Contents 29

Integral Vector
Calculus
29.1 Line Integrals Involving Vectors 2

29.2 Surface and Volume Integrals 34

29.3 Integral Vector Theorems 54

Learning outcomes
In this Workbook you will learn how to integrate functions involving vectors. You will learn
how to evaluate line integrals i.e. where a scalar or a vector is summed along a line or
contour. You will be able to evaluate surface and volume integrals where a function
involving vectors is summed over a surface or volume. You will learn about some theorems
relating to line, surface or volume integrals i.e Stokes' theorem, Gauss' theorem and
Green's theorem.
Line Integrals  

Involving Vectors 29.1 

Introduction
28 considered the differentiation of scalar and vector fields. Here we consider how to integrate
such fields along a line. Firstly, integrals involving scalars along a line will be considered. Subsequently,
line integrals involving vectors will be considered. These can be scalar or vector depending on the
form of integral used. Of particular interest are the integrals of conservative vector fields.

#
• have a thorough understanding of the basic
techniques of integration
Prerequisites
Before starting this Section you should . . . • be familiar with the operators div, grad and
curl
"
 !


Learning Outcomes • integrate a scalar or vector quantity along a

line
On completion you should be able to . . .
 

2 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
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1. Line integrals
28 was concerned with evaluating an integral over all points within a rectangle or other shape
(or over a cuboid or other volume). In a related manner, an integral can take place over a line or
curve running through a two-dimensional (or three-dimensional) shape. Line integrals may involve
scalar or vector fields. Those involving scalar fields are dealt with first.

Line integrals in two dimensions

A line integral in two dimensions may be written as
Z
F (x, y)dw
C

There are three main features determining this integral:

F (x, y) This is the scalar function to be integrated e.g. F (x, y) = x2 + 4y 2 .
C This is the curve along which integration takes place. e.g. y = x2 or x = sin y
or x = t − 1; y = t2 (where x and y are expressed in terms of a parameter t).
dw This states the variable of the integration. Three main cases are dx, dy and ds.
Here ‘s’ is arc length and so indicates position along the
s curve C.
 2
dy
q
ds may be written as ds = (dx)2 + (dy)2 or ds = 1 + dx.
dx
A fourth case is when F (x, y) dw has the form: F1 dx+F2 dy. This is a combination
Z of the cases dx and dy.
The integral F (x, y) ds represents the area beneath the surface z = F (x, y) but above the line
C
C. Z Z
The integrals F (x, y) dx and F (x, y) dy represent the projections of this area onto the xz
C C
and yz planes respectively. Z Z
A particular case of the integral F (x, y) ds is the integral 1 ds. This is a means of calculating
C C
the length along a curve i.e. an arc length.

z
 y

f (x, y)dy f (x, y)ds
C C

curve C


f (x, y)dx
C

Figure 1: Representation of a line integral and its projections onto the xz and yz planes

HELM (2006): 3
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
The technique with a line integral is to express all quantities in an integral in terms of a single
variable. Often, if the integral is with respect to ’x’ or ’y’, the curve ’C’ and the
function ’F ’ may be expressed in terms of the relevant variable. If the integral is carried out
with respect to ds, normally everything is expressed in terms of x. If x and y are given in terms of
a parameter t, normally everything is expressed in terms of t.

Example
Z 1
Find x (1 + 4y) dx where C is the curve y = x2 , starting from x = 0, y = 0
c
and ending at x = 1, y = 1.

Solution
As this integral concerns only points along C and the integration is carried out with respect to x,
y may be replaced by x2 . The limits on x will be 0 to 1. So the integral becomes
Z Z 1 Z 1
2
x + 4x3 dx



x(1 + 4y) dx = x 1 + 4x dx =
C x=0 x=0
 2 1  
x 1 3
= + x4 = + 1 − (0) =
2 0 2 2

Example
Z 2
Find x (1 + 4y) dy where C is the curve y = x2 , starting from
c
x = 0, y = 0 and ending at x = 1, y = 1. This is the same as Example 1 other
than dx being replaced by dy.

Solution
As this integral concerns only points along C and the integration is carried out with respect to y,
everything may be expressed in terms of y, i.e. x may be replaced by y 1/2 . The limits on y will
be 0 to 1. So the integral becomes
Z Z 1 Z 1
1/2
y 1/2 + 4y 3/2 dx


x(1 + 4y) dy = y (1 + 4y) dx =
C y=0 y=0
 1  
2 3/2 8 5/2 2 8 34
= y + x = + − (0) =
3 5 0 3 5 15

4 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
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Example
Z 3
Find x (1 + 4y) ds where C is the curve y = x2 , starting from x = 0, y = 0
c
and ending at x = 1, y = 1. Once again, this is the same as the previous
two examples other than the integration being carried out with respect to s, the
coordinate along the curve C.

Solution
As this integral s
is with respect to x, all parts of the integral can be expressed in terms of x, Along
 2
dy
q √
2
y = x , ds = 1 + dx = 1 + (2x)2 dx = 1 + 4x2 dx
dx
So, the integral is

√
Z Z 1 Z 1
2

3/2
x (1 + 4y) ds = x 1 + 4x 2
1 + 4x dx = x 1 + 4x2 dx
c x=0 x=0

dU
This can be evaluated using the transformation U = 1 + 4x2 so dU = 8xdx i.e. x dx = .
8
When x = 0, U = 1 and when x = 1, U = 5.
The integral therefore equals
Z 1
1 5
Z
2 3/2
U 3/2 dU


x 1 + 4x dx =
x=0 8 U =1
 5
1 2 5/2 1  5/2 
= × U = 5 − 1 ≈ 2.745
8 5 1 20

Note that the results for Examples 1,2 and 3 are all different: Example 3 is the area between a curve
and a surface above; Examples 1 and 2 give projections of this area onto other planes.

