerably higher than the
pressure under normal flowing conditions. In some cases a pipeline working pressure is selected
which is higher than the cricondenbar pressure to achieve single-phase (dense phase) gas
transportation.

The final design pressure/material thicknesses may be determined by selecting a standard wall
thickness, or by stresses incurred during construction (lay barge).

Temperature
Allowable gas temperatures are limited by the material selection of the line pipe and its coating and
by the client's requirements. A range of 0 °C to 60 °C is generally acceptable. Minimum and
maximum design temperatures should be quoted when selecting and ordering materials.
Hydrocarbon dew point
Pipeline design can cope with both single-phase and two-phase flow, in widely varying gas/liquid
ratios. When single-phase gas flow has been selected, specification of a maximum hydrocarbon
dew point as the temperature at which the first drop of liquid will be formed, is considered
impracticable. This is firstly because dew point measurements are inaccurate and secondly
because minute liquid quantities may be present that could exceed dew point specification, but
which have no noticeable effect on pipeline operations.

Thus, to define single-phase operation, it is preferable to specify the maximum allowable liquid
content (as weight per volume) which may occur in the pipeline. A (rather tight) maximum of
3
100 mg/m (st) over the expected pressure/temperature range is suggested as a practical limit
3
(values used in practice range from 5 to 2000 mg/m (st)). The 'theoretical' process design should
aim for no liquid production over the expected pressure/temperature range, reserving the
3
100 mg/m (St) for inaccuracies in design, and inefficiencies of equipment and operation etc. The
actual liquid content of pipeline gas could be measured, using equipment developed by the
Thornton Laboratories, or the Gasunie.

As measurements of hydrocarbon dew point and such small liquid quantities are difficult and not
always reliable, particularly when non-hydrocarbons are present, it is customary to define that 'the
gas should be technically free of hydrocarbon liquids under pipeline operating conditions'.
This specification gives a certain operational margin to the producer, while at the same time
protecting the interests of the pipeline operator or client.

Water dew point

Since free water can result in hydrate formation and/or unacceptable corrosion rates, it is common
to remove the water using process facilities to such an extent that no free water will be present in
the pipeline, i.e. the water dew point of gas entering the pipeline will be kept below the lowest gas
temperature (at the highest pressure) in the line. If corrosion is not a problem, hydrate inhibitors
could be considered to reduce the requirements for upstream processing. In exceptional cases,
e.g. short distances, expensive treating facilities, corrosion resistant pipe materials or lining of the
pipe could be considered to accept a wet, corrosive gas. Both dew point and quantity
specifications are commonly used to define the allowable water content of a gas, such that all the
water will be in the vapour phase during transport conditions (usually specified at the highest
operating pressure).
Note:
A temperature drop due to a pressure drop (Joule-Thomson effect) across a regulating valve at
the delivery point may give hydrate problems if the dew point is not low enough in relation to the
gas temperature. This may have to be taken into account when selecting the dew point, or may be
allowed for in the design of the pressure regulating facilities.
The Joule-Thomson cooling effect will also occur in a flowing pipeline as a result of friction losses
and fluid temperatures could be lower than the temperature around the pipeline.

Glycol carry-over
Glycol being carried over from a drying process and condensed out of the gas phase upon cooling
of the gas will initially be at high concentration but will reach a new glycol/water equilibrium in the
pipeline as a function of pressure, temperature and water content in the gas. The equilibrium
mixture may be corrosive in the presence of CO2 and/or H2S and cause hydrogen induced
cracking (HIC). Especially for high pressure (> 100 bar) and low temperature (< 10 °C)
applications, it may set the limits for the glycol drying process. In case of doubt SIPM-EPD/42
should be consulted since this phenomenon is still a subject of on going research.

Compositional limitations
For transportation reasons it is usually not required to specify heating value, Wobbe index,
hydrocarbon composition, inert gases, etc. Components like CO2 and H2S together with the
(potential) presence of water, are extremely important, as they have a major impact on material
specification.

2.4.2 Gas Lift

Required gas lift pressure and quantity will be determined by an optimisation study involving
compression, transport and well cost, as a function of increased oil production.

Generally there are no restrictions on hydrocarbon dew point unless it is required that the gas
should be free of liquids when entering the gas lift grid (achieved by normal gas/liquid separation).
If hydrate formation is to be expected in the distribution system or if expected corrosion rates are
unacceptable, the gas has to be dehydrated, normally by glycol contacting.
In general, gas used for gas lifting of oil should not be cooled to recover hydrocarbon liquids as the
lean gas would strip NGLs from the crude in the gas lifting operation.
2.4.3 Gas Injection

The same requirements as for gas lift apply. Due to the higher pressures involved it is nearly
always required to dehydrate the gas. It may be attractive to remove the 'heavy' hydrocarbon
components from the gas for economic reasons. Careful attention should be given to the selection
of lubricants for gas injection compressors, as 'normal' hydrocarbon based lubricants may readily
dissolve in the high pressure gas resulting in inadequate lubrication. Furthermore, lubricants
dissolved in the injection gas may harm well injectivity.

2.4.4 Fuel/industrial Use

Pressure
Inlet pressure to gas turbines is typically 20 bar, but depends on the actual gas turbine being
used.
Inlet pressure to gas engines, heaters, boilers, etc. is around 3 bar.

Temperature
Gas inlet temperature should be some 20 °C higher than the water and hydrocarbon dew point,
but should not exceed 70 °C, to avoid damage to seals in the fuel gas system, and/or to the
coating systems used.

Heating value and Wobbe index

3
Gas engines require net heating values of 30 to 65 Mj/m (st), depending on compression ratio, in
3
order to avoid knocking. Gas turbines have a much wider range, say 20 MJ/m (st) and higher,
while heaters and boilers can virtually burn any fuel within its flammable limits. A similar wide
range of the Wobbe index is acceptable.

Operational variations in heating value and Wobbe index

While a wide range of heating value and Wobbe index may be selected for initial design, the
allowable changes around the selected design value are much smaller: typically 10 to 25%
changes in heating value and Wobbe index are allowed, depending on the type of engine/burner. If
a wider range is required, additional fuel injectors/burners will be required, possibly requiring
shut-downs for change out of burners.
Hydrocarbon composition
Especially for gas engines with low compression ratios it is preferable to remove the C4+
components. For gas turbines C10+ should be avoided, to avoid slow burning/long flames.
Otherwise, gas composition is governed by the temperature requirements stated above.

Non-hydrocarbon components
Substantial quantities of CO2, N2 and H2S can be accepted in the fuel gas, provided that the
heating value does not fall below specified limits. With high quantities of H2S, the allowable SO2
emission has to be reviewed; also removal of free water from both fuel gas and inlet air becomes
more critical, to avoid sodium ingestion into gas turbines.
3
Gases containing less than 5 mg/m (st) H2S will be acceptable without special precautions
(see 3.7).

2.4.5 Domestic Use

Pressure
The final pressure required at the user's site is low, say less than 3 bar. Therefore sales gas
pressure is normally determined by transport optimisation. Equally, transport considerations will
normally determine the allowable temperatures.

Heating value
Wide ranges are acceptable, provided that the gas remains in single-phase. In many contracts the
heating value is not specified.

Wobbe index
This is a critical yardstick for the design of users' appliances and although their design range is
large, depending on the distribution system, gas mixing and market flexibility, once the value is
chosen, allowable fluctuations are relatively small (typically some 10%). For the various gas fields
3
in the Netherlands, for example, the allowable Wobbe index ranges from 34 to 54 MJ/m (st), while
the allowable range per contract varies from 8 to 28%. (The high value is applicable to small
volumes.)

Hydrocarbon and water dew points

Hydrocarbon and water dew points are to be sufficiently low to prevent liquids being delivered to
customers' appliances. This condition is generally met by the requirement of single-phase gas
transport by pipeline, the liquids having been removed at higher pressures, upstream in the
system.
CO2 and other inert gases
No special limits are applicable.
Some gas distribution systems have rather arbitrary limits for certain components.

Sulphur
3
Gas for domestic use should normally contain less than 5 mg/m (st) H2S and total sulphur is
3
generally limited to values of 30 to 150 mg/m (st). The H2S limitation is essential for safe
domestic use (see 3.7).

Odorant injection
For safety reasons the injection of an odorant is essential for gas for domestic use. Injection is
made preferably upstream of the distribution system, usually by the buyer of the gas.

2.4.6 LPG/NGL Plants

Pressure
The minimum required plant intake pressure will generally be determined by the required tail gas
pressure to avoid/minimise in-plant compression, and could be from 40 to 70 bar. Higher
pressures may increase the cost of supply, but will generally reduce plant cost.

Temperature
In general there are no specific feed temperature limitations. A lower plant feed temperature
reduces plant cost. If the gas is to be sweetened, e:g. by the Sulfinol process, the gas should not
be colder than 5 °C and not hotter than approx. 40 °C.

Water dew point

Although the plant requires a very low water dew point to prevent hydrates in the low temperature
part of the plant, dew point reduction to NGL plant specification is not normally carried out by the
gas supplier, but by the plant facilities themselves. This is particularly true if a water based
CO2/H2S removal process is part of the front end of the NGL plant. Where this is not the case,
there is scope for optimising the gas supplier's dehydration (usually by glycol contacting and
therefore limited in dehydration capability) and the NGL plant dehydration (usually solid
desiccants, which can achieve much lower dew points).

Hydrocarbon dew point

There are no specific limits. Various NGL plants are supplied with a two phase gas/condensate
mixture, which is separated in the plant inlet facilities.
Hydrocarbon composition
Since the purpose of an NGL plant is generally the removal Of C2+ (or C3+) components, to be
sold as separate products, a 'heavier' composition will result in a more economical plant.
As economic conditions vary substantially from area to area it is not possible to define a minimum
required quantity or concentration Of C2+ components to make an LPG or NGL plant economically
viable.
See 5.1 (for conversion of gas composition and flow rate into recoverable C2+ products).

Non-hydrocarbon components
Inert components such as N2 make the C2+ removal more expensive. CO2 and H2S will generally
have to be removed, to prevent freeze-ups in the plant (ethane recovery), to avoid corrosion, and/or
to satisfy product specifications. Removal may be required from the total feed stream, or from
some products only. This removal is generally carried out within the NGL plant and depends on
CO2/H2S levels.

Other impurities
Usually molecular sieves will be used in NGL plants for gas dehydration. In this case limits may be
specified for the methanol content of the gas (to avoid bed poisoning and loss of capacity) and on
components in the gas that could deposit in the molecular sieves, and cause bed degradation
during regeneration, e.g. glycols, inhibitors, heavy hydrocarbons, H2S, COS.
If aluminium heat exchangers are used (usually when very low temperatures are involved) mercury
will have a detrimental effect on the aluminium material. Mercury levels of, say, even less than
0.01 mg/kg may require treating. While higher mercury levels in the gas supply are acceptable at
the plant inlet, the expected level should be carefully assessed, to allow the plant operator to
design for mercury removal facilities.

Product specifications
For product specifications from an NGL plant see 5.4.

2.4.7 LNG Plants

Pressure
Plant intake pressure is a function of the liquefaction process. 55 bar is typical, but higher
pressures will result in a lower LNG plant cost.
Temperature
As for NGL plants.

Water dew point

As for NGL plants, but requirements are more stringent in the cryogenic part of the plant, due to
the lower temperatures involved.

Hydrocarbon composition
There are no special limits on hydrocarbon composition for gas upstream of the LNG plant, but
before entering the cryogenic section, C5+ in the LNG must be removed to prevent hydrocarbon
freeze-out.
In general a richer gas can be more suitably liquefied since energy requirements are less for
liquefaction. Market constraints may allow only a limited amount Of C2+ in the LNG. On the other
hand enough C2, C3 and C4 should be present in the feed gas to the plant to provide make-up for
the refrigerant, while excess heavy components (C5+) will be disposed of as a separate product.

In practice an LNG plant can be designed to handle a variety of compositions, and it is unusual for
the gas producer to be required to alter the composition in his facilities, prior to delivery to the LNG
plant.

Non-hydrocarbon components / other impurities

Requirements will be more stringent for an LNG plant (see remarks made under NGL plants,
particularly for mercury).

Product specification
For product specification from an LNG plant, see 5.4.
3 GAS PROPERTIES AND CALCULATION METHODS

3.1 Calculating with Gas Volumes

A VOLUME of gas is often used as an input to gas engineering calculations.

The conditions of temperature, pressure and level of water saturation at which this volume is
reported must always be stated or implied. For this purpose standard temperature and pressure
conditions are specified and sometimes the word 'dry' or 'wet' added.

Unfortunately there are many standards set by the industry, e.g. at least seven standards for the
cubic foot exist and at least two for the cubic metre. The most important standards are discussed
below.

3.1.1 Standard Conditions

The CUBIC METRE under STANDARD CONDITIONS is:

3
1 m (st) at 15 °C (288.15 K) and 101 325 Pa (1.01325 bar).

The NORMAL CUBIC METRE is:

3
1 Nm at 0 °C (273.15 K) and 101 325 Pa (1.01325 bar).

The STANDARD CUBIC FOOT is:

3
1 sft (or 1 scf) at 60 °F and 14.696 psi.

ISO Committee TC 193 (Natural Gas) on 6 June 1991 has chosen 15 °C and 101 325 Pa as the
reference conditions for natural gas. A standard, which includes conversion tables, will be
prepared accordingly.

3
The m (st) is also in line with the metric references adopted by ASTM, AGA, API, GPSA, IP, IGU,
and ISO/TC 28 (Petroleum Products).
3
The Nm is still used in several European countries which have traditionally used metric units.
3
The sft is traditionally used in some English speaking countries where the use of Sl units has not
yet been adopted.
All pressures are absolute unless otherwise stated.
3.1.2 Volumetric Relationships

The volume of each standard relates to the others (rounded) as follows:

3 3
1 sft = 0.0283 m (st)
3 3
1 sft = 0.0268 Nm
3 3
1 Nm = 1.055 m (st)
3 3
1 Nm = 37.3 sft
3 3
1 m (st) = 0.948 Nm
3 3
1 m (st) = 35.4 sft
The rounded figures are accurate enough for all gas engineering calculations but when used for
accounting purposes, for instance in gas contracts, more accurate figures are required.

3.1.3 PETRONAS Recommendations

3
PETRONAS's recommendation is to use the m (st) at 15 °C and 101 325 Pa and 'dry'.

WARNING

In most cases measured volumes of gas are reported as 'dry' or when not mentioned it may be
implied that the volume is corrected for water content, which means that the actual measured
volume is greater by the amount of water vapour in the gas. At higher pressures of, say, more than
1000 kPa (10 bar) and temperatures of less than 50 °C the water content of gas when saturated is
less than 1% vol. and therefore insignificant for volume type calculations. When, however, a gas is
separated from crude oil or condensate at lower pressures and/or higher temperatures, then it is
important to check how much water vapour is present in the gas. At 100 kPa (1 bar) pressure and
70 °C, for example, the water content could be as high as 30% vol.

