FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY

Subject Code: 10CS56 I.A. Marks : 25

Hours/Week : 04 Exam Hours: 03
Total Hours : 52 Exam Marks: 100

PART - A
UNIT – 1
7 Hours
Introduction to Finite Automata: Introduction to Finite
Automata; Thecentral concepts of Automata theory; Deterministic
finite automata; Nondeterministic finite automata
UNIT – 2
7 Hours
Finite Automata, Regular Expressions: An application of finite
automata;Finite automata with Epsilon-transitions; Regular expressions;
Finite Automata and Regular Expressions; Applications of Regular
Expressions
UNIT – 3
6 Hours
Regular Languages, Properties of Regular Languages:
Regularlanguages; Proving languages not to be regular languages;
Closure properties of regular languages; Decision properties of
regular languages; Equivalence and minimization of automata
UNIT – 4
6 Hours
Context-Free Grammars And Languages : Context –free grammars;
Parsetrees; Applications; Ambiguity in grammars and Languages .
PART – B
UNIT – 5
7 Hours
Pushdown Automata: Definition of the Pushdown automata; the
languagesof a PDA; Equivalence of PDA‟s and CFG‟s; Deterministic
Pushdown Automata
UNIT – 6
6 Hours
Properties of Context-Free Languages: Normal forms for CFGs;
Thepumping lemma for CFGs; Closure properties of CFLs
UNIT – 7
7 Hours
Introduction To Turing Machine: Problems that Computers cannot
solve;The turning machine; Programming techniques for Turning Machines;
Extensions to the basic Turning Machines; Turing Machine and Computers.
UNIT – 8
6 Hours
Undecidability: A that is not recursively enumerable;
AnUndecidable problem that is RE; Post‟s Correspondence
problem; Other undecidable problems.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Text Books:
1. John E. Hopcroft, Rajeev Motwani, Jeffrey D.Ullman:
Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and Computation,
3rd Edition, Pearson Education, 2007.
(Chapters: 1.1, 1.5, 2.2 to 2.5, 3.1 to 3.3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8.1 to 8.4, 8.6, 9.1, 9.2, 9.4.1, 9.5)
Reference Books:
1. K.L.P. Mishra: Theory of Computer Science, Automata,
Languages, and Computation, 3rd Edition, PHI, 2007.
2. Raymond Greenlaw, H.James Hoover: Fundamentals of the Theory
of Computation, Principles and Practice, Morgan Kaufmann, 1998.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Table Of Contents Page no

UNIT-1:INTRODUCTION TO FINITE AUTOMATA: 1

1.1: Introduction to finite Automata
1.2 : Central concepts of automata
theory 1.3: Deterministic finite automata
1.4:Non deterministic finite automata

UNIT-2:FINITE AUTOMATA, REGULAR EXPRESSIONS 18

2.1 An application of finite automata
2.2 Finite automata with Epsilon transitions
2.3 Regular expressions
2.4 Finite automata and regular expressions

2.5Applications of Regular expressions

UNIT- 3: PROPERTIES OF REGULAR LANGUAGES 34

3.1 Regular languages
3.2 proving languages not to be regular languages
3.3 closure properties of regular languages
3.4 decision properties of regular languages
3.5 equivalence and minimization of automata

UNIT-4:Context Free Grammar and languages 53

4.1 Context free grammars
4.2 parse trees
4.3 Applications
4.4 ambiguities in grammars and languages

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

UNIT-5: PUSH DOWN AUTOMATA 64

5.1: Definition of the pushdown automata
5.2: The languages of a PDA
5.3: Equivalence of PDA and CFG
5.4: Deterministic pushdown automata

Unit-6: PROPERTIES OF CONTEXT FREE LANGUAGES 74

6.1 Normal forms for CFGS
6.2The pumping lemma for CFGS
6.3closure properties of CFLS

UNIT -7: INTRODUCTION TO TURING MACHINES 94

7.1 problems that computers cannot solve
7.2 The Turing machine
7.3 Programming techniques for turing machines
7.4 Extensions to the basic turing machines
7.5 Turing machines and computers

Unit-8: Undesirability 104

8.1: A language that is not recursively enumerable
8.2: a un-decidable problem that is RE
8.3: Posts correspondence problem

8.4: Other undecidable problem

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY

UNIT-1:INTRODUCTION TO FINITE AUTOMATA:
1.1: Introduction to finite Automata
1.2 : Central concepts of automata
theory 1.3: Deterministic finite automata
1.4:Non deterministic finite automata

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

INTRODUCTION TO FINITE AUTOMATA

1.1:introduction to finite automata

In this chapter we are going to study a class of machines called finite automata. Finite
automata are computing devices that accept/recognize regular languages and are used
to model operations of many systems we find in practice. Their operations can be
simulated by a very simple computer program. A kind of systems finite automnata can
model and a computer program to simulate their operations are discussed.

Formal definition
Automaton
An automaton is represented formally by a 5-tuple(Q,Σ,δ,q0,F), where:

Q is a finite set of states.

Σ is a finite set of symbols, called the alphabet of the automaton.
δ is the transition function, that is, δ: Q × Σ → Q.
q0 is the start state, that is, the state of the automaton before any input has
been processed, where q0 Q.
(i.e. F Q) called accept states.

Input word F is a set of states of Q � �

An automaton reads a finite string of symbols a1,a2,...., an , where ai Σ, which is

Run called an input word. The set of all words is denoted by Σ*. �
A run of the automaton on an input word w = a 1,a2,...., an Σ*, is a sequence of
states q0,q1,q2,...., qn, where qi state and q i = δ(q i-1 ,a )
�
Q s uch that q0 is the start� i
the automaton is at the s tart state q , and then the

for 0 < i ≤ n. In words, at first 0

automaton reads symbols of the input word in sequence. When the automaton
reads symbol ai it jumps to state qi = δ(qi-1,ai). qn is said to be the final state of the
run.
Accepting word
A word w Σ* is accepted by the automaton if qn F.
� �
language

Recognized
An automaton can recognize a formal language. The language L Σ* recognized
by an automaton is the set of all the words that are accepted by �
the automaton.

Recognizable languages
The recognizable languages are the set of languages that are
recognized by some automaton. For the above definition of automata the
recognizable languages are regular languages. For different definitions
of automata, the recognizable languages are different.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

1.2:concepts of automata theory

Automata theory is a subject matter that studies properties of various types of automata.

For example, the following questions are studied about a given type of automata.

Which class of formal languages is recognizable by some type of automata?

(Recognizable languages)
Are certain automata closed under union, intersection, or complementation of
formal languages? (Closure properties)
How much is a type of automata expressive in terms of recognizing class of
formal languages? And, their relative expressive power? (Language Hierarchy)

Automata theory also studies if there exist any effective algorithm or not
to solve problems similar to the following list.

Does an automaton accept any input word? (emptiness checking)

Is it possible to transform a given non-deterministic automaton into deterministic
automaton without changing the recognizable language? (Determinization)
For a given formal language, what is the smallest automaton that
recognizes it? (Minimization).
D
Classes of automata e
t
The following is an incomplete list of types of automata.
e
Automata r
Deterministic finite automata(DFA) m
Nondeterministic finite automata(NFA) i
Nondeterministic finite automata with ε-transitions n
(FND-ε or ε-NFA) i
Pushdown automata (PDA) s
Linear bounded automata (LBA) t
i
Turing machines
c
Timed automata
Büchi automata
Nondeterministic Büchi automata
Nondeterministic/Deterministic Rabin automata
Nondeterministic/Deterministic Streett automata
Nondeterministic/Deterministic parity automata Recognizable language
Nondeterministic/Deterministic Muller automata regular languages
regular languages
.1.3:Deterministic finite automata
regular languages
context-free languages
context-sensitive language
recursively
enumerable languages

ω-limit languages ω-
regular languages
ω-regular languages
ω-regular languages
ω-regular languages
ω-regular languages

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

. Definition: A DFA is 5-tuple or quintuple M = (Q, , , q0, A) where

Q is non-empty, finite set of states.

is non-empty, finite set of input alphabets.

is transition function, which is a mapping from Q x to Q.

q0 Q is the start state.
A Q is set of accepting or final states.
Note: For each input symbol a, from a given state there is exactly one transition
(there can be no transitions from a state also) and we are sure (or can determine) to
which state the machine enters. So, the machine is called Deterministic machine.
Since it has finite number of states the machine is called Deterministic finite machine
or Deterministic Finite Automaton or Finite State Machine (FSM).
The language accepted by DFA is

L(M) = { w | w * and *(q0, w) A }

L(M) = { w | w * and *(q0, w) A }
The non-acceptance of the string w by an FA or DFA can be defined in formal
notation as:

So, the DFA which accepts strings of a‟s and b‟s starting with the string ab is given by
Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a’s and b’s starting with the string ab

a,b
a b
q q q
b a
q
a,b
Fig.1.1 Transition diagram to accept string ab(a+b)*
M = (Q, , , q0, A) where
Q = {q0, q1, q2,
q3} = {a, b}
q0 is the start state
A = {q2}.
is shown the transition table 2.4.

a b
q0 q1 q3
q1 q3 q2
States

q2 q2 q2
q3 q3 q3
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Draw a DFA to accept string of 0’s and 1’s ending with the string 011.

1 0
q0 q1 0 1 q2 1 q3
0
0

1
Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a’s and b’s having a sub string aa

b a,b
a a
q0 q1 q2
b

Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a’s and b’s except those containing the substring aab.

b a a,b
a b
q0 q1 a q2 q3
b

Obtain DFAs to accept strings of a’s and b’s having exactly one a,

b b a,b
a a
q0 q1 q2
b a, b
q0 a q1

b b b b a, b
a a a
q0 q1 q2 a q3 q4

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a’s and b’s having even number of a’s and b’s
The machine to accept even number of a‟s and b‟s is shown in
fig.2.22. a
q q
a
b
b b a b
q q
a
Fig.2.22 DFA to accept even no. of a’s and b’s

a
q0 q1

bbbba

q2
q3a
q0 q1

b b b b
a
q2 q3

a
q0 q1

b b b b
a
q2 q3

Regular language
Definition: Let M = (Q, , , q0, A) be a DFA. The language L is regular if there exists a
machine M such that L = L(M).
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

* Applications of Finite Automata

* String matching/processing
Compiler Construction
The various compilers such as C/C++, Pascal, Fortran or any other compiler is
designed using the finite automata. The DFAs are extensively used in the
building the various phases of compiler such as
Lexical analysis (To identify the tokens, identifiers, to strip of the comments etc.)
Syntax analysis (To check the syntax of each statement or control
statement used in the program)
Code optimization (To remove the un wanted code)
Code generation (To generate the machine code)

Other applications- The concept of finite automata is used in wide applications.

It is not possible to list all the applications as there are infinite number of
applications. This section lists some applications:
1. Large natural vocabularies can be described using finite automaton which
includes the applications such as spelling checkers and advisers, multi-
language dictionaries, to indent the documents, in calculators to evaluate
complex expressions based on the priority of an operator etc. to name a
few. Any editor that we use uses finite automaton for implementation.
2. Finite automaton is very useful in recognizing difficult problems i.e., sometimes it
is very essential to solve an un-decidable problem. Even though there is no
general solution exists for the specified problem, using theory of
computation, we can find the approximate solutions.
3. Finite automaton is very useful in hardware design such as circuit
verification, in design of the hardware board (mother board or any other
hardware unit), automatic traffic signals, radio controlled toys, elevators,
automatic sensors, remote sensing or controller etc.
In game theory and games wherein we use some control characters to fight
against a monster, economics, computer graphics, linguistics etc., finite
automaton plays a very important role

1.4 : Non deterministic finite automata(NFA)

Definition: An NFA is a 5-tuple or quintuple M = (Q, , , q0, A)
whereQ is non empty, finite set of states.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

is non empty, finite set of input alphabets.

is transition function which is a mapping from
Q
Q x { U } to subsets of 2 . This function shows
the change of state from one state to a set of states
based on the input symbol.
q0 Q is the start state.
A Q is set of final states.
Acceptance of language
Definition: Let M = (Q, , , q0, A) be a DFA where Q is set of finite states, is set of
input alphabets (from which a string can be formed), is transition function from Q x
Q
{ U } to 2 , q0 is the start state and A is the final or accepting state. The string (also
called language) w accepted by an NFA can be defined in formal notation as:

L(M) = { w | w *and *(q0, w) = Q with atleast one

Component of Q in A}

n n
Obtain an NFA to accept the following language L = {w | w abab or aba where n 0}
n n
The machine to accept either abab or aba where n 0 is shown below:
b
a
q1 a q2 b q3 q4
q0
a
q5 a q6 b q7

Conversion from NFA to DFA

Let MN = (QN, N, N, q0, AN) be an NFA and accepts the language L(MN). There should
be an equivalent DFA MD = (QD, D, D, q0, AD) such that L(MD) = L(MN). The
procedure to convert an NFA to its equivalent DFA is shown below:

Step1:
The start state of NFA MN is the start state of DFA MD. So, add q0(which is

the start state of NFA) to QD and find the transitions from this state. The

way to obtain different transitions is shown in step2.

Step2:
For each state [qi, qj,….qk] in QD, the transitions for each input symbol in can

be obtained as shown below:

1. D([qi, qj,….qk], a) = N(qi, a) U N(qj, a) U …… N(qk, a)
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

= [ql, qm,….qn] say.

2. Add the state [ql, qm,….qn] to QD, if it is not already in QD.
3. Add the transition from [qi, qj,….qk] to [ql, qm,….qn] on the input symbol
a iff the state [ql, qm,….qn] is added to QD in the previous step.
Step3:
The state [qa, qb,….qc] QD is the final state, if at least one of the state in qa, qb,
….. qc AN i.e., at least one of the component in [qa, qb,….qc] should be the
final state of NFA.
Step4:
If epsilon ( ) is accepted by NFA, then start state q0 of DFA is made the
final state.

Convert the following NFA into an equivalent DFA.

0 1

q0 0,1 q1 0, 1 q2
Step1: q0 is the start of DFA (see step1 in the conversion procedure).

So, QD = {[q0]} (2.7)

Step2: Find the new states from each state in QD and obtain the corresponding transitions.

Consider the state [q0]:

When a = 0
D([q0], 0) = N([q0], 0)
= [q0, q1]
(2.8)
When a = 1
D([q0], 1) = N([q0], 1)
= [q1]
(2.9)

Since the states obtained in (2.8) and (2.9) are not in QD(2.7), add these two
states to QD so that

QD = {[q0], [q0, q1], [q1] } (2.10)

The corresponding transitions on a = 0 and a = 1 are shown below.