Example
Z 4
Find xy dx where, on C, x and y are given by x = 3t2 , y = t3 − 1 for t starting
C
at t = 0 and progressing to t = 1.

Solution
Everything can be expressed in terms of t, the parameter. Here x = 3t2 so dx = 6t dt. The limits
on t are t = 0 and t = 1. The integral becomes
Z Z 1 Z 1
2 3
xy dx = 3t (t − 1) 6t dt = (18t6 − 18t3 ) dt
C t=0 t=0
 1
18 7 18 4 18 9 27
= t − t = − −0=−
7 4 0 7 2 14

HELM (2006): 5
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
 Key Point 1
A line integral is normally evaluated by expressing all variables in terms of one variable.
In general Z Z Z
f (x, y) ds 6= f (x, y) dy 6= f (x, y) dx
C C C

Task Z Z Z
2
For F (x, y) = 2x + y , find F (x, y) dx, F (x, y) dy and F (x, y) ds
C C C
where C is the line y = 2x from (0, 0) to (1, 2).

Express each integral as a simple integral with respect to a single variable and hence evaluate each
integral:

Your solution

Answer
Z 1
7
Z 2
14
Z 1 √ 7√
(2x + 4x2 ) dx, , 2
(y + y ) dy, , (2x + 4x2 ) 5 dx, 5
x=0 3 y=0 3 x=0 3

Task Z Z Z
Find F (x, y) dx, F (x, y) dy and F (x, y) ds where F (x, y) = 1 and C
C C C
is the curve y = 21 x2 − 14 ln x from (1, 12 ) to (2, 2 − 41 ln 2).

Your solution

6 HELM (2006):
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Answer
Z 2 Z 2−1/4 ln 2
3 1
1 dx = 1, 1 dy = − ln 2,
1 1/2 2 4
Z 2
1 3 1
(x + ) dx = + ln 2.
1 4x 2 4

Task Z Z Z
Find F (x, y) dx, F (x, y) dy and F (x, y) ds where F (x, y) = sin 2x and
C C C
π
C is the curve y = sin x from (0, 0) to ( , 1).
2

Your solution

Answer
Z π/2 Z π/2
2
sin 2x dx = 1, 2 sin x cos2 x dx =
0 0 3
Z π/2 √ √
sin 2x 1 + cos2 x dx Using the substitution u = 1 + cos2 x gives 23 (2 2 − 1).
0

2. Line integrals of scalar products

Z
Integrals of the form F ·dr, referred to at the end of the previous sub-section, occur in applications
C
such as the following.

T
δr
dr
A S (current position)

Figure 2: Schematic for cyclist travelling from A to B into a head wind

HELM (2006): 7
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
Consider a cyclist riding along the road from A to B (Figure 2). Suppose it is necessary to find the
total work the cyclist has to do in overcoming a wind of velocity v.
On moving from S to T , the work done is given by ‘Force × distance’ = F × δr cos θ where F , the
force, is directly proportional to v, but in the opposite direction, and δr cos θ is the component of
the distance travelled in the direction of the wind.
So, the work done travelling δr is −kv · δr. ZLetting δr become infinitesimally small, the work done
B
becomes −kv · dr and the total work is −k v · dr.
A
This is an example of the integral along a line of the scalar product of a vector field and a vector
describing the line. The term scalar line integral is often used for integrals of this form. The vector
dr may be considered to be dxi + dyj + dxk.
Multiplying out the scalar product,
Z in three dimensions,
Z the ’scalar line integral’ of the vector F
along contour C is given by F · dr and equals {Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz} in three dimensions
Z C C

( {Fx dx + Fy dy} in two dimensions.)

C
If the contour
I C has its startZ and end pointsIin the same positions i.e. it represents a closed contour,
the symbol rather than is used, i.e. F · dr .
C C C
As before, to evaluate the line integral, express the path and the function F in terms of either x, y
and z, or in terms of a parameter t. Note that in examples t often represents time.

Example
Z 5
Find {2xy dx − 5x dy} where C is the curve y = x3 with x varying from x = 0
C
to x = 1.
Z
[This is the integral F · dr where F = 2xyi − 5xj and dr = dxi + dyj.]
C

Solution
It is possible to split this integral into two different integrals and express the first term as a function
of x and the second term as a function of y. However, it is also possible to express everything in
terms of x. Note that on C, y = x3 so dy = 3x2 dx and the integral becomes
Z Z 1 Z 1
3 2
(2x4 − 15x3 ) dx


{2xy dx − 5x dy} = 2x x dx − 5x 3x dx =
C x=0 0
 1
2 5 15 4 2 15 67
= x − x = − −0=−
5 4 0 5 4 20

8 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
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Key Point 2
Z Z
An integral of the form F · dr may be expressed as {Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz}. Knowing the
C C
expression for the path C, every term in the integral can be further expressed in terms of one of
the variables x, y or z or in terms of a parameter t and hence integrated.

If an integral is two-dimensional there are no terms involving z.

Z
The integral F · dr evaluates to a scalar.
C

Example 6
Three paths from (0, 0) to (1, 2) are defined by
(a) C1 : y = 2x
(b) C2 : y = 2x2
(c) C3 : y = 0 from (0, 0) to (1, 0) and x = 1 from (1, 0) to (1, 2)
Z
Sketch each path and find F · dr, where F = y 2 i + xyj, along each path.

