ADVANCED CONTOL SYSTEMS 

 
ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEMS (PEEC5414) 
Module‐I : (15 Hours) Discrete ‐ Time Control Systems : 
Introduction:  Discrete  Time  Control  Systems  and  Continuous  Time  Control  Systems,  Sampling 
Process. 
Digital Control Systems: Sample and Hold, Analog to digital conversion, Digital to analog conversion. 
The  Z‐transform:  Discrete‐Time  Signals,  The  Z‐transform,  Z‐transform  of  Elementary  functions, 
Important properties and Theorms of the Z‐transform. The inverse Ztransform, Z‐Transform method 
for solving Difference Equations.  
Z‐Plane Analysis of Discrete Time Control Systems: Impulse sampling & Data Hold, Reconstruction 
of Original signals from sampled signals: Sampling theorm, folding, aliasing. Pulse Transfer function: 
Starred  Laplace  Transform  of  the  signal  involving  Both  ordinary  and  starred  Laplace  Transforms; 
General procedures for obtaining pulse Transfer functions, Pulse Transfer function of open loop and 
closed loop systems. 
Mapping between the s‐plane and the z‐plane, Stability analysis of closed loop systems in the z‐
plane:  Stability  analysis  by  use  of  the  Bilinear  Transformation  and  Routh  stability  critgion,  Jury 
stability.                  Test. Book No. 1: 1.1; 1.2; 1.4; 2.1; 2.2; 2.3; 2.4; 2.5; 2.6; 3.2; 3.4; 3.5; 4.2; 4.3. 
Module ‐II : (15 Hours) State Variable Analysis & Design: 
Introduction:  Concepts  of  State,  State  Variables  and  State  Model  (of  continuous  time  systems): 
State  Model  of  Linear  Systems,  State  Model  for  Single‐Input‐Single‐Output  Linear  Systems, 
Linearization  of  the  State  Equation.  State  Models  for  Linear  Continuous  –  Time  Systems:  State‐
Space Representation Using Physical Variables, State – space Representation Using Phase Variables, 
Phase variable formulations for transfer function with poles and zeros, State – space Representation 
using  Canonical  Variables,  Derivation  of  Transfer  Function  for  State  Model.  Diagonalization: 
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors, Generalized Eigenvectors. 
Solution  of  State  Equations:  Properties  of  the  State  Transition  Matrix,  Computation  of  State 
Transition Matrix, Computation by Techniques Based on the Cayley‐Hamilton Theorem, Sylvester’s 
Expansion  theorm.  Concepts  of  Controllability  and  Observability:  Controllability,  Observability, 
Effect of Pole‐zero Cancellation in Transfer Function. Pole Placement by State Feedback, Observer 
Systems. State Variables and Linear Discrete – Time Systems: State Models from Linear Difference 
Equations/z‐transfer Functions, Solution of State Equations (Discrete Case), An Efficient Method of 
Discretization and Solution, Linear Transformation of State Vector (Discrete‐Time Case), Derivation 
of z‐Transfer Function from Discrete‐Time State Model.       Book No. 2: 12.1 to 12.9. 
Module ‐III : (12 Hours) Nonlinear Systems : 
Introduction : Behaviour of Non linear Systems, Investigation of nonlinear systems.  
Common Physical Non Linearities: Saturation, Friction, Backlash, Relay, Multivariable Nonlinearity. 
The Phase Plane Method: Basic Concepts, Singular Points: Nodal Point, Saddle Point, Focus Point, 
Centre  or  Vortex  Point,  Stability  of  Non  Linear  Systems:  Limit  Cycles,  Construction  of  Phase 

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Trajectories:  Construction  by  Analytical  Method,  Construction  by  Graphical  Methods.  The 
Describing  Function  Method:  Basic  Concepts:  Derivation  of  Describing  Functions:  Dead‐zone  and 
Saturation, Relay with Dead‐zone and Hysteresis, Backlash. Stability Analysis by Describing Function 
Method: Relay with Dead Zone, Relay with Hysteresis, Stability Analysis by Gain‐phase Plots. Jump 
Resonance. Liapunov’s Stability Analysis: Introduction, Liapunov’s Stability Critrion: Basic Stability 
Theorems,  Liapunov  Functions,  Instability.  Direct  Method  of  Liapunov  &  the  Linear  System: 
Methods of constructing Liapunov functions for Non linear Systems. 
Book No. 2: 13.1 to 13.4; 15.1 to 15.10. 
 
Text : 
 1. Discrete‐Time Control System, by K.Ogata, 2nd edition (2009), PHI. 
 2. Control Systems Engineering, by I.J. Nagrath and M.Gopal., 5th Edition (2007 / 2009), New Age 
International (P) Ltd. Publishers. 
Reference : 
1. Design of Feedback Control Systems by Stefani, Shahian, Savant, Hostetter, Fourth Edition (2009), 
Oxford University Press. 
2. Modern Control Systems by K.Ogata, 5th Edition (2010), PHI. 
3. Modern Control Systems by Richard C. Dorf. And Robert, H.Bishop, 11th Edition (2008), Pearson 
Education Inc. Publication. 
4.  Control  Systems  (Principles  &  Design)  by  M.Gopal,  3rd  Edition  (2008),  Tata  Mc.Graw  Hill 
Publishing Company Ltd. 
5. Control Systems Engineering by Norman S.Nise, 4th Edition (2008), Wiley India (P) Ltd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Module 1: Discrete-Time Control systems

Lecture Note 1 (Introduction)
Continuous time Control System:

In continuous time control systems, all the system variables are continuous signals. Whether
the system is linear or nonlinear, all variables are continuously present and therefore known
(available) at all times. A typical continuous time control system is shown in Figure below.
(Closed loop continuous-time control system) 

Discrete time Control System: 

Discrete time control systems are control systems in which one or more variables can change
only at discrete instants of time. These instants, which may be denoted by kT(k=0,1,2,…)
specify the times at which some physical measurement is performed or the times at which
the memory of a digital computer is read out. 

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(Block diagram of a discrete-time control system) 

Continuous time control systems whose signals are continuous in time are described by
differential equation, whereas discrete control systems that involve sampled data signals or
digital signals and possibly continuous time signals as well are described by difference
equation.

Sampling Process: 

Sampling is a process by which a continuous time signal is converted into a sequence of

numbers at discrete time intervals. A sampling process is used whenever a control system
involves a digital computer. Also a sampling process occurs whenever measurements
necessary for control are obtained in an intermittent fashion. The sampling process is usually
followed by a quantization process in which the sampled analog amplitude is replaced by a
digital amplitude (represented by a binary number).Then the digital signal is processed by the
computer and the output is sampled and fed to a hold circuit. The output of the hold circuit is
a continuous time signal and is fed to the actuator for the control of the plant. 
 

(Continuous-time analog signal) 

(Continuous-time quantized signal) 

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(Sampled-data signal) 

Lecture Note 2 (Digital Control Systems)

Sample and Hold Circuits:
A sampler in a digital system converts an analog signal into a train of amplitude-modulated
pulses. The hold circuit holds the value of the sampled pulse signal over a specified period of
time. The sample and hold is necessary in the A/D converter to produce a number that
accurately represents the input signal at the sampling instant.

The sample and hold circuit is an analog circuit in which an input voltage is acquired and
then stored on a high quality capacitor as shown in figure below. Op-Amp 1 is an input
buffer amplifier with a high input impedance and Op-Amp 2 is the output amplifier that
buffers the voltage on the hold capacitor.

The two modes of operation for a sample and hold circuit are tracking mode & hold mode.
When the switch is closed the operating mode is the tracking mode in which the charge on
the capacitor in the circuit tracks the input voltage. When the switch is open the operating

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mode is the hold mode in which the capacitor voltage holds constant for a specified time
period. 