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 FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

0 1
[q0] [q0, q1] [q1]
Q [q0, q1]
[q1]

Consider the state [q0, q1]:

When a = 0
D([q0, q1], = N([q0, q1], 0)
0) = N(q0, 0) U N(q1, 0)
= {q0, q1} U {q2}
= [q0, q1, q2]
(2.11)
When a = 1
D([q0, q1], = N([q0, q1], 1)
1) = N(q0, 1) U N(q1, 1)
= {q1} U {q2}
= [q1, q2]
(2.12)
Since the states obtained in (2.11) and (2.12) are the not defined in Q D(see
2.10), add these two states to QD so that
QD = {[q0], [q0, q1], [q1], [q0, q1, q2], [q1, q2] } (2.13)
and add the transitions on a = 0 and a = 1 as shown below:

0 1
[q0] [q0, q1] [q1]
[q0, q1] [q0, q1, q2] [q1, q2]
Q [q1]
[q0, q1,
q2]
[q1, q2]

Consider the state [q1]:

When a = 0

D([q1], 0) = N([q1], 0)
= [q2]
(2.14)
When a = 1

D([q1], 1) = N([q1], 1)
=
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

[q2]
(2.15)

Since the states obtained in (2.14) and (2.15) are same and the state q 2 is not in
QD(see 2.13), add the state q2 to QD so that

QD = {[q0], [q0, q1], [q1], [q0, q1, q2], [q1, q2], [q2]} (2.16)

and add the transitions on a = 0 and a = 1 as shown below:

0 1
[q0] [q0, q1] [q1]
[q0, q1] [q0, q1, q2] [q1, q2]
Q [q1] [q2] [q2]
[q0, q1,
q2]
[q1, q2]
[q2]

Consider the state [q0,q1,q2]:

When a = 0

D([q0,q1,q2], = N([q0,q1,q2], 0)
0) = N 0 , 0) U N 1, 0) U
(q (q
N(q2, 0)
= {q0,q1} U {q2} U { }
= [q0,q1,q2]
(2.17)

When a = 1
D([q0,q1,q2], = N([q0,q1,q2], 1)
1) = N 0 , 1) U N 1, 1) U
(q (q
N(q2, 1)
= {q1} U {q2} U {q2}
= [q1, q2]
(2.18)
Since the states obtained in (2.17) and (2.18) are not new states (are already in
QD, see 2.16), do not add these two states to QD. But, the transitions on a = 0
and a = 1 should be added to the transitional table as shown below:

0 1
[q0] [q0, q1] [q1]
[q0, q1] [q0, q1, q2] [q1, q2]

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

[q1] [q2] [q2]

[q0, q1, [q0,q1,q2] [q1, q2]
q2]
Q [q1, q2]
[q2]

Consider the state [q1,q2]:

When a = 0
D([q1,q2], 0) = N([q1,q2], 0)
= N(q1, 0) U N(q2, 0)
= {q2} U { }
= [q2]
(2.19)
When a = 1
D([q1,q2], 1) = N([q1,q2], 1)
= N(q1, 1) U N(q2, 1)
= {q2} U {q2}
= [q2]
(2.20)
Since the states obtained in (2.19) and (2.20) are not new states (are already in
QD see 2.16), do not add these two states to Q D. But, the transitions on a = 0 and
a = 1 should be added to the transitional table as shown below:

0 1
[q0] [q0, q1] [q1]
[q0, q1] [q0, q1, q2] [q1, q2]
Q [q1] [q2] [q2]
[q0, q1, [q0,q1,q2] [q1, q2]
q2]
[q1, q2] [q2] [q2]
[q2]

Consider the state [q2]:

When a = 0
D([q2], 0) = N([q2], 0)
= {}
(2.21)
When a = 1
D([q2], 1) = N([q2], 1)
= [q2]

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

(2.22)

Since the states obtained in (2.21) and (2.22) are not new states (are already in
QD, see 2.16), do not add these two states to QD. But, the transitions on a = 0
and a = 1 should be added to the transitional table. The final transitional table is
shown in table 2.14. and final DFA is shown in figure 2.35.

0 1
[q0] [q0, q1] [q1]
[q0, q1, q2] [q1, q2]
[q0,q1]
[q2] [q2]
[q1]
[q0,q1,q2] [q1, q2]
[q0,q1,q2]
[q1,q2] [q2] [q2]
[q2] [q2]

[q 0 ]

0 1

[q 0 , q 1 ] [q 1 ]

0 1 0, 1

1 0, 1
[q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ] [q 1 , q 2 ] [q 2 ]

0 1

Fig.2.35 The DFA

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Convert the following NFA to its equivalent DFA.

a
4 5
a b
0 1 2 38 9 6b7

Let QD = {0} (A)

Consider the state [A]:
When input is a:

(A, a) = N(0, a)
= {1}
(B)
When input is b:
( A, b) = N(0, b)
= { }
Consider the state [B]:

When input is a:
= N(1, a)
= { }
(B, a)

= N(1, b)
When input is b: = {2} =
( B, b) {2,3,4,6,9}

(C)

This is because, in state 2, due to -transitions (or without giving any

input) there can be transition to states 3,4,6,9 also. So, all these states
are reachable from state 2. Therefore,
(B, b) = {2,3,4,6,9} = C

Consider the state [C]:

When input is a:
(C, a) = N({2,3,4,6,9}, a)
= {5}
= {5, 8, 9, 3, 4, 6}
= {3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9} (ascending
order) (D)
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

This is because, in state 5 due to -transitions, the states reachable are {8, 9, 3,
4, 6}. Therefore,

(C, a) = {3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9} = D
When input is b:
( C, b) = N({2, 3, 4, 6, 9}, b)
= {7}
= {7, 8, 9, 3, 4, 6}
= {3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}(ascending order)
(E)
This is because, from state 7 the states that are reachable without any input (i.e.,
-transition) are {8, 9, 3, 4, 6}. Therefore,
(C, b) = {3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9} = E
Consider the state [D]:
When input is a:
(D, a) = N({3,4,5,6,8,9}, a)
= {5}
= {5, 8, 9, 3, 4, 6}
= {3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9} (ascending
order) (D)
When input is b:
(D, b) = N({3,4,5,6,8,9}, b)
= {7}
= {7, 8, 9, 3, 4, 6}
= {3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9} (ascending
order) (E)

Consider the state [E]:

When input is a:
(E, a) = N({3,4,6,7,8,9}, a)
= {5}
= {5, 8, 9, 3, 4, 6}
= {3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}(ascending order)
(D)
When input is b:

(E, b) = N({3,4,6,7,8,9}, b)
= {7}
= {7, 8, 9, 3, 4, 6}
= {3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}(ascending order)
(E)
Since there are no new states, we can stop at this point and the transition table
for the DFA is shown in table 2.15.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

a b
A B -
B - C
Q C D E
D D E
E D E

Table 2.15 Transitional table

The states C,D and E are final states, since 9 (final state of NFA) is present in C,
D and E. The final transition diagram of DFA is shown in figure 2.36
a
a b a
A B C D
a
b
b
Eb

Fig. 2.36 The DFA

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Unit 1:Assignment questions:

1. Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a‟s and b‟s starting with the string ab

2. Draw a DFA to accept string of 0‟s and 1‟s ending with the string 011.

3. Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a‟s and b‟s having a sub string aa
4. Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a‟s and b‟s except those containing the
substring aab.
5. Obtain DFAs to accept strings of a‟s and b‟s having exactly one a,

6. Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a‟s and b‟s having even number of a‟s and b‟s

7. Give Applications of Finite Automata *

8. Define DFA, NFA & Language? n m n m
9. (i) Write Regular expression for the following L = { a b : m, n are even} L = { a , b
: m>=2, n>=2}
(ii) Write DFA to accept strings of 0‟s, 1‟s & 2‟s beginning with a 0 followed by odd
number of 1‟s and ending with a 2.
10. Design a DFA to accept string of 0‟s & 1‟s when interpreted as binary numbers would be
multiple of 3.
11. Find closure of each state and give the set of all strings of length 3 or less accepted by
automaton.

δ a b
p {r} {q} {p,r}
q {p}
*r {p,q} {r} {p}
12. Convert above automaton to a DFA
13. Write a note on Application of automaton.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

UNIT-2:FINITE AUTOMATA, REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

2.1 An application of finite automata
2.2 Finite automata with Epsilon transitions
2.3 Regular expressions
2.4 Finite automata and regular expressions
2.5 Applications of Regular expressions

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

2.1 An application of finite automata

Applications of finite automata includes String matching algorithms,

network protocols and lexical analyzers

String Processing
Consider finding all occurrences of a short string (pattern string) within a
Long string (text string).This can be done by processing the text through
a DFA: the DFA for all strings that end with the pattern string. Each time the
accept state is reached, the current position in the text is output

Example: Finding 1001

To find all occurrences of pattern 1001,
construct the DFA for all strings ending in 1001.

Finite-State Machines
A finite-state machine is an FA together
with actions on the arcs.

A trivial example for a communication link :

Example FSM: Bot Behavior

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

A bot is a computer-generated character in a video game .

State charts
State charts model tasks as a set of states and actions. They extend FA

.
diagrams Here is a simplified state chart for a stopwatch

Lexical Analysis
In compiling a program, the first step is lexi-cal analysis. This isolates
keywords,identifiersetc., while eliminating irrelevant symbols.A token is a
category, for example “identifier”,“relation operator” or specific keyword.
For example,
token RE keyword
then then
variable name [a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]* where latter RE says it is any
string of alphanumeric
characters starting with a letter.
A lexical analyzer takes source code as a string,and outputs sequence
of tokens. For example,
for i = 1 to max
do x[i] = 0;
might have token sequence
for id = num to id do id [ id ] = num sep
As a token is identified, there may be an action.
For example, when a number is identified, itsvalue is calculated

2.2 Finite automata with Epsilon transitions

We can extend an NFA by introducing a "feature" that allows us to make a transition on
, the empty string. All the transition lets us do is spontaneously make a transition,
without receiving an input symbol. This is another mechanism that allows our NFA to be

24
in multiple states at once. Whenever we take an edge, we must fork off a new

"thread" for the NFA starting in the destination state.Just as nondeterminism

made NFA's more convenient to represent some problems than DFA's but

were not more powerful, the same applies to NFA's. While more expressive,

anything we can represent with an NFA we can represent with a DFA that has

no transitions.

Epsilon Closure

Epsilon Closure of a state is simply the set of all states we can reach by following
thetransition function from the given state that are labeled . Generally speaking, a
collection of objects is closed under some operation if applying that operation to
members of the collection
returns an object still in the collection.
In the above example:
(q) = { q }
(r) = { r, s}
let us define the extended transition function for an NFA.
For a regular, NFA we said for the induction step:
Let ^(q,w) = {p1, p2, ... pk}

(pi,a) = Sifor i=1,2,...k

Then ^(q, wa) = S1,S2... Sk
For an -NFA, we change for ^(q, wa):
Union[ (Each state in S1, S2, ... Sk)]
This includes the original set S1,S2... Sk as well as any states we can
reach via . When coupled with the basis that ^(q, ) = (q) lets us
inductively define an extended transition function for a NFA.

Eliminating Transitions
Transitions are a convenience in some cases, but do not increase the power of the NFA.
To eliminate them we can convert a NFA into an equivalent DFA, which is quite similar
to the steps we took for converting a normal NFA to a DFA, except we must now
follow all Transitions and add those to our set of states.
1. Compute for the current state, resulting in a set of
states S. 2. (S,a) is computed for all a in by
a. Let S = {p1, p2, ... pk}
b. Compute I=1k (pi,a) and call this set {r1, r2, r3... rm}. This set is achieved by
following input a,
not by following any transitions
c. Add the transitions in by computing (S,a)= I=1m (r1)
3. Make a state an accepting state if it includes any final states in the -NFA.
Note :The ε (epsilon) transition refers to a transition from one state to
anotherwithout the reading of an input
symbol (ie without the tape containing the input string moving).
Epsilon transitions can be inserted between

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

any states. There is also a conversion algorithm from a NFA with epsilon
transitions to a NFA without
epsilon transitions.
a b C
q0 {q0} {q1}
q1 {q2} {q2} Consider the NFA-epsilon move machine M = { Q, ,
q2 {q2} , q0, F}
Q = { q0, q1, q2 }
= { a, b, c } and moves
q0 = q0

Note: add an arc from qz to qz labeled "c" to figure above.

F = { q2 }

The language acc epted by the above N FA wi th epsilon moves is the set of s trings over { a,b,c} i ncl udi ng the null stri ng and
all strings with any number of a's followed by any number
of b's followed by any number of c's.
Now convert the NFA with epsilon moves to a NFA M = ( Q', , ', q0', F')
First determine the states of the new machine, Q' = the epsilon closure
of the states in the NFA with epsilon moves. There will be the same number of
states but the names can be constructed by writing the state name as
the set of states in the epsilon closure. The epsilon closure is the
initial state and all states that can be reached by one or more epsilon moves. Thus
q0 in the NFA-epsilon becomes {q0,q1,q2} because the machine can move from q0
to q1 by an epsilon move, then check q1 and find that it can move
from q1 to q2 by an epsilon move.

q1 in the NFA-epsilon becomes {q1,q2} because the machine can

move from q1 to q2 by an epsilon move.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

q2 in the NFA-epsilon becomes {q2} just to keep the notation the same.
q2 can go nowhere except q2, that is what phi means, on an epsilon
move. We do not show the epsilon transition of a state to itself here, but,
beware, we will take into account the state to itself epsilon
transition when converting NFA's to regular expressions.

The initial state of our new machine is {q0,q1,q2} the epsilon closure of q0

The final state(s) of our new machine is the new state(s) that
contain a state symbol that was a final state in the original machine.

The new machine accepts the same language as the old machine, thus same sigma.

So far we have for out new NFA

Q' = { {q0,q1,q2}, {q1,q2}, {q2} } or renamed { qx, qy, qz }
= { a, b, c }
F' = { {q0,q1,q2}, {q1,q2}, {q2} } or renamed { qx, qy, qz }
q0 = {q0,q1,q2} or renamed qx

inputs

a b c
qx or{q0,q1,q2}
qy or{q1,q2}
qz or{q2}
Now we fill in the transitions. Remember that a NFA has transition entries that are sets.
Further, the names in the transition entry sets must be only the state names from Q'.
Very carefully consider each old machine transitions in the first row.
You can ignore any entries and ignore the column.
In the old machine (q0,a)=q0 thus in the new machine
'({q0,q1,q2},a)={q0,q1,q2} this is just because the new machine
accepts the same language as the old machine and must at least have the
the same transitions for the new state names.

inputs
a b c
qx or{q0,q1,q2} {qx} or{{q0,q1,q2}}
qy or{q1,q2}
qz or{q2}

No more entries go under input a in the first row because

old (q1,a)= , (q2,a)=

Now consider the input b in the first row, (q0,b)= , (q1,b)={q2}

and (q2,b)= . The reason we considered q0, q1 and q2 in the old

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

machine was because out new state has symbols q0, q1 and q2 in the
new state name from the epsilon closure. Since q1 is in {q0,q1,q2} and
(q1,b)=q1 then '({q0,q1,q2},b)={q1,q2}. WHY {q1,q2} ?, because {q1,q2} is the new machines name for the old machines name q1. Just

Now, because our new qx state has a symbol q2 in its name and
compare the zeroth column of to '. So we

have inputs

a b c
qx or{q0,q1,q2} {qx} or{{q0,q1,q2}} {qy} or{{q1,q2}}
qy or{q1,q2}
qz or{q2}

(q2,c)=q2 is in the old machine, the new name for the old q2,
which is qz or {q2} is put into the input c transition in row 1.
Inputs

a b c
qx or{q0,q1,q2} {qx} or{{q0,q1,q2}} {qy} or{{q1,q2}} {qz} or{{q2}}
qy or{q1,q2}
qz or{q2}
Now, tediously, move on to row two, ... .
You are considering all transitions in the old machine, delta,
for all old machine state symbols in the name of the new machines states.
Fine the old machine state that results from an input and translate
the old machine state to the corresponding new machine state name
and put the new machine state name in the set in delta'. Below are the
"long new state names" and the renamed state names in delta'.

Inputs

a b c
qx or{q0,q1,q2} {qx} or{{q0,q1,q2}} {qy} or{{q1,q2}} {qz} or{{q2}}
qy or{q1,q2} {qy} or{{q1,q2}} {qz} or{{q2}}
qz or{q2} {qz} or{{q2}}

inputs
a b c \
qx {qx} {qy} {qz} \ Q
qy {qy} {qz} /
qz {qz} /

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

The figure above labeled NFA shows this state transition table.

It seems rather trivial to add the column for epsilon transitions,

but we will make good use of this in converting regular expressions
to machines. regular-expression -> NFA-epsilon -> NFA -> DFA.

2.3 :Regular expression

Definition: A regular expression is recursively defined as follows.

1. is a regular expression denoting an empty language.

2. -(epsilon) is a regular expression indicates the language containing an
empty string.
3. a is a regular expression which indicates the language containing only {a}
4. If R is a regular expression denoting the language LR and S is a regular
expression denoting the language LS, then
a. R+S is a regular expression corresponding to the language LRULS.
b. R.S is a regular expression corresponding to the language LR.LS..
*
c. R* is a regular expression corresponding to the language LR .
5. The expressions obtained by applying any of the rules from 1-4 are regular
expressions.