Solution
Z Z
 2 dy
(a) F · dr = y dx + xydy . Along y = 2x, = 2 so dy = 2dx. Then
dx
Z Z 1
(2x)2 dx + x (2x) (2dx)

F · dr =
C1 x=0
Z 1 Z 1  1
2 2 8 8
8x dx = x2
2


= 4x + 4x dx = =
0 0 3 0 3

y
2 A(1, 2)
y = 2x

C1
x
1

Figure 3(a): Integration along path C1

HELM (2006): 9
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
 Solution (contd.)
Z Z
 2 dy
(b) F · dr = y dx + xydy . Along y = 2x2 , = 4x so dy = 4xdx. Then
dx 1
Z Z 1 n o Z 1 
2 2

2

4 12 5 12
F · dr = 2x dx + x 2x (4xdx) = 12x dx = x =
C2 x=0 0 5 0 5
y

2 A(1, 2)
y = 2x2

C2

1 x

Figure 3(b): Integration along path C2

Note that the answer is different to part (a), i.e., the line integral depends upon the path taken.
(c) As the contour C3 , has two distinct parts with different equations, it is necessary to break the
full contour OA into the two parts, namely OB and BA where B is the point (1, 0). Hence
Z Z B Z A
F · dr = F · dr + F · dr
C3 O B

Along OB, y = 0 so dy = 0. Then

Z B Z 1 Z 1
2


F · dr = 0 dx + x × 0 × 0 = 0dx = 0
O x=0 0

Along AB, x = 1 so dx = 0. Then

Z B Z 2 Z 2  2
2 1
ydy = y 2


F · dr = y × 0 + 1 × y × dy = = 2.
A y=0 0 2 0
Z
Hence F · dr = 0 + 2 = 2
C3
y
A(1, 2)
2
x=1
C3

B
O y=0 1 x

Figure 3(c): Integration along path C3

Once again, the result is path dependent.

10 HELM (2006):
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Key Point 3
In general, the value of the line integral depends on the path of integration as well as the end points.

Example 7
Z O
Find F · dr, where F = y 2 i + xyj (as in Example 6) and the path from A
A
to O is the straight line from (1, 2) to (0, 0), that is the reverse of C1 in Example
6(a). I
Deduce F · dr, the integral around the closed path C formed by the parabola
C
y = 2x2 from (0, 0) to (1, 2) and the line y = 2x from (1, 2) to (0, 0).

Solution
Reversing the path swaps the limits of integration, this results in a change of sign for the value of
the integral.
Z O Z A
8
F · dr = − F · dr = −
A O 3
12
The integral along the parabola (calculated in (iii) above) evaluates to , then
5
I I I
12 8 4
F · dr = F · dr + F · dr = − = − ≈ −0.267
C C2 C4 5 3 15

Example 8
Consider the vector field
F = y 2 z 3 i + 2xyz 3 j + 3xy 2 z 2 k
Let C1 and C2 be the curves from O = (0, 0, 0) to A = (1, 1, 1), given by

C1 : x = t, y = t, z=t (0 ≤ t ≤ 1)
C2 : x = t2 , y = t, z = t2 (0 ≤ t ≤ 1)

(a) Evaluate the scalar integral of the vector field along each path.
I
(b) Find the value of F · dr where C is the closed path along C1 from
C
O to A and back along C2 from A to O.

HELM (2006): 11
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
 Solution

(a) The path C1 is given in terms of the parameter t by x = t, y = t and z = t. Hence

dx dy dz dr dx dy dz
= = = 1 and = i+ j+ k =i+j+k
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Now by substituting for x = y = z = t in F we have

F = t5 i + 2t5 j + 3t5 k
dr
Hence F · = t5 + 2t5 + 3t5 = 6t5 . The values of t = 0 and t = 1 correspond to the
dt
start and end point of C1 and so these are the required limits of integration. Now
Z Z 1 Z 1  1
dr
F · dr = F · dt = 6t dt = t6 = 1
5
C1 0 dt 0 0

dr
For the path C2 the parameterisation is x = t2 , y = t and z = t2 so = 2ti + j + 2tk.
dt
Substituting x = t2 , y = t and z = t2 in F we have
dr
F = t8 i + 2t9 j + 3t8 k and F · = 2t9 + 2t9 + 6t9 = 10t9
dt
Z Z 1  1
9 10
F · dr = 10t dt = t =1
C2 0 0

(b) For the closed path C

I Z Z
F · dr = F · dr − F · dr = 1 − 1 = 0
C C1 C2

(Note that the line integral round a closed path is not necessarily zero - see Example 7.)

Further points on Example 8

Vector Field Path Line Integral

F C1 1
F C2 1
F closed 0

Note that the line integral of F is 1 for both paths C1 and C2 . In fact, this would hold for any path
from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1).

The field F is an example of a conservative vector field; these are discussed in detail in the
next subsection.
Z
In F · dr, the vector field F may be the gradient of a scalar field or the curl of a vector field.
C

12 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
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Task
Consider the vector field
G = xi + (4x − y)j
Let C1 and C2 be the curves from O = (0, 0, 0) to A = (1, 1, 1), given by

C1 : x = t, y = t, z=t (0 ≤ t ≤ 1)
C2 : x = t2 , y = t, z = t2 (0 ≤ t ≤ 1)
Z
(a) Evaluate the scalar integral G · dr of each vector field along each
C
path.
I
(b) Find the value of G · dr where C is the closed path along C1 from
C
O to A and back along C2 from A to O.