(sample and hold circuit) 

Digital to Analog Conversion:

Digital-to-analog conversion is simple and effectively instantaneous. Properly weighted
voltages are summed together to yield the analog output. For example, in Figure below, three
weighted voltages are summed. The three-bit binary code is represented by the switches.
Thus, if the binary number is 1102, the center and bottom switches are on, and the analog
output is 6 volts. In actual use, the switches are electronic and are set by the input binary
code.

 
(Digital to Analog converter)

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Analog to Digital Conversion:

The process by which a sampled analog signal is quantized and converted to a binary number
is called analog to digital conversion. The A/D converter performs the operation of sample-
and –hold, quantizing and encoding.

The simplest type of A/D converter is the counter type. The basic principle on which it works
is the clock pulses are applied to the digital counter in such a way that the output voltage of
the D/A converter (that is part of the feedback loop in the A/D converter) is stepped up one
least significant bit at a time, and the output voltage is compared with the analog input

voltage once for each pulse. When the output voltage has reached the magnitude of the input
voltage, the clock pulses are stopped. The counter output voltage is then the digital output.

(Counter type analog to digital converter)

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Lecture Note 3(The Z-Transform)

Z-transform:
Z-transform is a mathematical tool commonly used for the analysis and synthesis of discrete
time control systems. The role of Z-transform in discrete time systems is similar to that of the
Laplace transform in continuous systems. In considering Z-transform of a time function x(t),
we consider only the sampled values of x(t), i.e.,x(0), x(T), x(2T)....... where T is the
sampling period.

For a sequence of numbers x(k)

The above transforms are referred to as one sided z-transform. In one sided z-ransform, we
assume that x(t) = 0 for t < 0 or x(k) = 0 for k < 0. In two sided z-transform, we assume that
−1 < t < 1 or k =,±1,±2,±3, ........

The one sided z-transform has a convenient closed form solution in its region of convergence
for most engineering applications. Whenever X(z), an infinite series in z-1, converges outside
the circle |z| = R, where R is the radius of absolute convergence it is not needed each time to
specify the values of z over which X(z) is convergent.

I.e. for |z| > R convergent and for |z| < R divergent.

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Z-Transforms of some elementary functions:

(i) Unit step function is defined as:

Unit step sequence is defined as  

Assuming that the function is continuous from right, the Z-transform is:

The above series converges if |z| > 1.

(ii) Unit ramp function is defined as:

Again

The Z-transform is:  

The above series converges if |z| > 1.

(iii) Exponential function is defined as:  

Again

The Z-transform is:  

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Lecture Note 4(Theorems & properties of Z-

Transform)
Table for z- and s-transform:

Important properties & theorems of z-transform:

1. Multiplication by a constant: , where
2. Linearity: If , then

3. Multiplication by ak :
4. Real shifting: and

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5. Complex shifting:

6. Initial value theorem:  

7. Final value theorem:  

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Lecture Note 5(Inverse Z-Transform)

Inverse Z-transforms:
When F(z), the Z-transform of f(kT) or f(k), is given, the operation that determines the
corresponding x(kT) or x(k) is called inverse Z-transform. It should be noted that only the
time sequence at the sampling instants is obtained from the inverse Z-transform. So the
inverse Z-transform of F(z) yield a unique f(k) but does not yield a unique f(t).

 
The inverse Z- transform can be obtained by using
(i) Power series method:
Since F(z) is mostly expressed in the ratio of polynomial form

We can immediately recognize the sequence of f(k) if F(z) can be written in form of series
with increasing powers of z-1 .This is easily done by dividing the numerator by the
denominator.

I,e
Here the values of f(k) for k=0,1,2,… can be determined by inspection.
(ii) Partial fraction expansion method:
To expand F(z) into partial fractions, we first factor the denominator polynomial of F(z) and
find the poles F(z):

We then expand F(z)/z into partial fractions so that each term is easily recognizable
in a table of Z-transforms. I.e.  

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Where

(iii) Inversion integral method:

The formula for inversion integral method is given by

Where C is a circle with its center at the origin of the z plane such that all poles of
are inside it.

Z-transform method for solving Difference Equation: 

One of the most important applications of Z-transform is in the solution of linear difference
equations. Let us consider that a discrete time system is described by the following difference
equation. 

Taking the Z-transform of both sides of the given difference equation, we obtain

Substituting the initial data and after simplifying we get

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Taking the inverse Z-transform we get

Lecture Note 6(Z-plane Analysis, sampling &

hold) 
Impulse Sampling:
In case of an impulse sampling, the output of the sampler is considered to be a train of
impulses that begin with t=0, with the sampling period equal to T and the strength of each
impulse equal to sampled value of the continuous-time signal at the corresponding sampling
instant as shown in figure below.

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(Impulse sampler)

The sampler output is equal to the product of the continuous-time input x(t) and the train of
unit impulses δT(t).
The train of unit impulses δT(t) can be defined as

Now the sampler output can be expressed as

 
In the impulse sampler the switch may be thought of closing instantaneously every sampling
period T and generating impulses x(kT)δ(t-kT).The impulse sampler is a fictitious sampler
and it does not exist in the real world.

Data Hold:

Data-hold is a process of generating a continuous-time signal h(t) from a discrete-time

sequence x(kT).A hold circuit converts the sampled signal into a continuous-time signal,
which approximately reproduces the signal applied to the sampler.

The signal h(t) during the interval kT≤ t ≤ (k+1)T can be expressed as

Since,

So,

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If the data-hold circuit is an nth-order polynomial extrapolator, it is called an nth order hold.

Zero-Order Hold:

It is the simplest data-hold obtained by putting n=0 in eq(1), gives .It

indicates that the circuit holds the value of h(kT) for kT≤ t < (k + 1)T until the next sample
h((k + 1)T) arrives.

(sampler and zero order hold)

The accuracy of zero order hold (ZOH) depends on the sampling frequency. When T→0, the
output of ZOH approaches the continuous time signal. Zero order hold is again a linear
device which satisfies the principle of superposition.

(Impulse response of ZOH)

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The impulse response of a ZOH, as shown in the above figure can be written as

Lecture Note 7(Reconstruction of signal)

Data Reconstruction: 
To reconstruct the original signal from a sampled signal, there is a certain minimum
frequency that the sampling operation must satisfy. Such a minimum frequency is specified
by the sampling theorem. 

Sampling Theorem:

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If the sampling frequency ωs = 2 /T ( where T is the sampling period) and ω1 is the highest

frequency component present in the continuous- time signal x(t),then it is theoretically

possible that the signal x(t) can be constructed completely from the sampled signal x (t) if

ωs 2 ω1.

Considering the frequency spectrum of the signal x(t) as shown in the figure below
 
Then the frequency spectra of the sampled signal can be expressed as

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The above equation gives the frequency spectrum of the sampled signal x (t) as shown in

figure below in which we can see that frequency spectrum of the impulse sampled signal is
reproduced an infinite number of times and is attenuated by the factor 1/T.

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The above figure represents the frequency spectrum for ωs 2 ω1 without any overlap and the

continuous time signal x(t) can be reconstructed from the impulse-sampled signal x (t).

For ωs 2 ω1,as shown in figure below, the original shape of |X(jω)| no longer appears in the

plot of | X (jω)| because of the superposition of the spectra. As a result the continuous time

signal x(t) can not be reconstructed from the impulse-sampled signal x (t).