If standard conditions are reported including water vapour up to saturation, then the volume units
may be converted to a 'dry' volume by multiplying the ‘wet' volume by a factor 0.983. This factor is
only valid for converting from 15 °C 'wet' to 15 °C 'dry' and 60 °F 'wet' to 60 °F 'dry' both at
standard pressure.

3.2 Calculation of Compressibility Factors (Rough)

3.2.1 Engineering Calculations

The real gas deviation or compressibility factor (z) for hydrocarbon gases is used in those
calculations where the real volume occupied by a gas at actual pressure and temperature is
needed. Real volumes are needed, for example, in calculations on gas measurement, gas
separation, pipeline flow and compression. When the gas volume at 15 °C temperature and
101 325 Pa pressure is the reference volume used in the calculation (as it often is), then it can be
assumed that z = 1 for the gas at these standard conditions.
There are several methods for determining the z-factor. Apart from sophisticated computer
programs through which many of the gas properties can be determined in one operation (see 3.5
and 3.5.3), there are several options for the process engineer to obtain a ± 5% accuracy or better
value for z. It should be noted that where pressure and/or temperature change, the z-factor also
changes (such as in pipelines; see Volume 8).

In order of increasing accuracy the following methods are available:

1. When only molar mass is available use the graphs (Fig. 16-7A to 7C) in the GPSA Sl
Engineering Data Book (Ref. 1). Graphs can only be used for gases with less than 5% mol
non-hydrocarbons (see also Volume 4). When relative density is given multiply this by 29 to
get molar mass.
2. When the molar mass or relative density is known and the molar fractions of N2, CO2 and
H2S are available, use can be made of Ref. 2 using the 'TcPc' program followed by the 'z'
program. This is more accurate than the graphs, particularly when the non-hydrocarbon
content is higher than 5% mol.
3. When the whole gas composition is known, use can be made of Ref. 2 using the 'PROP'
program followed by the 'z' program. Also relative density, net and gross heating values and
specific heats can be calculated.

3.2.2 Gas Volume Measurement for Fiscalisation

For the determination of real gas deviation factors used for gas volume measurement the methods

proposed in Ref. 3 are often used. The form most convenient for this type of calculation is
which is called the supercompressibility factor. Where these methods are considered inadequate,
z-factors may be determined experimentally. (See also 3.5.3.)

3.3 Hydrocarbon Phase Behaviour - an Understanding of Phase Envelopes

The processing and transport of natural gas-liquid mixtures requires an understanding of the
phase behaviour of the hydrocarbon mixtures involved. The purpose of this Section is to promote
this understanding by investigating the phase behaviour of hydrocarbon mixtures which are
representative of reservoir fluid and separator gas compositions encountered in normal oil and gas
field operations.
Classification of Hydrocarbon Fluids
Figure 3.3-1 illustrates the pressure-temperature phase diagram of four general
classifications of hydrocarbon fluids; dry gas, gas condensate, light oil and heavy oil.

The delineation between fluid types is not precise so only a detailed study of the particular
hydrocarbon system being considered can produce exact results. A summary of some of
the characteristics of the hydrocarbon mixtures used in a particular study
(see Table 3.3-1) are given below.

Table 3.3-1 Composition of hydrocarbon mixtures in % mol

Phase behaviour calculations

A computer program (Ref. 4) was used to perform the following calculations:

1. Determination of the region of vapour-liquid equilibrium for each hydrocarbon mixture

as defined by the phase envelope on a pressure-temperature diagram.
2. (a) Illustrate the effect of heavy-end characterisation on the phase envelopes of
selected non-associated and associated gases.
(b) Illustrate the effect of hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen on the
phase behaviour of a non-associated gas.
3. (a) Calculate the treatment temperature required for each gas composition at
60 bar, to satisfy a hydrocarbon dew point specification of 3 °C at alI
pressures.
(b) Illustrate the effect of the heavy-end characterisation on the liquid yield of an
associated gas.
Discussion and Conclusions
The phase behaviour of hydrocarbon mixtures is highly dependent upon the particular
component concentrations and distribution within the mixture. The following trends in
hydrocarbon phase behaviour are highlighted:

1. The cricondentherms (the maximum temperature at which a liquid and vapour can
coexist in equilibrium) of the non-associated and associated gases increase as the
concentration of intermediate components (C2/C4's) increase (Figure 3.3-2).
2. Cold treating non-associated and associated gases to meet one specific dew point
(say -3 °C at all pressures) causes the gas phase envelopes to become very similar
(Figure 3.3-3).
3. Cold treating the non-associated and associated gases reduces the extent of the
two-phase region due to the preferential removal of the heavy components into the
liquid phase (compare Figure 3.3-2 and 3.3-3).
4. The dew point locus of associated and non-associated gases are sensitive to the
characterisation of the heavy components (Figures 3.3-4 and 3.3-5) and after
removing the heavy-ends by cooling the characterisation becomes less important
(Figure 3.3-6).
5. The higher the concentration of C2/C4's the more evenly the lines of constant molar
percent liquid are distributed within the two-phase region. (Figure 3.3-7).
6. Addition of carbon dioxide (Figure 3.3-8) and hydrogen sulphide (Figure 3.3-9) to the
medium rich non-associated gas caused the dew point pressure to decrease,
whereas the addition of nitrogen caused the dew point pressure to increase
(Figure 3.3-10).
Figure 3.3-1 Pressure-temperature diagrams of hydrocarbon fluid systems

Figure 3.3-2 Multiple plot of reservoir fluid and separator gas phase envelopes

Figure 3.3-3 Multiple plot of treated gas phase envelopes

Figure 3.3-4 The effect of heavy-end characterisation on the medium-rich associated
gas phase envelope

Figure 3.3-5 The effect of heavy-end characterisation on the medium-rich non-

associated gas phase envelope
Figure 3.3-6 The effect of heavy-end characterisation on treated and untreated medium-
rich associated gas phase envelopes

Figure 3.3-7 Lean associated and very rich associated gas phase diagrams showing
lines of constant molar percent liquid
Figure 3.3-8 The effect of carbon dioxide
on the medium-rich non-associated gas
phase envelope

Figure 3.3-10 The effect of nitrogen on the

medium-rich non-associated gas phase
envelope (dew point)

Figure 3.3-9 The effect of hydrogen

sulphide on the medium-rich non-
associated gas phase envelope
3.4 Flash Calculations

Flash calculations are made to determine the amounts of vapour and liquid in a two-phase
system and the composition of both phases under given temperature and pressure
conditions. They are also carried out to determine the bubble point of a liquid system and
the dew point of a gas system for either a given pressure or a given temperature.

Such calculations are done by trial and error procedures. They can be done manually but
for systems with more than three components, the calculations are lengthy and laborious.
The method for manual calculations is well described by Campbell (Ref. 5).

When manual calculations are made, the engineer must determine the correct equilibrium
constants ('K' values) to use for the given system. These are dependent not only on
pressure and temperature but also on the composition, since the various components
within the system will interact with each other. The GPSA Engineering Data Book (Ref. 6)
contains a series of 'K' value charts, and compositional dependency is dealt with by the
use of the 'convergence pressure' concept. Ref. 6 describes a method for determining the
convergence pressure of a given system, to enable selection of the most suitable group of
'K' value data.

Present day computer programs determine 'K' values by means of equation of state
calculations. These are able to generate significantly more accurate data than the
generalised correlation used by the GPSA and others. For reasons of accuracy as well as
time, computer programs such as SimSci PROCESS (Ref. 10) and PRO/11 (Ref. 14)
should be used whenever possible in such calculations (see 3.5).

3.4.1 Types of Flash Calculations

In field processing, a number of operations can take place which will change the phase
distribution of the system. To determine these changes, there are three basic types of
flash calculations which can be made to describe the various processes. These methods
are described below.

(a) Isothermal Flash

In an isothermal flash, the temperature is held constant and the pressure reduced or
increased. Heat must be added or taken out of the system to effect the given conditons,
e.g. a flash tank where heat is added to maintain the inlet temperature.
(b) Adiabatic Flash
In an adiabatic flash, no heat enters or leaves the system, e.g. a conventional flash tank
where pressure reduction and consequent vaporisation causes a reduction in system
temperature. Since the heat content of the inlet and outlet streams must be the same, the
outlet temperature (for a given flash tank pressure) must be calculated by trial and error.

(c) Isentropic Flash

In an isentropic expansion, the entropy remains constant during the flash. A pressure
drop across a turbo-expander, where the energy of expansion is absorbed by a booster
compressor, approaches an isentropic expansion. For a given pressure drop, the final
temperature can be determined which satisfies the isentropicity of the system.

3.4.2 Other Calculations

(a) Bubble Point Determination

Campbell (Ref. 5) describes a method for manually calculating the bubble point of a given
system, i.e. at a given pressure, the temperature of incipient boiling or at a given
temperature, the pressure of incipient boiling. The SimSci PROCESS computer program
(Ref. 10) (see also 3.5) calculates the bubble point according to the thermodynamic
definition 'Sum of KiXi = 1.0' within a tolerance of one millionth.

(b) Dew Point Determination

Campbell (Ref. 5) also describes a manual procedure for calculating the dew point, i.e.
the point of incipient condensation. Similarly to the bubble point procedure, SimSci
PROCESS calculates the dew point according to the thermodynamic definition 'Sum of
Yi/Ki = 1.0' within a tolerance of one millionth.
3.5 Computer Programs for the Process Engineer

There is a wide variety of computer programs available to the process engineer ranging
from general purpose simulation packages to programs written for a specific purpose,
such as the calculation of accurate compressibility factors. The more commonly used
main frame programs are included in the Process Engineering Section of the Engineering
Computer Portfolio (ECP).
User guides for the programs which may be installed i.e.
C7PLUS HERCULES PVTPACK FLARES
EPSURGE PLUMEPATH SHAMROCK TWOFPLOT
FEEDPREP PROCESS SMBP TWOPHASE
PIPEPHASE PRO/11 TWOGAT
are given in the EOP Manuals (Ref. 13). Commercial program documentation is
referenced, e.g. that for PROCESS, PRO/11 and PIPEPHASE.

Note that changes to the content of ECP are made on a regular basis, reference should
be made to the latest version of the ECP manual for details.
A brief description of some of the available programs is given below.

3.5.1 General Purpose Simulation Programs

The recommended Process Engineering package for EP applications is the

commercial flowsheeting program SimSci PROCESS (Ref. 10), for which has
SIPM negotiated lease rates on behalf of all Group companies. SimSci will be
releasing PRO/11 (Ref. 14) in 1991 which is the major upgrade to PROCESS and
will replace the earlier program.

In-house packages offering similar features are the Shell Model Building Program
(SMBP) (Ref. 9) and the NEW SHAMROCK program (Ref. 7).

In general these packages offer the following features:

- Comprehensive thermodynamics for phase equilibria prediction.
- Modular unit operations to enable model building of simple or complex processing
systems as required.
- Rigorous heat and material balance.
- Prediction of heat exchanger duties and equipment power requirements.

3.5.2 Hydrate Calculations

The HERCULES program (Ref. 11) is the latest in a succession of programs designed to
predict hydrate formation conditions and the quantities of inhibitor required for their
suppression.
For a given hydrocarbon/water mixture, the program will calculate:
1. The hydrate expectancy curve, i.e. the lowest pressures at which hydrates are stable
over a given temperature range.
2. The quantities of methanol and glycols required to suppress hydrate formation at a
specified pressure, temperature and water content.
3. A five phase flash (vapour, condensate, water, hydrate I and hydrate II) to determine
the amounts and properties of the stable phases at specified conditions.

3.5.3 Calculation of Compressibility Factors (Accurate)

The COMPFACT program (Ref. 12) was developed primarily for the calculation of
accurate gas compressibility factors in connection with custody transfer metering. Various
other correlations exist for this purpose, notably the AGA NX-19 routine (Ref. 3) which
has, until recently, been broadly accepted by transmission companies, their customers
and government regulatory bodies. However, AGA NX-19 is a routine based on empirical
data for low heating value natural gases and has been found to introduce measurement
errors, sufficiently large to cause concern, when applied to higher heating value gases.
This was the main reason behind the development of the COMPFACT program.

COMPFACT is a routine based on a Redlich-Kwong equation of state, specifically

optimised for calculating compressibility factors over a restricted range of pressure,
temperature and composition. By specifically optimising in this way, it has been possible
to achieve a calculation accuracy of ± 0.2%, i.e. the same level of accuracy which can be
achieved using current empirical measurement methods. The program has been
designed to handle the following ranges:

Composition:
Paraffins: C1 to C14
Aromatics: C6 to C8
Inorganics: N2, CO2, H2S, He, Ar

With component concentration ranges:

C1 = 0 to 100 % mol
N2 = 0 to 100 % mol
C2 = 0 to 20 % mol
CO2 = 0 to 20 % mol
C3 = 0 to 20 % mol
H2S = 0 to 20 % mol
C3+ = 0 to 5 % mol
and with the following recommended restriction: C1 + N2 > 80 % mol
Temperature: 260 to 315 K (-13 to 42 °C)
Pressure: 0 to 120 bar
Potential users of the program are warned that the routine is only valid within the ranges
stated above and that no guarantee of accuracy can be given for use outside these
specified limits.

Further information on any of the programs mentioned above may be obtained from
SIPM-EPD/42.

3.5.4 Heavy Hydrocarbon Characterisation

The starting point for any process design is a feed composition representative of the
fluids entering the particular processing facility. This feed stream may be the product of
an upstream treatment plant, such as in a refinery, in which case the range of expected
compositions should be known within well-defined limits. Conversely, the feed stream may
be the produced fluid from an oil or gas reservoir where the composition could vary
significantly over the field, and also change during the field's production life. In this case,
a number of feed compositions are required to analyse all potential operating conditions
and determine the sensitivity of the proposed system to variations in composition.

Within E & P operations, the advent of more complex transportation and processing
facilities, such as two-phase flowlines and cryogenic fractionation plants, coupled with the
downturn in oil prices, has dictated a tightening up of design margins and a very definite
move away from the over-design of plants, formerly accepted as common practice within
the oil industry.

It is essential therefore that when using computer simulation models for process design or
for the evaluation or optimisation of existing systems, the description of the feed stream
entered into the computer model will provide an accurate representation of the actual
behaviour and properties of the fluid. Failure to do so could result in over or under-design
of the processing facilities and a subsequent requirement for costly modifications, or in
the case of optimisation studies, poor agreement with measured operating data.

The main source of measured data for E & P process design is that obtained from PVT
measurements carried out during well evaluation programmes. During oil and gas well
production tests, samples of the produced fluid are taken for compositional analyses and
laboratory measurements of the PVT behaviour. Traditionally, the sample analyses
include full measurement of the individual inorganics (N2, CO2, etc.) and hydrocarbons up
to n-Hexane. However, only a limited description of the compounds heavier than n-Hexane
is generally available and may only be reported as a single fraction normally referred to as
the C7 + fraction. This fraction may represent less than 1 % of the total well stream, as in
the case of a 'dry' gas well, or typically in the region of 30 to 75% for an oil stream.
For representative simulation of the behaviour of these fluids, it is necesary to sub-divide
the total C7+ fraction into a number of smaller fractions with assigned properties
representative of the particular system. These fractions are normally referred to as
pseudo components, non-standard components or petroleum fractions and are simply a
convenient means of representing a large number of real components by a small number
of derived components.

