INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

METHODS OF KNOWING (According to Charles Peirce)

1. Method of Tenacity (Superstition)
- Truth is true because one believes it even in front of contradicting evidence.

2. Method of Authority (Religion)

- Truth is true because an authority says so.

3. A Priori Method (Method of Intuition/ Phylosophy)

- Truth is true because it is logical. It derives from reasoning but does not bear empirical support.

4. Method of Science
- Science is a method of seeking truth. This method accounts only for solvable problems that have
empirical solutions based on observable events.

SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Etymologically, the word “science” is derived from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge.
Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is acquired
using the scientific method.

Two Broad Views of Science

1. Static View
- The static view states that science is an activity that contributes systematized information to
the world. This means that the scientist’s job is to discover new facts and add them to the
already existing body of information to the world. Hence, science is conceived as a body of facts.
Science is also viewed as a way of explaining observed phenomena.

2. Dynamic or Heuristic View

- The dynamic view regards science as an activity, what scientists do. It emphasizes theory and
interconnected conceptual schemata that are fruitful for further research. It stresses discovery
or problem solving rather than facts and bodies of information. However, these facts and bodies
of information are important to the heuristic scientist because they help lead to further theory,
further discovery, and further investigation.
- Science is a discipline or activity aimed at improving things and at making progress.

Two Broad Categories of Science

1. Natural Science
- Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light,
objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. Natural sciences can be further
classified into physical sciences, life sciences, earth sciences, and others.
- The natural sciences are very precise, accurate, deterministic, and independent of the person
making the scientific observations.
2. Social Science
- Social science is the science of people or collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies,
or economies, and their individual or collective behaviors. Social sciences can be classified into
disciplines such as psychology, sociology, and economics.
- The social sciences tend to be less accurate, deterministic, or unambiguous. In other words,
there is a high degree of measurement error in the social sciences and there is considerable
uncertainty and little agreement on social science policy decisions, which merely reflects the
high variability of social objects.
Classification of Science According to Purpose
1. Basic Sciences
- Basic sciences, also called pure sciences, are those that explain the most basic objects and
forces, relationships between them, and laws governing them. Examples include physics,
mathematics, and biology.

2. Applied Sciences
- Applied Science, also called practical sciences, are sciences that that apply scientific knowledge
from basic sciences in a physical environment. Examples include engineering and medicine.
- Both basic and applied sciences are required for human development. However, applied
sciences cannot stand on their own right, but instead relies on basic sciences for its progress.
- The industry and private enterprises tend to focus more on applied sciences given their
practical value, while universities study both basic and applied sciences.

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Scientific knowledge refers to a generalized body of laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or
behavior of interest that are acquired using the scientific method.

 Laws
- Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors. For instance, in physics, the Newton’s
First Law describes what happens when an object is in a state of rest or motion.

 Theories
- Theories are systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behavior. For instance,
the theory of optics explains the properties of light and how it behaves in different media.
Theories are also available in the social sciences such as the cognitive dissonance theory in
psychology which explains how people react when their observations of an event is different
from what they expected of that event.

How do we arrive at Scientific Laws or Theories?

We arrive at scientific laws or theories through a process of logic and evidence. Logic (theory) and
evidence (observations) are the two, and only two, pillars upon which scientific knowledge is based. In
science, theories and observations are interrelated and cannot exist without each other. Theories provide
meaning and significance to what we observe, and observations help validate or refine existing theory or
construct new theory.

Aims of Science, Scientific Explanation, and Theory

The basic aim of science is to explain natural phenomena. Other aims include the following:
- Explanation
- Understanding
- Prediction
- Control

These aims could be summarized in the definition of a theory as a theory is a set of interrelated
concepts (constructs), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by
specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.