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Lecture Note 8(Folding & Aliasing)

Folding: 

The overlapping of the high frequency components with the fundamental component in the
frequency spectrum is sometimes referred to as folding and the frequency ωs/2 is often
known as folding frequency. The frequency ωs is called Nyquist frequency.. The figure

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below shows the region where folding error occurs.

 

Aliasing:
If the sampling rate is less than twice the input frequency, the output frequency will be
different from the input which is known as aliasing. The output frequency in that case is
called alias frequency and the period is referred to as alias period.

Figure-1 shows the frequency spectra of an impulse-sampled signal x (t), where ωs 2 ω1.

Now the frequency spectrum at an arbitrary frequency ω2 in the overlap region includes
components not only at frequency ω2 but also at frequency ωs- ω2 (in general nωs ± ω2, where
n is an integer).

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(Figure-1:frequency spectra of an impulse-sampled signal)

When the composite spectrum is filtered by a low pass filter, the frequency component at
ω=nωs ± ω2 will appear in the output as if it were a frequency component at ω= ω2. The
frequency ω=nωs ± ω2 is called an alias of ω2 and this phenomena is called aliasing.
 

Lecture Note 9(Pulse Transfer function)

Pulse Transfer Function:
The Pulse transfer function relates z-transform of the output at the sampling instants to the Z-
transform of the sampled input. 
 

 (Block Diagram of a system with sampled input and output ) 

Now 

 
Again 

 
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Using real convolution theorem

G(z) as given by the above equation ,the ratio of output C(z) and the input R(z) is called the
pulse transfer function.

Starred Laplace Transform of the Signal involving Both

Ordinary and starred Laplace Transform:

(Block Diagram of an Impulse sampled system)

The output of the system is C(s) = G(s)R (s). The transfer function of the above system is
difficult to manipulate because it contains a mixture of analog and digital components.
Thus,it is desirable to express the system characteristics by a transfer function that relates
r (t) to c (t), a fictitious sampler output as shown in the above figure.
Now

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Since c(kT) is periodic,

Siliarly,

Again,

Since is periodic, .Thus

By defining

Then

The above equation is referred as the starred transfer function. By substituting in

the previous expression we will directly get the z-transfer function G(z) as

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Lecture Note 10(Pulse T.F. of Open Loop &

Closed Loop Systems)
Pulse Transfer function of Cascaded Elements:

(Cascaded elements separated by a sampler)

The input-output relations of the two systems G1 and G2 are described by D(z)=G1(z)R(z)
and C(z) = G2(z)D(z), So the input-output relation of the overall system is C(z) =
G1(z)G2(z)R(z).

So it can be concluded that the z-transfer function of two linear system separated by a
sampler are the products of the individual z-transfer functions.

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(Cascaded elements not separated by a sampler)

Here the input-output relations of the two systems G1 and G2 are described by
C(s) = G1(s)G2(s)R (s) and the output of the fictitious sampler is
C(z) = Z [G1(s)G2(s)]R(z)
z-transform of the product G1(s)G2(s) is denoted as Z [G1(s)G2(s)] = G1G2(z) = G2G1(z)
One should note that in general G1G2(z) ≠G1(z)G2(z), except for some special cases. The
overall output is thus, C(z) = G1G2(z)R(z).

Pulse Transfer Functions of Closed Loop Systems:

(closed loop system with a sampler in the forward path)

For the above closed loop system, the output of the sampler is regarded as an input to the
system. The input to the sampler is regarded as another output. Thus the input-output
relations can be formulated as

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Taking starred Laplace transform on both sides

Or

Since

Lecture Note 11(Mapping between s & z-plane)

Mapping between s-plane and z-plane:
The absolute stability and relative stability of the LTI continuous-time closed loop control
system are determined by the locations of closed loop poles in the s-plane. Since the complex
variables z and s are related by , the pole and zero locations in the z-plane are related
to the pole and zero locations in the s-plane. So the stability of LTI discrete-time time closed
loop control system are determined in terms of location of poles of the closed-loop pulse
transfer function.

A pole in the s plane can be located in the z plane through the transformation

Since

So  

As is negative in the left half of the s-plane, so the left half of s-plane corresponds to

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  (shown by region A inside of an unit circle). 

For the axis ,it corresponds to .That is the imaginary axis in the s-plane
corresponds to the unit circle in the z-plane (shown by region B). 

For positive values of in the right half of the s-plane corresponds to

.(shown by region C outside the unit circle)

(mapping regions of s-plane on to the z-plane)

Thus, a digital control system is

(1) Stable if all poles of the closed-loop transfer function are inside the unit circle on
the z-plane,
(2) Unstable if any pole is outside the unit circle and/or there are poles of multiplicity
greater than one on the unit circle, and
(3) Marginally stable if poles of multiplicity one are on the unit circle and all other
poles are inside the unit circle.

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Lecture Note 12(Stability Analysis)

Stability Analysis of closed loop system in z-plane:
Consider the following closed loop pulse transfer function of an linear time invariant single-
input-single-output discrete time control system

The stability of the above system can be determined from the location of closed loop poles in
z-plane which are the roots of the characteristic equation

1. For the system to be stable, the closed loop poles or the roots of the characteristic
equation must lie within the unit circle in z-plane. Otherwise the system would be
unstable.

2. If a simple pole lies at , the system becomes marginally stable. Similarly if a

pair of complex conjugate poles lies on the unit circle in the z-plane, the system is
marginally stable. Multiple poles on unit circle make the system unstable. 

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Lecture Note 13(Routh Stability criterion)

Stability Analysis by use of Bilinear Transformation and
Routh Stability Criterion:
It is a frequently used method in stability analysis of discrete time system by using bilinear
transformation coupled with Routh stability criterion. This requires ransformation from z-
plane to another plane called w-plane.
The bilinear transformation defined by

where a, b, c, d are real constants. If we consider a = b = c = 1 and d = −1, then the

transformation takes a form

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or,

This transformation maps the inside of the unit circle in the z-plane into the left half of the w-
plane. Let the real part of w be α and imaginary part be β, so that . The inside of
the unit circle in z-plane can be represented by

Thus inside of the unit circle in z-plane maps into the left half of w-plane and outside of the
unit circle in z-plane maps into the right half of w-plane. Although w-plane seems to be
similar to s-plane, quantitatively it is not same.

In the stability analysis using bilinear transformation, we first substitute in the

characteristics equation

and simplify it to get the characteristic equation in w-plane

Once the characteristics equation P(z)=0 is transformed as Q(w) = 0, Routh stability

Criterion is applied in the same manner as in continuous time systems.

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Lecture Note 14(Jury Stability Test)

Jury Stability Test: 

Assume that the characteristic equation P(z) is a polynomial in z as follows, 

 
Where .Then the Jury table can be formed as shown below 

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Where,

This system will be stable if the following conditions are all satisfied: 

1.  

2.  

3. for n even and for odd 

4. , , …….,  

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Module – 2: State Space Analysis

Lecturer: 1

: Introduction to State Space analysis

: Understanding the Concepts of State, State Variable and State Model of continuous time
system

: State Model of Linear systems

Analysis and design of the non-linear, time variant, multivariable continuous system can be
easily done using Modern control system i.e. state – space – based methods, where system
model are directly written in the time domain. Its performance in real application where plant
model is uncertain has been improved using robust control system, i.e. combining the modern
state space and classical frequency domain techniques.

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In this chapter, a basic study of time domain analysis of linear, time invariant, continuous
system for single input single output (SISO) system has been studied, using state space based
method.

Defining the following basic terms:

State: State represents the status of a dynamical system, with the minimum set of
variables ( known as state variables) such as the knowledge of these variables at t=to,
together with the knowledge of the inputs for , completely determines the
behavior of the system for .