The table 3.1 shows some examples of regular expressions and the language
corresponding to these regular expressions.
Regular Meaning
expressions
(a+b)* Set of strings of a‟s and b‟s of any length
including the NULL string.
(a+b)*abb Set of strings of a‟s and b‟s ending with the
string abb
ab(a+b)* Set of strings of a‟s and b‟s starting with the
string ab.
(a+b)*aa(a+b) Set of strings of a‟s and b‟s having a sub string
* aa.
a*b*c* Set of string consisting of any number of
a‟s(may be empty string also) followed by any
number of b‟s(may include empty string)
followed by any number of c‟s(may include
empty string).
+ + +
a b c Set of string consisting of at least one „a‟
followed by string consisting of at least one „b‟
followed by string consisting of at least one „c‟.
aa*bb*cc* Set of string consisting of at least one „a‟
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

followed by string consisting of at least one „b‟

followed by string consisting of at least one „c‟.
(a+b)* (a + Set of strings of a‟s and b‟s ending with either a
bb) or bb
(aa)*(bb)*b Set of strings consisting of even number of a‟s
followed by odd number of b‟s
(0+1)*000 Set of strings of 0‟s and 1‟s ending with three
consecutive zeros(or ending with 000)
(11)* Set consisting of even number of 1‟s

Table 3.1 Meaning of regular expressions

Obtain a regular expression to accept a language consisting of strings of a‟s and

b‟s of even length.

String of a‟s and b‟s of even length can be obtained by the combination of the strings aa,
ab, ba and bb. The language may even consist of an empty string denoted by .
So, the regular expression can be of the form
(aa + ab + ba + bb)*

The * closure includes the empty string.

Note: This regular expression can also be represented using set notation
n
as L(R) = {(aa + ab + ba + bb) | n 0}

Obtain a regular expression to accept a language consisting of strings of a‟s and

b‟s of odd length.
String of a‟s and b‟s of odd length can be obtained by the combination of the strings aa,
ab, ba and bb followed by either a or b. So, the regular expression can be of the form
(aa + ab + ba + bb)* (a+b)
String of a‟s and b‟s of odd length can also be obtained by the combination of the
strings aa, ab, ba and bb preceded by either a or b. So, the regular expression
can also be represented as
(a+b) (aa + ab + ba + bb)*
Note: Even though these two expression are seems to be different, the language
corresponding to those two expression is same. So, a variety of regular
expressions can be obtained for a language and all are equivalent.

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Theorem: Let R be a regular expression. Then there exists a finite automaton M

= (Q, ,, q0, A) which accepts L(R).

2.4 :finite automata and regular expressions

Obtain NFA from the regular expression

Proof: By definition, , and a are regular expressions. So, the corresponding machines to
recognize these expressions are shown in figure 3.1.a, 3.1.b and 3.1.c respectively.

a
q0 qf q0 qf q0 qf
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 3.1 NFAs to accept , and a

In the definition of a regular expression it is clear that if R and S are regular expression,

then R+S and R.S and R* are regular expressions which clearly uses three operators „+‟, „-„

and „.‟. Let us take each case separately and construct equivalent machine. Let M1 =

The schematic representation of a regular expression R to accept the language L(R)

is shown in figure 3.2. where q is the start state and f is the final state of machine M.
L(R)
 q M f

Fig 3.2 Schematic representation of FA accepting L(R)

(Q1, 1 , 1, q1, f1) be a machine which accepts the language L(R1) corresponding
to the regular expression R1. Let M2 = (Q2, 2, 2, q2, f2) be a machine which
accepts the language L(R2) corresponding to the regular expression R2.

Case 1: R = R1+ R2. We can construct an NFA which accepts either L(R1)
or L(R2)which can be represented as L(R1 + R2) as shown in figure 3.3.

L(R1)
q1 M1
q0 qf
q2 M2
L(R2)

Fig. 3.3 To accept the language L(R1 + R2)

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

L(R1) L(R2)
M1

Fig. 3.4To accept the language L(R1 . R2)

It is clear from figure 3.4 that the machine after accepting L(R1) moves from state q1 to
It is clear from figure 3.3 that the machine can either accept L(R1) or L(R2). Here, q0 is
the start state of the combined machine and qf is the final state of combined machine M.

Case 2: R = R1 . R2. We can construct an NFA which accepts L(R1) followed

by L(R2)which can be represented as L(R1. R2) as shown in figure 3.4.

q1 q2 M2

f1. Since there is a -transition, without any input there will be a transition from state f 1
to state q2. In state q2, upon accepting L(R2), the machine moves to f2 which is the
final state. Thus, q1 which is the start state of machine M1 becomes the start state of
the combined machine M and f2 which is the final state of machine M2, becomes the
final state of machine M and accepts the language L(R1.R2).
* *
Case 3: R = (R1) . We can construct an NFA which accepts either L(R1) ) as
shown infigure 3.5.a. It can also be represented as shown in figure 3.5.b.

q0 q1 M1 qf

(a)
q0 q1 M1 qf
 (b)
*
Fig. 3.5 To accept the language L(R1)

It is clear from figure 3.5 that the machine can either accept or any number of L(R1)s
*
thus accepting the language L(R1) . Here, q0 is the start state qf is the final state.
Obtain an NFA which accepts strings of a‟s and b‟s starting with the string ab.

The regular expression corresponding to this language is ab(a+b)*.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Step 1: The machine to accept „a‟ is shown below.

4 a 5

Step 2: The machine to accept „b‟ is shown below.

6 b 7
Step 3: The machine to accept (a + b) is shown below.
a
4 5
3 8
6 7
b
Step 4: The machine to accept (a+b)* is shown below.

a
4 5

2 3 8 9
6 7
b

Step 5: The machine to accept ab is shown below.

a b
0 1 2

Step 6: The machine to accept ab(a+b)* is shown below.

4 a 5

0 a 1 b 2 3 8 9

6 b 7

Fig. 3.6 To accept the language L(ab(a+b)*)

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Obtain the regular expression from FA

Theorem: Let M = (Q, , , q0, A) be an FA recognizing the language L. Then thereexists
an equivalent regular expression R for the regular language L such that L = L(R).

The general procedure to obtain a regular expression from FA is shown below.

Consider the generalized graph

r1 r r
q0 q1
r

Fig. 3.9 Generalized transition graph

where r1, r2, r3 and r4 are the regular expressions and correspond to the labels for
the edges. The regular expression for this can take the form:

* * *
r = r1 r2 (r4 + r3r1 r2) (3.1)
Note:
1. Any graph can be reduced to the graph shown in figure 3.9. Then substitute the
regular expressions appropriately in the equation 3.1 and obtain the final regular
expression.
2. If r3 is not there in figure 3.9, the regular expression can be of the form
* *
r = r1 r2 r4 (3.2)
3. If q0 and q1 are the final states then the regular expression can be of the form
* *
r = r1* + r1 r2 r4 (3.3)

Obtain a regular expression for the FA shown below:

0
q0 q1

0 1 1 0

q2 q3 0,1
1

The figure can be reduced as shown

below: 01
q0
10

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

It is clear from this figure that the machine accepts strings of 01‟s and 10‟s of any
length and the regular expression can be of the form
*
(01 + 10)

What is the language accepted by the following FA

0 1 0,
0
q0 q1 q2
1
Since, state q2 is the dead state, it can be removed and the following FA is obtained.

0 1

q01 q1

The state q0 is the final state and at this point it can accept any number of 0‟s
which can be represented using notation as
*
0
q1 is also the final state. So, to reach q1 one can input any number of 0‟s followed by 1 and followed by any number of 1‟s and can be represented as

It is clear from the regular expression that language consists of any number of

0‟s (possibly ) followed by any number of 1‟s(possibly ).

 * *
0 11
* * *
So, the final regular expression is obtained by adding 0 and 0 11 . So, the regular
expression is
* * *
R.E = 0 + 0 11
* *
= 0 ( + 11 )
* +
=0 ( +1 )
* * * *
= 0 (1 ) = 0 1

2.5:Applications of Regular Expressions

Pattern Matching refers to a set of objects with some common properties. We can
matchan identifier or a decimal number or we can search for a string in the text.

An application of regular expression in UNIX editor ed.

In UNIX operating system, we can use the editor ed to search for a specific
pattern in the text. For example, if the command specified is

/acb*c/
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

then the editor searches for a string which starts with ac followed by zero or more b‟s
and followed by the symbol c. Note that the editor ed accepts the regular expression
and searches for that particular pattern in the text. As the input can vary dynamically,
it is challenging to write programs for string patters of these kinds.

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Assignment questions:
n n
1. Obtain an NFA to accept the following language L = {w | w abab or aba where n 0}
2. Convert the following NFA into an equivalent DFA.

0 1

q0 0,1 q1 0, 1 q2
3. Convert the following NFA to its equivalent DFA.

a
4 5
a b
0 1 2 8 9

7
6 b

4. P.T. Let R be a regular expression. Then there exists a finite automaton M = (Q,
, , q0, A) which accepts L(R).

5. Obtain an NFA which accepts strings of a‟s and b‟s starting with the string ab.

6. Define grammar? Explain Chomsky Hierarchy? Give an example

7. (a) Obtain grammar to generate string consisting of any number of a‟s and b‟s with at
least one b.
R
Obtain a grammar to generate the following language: L ={WW where
W {a, b}*}
m m n
8. (a) Obtain a grammar to generate the following language: L = { 0 1 2 | m>= 1 and
n>=0}
Obtain a grammar to generate the set of all strings with no more than three a‟s
when = {a, b}
9. Obtain a grammar to generate the following language:
(i) L = { w | n a(w) > n b(w) }
n m k
(ii) L = { a b c | n+2m = k for n>=0, m>=0}
10. Define derivation , types of derivation , Derivation tree & ambiguous grammar.
Give example for each.
11. Is the following grammar
ambiguous? S  aB | bA
A  aS | bAA |a
B  bS | aBB | b
n n
12. Define PDA. Obtain PDA to accept the language L = {a b | n>=1} by a final state.
13. write a short note on application of context free grammar.

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UNIT 3: PROPERTIES OF REGULAR LANGUAGES

3.1 Regular languages
3.2 proving languages not to be regular languages
3.3 closure properties of regular languages
3.4 decision properties of regular languages
3.5 equivalence and minimization of automata

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3.1:Regular languages
In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a regular language is a
formal language that can be expressed using a regular expression. Note that the
"regular expression" features provided with many programming languages are
augmented with features that make them capable of recognizing languages that can
not be expressed by the formal regular expressions (as formally defined below).

In the Chomsky hierarchy, regular languages are defined to be the languages

that are generated by Type-3 grammars (regular grammars). Regular languages
are very useful in input parsing and programming language design.

Formal definition
The collection of regular languages over an alphabet Σ is defined recursively as follows:

The empty language Ø is a regular language.

For each a Σ (a belongs to Σ), the singleton language {a} is a regular language.
�
are r egul ar languages, then A B ( uni on) , A • B (conc atenati on), and

If A and B
�
A* (Kleene star) are regular languages.
No other languages over Σ are regular.

See regular expression for its syntax and semantics. Note that the above
cases are in effect the defining rules of regular expression

Examples

All finite languages are regular; in particular the empty string language {ε} = Ø*
is regular. Other typical examples include the language consisting of all strings
over the alphabet {a, b} which contain an even number of as, or the language
consisting of all strings of the form: several as followed by several bs.

A simple example of a language that is not regular is the set of strings

. Intuitively, it cannot be recognized with a finite automaton, since a finite
automaton has finite memory and it cannot remember the exact number of a's.
Techniques to prove this fact rigorously are given below.

proving languages not to be regular languages

• Pumping Lemma
n n
Used to prove certain languages like L = {0 1 | n ≥ 1} are not regular.
• Closure properties of regular languages
Used to build recognizers for languages that are constructed from other
languages by certain operations.
Ex. Automata for intersection of two regular languages

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

• Decision properties of regular languages

– Used to find whether two automata define the same language
– Used to minimize the states of DFA
eg. Design of switching circuits.
Pumping Lemma for regular languages ( Explanation)
n n
Let L = {0 1 | n ≥ 1}
There is no regular expression to define L. 00*11* is not the regular expression
2 2
defining L. Let L= {0 1 }

0 0 1 1
1 2 3 4 5
1 0
0
1
6
0,1
0,1

State 6 is a trap state, state 3 remembers that two 0‟s have come and from there
state 5 remembers that two 1‟s are accepted.
This implies DFA has no memory to remember arbitrary „n‟. In other words if we have to
remember n, which varies from 1 to we have to have infinite states, which is not
possible with a finite state machine, which has finite number of states.

Pumping Lemma (PL) for Regular Languages

Theorem:
Let L be a regular language. Then there exists a constant „n‟ (which
depends on L) such that for every string w in L such that |w| ≥ n, we can break w
into three strings, w=xyz, such that:
1. |y| > 0
2. |xy| ≤ n
k
3. For all k ≥ 0, the string xy z is also in L.
PROOF:
40
Let L be regular defined by an FA having „n‟ states. Let w= a1,a2 ,a3----an and is in L.
FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

|w| = n ≥ n. Let the start state be P1. Let w = xyz where x= a1,a2 ,a3 -----an-1 , y=an and z =
.

k k
Therefore xy z = a1 ------ an-1 (an)
k=0 a1 ------ an-1 is accepted
k=1 a1 ------ an is accepted
k=2 a1 ------ an+1 is accepted
k=10 a1 ------ an+9 is accepted and so on.

General Method of proof: - Uses of Pumping Lemma: - This is to be used to show

that, certain languages are not regular. It should never be used to show that some

language is regular. If you want to show that language is regular, write separate

expression, DFA or NFA.

 (i) Select w such that |w| n

(ii) Select y such that |y| 1

(iii) Select x such that |xy| n
(iv) Assign remaining string to z
(v) Select k suitably to show that, resulting string is not in L.
Example 1.
n n
To prove that L={w|w a b , where n ≥ 1} is not regular

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Proof:
Let L be regular. Let n is the constant (PL Definition). Consider a word w in
n n
L. Let w = a b , such that |w|=2n. Since 2n > n and L is regular it must satisfy PL.

xy contain only a‟s. (Because |xy| ≤ n). Let |y|=l,

where l > 0 (Because |y| > 0).

Then, the break up of x. y and z can be as follows

k
from the definition of PL , w=xy z, where k=0,1,2,------ , should belong
n-l lk n
to L. That is a (a ) b L, for all k=0,1,2,------
n-l n
Put k=0. we get a b L.
Contradiction. Hence the Language is not
regular. Example 2.
To prove that L={w|w is a palindrome on {a,b}*} is not regular. i.e.,
L={aabaa, aba, abbbba,…}
Proof:
Let L be regular. Let n is the constant (PL Definition). Consider a word w in L.
n n, Since 2n+1 > n and L is regular it must satisfy PL.
Let w = a ba such that |w|=2n+1.

xy contain only a‟s. (Because |xy| ≤ n).

Let |y|=l, where l > 0 (Because |y| > 0).

That is, the break up of x. y and z can be as follows

k
from the definition of PL w=xy z, where k=0,1,2,------ , should belong to L.
n-l l
That is a (a )k ban L, for all k=0,1,2,------ .

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Put k=0. we get an-l b an L, because, it is not a palindrome. Contradiction, hence the
language is not regular
.
Example 3.
To prove that L={ all strings of 1‟s whose length is prime} is not regular. i.e.,
2 3 5 7 11
L={1 , 1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,----}

Proof: Let L be regular. Let w = 1pwhere p is prime and | p| = n +2

Let y = m.
k
by PL xy z L
k k
| xy z |= | xz | + | y | Let k = p-m
= (p-m) + m (p-m)
= (p-m) (1+m) ----- this can not be prime
if p-m ≥ 2 or 1+m ≥ 2
1. (1+m) ≥ 2 because m ≥ 1
2. Limiting case p=n+2

(p-m) ≥ 2 since m ≤n
Example 4.
i2 2 4
To prove that L={ 0 | i is integer and i >0} is not regular. i.e., L={0 , 0
9 16 25
,0 ,0 ,0 ,----}
Proof: Let L be regular. Let w = 0n2where |w| =
2 k
n ≥ nby PL xy z L, for all k = 0,1,---
Select k = 2
2
| xy z |= | xyz | + | y |
2
= n + Min 1 and Max n
2 2 2
Therefore n < | xy z | ≤ n + n
2 2 2
n < | xy z | < n + n + 1+n adding 1 + n ( Note that less than or equal
2 2 2 to replaced by less than sign)
is n < | xy z | < (n + 1)
Say n = 5 this implies that string can have length > 25
i2
and < 36 which is not of the form 0 .
a) Show that following languages are not regular
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

3.3:closure properties of regular languages

1. The union of two regular languages is regular.
2. The intersection of two regular languages is regular.
3. The complement of a regular language is regular.
4. The difference of two regular languages is regular.
5. The reversal of a regular language is regular.
6. The closure (star) of a regular language is regular.
7. The concatenation of regular languages is regular.
8. A homomorphism (substitution of strings for symbols) of a regular language is regular.
9. The inverse homomorphism of a regular language is regular
Closure under Union

Theorem: If L and M are regular languages, then so is L M.