The C7PLUS program, developed jointly by SIPM and Shell Expro, is based on KSLA's
EPSPLIT program and is intended to provide process engineers with a common,
systematic approach to the splitting and characterisation of heavy-end fractions for use in
process simulation models.

The C7PLUS Program

The purpose of the C7PLUS program is to convert the reported heavy-end fraction of a
hydrocarbon stream (typically C7+) into a form suitable for use in process engineering
simulation packages, such as the SimSci PROCESS program. This involves splitting the
heavy fraction into a number of components (pseudo and/or real) with assigned properties
such that they can be used to reproduce and predict the actual phase behaviour of the
system. The minimum information required for running the program is the concentration,
molecular weight and specific gravity of the heavy fraction. As the terms molecular weight
and specific gravity are included in the program they are allowable in this case (but see
Volume 1, Units and Conversion Factors).

C7PLUS has been tailored specifically for well stream characterisation and has a high
degree of inbuilt flexibility allowing the user to 'tune' the calculated component breakdown
to match measured data, typically that obtained from laboratory PVT
(Pressure/Volume/Temperature) measurements.

The program creates two output files, the first containing the results of the calculated
heavy-end breakdown and the second, an input deck for the SimSci PROCESS program
containing the calculated breakdown of components, together with their corresponding
molecular weights and specific gravities. EPD/42 and SimSci are planning to release a
Shell version of PROM (Ref. 14) in 1991 which will have the C7PLUS routines fully
integrated within the flowsheeting program. This will eliminate the need for separate
programs.
The user guidelines (Ref. 8) contain general informations on characterisation as well as
instruction on running the C7PLUS program.

Any queries relating to the use of the C7PLUS Program should be referred to
SIPM-EPD/42.

Other programs available within the Group and having an overlap in functionality with
C7PLUS are:
(a) PVTPACK: This is a general purpose phase behaviour package used for reservoir
simulation work. The program contains a routine for splitting a C7+ fraction into a
number of pseudo components, the calculated distribution being matched to
measured values Of C7+ moleculair weight and dew or bubble point conditions.
However, this routine generates a set of pseudo components specific to the
equation of state methods in PVTPACK and thus they are not suitable for use
with other programs such as SimSci PROCESS. For this reason, the use of
heavy-end components generated by PVTPACK is not recommended.
(b) FEEDPREP: This is primarily a refinery tool for developing crude oil breakdowns
from assay data, such as TBP analyses, for use in simulating atmospheric and
vacuum distillation units. The program generates a distribution of pseudo
components, characterised in terms of their 'primary' properties, i.e. molecular
weight, specific gravity, etc., and 'secondary' properties such as viscosity, if the latter
are available. As minimum input, the program requires a full TBP or ASTM
distillation breakdown and an average oil density.

This program can be used for well stream characterisation when distillation data are
available.

3.6 Gas Testing General

Process design engineers now have sophisticated computer programs (3.5) at their
disposal to assist in the design of gas treatment facilities. However, in order to extract
meaningful information from such computer models, it is essential that accurate
composition data are available for the well or process stream and this, in turn, requires
that appropriate sampling and analysis programmes have been undertaken prior to the
process design phase of a project. All too often, the only basic data available to the
process engineer are those typically obtained from a well production test, i.e. an analysis
of C, to C6 components with all the heavier components lumped together as a C7+
fraction, even though this fraction might account for a significant proportion of the
produced stream. At one time, it was necessary to build sufficient flexibility into the
facilities to compensate for deficiencies in the basic data.
However, there are many instances where this approach has not been successful and
expensive plant modifications have been necessary after the start-up of production
(see 3.5.4).

With the advent of more complex gas treatment facilities, e.g. LNG plants, LPG extraction
plants etc., and transport systems, e.g. submarine/two-phase pipelines, it is imperative
that accurate basic data are available from the outset of design studies and SIPM
have, in conjunction with the Group Research Laboratories, set about bringing the
standard of field sampling techniques into line with the requirements of the process
design engineer and with laboratory analytical capabilities.

3.6.1 Hydrocarbon Sampling and Analysis

Ideally, for process design studies, the following hydrocarbon analytical data are required:
C1 to C15 - full chromatographic analysis (including hydrocarbon type description)
Heavier Components - describe molar mass, density, boiling point, PNA (Paraffins,
Naphthenes, Aromatics) split.

In some cases, the proportion of heavier hydrocarbon components (C7+) in natural gases
is very low and below the levels of detectability in a normal gas sample. However, these
very small quantities may have a highly significant effect on the phase behaviour of the
gas and, therefore, their detection and quantification is extremely important. For this
reason, a 'split-phase' sampling technique was developed by the Group Research
Laboratories in which a flowing sample of the gas is split by expansion or cooling (or both)
into two sub-streams. One sub-stream is a gas containing predominantly the lighter
hydrocarbons and the other, a liquid essentially free of these components. By accurately
analysing each of the two phases, it is then possible to reconstruct the original stream
composition in much greater detail than would be possible by the analysis of a
conventional gas sample.

This basic concept of sampling has been developed into a small, mobile
separation/sampling unit which is designed to sample high pressure hydrocarbon streams
(up to 350 bar) and subject them to a number of controlled, sequential separations. The
liquids condensed out at each stage are measured and sampled, the flashed gas is
measured and sampled and the pressure and temperature at each stage determined
accurately. All the collected gas and liquid samples are analysed in the laboratory and an
accurate feed composition is obtained by recombination of these analyses in the
measured phase ratios.
This technique has a number of advantages:

- All the samples that are transported (for analysis) are at low pressure
- All field measurements are made by laboratory-checked instruments
- Temperature is measured inside the chamber where phase-separation is occurring
- A more accurate analysis is possible because the light and heavy components are
concentrated more or less in separate streams
- The predetermined pressures and temperatures for the flash separations can be
chosen to simulate closely the actual conditions expected later during full-scale
production. This gives a practical check on theoretical calculations, which in turn
increases confidence in the process design as a whole.

In any sampling operation, it is essential to make sure that the sample taken is
representative of the fluid under test. When sampling from a two-phase flow system, as
typically encountered in well flowlines, it is very difficult to guarantee representative
sampling simply by use of a centre-stream probe situated in a region of high turbulence.
For such applications, a special mixing manifold was developed by Group Laboratories.
The sampling manifold is a skid-mounted assembly of two interconnected flowlines and
three gate valves. One of the lines is a standard 7.5 cm (3 in.) flowline through which the
well stream can be directed during clean-up operations. The other line is used during
sampling and has a restricted diameter section to increase the linear velocity of the well
stream. Situated in this section is a mixing block having converging, radial drillings along
its axis, the purpose of which is to homogenise two-phase flow regimes.
The sampling point is located in the turbulent flow region, downstream of the mixing block.

Sampling is carried out at an isokinetic rate, i.e. the velocity of the fluid in the sample line
is equal to the velocity of the fluid in the main flowline.

3.6.2 Non-Hydrocarbon Sampling and Analysis

Some of the non-hydrocarbons commonly found in natural gas are given below together
with their properties/possible effects:

Water - Corrosion, icing, hydrates

Hydrogen Sulphide - Corrosion, pollution, toxic, malodorous
Sulphur - Corrosion, pollution, plugging
Mercaptans - Corrosion, pollution, malodorous
Other Sulphur Compounds - Corrosion, pollution
Carbon Dioxide - Corrosion, non-combustible
Nitrogen - Non-combustible, inert
Helium - Non-combustible, inert
Mercury - Corrosion, toxic
Radioactive Elements - Environmental concern

Certain of the inorganic gas components, viz. nitrogen, carbon dioxide and helium, can be
determined by normal chromatographic techniques, often as part of the hydrocarbon gas
analysis. Hydrogen sulphide however, is very rapidly adsorbed onto the walls of metal
sample containers and therefore should not be analysed for in a stored sample but
determined on-site as soon as possible after the sample has been taken. Commonly
employed methods are reactive indicator tubes, e.g. Dräger, or the Tutweiler titration. The
actual choice of sampling/analysis method will be dependent upon the expected
-6 3 3
concentration of H2S in the gas. For concentrations in the range 0.1 to 600 x 10 m /m ,
reactive indicator tubes may be used. However, for higher concentrations (0.03% vol. -
20% vol.), samples of gas should be taken in specially acid-treated glass containers and
analysed by a much more accurate potentiometric titration.

VERY IMPORTANT: for H2S hazard to personnel see 3.7

Note: During a well production test, a certain proportion of any H2S present will initially be
adsorbed onto the production tubing until equilibrium is reached and the H2S 'breaks
through'. It is therefore essential that the well has been 'flowed' for a sufficiently long
period before sampling for H2S is carried out.

The determination of other sulphur compounds, such as mercaptans, carbonyl sulphide,

thiophenes, etc., either in gas or condensate samples, cannot usually be carried out
on-site because of the sophistication of the methods required. Samples for these
analyses need to be taken again in acid-treated glass containers to avoid component loss
by adsorption.

Although mercury can be determined on-site, it is preferably handled in the laboratory. For
this purpose, mercury in gas phases is absorbed in special reactor tubes from a
measured volume of gas, before sealing the tubes and sending them to the laboratory for
analysis.
Two radioactive isotopes are of interest; Polonium-210 and Radon-222. The decay
half-life of the first isotope is 139 days and hence samples of condensate may be taken in
ordinary glass bottles and analysed in the laboratory, if necessary some weeks later.
Radon-222 on the other hand, is a short-lived isotope, having a half-life of only 3.8 days.
Gas samples for this determination, which must be taken in clean, dry stainless steel
cylinders, should therefore be analysed preferably within 4 days and certainly not later
than one week after sampling. This requires that the necessary analytical equipment is
available on-site or close by.

Summaries of the various surface sampling methods for natural gas and their range of
applicability are presented in Tables 3.6-1,2 and 3 (see also Ref. 15).

Hydrocarbon fluid evaluation services based on the procedures described above were
previously available from Nautilus Ventures B.V. (a 100% Shell Company). This
technology has now been transferred to a non-Group company, Petrotech A/S of Norway.
Requests for services or queries regarding specific applications or the testing techniques
should be made either directly to Petrotech or SIPM-EPD/42.

Table 3.6-1 Surface sampling and analysis of natural gas

Table 3.6-1 (continued)
Table 3.6-2 Sampling methods for non-hydrocarbon analysis
Table 3.6-3 Summary of required analyses
3.7 Toxicity of Hydrogen Sulphide Gas

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) occurs widely at varying concentrations in PETRONAS gas

production and processing operations. Gas mixtures containing H2S are called 'sour'.
It is an extremely toxic gas (almost as lethal as hydrogen cyanide and more lethal than chlorine).
It should also be noted that when H2S is burnt it is oxidised to sulphur dioxide (SO2).

H2S at very low concentrations has the smell of rotten eggs. However, at slightly higher
concentrations, the sense of smell is anaesthetised and it cannot be detected. Under
these circumstances a victim can lose consciousness without warning.

H2S therefore presents a potentially serious hazard to personnel and requires stringent
safety precautions at every stage of design, operation and particularly maintenance (see
also 'Health, Safety and Environment' in Vol. 1).

Whenever it is necessary to work in areas where the concentration of H2S in the

3 3
atmosphere exceeds 10 cm /m (ppm by vol.), PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT MUST BE
WORN. (10 ppm is termed the Threshold Limit Value or TLV and is the time weighted
concentration for an 8-hour period to which a person can be exposed without harmful
effect.)

The choice of sampling/analysis method referred to in 3.6.2 is critical to accident

prevention.
3.8 Radioactive Elements in Natural Gas

Radioactive elements have been found to be present in natural gas. Generally, the amount
of radioactive elements in the gas has been less than the background level due to the
atmosphere. In the Group's world-wide experience, there have been only a very few
isolated situations where the radioactive levels have been above an investigation level
(see 3.8.2). But due to numerous queries and concerns in this area, periodic radioactive
analyses of natural gas and its products have become more and more an accepted
procedure in PETRONAS OPUs.

3.8.1 Occurrence of Radioactive Elements

Natural gas contains small quantities of the gaseous radioactive nuclide Radon-222
formed from the decay of Radium-226, which is a daughter nuclide of naturally occurring
Uranium-238. Radon enters natural gas in the earth by diffusion from a formation.
Uranium minerals are often associated with carbonaceous deposits, therefore radon can
be expected to occur in natural gas.
Radon-222 has a half life of 3.8 days and produces upon decay a series of short and long
lived daughter nuclides as shown in Figure 3.8-1. When propane is separated from
natural gas, radon tends to be concentrated in the propane process stream since the
boiling point of radon is close to that of propane. Consequently, it is typically enriched in
propane by a factor of the order of 10.
In natural gas condensate the long lived daughters of radon (particularly Lead-210 and
Polonium-210) are generally present.
Figure 3.8-1 Decay scheme of the 238U natural series

Notes:
1. Half-lives are indicated in years a, days d, minutes min, and seconds s.
2. The nature of the radiation is indicated by α, β and γ (only energetic γ radiations with
high yield).

3.8.2 The Investigation Level

Normally, the amount of radioactivity in the natural gas and its products is insufficient to
cause health hazards during handling and subsequent use by consumers.

However, it is recommended that the radon content of natural gas and Polonium-210 in
the condensate of wells should be monitored prior to production. A record should also be
kept of radon and polonium in gas and condensate from reservoirs which have been in
production for a long period. The results of such measurements should be compared with
a 'Derived Investigation Level'. A derived investigation level, as defined by the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), is a value of concentration of radioactive
material. It is usually set in relation to a single measurement, which is the resulting
radiation dose to humans sufficiently important to justify further investigation.
It is important to recognise that an investigation level is not intended to be a limit. Should
an investigation level be exceeded, this should be reported to the Central Offices
PETRONAS Health, Safety and Environment Department who will contact the
radiological specialists for advice. A close investigation of the (local) circumstances will be
required. The investigation will often be no more than a recognition that the circumstances
will not cause any hazard as the investigation level is based on a 'worst case' estimate.
Below the investigation level, the information need not be further studied by experts.

3.8.3 Calculation of the Investigation Level

Two types of radioactive exposure to humans resulting from radioactivity in natural gas or
condensate can be identified:
(a) During the use of the natural gas by consumers, e.g. heating and cooking.
(b) Relating to gas handling at gas processing stations.
In both cases, a derived investigation level will be specified.

3.8.4 Natural Gas and LPG for Domestic Consumption

When natural gas or LPG is burned in domestic appliances (cooking and heating) radon
will be emitted into the atmosphere and contribute to the radiation level already naturally
present. Radon (and its daughter nuclides which are formed by decay) become attached
to aerosol particles and may subsequently be inhaled.
To calculate the derived investigation level for radon in raw natural gas, the following
'worst case' conditions are assumed:
- Minimal ventilation and maximal unvented appliances of LPG in which radon is
enriched
- The combustion products will all contribute to the radon concentration in indoor air.