State Variable: The variables that represent the status of the system at any time t, are
called state variable.

State vector: A set of state variable expressed in a matrix is called state vector.

State space: Any n-dimensional state vector determines a point (called the state point)
in an n-dimensional space called the state space.

State Trajectory: The curve traced out by the state point from to in the
direction of increasing time is known as the state trajectory.

State Model: The state vectors with input/output equations constitute the state model
of the system.

State Model of a Continuous time-invariant system:

State equation ……… (1)

Output equation ……… (2)

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Where is state vector, is input vector, A is system matrix

and B is input matrix. Similarly is output vector, C is output
matrix and D is transmission matrix.

Lecturer: 2

: State Model of Linear SISO systems

: Linearization of the State Equation

Linearization of the state Equation:

The state equation of a general time – invariant, non-linear continuous

system can be linearized, by considering small variations about an equilibrium point (xo, uo)
i.e. , where , is assumed initial state point and input vector
respectively. is state space.

Since the derivatives of all the state variables are zero at the equilibrium point, the system
continues to lie at the equilibrium point unless otherwise disturbed. The state equation can be

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linearized about the operating point by expanding it into Talyor series and
neglecting terms of second and higher order.

The linearized component equation can be written as the vector matrix equation

Where

A=

, B=

All the partial derivatives in the matrices A and B defined above (called the Jacobian
matrices) are evaluated at the equilibrium state .

Lecturer: 3

: State space representation using physical variable

Introduction: In this representation the state variables are real physical variables, which can
be measured and used for manipulation or for control purposes. The approach generally
adopted is to break the block diagram of the transfer function into subsystems in such a way
that the physical variables can be identified.

How to solve a problem

1. For an electrical network, apply any of the Network analysis (such as KCL, KVL, Mesh
and Node).
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2. Write the equations such that all the elements of the network have been considered.
3. The equation will be having derivative terms for energy storage elements.
4. Try to convert each equation to single order.
5. Finally, write the state space equation.

For a mechanical system

1. For Mechanical system, convert the physical Model into its equivalent electrical network
using Force voltage or Force current analogy.
2. Electrical network can be solved as above.

Example:1 Example: 3

Example: 2

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Solution: Example.1

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Solution: Example.2,3

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Lecturer: 4

: State space representation using Phase Variable or Observable canonical form and
Alternate Phase Variable or Controllable Canonical form.
: Phase variable formulations for transfer function with poles and zeros.

Introduction: It is often convenient to consider the output of the system as one of the state
variable and remaining state variable as derivatives of this state variables. The state variables
thus obtained from one of the system variables and its (n-1) derivatives, are known as n-
dimensional phase variables.

Steps to be followed:

1. Obtain the differential equation for the given Physical Model.

2. Obtain the transfer function from the given differential equation.

An example has been solved both in phase and alternate phase variable form.

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Lecturer: 5

: State space representation using Canonical Variables (Normal form or Jordan Normal Form
Representation).

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: Derivation of Transfer function for State Model

Lecturer: 6

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: Eigen values and Eigenvectors

Introduction : - Eigen values and eigen vector are special form of square matrix. While the
eigen value parameterizes the diagonal properties of the system (time scale, resonance
properties, amplifying factor etc), the eigenvector define the vector coordinate of the normal
mode of the system. Each eigenvector is associated with particular eigen values. The general
state of the system can be expressed as a combination of eigenvector.
Eigen vector can be explained as a vector ‘ ’ such that matrix operator ‘A’ transforms it to a
vector ‘ ’( is a constant) i.e. to a vector having the same direction in state space as the
vector .
Such a vector X is a solution of the equation
 
Or or
Now, the above equation has a non-trivial solution of and only if

or

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Examples has been solved for different cases :

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Lecturer: 7
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: Time domain solution of State Equation

: Properties of the State Transition Matrix

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Lecturer: 8

: Computation of State transition matrix

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Lecturer: 9

: Computation by Techniques based on the Cayley – Hamilton Theorem

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Lecturer: 10

: Computation by Techniques based on the Sylvester’s Expansion theorem

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Lecturer: 11

: Concept of Controllability and Observability

CONCEPTS OF CONTROLLABILITY AND OBSERVABILITY

Controllability
A system is said to be controllable if it is possible to transfer the system state from any initial
state x( ) to any desired state x(t) in specified finite time by a control vector u(t).
A system is completely controllable if all the state variables are controllable.
Controllability criterion
Controllability is a property of the linkage between the input and the state & thus involves the
matrices A and B.
For an order linear time invariant system, controllable can be determined from the matrix
shown below
=[B AB B ……… B] is of rank n.
This test for controllability is called Kalman’s test.
Observability
A system is said to be observable if each state x(t) could be determined from measurement of
the output over a finite interval of time 0≤ t ≤ .
Observability criterion
Observability is a property of linkage between the output & the state & thus involves the
matrices A and C.
For an order linear time invariant system is completely observable if and only if the
observability matrix
=[ ] is of rank n.
This is Kalman’s test for observability.
Solved Problems
1) A dynamic system S represented by the state equation

ẋ= + r

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Check whether the system is completely controllable.

Ans:- A = , B=

AB = = , B = =
The controllability matrix is

=[B AB B ] = and the determinant of ≠ 0 and the

rank of matrix is 3. Hence the system is completely controllable.

2) The state equation for a system is

ẋ= + r
Check whether the system is completely controllable.

Ans:- A = , B =

AB = =
The controllability matrix

=[B AB ] = and the determinant of = 0 and the rank of

matrix is 1. Hence the system is not completely controllable.

3) A linear system is described by a state model

ẋ= + r and y = x
Determine whether the system is completely observable.

Ans:- A = , B = , =

= =
The observability matrix

=[ ] = and determinant of ≠ 0 and the rank of

matrix is 2. Hence the system is completely observable.

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Lecturer: 12

: Effect of Pole-zero Cancellation in Transfer Function

POLE-ZERO CANCELLATIONS AND STABILITY

Consider the linear time-invariant system given by the transfer function.

Recall that this system is stable if all of the poles are in the OLHP, and these poles are the
roots of the polynomial D(s). It is important to note that one should not cancel any common
poles and zeros of the transfer function before checking the roots of D (s). Specifically,
suppose that both of the polynomials N(s) and D (s) have a roots =a f or some complex (or
real)number a. One must not cancel out this common zero and pole in the transfer function
before testing for stability. The reason for this is that, even though the pole will not show up
in the response to the input, it will still appear as a result of any initial conditions in the
system, or due to additional inputs entering the system (such as disturbances). If the pole and
zero are in the CRHP, the system response might blow up due to these
Initial conditions or disturbances, even though the input to the system Is bounded, and this
would violate BIBO stability

To see this a little more clearly, consider the following example. Suppose the transfer
function of a linear system is given by

Nothing that s2+2s-3=(s+3)(s-1) suppose we decided to cancel out the common pole and zero
at s=0 to obtain

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Based on this transfer function we might conclude that the system is stable, since it only has a
pole in OLHP . what we should actually dois look at the original denominator D(s) , and
correctly conclude that the system is un stable because one of the pole in the CRHP. To see
why the pole zero cancellation hide the stability of the system first writes out the differential
equation corresponding to the transfer function we obtain

Taking Laplace transformation on both side and taking initial condition in count

Rearranging the equation we get

Note that the denominator polynomial in each of the terms on the right hand sides is equal to
D(s) (the denominator of the transfer function). For simplicity, suppose that y(0)=y0 (for
some real number y0) y˙(0) = 0 and u(0) = 0.The partial fraction expansion of the term

is given by

and this contributes the term to the response of the system. Note
t
that the e term blows up, and thus the output of the system blows up if y0 is not zero, even if
the input to the system is bounded.