Ex1.
3 5
L1={a,a ,a ,-----}
2 4, 6
L2={a ,a a ,-----}
2 3 4
L1 L2 = {a,a ,a ,a ,----}
*
RE=a(a)
Ex2.
2 2 3 3 4 4
L1={ab, a b , a b , a b ,-----}
3 3 5 5
L2={ab,a b ,a b ,-----}
2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
L1 L2 = {ab,a b , a b , a b , a b ----}
*
RE=ab(ab)

Closure Under Complementation

*
Theorem : If L is a regular language over alphabet S, then L = - L is also a regular
language.
Ex1. 3 5
L1={a,a ,a ,-----}
* 2 4 6
-L1={e,a ,a ,a ,-----}
RE=(aa)*
Ex2.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Consider a DFA, A that accepts all and only the strings of 0‟s and 1‟s
*
that end in 01. That is L(A) = (0+1) 01. The complement of L(A) is therefore all
string of 0‟s and 1‟s that do not end in 01

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Closure Under Intersection

*
Theorem: - If L is a regular language over alphabet , then, L = - L is also a
regular language
Proof: - Let L =L(A) for some DFA. A=(Q, , , q0, F). Then L = L(B), where B is
the DFA (Q, , , q0, Q-F). That is, B is exactly like A, but the accepting states of A have
become non-accepting states of B, and vice versa, then w is in L(B) if and only if ^ ( q0,
w) is in Q-F, which occurs if and only if w is not in L(A).

Theorem : If L and M are regular languages, then so is L

M. Ex1.
2 3 4 5 6
L1={a,a ,a ,a ,a ,a ,--
2 4 6
---} L2={a ,a ,a ,-----}
2 4 6
L1L2 = {a ,a ,a ,----}
RE=aa(aa)*
Ex2
3 3 5 5 7 7
L1={ab,a b ,a b ,a b -----}
2 2 4 4 6 6
L2={a b , a b , a b ,-
----} L1 L2 =
RE=
Ex3.
Consider a DFA that accepts all those strings that have a 0.

Consider a DFA that accepts all those strings that have a 1.

The product of above two automata is given below.

This automaton accepts the intersection of the first two languages: Those languages that
have both a 0 and a 1. Then pr represents only the initial condition, in which we have

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

seen neither 0 nor 1. Then state qr means that we have seen only once 0‟s, while
state ps represents the condition that we have seen only 1‟s. The accepting state
qs represents the condition where we have seen both 0‟s and 1‟s.

Ex 4 (on intersection)
Write a DFA to accept the intersection of L1=(a+b)*a and L2=(a+b)*b that is for L1
L2.

DFA for L1 L2 = (as no string has reached to final state (2,4))

Ex5 (on intersection)

Find the DFA to accept the intersection of L1=(a+b)*ab (a+b)* and
L2=(a+b)*ba (a+b)* that is for L1 L2
47
FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

DFA for L1 L2

Closure Under Difference

Theorem : If L and M are regular languages, then so is L – M.
Ex.
3 5 7
L1={a,a ,a ,a ,-----}
2 4 6
L2={a ,a ,a ,-----}
3 5 7
L1-L2 = {a,a ,a ,a ----}
*
RE=a(a)

To prove that regular languages are closed under reversal.

Reversal
R
Theorem : If L is a regular language, so is L
Ex.
L={001,10,111,01}
R
L ={100,01,111,10}

Let L = {001, 10, 111}, be a language over ={0,1}.

R
L is a language consisting of the reversals of the strings of L.
 R
That is L = {100,01,111}.
R
If L is regular we can show that L is also regular.
Proof.
As L is regular it can be defined by an FA, M = (Q, , , q0, F), having only one final
state. If there are more than one final states, we can use - transitions from the final
states going to a common final state.
R R R R R R R
Let FA, M = (Q , , ,q0 ,F ) defines the language L ,
48
 R R
Since M is derivable from M, L is also regular.
The proof implies the following method
FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

R R R R R
Where Q = Q, = , q0 =F,F =q0, and (p,a)-> q, iff (q,a) -> p

1. Reverse all the transitions.

2. Swap initial and final states.
3. Create a new start state p0 with transition on to all
the accepting states of original DFA
Example
Let r=(a+b)* ab define a language L. That is
L = {ab, aab, bab,aaab, -----}. The FA is as given below

R
The FA for L can be derived from FA for L by swapping initial and final states
and changing the direction of each edge. It is shown in the following figure.
49
FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY

Homomorphism

A string homomorphism is a function on strings that works by substituting a

particular string for each symbol.
Theorem : If L is a regular language over alphabet , and h is a
homomorphism on , then h (L) is also regular.
Ex.
The function h defined by h(0)=ab h(1)=c is a
homomorphism. h applied to the string 00110 is ababccab

L1= (a+b)* a (a+b)*

h : {a, b} {0, 1}*

Resulting :
h1(L) = (01 + 11)* 01 (01 + 11)* h2(L)
= (101 + 010)* 101 (101 + 010)* h3(L)
= (01 + 101)* 01 (01 + 101)*

Inverse Homomorphism
Theorem : If h is a homomorphism from alphabet S to alphabet T, and L is a
-1 (
regular language over T, then h L) is also a regular language.
 *
Ex.Let L be the language of regular expression (00+1) .
-1
Let h be the homomorphism defined by h(a)=01 and h(b)=10. Then h (L) is the
*
language of regular expression (ba) .
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

3.4: decision properties of regular languages

1. is the language described empty?
2. Is a particular string w in the described language?
3. Do two descriptions of a language actually describe the same
language? This question is often called “equivalence” of languages.
Converting Among Representations
Converting NFA’s to DFA’s
Time taken for either an NFA or -NFA to DFA can be exponential in the number of states
3
of the NFA. Computing -Closure of n states takes O(n ) time. Computation of DFA takes
3 n
O(n ) time where number of states of DFA can be 2 . The running time of NFA to
3 n
DFA conversion including transition is O(n 2 ). Therefore the bound on the running
3
time is O(n s) where s is the number of states the DFA actually has.
DFA to NFA Conversion
Conversion takes O(n) time for an n state DFA.
Automaton to Regular Expression Conversion
3 n
For DFA where n is the number of states, conversion takes O(n 4 ) by substitution method and by
3
state elimination method conversion takes O(n ) time. If we convert an NFA to DFA and then
convert the DFA to a regular expression it takes the time
3 n3 n
O(n 4 2 )

Regular Expression to Automaton Conversion

Regular expression to -NFA takes linear time – O(n) on a regular expression of length n.
3
Conversion from -NFA to NFA takes O(n ) time.
Testing Emptiness of Regular Languages
Suppose R is regular expression, then

1. R = R1 + R2. Then L(R) is empty if and only if both L(R1) and L(R2) are
empty.
2. R= R1R2. Then L(R) is empty if and only if either L(R1) or L(R2) is
empty. 3. R=R1* Then L(R) is not empty. It always includes at least
4. R=(R1) Then L(R) is empty if and only if L(R1) is empty since they
are the same language.

Testing Emptiness of Regular Languages

Suppose R is regular expression, then
1. R = R1 + R2. Then L(R) is empty if and only if both L(R1) and L(R2) are
empty.
2. R= R1R2. Then L(R) is empty if and only if either L(R1) or L(R2) is empty.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

3. R=(R1)* Then L(R) is not empty. It always includes at least

4. R=(R1) Then L(R) is empty if and only if L(R1) is empty since they
are the same language.
Testing Membership in a Regular Language
Given a string w and a Regular Language L, is w in L.
If L is represented by a DFA, simulate the DFA processing the string of
input symbol w, beginning in start state. If DFA ends in accepting state the
answer is „Yes‟ , else it is „no‟. This test takes O(n) time
If the representation is NFA, if w is of length n, NFA has s states, running
2
time of this algorithm is O(ns )
If the representation is - NFA, - closure has to be computed, then processing
2
of each input symbol , a , has 2 stages, each of which requires O(s ) time.
If the representation of L is a Regular Expression of size s, we can convert
to an -NFA with almost 2s states, in O(s) time. Simulation of the above takes
2
O(ns ) time on an input w of length n

such that one of

Algorithm 1:
3.5:Minimization of Automata ( Method 1)
Let p and q are two states in DFA. Our goal is to understand when p and
q (p ≠ q) can be replaced by a single state.
Two states p and q are said to be distinguishable, if there is at least one string, w,
^ (p,w) and ^ (q,w) is accepting and the other is not accepting.
Examples:

List all unordered pair of states (p,q) for which p ≠ q. Make a sequence of passes
through these pairs. On first pass, mark each pair of which exactly one element is in F.
On each subsequent pass, mark any pair (r,s) if there is an a for which (r,a)
= p, (s,a) = q, and (p,q) is already marked. After a pass in which no new
pairs are marked, stop. The marked pair (p,q) are distinguishable.

2 4 6
1. Let L = { , a , a , a , ….} be a regular language over = {a,b}. The
FA is shown in Fig 1.
Fig 2. gives the list of all unordered pairs of states (p,q) with p ≠ q.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

The boxes (1,2) and (2,3) are marked in the first pass according to the algorithm 1.
In pass 2 no boxes are marked because, (1,a)  and (3,a) 2. That is (1,3) ( ,2),
where and 3 are non final states.
�(1,b)  and � (3,b)  . That is (1,3) ( , ), where is a non-final state. This
implies that (1,3) are equivalent and can replaced by a single state A.

Fig 3. Minimal Automata corresponding to FA in Fig 1

Minimization of Automata (Method 2)

Consider set {1,3}. (1,3) (2,2) and (1,3) ( , ). This implies state 1 and 3 are
equivalent and can not be divided further. This gives us two states 2,A. The
resultant FA is shown is Fig 3.

Example 2. (Method1):
Let r= (0+1)*10, then L(r) = {10,010,00010,110, ---}. The FA is given below

Following fig shows all unordered pairs (p,q) with p ≠ q

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

The pairs marked 1 are those of which exactly one element is in F; They are marked
on pass 1. The pairs marked 2 are those marked on the second pass. For example
(5,2) is one of these, since (5,2)  (6,4), and the pair (6,4) was marked on pass 1.
From this we can make out that 1, 2, and 4 can be replaced by a single
state 124 and states 3, 5, and 7 can be replaced by the single state 357. The
resultant minimal FA is shown in Fig. 6

The transitions of fig 4 are mapped to fig 6 as shown below

Example 2. (Method1):

(2,3) (4,6) this implies that 2 and 3 belongs to different group hence they are split in
level 2. similarly it can be easily shown for the pairs (4,5) (1,7) and (2,5) and so on.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56
Assignment questions

1. Let M = (Q, , , q0, A) be an FA recognizing the language L. Then there exists an

equivalent regular expression R for the regular language L such that L = L(R).

2. Obtain a regular expression for the FA shown below:

0
q0 q1

0 1 1 0

q2 q3 0,1
1

3. What is the language accepted by the following FA

0 1 0,1
0
q0 q1 q2
1

4. Write short note on Applications of Regular Expressions

5. Obtain a DFA to accept strings of a‟s and b‟s starting with the string ab

a,b
a b
q0 q1 q2

b aq 3

a,b

6. Prove pumping lemma?

7. prove that L={w|w is a palindrome on {a,b}*} is not regular. i.e.,

L={aabaa, aba, abbbba,…}

8. prove that L={ all strings of 1‟s whose length is prime} is not regular. i.e.,
2 3 5 7 11
L={1 , 1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,----}
9. Show that following languages are not regular

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

n m
L={a b | n, m 0 and n<m }
n m
L={a b | n, m 0 and n>m }
n m m n
L={a b c d | n, m 1 }
n
L={a | n is a perfect square }
n
L={a | n is a perfect cube }
10. Apply pumping lemma to following languages and understand why we cannot
complete proof
n
L={a aba | n 0 }
n m
L={a b | n, m 0 }

11. P.T. If L and M are regular languages, then so is L M.

*
12. P.T. If L is a regular language over alphabet S, then L = - L is also a regular
language.
*
13. P.T. - If L is a regular language over alphabet , then, L = - L is also a
regular language
14. Write a DFA to accept the intersection of L1=(a+b)*a and L2=(a+b)*b that is for
L1 L2.
15. Find the DFA to accept the intersection of L1=(a+b)*ab (a+b)* and L2=(a+b)*ba
(a+b)* that is for L1 L2
16. P.T. If L and M are regular languages, then so is L – M.
R
17. P.T. If L is a regular language, so is L
18. If L is a regular language over alphabet , and h is a homomorphism on , then h
(L) is also regular.
19. If h is a homomorphism from alphabet S to alphabet T, and L is a regular
-1 (
language over T, then h L) is also a regular language.
20. Design context-free grammar for the following cases
a) L={ 0n1n | n≥l }
b) L={aibjck| i≠j or j≠k}
21. Generate grammar for RE 0*1(0+1)*

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

UNIT 4:Context Free Grammar and languages

4.1 Context free grammars
4.2 parse trees
4.3 Applications
4.4 ambiguities in grammars and languages

57
4.1: Context free grammar

FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Context Free grammar or CGF, G is represented by four components that is

G=(V,T,P,S), where V is the set of variables, T the terminals, P the set of
productions and S the start symbol.
Example: The grammar Gpal for palindromes is represented by
Gpal = ({P},{0,1}, A, P)
where A represents the set of five productions
1. P
2. P0
3. P1
4. P0P0
5. P1P1

Derivation using Grammar

4.2: parse trees

Parse trees are trees labeled by symbols of a
particular CFG. Leaves: labeled by a terminal or ε.
Interior nodes: labeled by a variable.
Children are labeled by the right side
of a production for the parent.
Root: must be labeled by the
start symbol.
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Example: Parse Tree

S -> SS | (S) | ()

Example 1: Leftmost Derivation

The inference that a * (a +b00) is in the language of variable E can be reflected in
a derivation of that string, starting with the string E. Here is one such derivation:

E E * E  I * E  a * E 
a * (E)  a * (E + E)  a * (I + E)  a * (a + E) 
a * (a + I)  a * (a + I0)  a * (a + I00)  a * (a + b00)

Leftmost Derivation - Tree

Example 2: Rightmost Derivations

The derivation of Example 1 was actually a leftmost derivation. Thus, we can
describe the same derivation by:
E E * E  E *(E)  E * (E + E) 
E * (E + I)  E * (E + I0)  E * (E + I00)  E * (E + b00)  E
* (I + b00)  E * (a +b00)  I * (a + b00)  a * (a + b00)
We can also summarize the leftmost derivation by saying
E  a * (a + b00), or express several steps of the derivation by
expressions such as E * E  a * (E).

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Rightmost Derivation - Tree

There is a rightmost derivation that uses the same replacements for each variable,
although it makes the replacements in different order. This rightmost derivation is:

E  E * E  E * (E)  E * (E + E) 
E * (E + I)  E * (E + I0)  E * (E + I00)  E * (E + b00) 
E * (I + b00)  E * (a + b00)  I * (a + b00)  a * (a + b00)
This derivation allows us to conclude E  a * (a + b00)

Consider the Grammar for string(a+b)*c

EE + T | T
T T * F | F
F ( E ) | a | b | c

Leftmost Derivation
ETT*FF*F (E)*F(E+T)*F(T+T)*F(F+T)*F (a+T)*F
(a+F)*F (a+b)*F(a+b)*c

Rightmost derivation
ETT*FT*cF*c(E)*c(E+T)*c(E+F)*c
(E+b)*c(T+b)*c(F+b)*c(a+b)*c

Example 2:
Consider the Grammar for string (a,a)
S->(L)|a
L->L,S|S

Leftmost derivation
S(L)(L,S)(S,S)(a,S)(a,a)

Rightmost Derivation
S(L)(L,S)(L,a)(S,a)(a,a)

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

The Language of a Grammar

If G(V,T,P,S) is a CFG, the language of G, denoted by L(G), is the set of
terminal strings that have derivations from the start symbol.
L(G) = {w in T | S  w}

Sentential Forms
Derivations from the start symbol produce strings that have a special role called
“sentential forms”. That is if G = (V, T, P, S) is a CFG, then any string in (V T)*
such that S  is a sentential form. If S  , then is a left – sentential form, and if
S  , then is a right – sentential form. Note that the language L(G) is those
sentential forms that are in T*; that is they consist solely of terminals.