Your solution

HELM (2006): 13
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
Answer
(a) The path C1 is given in terms of the parameter t by x = t, y = t and z = t. Hence
dx dy dz dr dx dy dz
= = = 1 and = i+ j+ k =i+j+k
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Substituting for x = y = z = t in G we have
dr
G = ti + 3tj and G · = t + 3t = 4t
dt
The limits of integration are t = 0 and t = 1, then
Z Z 1 Z 1  1
dr
G · dr = G · dt = 4tdt = 2t2 = 2
C1 0 dt 0 0

dr
For the path C2 the parameterisation is x = t2 , y = t and z = t2 so = 2ti + j + 2tk.
dt
Substituting x = t2 , y = t and z = t2 in G we have
dr
G = t2 i + 4t2 − t j and G · = 2t3 + 4t2 − t


dt
Z Z 1  1
3 2

1 4 4 3 1 2 4
G · dr = 2t + 4t − t dt = t + t − t =
C2 0 2 3 2 0 3
I Z Z
4 2
(b) For the closed path C G · dr = G · dr − G · dr = 2 − =
C C1 C2 3 3
(Note that the integral around the closed path is non-zero, unlike Example 8.)

Example 9
Z
∇(x2 y) · dr where C is the contour y = 2x − x2 from (0, 0) to (2, 0).

Find
C

Solution
Z
2xy dx + x2 dy .
2 2

Note that ∇(x y) = 2xyi + x j so the integral is
C
On y = 2x − x2 , dy = (2 − 2x) dx so the integral becomes
Z Z 2
2
2x(2x − x2 ) dx + x2 (2 − 2x) dx
 
2xy dx + x dy =
C x=0
Z 2  2
2 3 3 4
= (6x − 4x ) dx = 2x − x =0
0 0

14 HELM (2006):
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Task Z
Evaluate F · dr, where F = (x − y)i + (x + y)j along each of the following
C
paths

(a) C1 : from (1, 1) to (2, 4) along the straight line y = 3x − 2:

(b) C2 : from (1, 1) to (2, 4) along the parabola y = x2 :
(c) C3 : along the straight line x = 1 from (1, 1) to (1, 4) then along the
straight line y = 4 from (1, 4) to (2, 4).

Your solution

Answer
Z 2
(a) (10x − 4) dx = 11,
1
Z 2
35
(b) (x + x2 + 2x3 ) dx = , (this differs from (a) showing path dependence)
1 3
Z 4 Z 2
(c) (1 + y) dy + (x − 4) dx = 8
1 1

Task I
For the function F and paths in the last Task, deduce F · dr for the closed
paths

(a) C1 followed by the reverse of C2 .

(b) C2 followed by the reverse of C3 .
(c) C3 followed by the reverse of C1 .

Your solution

HELM (2006): 15
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
Answer
1 10
(a) − , (b) , (c) −3. (note that all these are non-zero.)
3 3

Exercises
Z
1. Consider F · dr, where F = 3x2 y 2 i + (2x3 y − 1)j. Find the value of the line integral along
C
each of the paths from (0, 0) to (1, 4).

(a) y = 4x (b) y = 4x2 (c) y = 4x1/2 (d) y = 4x3

2. Consider the vector field F = 2xi + (xz − 2)j + xyk and the two curves between (0, 0, 0) and
(1, −1, 2) defined by
C1 : x = t2 , y = −t, z = 2t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
C2 : x = t − 1, y = 1 − t, z = 2t − 2 for 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.

Z Z
(a) Find F · dr, F · dr
C1 C2
I
(b) Find F · dr where C is the closed path from (0, 0, 0) to (1, −1, 2) along C1 and back
C
to (0, 0, 0) along C2 .

3. Consider the vector field G = x2 zi + y 2 zj + 13 (x3 + y 3 )k and the two curves between (0, 0, 0)
and (1, −1, 2) defined by
C1 : x = t2 , y = −t, z = 2t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
C2 : x = t − 1, y = 1 − t, z = 2t − 2 for 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.

Z Z
(a) Find G · dr, G · dr
C1 C2
I
(b) Find G · dr where C is the closed path from (0, 0, 0) to (1, −1, 2) along C1 and back
C
to (0, 0, 0) along C2 .
Z
4. Find F · dr) along y = 2x from (0, 0) to (2, 4) for
C

(a) F = ∇(x2 y)
(b) F = ∇ × ( 21 x2 y 2 k)
Answers
1. All are 12, and in fact the integral would be 12 for any path from (0,0) to (1,4).
5
2 (a) 2, 3
, (b) 0.
1
3 (a) 0, 3
, (b) 0.
4. 16, −16.

16 HELM (2006):
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3. Conservative vector fields

For some line integrals in the previous section, the integral depended only on the vector field F and
the start and end points of the line but not on the actual path of the line between the start and end
points. However, for other line integrals, the result depended on the actual details of the path of the
line.
Vector fields are classified according to whether the line integrals are path dependent or path indepen-
dent. Those vector fields for which all line integrals between all pairs of points are path independent
are called conservative vector fields.
There are five properties of a conservative vector field (P1 to P5). It is impossible to check the value
of every line integral over every path, but instead it is possible to use any one of these five properties
(and in particular property P3 below) to determine whether a vector field is conservative. They are
also used to simplify calculations with conservative vector fields.
Z B
P1 The line integral F · dr depends only on the end points A and B and is independent of
A
the actual path taken.
I
P2 The line integral around any closed curve is zero. That is F · dr = 0 for all C.
C

P3 The curl of a conservative vector field F is zero i.e. ∇ × F = 0.

P4 For anyI conservative vector field F , it is possible to find a scalar field φ such that ∇φ = F .
Then, F · dr = φ(B) − φ(A) where A and B are the start and end points of contour C.
C
[This is sometimes called the Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals and is comparable with
the Fundamental Theorems of Calculus.]
P5 All gradient fields are conservative. That is, F = ∇φ is a conservative vector field for any
scalar field φ.