The maximum permissible yearly dose to members of the public is 5 mSv/a (milliSievert
per year, a unit for the ionising radiation dose to human beings). As a base for the derived
investigation level, one twentieth of this dose equivalent is taken, i.e. 0.25 mSv/a. This
dose equivalent is not exceeded when the concentration in the natural gas is below
3 3
2 kBq/m (50 pCi/dm ). For comparison, the average yearly dose from the natural
background and medical radiation is around 3 mSv/a. This level can be considered as the
derived investigation level for radon in raw natural gas taking into acount the use of
recovered LPG when converted into fuel gas.
For use of natural gas as an industrial fuel gas, the same investigation level should be
used, provided that the investigation level for surface contamination is not exceeded
(see 3.8.5).

3.8.5 Contamination of Gas Processing Equipment

Inner parts of gas processing equipment may be contaminated with the long lived
daughter products of Radon-222 as a result of deposition of the solid daughters
(particularly the long lived Pb-210 and Po-210) at places where the stream is dispersed
over a large surface or where high turbulence occurs. An additional effect is the
enrichment in the propane stream (see 3.8.1) which causes an increased chance of
contamination in the propane stream equipment.
Similarly, Polonium-210 present in the condensate may be deposited in pumps, distillation
columns, heat exchangers, etc.

The chance of contamination above a certain level is related to the initial concentration of
radon or polonium in natural gas or natural gas condensate. However, possible
enrichment and the throughput of gas or condensate are also important factors.

The long lived daughters of radon (e.g. Polonium-210) mainly emit alpha radiation which
cannot penetrate steel walls of equipment.
Only the short lived Bismuth-214 may be detectable at the outside of the equipment. In
view of the short half-life, however, the external radiation level will always be minimal and
will disappear after shut-down of the installation.
Thus, radiation hazards, if present, may only occur when opening equipment, by
inhalation or ingestion of the contaminants. Before workers enter equipment which has
been exposed to condensate containing polonium or propane containing radon, it may be
advisable to monitor the inner surfaces to avoid the risk of contamination of the personnel
involved.
2
For a derived investigation on surface contamination of equipment, 4 kBq/m
2
(10 pCi/cm ) should be used.

Since the mechanism for deposition of solid daughters of radon (e.g. Polonium-210)
cannot be quantitatively described, it is not possible to calculate investigation levels for
liquid concentrations of radon or Polonium-210 resulting in contamination.
However, from experience, contamination of inner surfaces of equipment is unlikely when
3 3
the level of Polonium-210 in natural gas condensate is below 20 kBq/m (0.5 pCi/cm ).

3.8.6 Monitoring

Radon-222 in natural gas can be detected using an ionisation chamber. Radon

concentration determination is usually carried out as one of the routine tests during
production testing of new gas reservoirs.

Several methods for determination of Polonium-210 in natural gas condensate are

available. One of the accurate methods consists of extraction of Po-210 from the
condensate and acid destruction followed by plating Po-210 on a silver disc. The alpha
activity on the silver surface is determined using, for example, a surface barrier detector.

For detection of contamination of inner surfaces of equipment, a simple technique

developed by KSLA of applying a film sensitive to alpha radiation is available.
4. GAS TREATING

4.1 Hydrate Formation and Prevention

Hydrates are ice-like crystalline compounds formed by methane, ethane, propane,

iso-butane, H2S or CO2 with free water under certain conditions of pressure and
temperature. For example, hydrates will form in a typical 70 bar pressure gas stream at
temperatures below about 20 °C if free water is present. Gas hydrates will form two
crystalline structures; body centred (hydrate I) and diamond latticed (hydrate II).

Hydrates grow like crystals and tend to build up in areas not reached by the full force of
the flowing fluid. Such areas are found, for example, around valves and orifice fittings. If
allowed to grow, they will eventually plug the line or item of equipment in which they occur.
Hydrates can form in a liquid as well as in a gas phase and can, in special circumstances,
form in the absence of free water. Only gas phase hydrate formation in the presence of
free water is considered in this Section (Refs. 1, 2 and 3).

4.1.1 Prediction of Hydrates

There are three basic methods which can be used to predict the formation of hydrates.

1. The GPSA Engineering Data Book and PEGS (Refs. 2 and 3) contain charts which
give hydrate expectancy curves as a function of pressure and temperature for gases
of various densities. It can be seen from the chart that with higher pressures and
lower temperatures, a greater chance of hydrate formation exists. This data is only a
rough approximation which is sometimes used when the gas composition is not
known. The chart can be significantly in error if the gas is sour.
2. A more accurate method is that developed by Katz et al., based on the use of
vapour-solid equilibrium constants (Refs. 1, 2 and 4). This procedure requires the
gas composition to be defined.
3. The recommended procedure is the use of Shell's HERCULES computer
program (see 3.5.2), developed by KSEPL and available for use under ECP, or on
IBM Mainframe Systems. Unlike the previously described methods the program
takes into account the effect of liquids as well as gas in the production stream and
both phases are inputs into the program. It covers a temperature range of
-23 to + 37 °C and pressures from 0 to 500 bar. It can be used to predict hydrates in
liquids as well as in gas streams.
4.1.2 Prevention of Hydrates

1. Dehydration
The methods of gas and condensate drying are discussed in 4.2-4.6.

2. Heating
It is sometimes practicable to stay out of the hydrate range by heating the fluid. Examples
are: heating of gas before it enters a gathering system and heating of fluids upstream of
an expansion valve. This procedure is not suitable for avoiding hydrates in long lines.

3. Injection of hydrate suppressants

If methanol or glycol is added to the system the hydrate formation temperature will be
lowered.

Methanol is often injected during downhole work, to overcome temporary or periodic

hydrating in plants and pipelines and during start-up of facilities. Since methanol is
volatile, unlike glycol, a significant portion of the liquid will vaporise upon injection.
Although methanol in the vapour state will not affect free water, this tendency to gasify
does have the advantage in that methanol may well condense or be 'pulled out 'of the gas
stream by water in areas not easily contacted by liquid suppressants such as glycol.
Since methanol is difficult to recover, it can be expensive to use and therefore is ordinarily
applied for intermittent service.

Diethylene glycol is effective above -20 °C for hydrate depression while at temperatures
down to -40 °C, ethylene glycol is preferred because of its lower viscosity. Glycol is
injected in treating plants, where gas is cooled, for hydrate suppression and in some long
trunklines such as Shell Expro's Leman Bank to Bacton line. In these applications glycol
is recovered and used again. Glycol is generally the chosen suppressant where
continuous inhibition is required.

The amount of hydrate suppressant required to prevent hydrates under given conditions
can be calculated by the Hammerschmidt equations (Refs. 1, 2 and 3). One note of
caution: Campbell (Ref. 1) and PEGS (Ref. 3) suggest using variable constants in the
equation depending on the suppressant applied. This should be ignored and the factor
1300 in the formula:
where:
∆t = lowering of the gas hydrate freezing point, °C
M = molar mass of the hydrate suppressant, kg/kmoI
w = mass percent of the hydrate suppressant in the liquid phase

should be applied for all materials, glycols as well as methanol.

The HERCULES Computer Program can also be used to determine hydrate suppressant
quantities. It should be used in all cases when a suitable computer is available for use.

4.1.3 General Comments

1. Although HERCULES is a rigorous computing program, basic data on hydrates are

not so well known as for other materials. One should allow for a margin of error in
any results obtained. In using other computing methods, the data obtained should
be applied with even more caution.
2. Even though it is possible to predict the occurrence of hydrates with reasonable
accuracy, it is not possible to predict hydrate plugging with any confidence. Systems
which have tolerated the presence of hydrates for extended periods will suddenly
plug for no apparent reason. Consequently, one should always be alert when
operating at or near the hydrate region.
3. When hydrate plugging does occur, a common reaction is to vent the downstream
pressure. This can be highly dangerous and such actions have led to a number of
fatalities. Lowering the pressure will indeed tend to melt the hydrate, but a high
differential pressure across the plug can cause it to move at great force and velocity
when it becomes loose. If the pressure on the plugged system is to be relieved, it
must be bled down on both sides of the plug.

4.2 Gas Dew Point Reduction

Gas dew point reduction consists of two aspects:

- water dew point reduction (dehydration)
- hydrocarbon dew point reduction.
These aspects may occur singly or in combination. The appropriate gas treatment
procedures are presented in Table 4.2-1 (based on Refs. 3 and 5).
Table 4.2-1 Gas dew point reduction (a summary)
Table 4.2-1 (continued)
4.3 Triethylene Glycol Contacting Dehydration System

Two check-lists which provide guidance on the design and operation of triethylene glycol
systems are presented in Table 4.3-1 (Ref. 6) and in Table 4.3-2 (Refs. 7 and 8).

Table 4.3-1 Design of triethylene glycol (TEG) contacting dehydration systems

(continued on next page)

Table 4.3-1 (continued)
Table 4.3-2 Operation of triethylene glycol contacting dehydration system

(continued on next page)

Table 4.3-2 (continued)
4.4 Dry Desiccant Dehydrators

In most instances the cheapest method of gas dehydration is with a liquid desiccant-
usually triethylene glycol. There are three major areas where dry desiccant dehydrators
are used:

1. For dehydration of small volumes of gas, e.g. fuel gas or instrument gas.
2. For dehydration upstream of cryogenic type NGL recovery plants.
3. For dehydration at very high pressures where the use of glycol would be impractical.

Dry desiccant dehydrators have also found application in remote unattended fields
because of their simplicity of operation, in systems where rapid changes in flow rates
could upset a glycol unit, and in situations where the gas temperature is so high as to
cause unacceptable glycol losses. It should be emphasised that these last cases are
relatively rare.

Refs. 5 and 9 describe a number of types of desiccant materials, but currently the large
majority of dry dehydrators use molecular sieves.

4.4.1 Design

The detailed design of a dry desiccant dehydrator is complicated and is not the function of
a field engineer but of the desiccant supplier or process engineering specialist. However,
PEGS (Ref. 3) outlines the method which can be used for preliminary designs that might
be required for layout or cost estimating purposes.

Two to four towers may be installed in a dehydration system, the final choice of the
number used depending on overall costs and required flexibility. When the downstream
process is fully dependent on the system operating according to specifications, e.g. a
cryogenic NGL plant, a minimum of three towers are ordinarily installed to give increased
flexibility.

4.4.2 Operating and Design Considerations

1. An efficient separator is required upstream of the unit. Crude oil, lubricating oil,
treating chemicals, salt, etc. can coat the surface of the desiccant and render it
effectively inactive. Such materials can be difficult to remove during the regeneration
cycle. Slugs of water can cause silica gel beads to disintegrate. A guard bed of
spent desiccant can sometimes be used to trap extraneous material.
2. It must be recognised that the desiccant will deteriorate with time. Annual
replacement of material is not unusual but normally the beds are designed on the
basis of the desiccant's expected capacity after a three year period.

3. Pressure surges should be avoided. They can cause desiccant fracturing or

maldistribution of the desiccant in the towers, leading to channelling and poor
performance.

4. Certain types of desiccants are poisoned by methanol. It is adsorbed and then cokes
during the regeneration stage. If methanol is expected in the gas stream, this should
be specified to the designers.

5. Desiccant material tends to disintegrate into a fine abrasive powder which can cause
damage to the unit's valves. If care is not excercised to maintain these valves, wet
gas can leak into the dry gas stream.

6. A separator should be installed to collect any fines in the dried gas stream.

7. Alumina type and molecular sieve desiccants will convert a portion of any H2S
present in the gas stream to COS. If the gas to be dried contains any H2S, this
phenomenon must be considered in the unit's design (see 3.7 and 'Health, Safety
and Environment' in Vol. 1).

4.4.3 Other Comments

(a) It is possible to design dry desiccant units for more than one service, e.g. drying plus
hydrocarbon removal and drying plus H2S removal. Such applications should be
approached with caution since they tend to make field operations complex.

(b) Calcium chloride drying units have been used in a number of instances but have
often resulted in unsatisfactory operations. Problems with bridging of the chloride,
material carry-over into the gas system and problems with replenishing the material
supply (batch operation), have made these units less popular than they were at one
time.

4.5 Gas Treaters

Many natural gas streams must be treated to reduce the concentrations of carbon dioxide
and sulphur compounds to that level which is acceptable to the gas purchaser or user.
Carbon dioxide is corrosive in the presence of water and a diluent that at times has to be
removed to upgrade the calorific value or adjust the Wobbe index of the gas. Hydrogen
sulphide is not only corrosive but also toxic (see 3.7 and HSE in Vol. 1). Governmental
authorities often limit the amount of hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur compounds in
fuel gas to minimise the air pollution caused by the sulphur dioxide formed as the sulphur
combustion product.

There are a large number of processes which will remove acidic components from a gas
stream. Which process is the optimum for any given case depends on a large number of
factors including gas volumes, percentage of acidic components, local environment
criteria, gas quality requirements, etc.
The determination of the best scheme can only be made by a gas treating specialist after
a detailed review considering all the relevant factors.
Some of the more commonly applied treating methods are briefly described below. For
more detailed discussions see Refs. 2, 8 and 10.

4.5.1 Treating Processes

4.5.1.1 Sulfinol

Shell's Sulfinol process uses a proprietary liquid solvent to absorb sour

components from gas streams. The process is continuous with solvent regeneration
effected by flashing and heating. Sulfinol is widely used when the total volume of sour gas
is medium to large. The process is used, for example, to remove carbon dioxide upstream
of the Sarawak LNG plant, to prevent solid carbon dioxide forming in the low temperature
sections of the plant and to increase the calorific value of the product. It is also used to
remove hydrogen sulphide from gas produced in a number of USA and Canadian fields in
order to make the gas saleable. The hydrogen sulphide recovered from these treating
plants is fed to Claus plants where it is converted to elemental sulphur.

4.5.1.2 Amine Processes

The amine processes utilising monoethanolamine and diethanolamine as solvents are

similar in operation and application to the Sulfinol system. For many years these were the
basic sour gas treating processes, but they have largely been superseded within
Shell by the use of Sulfinol treating and the ADIP process which uses
di-isopropanolamine as the sour gas solvent.
4.5.1.3 Molecular Sieves

Molecular sieve units designed to remove sulphur compounds from gases operate in a
similar way to dry desiccant dehydration facilities. This process is economic only for the
removal of small quantities of sulphur components. Since the adsorbed material is flared
or utilised as sour fuel after bed regeneration, environmental criteria often limit its
application.
A molecular sieve unit is used to remove small amounts of hydrogen sulphide from
Fulmar gas prior to its processing in the St. Fergus plant.

4.5.1.4 Stretford Process

The Stretford process uses a solvent to strip hydrogen sulphide from a gas stream and
convert the absorbate directly to elemental sulphur. This scheme is not competitive for
removing large volumes of hydrogen sulphide, but it is an alternative to molecular sieves
for handling small amounts of material. Unlike the molecular sieve option, this process is
pollution free although a solvent bleed presents a secondary disposal problem.

4.5.1.5 Iron Sponge

The oldest process for hydrogen sulphide removal involves the use of iron oxide. This is a
batch operation in which the iron oxide reacts with the hydrogen sulphide to produce iron
sulphide and sweet gas. The spent iron is discarded. This method is still applied to treat
small gas volumes in certain special instances.