For example, E * (I + E) is a sentential form, since there is a

derivation E  E * E  E * (E)  E * (E + E)  E * (I + E)
However this derivation is neither leftmost nor rightmost, since at the last
step, the middle E is replaced.
As an example of a left – sentential form, consider a * E, with the leftmost
derivation. E  E * E  I * E  a * E
Additionally, the derivation
E  E * E  E * (E)  E * (E +
E) Shows that
E * (E + E) is a right – sentential form.

4.3: Applications of Context – Free Grammars

• Parsers
• The YACC Parser Generator
• Markup Languages
• XML and Document typr definitions

The YACC Parser Generator

E E+E | E*E |
(E)|id %{ #include
<stdio.h> %}
%token ID id
%%
Exp : id { $$ = $1 ; printf ("result is %d\n", $1);}
| Exp „+‟ Exp {$$ = $1 + $3;}
| Exp „*‟ Exp {$$ = $1 * $3; }
| „(„ Exp „)‟ {$$ = $2; }
;
%%

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

int main (void) {

return yyparse ( );
}
void yyerror (char *s) {
fprintf (stderr, "%s\n", s);
}
%{
#include "y.tab.h"
%}
%%
[0-9]+ {yylval.ID = atoi(yytext); return id;}
[ \t \n] ;
[+ * ( )] {return yytext[0];}
. {ECHO; yyerror ("unexpected character");}
%%

Example 2:
%{
#include <stdio.h>
%}
%start line
%token <a_number> number
%type <a_number> exp term factor
%%
line : exp ';' {printf ("result is %d\n", $1);}
;
exp : term {$$ = $1;}
| exp '+' term {$$ = $1 + $3;}
| exp '-' term {$$ = $1 - $3;}
term : factor {$$ = $1;}
| term '*' factor {$$ = $1 * $3;}
| term '/' factor {$$ = $1 / $3;}
;
factor : number {$$ = $1;}
| '(' exp ')' {$$ = $2;}
;
%%
int main (void) {
return yyparse ( );
}
void yyerror (char *s) {
fprintf (stderr, "%s\n", s);
}
%{
#include "y.tab.h"
%}
%%

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

[0-9]+ {yylval.a_number = atoi(yytext); return number;}

[ \t\n] ;
[-+*/();] {return yytext[0];}
. {ECHO; yyerror ("unexpected character");}
%%

Markup Languages

Functions
•Creating links between documents
•Describing the format of the document

Example
The Things I hate
1. Moldy bread
2. People who drive too
slow In the fast lane

HTML Source

<P> The things I

<EM>hate</EM>: <OL>
<LI> Moldy bread
<LI>People who drive too
slow In the fast lane
</OL>

HTML Grammar
•Char a|A|…
•Text e | Char Text
•Doc e | Element Doc
•Element Text |
<EM> Doc </EM>|
<p> Doc |
<OL> List </OL>| …
5. List-Item <LI> Doc
6. List e | List-Item List Start symbol

XML and Document type definitions.

1. AE1,E2.
ABC

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

BE1
CE2
2. AE1 | E2.
AE1
AE2
3. A(E1)*
ABA
A
BE1
4. A(E1)+
ABA
AB
BE1
5. A(E1)?
A
AE1

4.4:Ambiguity
A context – free grammar G is said to be ambiguous if there exists some w L(G) which
has at least two distinct derivation trees. Alternatively, ambiguity implies the
existence of two or more left most or rightmost derivations.

Ex:-
Consider the grammar G=(V,T,E,P) with V={E,I}, T={a,b,c,+,*,(,)}, and
productions. EI,
EE+E,
EE*E,
E(E),
Ia|b|c
Consider two derivation trees for a + b * c.

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Now unambiguous grammar for the above

Example:
ET, TF, FI, EE+T, TT*F,
F(E), Ia|b|c

Inherent Ambiguity

A CFL L is said to be inherently ambiguous if all its grammars are

ambiguous Example:
Condider the Grammar for string
aabbccdd SAB | C
A aAb | ab
BcBd | cd
C aCd | aDd
D->bDc | bc

Parse tree for string aabbccdd

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ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1) Design context-free grammar for the following cases

a) L={ 0n1n | n≥l }
b) L={aibjck| i≠j or j≠k}

2) The following grammar generates the language of RE

0*1(0+1)*
S  A|B
A  0A|
B  0B|1B|
Give leftmost and rightmost derivations of the following strings
a) 00101 b) 1001 c) 00011

3) Consider the grammar

S  aS|aSbS|
Show that deviation for the string aab is ambiguous

4) Suppose h is the homomorphism from the alphabet {0,1,2} to the alphabet { a,b}
defined by h(0) = a; h(1) = ab &
h(2) = ba
a) What is h(0120) ?
b) What is h(21120) ?
c) If L is the language L(01*2), what is h(L) ?
d) If L is the language L(0+12), what is h(L) ?
e) If L is the language L(a(ba)*) , what is h-1(L) ?

5) Design context-free grammar for the following cases

a) L={ 0n1n | n≥l }
b) L={aibjck| i≠j or j≠k}

6) The following grammar generates the language of RE

0*1(0+1)*
S  A|B
A  0A|
B  0B|1B|
Give leftmost and rightmost derivations of the following strings
a) 00101 b) 1001 c) 00011

7) Consider the grammar

S  aS|aSbS|

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Show that deviation for the string aab is ambiguous

8) Suppose h is the homomorphism from the alphabet {0,1,2} to the

alphabet { a,b} defined by h(0) = a; h(1) = ab &
h(2) = ba
a) What is h(0120) ?
b) What is h(21120) ?
c) If L is the language L(01*2), what is h(L) ?
d) If L is the language L(0+12), what is h(L) ?
e) If L is the language L(a(ba)*) , what is h-1(L) ?

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UNIT-5: PUSH DOWN AUTOMATA

5.1: Definition of the pushdown
automata 5.2: The languages of a PDA
5.3: Equivalence of PDA and CFG 5.4:
Deterministic pushdown automata

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5.1:Definition of pushdown Automata:

As Fig. 5.1 indicates, a pushdown automaton consists of three components: 1) an input

tape, 2) a control unit and 3) a stack structure. The input tape consists of a linear
configuration of cells each of which contains a character from an alphabet. This tape can be
moved one cell at a time to the left. The stack is also a sequential structure that has a first
element and grows in either direction from the other end. Contrary to the tape head
associated with the input tape, the head positioned over the current stack element can read
and write special stack characters from that position. The current stack element is always
the top element of the stack, hence the name ``stack''. The control unit contains both tape
heads and finds itself at any moment in a particular state.

Figure 5.1: Conceptual Model of a Pushdown Automaton

A (non-deterministic) finite state pushdown automaton (abbreviated PDA or, when

the context is clear, an automaton) is a 7-tuple = (X, Z, , R, zA, SA, ZF), where
...
X= {x1, ,xm} is a finiteset of input symbols. As above, it is also called an
alphabet. The empty symbol is not a member of this set. It does,
however, carry its usual meaning when encountered in the input.
...
Z = {z1, zn} is a finite set of states.
...
= {s1, , sp} is a finite set of stack symbols. In this case .
R ((X { })×Z× )×(Z× )) is the transition relation.
zAis the initial state.
SAis the initial stack symbol.

ZF K is a distinguished set of final states

5.2The language of a PDA

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There are two ways to define the language of a PDA (

). because there are two notions of acceptance:

Acceptance by final state

That is the PDA accepts the word if there is any sequence of IDs starting from

and leading to , where is one of the final states.

Here it doesn't play a role what the contents of the stack are at the end.

In our example the PDA would accept because

and . Hence we conclude .

On the other hand since there is no successful sequence of IDs

starting with we know that .

Acceptance by empty stack

That is the PDA accepts the word if there is any sequence of IDs starting from

and leading to , in this case the final state plays no role.

If we specify a PDA for acceptance by empty stack we will leave out

the set of final states and just use .

Our example automaton also works if we leave out and use

acceptance by empty stack.

We can always turn a PDA which use one acceptance method into one which uses
the other. Hence, both acceptance criteria specify the same class of languages.

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5.3:Equivalence of PDA and CFG

The aim is to prove that the following three classes of languages are same:

1. Context Free Language defined by CFG

2. Language accepted by PDA by final state
3. Language accepted by PDA by empty stack

It is possible to convert between any 3 classes. The representation is shown in figure 1.

PDA by
CFG PDA by
empty stack
Final state

Figure 1: Equivalence of PDA and CFG

From CFG to PDA:

Given a CFG G, we construct a PDA P that simulates the leftmost derivations of G. The
stack symbols of the new PDA contain all the terminal and non-terminals of the CFG.
There is only one state in the new PDA; all the rest of the information is encoded in the
stack. Most transitions are on �, one for each production. New transitions are added,
each one corresponding to terminals of G. For every intermediate sentential form uA� in
the leftmost derivation of w (initially w = uv for some v), M will have A� on its stack after
reading u. At the end (case u = w) the stack will be empty.

Let G = (V, T, Q, S) be a CFG. The PDA which accepts L(G) by empty stack is given by:

P = ({q}, T, V � T, δ, q, S) where δ is defined by:

1. For each variable A include a transition,

δ(q, �, A) = {(q, b) | A � b is a production of Q}

2. For each terminal a, include a

transition δ(q, a, a) = {(q, �)}

CFG to PDA conversion is another way of constructing PDA. First construct

CFG, and then convert CFG to PDA.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Example:

Convert the grammar with following production to PDA accepted by empty stack:

S � 0S1 | A
A � 1A0 | S | �

Solution:

P = ({q}, {0, 1}, {0, 1, A, S}, δ, q, S), where δ is given by:

δ(q, �, S) = {(q, 0S1), (q, A)} δ(q,

�, A) = {(q, 1A0), (q, S), (q, �)}
δ(q, 0, 0) = {(q, �)}
δ(q, 1, 1) = {(q, �)}

From PDA to CFG:

Let P = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0, Z0) be a PDA. An equivalent CFG is G = (V, Σ, R, S),

where V = {S, [pXq]}, where p, q � Q and X � Γ, productions of R consists of

1. For all states p, G has productions S � [q0Z0 p]

2. Let δ(q,a,X) = {(r, Y1Y2…Yk)} where a � Σ or a = �, k can be 0 or any
number and r1r2 …rk are list of states. G has productions

[qXrk] � a[rY1r1] [r1Y2r2] … [rk-

1Ykrk] If k = 0 then [qXr] �a

Example:

Construct PDA to accept if-else of a C program and convert it to CFG. (This does
not accept if –if –else-else statements).

Let the PDA P = ({q}, {i, e}, {X,Z}, δ, q, Z), where δ is given by:

δ(q, i, Z) = {(q, XZ)}, δ(q, e, X) = {(q, �)} and δ(q, �, Z) = {(q,

�)} Solution:

Equivalent productions are:

S � [qZq]
[qZq] � i[qXq][qZq]
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

[qXq] � e
[qZq] ��

If [qZq] is renamed to A and [qXq] is renamed to B, then the CFG can be defined by:

G = ({S, A, B}, {i, e}, {S�A, A�iBA | �, B� e}, S)

Example:
Convert PDA to CFG. PDA is given by P = ({p,q}, {0,1}, {X,Z}, δ, q, Z)), Transition

function δ is defined by:

δ(q, 1, Z) = {(q, XZ)}

δ(q, 1, X) = {(q, XX)}
δ(q, �, X) = {(q, �)}
δ(q, 0, X) = {(p, X)}
δ(p, 1, X) = {(p, �)}
δ(p, 0, Z) = {(q, Z)}

Solution:

Add productions for start variable

S � [qZq] | [qZp]

For δ(q, 1, Z)= {(q, XZ)}

[qZq] � 1[qXq][qZq]
[qZq] � 1[qXp][pZq]
[qZp] � 1[qXq][qZp]
[qZp] � 1[qXp][pZp]

For δ(q, 1, X)= {(q, XX)}

[qXq] � 1[qXq][qXq]
[qXq] � 1[qXp][pXq]
[qXp] � 1[qXq][qXp]
[qXp] � 1[qXp][pXp]

For δ(q, �, X) = {(q,

�)} [qXq] ��

For δ(q, 0, X) = {(p, X)}

[qXq] � 0[pXq]
[qXp] � 0[pXp]

For δ(p, 1, X) = {(p,

�)} [pXp] � 1

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

For δ(p, 0, Z) = {(q, Z)}

[pZq] � 0[qZq]
[pZp] � 0[qZp]

Renaming the variables [qZq] to A, [qZp] to B, [pZq] to C, [pZp] to D, [qXq] to E

[qXp] to F, [pXp] to G and [pXq] to H, the equivalent CFG can be defined by:

G = ({S, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H}, {0,1}, R, S). The productions of R also are

to be renamed accordingly.

5.4:Deterministic PDA
NPDA provides non-determinism to PDA. Deterministic PDA‟s (DPDA) are very useful
for use in programming languages. For example Parsers used in YACC are DPDA‟s.

Definition:

A PDA P= (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0, Z0, F) is deterministic if and only if,

1.δ(q,a,X) has at most one member for q�Q, a � Σ or a= � and X�Γ
2.If δ(q,a,X) is not empty for some a�Σ, then δ(q, �,X) must be empty

DPDA is less powerful than nPDA. The Context Free Languages could be recognized by

nPDA. The class of language DPDA accept is in between than of Regular language and

CFL. NPDA can be constructed for accepting language of palindromes, but not by

DPDA.

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Example:
R
Construct DPDA which accepts the language L = {wcw | w � {a, b}*, c � Σ}.

The transition diagram for the DPDA is given in figure 2.

0,0/
0, Z0/0Z0 1,1/
1, Z0/1Z0
0,0/00
1,1/11 c,0/0
0,1/ 01 c,1/1
c, Z / Z
1,0/ 10 q0 0 0
q1 q2
, Z0 / Z0
R}
Figure 2: DPDA L = {wcw

DPDA and Regular Languages:

The class of languages DPDA accepts is in between regular languages and

CFLs. The DPDA languages include all regular languages. The two modes of
acceptance are not same for DPDA.

To accept with final state:

If L is a regular language, L=L(P) for some DPDA P. PDA surely includes a stack, but
the DPDA used to simulate a regular language does not use the stack. The stack is
inactive always. If A is the FA for accepting the language L, then δP(q,a,Z)={(p,Z)} for
all p, q � Q such that δA(q,a)=p.

To accept with empty stack:

Every regular language is not N(P) for some DPDA P. A language L = N(P) for some
DPDA P if and only if L has prefix property. Definition of prefix property of L states that if
x, y � L, then x should not be a prefix of y, or vice versa. Non-Regular language
R
L=WcW Rcould be accepted by DPDA with empty stack, because if you take any x, y�
L(WcW ), x and y satisfy the prefix property. But the language, L={0*} could be
accepted by DPDA with final state, but not with empty stack, because strings of
this language do not satisfy the prefix property. So N(P) are properly included in
CFL L, ie. N(P) � L

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DPDA and Ambiguous grammar:

DPDA is very important to design of programming languages because languages

DPDA accept are unambiguous grammars. But all unambiguous grammars are not
accepted by DPDA. For example S � 0S0|1S1| � is an unambiguous grammar
corresponds to the language of palindromes. This is language is accepted by only
nPDA. If L = N(P) for DPDA P, then surely L has unambiguous CFG.

If L = L(P) for DPDA P, then L has unambiguous CFG. To convert L(P) to N(P) to have

prefix property by adding an end marker $ to strings of L. Then convert N(P) to CFG G‟.