Example 10
The following vector fields were considered in the Examples of the previous sub-
section.
1. F 1 = y 2 i + xyj (Example 6) 2. F 2 = 2xi + 2yj (Example 7)
3. F 3 = y 2 z 3 i + 2xyz 3 j + 3xy 2 z 2 k (Example 8)
4. F 4 = xi + (4x − y) j (Task on page 13)
Determine which of these vector fields are conservative e.g. by referring to the
answers given in the solution. For those that are conservative find a scalar field φ
such that F = ∇φ and use property P4 to verify the line integrals found.

Solution

1. Two different values were obtained for line integrals over the paths C1 and C2 . Hence, by P1,
F 1 is not conservative. [It is also possible to reach this conclusion from P3 by finding that
∇ × F = −yk 6= 0.]

HELM (2006): 17
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
 Solution
2. Both line integrals from (0, 0) to (4, 2) had the same value i.e. 20 and for the closed path the
line integral was 0. This alone does not mean that F 2 is conservative as there could be other untried
paths giving different values. So by using P3
 
 i j k 
 
 
 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × F 2 =   = i(0 − 0) − j(0 − 0) + k(0 − 0) = 0
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 
 
 2x 2y 0 
As ∇ × F 2 = 0, P3 gives that F 2 is a conservative vector field.
∂φ ∂φ
Now, find a φ such that F 2 = ∇φ. Then i+ j = 2xi + 2yj.
∂x ∂y
Thus
∂φ

= 2x ⇒ φ = x2 + f (y) 

∂x 

⇒ φ = x2 + y 2 (+ constant)
∂φ 
= 2y ⇒ φ = y 2 + g(x) 


∂y
Z (4,2) Z (4,2)
Using P4: F 2 · dr = (∇φ) · dr = φ(4, 2) − φ(0, 0) = (42 + 22 ) − (02 + 02 ) = 20.
(0,0) (0,0)

3. The fact that line integrals along two different paths between the same start and end points is
consistent with F 3 being a conservative field according to P1. So too is the fact that the integral
around a closed path is zero according to P2. However, neither fact can be used to conclude that
F 3 is a conservative field. This can be done by showing that ∇ × F 3 = 0.
 i j k 
 
 
 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Now,   = (6xyz 2 − 6xyz 2 )i − (3y 2 z 2 − 3y 2 z 2 )j + (2yz 3 − 2yz 3 )k = 0.
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
 2 3 3 2 2

 y z 2xyz 3xy z 
As ∇ × F 3 = 0, P3 gives that F 3 is a conservative field.
To find φ that satisfies ∇φ = F 3 , it is necessary to satisfy
∂φ

= y2z3 → φ = xy 2 z 3 + f (y, z)  
∂x 





∂φ 3 2 3

= 2xyz → φ = xy z + g(x, z) → φ = xy 2 z 3
∂y 




∂φ


2 2 2 3
= 3xy z → φ = xy z + h(x, y) 

∂z Z
(1,1,1)
Using P4: F 3 · dr = φ(1, 1, 1) − φ(0, 0, 0) = 1 − 0 = 1.
(0,0,0)

18 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
 ®

Solution
4. As the integral along C1 is 2 and the integral along C2 (same start and end points but different
intermediate points) is 43 , F4 is not a conservative field using P1.
Note that ∇ × F 4 = 4k 6= 0 so, using P3, this is an independent conclusion that F 4 is not
conservative.

Engineering Example 1

Work done moving a charge in an electric field

Introduction
If a charge, q, is moved through an electric field, E, from A to B, then the work
required is given by the line integral
Z B
WAB = −q E · dl
A

Problem in words
Compare the work done in moving a charge through the electric field around a point charge in a
vacuum via two different paths.
Mathematical statement of problem
An electric field E is given by

Q
E = r̂
4πε0 r2
Q xi + yj + zk
= ×p
4πε0 (x2 2
+y +z ) 2
x2 + y 2 + z 2
Q(xi + yj + zk)
= 3
4πε0 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2

1
where r is the position vector with magnitude r and unit vector r̂, and is a combination of
4π0
constants of proportionality, where 0 = 10−9 /36π F m−1 .
Given that Q = 10−8 C, find the work done in bringing a charge of q = 10−10 C from the point
A = (10, 10, 0) to the point B = (1, 1, 0) (where the dimensions are in metres)

(a) by the direct straight line y = x, z = 0

(b) by the straight line pair via C = (10, 1, 0)

HELM (2006): 19
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
 y
A

a
b

b
B C
O x

Figure 4: Two routes (a and b) along which a charge can move through an electric field
The path comprises two straight lines from A = (10, 10, 0) to B = (1, 1, 0) via C = (10, 1, 0) (see
Figure 4).

Mathematical analysis

(a) Here q/(4πε0 ) = 90 so

90[xi + yj]
E= 3
(x2 + y 2 ) 2
as z = 0 over the region of interest. The work done
Z B
WAB = −q E · dl
A
Z B
90
= −10−10 3 [xi + yj] · [dxi + dyj]
A (x2 + y 2 ) 2

Using y = x, dy = dx
Z 1
−10 90
WAB = −10 3 {x dx + x dx}
(2x2 ) 2
x=10
Z 1
90
= −10−10 √ x−3 2x dx
10 (2 2)
90 × −10−10 1 −2
Z
= √ x dx
2 10
1
9 × −10−9

−1
= √ −x
2 10
1
9 × 10−9

= √ x−1
2 10
−9
9 × 10
= √ [1 − 0.1]
2
= 5.73 × 10−9 J

20 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
 ®

(b) The first part of the path is A to C where x = 10, dx = 0 and y goes from 10 to 1.
Z C
WAC = −Q E · dl
A
Z 1
90
= −10−10 3 [xi + yj] · [0i + dyj]
y=10 (100 + y 2 ) 2
Z 1
90y dy
= −10−10 3
10 (100 + y2) 2
Z 101
45 du
= −10−10 3 substituting u = 100 + y 2 , du = 2y dy
u=200 u2
Z 101
3
−10
= −45 × 10 u− 2 du
200
1 101
h i
= −45 × 10−10 −2u− 2
200
 
−10 2 2
= 45 × 10 √ −√ = 2.59 × 10−10 J
101 200

The second part is C to B, where y = 1, dy = 0 and x goes from 10 to 1.