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MODULE-3

Lecture-1
Behaviour of Non linear Systems, Investigation of nonlinear systems
Behaviour of Non linear Systems:

The most important feature of nonlinear systems is that nonlinear systems do not obey
the principle of superposition. Due to this reason, in contrast to the linear case, the response
of nonlinear systems to a particular test signal is no guide to their behaviour to other inputs.
The nonlinear system response may be highly sensitive to input amplitude. For example, a
nonlinear system giving best response for a certain step input may exhibit highly
unsatisfactory behaviour when the input amplitude is changed. Hence, in a nonlinear system,
the stability is very much dependent on the input and also the initial state.
Further, the nonlinear systems may exhibit limit cycles which are self-sustained
oscillations of fixed frequency and amplitude. Once the system trajectories converge to a
limit cycle, it will continue to remain in the closed trajectory in the state space identified as
limit cycles. In many systems the limit cycles are undesirable particularly when the amplitude
is not small and result in some unwanted phenomena.

Figure 6.1

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A nonlinear system, when excited by a sinusoidal input, may generate several harmonics
in addition to the fundamental corresponding to the input frequency. The amplitude of the
fundamental is usually the largest, but the harmonics may be of significant amplitude in many
situations.

Another peculiar characteristic exhibited by nonlinear systems is called jump

phenomenon. For example, let us consider the frequency response curve of spring-mass
damper system. The frequency responses of the system with a linear spring, hard spring and
soft spring are as shown in Fig. 6.2(a), Fig. 6.2(b) and Fig. 6.2(c) respectively. For a hard
spring, as the input frequency is gradually increased from zero, the measured response
follows the curve through the A, B and C, but at C an increment in frequency results in
discontinuous jump down to the point D, after which with further increase in frequency, the
response curve follows through DE. If the frequency is now decreased, the response follows
the curve EDF with a jump up to B from the point F and then the response curve moves
towards A. This phenomenon which is peculiar to nonlinear systems is known as jump
resonance. For a soft spring, jump phenomenon will happen as shown in fig. 6.2(c).

Fig. 6.2(a) Fig. 6.2(b) Fig. 6.2 (c)

When excited by a sinusoidal input of constant frequency and the amplitude is increased from
low values, the output frequency at some point exactly matches with the input frequency and
continue to remain as such thereafter. This phenomenon which results in a synchronization or
matching of the output frequency with the input frequency is called frequency entrainment
or synchronization.

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Classification of Nonlinearities:
The nonlinearities are classified into i) Inherent nonlinearities and ii) Intentional
nonlinearities.
The nonlinearities which are present in the components used in system due to the inherent
imperfections or properties of the system are known as inherent nonlinearities. Examples are
saturation in magnetic circuits, dead zone, back lash in gears etc. However in some cases
introduction of nonlinearity may improve the performance of the system, make the system
more economical consuming less space and more reliable than the linear system designed to
achieve the same objective. Such nonlinearities introduced intentionally to improve the
system performance are known as intentional nonlinearities. Examples are different types of
relays which are very frequently used to perform various tasks. But it should be noted that the
improvement in system performance due to nonlinearity is possible only under specific
operating conditions. For other conditions, generally nonlinearity degrades the performance
of the system.

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Lecture-2
Saturation, Friction, Backlash, Relay, Multivariable Nonlinearity.
Common Physical Non Linearities:
The common examples of physical nonlinearities are saturation, dead zone, coulomb friction,
stiction, backlash, different types of springs, different types of relays etc.
Saturation: This is the most common of all nonlinearities. All practical systems, when driven
by sufficiently large signals, exhibit the phenomenon of saturation due to limitations of
physical capabilities of their components. Saturation is a common phenomenon in magnetic
circuits and amplifiers.
Dead zone: Some systems do not respond to very small input signals. For a particular range
of input, the output is zero. This is called dead zone existing in a system. The input-output
curve is shown in figure.

Backlash: Another important nonlinearity commonly occurring in physical systems is

hysteresis in mechanical transmission such as gear trains and linkages. This nonlinearity is
somewhat different from magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as backlash. In
servo systems, the gear backlash may cause sustained oscillations or chattering phenomenon
and the system may even turn unstable for large backlash.

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Relay: A relay is a nonlinear power amplifier which can provide large power
amplification inexpensively and is therefore deliberately introduced in control systems. A
relay controlled system can be switched abruptly between several discrete states which are
usually off, full forward and full reverse. Relay controlled systems find wide applications in
the control field. The characteristic of an ideal relay is as shown in figure. In practice a relay
has a definite amount of dead zone as shown. This dead zone is caused by the facts that relay
coil requires a finite amount of current to actuate the relay. Further, since a larger coil current
is needed to close the relay than the current at which the relay drops out, the characteristic
always exhibits hysteresis.
Multivariable Nonlinearity: Some nonlinearities such as the torque-speed characteristics of a
servomotor, transistor characteristics etc., are functions of more than one variable. Such
nonlinearities are called multivariable nonlinearities.

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Lecture-3,4
Basic Concepts, Singular Points: Nodal Point, Saddle Point, Focus Point, Centre or Vortex
Point

The Phase Plane Method:

This method is applicable to second order linear or nonlinear systems for the study of the
nature of phase trajectories near the equilibrium points. The system behaviour is qualitatively
analysed along with design of system parameters so as to get the desired response from the
system. The periodic oscillations in nonlinear systems called limit cycle can be identified
with this method which helps in investigating the stability of the system.
Singular points: From the fundamental theorem of uniqueness of solutions of the state
equations or differential equations, it can be seen that the solution of the state equation
starting from an initial state in the state space is unique. This will be true if f1(x1, x2) and
f2(x1,x2) are analytic. For such a system, consider the points in the state space at which the
derivatives of all the state variables are zero. These points are called singular points. These
are in fact equilibrium points of the system. If the system is placed at such a point, it will
continue to lie there if left undisturbed. A family of phase trajectories starting from different
initial states is called a phase portrait. As time t increases, the phase portrait graphically
shows how the system moves in the entire state plane from the initial states in the different
regions. Since the solutions from each of the initial conditions are unique, the phase
trajectories do not cross one another. If the system has nonlinear elements which are piece-
wise linear, the complete state space can be divided into different regions and phase plane
trajectories constructed for each of the regions separately.
Nodal Point: Consider eigen values are real, distinct and negative as shown in figure (a). For
this case the equation of the phase trajectory follows as z2=c (z1) k1

Where k1= ( ) 0 so that the trajectories become a set of parabola as shown in figure
(b) and the equilibrium point is called a node. In the original system of coordinates, these
trajectories appear to be skewed as shown in figure (c).

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If the eigen values are both positive, the nature of the trajectories does not change, except that
the trajectories diverge out from the equilibrium point as both z1(t) and z2(t) are increasing
exponentially. The phase trajectories in the x1-x2 plane are as shown in figure (d). This type
of singularity is identified as a node, but it is an unstable node as the trajectories diverge from
the equilibrium point.
Where z1(t)= z1(0) z2(t)= z2(0)
Saddle Point:
Consider now a system with eigen values are real, distinct one positive and one negative.
Here, one of the states corresponding to the negative eigen value converges and the one
corresponding to positive eigen value diverges so that the trajectories are given by z2 = c(z1)-k
or (z1)kz2 = c which is an equation to a rectangular hyperbola for positive values of k. The
location of the eigen values, the phase portrait in z1 – z2 plane and in the x1 – x2 plane are as
shown in figure. The equilibrium point around which the trajectories are of this type is called
a saddle point

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Focus Point:
Consider a system with complex conjugate eigen values. The canonical form of the state
equation can be written as

Using linear transformation, the equation becomes

The slope

Define = , =

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We get = or
This is an equation for a spiral in the polar coordinates. A plot of this equation for
negative values of real part is a family of equiangular spirals. The origin which is a
singular point in this case is called a stable focus. When the eigen values are complex
conjugate with positive real parts, the phase portrait consists of expanding spirals as shown in
figure and the singular point is an unstable focus. When transformed into the x1-x2 plane, the
phase portrait in the above two cases is essentially spiralling in nature, except that the spirals
are now somewhat twisted in shape.