4.5.1.6 Zinc Oxide

Zinc oxide is used in a non-regenerative process for the removal of modest quantities of
hydrogen sulphide. The normal process uses a fixed bed operating at elevated
temperatures. Recently an ambient temperature version has become available.

The spent product, zinc sulphide, is environmentally stable and can either be dumped or
returned to the manufacturer for regeneration. There is a growing interest in this process.

4.5.2 General Comments

In discussions with the gas purchaser it is important to recognise that gas treating is
expensive from both capital and operating viewpoints. The purchaser may tend to
overspecify his quality requirements and often a mutually advantageous trade-off can be
made between price and quality.
Environmental criteria play an important part in process selection and consequently in
overall costs. It is necessary for the field engineer to supply the designer with all the
relevant local requirements.

Extreme care must be exercised in obtaining samples that will give, upon careful analysis,
actual well stream quantities of sour gas components (see 3.6). If the information to be
derived from a sample is important to the facility design, the sampling, as well as the
analysis, must be done by a trained specialist.

In establishing gas treating design criteria, it is important not only to sample and analyse
the relevant gas stream(s) correctly, but also to consider possible variations in the levels
of sour gas components that might be produced over time. These could occur as a result
of reservoir phase behaviour with declining pressures, non-homogeneity of reservoirs,
plans for completions in new reservoirs, the possible effect of water flood activities
(bacteria generated hydrogen sulphide), etc. The advice of the responsible petroleum
engineer should be sought on such questions.

4.6 Condensate Drying

The growth in the number of pipeline systems used to transport both gas and condensate
requires the water balance across the system to be carefully considered. It is usual to
dehydrate gas to a dew point several degrees below the lowest pipeline temperature to
avoid the formation of free water and to reduce the resultant risks of corrosion and
hydrates. For a two-phase system consideration should be given to drying the condensate
in the following cases:

1. Those two-phase systems in which the amount of dissolved plus free water
produced with the condensate is more than sufficient to saturate the gas with the
consequent risk of corrosion or hydrate formation.
2. Those systems with a high concentration of carbon dioxide and/or hydrogen
sulphide and in which there is a high risk of corrosion.
3. Where it is necessary for contractual reasons to deliver a condensate with a water
content below the saturation level.
4. For low condensate/gas ratio systems when insufficient water (soluble and free
water) is present to saturate the gas, only the removal of the bulk free water may be
necessary. However, to reduce the risk of a separate water phase in the pipeline the
condensate should be sprayed into the gas to increase the rate at which the water is
transferred to the undersaturated vapour phase.
4.6.1 Available Processes

Condensate drying to below the saturation level is a two stage process:

Stage 1. A bulk water removal step to reduce the free water content to at least the
1000 mg/kg level. This can be achieved by using a corrugated plate separator
or a coalescer. Coalescers can achieve lower free water levels but their
performance can be adversely effected by the presence of corrosion inhibitor or
other surface-active agents in the condensate.

Stage 2. Reduction of the water content below the solubility level. Two options are
available, namely molecular sieves and gas stripping. Both these methods are
extremely sensitive to the free water content, since there is an exponential link
between free water content and equipment size.

4.6.1.1 Molecular Sieves

Molecular sieves have been widely applied in gas plants to dry condensed hydrocarbon
liquids to the 1 to 5 mg/kg level. At present they have not been used to dry wellhead fluids
and though theoretically possible, problems may exist due to heavy hydrocarbons and
contaminants such as corrosion inhibitors. The presence of heavy hydrocarbons may
cause coking of the bed during the high temperature regeneration which would
substantially reduce the bed life.

4.6.1.2 Gas Stripping

For systems in which the condensate is the continuous phase (only small amounts of
water present) as usually found after the removal of bulk free water, the transfer of water
from the condensate to the unsaturated gas proceeds in two steps:

Step 1. The unsaturated gas will strip the dissolved water relatively quickly.
Step 2. The free water will dissolve in the condensate and then be removed by the gas.
Because the condensate is the continuous liquid phase, the incidence of gas/water
contact is low compared with the gas/condensate contact. The rate at which the water
dissolves is the rate-limiting step in the transfer of water from the condensate to the gas.

Two methods are therefore available using dry gas to strip the soluble water from the
condensate:

(a) Tower Drying

Dry gas and condensate are contacted in a counter-current tower, the water being
stripped from the condensate in accordance with the mass transfer mechanism outlined
above. The size of equipment is determined by the level of free water in the condensate,
the droplet size distribution and the solubility of water in the condensate.

(b) Pipeline Drying

This applies to low condensate/gas ratio systems in which the transfer of all the water
from the condensate to the gas would not saturate the gas.

Work completed by KSLA has been used to develop a calculation technique to determine
the length of pipeline necessary for the water to be transferred to the vapour phase. This
technique can be used as a guide to the likely risk of corrosion due to free water drop-out.
The time taken to transfer the water to the gas phase is a measure of the length of
pipeline in which a separate water phase could be present and of the emulsion of water in
condensate. The exact behaviour of small amounts of water in two-phase pipeline
systems is the subject of ongoing KSLA research. If the gas is dehydrated using glycol,
the equilibrium between the glycol and the water content of gas has also to be considered
in determining the risk of corrosion. This particularly applies to North Sea pipeline
systems and to other low temperature pipeline systems.

It is therefore suggested that PETRONAS be consulted in order to set out the initial
design parameters should it be necessary to dry hydrocarbon condensates. The major
factors influencing the decision to dry the condensate and affecting the size of equipment
subsequently necessary are:
1. The condensate/gas ratio.
2. The amount of free water present after the bulk water removal step.
3. The solubility of the water in the condensate.
4. The pipeline temperature and pressure ranges.
5. The impurities in the condensate, corrosion inhibitor, salt, sand, etc.
6. The gas water specification and method of dehydration.
7. The amount of CO2 and H2S present.

Data relative to the dehydration of condensate to below the saturation level are still being
developed and though it is a feasible process, the optimum sizing of equipment has yet to
be determined.
5 NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS RECOVERY

5.1 Principles of NGL Recovery

There are two basic reasons for removing hydrocarbons heavier than methane from a gas
stream:
1. To meet the user's (or transporter's) gas quality specifications.
2. To recover components that have more value as separated liquids than they would
have had in the raw gas stream.
The processes outlined in this Section can be used for both purposes. Which of the
described methods will be optimum for a given case will depend on various factors
including gas pressure, temperature, volume and composition as well as the value of the
liquids which can be potentially recovered. (Refs. 1 and 2).

The gas user or transporter commonly sets a hydrocarbon dew point specification to
prevent or minimise liquids forming in the transmission system and he may also specify
an upper limit on the heating value and Wobbe index of the gas. Hydrocarbons removal
may be required to meet these criteria. The liquids recovered in such operations may have
little or even a negative value (due to the cost of disposal) and the minimum cost-effective
process is then applied. In the cases where the NGLs in the gas stream have a potential
domestic or export market, a more elaborate facility may be justified. Outlined below are
short descriptions of the common hydrocarbons recovery facilities and general guidelines
as to the processes' areas of applicability. Also described is a method of calculating the
potential liquid volumes that can be recovered from a gas stream of a given volume and
composition.

5.1.1 LTS Unit - Glycol Injection

Gas is expanded across a choke (Joule-Thomson effect) and thus cooled to a

temperature sufficiently below that required to meet the dew point at all pressure levels.
Glycol is injected to prevent hydrates, and inlet/residue gas heat exchange utilised to
increase efficiency. The process can be applied when available wellhead pressure will be
substantially higher than that required for gas delivery over a number of years. When well
pressures decline, compression and/or mechanical refrigeration facilities will have to be
added. The process is used for water and hydrocarbon dew point control. (Example:
NAM-Groningen.)
5.1.2 LTS Unit - Hydrate Melting

This process is similar to 5.1.1 but without glycol injection. Hydrates formed are melted by
applying heat to the liquid at the exit of the liquid/gas separator. Careful control is
necessary to apply enough heat to melt the hydrates but not so much that revaporised
liquids affect the hydrocarbon dew point. (Example: Shell-Todd Maui Field.)

5.1.3 Adsorption Unit

This process is similar to a dry desiccant dehydration facility but the beds are switched
(short cycle) before water drives off all the hydrocarbons adsorbed from the inlet gas. It
can theoretically give high NGL recovery but in practice it is applied to remove 70% of
pentanes and heavier. It is thermally inefficient but is sometimes used for water and
hydrocarbon dew point control. (Example: Numerous small facilities in USA where
recovered 'pentanes plus' have a significant value.)

5.1.4 Refrigeration Plant

Liquids are condensed by chilling supplied by mechanical refrigeration. Glycol injection

and inlet/residue gas heat exchangers are utilised. For water and hydrocarbon dew point
control, the temperature is set below that required to meet the specified dew point.
(Example: NAM, Den Heider Station.) The process is also used for NGL recovery where
gas contains a substantial percentage of propane and heavier constituents (10-17% mol
or greater). In this case the gas is chilled to temperatures in the range -5 °C to – 35 °C
and commonly 60-70% propane, 70-80% butane, and 100% 'pentanes plus' recovery
levels are realised. (Example: Qatar, 1 and 2 Gas Plants.)

5.1.5 Turbo-Expander Plant

Gas is chilled by reducing the pressure through a turbo-expander driving a connected

compressor (isentropic expansion). Part of the dissipated pressure is restored by the
connected compressor and the remainder (if required) by auxilliary compressors. The
process is more efficient than Joule-Thomson expansion resulting in lower temperatures
because of the additional heat removed (work performed) by the expander. In let/residue
gas heat exchange is applied. For dew point control, pressure drop is determined by the
required dew point temperature level. (Example: Oman, Yibal Plant Extension.) The
process is also used for recovery of NGLs, particularly when ethane recovery is required.
Such facilities commonly chill the gas to the -80 °C range and ethane recoveries of up to
60% (propane and heavier virtually 100%) are normal. Chilling to this level requires that
the water content is reduced to a very low level in a dry desiccant unit prior to processing.
(Example: Shell U.K., St Fergus Plant.)
5.1.6 Lean Oil Plant

Gas is contacted in a counter-current absorber with a heavy hydrocarbon

(100-200 kg/kmol molar mass). The absorbed hydrocarbons are separated from the lean
oil by distillation. The recovery level is set by amount of lean oil circulated and by the
absorbing temperature. Temperature levels from ambient to -40 °C have been used with
recovery levels of 40% ethane and 100% heavier achieved. The process does not affect
water dew point unless lower than ambient temperatures are applied. The process has
been widely used in the past but has largely been superseded by the turbo-expander
option. (Example: Shell Oil, North Terrebonne Plant.) A variation of this process has been
used in the Shell Expro Brent Field where gas is single-stage contacted with stabilised
crude oil in order to lower the hydrocarbon dew point.

5.1.7 Method for Determining Potential Natural Gas Liquids in a Gas Stream

Calculation
3 6
Volume of Gas (in m (st)/d x 10 ) x Volume of Component in Gas (in % mol) x
Component Factor (given below) = Potential Liquids (in t/a)

Component Factors
Ethane - 4600 Hexanes - 13300
Propane - 6800 Heptanes - 15500
Iso-Butane - 9000 Octanes - 17600
n-Butane - 9000 Nonanes - 19000
Iso-Pentane - 11 100 Decanes + - 22000
n-Pentane - 11 100

Example
6 3
2.2 x 10 m (st) a day of gas is available for processing. This gas contains 6.2% mol
propane.
Potential Liquid Propane 2.2 x 6.2 x 6800 = 93 000 t/a
(a) To obtain the actual anticipated production of any facility, a recovery factor and an
on-stream factor must be applied. For example, in the above case, if the plant were
designed for 70% propane recovery and assuming the equivalent of 30 days
downtime per year, the average production would be:

93 000 x 0.70 x 335 = 60 000 t/a

365

(b) The stream-day capacity would be:

93 000 x 0.70 x 1 = 178 t/d

365

5.2 Light Ends Fractionation

In an NGL recovery facility the liquids recovered will be a mixture of methane to pentanes
and heavier. In most instances it will be necessary to remove the undesired constituents
from the stream and separate the remaining components into marketable products. This
is done in a light ends fractionation facility. Such a facility may be very simple containing
only a debutaniser to drive off all components lighter than pentanes from the recovered
liquids. The most complex will have five columns: a demethaniser, de-ethaniser,
depropaniser, debutaniser, and a normal butane/iso-butane splitter (Refs. 3 and 4).

Fractionation can be visualised as a series of liquid flashes each taking place on the trays
in a column. The light ends are driven up the column by heat supplied in the reboiler. The
column is cooled by condensing and returning a portion of the overhead liquid as reflux to
the top column tray. This cooling tends to condense the heavier hydrocarbons and move
them to the bottom of the column. The purity of separation is governed by the number of
trays and the amount of overhead returned as reflux. The basic mechanism is the same in
a packed column where the packing replaces the trays as the vapor-liquid contacting
device.

The design of light ends fractionators is the function of the process engineer.

Required Design Data

1. Maximum and minimum feed rates must be specified. The maximum feed rate is
required to size the column, the internals, and the ancilliary equipment (reboiler,
condenser, reflux pump and bottom pump if required). The design must be checked
for minimum conditions to assure that the system's turn-down ability is adequate.
2. Fractionation systems do not perform well under other than steady conditions. If
fluctuating flows are anticipated these should be detailed so that adequately sized
surge vessels can be designed into the system.

3. The feed composition is, of course, a basic design criteria, but data regarding how
this composition may change seasonally or over a period of time, e.g. as a result of
field pressure drops or new reservoirs being put on line, must also be outlined. The
presence of H2S, even in small amounts, can affect overall design and materials
requirements, and it is important to supply accurate over-life data or estimates of this
constituent (see also 3.7 on toxicity of H2S).

4. Product specifications are required as well as any likely future changes in these, e.g.
future propane production for automotive use, possible changes in C3/C4 ratios for
mixed LPGs, etc.

5. The value of energy must be known to optimise design.

6. The cost and the availability of water is also an important design element. If air
cooling is required or found to be economic, column pressure levels can be affected.

5.3 Refrigeration Systems

As discussed under 5.1, refrigeration of natural gas streams is at times required for
hydrocarbon dew point control or to recover NGLs for sales. If auto-refrigeration across a
choke or through an expander is not practicable, compression refrigeration is utilised. An
alternative could be absorption type refrigeration but such systems (ammonia and lithium
bromide) are rarely applied in the gas processing field. The ammonia system requires a
complex operating cycle, has an associated foul odour resulting from inevitable small
leaks, and refrigerant make-up is difficult to acquire in many areas. Lithium bromide units
are available only in small packages and have a limited cooling range (Ref. 2).

Common refrigerants used in field compression refrigeration units are propane and Freon
(usually Freon 12). In some applications propylene and ammonia may show some small
advantages in overall system efficiency but their use is not recommended for reasons of
availability, and in the case of ammonia, because of odour.
Propane is the most widely used refrigerant in gas processing facilities. It has good
efficiency in the temperature ranges applied, is usually readily available, and is
inexpensive.
Freon has one significant advantage in that it is non-combustible. However, Freon is an
expensive material and is difficult to keep leakage to a low level. The cost of Freon
make-up is often a significant operating expense.