Z 1
−10 90
WCB = −10 3 [xi + yj] · [dxi + 0j]
2
x=10 (x + 1) 2
Z 1
−10 90x dx
= −10 3
2
10 (x + 1) 2
Z 2
−10 45 du
= −10 3 substituting u = x2 + 1, du = 2x dx
u=101 u 2
Z 2
3
−10
= −45 × 10 u− 2 du
101
1 2
h i
= −45 × 10−10 −2u− 2
101
 
−10 2 2
= 45 × 10 √ −√ = 5.468 × 10−9 J
2 101

The sum of the two components WAC and WCB is 5.73 × 10−9 J. Therefore the work
done over the two routes is identical.

Interpretation
In fact, the work done is independent of the route taken as the electric field E around a point charge
in a vacuum is a conservative field.

HELM (2006): 21
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
 Example 11
Z (2,1)
(2xy + 1)dx + (x2 − 2y)dy is independent of the

1. Show that I =
(0,0)
path taken.

2. Find I using property P1.

3. Find I using property P4.

I
(2xy + 1)dx + (x2 − 2y)dy where C is

4. Find I =
C

(a) the circle x2 + y 2 = 1

(b) the square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1).

Solution
Z (2,1) Z
2

1. The integral I = (2xy + 1)dx + (x − 2y)dy may be re-written F · dr where
(0,0) C
2
F = (2xy + 1)i + (x − 2y)j. 

 i j k 
 
 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Now ∇ × F =   = 0i + 0j + 0k = 0
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
 
 2xy + 1 x2 − 2y 0 

As ∇ × F = 0, F is a conservative field and I is independent of the path taken between (0, 0)

and (2, 1).

2. As I is independent of the path taken from (0, 0) to (2, 1), it can be evaluated along any
such path. One possibility is the straight line y = 12 x. On this line, dy = 12 dx. The integral
I becomes
Z (2,1)
(2xy + 1)dx + (x2 − 2y)dy

I =
(0,0)
Z 2  
1 1
= (2x × x + 1)dx + (x2 − 4x) dx
x=0 2 2
Z 2
3 1
= ( x2 − x + 1)dx
0 2 2
 2
1 3 1 2
= x − x +x =4−1+2−0=5
2 4 0

22 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
 ®

Solution (contd.)

3. If F = ∇φ then
∂φ

= 2xy + 1 → φ = x2 y + x + f (y) 

∂x 

→ φ = x2 y + x − y 2 + C.
∂φ 
= x2 − 2y → φ = x2 y − y 2 + g(x) 


∂y
These are consistent if φ = x2 y + x − y 2 (plus a constant which may be omitted since it
cancels).
So I = φ(2, 1) − φ(0, 0) = (4 + 2 − 1) − 0 = 5

4. As F is a conservative field, all integrals around a closed contour are zero.

Exercises
1. Determine whether the following vector fields are conservative

(a) F = (x − y)i + (x + y)j

(b) F = 3x2 y 2 i + (2x3 y − 1)j
(c) F = 2xi + (xz − 2)j + xyk
(d) F = x2 zi + y 2 zj + 13 (x3 + y 3 )k
Z
2. Consider the integral F · dr with F = 3x2 y 2 i + (2x3 y − 1)j. From Exercise 1(b) F is a
C
Z vector field. Find a scalar field φ so that ∇φ = F . Hence use P4 to evaluate the
conservative
integral F · dr where C is an integral with start-point (0, 0) and end point (1, 4).
C

3. For the following conservative

Z vector fields F , find a scalar field φ such that ∇φ = F and
hence evaluate the I = F · dr for the contours C indicated.
C

(a) F = (4x3 y − 2x)i + (x4 − 2y)j; any path from (0, 0) to (2, 1).
(b) F = (ex + y 3 )i + (3xy 2 )j; closed path starting from any point on the circle x2 + y 2 = 1.
(c) F = (y 2 + sin z)i + 2xyj + x cos zk; any path from (1, 1, 0) to (2, 0, π).
1
(d) F = i + 4y 3 z 2 j + 2y 4 zk; any path from (1, 1, 1) to (1, 2, 3).
x
Answers
1. (a) No, (b) Yes, (c) No, (d) Yes
2. x3 y 2 − y + C, 12
3. (a) x4 y − x2 − y 2 , 11; (b) ex + xy 3 , 0; (c) xy 2 + x sin z, −1; (d) ln x + y 4 z 2 ,143

HELM (2006): 23
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
4. Vector line integrals
Z Z
It is also possible to form the less commonly used integrals f (x, y, z) dr and F (x, y, z) × dr.
C C
Each of these integrals evaluates to a vector. Z
Remembering that dr = dx i + dy j + dz k, an integral of the form f (x, y, z) dr becomes
Z Z Z C

f (x, y, z)dx i + f (x, y, z) dy j + f (x, y, z)dz k. The first term can be evaluated by
C C C
expressing y and z in terms of x. Similarly the second and third terms can be evaluated by expressing
all terms as functions of y and z respectively. Alternatively, all variables can be expressed in terms
of a parameter t. If an integral is two-dimensional, the term in z will be absent.