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Centre or Vortex Point:

Consider now the case of complex conjugate eigen values with zero real parts.
ie., λ1, λ2 = jω

= = from which + d =0

Integrating the above equation, we get R2 which is an equation to a circle of

radius R. The radius R can be evaluated from the initial conditions. The trajectories are thus
concentric circles in y1-y2 plane and ellipses in the x1-x2 plane as shown in figure. Such a
singular points, around which the state trajectories are concentric circles or ellipses, are called
a centre or vortex.

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Lecture-5
Stability of Non Linear Systems: Limit Cycles
Limit Cycles:
Limit cycles have a distinct geometric configuration in the phase plane portrait, namely, that
of an isolated closed path in the phase plane. A given system may have more than one limit
cycle. A limit cycle represents a steady state oscillation, to which or from which all
trajectories nearby will converge or diverge. In a nonlinear system, limit cycles describes the
amplitude and period of a self sustained oscillation. It should be pointed out that not all
closed curves in the phase plane are limit cycles. A phase-plane portrait of a conservative
system, in which there is no damping to dissipate energy, is a continuous family of closed
curves. Closed curves of this kind are not limit cycles because none of these curves are
isolated from one another. Such trajectories always occur as a continuous family, so that there
are closed curves in any neighborhoods of any particular closed curve. On the other hand,
limit cycles are periodic motions exhibited only by nonlinear non conservative systems.
As an example, let us consider the well known Vander Pol’s differential equation

This describes physical situations in many nonlinear systems.

In terms of the state variables and we obtained
= x2
= - x1

The figure shows the phase trajectories of the system for μ > 0 and μ < 0. In case of μ > 0 we
observe that for large values of x1(0), the system response is damped and the amplitude of
x1(t) decreases till the system state enters the limit cycle as shown by the outer trajectory. On
the other hand, if initially x1(0) is small, the damping is negative, and hence the amplitude of

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x1(t) increases till the system state enters the limit cycle as shown by the inner trajectory.
When μ < 0, the trajectories moves in the opposite directions as shown in figure.

A limit cycle is called stable if trajectories near the limit cycle, originating from outside or
inside, converge to that limit cycle. In this case, the system exhibits a sustained oscillation
with constant amplitude. This is shown in figure (i). The inside of the limit cycle is an
unstable region in the sense that trajectories diverge to the limit cycle, and the outside is a
stable region in the sense that trajectories converge to the limit cycle.
A limit cycle is called an unstable one if trajectories near it diverge from this limit cycle. In
this case, an unstable region surrounds a stable region. If a trajectory starts within the stable
region, it converges to a singular point within the limit cycle. If a trajectory starts in the
unstable region, it diverges with time to infinity as shown in figure (ii). The inside of an
unstable limit cycle is the stable region, and the outside the unstable region.
In the phase plane, a limit cycle is defied as an isolated closed curve. The trajectory has to be
both closed, indicating the periodic nature of the motion, and isolated, indicating the limiting
nature of the cycle (with near by trajectories
converging or diverging from it).

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Depending on the motion patterns of the trajectories in the vicinity of the limit cycle, we can
distinguish three kinds of limit cycles
• Stable Limit Cycles: all trajectories in the vicinity of the
limit cycle converge to it as t → ∞ (Fig. 2.10.a).
• Unstable Limit Cycles: all trajectories in the vicinity of
the limit cycle diverge to it as t → ∞ (Fig. 2.10.b)
• Semi-Stable Limit Cycles: some of the trajectories in
the vicinity of the limit cycle converge to it as t → ∞ (Fig. 2.10.c)

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Lecture-6
Construction by Analytical Method, Construction by Graphical Methods

Construction of Phase Trajectories:

Consider the homogenous second order system with differential equations

This equation may be written in the standard form

+2 + x=0
where ζ and ωn are the damping factor and undamped natural frequency of the
system.Defining the state variables as x = x1 and = x2, we get the state equation in the state
variable form as
= x2
=
These equations may then be solved for phase variables x1 and x2. The time response plots of
x1, x2 for various values of damping with initial conditions can be plotted. When the
differential equations describing the dynamics of the system are nonlinear, it is in general not
possible to obtain a closed form solution of x1, x2. For example, if the spring force is
nonlinear say (k1 x + k2 x3) the state equation takes the form
= x2

=
Solving these equations by integration is no more an easy task. In such situations, a
graphical method known as the phase-plane method is found to be very helpful. The
coordinate plane with axes that correspond to the dependent variable x1 and x2 is called
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phase-plane. The curve described by the state point (x1,x2) in the phase-plane with respect to
time is called a phase trajectory. A phase trajectory can be easily constructed by graphical
techniques.
Isoclines Method:
Let the state equations for a nonlinear system be in the form
=f1(x1,x2)
= f2(x1,x2)
When both f1(x1,x2) and f2(x1,x2) are analytic.
From the above equation, the slope of the trajectory is given by

Therefore, the locus of constant slope of the trajectory is given by

f2(x1,x2) =M f1(x1,x2)
The above equation gives the equation to the family of isoclines. For different values of M,
the slope of the trajectory, different isoclines can be drawn in the phase plane. Knowing the
value of M on a given isoclines, it is easy to draw line segments on each of these isoclines.
Consider a simple linear system with state equations

=
Dividing the above equations we get the slope of the state trajectory in the x1-x2 plane as

For a constant value of this slope say M, we get a set of equations

which is a straight line in the x1-x2 plane. We can draw different lines in the x1-x2 plane for
different values of M; called isoclines. If draw sufficiently large number of isoclines to cover
the complete state space as shown, we can see how the state trajectories are moving in the
state plane. Different trajectories can be drawn from different initial conditions. A large
number of such trajectories together form a phase portrait. A few typical trajectories are
shown in figure given below.

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The Procedure for construction of the phase trajectories can be summarised as below:
1.For the given nonlinear differential equation, define the state variables as x1 and x2 and
obtain the state equations as
= x2
f
2.Determine the equation to the isoclines as

3. For typical values of M, draw a large number of isoclines in x1-x2 plane

4. On each of the isoclines, draw small line segments with a slope M.
5. From an initial condition point, draw a trajectory following the line segments
With slopes M on each of the isoclines.
Delta Method:
The delta method of constructing phase trajectories is applied to systems of the form

Where may be linear or nonlinear and may even be time varying but must be
continuous and single valued.

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With the help of this method, phase trajectory for any system with step or ramp or any time
varying input can be conveniently drawn. The method results in considerable time saving
when a single or a few phase trajectories are required rather than a complete phase portrait.
While applying the delta method, the above equation is first converted to the form

In general depends upon the variables x, and t, but for short intervals the changes
in these variables are negligible. Thus over a short interval, we have

, where δ is a constant.

Let us choose the state variables as x1 = x; ,then

Therefore, the slope equation over a short interval is given by

With δ known at any point P on the trajectory and assumed constant for a short interval, we
can draw a short segment of the trajectory by using the trajectory slope dx2/dx1 given in the
above equation. A simple geometrical construction given below can be used for this purpose.
1. From the initial point, calculate the value of δ.
2. Draw a short arc segment through the initial point with (-δ, 0) as centre, thereby
determining a new point on the trajectory.
3. Repeat the process at the new point and continue.
Example : For the system described by the equation given below, construct the
trajectory starting at the initial point (1, 0) using delta method.