Refrigerant System Design

The procedures required for the design of refrigeration systems are clearly outlined in
Campbell (Ref. 2).
The economics of adding an economiser to the refrigeration cycle should be analysed.

Suggestions

(a) Compressor lubricating oil carry-over will collect in the liquid refrigerant accumulator.
A drain line should be installed on this vessel and the facility operators instructed to
periodically drain off the oil.

(b) Many chillers have been designed with an insufficient vapour disengaging space,
resulting in liquid carry-over and/or a portion of the tube bundle being in the vapour
and not in the liquid space. This can seriously affect the chiller's heat transfer
capacity and result in overload of the refrigeration system.

(c) The propane refrigerant should be as pure as possible. A high ethane content
(allowable in commercial propane) will raise the condensing pressure and decrease
system efficiency. Over-pressures and relief valve lifting can easily occur. If
possible, arrange for a specially manufactured supply of propane for the original
charge and periodic make-up requirements.

(d) Refrigeration systems must be water free. Consideration should be given to

pressure testing with nitrogen rather than water.

5.4 NGL and LNG Product Specifications

In the design and operation of NGL recovery facilities it is vital to know the product purity
requirements. Certain standard specifications do exist (Ref. 5). These are sometimes
useful as a general guideline but they ordinarily outline the upper limits of purity
requirements. The actual specifications set for a particular product stream are dictated by
the product's enduse. For example, the specifications for a natural gasoline product will
vary considerably depending on whether it is to be used for blending with engine fuel or
whether it is to be spiked into sour crude. Likewise, the specifications for propane are
more stringent when it is to be used for automotive fuel than those required for underboiler
utilisation. Comments on the GPSA specifications (Ref. 5) are given below. Also listed is
a general specification for an LNG product:
(a) Ethane
Ethane is used primarily for cracking into ethylene. Because of the diversity of cracker
designs, operations, and installed ancillary facilities, e.g. feed clean-up, there is no
standard specification for the product. The GPSA Engineering Data Book gives some
commonly found ranges of quality requirements.

(b) Propane
The commercial propane specification is based on using propane as bottled gas. It will
also usually apply for petrochemical feedstock requirements. The HD-5 specifications
were developed for automotive fuel grade propane. The limitations on propylene may be of
concern to refineries but this material is not found in natural gas. Propane used for boiler
fuel may have relaxed requirements.

(c) Butanes
The commercial butane and commercial propane-butane mix specifications were
developed for this material to be acceptable for use as bottled gas. For other uses, a more
lenient specification is common.

(d) Natural Gasoline

As for the other products, the specifications for natural gasoline are determined by the
end-use. Commonly, this material is blended with crude and the only applicable
specification is vapour pressure. In some instances it is used as petrochemical feedstock
or blended directly into automotive fuel. In the latter case, stringent specifications will be
applied, e.g. colour. The GPSA specification of a colour of not less than 25 Saybolt has
given problems in numerous instances. It can be difficult to meet without final distillation
when the product originates from associated gas. Even small amount of crude carry-over
from separators will discolour the gasoline.

CAUTION:
The required specifications for the product streams must be determined before any NGL
facility design is finalised.
(e) LNG
Although E and P are not directly concerned with the design and operation of LNG plants,
the field gas supply quality obviously has a significant impact on these facilities. A typical
LNG specification is:

Nitrogen 1% mol maximum

Methane 85% mol minimum
Butanes plus 1.8% mol maximum
Pentanes plus 0.1% mol maximum
3
Hydrogen sulphide 5 mg/m (St) maximum
3
Total sulphur 30 mg/m (St) maximum
6 DESIGN RULES FOR EQUIPMENT

6.1 Standard Specifications

Standards referring to many subjects are issued by different authorities, such as industry
organisations (API, ASTM), national authorities, insurance/classification bureau's (Lloyds,
Veritas) and various Companies.
Such standards could be mandatory (most national Codes), others are meant for
guidance, e.g. API Recommended Practices.

Different standards may have to be applied simultaneously, e.g. a vessel may be designed
to BS 5500 (Ref. 1) and be checked and inspected according to Lloyds rules, while
PETRONAS 's additional requirements are described in PTS 31.22.10.32 (Ref. 2).

PETRONAS group standards are largely embodied in PTSs and Standard Specifications.
Various Shell companies have developed their own sets of specifications, such as Shell
Oil's PEGS that cover EP orientated subjects in more detail, and Shell Expro's standards
which especially relate to North Sea offshore applications.

There will be a continuing effort to arrive at a listing of the most suitable specifications.

6.2 Mechanical Design of Pressure Vessels

The following general rules should be applied:

1. The BS 5500 Code has been selected as the preferred code for PETRONAS
installations (Ref. 1).
2. BS 5500 supersedes BS 1500 Parts 1 and 3 and BS 1515 Parts 1 and 2.
3. Local and/or national regulations may pose additional requirements or require a
different code.
4. Questions on pressure vessel design may be referred to PETRONAS.

6.2.1 Design

The design should relate to all service conditions (start-up, operation, depressurising and
shut-down) and the following loads should be considered: internal and external pressure,
maximum static head, weight of vessel, weight of water under test, wind and earthquake
loads, loads acting on or supported by the vessel (refer BS 5500, App. B). In addition the
following loads may require consideration: local stresses at supports, nozzles, etc.; shock
loads due to surging; bending moments due to eccentricity of pressure; thermal gradients
due to rapid temperature fluctuations. Service conditions and pressure fluctuations shall
be considered to see if a fatigue analysis is required (refer BS 5500, App. C).
The maximum operating pressure (MOP) is the maximum internal or external pressure for
the full operating range: for MOP = 0 to 17 bar: design pressure = MOP + 1.7 bar; for
MOP = 17 to 40 bar design pressure = 1.1 x MOP; for MOP = 40 to 80 bar design
pressure = MOP + 4 bar; for MOP > 80 bar design pressure = 1.05 x MOP. (All
pressures in bar gauge.) Sub-atmospheric pressure vessels should be designed to full
vacuum.
Corrosion allowance: Vessels in corrosive service will need a 3 mm corrosion allowance
after proper measures have been taken to control the corrosion within the desirable life of
the equipment. For non-corrosive service no allowance is applied.
Construction categories are subject to the principal's approval: Category 1 should include
vessels for which pressure x volume > 1000 bar ⋅ m , low temperature ( ≤ 0 °C) and
3

vacuum service and vessels containing lethal substances. All other service conditions will
be to Category 2. (Category 3 is not used in the E and P function.)
If the wall thickness > 40 mm, or nozzle dia ÷ vessel dia > 0.25, or if alloy steel is used for
which wall thickness > 25 mm, then use only integral nozzle reinforcement. If D/d (Do/Di)
> 1.3 for internal pressure, the Code is no longer valid.
Studded, socket weld and screwed connections are not permitted.
Flanges ≤ 600 mm (24" should be as per ANSI B 16.5, but if larger then as per
BS 3293/MSSP-44 plus Murray and Stuart analysis using ASME VIII Div. 1 allowable
stress values. Only narrow raised face flanges should be used. Minimum manhole =
460 mm (+ davit); minimum handhole = 150 mm (+ grip); oval holes are not permitted.
Non-standard components should be checked against BS 5500 App. A requirements.
Design life in creep range = 100 000 hours minimum.

6.2.2 Materials

All materials should be in accordance with PTS 30.10.02.11.

For low and high temperature duties refer to PTS 30.10.02.31 and
31.24.00.30/31.24.15.31 respectively. Factors such as weld decay, stress corrosion and
hydrogen induced cracking should be considered. Special consideration should be given
to brittle fracture at low temperature.
The complete specification should be in ASTM or BS requirements. Welding
consumables as per BS 2901: Part 4. Bolting: < 540 °C: ASTM A 1903-B7 or
A 194-GR2 from 540 °C to 600 °C: ASTM A 193-B16 or A 193-GR4; < 0 °C or > 600 °C
refer to PTS 30.10.02.11. BS steel grades, M3, M8 and M12 are not normally used. M1
and M4 require the principal's approval.
Maximum carbon content of carbon steel = 0.23% wt for plate and piping: 0.25% wt for
forgings. Carbon equivalent should not exceed 0.45% wt. All materials shall meet
minimum guaranteed yield strength (refer BS 5500 App. K). Rimming steels are not
permitted. If hydrogen sulphide is present reference should be made to the latest edition
of NACE Standard MR-01-75.

6.2.3 Manufacture

Prior to manufacture a fully dimensioned drawing shall be provided with details of:
materials, weld procedures, joints and seams, non-destructive testing, test plate
requirements, design and test pressure, design temperature, corrosion allowance and
code. Material identification during manufacture must be maintained. Longitudinal seams
must be completed prior to adjoining circumferential seams. Where two seam welds
meet, or are less than 50 mm or twice the thickness apart, intermediate stress relief is
required.
All hot formed plate and cold formed dished ends shall be normalised. Preheat and
post-heat requirements should be in accordance with PTS 31.22.10.32 - Gen. (Ref. 2).
Tack welds must be removed before final welds. All cut surfaces shall be examined for
defects.

6.2.4 Inspection and Testing

The following vessel tolerances shall be checked: circumference, circularity, thickness,

profile and straightness (PTS 31.22.10.32). Approval testing of welders and welding
methods must be in accordance with BS 4870 Part 1. Two test plates per 100 m of butt
weld must be provided. Non-destructive tests (NDT) should follow final heat treatment,
but before pressure test. For internal flaws use radiographic or ultrasonic methods (if
thickness > 60 mm, only ultrasonic). For surface flaws use magnetic particle methods.
Cracks, tears, lack of fusion, lack of penetration, surface cavities, inclusions and overlaps
are unacceptable. Category 1 vessels require 100% NIDT; Category 2 vessels require
random (spot) 10% ultrasonic/radiographic + 10% penetrant methods.
All vessels should be pressure tested. Chlorides in test water must be avoided (test water
pH = 6 to7). Test procedure: increase pressure to 50% of test pressure, then increase in
10% intervals; hold at test pressure for 30 minutes. Standard hydraulic tests can be used
where thickness can be calculated; proof hydraulic testing is required where thickness
cannot be calculated or is outside allowable tolerances. All vessels subjected to vacuum
conditions should fulfil stringent out-of-roundness tolerances.

A guide to BS 5500: Unfired Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels is shown in Figure 6.2-1.
Figure 6.2-1 Guide to BS 5500: unfired fusion welded pressure vessels
6.3 Gas/Liquid Separators

6.3.1 Service Applications

The characteristics and service applications of gas/liquid separators are described below.

6.3.1.1 Knock-Out Drums

This type of vessel is primarily designed as a bulk separation device and does not prevent
the carry-over of finely entrained droplets (mist). Usually applied where vessel internals
are to be kept to a minimum, e.g. relief systems or in fouling service.

6.3.1.2 Demister Type Separators

(a) Wire Mesh Demisters

Suitable for high efficiency gas/liquid separation, utilising a schoepentoeter inlet device
and a wire mesh demister. This is a widely applied type of separator suitable for all
gas/liquid flow regimes with good turn-down characteristics (see Figures 6.3-1 and 6.3-2).
For compressor suction scrubbers the wire mesh demister should be avoided to prevent
the possibility of loose wire cuttings entering the compressor, or plugging of the mistmat
increasing suction pressure drop.

(b) SMS Separators

This vertical type of separator has been developed by PETRONAS with proven field
applications. The SMS separator (see Figure 6.3-3) is essentially comprised of a
Schoepentoeter, Mistmat and Swirldeck (proprietary names). The addition of the
swirldeck to the wire mesh demister reduces the vessel diameter for a given service
application (approximately 0.6 x D), and provides very large turn-down characteristics.

(c) Vane Type Separators

These have higher capacity than wire mesh demisters but have a slightly lower efficiency
for fine entrainment. They have the advantages of being less subject to fouling, e.g.
hydrate operating regime or wax, and are more robust than other types of separators.
They are especially recommended for compressor service.
Figure 6.3-1 Vertical demister type separator

Figure 6.3-2 Horizontal demister type separator

Figure 6.3-3 SMS type separator

6.3.1.3 Cyclone Separators

Cyclone separators are robust and not sensitive to fouling and are recommended for waxy
crudes. They are not widely applied in production applications. Recycling cyclone type
separators are unsatisfactory and are not recommended.

6.3.1.4 Filter Separators

Proprietary types such as PECO, PEERLESS and BURGES MANNING are extensively
used for final sales gas filtration (mist and dust) to minimise carry-over into pipelines.
They are commonly designed with quick-opening closures for easy replacement of filter
elements. They can also be used as suction filters on compressor installations at the
ends of pipelines longer than 5 km.
6.3.1.5 Horizontal versus Vertical Vessels

For gas service, vertical vessels are recommended unless headroom restrictions or liquid
handling capabilities require horizontal vessel selection. Vertical vessels are preferred as
their efficiency does not vary with liquid level.

Horizontal vessels are recommended where long liquid residence times are required, e.g.
degassing viscous liquids (oil service), liquid/liquid separation.

6.3.2 Design Rules

6.3.2.1 Vessel Sizing General Rules

See Table 6.3-1 for rules, Table 6.3-2 for definition of symbols, and Refs. 3 and 4.
Table 6.3-1 General sizing rules
Table 6.3-2 Definition of symbols
6.3.2.2 Surge Factors

To determine the maximum volumetric load factor for vessel design the following surge
factors (safety margins) are recommended (Ref. 4).

(a) Offshore Service

Separator handling natural flowing production from:
(i) Its own platform = 1.2
(ii) Another platform or well jacket in shallow water = 1.3
(iii) Another platform or well in deep water = 1.4
Separator handling gas lifted production from:
(i) Its own platform = 1.4
(ii) Another platform or well jacket = 1.5

(b) Onshore Service

Separator handling natural flowing production,
or gas plant inlet separator in:
(i) Flat or low rolling country = 1.2
(ii) Hilly country = 1.3
Separator handling gas lifted production in:
(i) Flat or low rolling country = 1.4
(ii) Hilly country = 1.5

(c) Flow Pattern

It is strongly recommended that the flow pattern is checked in order to determine a
realistic surge factor.

6.3.2.3 Selection of Inlet Device

Cg = Volume vapour/(Volume vapour + Volume liquid) at operating conditions.

(a) Cg < 0.15

Preferred liquid velocity in the inlet nozzle is limited to 1 m/s with no inlet device being
required. Inlet must not be in-line with gas outlet.

(b) 0.15 < Cg < 0.85

Half-open pipes may be applied although ρmv m ≤1500 should apply to the inlet nozzle.
2

The use of schoepentoeters will result in smaller inlet nozzles.

(c) Cg > 0.85

For this, the most common production application, schoepentoeters should be applied
with ρgv g ≤ 3750 or ρmv m < 6000 whichever is limiting.
2 2
6.3.3 Sizing of Liquid-Filled Section of Vessels

6.3.3.1 Degassing

It has been estimated that if bubbles > 200 µm are allowed to escape,carry under will be
negligible. From application of Stoke's Law, it may be shown that:

For vertical vessels and for horizontal vessels

Sizing should be such that v < vs conditions are satisfied.