Functions of Science
1. To make discoveries or to learn facts, or to advance knowledge in order to improve things.
2. To establish general laws covering the behaviors of empirical events or objects with which the
science in question is concerned and thereby enable us to connect together our knowledge of the
separately known events and to make reliable prediction of events as yet unknown.
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Research is defined by several authors as follows:

Definition 1:
• Research is a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach
a (new) understanding (Cambridge Dictionary Online, © Cambridge University Press, 2003)
• Research is a detailed study of something in order to discover new facts, especially in a university
or scientific institution (Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 2002)

Definition 2:
• Research is a means for
a. Making a rigorous and relevant contribution to knowledge
b. Understanding of a cause and effect relationship of a given phenomenon or uncovering a
new phenomenon
c. Organized inquiry to provide information for a solution to the problem (Emery and Cooper,
1991)
d. A careful and systematic investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish
facts or principles (Kumar, 1996)
e. Scientific or scholarly inquiry or investigation and the proper communication of findings
(McCuen, 1996)

Definition 3:
• Research uses a blend of assorted resources, such as classical or modern theories, states-of-the-art
technology, statistical technology, and engineering techniques, to uncover previously unknown
facts and principles
• Research is a process of searching for (general) answers in any field of study, or the solution of just
one particular problem
• Systematic, controlled, empirical, rigorous, and precise methods are used to obtain solutions or to
discover and interpret new information

Scientific Research
• A systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena
• A robust and dynamic practice that employs multiple methods toward investigating phenomena,
including experimentation, description, comparison, and modeling

Ingredients of Scientific Research

1. Logical and Systematic
- It should be reasonable and should be understood by others.
2. Creative
- It leads to a new solution, theory, or technology.
3. Generalizable
- It investigates a small sample which can be generalized to a larger population.
4. Replicable
- Others should be able to test the findings by repeating the research
5. Presentation
- It includes presentation to others whether in writing or orally.
TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

. Based on Type of Data Needed

The data one deals with in research are either primary or secondary data. Primary data are
obtained through direct observation or contact with people, objects, artifacts, etc. Primary data are new
and original information resulting from sensory experience. However, if such data have already been
written about or reported on and are available for reading purposes, they exist as secondary data.

1. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research usually seeks to convert observations to number. It aims to test
hypothesis based on a sample of observations and statistical analysis of data. It attempts to describe
relationships among variable mathematically. Thus, it presents research findings referring to the
number of frequency of something in numerical forms (i.e., using percentages, fractions, numbers,
etc.). Quantitative research often describes variables, examines relationships among variables and
determines cause and effect interaction between variables.

2. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research emphasizes verbal descriptions and explanations of human behavior. It
requires non-numerical data, which means that the research uses words rather than numbers to
express the results, the inquiry, or investigation about people’s thoughts, beliefs, feelings, views,
and lifestyles regarding the object of the study. These opinionated answers from people are not
measurable, so verbal language is the right way to express findings in a qualitative research. The
tools in gaining information include participant observation, in-depth interviews, or an in-depth
analysis of a single case.

A. Based on Purpose of the Research

1. Descriptive/Exploratory Research
For this type of research, the researchers must at least be oriented towards obtaining more
information and greater insight into the phenomena under study. It aims at defining or giving a
verbal portrayal or picture of a person, thing, event, group, situation, etc. Aside from seeking
familiarity with the subject, the researchers likewise aim to portray selected characteristics of the
subject accurately. It emphasizes the accurate description of some aspects of a group or assesses
specific characteristics of individuals, groups, situations, or events by summarizing the
commonalities found in discrete observations.
Hence, descriptive research is directed toward studying “what’ and how many of this “what’
or it is directed towards answering “what is this.”

2. Explanatory Research
This type of research elaborates or explains not just the reasons behind the relationship of
two factors, but also the ways by which such relationship exists. Its primary goal is to understand or
to explain relationships. It explains how the parts of a phenomenon are related to each other. It
uses correlations between dimensions or characteristics of individuals, group situations, or events.
Explanatory research usually asks “why” questions.

3. Predictive Research
Predictive research moves beyond explanation to the prediction of precise relationships
between dimensions or characteristics of phenomenon or differences between groups.