From G‟ we have to construct G to accept L by getting rid of $ .So add a new production

$�� as a variable of G.

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ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

a. Convert to PDA, CFG with productions:

1. A � aAA, A � aS | bS | a
2. S � SS | (S) | �
3. S � aAS | bAB | aB, A � bBB | aS | a, B � bA | a

b. Convert to CFG, PDA with transition function:

δ(q, 0, Z) = {(q, XZ)}

δ(q, 0, X) = {(q, XX)}
δ(q, 1, X) = {(q, X)}
δ(q, �, X) = {(p, �)}
δ(p, 1, X) = {(p, XX)}
δ(p, �, X) = {(p, �)}
δ(p, 1, Z) = {(p, �)}

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Unit-6:PROPERTIES OF CONTEXT FREE LANGUAGES

6.1 Normal forms for CFGS 6.2The
pumping lemma for CFGS
6.3closure properties of CFLS

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The goal is to take an arbitrary Context Free Grammar G = (V, T, P, S) and perform
transformations on the grammar that preserve the language generated by the grammar
but reach a specific format for the productions. A CFG can be simplified by eliminating

6.1 Normal forms for CFGS

How to simplify?
• Simplify CFG by eliminating
– Useless symbols
• Those variables or terminals that do not appear in any derivation of a
terminal string starting from Start variable
– �- productions
• A ��, where A is a variable
– Unit production
• A �B, A and B are variables
• Sequence to be followed
1. Eliminate �- productions from G and obtain G1
2. Eliminate unit productions from G1 and obtain G2
3. Eliminate useless symbols from G2and obtain G3

1. Eliminate useless symbols:

Definition: Symbol X is useful for a grammar G = (V, T, P, S) if there is S *��X�
*�w, w��*. If X is not useful, then it is useless.
Omitting useless symbols from a grammar does not change the language generated

• Example

• Symbol X is useful if both

– X is generating
• If X * w,where w�T*
– X is reachable
• If S * �X�

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• Theorem:

– Let G=(V,T,P,S) be a CFG and assume that L(G)��, then G1=(V1,T1,P1,S)

be a grammar without useless symbols by
1. Eliminating non generating symbols
2. Eliminating symbols that are non reachable
• Elimination in the order of 1 followed by 2
1. Eliminating non generating symbols

Generating symbols follow to one of the categories below:

1. Every symbol of T is generating

2. If A �� and � is already generating, then A is generating

Non-generating symbols = V- generating symbols.

• Example : S �AB|a, A �a
– 1 followed by 2 gives S �a
– 2 followed by 1 gives S �a, A �a
• A is still useless
• Not completely all useless symbols eliminated
• Eliminate non generating symbols
– Every symbol of T is generating
– If A ��and �is already generating, then A is generating
• Example

1. G= ({S,A,B}, {a}, S �AB|a, A �a}, S) here B is non generating

symbol After eliminating B, G1= ({S,A}, {a}, {S �a, A �a},S)
2. S �aS|A|C, A �a, B �aa, C �aCb
After eliminating C gets, S �aS|A, A �a, B �aa
2. Eliminate symbols that are non reachable
– Draw dependency graph for all productions

C D

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

C �xDy
– If no edge reaching a variable X from
Start symbol, X is non reachable
• Example
1. G= ({S,A}, {a}, {S �a, A �a},S)

S A

After eliminating A, G1= ({S}, {a}, {S

�a},S) 2. S �aS|A, A �a, B �aa
After eliminating B, S �aS|A, A �a

• Example
– S �AB | CA, B �BC|AB, A �a, C �AB|b
1. Eliminate non generating symbols V1 = {A,C,S} P1 = {S �CA, A �a, C �b }
2. Eliminate symbols that are non reachable

V2 = {A,C,S}
P2 = {S �CA, A �a, C �b
Exercises
• Eliminate useless symbols from the grammar
1. P= {S �aAa, A �Sb|bCC, C �abb, E �aC}
2. P= {S �aBa|BC, A �aC|BCC,C �a, B �bcc, D �E, E �d }
3. P= {S �aAa, A �bBB, B �ab, C �aB }
4. P= {S �aS|AB, A �bA,B�AA }

Eliminate �- productions
• Most theorems and methods about grammars G assume L(G) does not contain �

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• Example: G with �- productions

S  ABA, A aA | �, B  bB | �
The procedure to find out an equivalent G with out �-productions

1. Find nullable variables

2. Add productions with nullable variables removed.
3. Remove �-productions and duplicates
Step 1: Find set of nullable variables

Nullable variables: Variables that can be replaced by null (�). If A *��then A

is anullable variable.

In the grammar with productions S � ABA, A � aA | � , B � bB | �, A is

nullable because of the production A ��. B is nullable because of the
production B ��. S is nullable because both A and B are nullable.

Step 1: Algorithm to find nullable variables

V: set of variables

N0 {A | A in V, production A
�} repeat
Ni  Ni-1U{A| A in V, A  , in Ni-1}

until Ni = Ni-1

• Step 2:For each production of the form A�w, create all possible productions of
theform A �w‟, where w‟ is obtained from w by removing one or more occurrences
of nullable variables
• Example:
S  ABA | BA | AA | AB | A | B | �
A aA ||

aB  bB | �| b

• Step 3: The desired grammar consists of the original productions together with
the productions constructed in step 2, minus any productions of the form A ��
• Example:
S ABA | BA | AA | AB | A | B
A aA | a
B  bB | b
PROBLEM:

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

G = ({S,A,B,D}, {a}, { S aS|AB, A �,B�, D b},S)

• Solution:
Nullable variables = {S, A,
B} New Set of productions:
S aS | a
S AB | A |
BD b
G1= ({S,B,D}, {a}, { S aS|a|AB|A|B, D b}, S)
• Eliminate �- productions from the grammar
Eliminate unit production
Definition:
• Unit production is of form A �B, A and B are variables
Unit productions could complicate certain proofs and they also introduce extra steps

into derivations that technically need not be there. The algorithm for eliminating unit

productions from the set of production P is given below:

• Algorithm
1. Add all non unit productions to P1
2. For each unit production A �B, add to P1 all p roductions A �, where B �is a non-
unit production in P.
3. Delete all the unit productions

Example (1): Consider the grammar with production

S  ABA | BA | AA | AB | A | B
A aA | a
B bB | b
Solution:
– Unit productions are S A, SB
– A and B are derivable
– Add productions from derivable
S ABA | BA | AA | AB | A | B | aA | a | bB | b
A  aA | a
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

B  bB | b
– Remove unit productions
S  ABA | BA | AA | AB | aA | a | bB
| b A  aA | a
B  bB | b
Example (2): S Aa | B, A a | bc | B, B  A |
bb Solution – Unit productions are
S  B, A  B, B  A, A and B are derivable
– Add productions from derivable and eliminate unit
productions S  bb | a | bc
A  a| bc | bb
B  bb | a | bc

Example (3) : Eliminate useless symbols, �-productions and unit

productions from S  a | aA|B|C, A  aB|�, B  aA, C  cCD, D  ddd
Soulution– Eliminate�-productions
Nullable = {A}
P1 = {S  a|aA|B|C, A  aB, B  aA|a, C  cCD, D  ddd}
-- Eliminate unit productions
Unit productions: S  B, S C Derivable variables:B & C
P2 = {S  a|aA| cCD, A  aB, B  aA|a, C  cCD, D ddd}
– Eliminate useless symbols
• After eliminate non generating symbols
P3 = {S  a|aA, A aB, B  aA|a, D ddd}
• After eliminate symbols that are non reachable

S A B D

P4 = {S  a|aA, A -->aB, B -->aA|a}

• So the equivalent grammar G1 = ({S,A,B}, {a}, {S -->a|aA, A -->aB, B -->aA|a}, S)

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Simplified Grammar:

If you have to get a grammar without � - productions, useless symbols and unit
productions, follow the sequence given below:

1. Eliminate � - productions from G and obtain G1

2. Eliminate unit productions from G1 and obtain G2
3. Eliminate useless symbols from G2and obtain G3

Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)

• Every nonempty CFL without �, has a grammar with productions of

the form 1. A --> BC, where A, B, C �V
2. A --> a, where A �V and a �T
• Algorithm:
1. Eliminate useless symbols, �-productions and unit productions from the grammar
2. Elimination of terminals on RHS of a production
a) Add all productions of the form A --> BC or A --> a to P1
b) Consider a production A -->X1X2…Xn with some terminals of RHS. If Xi is a
terminal say ai, then add a new variable Cai to V1 and a new production Cai -->ai
to P1. Replace Xi in A production of P by Cai
c) Consider A -->X1X2…Xn, where n �3 and all Xi„s are
variables. Introduce new productions A -->X1C1, C1--
>X2C2, … , Cn-2 -->Xn-1Xn to P1 and C1, C2, … ,Cn-2 to
V1Example (4): Convert to CNF:
S -->aAD, A --> aB | bAB, B -->b, D -->d
Solution – Step1: Simplify the grammar
• already simplified
– Step2a: Elimination of terminals on RHS
S -->aAD to S --> CaAD, Ca--
>a A -->aB to A --> CaB
A -->bAB to A --> CbAB, Cb-->b
– Step2b: Reduce RHS with 2 variables
S --> CaAD to S --> CaC1, C1 -->AD

A --> CbAB to A --> CbC2, C2-->AB

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• Grammar converted to CNF:

G1=({S,A,B,D,Ca,Cb,C1,C2}, {a,b},
{S --> CaC1,A -- > CaB| CbC2, Ca-- >a, Cb-->b, C1 -->AD, C2-->AB}, S)
Example (5): Convert to CNF:P={S -- >ASB | �, A -- > aAS | a, B -->SbS | A | bb}
Solution: – Step1: Simplify the grammar
• Eliminate �-productions (S -- >�)
P1={S -->ASB|AB, A -- >aAS|aA|a, B-->SbS|Sb|bS|b|A|bb}
• Eliminate unit productions (B- ->A)
P2={S -->ASB|AB, A -- >aAS|aA|a, B-->SbS|Sb|bS|b|bb|aAS|aA|a}
• Eliminate useless symbols: no useless symbols
– Step2: Convert to CNF
P3={S -->AC1|AB, A -- > CaC2|CaA|a, B - ->SC3 | SCb | CbS | b | CbCb| CaC2|CaA|a,
Ca-->a, Cb -->b, C1 -->SB, C2 -- >AS, C3 --> CbS }

Exercises:
• Convert to CNF:
1. S -->aSa|bSb|a|b|aa|bb
2. S -->bA|aB, A -->bAA|aS|a, B -->aBB|bS|b
3. S-->Aba, A -->aab, B -->AC
4. S -->0A0|1B1|BB, A -->C, B -->S|A, C -->S| �
5. S -->aAa|bBb| �, A -->C|a, B -->C|b, C -->CDE|�, D -->A|B|ab

6.2:The Pumping Lemma for CFL

The pumping lemma for regular languages states that every sufficiently long string in a
regular language contains a short sub-string that can be pumped. That is, inserting as
many copies of the sub-string as we like always yields a string in the regular language.

The pumping lemma for CFL’s states that there are always two short sub-strings close
together that can be repeated, both the same number of times, as often as we like.

For example, consider a

n n
CFL L={a b | n � 1}. Equivalent CNF grammar is having productions S � AC
4 4
| AB, A � a, B � b, C � SB. The parse tree for the string a b

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.
is given in figure 1 Both leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation have same
parse tree because the grammar is unambiguous.

Figure 2: Extended Parse tree for

4 4
Figure : Parse tree for a b

Extend the tree by duplicating the terminals generated at each level on all lower levels.
4 4
The extended parse tree for the string a b
is given in figure 2. Number of symbols at each level is at most twice of previous level. 1
i n
symbols at level 0, 2 symbols at 1, 4 symbols at 2 …2 symbols at level i. To have 2
symbols at bottom level, tree must be having at least depth of n and level of at least n+1.

Pumping Lemma Theorem:

Let L be a CFL. Then there exists a constant k� 0 such that if z is any string in L such

that |z| � k, then we can write z = uvwxy such that

1. |vwx| � k (that is, the middle portion is not too long).

2. vx �� (since v and x are the pieces to be “pumped”, at least one of the
strings we pump must not be empty).
i i
3. For all i � 0, uv wx y is in L.
Proof:
n+1
The parse tree for a grammar G in CNF will be a binary tree. Let k = 2 , where n is the
number of variables of G. Suppose z� L(G) and |z| � k. Any parse tree for z must be of
depth at least n+1. The longest path in the parse tree is at least n+1, so this path must
contain at least n+1 occurrences of the variables. By pigeonhole principle, some variables
occur more than once along the path. Reading from bottom to top, consider the first pair

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of same variable along the path. Say X has 2 occurrences. Break z into uvwxy
such that w is the string of terminals generated at the lower occurrence of X and
vwx is the string generated by upper occurrence of X.

Example parse tree:

For the above example S has repeated occurrences, and the parse tree is shown in
figure 3. w = ab is the string generated by lower occurrence of S and vwx = aabb is
the string generated by upper occurrence of S. So here u=aa, v=a, w=ab, x=b, y=bb.

4 4
Figure 3: Parse tree for a b
Figure 4: sub- trees
with repeated occurrences of S
Let T be the subtree rooted at upper occurrence of S and t be subtree rooted at lower
2 2
occurrence of S. These parse trees are shown in figure 4. To get uv wx y �L, cut out t
2 2
and replace it with copy of T. The parse tree for uv wx y �L is given in figure 5.
Cutting out t and replacing it with copy of T as many times to get a valid parse tree for
i i
uv wx y for i � 1.

Figure 5: Parse tree

Figure 6: Parse tree for

To get uwy � L, cut T out of the original tree and replace it with t to get a parse
0 0
tree of uv wx y = uwy as shown in figure 6.

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Pumping Lemma game:

1. To show that a language L is not a CFL, assume L is context free.

2. Choose an “appropriate” string z in L
3. Express z = uvwxy following rules of pumping lemma
k k
4. Show that uv wx y is not in L, for some k
5. The above contradicts the Pumping Lemma
6. Our assumption that L is context free is wrong

Example:
i ii
Show that L = {a b c | i �1} is not CFL
Solution:
n nn
Assume L is CFL. Choose an appropriate z = a b c = uvwxy. Since |vwx| � n
then vwx can either consists of

1. All a‟s or all b‟s or all c‟s

2. Some a‟s and some b‟s
3. Some b‟s and some c‟s

Case 1: vwx consists of all a‟s

2 22 22 2 2
If z = a b c and u = �, v = a, w = �, x = a and y = b c then, uv wx y will
4 22
be a b c �L
Case 2: vwx consists of some a‟s and some b‟s

2 22 2 2 2 3 32
If z = a b c and u = a, v = a, w = �, x = b, y = bc , then uv wx y will be a b c �L

Case 3: vwx consists of some b‟s and some c‟s

2 22 2 2 2 2 32
If z = a b c and u = a b, v = b, w = c, x = �, y = c, then uv wx y will be a b c �L
2 2
If you consider any of the above 3 cases, uv wx y will not be having an equal number of
2 2
a‟s, b‟s and c‟s. But Pumping Lemma says uv wx y �L. Can‟t contradict the
pumping lemma! Our original assumption must be wrong. So L is not context-free.

Example:

Show that L = {ww |w �{0, 1}*} is not CFL

Solution:

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m n m n
Assume L is CFL. It is sufficient to show that L1= {0 1 0
n � 0}, where n is
n n1 n| m,n
pumping lemma constant, is a CFL. Pick any z = 0 1 0 1 = uvwxy, satisfying
the conditions |vwx| � n and vx ��.

This language we prove by taking the case of i = 0, in the pumping lemma

i i
satisfying the condition uv wx y for i �0.
z is having a length of 4n. So if |vwx| � n, then |uwy| � 3n. According to
pumping lemma, uwy � L. Then uwy will be some string in the form of tt, where t
is repeating. If so, n |t| � 3n/2.
n-k n
Suppose vwx is within first n 0’s: let vx consists of k 0‟s. Then uwy begins with 0 1

|uwy| = 4n-k. If uwy is some repeating string tt, then |t| =2n-k/2. t does end in 0
but tt ends with 1. So second t is not a repetition of first t.
3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
Example: z = 0 1 0 1 , vx = 0 then uwy = tt = 01 0 1 , so first t = 01 0
2 3.
and second t = 0 1 Both t‟sstare not same.
Suppose vwx consists of 1 block of 0’s and first block of 1’s: vx consists
of only 0‟sif x= �, then uwy is not in the form tt. If vx has at least one 1, then |t| is
at least 3n/2 and first t ends with a 0, not a 1.