For high liquid loadings degassing requirements generally govern the vessel dimensions,
particularly with horizontal vessels. For vertical vessels with light liquid loadings the gas
handling requirements generally govern the vessel diameter although it is essential to
check that degassing requirements are also satisfied.

6.3.3.2 Liquid Slugs

Extra hold-up volume is required if slug-flow is anticipated. In the absence of other

information, the slug volume may be taken as 2-5 seconds of flow with the normal feed
velocity and 100% liquid filling of the feed pipe. The slug volume should be
accommodated between level controls as described in 6.3.3.3.

6.3.3.3 Level Controls

Generally designed jointly by process and instrument engineers; however the typical
minimum level control requirements are summarised in Figure 6.3-4.
Figure 6.3-4 Minimum level control requirements for separators

6.3.4 Three-Phase Separation

6.3.4.1 Typical Examples

These are gas/oil/water and gas/condensate/water separation systems. A typical

three-phase separator is shown in Figure 6.3-5.

Figure 6.3-5 Three-phase separation

Enhancement of normal gravity settling can be achieved by inclusion of coalescing
surface additional to the normal oil/water interface, e.g. parallel plates in the oil/water
space (see Figure 6.3-6).

Figure 6.3-6 Typical horizontal three-phase separator with parallel plates

Level control may be accomplished by the use of weirs or interface level controllers.
However, when emulsions are expected, e.g. downstream of chokes, interface level
control may be impossible and weir control must be used. (See also Dehydration of Crude
Oil in Part 1.)

6.3.4.2 Three-phase Separator Sizing

Step 1: Calculate the liquid/liquid interfacial areas required as described in

Sections 8.1.3.3 and 8.1.3.4 of Part I for a separator in free water knockout
service or dehydration service respectively.

Step 2: Calculate the gas/liquid interfacial area for degassing as described in

Section 6.3.3.1.

Step 3: Select the highest value of interfacial area calculated above to size the
separation compartment of the vessel.

Step 4: Check the gas flow area required for demisting using the sizing rules given in
Table 6.3-1. Note that, for horizontal separators, sufficient area for gas flow
should be available above the maximum liquid level, say 0.6D.

Step 5: Select a vessel with suitable dimensions to satisfy the above criteria. The
vessel L/D ratio should be in the range 3 to 5.
6.4 Heaters

Heating is widely used in processing and treating operations to assist in achieving various
fluid specifications, e.g. in light ends fractionation (see 5.2) and gas treating (see 4.5). It
is also used to facilitate the pumping of viscous crudes (see Volume 8 PIPELINES).
The applicability of various types of heaters and heating systems depends upon a number
of considerations, e.g. location (onshore or offshore), Hazardous Area Classification,
duty, space available, cost, etc. (For some typical applications see Table 6.4-1.)
Heat generation is almost entirely achieved by combustion of gaseous or liquid fuels,
although electrical heating provides additional safety in hazardous areas.
Fuel quality for fired heaters should not change significantly unless fuel nozzle sizes and
pressures can be adjusted. Accurate fuel analyses, including expected variations in fuel
quality, should be stated in the heater specification.
For details on the design of heaters see Refs. 1, 2, and 5 to 10.

6.4.1 Heating Systems

Heating systems are of two types: direct and indirect (or combinations of the two).

6.4.1.1 Direct

Direct fired heaters shall be located in a safe area, with the process fluids being
transferred by pipeline to and from the heaters. In smaller heaters the process fluids
surround the fire-tube, which enables a high heat flow rate and efficient heat transfer.
Normally, natural draft heaters are used. To improve safety in certain locations, e.g.
offshore, forced draft heaters are sometimes used, but reliability may then be somewhat
reduced because of the additional complexity. In large heaters, the process fluids are
contained in furnace tubes surrounding the flame space, and a convection section is
usually included to improve efficiency. In this case, access for tube inspection/
replacement becomes important.

6.4.1.2 Indirect

An indirect fired heating system consists of a direct fired heater, heat medium system
(expansion tank, pumps, piping) and one or more heat exchangers (Ref. 5). The fired
heater is located in a safe area, away from the process area. The heat medium transports
heat to the process area, where it exchanges heat with the process fluids. The heating
media/source may be:
Hot oil - fire resistant heating fluid. Careful handling is required to avoid a health
hazard with some types of fluids.

Water - incombustible, but limited in temperature range when pressures are kept
within normally acceptable ranges.

Steam - incombustible, but requires careful water treatment.

Electricity - capacities up to 150 kW per heating element; suitable for Zone 1.

Equipment is compact and reliable.

Table 6.4-1 outlines the advantages and limitations of direct and indirect heating systems,
as well as listing some of their applications.

In indirect fired heating systems, attention should be paid to proper sizing of an

expansion/surge tank for the heating fluid, and to the flow distribution over the process
heat exchangers (for heat exchanger design see 6.5). Dual circulation pumps should be
installed. In addition, means of detecting leaks of process fluid into the circulation system,
and adequate measures to ensure operational safety, should be incorporated. A start-up
bypass (discharge to suction) should be installed which can also be used as a relief line
to prevent over-pressurisation of the distribution system, e.g. in the event of the distri-
bution system being accidentally shut in. (See also 6.7.3.)

6.4.2 Types of Heaters and Heat Transfer Systems

Typical examples of heater systems used in production operations, together with some of
their important operating features are described below.

6.4.2.1 Fired Heaters

Examples of direct and indirect fired heating systems are shown in Figure 6.4-1 and
Figure 6.4-2, respectively.

Table 6.4-2 indicates typical dimensions and weights of vertical and horizontal oilfield
heaters.
Table 6.4-1 Heating systems - advantages, limitations and applications
Figure 6.4.1 Direct fired heating system
Figure 6.4.2 Indirect fired heating system

Table 6.4-2 Indirect fired furnaces - dimensions and weights (approx.)

Since fired heaters are normally designed for unattended operation, the provision of
effective controls and safeguarding instrumentation is very important. Examples are:
- Pilot flame control
- Pilot flame-out protection
- Pre-start-up purge sequence and ignition controls
- Main burner controls:
• range
• one or more burners
• flame pattern
- Flame eyes
- Flame-out protection
- Fluid level/temperature control
- Alarm/trip protection.

2
The average heat transfer rate for fire-tubes and furnace tubes is about 17.5-20 kW/m ,
2
and the maximum heat transfer rate of any part of the tube shall never exceed 55 kW/m .

6.4.2.2 Bath Heaters

This type of heater is a particular combination of direct and indirect fired heaters. The
process fluid is separated from the fire-tube by the heating medium, e.g. water, salt,
steam, thereby improving safety and reducing the risk of product degradation by hotspots.
When using water the temperature is limited to about 100 °C, and the level of water has to
be checked continuously or at regular intervals to maintain safe operation. Salt-bath
heaters are often used for higher temperature ranges, e.g. 150 - 350 °C. Steam can be
used for the intermediate temperature range, i.e. 100 - 200 °C.
Figure 6.4-3 and Table 6.4-3 show a typical water-bath heating system and size data,
respectively.
Figure 6.4-3 Typical bath heating system

Table 6.4-3 Water-bath heater dimensions

6.4.2.3 Electric Heaters

There are two types of electrical heating elements used in production operations:
sheathed and unsheathed. Sheathed elements can be withdrawn while the heater remains
in operation.
Sheathed heating elements should be supplied with thermocouples (welded to the
sheaths) to monitor sheath temperature and to provide overheat alarm/ trip protection.
Spare thermocouples should be installed to provide redundancy. The heat transfer rate for
2
glycol/hydrocarbons should not be greater than 15-20 kW per m of surface. A typical
electric heater system for glycol regeneration is shown in Figure 6.4-4.
Both types of heating element are usually arranged in sections, which can be separately
controlled. One or two sections are usually combined on power control (thyristor), with the
remaining sections having simple on/off control to compensate for larger process demand
variations.
Attention should be paid to the connection between the power cable and the head of the
heating element, as overheating of this connection may occur. Proper heating element
supports must be installed inside the heater vessel.
The installation of a spare heating element in the heater is advantageous for reducing
downtime.
Special attention should be given to the detailed design and construction of the electric
heater controls, which should be approved by the manufacturer of the heating elements.

6.4.2.4 Waste Heat Recovery Units

Waste heat recovery units are seldom applied in production operations, since the loading
of the main energy producer (turbine driving generator, etc.) varies widely, and additional
burners may have to be installed to meet peak heating demand. At other times, the waste
heat produced may be much greater than the heating demand, thus requiring a bypass
system for the waste heat boiler. In addition, the power output of the main energy
producer is reduced (slightly) because of boiler back-pressure.
As a consequence, the system requires expensive equipment normally with a low load
factor, which may result in a high cost per unit energy recovered.
Although simple, reliable, dedicated heaters are usually preferable, the possibility of
installing waste heat recovery equipment should, however, be considered as this is
sometimes economically attractive.

6.4.2.5 Heaters for Steam Generation

Where steam boilers are required (other than simple low pressure utility/ cleaning steam
generators) such as for turbine drive or steam injection purposes, a careful assessment
of type, construction details and maintenance aspects etc. has to be made.
For turbine drive application, a variety of makes is available, and selection of equipment
should be based on a detailed specification including feedwater sources, fuel
composition, range of duty, etc.
Figure 6.4-4 Electric heater
For steam injection purposes (also see Part 1) a few specialised heaters are available,
and special attention should be given to water quality. Advice on operations and
maintenance aspects is also available from PETRONAS.

6.4.3 Design Guidelines on Heaters and Associated Equipment

Design Guidelines
- High Heating Value (HHV) = Low Heating Value (LHV) x 1.1 (approximately)
allowing for water vapour losses.
- Heater fuel rate = Heater capacity , for an efficiency around 0.7 of HHV of fuel or
Efficiency
0.8 of LHV of fuel.
- Electric heaters have cable losses and generator/drive losses; total system efficiency
around 20-25% of LHV of fuel.
- Piping heat losses of well insulated systems to be taken as 10% (small systems) to
5% (large) of design capacity.
- Stack height roughly equal to fire-tube length (horizontal heaters).
- Proper fluid circulation around fire-tubes, heating elements or piping coils should be
ensured. A minimum liquid cover of 0.15 m should be allowed for in the design.
- In gas heaters, sufficient turbulence should be ensured to achieve proper heat
transfer.
- Proper access and lifting facilities should be provided for inspection and
replacement of fire-tubes, heating elements or tube bundles.

6.4.4 Testing

Heaters should be factory tested complete with all specified auxiliaries. (For operating test
procedures see Ref. 11.) It should be borne in mind that correction of errors in the field is
time consuming, usually expensive, and may often lead to substantial production losses.

6.5 Heat Exchanger Sizing

A number of different types of equipment are installed to transfer heat in gas processing
facilities, but this Section covers only shell and tube, and aircooled heat exchangers.

The design of heat exchangers is a complex undertaking and is not the function of a field
engineer. He will be required to specify certain design criteria but the unit itself will be
designed and guaranteed by the supplier.
However, it is important that the engineer be aware of the basic factors involved in the
design and construction of heat exchangers to ensure that the unit purchased meets
requirements.

6.5.1 Basic Equation

In both shell and tube and air-cooled exchangers the heat transfer mechanism is by
convection and conduction. Radiation plays only an insignificant role. The basic equation
that describes this mechanism is:

∅ = U A ∆tm

where:
∅ = Heat transferred, W
2
A = Outside heat transfer surface of tubes, m
= OveralI heat transfer coefficient, W/(m ⋅ K)
2
U
∆tm = Corrected mean temperature difference across the exchanger, K

See Refs. 12,13,14 and 15 fordiscussion of the basic equation and the methods of
calculating ∆tm for different exchangers.

6.5.2 Approximate Sizing of Exchangers

It is sometimes necessary to calculate the approximate size requirement for a heat

exchanger, e.g. for cost estimating purposes. The general equation given above can be
solved directly for given process conditions, i.e. when the heat load and terminal
temperatures are set, by assuming a value for U. Typical U values for various services are
given in Refs. 12,13 and 14. In such calculations, counter-current single pass flow is
assumed. It should be noted that when a phase change takes place in an exchanger, e.g.
in a refrigerant condenser, a somewhat more complicated calculation must be carried out
(see Ref. 12).

6.5.3 Evaluation of Existing Exchangers

If an existing heat exchanger is to be used in a service other than that for which it was
designed, it must be re-rated. It is unlikely that the manufacturer's 'U' value will be
applicable. Moreover, the mechanical configuration of the unit may not be acceptable for
the new service.
Although the information given in Refs. 12, 13 and 14 will enable the field engineer to
make a preliminary re-rating, it is suggested that Central Office specialists be requested
to carry out a detailed analysis of the unit under the new proposed conditions.
6.5.4 Specifying Heat Exchangers

Standard specification sheets are used within PETRONAS (Ref. 16). They allow the
purchaser to state his requirements and the supplier to outline his proposal in a standard
format. Some general comments are as follows:

1. For fluids containing a mixture of components, provide all available physical

constants data, e.g. molar mass, viscosity, latent heat, etc.

2. Allowable pressure drops are to be specified. These are ordinarily determined by

process conditions, but it is important to recognise that heat transfer rates improve
with increasing velocities (and resultant increasing pressure drops). A trade-off can
often be made between pump or compressor size and heat exchanger size.

3. Material requirements must be clearly specified for all parts of the exchanger.

4. Design detaiIs such as baffle arrangements, tube pitch, etc. are left to the designer,
but the purchaser must specify what type of exchanger he wants (Ref. 13).

5. The temperatures across a heat exchanger are generally set by process

requirements. However, the required size increases rapidly as the smaller terminal
temperature difference (approach) is reduced, and care must be taken in selecting
the specified temperatures. General guidelines on economic approach temperatures
are given in Ref. 12, and a rough economic screening can often be used to confirm
the reasonableness of these numbers with a given design case.

6. The fouling factors must be specified. The TEMA Standards (Ref. 15) give typical
fouling resistances which may be used if better data is unavailable. One should
consider, however, whether the particular service is ‘especially' dirty or clean and the
effect the shut-down of the unit for cleaning (to reduce the fouling to, at, or below
design levels) could have on the overall process. (See Ref. 12 for fuller discussion.).

7. If there are space or weight constraints, e.g. an offshore platform, these should be
given to the supplier. If there are no such constraints, and if multiple units are to be
purchased, standardise on tube lengths and diameter so far as is practicable to
minimise stocking of replacement tubes.
8. For shell and tube exchangers, the buyer must specify which fluid goes on the tube
side and which on the shell side. There are a number of factors that go into the
making of this decision. (See Ref. 13 for a discussion of this subject.)

9. TEMA subdivides its standards into three classes: 'R', 'C'and 'B'. In gas processing,
TEMA Class 'C' standards are specified except for units handling fluids at or below
-5 °C and for offshore installation. In these cases, the more rigid TEMA Class 'R'
standards are specified.

10. Air-cooled exchangers are ordinarily sized on the basis of summer temperature
conditions. If over-cooling could result in process problems, temperature controls
must be built into the unit. There are a number of ways to accomplish control
(Ref. 14) and the optimum economic method must be established on a case-by-case
basis.