4. Validation Research
Validating and replicating existing research and theory is an important part of science.
Validation may include different samples, populations or research methods.
Based on Application of Research Method
1. Basic / Pure Research
Basic or pure research focuses on understanding phenomena of interest. This type of
research is conducted to accumulate information, extending, the base of knowledge in a discipline
to improve understanding, or to formulate a theory. It advances fundamental knowledge, concerned
with knowledge that is “irrefutable,” and contributes largely to theory formation and the stuff that
applied research is built upon. It aims to solve perplexing questions of a theoretical nature that
have little direct impact on action, performance, or policy decision.

2. Applied Research
Applied research focuses on finding an immediate solution to an existing problem. Applied research
is concerned with the application of knowledge and solving particular problems. It has direct
applicability to the real world. Applied research has a practical problem-solving emphasis. It is
conducted to reveal answers to specific questions related to action, performance, or policy needs.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

1. It includes a problem that need a solution or a question that needs an answer.
2. It should achieve a general objective rather than a personal objective.
3. It should follow the scientific approach that is characterized by order and control.
4. It should add new information through new facts that was not known before, validates results of a
previous research, test theories, explains findings of a previous research, and find new relationships
among present phenomena.
5. Research results should be liable to testing and generalization.
6. The research should be ethical, that is, it should not violate the rights of the subject of the study.

Limitations of Scientific Research

1. Inadequate for addressing moral or ethical questions
2. It must contend with problems of measurement, thus, any phenomena must be translated to
measurable items
3. It focuses on a relatively small portion of human experience in a single study

Importance of Research
1. (To gather necessary information) Research allows us to gather necessary information in the field
of work or study.
2. (To make changes) Research invokes a demand for change and sometimes is successful in
producing such changes.
3. (To improve the standard of living) Research improves the standard of living. Only through
research can new innovations come to life.
4. (To have a safer life) Discoveries and development resulting from research have improved life
expectancy and health condition of mankind.
5. (To know the truth) Research is needed to investigate and expose and eventually bring out the
truth.
6. (To explore our history) Research allows us to explore our history and learn from our forefathers’
mistakes and follow good things from their life. Research allows us to predict possibilities for our
planet and therefore do what is needed to be done.
7. (To understand arts) Research allows us to understand the works of artists in different fields of
arts.
Why Do Research as a Student?
1. Research teaches methods of discovery, investigative skills, critical thinking, logic, and the basic
ingredients of argument.
2. The writing process in research will make you more confident in your ability to find information
and present it effectively in varied ways.
3. Research is a great way to network and meet new people.

ETHICS AND RESEARCH

Ethics is the norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
These are direct networks among people because they recognize some common ethical norms but
interpret, apply and balance them in different ways in the light of their own values and experiences.
Ethics can also be considered as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for
analyzing complex problems and issues. For instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming,
one may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the matter. While an economist
might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental
ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at stake.
To be ethical, a research project needs to be designed to create valid outcomes if it is believed to be
pursuing truth. Research that is untrustworthy is unethical, because it is no benefit in developing the
society’s knowledge base and wastes the resources of researchers and other participants.
Researchers have a duty to ensure that they do not deliberately mislead participants as to the
nature of the research. In both virtual and physical worlds, researchers are ethically bound to maintain the
privacy of participants including confidentiality for any information they give and anonymity of their
identity.
Research ethics involve the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics
involving research. The academic research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Researchers trust
that the results reported by others are heard. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest
attempt to describe the world accurately and without bias.
Some ethical principles include honesty, objectivity, integrity, carefulness, openness, respect for
intellectual property, confidentiality, responsible publication, respect for colleagues, social responsibility,
non-discrimination, competence, and legality.

Functions of Ethics
1. Norms promote the aims of research such as knowledge, truth, and evidence of error
2. Ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
3. Ethical norms ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public.
4. Ethical norms in research, is research that helps build public support quality and integrity of
research.

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Identifying the subject area for investigation
2. Selecting a topic
3. Defining the research problem and objectives
4. Reviewing the literature
5. Formulating the hypothesis
6. Conducting experiment
7. Collecting and recording data
8. Analyzing and interpreting data
9. Formulating generalizations
10. Making recommendations