Very similar explanations could be given for the cases of vwx consists of first block of
st nd
1‟s and vwx consists of 1 block of 1‟s and 2 block of 0‟s. In all cases uwy is
expected to be in the form of tt. But first t and second t are not the same string.
So uwy is not in L and L is not context free.

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Example:

i j i j
Show that L={0 1 2 3 | i � 1, j � 1} is not CFL
Solution:
n n n n
Assume L is CFL. Pick z = uvwxy = 0 1 2 3 where |vwx| � n and vx ��
. vwx can consist of a substring of one of the symbols or straddles of two
adjacent symbols.

Case 1: vwx consists of a substring of one of the symbols

th
Then uwy has n of 3 different symbols and fewer than n of 4 symbol. Then uwy
is not in L.
Case 2: vwx consists of 2 adjacent symbols say 1 & 2

Then uwy is missing some 1‟s or 2‟s and uwy is not in L.

If we consider any combinations of above cases, we get uwy, which is not CFL. This

contradicts the assumption. So L is not a CFL.

6.3:Closure Properties of CFL

Many operations on Context Free Languages (CFL) guarantee to produce CFL. A
few do not produce CFL. Closure properties consider operations on CFL that are
guaranteed to produce a CFL. The CFL‟s are closed under substitution, union,
concatenation, closure(star), reversal, homomorphism and inverse homomorphism.
CFL‟s are not closed under intersection (but the intersection of a CFL and a regular
language is always a CFL), complementation, and set-difference.

I. Substitution:
By substitution operation, each symbol in the strings of one language is replaced
by an entire CFL language
.
Example:

n n
S(0) = {a b | n �1}, S(1)={aa,bb} is a substitution on alphabet � ={0, 1}.
Theorem:

If a substitution s assigns a CFL to every symbol in the alphabet of a CFL L, then

s(L) is a CFL.

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Proof:

Let G = (V, �, P, S) be grammar for the CFL L. Let Ga = (Va, Ta, Pa, Sa) be the
grammar corresponding to each terminal a �� and V � Va = �. Then G�=
(V�, T�, P�, S) is a grammar for s(L) where
V� = V � Va
T�= union of Ta‟s all for a ��

P� consists of

o
o
o All productions in any Pa for a��
o
o
o
o The productions of P, with each terminal a is replaced by Sa
everywhere a occurs.

Example:
n n n m
L = {0 1 | n � 1}, generated by the grammar S � 0S1 | 01, s(0) = {a b | m
� n}, generated by the grammar S � aSb | A; A � aA | ab, s(1) = {ab, abc},
generated by the grammar S � abA, A � c |�
. Rename second and third S‟s to S0 and S1, respectively. Rename second A to
B. Resulting grammars are:

S � 0S1 | 01
S0 � aS0b | A; A � aA | ab
S1 � abB; B � c | �

In the first grammar replace 0 by S0 and 1 by S1. The resulted grammar after substitution
is:
S � S0SS1 | S0S1
S0� aS0b | A; A �aA | ab S1�abB; B� c | �

II. Application of substitution:

a. Closure under union of CFL’s L1 and L2:

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Use L={a, b}, s(a)=L1 and s(b)=L2. Then s(L)= L1 � L2.

How t
o get grammar for L1 � L2 ?

Add new start symbol S and rules S � S1 | S2

The grammar for L1 � L2 is G = (V, T, P, S) where V = {V1 � V2 � S}, S� (V1

� V2) and P = {P1 � P2 � {S � S1 | S2 }}

Example:

n n n n
L1 = {a b | n � 0}, L2 = {b a | n � 0}. Their corresponding

grammars are G1: S1 � aS1b | �, G2 : S2 � bS2a | �

The grammar for L1 � L2 is

G = ({S, S1, S2}, {a, b}, {S � S1 | S2, S1 � aS1b | �, S2 �

bS2a}, S). b. Closure under concatenation of CFL’s L1 and L2:

Let L={ab}, s(a)=L1 and s(b)=L2. Then s(L)=L1L2

How to get grammar for L1L2?

Add new start symbol and rule S � S1S2

The grammar for L1L2 is G = (V, T, P, S) where V = V1 � V2 � {S}, S � V1

� V2 and P = P1 � P2 � {S � S1S2}

Example:

n n n n n {n+m} m
L1 = {a b | n � 0}, L2 = {b a | n � 0} then L1L2 = {a b a | n, m � 0}
Their corresponding grammars are
G1: S1 � aS1b | �, G2 : S2 � bS2a | �

The grammar for L1L2 is

G = ({S, S1, S2}, {a, b}, {S � S1S2, S1 � aS1b | �, S2 � bS2a}, S).
+
c. Closure under Kleene’s star (closure * and positive closure ) of CFL’s L1:
+ +
Let L = {a}* (or L = {a} ) and s(a) = L1. Then s(L) = L1* (or s(L) = L1 ).
Example:
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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

n n {n1} {n1} {nk} {nk}

L1 = {a b | n � 0} (L1)* = {a b ... a b | k � 0 and ni� 0
{n2}
for all i} L2 = {a | n � 1}, (L2)* = a*
How t
o get grammar for (L1)*:

Add new start symbol S and rules S � SS1 | �.

The grammar for (L1)* is

G = (V, T, P, S), where V = V1 �{S}, S � V1,
P= P1 �{S � SS1 | �}

d. Closure under homomorphism of CFL Li for every ai��:

Suppose L is a CFL over alphabet � and h is a homomorphism on �. Let s be a

substitution that replaces every a ��, by h(a). ie s(a) = {h(a)}. Then h(L) = s(L).
ie h(L) ={h(a1)…h(ak) | k � 0} where h(ai) is a homomorphism for every ai ��.

III. Closure under

IV. Reversal:

R
L is a CFL, so L is a CFL. It is enough to reverse each production of a CFL for
R
L, i.e., to substitute each production A�� by A�� .
IV. Intersection:

The CFL‟s are not closed under intersection

Example:
n n n n n i
The language L = {0 1 2 | n � 1} is not context-free. But L1 = {0 1 2 | n � 1, i
i n n
� 1} is a CFL and L2 = {0 1 2 | n � 1, i � 1} is also a CFL. But L = L1� L2.
Corresponding grammars for L1: S�AB; A�0A1 | 01; B�2B | 2 and
corresponding grammars for L2: S �AB; A�0A | 0; B�1B2 | 12.

However, L = L1 � L2 , thus intersection of CFL‟s is not CFL

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Intersection of
a. CFL and Regular Language:

Theorem: If L is CFL and R is a regular language, then L�R is a CFL.

FA Accept/

AND Reject

PDA

P = (QP, �, �, �P, qP, Z0, FP) be PDA to accept L by final state. Let A = (QA, �, �A, qA, FA)

for DFA to accept the Regular Language R. To get L � R, we have to run a Finite
Stack

Figure 1: PDA for L R

Proof:

Automata in parallel with a push down automata as shown in figure 1. Construct

PDA P� = (Q, �, �, �, qo, Z0, F) where
Q = (Qp X QA)
qo = (qp, qA)
F = (FPX FA)
� is in the form � ((q, p), a, X) = ((r, s), g)
such that 1. s = �A(p, a)
2. (r, g) is in �P(q, a, X)

That is for each move of PDA P, we make the same move in PDA P� and also we carry
along the state of DFA A in a second component of P�. P� accepts a string w if and only if
both P and A accept w. ie w is in L � R. The moves ((qp, qA), w, Z) |-*P� ((q, p), �,
�) are possible if and only if (qp, w, Z) |-*P (q, �,�) moves and p = �*(qA, w)
transitions are possible.

CFL and RL properties:

Theorem: The following are true about CFL‟s L, L1, and L2, and a regular language R.

1. Closure of CFL’s under set-difference with a regular

language. 2.
ie
1. L - R is a

CFL. Proof:

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

C
R is regular and regular language is closed under complement. So R is also regular.
C
We know that L - R = L � R . We have already proved the closure of
intersection of a CFL and a regular language. So CFL is closed under set
difference with a Regular language.

2. CFL is not closed under complementation

C
L is not necessarily a

CFL Proof:
C
Assume that CFLs were closed under complement. C ie if LCis a CFL then L is
a CFL. Since CFLs
C areC closed
C L1 � C
under union, C L2C is a CFL. By our
assumption (L1 � L2 ) is a CFL. But (L1 � L2 ) = L1 � L2, which
we just showed isn‟t necessarily a CFL. Contradiction! . So our assumption is
false. CFL is not closed under complementation.

CFLs are not closed under set-difference.

ie
L1 - L2 is not necessarily a CFL.

Proof:
C
Let L1 = �* - L. �* is regular and is also CFL. But �* - L = L . If CFLs were
C
closed under set difference, then �* - L = L would always be a CFL. But CFL‟s are
not closed under complementation. So CFLs are not closed under set-difference.

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Assignment questions
1.Using pumping lemma for CFL prove that below languages are not context free

p
1. {0 | p is a prime}
n ni
2. {a b c | i � n}

2.Eliminate the non-generating symbols from S aS | A | C, A a, B aa, C aCb

3.Eliminate non-reachable symbols from G= ({S, A}, {a}, {S a, A a}, S)

4.Draw the dependency graph as given above. A is non-reachable from S. After

eliminating A, G1= ({S}, {a}, {S a}, S)
5. Eliminate non-reachable symbols from S aS | A, A a, B aa
6.Eliminate useless symbols from the grammar with productions S AB | CA, B BC
| AB, A a, C AB | b
7.Eliminate useless symbols from the grammar

P= {S aAa, A Sb | bCC, C abb, E aC}

P= {S aBa | BC, A aC | BCC, C a, B bcc, D E, E d}

P= {S aAa, A bBB, B ab, C aB}
P= {S aS | AB, A bA, B AA}
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UNIT -7:INTRODUCTION TO TURING MACHINES

7.1 problems that computers cannot solve
7.2 The turing machine
7.3programming techniques for turing machines
7.4 extensions to the basic turing machines
7.5 turing machines and computers

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7.1 :Problems that computers cannot solve

7.2 The Turing machine

Definition:
A Turing Machine (TM) is an abstract, mathematical model that describes what can and
cannot be computed. A Turing Machine consists of a tape of infinite length, on which input is
provided as a finite sequence of symbols. A head reads the input tape. The Turing Machine
starts at “start state” S0. On reading an input symbol it optionally replaces it with another
symbol, changes its internal state and moves one cell to the right or left.

Notation for the Turing Machine :

TM = <S, T, S0, �, H> where,

S is a set of TM states
T is a set of tape symbols
S0 is the start state
H�S is a set of halting states
� : S x T �S x T x {L,R} is the transition function
{L,R} is direction in which the head moves

L : Left R: Right
input symbols on infinite length tape

10101111110

head

The Turing machine model uses an infinite tape as its unlimited memory. (This is
important because it helps to show that there are tasks that these machines cannot
perform, even though unlimited memory and unlimited time is given.) The input
symbols occupy some of the tape‟s cells, and other cells contain blank symbols.

Some of the characteristics of a Turing machine are:

1. The symbols can be both read from the tape and written on it.
2. The TM head can move in either directions – Left or Right.
3. The tape is of infinite length
4. The special states, Halting states and Accepting states, take immediate effect.

Solved examples:

TM Example 1:

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

Turing Machine U+1:

Given a string of 1s on a tape (followed by an infinite number of 0s), add one

more 1 at the end of the string.

Input : #111100000000…….
�
Output : #1111100000000……….

Initially the TM is in Start state S0. Move right as long as the input symbol is 1.
When a 0 is encountered, replace it with 1 and halt.
Transitions:
(S0, 1) (S0, 1, R)
(S0, 0) ( h , 1, STOP)

TM Example 2 :

TM: X-Y
Given two unary numbers x and y, compute |x-y| using a TM. For purposes of
simplicity we shall be using multiple tape symbols.

Ex: 5 (11111) – 3 (111) = 2

(11) #11111b1110000….. �
#___11b___000…

a) Stamp out the first 1 of x and seek the first 1 of y.

(S0, 1) (S1, _, R)
(S0, b) (h, b, STOP)
(S1, 1) (S1, 1, R)
(S1, b) (S2, b, R)

b) Once the first 1 of y is reached, stamp it out. If instead the input ends, then y
has finished. But in x, we have stamped out one extra 1, which we should
replace. So, go to some state s5 which can handle this.

(S2, 1) (S3, _, L)
(S2,_) (S2, _, R)
(S2, 0) (S5, 0, L)

c) State s3 is when corresponding 1s from both x and y have been stamped

out. Now go back to x to find the next 1 to stamp. While searching for the next
1 from x, if we reach the head of tape, then stop.

(S3, _) (S3, _, L)
(S3,b) (S4, b, L)

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FORMAL LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA THEORY 10CS56

(S4, 1) (S4, 1, L)
(S4, _) (S0, _, R)
(S4, #) (h, #, STOP)

d) State s5 is when y ended while we were looking for a 1 to stamp. This means
we have stamped out one extra 1 in x. So, go back to x, and replace the blank
character with 1 and stop the process.

(S5, _) (S5, _, L)
(S5,b) (S6, b, L)
(S6, 1) (S6, 1, L)
(S6, _) (h, 1, STOP)

Solved examples:

TM Example 1: Design a Turing Machine to recognize

n n n
0 1 2 ex: #000111222_ _ _ _ _…….

Step 1: Stamp the first 0 with X, then seek the first 1 and stamp it with Y, and
then seek the first 2 and stamp it with Z and then move left.

S0, 0 S1,X,R
S1, 0 S1, 0,R
S1, 1 S2,Y,R
S2, 1 S2, 1,R
S2, 2 S3,Z,L
S0 = Start State, seeking 0, stamp it with X
S1 = Seeking 1, stamp it with Y
S2 = Seeking 2, stamp it with Z

Step 2: Move left until an X is reached, then move one step right.
S3, 1 S3, 1,L
S3,Y S3,Y,L
S3, 0 S3, 0,L
S3,X S0,X,R

S3 = Seeking X, to repeat the process.

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Step 3: Move right until the end of the input denoted by blank( _ ) is reached
passing through X Y Z s only, then the accepting state SA is reached.

S0,Y S4,Y,R
S4,Y S4,Y,R
S4,Z S4,Z,R
S4, SA,
, STOP

S4 = Seeking blank

These are the transitions that result in halting states.

S4, 1 h, 1,STOP
S4, 2 h, 2,STOP
S4, SA,
,STOP

S0, 1 h, 1,STOP
S0, 2 h, 2,STOP
S1, 2 h, 2,STOP
S2, h, ,STOP

TM Example 2 : Design a Turing machine to accept a Palindrome

ex: #1011101_ _ _ _ _…….

Step 1: Stamp the first character (0/1) with _, then seek the last character by
moving till a _ is reached. If the last character is not 0/1 (as required) then halt
the process immediately.

S0, 0 S1, ,R
S0, 1 S2, ,R
S1, S3, ,L
S3, 1 h, 1,STOP
S2, S5,,L
S5, 0 h, 0,STOP

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Step 2: If the last character is 0/1 accordingly, then move left until a blank is reached to
start the process again.
S 3, 0 S4, ,L
S 4, S4, 1,L 1
S 4, S4, 0,L
0
S 4, S0, ,R
S 5, 1 S6,,L
S 6, 1 S6, 1,L
S6, 0 S6, 0,L
S6, S0, ,R

Step 3 : If a blank ( _ ) is reached when seeking next pair of characters to match

or when seeking a matching character, then accepting state is reached.