Example 12 Z
Evaluate the integral xy 2 dr where C represents the contour y = x2 from (0, 0)
C
to (1, 1).

Solution
This is a two-dimensional integral so the term in z will be absent.
Z
I = xy 2 dr
ZC
= xy 2 (dxi + dyj)
ZC Z
2
= xy dx i + xy 2 dy j
C C
Z 1 Z 1
2 2
= x(x ) dx i + y 1/2 y 2 dy j
x=0 y=0
Z 1 Z 1
= x5 dx i + y 5/2 dy j
0 0
 1  1
1 6 2 7/2
= x i+ x j
6 0 7 0
1 2
= i+ j
6 7

24 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
 ®

Example
Z 13
Find I = xdr for the contour C given parametrically by x = cos t, y = sin t,
C
z = t − π starting at t = 0 and going to t = 2π, i.e. the contour starts at
(1, 0, −π) and finishes at (1, 0, π).

Solution
Z
The integral becomes x(dxi + dyj + dzk).
C
Now, x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t − π so dx = − sin t dt, dy = cos t dt and dz = dt. So

Z 2π
I = cos t(− sin t dti + cos t dtj + dtk)
0
Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
2
= − cos t sin t dt i + cos t dt j + cos t dt k
0 0 0
1 2π 1 2π
Z Z h i2π
= − sin 2t dt i + (1 + cos 2t) dt j + sin t k
2 0 2 0 0
 2π
1h i2π 1 1
= cos 2t i + t + sin 2t j + 0k
4 0 2 2 0
= 0i + π j = πj

Z
Integrals of the form F × dr can be evaluated as follows. The vector field F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k
C
and dr = dx i + dy j + dz k so
 
 i j k 
 
 
 
F × dr =  F1 F2 F3  = (F2 dz − F3 dy)i + (F3 dx − F1 dz)j + (F1 dy − F2 dx)k
 
 
 dx dy dz 
= (F3 j − F2 k)dx + (F1 k − F3 i)dy + (F2 i − F1 j)dz

There are a maximum of six terms involved in one such integral; the exact details may dictate which
form to use.

HELM (2006): 25
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
 Example 14 Z
Evaluate the integral (x2 i + 3xyj) × dr where C represents the curve y = 2x2
C
from (0, 0) to (1, 2).

Solution
Note that the z component of
 F and dr are both zero.
 i j k 

 
 2 
So F × dr =  x 3xy 0  = (x2 dy − 3xydx)k
 
 
 dx dy 0 
Z Z
and (x i + 3xyj) × dr = (x2 dy − 3xydx)k
2
C C
Now, on C, y = 2x2 so dy = 4xdx and
Z Z
2
(x i + 3xyj) × dr = {x2 dy − 3xydx}k
C
ZC1
 2
x × 4xdx − 3x × 2x2 dx k

=
Zx=0
1
= −2x3 dxk
0
 1
1 4
= − x k
2 0
1
= − k
2

26 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
 ®

Engineering Example 2

Force on a loop from a magnetic field

Introduction
A current I in a magnetic field B is subject to a force F given by
F = I dl × B
where the current can be regarded as having magnitude I and flowing (positive charge) in the
direction given by the vector dl. The force is known as the Lorentz force and is responsible for the
workings of an electric motor. If current flows around a loop, the total force on the loop is given by
the integral of F around the loop, i.e.
I I
F = (I dl × B) = −I (B × dl)

where the closed path of the integral represents one circuit of the loop.

z
B y

x
dl
I

Figure 5: The magnetic field through a loop of current

Problem in words
A current of 1 amp flows around a circuit in the shape of the unit circle in the Oxy plane. A field
of 1 gauss in the positive z-direction is present. Find the total force on the circuit loop.
Mathematical statement of problem
Choose an origin at the centre of the circuit and use polar coordinates to describe the position of
any point on the circuit and the length of a small element.
Calculate the line integral around the circuit representing the force using the given values of current
and magnetic field.
Mathematical analysis
The circuit is described parametrically by
x = cos θ y = sin θ z = 0
with

dl = − sin θ dθ i + cos θ dθ j
B = Bk

HELM (2006): 27
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
since B is constant. Therefore, the force on the circuit is given by
I I
F = −IB k × dl = − k × dl (since I = 1 A and B = 1 G)

where
 

 i j k 

 
k × dl =  0 0 1 

 − sin θ dθ cos θ dθ 0 
 


= − cos θ i − sin θ j dθ

So
Z 2π

F = − − cos θ i − sin θ j dθ
θ=0
h i2π
= sin θ i − cos θ j
θ=0

= (0 − 0) i − (1 − 1) j = 0

Hence there is no net force on the loop.

Interpretation
At any given point of the circle, the force on the point opposite is of the same magnitude but opposite
direction, and so cancels, leaving a zero net force.
Tip: Use symmetry argument to avoid detailed calculations whenever possible!