Let , and ,then

The above equation can be rearranged as

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Where
At initial point δ is calculated as δ = 0+1-1 = 0. Therefore, the initial arc is centered at point
(0, 0). The mean value of the coordinates of the two ends of the arc is used to calculate the
next value of δ and the procedure is continued. By constructing the small arcs in this way the
complete trajectory will be obtained as shown in figure.

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Lecture-7,8
The Describing Function Method, Derivation of Describing Functions
Describing Function
Describing functions provide a method for the analysis of nonlinear systems that is
closely related to the linear-system techniques involving Bode or gain-phase plots. It is
possible to use this type of analysis to determine if limit cycles (constant-amplitude periodic
oscillations) are possible for a given system. It is also possible to use describing functions to
predict the response of certain nonlinear systems to purely sinusoidal excitation, although this
2
topic is not covered here. unfortunately, since the frequency response and transient response
of nonlinear systems are not directly related, the determination of transient response is not
possible via describing functions.
Certain approximate techniques exist which are capable of determining the behavior of
wider class of systems then is possible by phase plane method. These techniques are known
as the describing function techniques .Let us consider the block diagram of a nonlinear
system shown in figure, where in the blocks G(S) represent the linear elements, while the
block N represents the nonlinear elements.

Let us assume that x to be non linearity is sinusoidal,

x=X
With such an input, the output of nonlinear element will in general be non sinusoidal periodic
function which may be expressed in terms of Fourier series as follows:
y=
In the absence of external input (r=0), the output y of N is feedback to its input through the
linear element G(S) tandem. It can be assumed to a good degree of accuracy that all the
harmonics of y are filtered out in the process such that input x(t) to the non linear element N

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is mainly contributed by the fundamental component of y ,i.e.(t) remains sinusoidal. Under

such conditions the harmonic content of y can be thrown away for the purpose of analysis and
the fundamental component of y, i.e.,

The non linearity can be replaced by a described function which is defined to be the
complex function embodying amplification and phase shift of the fundamental frequency
component of y relative to x, i.e.

Derivation of Describing Functions

The describing function of a non linear element is given by

Where X =amplitude of the input sinusoid; Y1=amplitude of fundamental harmonic

component of the output; and =phase shift of fundamental harmonic component of the
output with respect to input.
Therefore, for computing the describing function of a nonlinear element, we are simply
required to find the fundamental harmonic component of its output for an input x= X
.The fundamental component of the output can be written as

Where the coefficients A1 and B2 of the Fourier series are

B1= ………… (1)

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A1= …………. (2)

The amplitude and phase angle of the fundamental component of the output are given by

Y1=

Illustrative derivation of describing functions of commonly encountered non linearities are

given below
Dead-zone and Saturation:
Idealized characteristics of a nonlinearity having dead-zone and saturation and its response to
sinusoidal input are shown in figure. The output wave form may be described as follows:

Where and
Using equations 1 and 2 recognizing that the output has half-wave and quarter-wave
symmetries, we have
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B1 = 0

A1 =

==

Therefore, the describing function is given by

……. (3)

Two special cases immediately from eqn……. (3)

Case-1 saturation nonlinearity

Case-2 Dead-zone nonlinearity

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It is found that the describing functions of saturation and dead-zone nonlinearity are
frequency-invariant having zero phase shifts. In fact all nonlinearities, whose input output
characteristics are represented by a planner graph, would result in describing functions
independent of frequency and amplitude dependent.

Lecture-9
Relay with Dead-zone and Hysteresis, Backlash

Relay with Dead-zone and Hysteresis:

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The characteristics of a relay with dead-zone and hysteresis and its response to sinusoidal
input are sown in figure.

The output y may be described as follows:

y=

Where and
But we have

B1=

B1=

A1=

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=
Therefore

……………….. (6)
It is seen that is a function of X, the input amplitude and is independent of frequency.
Further, it being memory type nonlinearity, has both magnitude and angle .Equation (6)
is the general expression for the describing function of a relay element, from which the
describing functions of various simplified relay characteristics given below;
1. Ideal relay,(fig a) letting D=H=0 in eqn.(6)

…………. (7)

2. Relay with dead-zone (fig b).letting H=0 in eqn. (6)

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; X>D/2

3. Relay with hysteresis (fig c).Letting H=D in eqn. (6)

; X>H/2
Backlash
The characteristics of backlash nonlinearity and its response to sinusoidal input are shown in
fig. The output may be described as follows:

y =x - b/2 ;
=X - b/2 ;

=x + b/2 ;

=-X + b/2 ;

=x - b/2 ;

Where

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B1=

= + +

A1=

= + +

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Therefore,

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Lecture-10
Stability Analysis by Describing Function Method, Jump Resonance

Describing functions are most frequently used to determine if limit cycles (stable-
amplitude periodic oscillations) are possible for a given system, and to determine the
amplitudes of various signals when these oscillations are present.

Describing-function analysis is simplified if the system can be arranged in a form

similar to that shown in Fig. 6.9. The inverting block is included to represent the inversion
conventionally indicated at the summing point in a negative-feedback system. Since the
intent of the analysis is to examine the possibility of steady-state oscillations, system input
and output points are irrevelant. The important feature of the topology shown in Fig. 6.9 is

that a single nonlinear element appears in a loop with a single linear element. The linear
element shown can of course represent the reduction of a complex interconnection of linear
elements in the original system to a single transfer function.

The system shown in Fig. 6.10 illustrates a type of manipulation that simplifies the use of
describing functions in certain cases. A limiter consisting of back-to-back Zener diodes is
included in a circuit that also consisting of back-to-back Zener diodes is included in a circuit

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that also contains an amplifier and a resistor-capacitor network. The Zener limiter is assumed
to have the piecewise-linear characteristics shown in Fig. 6.10b.

The describing function for the nonlinear network that includes R1, R2, C, and the limiter
could be calculated by assuming a sinusoidal signal for vb and finding the amplitude and
relative phase angle of the fundamental component of VA. The resulting describing function
would be frequency.

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Once a system has been reduced to the form shown in Fig. 6.9, it can be analyzed by means
of describing functions. The describing-function approximation states that oscillations may
be possible if particular values of Ei and exist such that

Gives one stable and one unstable limit cycle. The left most intersection corresponds to the
stable one.

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Jump Resonance
Consider a nonlinear system shown in figure where in the nonlinear part has been replaced by
its describing function.

Let r (t) = R
X (t) = R
It immediately follows that

We can also write

Further we can write

In order to simplify the analysis we assume

(i)
(ii) i.e independent of frequency
So we can write

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=
In terms of magnitudes, we can write the above expression as

Solving for , we get

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L ecture-11
Basic Stability Theores, Liapunov Functions, Instability
Consider a dynamical system which satisfies

x˙ = f(x, t) x(t0) = x0 x R n. (4.31)

We will assume that f(x, t) satisfies the standard conditions for the existence and uniqueness
of solutions. Such conditions are, for instance, that f(x, t) is Lipschitz continuous with respect

to x, uniformly in t, and piecewise continuous in t. A point x* Rn is an equilibrium point of

(4.31) if
F(x*, t) ≡ 0. Intuitively and somewhat crudely speaking, we say an equilibrium point is
locally stable if all solutions which start near x* (meaning that the initial conditions are in a

neighborhood of x ) remain near x for all time. The equilibrium point x is said to be locally

asymptotically

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stable if x is locally stable and, furthermore, all solutions starting near x tend towards x as

t → ∞. We say somewhat crude because the time-varying nature of equation (4.31)

introduces all kinds of additional subtleties. Nonetheless, it is intuitive that a pendulum has a
locally stable
equilibrium point when the pendulum is hanging straight down and an unstable equilibrium
point when it is pointing straight up. If the pendulum
is damped, the stable equilibrium point is locally asymptotically stable.