6.6 Pressure Relief and Blowdown Systems

6.6.1 Applicable Codes

The most commonly used documents for the design of pressure relief and blowdown
systems are:

API Recommended Practice 520

API Recommended Practice 521
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII
SIPM Standard Specification A-3-1

Also the Shell Oil PEGS G-15160 is both a useful and extensive document on the
subject.

All the above documents, however, have been written primarily for refinery/ land-based
operations, where tall flares, at a substantial distance from the process facilities can
readily be accommodated.
The documents are therefore not totally applicable to offshore operations, but, in the
absence of any other authoritive document, they are generally used for a first approach
(see also HSE in Volume 1).

6.6.2 System Capacity

A particular aspect where the above practices could create problems, is the maximum
emergency blowdown rate. Typically API RP 521 refers to vapour blowdown of all facilities
to 50% of a vessel's design pressure, or 7 bar, whichever is lower, within 15 minutes.
This could result in extremely large and costly flare/vent stacks.
The designer should realise that the API documents referred to above are recommended
practices only, which allow the designer a wide scope of options to reduce the maximum
instantaneous flow rate for which the flare/ vent stack has to be designed, for example:

- by calculating certain parameters, e.g. heating time for vessels under conditions of
fire, rather than accepting the very conservative assumptions which form the basis
of API RP 521. On the basis of such calculations it could be decided to extend the
blowdown time to far beyond the 15 minutes quoted by the API.
- by the use of fire-proof partitioning walls which allow a separate review of blowdown
requirements for each module
- by calculating the actual flare tip blowdown rate, incorporating the transient effects in
the blowdown piping system
- by applying various forms of controlled blowdown, such as time delays, phasing,
flow control, multiple valves, etc.

6.6.3 Temperatures During Blowdown

The Codes only refer to possible low temperature problems in general terms. For the very
high gas pressures encountered in many production applications, especially with regard
to gas compression and export, a careful analysis is required of the temperatures and
pressures which occur during blowdown, in order to specify the correct materials both
downstream and upstream of blowdown valves. The use of fine grain or stainless steel
materials for parts of the blowdown system is quite common.

Generally it would be assumed that facilities could be repressurised in the cold state
(shortly after blowdown). However, if this leads to expensive material selection,
consideration may be given to preventing repressurisation within a short period after
blowdown.

The calculations to determine fluid and wall temperatures are both complicated and time
consuming. Most cases are reviewed by using simplifying assumptions. Consideration is
being given to the development of suitable computer programs for this purpose.

6.6.4 Blowdown of Vapours and Liquids

It is common to design for vapour depressurising only, especially for offshore applications
where it would be difficult to dispose of the liquids. In such cases the liquids are boiled off,
with the vapours being routed to a conventional vapour depressurising system.
This can however lead to extremely low temperatures in both the vessels and the header
piping. As an alternative, consideration could be given to a liquid disposal system into
which the process vessels are drained, prior to blowdown. A single liquid drain system,
designed for low temperature, can serve several process vessels.

6.6.5 Flare Radiation

While in certain environments venting may be preferred, it is more common to flare

vapours. API RP 521 gives conservative methods of calculating radiation levels around
flare stacks.
More sophisticated methods have been developed by Central Offices and for applicable
cases it is recommended that SIPM-EPD/42 be consulted.

6.7 Utilities

To optimise a project it is important to integrate the utility plan into the basic design
through all stages of the project development. Various utility items are discussed in other
Sections of this Handbook. This Section provides only general guidelines for overall
systems.

6.7.1 Fuel Gas

For the efficient operation of heaters, engines, gas turbines, compressors and other
equipment fired by produced gas, it is essential that the gas quality is maintained within a
reasonably close band. While most equipment can tolerate a considerable range in gas
quality, it will not be able to accept large variations in gas quality. The supplier of the
equipment using gas should be consulted for allowable changes in quality (see also 2.4
for additional information). Low pressure gas is often chosen as fuel to minimise
compression or flaring. However, because changes in process or ambient temperature
conditions tend to vary, the gas composition of low pressure gas streams may be
unsatisfactory as fuel gas supply.

It is essential that the fuel gas system remains liquid free. If the system is off-line for an
extended period any condensed liquids must be removed by draining/flushing. Adequate
valving to permit this operation must be installed. Also the design of the piping should be
such that all liquids can be effectively drained off. An efficient fuel gas scrubber is
mandatory to prevent liquid carry-over into the system. It is also emphasised that the fuel
gas scrubber may not be completely effective if close control of any upstream separator is
not maintained.
The design should be based on a temperature of gas supply to the system of not less
than 20 °C above its dew point and treating or heating may be required to ensure this
condition.

The fuel gas system pressure is determined by the users' requirements. A level of about
9-10 bar is common but the pressure may need to be higher if gas turbines are
connected.

The system capacity should be designed to handle 25% above the calculated maximum
demand for start-up and to give system flexibility.

6.7.2 Instrument Air

An adequately designed instrument air system is vital since air failure will lead to a
complete shut-down of all related facilities (Ref. 17).

The required system capacity demand can be calculated from manufacturers' data of
consumption of connected pneumatic instruments, air required to pressurise electrical
instruments in hazardous areas, and purge air for analysers. An excess of 30% over
calculated volumes should be provided.

Standby air compressor capacity of 100% should be installed and instrumented to start
up on the failure of the on-line unit. When feasible the compressors should have different
types of driver, e.g. steam and electricity or electricity and gas engine. In complex facilities
an emergency diesel driven air compressor is often installed for additional protection.
Consideration should also be given to load shedding certain services in the system to give
protection against total failure.

In all systems a buffer vessel should be installed sized to give at least five minutes supply
capacity.

It is essential that the instrument air is dry. Commonly silica gel, molecular sieve or
alumina units are installed. Careful attention should be given to the design of the drying
system.

System pressures are commonly 9 bar in the buffer vessel and 8 bar in the piping system.

If a utility air system is required, this should be kept separate from the instrument air
system. In small facilities where economic considerations dictate that the two be
combined, close attention must be given to ensure that use of utility air cannot create an
unacceptable reduction in the instrument air system pressure.
6.7.3 Heat Transfer Fluid Systems

Heat transfer fluid systems are those which transfer heat through the use of 'an
intermediate fluid. This fluid is contained in a closed circuit, usually heated by a directly
fired heater or in a waste heat recovery unit, and normally circulated by pumping.
(See also 6.4.)

The selection of the heating fluid is largely controlled by the temperature level required in
the system. Water or water/glycol mixtures are commonly used for system temperatures
of up to 175 °C. Above this level proprietary heat transfer fluids such as Dow Therm are
applied. The available fluids differ in their fire resistance, toxicity, maximum operating
temperatures, freezing point, cost, etc. and need to be selected to match the designed
service.

Proprietary heat media fluids will degrade over time and coking or formation of corrosive
compounds can consequently occur. Degradation will be minimised by operating well
below the stated maximum operating temperature of the fluid (50-75 °C below if
practicable) and by taking care to minimise excessive skin temperatures in the fluid
heater. The fluid should be tested periodically in accordance with the supplier's advice
and replaced or reclaimed when impurities exceed the manufacturer's criteria.

The selection of heat transfer media and the design of heat transfer fluid systems is
outlined well in Ref. 18. However, several points should be emphasised:

1. Provisions must be made to maintain a minimum flow through the heater (at least
25% of design) to prevent overheating of the fluid by high external tube
temperatures.
2. About 25% excess heater and fluid circulation capacity should be installed to give
operating flexibility.
3. A surge tank is required in the system. The heating media may expand significantly
upon heating and this needs to be considered in sizing the tank. In addition, a
minimum of 3 minutes residence time, based on hot fluid volumes, is suggested.

6.7.4 Cooling Water Systems

There are two broad categories of cooling water systems, i.e. once-through and closed. In
once-through systems water is taken from the sea or a large stream, used, and returned
to its original source. In closed systems, the water is continuously circulated and cooled
by a cooling tower or by air coolers.
The availability and quality of the water must be established at the inception of the project
since this information is required to establish the process design. In desert locations
water may not be available except at extremely high costs and air cooling is required. In
other instances poor quality water may be available and a comparison must be made
between the overall costs of air cooling and the costs for a closed cooling water system
including the costs of water treatment (which can be substantial). Even when a large
supply of high quality water is available, the impurities in the water need to be well
established at a very early date so that water treatment facilities can be designed and
materials selected which are suitable for the treated water.

In offshore locations where a once-through sea water system is the obvious choice, it is
important to firstly establish the water temperature and quality for design purposes. These
two factors will vary significantly depending on location and in many instances there are
seasonal changes in quality and temperature which must be taken into consideration.

The degree of water treatment can significantly affect plot plan considerations. In many
instances primary filtration is required and these facilities are substantial in size. Also if
large amounts of chemicals are needed for water treatment, storage and handling of these
chemicals must be catered for.

Environmental restrictions can also affect design. Severe restrictions on discharges, for
example, could limit cooling tower blowdown or the disposal of spent chemicals from
de-ioniser regenerations. Also, in certain instances special efforts must be made to
minimise the chance of contamination of cooling water by process fluids. Moreover, the
use of certain water treating chemicals, e.g. chromates, may not be permissible in certain
areas.

Because the design and operation of cooling water systems are relatively straightforward
there is often a tendency to leave the design until a late stage of the project. This can lead
to significant problems as outlined above. The designer must have the required
information before he begins his work and very early involvement of water treating
specialists in the project is essential.
SECTION 7 RUNNING EQUIPMENT, FORMERLY INCLUDED
HERE, HAS BEEN INCORPORATED IN VOLUME 9.
8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

GENERAL (1)

Further Reading

- Index to PTS Publications and Standard Specifications. PTS 00.00.05.05.

- Campbell, J. M., Gas Conditioning and Processing. Volumes 1 and 2
- Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) Sl Engineering Data Book, 1980,
update 10th Edition 1987 English Units.
- Gas Conditioning Fact Book. Dow Chemical
- Shell Oil Co., Prod. Dept. Eng. Guidelines and Specifications (PEGS)
- Quality Systems. BS 5750, British Standards Institution, London

GAS PROPERTIES AND CALCULATION METHODS (3)

References

1. Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) Sl Engineering Data Book, 1980,

Chapter 16
2. Hewlett Packard HP-41 C Petroleum Fluids Pac.

3. Manual for the Calculation of Supercompressibility Factor, Research Project NX 19.

American Gas Association
4. PVT PACK Computer Program
5. Campbell, J. M., Gas Conditioning and Processing. Volume 1, Chapter 6
6. Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) Sl Engineering Data Book, 1980,
Chapter 18, update 10th Edition 1987 English units
7. NEW SHAMROCK Computer Program (for bubble point calculation), Application
Program Routine code BBGJ 03
8. A Guide for the Heavy-End Characterisation of Hydrocarbon Streams using the
C7PLUS Program, Report EP 88-2515 dated November 1988.
9. SMBP Computer Program (Shell Model Building Program), Application Program Routine
code BBGJ 99
10. SimSci - PROCESS (Simulation Sciences Inc.), Application Program Routine code BBAA 66
11. HERCULES Computer Program (for hydrate calculations), Application Program Routine
code BBAY 15
12. COMPFACT Computer Program (for calculation of compressibility factors), Application
Program Routine code BBAL 99
13. Engineering Computer Portfolio Process Engineering:
EP 89-0036 Part 3.1
EP 89-0037 Part 3.2
EP 89-0038 Part 3.3
EP 89-0039 Part 3.4

14. SimSci - PRO/11 (Simulation Sciences Inc.)

15. EP 50758 Recommendations on the Surface Sampling and Analysis of Natural Gas

GAS TREATING (4)

References

1. Campbell, J. M., Gas Conditioning and Processing. Volume 2, Chapter 17

2. Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) Sl Engineering Data Book, 1980, Chapter 15

3. Shell Oil Co., Prod. Dept. Eng. Guidelines and Specifications (PEGS), No. G-13150.

4. Katz, et al., Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering

5. Campbell, J. M., Gas Conditioning and Processing. Volume 2, Chapters 16, 18 and 19.

6. Shell Oil Co., Prod. Dept. Eng. Guidelines and Specifications (PEGS), Nos. G-13151.01,
G-13150, G-13151 and S-13151.

7. Hydrocarbon Processing, June 1966 and April 1977.

8. Campbell, J. M., Gas Conditioning and Processing. Volume 2, Chapter 20

9. Campbell, J. M., Gas Conditioning and Processing. Volume 2, Chapter 19

10. Maddox, R. N., Gas and Liquid Sweetening

NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS RECOVERY (5)

References

1. Katz, et al., Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering

2. Campbell, J. M., Gas Conditioning and Processing. Volume 2, Chapters 13 and 15

3. Campbell, J. M., Gas Conditioning and Processing. Volume 2, Chapter 13

4. Gas Engineering. Vol. 1 -Shell Oil Co., E and PTechnical Training Series (no longer
published)

5. Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) Sl Engineering Data Book, 1980, Chapter 15

DESIGN RULES FOR EQUIPMENT (6)

References

1. Unfired Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels (including amendments and supplements). BS

5500, British Standards Institution, London

2. Pressure Vessels (Amendments/Supplements to BS 5500). PTS 31.22.10.32

3. Gas/Liquid Separators. PTS 31.22.05.11.

4. Sizing and Application of Separation, Surge and Flash Equipment. ShelI Oil Co., Prod. Dept.
Eng. Guidelines and Specifications (PEGS) No. G-13142.

5. Specification for Indirect-Type Oil Field Heaters. API Spec 12 K, Fourth Edition, February
1972

6. Fired heaters. Shell Oil Co., EGS-9RP/PS-1.

7. General Type Furnaces (incl. Waste Heat Boilers). PTS 31.24.00.30.
8. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. ASME VIII

9. Piping Classes - Exploration and Production. PTS 31.38.01.15.

10. Model Code of Safe Practices in the Petroleum Industry. Parts IV and VI 11, Institute of
Petroleum, London

11. ASME Performance Test Code (PTC). Nos. 3 and 4.1

12. Heat Transfer Systems. Shell Oil Co., Prod. Dept. Eng. Guidelines and Specifications
(PEGS), No. G-15700

13. Heat Transfer Systems. Shell Oil Co., Prod. Dept. Eng. Guidelines and Specifications
(PEGS), No. 15701

14. Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) S1 Engineering Data Book, 1980, Chapters
8, 9 and 10.

15. Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA)

16. Requisitioning. PTS 30.10.01.10.

17. Instrument Air Supply. PTS 32.37.51.11.

18. The Design of Heat Transfer Fluid Systems. Shell Oil Co., Prod. Dept. Eng. Guidelines and
Specifications (PEGS), No. G-15705-04

Further Reading

- Design and Installation of Pressure - Relieving Systems in Refineries. API RP 520, Part 1,
Fourth Edition, 1976 and Part 11, Second Edition, 1963 (Reaffirmed 1973)
- Guide for Presssure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems. API RP 521, Second Edition,
1982
- ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section VIII
- Shell Oil Co., Prod. Dept. Eng. Guidelines and Specifications (PEGS), No. G-15160
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