28 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
 ®

Engineering Example 3

Magnetic field from a line current

Introduction
A charge Q, moving at a steady velocity v produces a magnetic field given by
Qµ0
dB = (v × r)
4πr2
where µ0 is the permeability of free space (4π×10−7 H m−1 ), r is the position vector from the point
of interest, P , to the line current.
If, instead of a single charge, a current is used, then it is necessary to integrate over all charges in
the current. So, the total magnetic field due to the current is given by
Z D Z D
µ0 I dl × r̂
B= dB =
C C 4π r2
where Idl is the continuous form of Qv, r̂ is a unit vector along r and the current extends from C
to D. Note that the field is perpendicular to both the current and the line from the current to P .
Problem in words
Find the magnetic field strength (or magnetic flux density), measured in tesla (T), due to a current
I directed vertically downwards, starting at z = c and ending at z = −d. What is the field 1 m from
the current when c = 5 m, d = 10 m and I = 1 A?
Mathematical statement of problem
z=5
dl
φ √
z h2 + z 2
r
P
h
z = −10

Figure 6: The current element dl and point P where the field is calculated
Here
Idl = −Ikdz
i.e. dl = −k dz (pointing downwards). Imagine (without loss of generality) a point P a distance h
from the line current and a distance z below a typical line element of the current. The increment of
field is given by
µ0 I
dB = dl × r̂
4π(h2 + z 2 )
√
where h2 + z 2 is the distance of P from the typical element. Since dl = −k dz and r̂ is a unit
vector, the magnitude of the vector product is
h dz
|dl × r̂| = sin φ dz = √
h2 + z 2

HELM (2006): 29
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
and is in a direction which (by the right-hand-rule) points OUT of the page to the right of the
line and IN to it on the left. Knowing the direction of the field, now calculate the magnitude: the
increment of field is given by
µ0 I h dz µ0 I
dB = 2 2
√ = h(h2 + z 2 )−3/2 dz
4π(h + z ) h + z
2 2 4π
so that the total field at a point is
Z c
µ0 I
B= h(h2 + z 2 )−3/2 dz
z=−d 4π

Mathematical analysis
This integral can be evaluated by means of the substitution z = h tan u where
z = h tan u ⇒ dz = h sec2 u du
z=c ⇒ u = tan−1 (c/h) = uc
z = −d ⇒ u = − tan−1 (d/h) = ud
Substituting into the total field integral gives

µ0 I uc
Z
B = h(h2 sec2 u)−3/2 h sec2 u du
4π ud
µ0 I uc cos u du
Z
=
4π ud h
µ0 I h i uc
= sin u
4πh ud
!
µ0 I c/h d/h y
= p +p as sin(tan−1 y) = p
4πh 1 + (c/h)2 1 + (d/h)2 1 + y2
!
µ0 I c d
= p +p
4πh (h2 + c2 ) (h2 + d2 )

and B = B θ̂ where θ̂ is a unit vector in a circumferential direction around the line current. Now if
I = 1 A, c = 5 m, d = 10 m and h = 1 m the magnetic field becomes
 
−7 5 10
B = 10 √ +√ = 1.98 × 10−7 T = 1.98 milli-gauss.
26 101

Interpretation
Note that if c and d → ∞ then
!
µ0 I c d µ0 I µ0 I
B = p +p → [2] =
4πh (h2 + c2 ) (h2 + d2 ) 4πh 2πh

i.e. the field lines are circles around the line current and the magnetic field strength is inversely
proportional to the distance of the point of interest P from the current.
A scalar or vector involved in a vector line integral may itself be a vector derivative as this next
Example illustrates.

30 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
 ®

Example 15 Z
Find the vector line integral (∇ · F ) dr where F is the vector x2 i + 2xyj + 2xzk
C
and C is the curve y = x2 , z = x3 from x = 0 to x = 1 i.e. from (0, 0, 0) to
(1, 1, 1).

Solution
As F = x2 i + 2xyj + 2xzk, ∇ · F = 2x + 2x + 2x = 6x.
The integral
Z Z
(∇ · F ) dr = 6x(dxi + dyj + dzk)
C ZC
Z Z
= 6x dx i + 6x dy j + 6x dz k
C C C

The first term is

Z Z 1  1
2
6x dx i = 6x dx i = 3x i = 3i
C x=0 0

In the second term, as y = x2 on C, dy may be replaced by 2x dx so

Z Z 1 Z 1  1
2 3
6x dy j = 6x × 2x dx j = 12x dx j = 4x j = 4j
C x=0 0 0
3 2
In the third term, as z = x on C, dz may be replaced by 3x dx so
Z Z 1 Z 1  1
2 3 9 4 9
6x dz k = 6x × 3x dx k = 18x dx k = x k = k
C x=0 0 2 0 2
Z
9
On summing, (∇ · F ) dr = 3i + 4j + k.
C 2

HELM (2006): 31
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors
 Task Z
Find the vector line integral f dr where f = x2 and C is
C

(a) the curve y = x1/2 from (0, 0) to (9, 3).

(b) the line y = x/3 from (0, 0) to (9, 3).

Your solution

Answer
Z 9 Z 9
1 243 1 243
(a) (x2 i + x3/2 j)dx = 243i + j, (b) (x2 i + x2 j)dx = 243i + j.
0 2 5 0 3 2

Task Z
Evaluate the vector line integral F × dr when C represents the contour
C
y = 4 − 4x, z = 2 − 2x from (0, 4, 2) to (1, 0, 0) and F is the vector field (x − z)j.

Your solution

Answer
Z 1
1
{(4 − 6x)i + (2 − 3x)k} = i + k
0 2

32 HELM (2006):
Workbook 29: Integral Vector Calculus
 ®

Exercises
Z
1. Evaluate the vector line integral (∇ · F ) dr in the case where F = xi + xyj + xy 2 k and
C
C is the contour described by x = 2t, y = t2 , z = 1 − t for t starting at t = 0 and going to
t = 1.

2. When C is the contour y = x3 , z = 0, from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 0), evaluate the vector line
integrals
Z
(a) {∇(xy)} × dr
C
Z
∇ × (x2 i + y 2 k) × dr

(b)
C

Answers
7
1. 4i + j − 2k,
3
2. (a) 0, (b) k

HELM (2006): 33
Section 29.1: Line Integrals Involving Vectors