By shifting the origin of the system, we may assume that the equilibrium

point of interest occurs at x = 0. If multiple equilibrium points exist, we will need to study

the stability of each by appropriately shifting the origin.

4.1 Stability in the sense of Lyapunov

The equilibrium point x = 0 of (4.31) is stable (in the sense of Lyapunov)

at t = t0 if for any > 0 there exists a δ(t0, ) > 0 such that

<δ < , t ≥ t0………….(4.32)

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Lyapunov stability is a very mild requirement on equilibrium points. In particular, it does not
require that trajectories starting close to the origin tend to the origin asymptotically. Also,
stability is defined at a time instant t0. Uniform stability is a concept which guarantees that
the equilibrium point is not losing stability. We insist that for a uniformly stable equilibrium

point x , δ in the Definition 4.1 not be a function of t0, so that equation (4.32) may hold for

all t0. Asymptotic stability is made precise in the following definition:

4.2 Asymptotic stability
An equilibrium point x* = 0 of (4.31) is asymptotically stable at t = t0 if

1. x * = 0 is stable, and
2. x * = 0 is locally attractive; i.e., there exists δ(t0) such that

< δ =0 (4.33)

As in the previous definition, asymptotic stability is defined at t0.Uniform asymptotic stability

requires:

1. x * = 0 is uniformly stable, and

2. x * = 0 is uniformly locally attractive; i.e., there exists δ independent
of t0 for which equation (4.33) holds. Further, it is required that the convergence in equation
(4.33) is uniform.

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Finally, we say that an equilibrium point is unstable if it is not stable. This is less of a
tautology than it sounds and the reader should be sure he or she can negate the definition of
stability in the sense of Lyapunov to get a definition of instability. In robotics, we are almost
always interested in uniformly asymptotically stable equilibria. If we wish to move the robot
to a point, we would like to actually converge to that point, not merely remain nearby. Figure
4.7 illustrates the difference between stability in the sense of Lyapunov and asymptotic
stability. Definitions 4.1 and 4.2 are local definitions; they describe the behavior of a system
near an equilibrium point. We say an equilibrium point x* is globally stable if it is stable for

all initial conditions x0 Rn. Global stability is very desirable, but in many applications it can

be difficult to achieve. We will concentrate on local stability theorems and indicate where it is
possible to extend the results to the global case. Notions

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Basic theorem of Lyapunov

Let V (x, t) be a non-negative function with derivative ˙V along the trajectories of the system.
1. If V (x, t) is locally positive definite and ˙V (x, t) ≤ 0 locally in x and for all t, then the
origin of the system is locally stable (in the sense of Lyapunov).

2. If V (x, t) is locally positive definite and decrescent, and ˙V (x, t) ≤ 0 locally in x and for all
t, then the origin of the system is uniformly locally stable (in the sense of Lyapunov).

3. If V (x, t) is locally positive definite and decrescent, and − ˙V (x, t) is locally positive
definite, then the origin of the system is uniformly locally asymptotically stable.

4. If V (x, t) is positive definite and decrescent, and − ˙V (x, t) is positive definite, then the
origin of the system is globally uniformly asymptotically stable.
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The conditions in the theorem are summarized in Table 4.1.

Theorm-1
Consider the system

Suppose there exists a scalar function v(x) which for some real number satisfies the
following properties for all x in the region
(a) V(x)>0; x that is v(x) is positive definite scalar function.
(b) V (0) = 0
(c)V(x) has continuous partial derivatives with respect to all component of x

(d) (i.e dv/dt is negative semi definite scalar function)

Then the system is stable at the origin.
Theorem-2

If the property of (d) of theorem-1 is replaced with (d) , (i.e dv/dt is negative
definite scalar function),then the system is asymptotically stable.
It is intuitively obvious since continuous v function>0 except at x=0, satisfies the condition
dv/dt <0, we except that x will eventually approach the origin .We shall avoid the rigorous of
this theorem.
Theorem-3
If all the conditions of theorem-2 hold and in addition.

Then the system is asymptotically stable in-the-large at the origin.

Instability
It may be noted that instability in a nonlinear system can be established by direct recourse to
the instability theorem of the direct method .The basic instability theorem is presented below:
Theorem-4 Consider a system

Suppose there a exist a scalar function W(x) which, for real number , satisfies the
following properties for all x in the region ;

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(a) W(x)>0; x
(b) W (0) = 0
(c)W(x) has continuous partial derivatives with respect to all component of x

(d)
Then the system is unstable at the origin.

Lecture-12
Direct Method of Liapunov & the Linear System, Methods of constructing Liapunov
functions for Non linear Systems.
Direct Method of Liapunov & the Linear System:
In case of linear systems, the direct method of liapunov provides a simple approach to
stability analysis. It must be emphasized that compared to the results presented, no new
results are obtained by the use of direct method for the stability analysis of linear systems.
However, the study of linear systems using the direct method is quite useful because it
extends our thinking to nonlinear systems.
Consider a linear autonomous system described by the state equation
= Ax …………………………..13.9

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The linear system is asymptotically stable in-the-large at the origin if and only if
given any symmetric, positive definite matrix Q, there exists a symmetric positive definite
matrix P which is the unique solution
ATP + PA = -Q ……….13.10
Proof
To prove the sufficiency of the result of above theorem, let us assume that a symmetric
positive definite matrix P exists which is the unique solution of eqn.(13.11). Consider the
scalar function.
V(x) = xT Px
Note that V(x) > 0 for x 0
V (0) = 0
And
The time derivate of V(x) is
T
(x) = PX + xT P
Using eqns. (13.9) and (13.10) we get
V(x) = xTATPx +xTPAx
= xT(ATP + PA)x
= -xTQx
Since Q is positive definite, V(x) is negative definite. Norm of x may be defined as

Then
V(X) =
V(X)
The system is therefore asymptotically stable in-the large at the origin.
In order to show that the result is also necessary, suppose that the system is asymptotically
stable and P is negative definite, consider the scalar function
Therefore V(x) = xT Px……………………………….13.11

(x) =

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>0
There is contradiction since V(x) given by eqn. (13.11) satisfies instability theorem.
Thus the conditions for the positive definiteness of P are necessary and sufficient for
asymptotic stability of the system of eqn. (13.9).
Methods of constructing Liapunov functions for Non linear Systems.
As has been said earlier ,the liapunov theorems give only sufficient conditions on system
stability and furthermore there is no unique way of constructing a liapunov function except in
the case of linear systems where a liapunov function can always be constructed and both
necessary and sufficient conditions Established .Because of this draw back a host of methods
have become available in literature and many refinements have been suggested to enlarge the
region in which the system is found to be stable. since this treatise is meant as a first exposure
of the student to the liapunov direct method, only two of the relatively simpler techniques of
constructing a liapunov’s function would be advanced here.
Krasovskiis method
Consider a system

Define a liapunov function as

V = fTPf
Where P=a symmetric positive definite matrix.
Now

………13.13

J= is jacobian matrix
Substituting in eqn (13.13), we have
=

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( )f
Let Q P + PJ
Since V is positive definite, for the system to be asymptotically stable, Q should be negative
definite. If in addition, the system is asymptotically stable in-the-
large.

 
 
 
 

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