S3, SA,
,STOP
S5, SA,
,STOP

S0, SA, , STOP

The sequence of events for the above given input are as follows:

#s010101_ _ _
#_s20101_ _ _
#_0s2101_ _ _
....
#_0101s5_ _ _
#_010s6_ _ _ _
#_s60101_ _ _
#_s00101_ _ _
....
#_ _ _ _ s5 _ _ _ _ _ _
#_ _ _ _ sA _ _ _ _ _ _
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Modularization of TMs

Designing complex TM s can be done using modular approach. The main

problem can be divided into sequence of modules. Inside each module, there
could be several state transitions.
n n n
For example, the problem of designing Turing machine to recognize the language 0 1 2
can be divided into modules such as 0-stamper, 1-stamper, 0-seeker, 1-seeker, 2-seeker
and 2-stamper. The associations between the modules are shown in the following figure:

n nn 0-Stamper 1-Seeker
TM: 0 1 2

1-Stamper

2-Seeker

2-Stamper
0-Seeker
Load Decode Execute Store

Universal Turing Machine

A Universal Turing Machine UTM takes an encoding of a TM and the input

data as its input in its tape and behaves as that TM on the input data.

A TM spec could be as follows:

TM = (S,S0,H,T,d)
Suppose, S={a,b,c,d}, S0=a, H={b,d} T={0,1}
: (a,0) (b,1,R) , (a,1) (c,1,R) ,
(c,0) (d,0,R) and so on
then TM spec:
$abcd$a$bd$01$a0b1Ra1c1Rc0d0R…….
where $ is delimiter

This spec along with the actual input data would be the input to the UTM.
This can be encoded in binary by assigning numbers to each of the characters
appearing in the TM spec.

The encoding can be as follows:

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$ : 0000 0 : 0101
a : 0001 1 : 0110
b : 0010 L : 0111
c : 0011 R : 1000
d : 0100
So the TM spec given in previous slide can be encoded as:
0000.0001.0010.0011.0100.0000.0001.0000.0010.0100 ……
Hence TM spec can be regarded just as a number.

Sequence of actions in UTM:

Initially UTM is in the start state S0.

 Load the input which is TM spec. 

 Go back and find which transition to apply. 
 Make changes, where necessary. 
 Then store the changes. 
 Then repeat the steps with next input. 

Hence, the sequence goes through the cycle:

L oad Decode Execute Store

7.3:Extensions to Turing Machines

Proving Equivalence
For any two machines M1 from class C1 and M2 from class C2:

M2 is said to be at least as expressive as M1

if L(M2) = L(M1) or if M2 can simulate M1.

M1 is said to be at least as expressive as M2

if L(M1) = L(M2) or if M1 can simulate M2.

Composite Tape TMs

Track 0 011010100…
001111110…
Track 1

A composite tape consists of many tracks which can be read or written simultaneously.

A composite tape TM (CTM) contains more than one tracks in its tape.

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Equivalence of CTMs and TMs

A CTM is simply a TM with a complex alphabet..

T = {a, b, c, d}
T‟ = {00, 01, 10, 11}

Turing Machines with Stay Option

Turing Machines with stay option has a third option for movement of the TM
head:
left, right or stay.

STM = <S, T, �, s0, H>

�: S x T à S x T x {L, R, S}

Equivalence of STMs and TMs

STM = TM:
Just don‟t use the S option…

TM = STM:

For L and R moves of a given STM build a TM that moves correspondingly L or

R…

TM = STM:

For S moves of the STM, do the

following: 1.Move right,
2.Move back left without changing the
tape 3.STM: �(s,a) |-- (s‟,b,S)

TM: �(s,a) |-- (s‟‟, b, R)

�(s‟‟,*) |-- (s‟,*,L)

2-way Infinite Turing Machine

In a 2-way infinite TM (2TM), the tape is infinite on both

sides. There is no # that delimits the left end of the tape.
Equivalence of 2TMs and TMs
2TM = TM:
Just don‟t use the left part of the
tape… TM = 2TM:
Simulate a 2-way infinite tape on a one-way infinite tape…

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… -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 …

0 –1 1 –2 2 –3 3 –4 4 –5 5 …

Multi-tape Turing Machines

A multi-tape TM (MTM) utilizes many tapes.

Equivalence of MTMs and TMs

MTM = TM:
Use just the first tape…

TM = MTM:
Reduction of multiple tapes to a single tape.

Consider an MTM having m tapes. A single tape TM that is equivalent can be

constructed by reducing m tapes to a single tape.

A 01234567…

B 01234567…

C 01234567…

TM A0 B0 C0 A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 A3 B3 ..

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Non-deterministic TM

A non-deterministic TM (NTM) is defined as:

NTM = <S, T, s0, �, H>

SxTx{L,R}
where �: S x T à2

Ex: (s2,a) à {(s3,b,L) (s4,a,R)}

Equivalence of NTMs and TMs

A “concurrent” view of an NTM:

(s2,a) à {(s3,b,L) (s4,a,R)}

è at (s2,a), two TMs are spawned:
(s2,a) à (s3,b,L)

(s2,a) à (s4,a,R)

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Unit-8:Undesirability
8.1: A language that is not recursively enumerable
8.2: a un decidable problem that is RE
8.3: Posts correspondence problem
8.4: other undecidable problem

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8.1: A language that is not recursively enumerable

Decidable
A problem P is decidable if it can be solved by a Turing machine T that
always halt. (We say that P has an effective algorithm.)

Note that the corresponding language of a decidable problem is

recursive. Undecidable

A problem is undecidable if it cannot be solved by any Turing machine

that halts on all inputs.

Note that the corresponding language of an undecidable problem is non-

recursive. Complements of Recursive Languages
Theorem: If L is a recursive language, L is also recursive.
Proof: Let M be a TM for L that always halt. We can construct another
TM Mfrom M for L that always halts as follows:

M
Accept Accept
Input M
Rejec Rejec

Complements of RE Languages
Theorem: If both a language L and its complement L are RE, L is
recursive. Proof: Let M1 and M2 be TM for L and L respectively. We
can construct a TMM from M1 and M2 for L that always halt as follows:
M
M1 Accept Accept
Input
M2 Accept Reject

A Non-recursive RE Language

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• We are going to give an example of a RE language that is not

recursive, i.e., a language L that can be accepted by a TM, but there is
no TM for L that always halt.
• Again, we need to make use of the binary encoding of a TM.

Ld

We will now
Recursive look at an
example in
this region.
Recursively
Enumerable (RE)

Non-recursively
Enumerable (Non-RE)
A Non-recursive RE Language
• Recall that we can encode each TM uniquely as a binary number and
enumerate all TM‟s as T1, T2, …, Tk, … where the encoded value of the
kth TM, i.e., Tk, is k.
• Consider the language Lu:
Lu = {(k, w) | Tk accepts input w} This
is called the universal language.
Universal Language
• Note that designing a TM to recognize Lu is the same as solving the
problem of given k and w, decide whether Tk accepts w as its input.
• We are going to show that Lu is RE but non-recursive, i.e., Lu can be
accepted by a TM, but there is no TM for Lu that always halt.

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Universal Turing Machine

• To show that Lu is RE, we construct a
TM U, called the universal Turing
machine, such that Lu = L(U).
• U is designed in such a way that given
k and w, it will mimic the operation of
Tk on input w:
1111110

k separator w
U will move back and forth to mimic Tk on input w.

Universal Turing Machine

Accept Accept
(k, w) Tk
w
i.e., k1111110w
U

Why cannot we use a similar method to

construct a TM for Ld?

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Universal Language
• Since there is a TM that accepts Lu,
Lu is RE. We are going to show that
Lu is non-recursive.
• If Lu is recursive, there is a TM M for
Lu that always halt. Then, we can
construct a TM M‟ for Ld as follows:

Accept Reject
k Copy k1111110k M Reject Accept
M‟

A Non-recursive RE Language
• Since we have already shown that Ld is non-recursively enumerable, so
M‟ does not exist and there is no such M.
• Therefore the universal language is recursively enumerable but non-
recursive. Halting Problem
Consider the halting problem:
Given (k,w), determine if Tk halts on w.
It‟s corresponding language
is: Lh = { (k, w) | Tk halts on input w}
The halting problem is also undecidable, i.e., Lh is non-recursive. To
show this, we can make use of the universal language problem.
We want to show that if the halting problem can be solved
(decidable), the universal language problem can also be solved.
So we will try to reduce an instance (a particular problem) in Lu to an
instancein Lh in such a way that if we know the answer for the latter,
we will know the answer for the former.
Class Discussion
Consider a particular instance (k,w) in Lu, i.e., we want to determine if Tk
will accept w. Construct an instance I=(k‟,w‟) in Lh from (k,w) so that if we
know whether Tk‟ will halt on w‟, we will know whether Tk will accept w.
Halting Problem

Therefore, if we have a method to solve the halting problem, we can also solve the
universal language problem. (Since for any particular instance I of the universal
language problem, we can construct an instance of the halting problem, solve it and
get the answer for I.) However, since the universal problem is undecidable, we can
conclude that the halting problem is also undecidable.
Modified Post Correspondence Problem

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• We have seen an undecidable problem, that is, given a Turing machine M and
an input w, determine whether M will accept w (universal language problem).
• We will study another undecidable problem that is not related to Turing machine
directly.
Given two lists A and B:
A = w1, w2, …, wk B = x1, x2, …, xk
The problem is to determine if there is a sequence of one or more
integers i1, i2, …, im such that:
w1wi1wi2…wim = x1xi1xi2…xim

(wi, xi) is called a corresponding pair.

Example
A B
w
i i xi
1 11 1
2 1 111
3 0111 10
4 10 0
This MPCP instance has a solution: 3, 2, 2, 4:
w1w3w2w2w4 = x1x3x2x2x4 = 1101111110

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8.2: a un decidable problem that is RE

Undecidability of PCP
To show that MPCP is undecidable, we will
reduce the universal language problem
(ULP) to MPCP:
Universal
Language A mapping MPCP
Problem (ULP)

If MPCP can be solved, ULP can also be solved.

Since we have already shown that ULP is un-
decidable, MPCP must also be undecidable.

Mapping ULP to MPCP

• Mapping a universal language problem instance to an MPCP instance
is not as easy.
• In a ULP instance, we are given a Turing machine M and an input w, we
want to determine if M will accept w. To map a ULP instance to an MPCP
instance success-fully, the mapped MPCP instance should have a
solution if and only if M accepts w.

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Mapping ULP to MPCP

ULP instance MPCP instance

Construct an
Given: MPCP instance Two lists:
(T,w) A and B

If T accepts w, the two lists can be matched.

Otherwise, the two lists cannot be matched.

Mapping ULP to MPCP

• We assume that the input Turing machine T:
– Never prints a blank
– Never moves left from its initial head position.
• These assumptions can be made because:
– Theorem (p.346 in Textbook): Every language accepted by a TM
M2 will also be accepted by a TM M1 with the following restrictions:
(1) M1‟s head never moves left from its initial position. (2) M1 never
writes a blank.
Mapping ULP to MPCP
Given T and w, the idea is to map the transition function of T to strings in
the two lists in such a way that a matching of the two lists will correspond
to aconcatenation of the tape contents at each time step.
We will illustrate this with an example first.

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Example of ULP to MPCP

• Consider the following Turing machine:
T = ({q0, q1},{0,1},{0,1,#}, , q0, #, {q1})

q0 0/0, L q1

1/0, R

(q0,1)=(q0,0,R) (q0,0)=(q1,0,L)
• Consider input w=110.

Example of ULP to MPCP

• Now we will construct an MPCP
instance from T and w. There are five
types of strings in list A and B:
• Starting string (first pair):
List A List B
# #q0110#
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Example of ULP to MPCP

• Strings from the transition function :
List A List B
q0 1 0q0 (from (q0,1)=(q0,0,R))
0q00 q100 (from (q0,0)=(q1,0,L))
1q00 q110 (from (q0,0)=(q1,0,L))

Example of ULP to MPCP

• Strings for copying:
List A List B
# #
0 0
1 1
Example of ULP to MPCP
• Strings for consuming the tape symbols at the end:
List A List B List A List B
0q1 q1 0q11 q1
1q1 q1 1q10 q1
q10 q1 0q10 q1
q11 q1 1q10 q1
Example of ULP to MPCP
• Ending string:
List A List B
q1## #

Now, we have constructed an MPCP instance

Example of ULP to MPCP
List A List B List A List B
1. # #q0110# 9. 0q1 q1
2. q01 0q0 10. 1q1 q1
3. 0q00 q100 11. q10 q1
4. 1q00 q110 12. q11 q1
5. # # 13. 0q11 q1
6. 0 0 14. 1q10 q1
7. 1 1 15. 0q10 q1

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8. q1## # 16. 1q10 q1

Example of ULP to MPCP

Example of ULP to MPCP

• This ULP instance has a solution:
q0110 0q010 00q00 0q100 (halt)
• Does this MPCP instance has a solution?
List A:
# q0 1 1 0 # 0 q0 1 0 # 0 0 q0 0 # 0 q1 0 0 # q1 0 # q1 # #
List B:
# q0 1 1 0 # 0 q 0 1 0 # 0 0 q 0 0 # 0 q 1 0 0 # q 1 0 # q 1 # #
The solution is the sequence of indices:
2, 7, 6, 5, 6, 2, 6, 5, 6, 3, 5, 15, 6, 5, 11, 5, 8

Class Discussion
Consider the input w = 101. Construct the corresponding MPCP
instance I and show that T will accept w by giving a solution to I.

Class Discussion (cont‟d)

List A List B List A List B
1. # #q0101# 9. 0q1 q1
2. q01 0q0 10. 1q1 q1
3. 0q00 q100 11. q10 q1
4. 1q00 q110 12. q11 q1
5. # # 13. 0q11 q1
6. 0 0 14. 1q10 q1
7. 1 1 15. 0q10 q1
8. q1## # 16. 1q10 q1
Mapping ULP to MPCP
• We summarize the mapping as follows. Given T and w, there are five
types of strings in list A and B:

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• Starting string (first pair):

List A List B
# #q0w#
where q0 is the starting state of T.
Mapping ULP to MPCP
• Strings from the transition function :
List A List B
qX Yp from (q,X)=(p,Y,R)
ZqX pZY from (q,X)=(p,Y,L)
q# Yp# from (q,#)=(p,Y,R)
Zq# pZY# from (q,#)=(p,Y,L)
where Z is any tape symbol except the
blank. Mapping ULP to MPCP
• Strings for copying:
List A List B
X X
where X is any tape symbol (including the
blank). Mapping ULP to MPCP
• Strings for consuming the tape symbols at the end:
List A List B
Xq q
qY q
XqY q
where q is an accepting state, and each X and Y is any tape symbol except the
blank.
Mapping ULP to MPCP
• Ending string:
List A List B
q## #
where q is an accepting state.

• Using this mapping, we can prove that the original ULP instance has a
solution if and only if the mapped MPCP instance has a solution.
(Textbook, p.402, Theorem 9.19)

8.3 Post's Correspondence Problem

(PCP)
Input: Two sequences, A = w1; : : : ;wk and
B = x1; : : : ; xk, where each wi and xi is a
string over some alphabet §.
Question: Is there a sequence i1; : : : ; im such
that 1 · ij · k for 1 · j · m and
wi1 ¢ ¢ ¢wim = xi1 ¢ ¢ ¢ xim?

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Example:
A = 1; 10111; 10
B = 111; 10; 0

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8.4: other undecidable problem

A problem P is decidable if it can be solved by a Turing machine T that always

halt. (We say that P has an effective algorithm.)

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Note that the corresponding language of a decidable problem is

recursive. Undecidable

A problem is undecidable if it cannot be solved by any Turing machine

that halts on all inputs.

Note that the corresponding language of an undecidable problem is non-

recursive. Complements of Recursive Languages
Theorem: If L is a recursive language, L is also recursive.
Proof: Let M be a TM for L that always halt. We can construct another
TM Mfrom M for L that always halts as follows:

Accept M Accept
Input M
Rejec Rejec

Complements of RE Languages
Theorem: If both a language L and its complement L are RE, L is
recursive. Proof: Let M1 and M2 be TM for L and L respectively. We
can construct a TMM from M1 and M2 for L that always halt as follows:
M
M1 Accept Accept
Input
M2 Accept Reject

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ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

Unit 8:

1. Explain briefly the following Halting problem

2. What is Post‟s Correspondence problem
3. P.t If L is a recursive language, L is also recursive.
4. define undecidability, decidability

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