SURFACE BLASTING

BY:
STOSH OLSBO
ZAC LUNDBERG
KYRA LEE

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction pg 3
History pg 4 - 5
Chapter 1 pg 6 – 23
• Section 1.1 Introduction pg 6
• Section 1.2 Excavation for Highways and Roadways pg 6 – 11
• Section 1.3 Trench Blasting pg 11 – 14
• Section 1.4 Ram Blasting pg 14 – 16
• Section 1.5 Blasting for Ground Leveling pg 16
• Section 1.6 Blasting for Foundations pg 16 – 18
• Section 1.7 Mini – Hole Blasting pg 18 – 21
• Section 1.8 Presplitting pg 21 – 22
• Homework pg 23
Chapter 2 pg 24 – 39
• Section 2.1 Introduction pg 24 – 25
• Section 2.2 Small Diameter Bench Blasting pg 25 – 29
• Section 2.3 Large Diameter Bench Blasting pg 29 – 31
• Section 2.4 Cast Blasting pg 31 – 37
• Homework pg 38 – 39
Chapter 3 pg 40 – 49
• Section 3.1 Introduction pg 40
• Section 3.2 Types of Explosives pg 40 – 41
• Section 3.3 Explosive Characteristics pg 42 – 49
• Homework pg 50
Glossary pg 51 – 54
Answers to Homework pg 55 – 62
• Chapter 1 pg 55 – 56
• Chapter 2 pg 57 – 60
• Chapter 3 pg 61 – 62
References pg 63

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 INTRODUCTION
Blasting is defined as a chemical/physical/mechanical process including the
initiation of explosives for the purposes of breaking materials, moving material, splitting
off rock blocks for building, demolishing buildings and construction, and or generating
seismic waves. Explosives are often located in drill holes in the rock; however, they may
be located on the surface of the rock mass. Surface charges often require a specific charge
up to 10 times in excess, usually only 3 times is necessary for correct placing of an
appropriate lay-on charge.

Surface blasting is all blasting done on the surface, mostly in the mining and construction
divisions, both urban and commercial.

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 HISTORY
The history of explosives goes as far back as 50 BC with the introduction of the
seismoscope by the Chang Heng in China (find picture). Not until the 13th century AD
did explosives really get its spark.

1200 Arabian author Abd Allah records use of saltpeter as main ingredient of black
powder.
1242 English Friar Roger Bacon publishes gunpowder formula.
1380 German Franciscan Monk, Berthold Schwarts developed gunpowder and its use in
guns.

Berthold Schwartz German Franciscan Monk

1627 First recorded use of black powder for rock blasting (Hungary).
1696 First recorded use of black powder for road construction in Switzerland.
1745 Doctor Watson of British Royal Society explodes black powder with an electric
spark.
1818-21 First use of black powder in construction of road tunnel in Pennsylvania.
1831 William Bickford of Cornwall, England invents Safety Fuse.
1846 Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero discovers nitroglycerine.
1863 Wilbrand invents Trinitrotoluene (TNT).
1864 Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel develops first detonating blasting cap.
1866 Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel invents dynamite by mixing kieselguhr with
nitroglycerine.

Alfred Nobel Father of Explosives

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1884 Ammonium Nitrate (AN) becomes widely used in dynamite formulations.
1902 Detonating cord introduced in Europe.
1907 Consumption of black powder in U.S. more than 287 million pounds.
1917 U.S. Explosives Act sets regulations for purchases.
1935 duPont introduces first commercially successful non-nitroglycerin ammonium
nitrate (AN) blasting agent.
1936 IME establishes fume classes for explosives in underground mines.
1938 Modern PETN-filled fabric-covered detonating cord introduced in U.S.
1939 U.S. Bureau of Mines begins work on vibration standards.
Modern plastic explosives invented during WWII.
1956 First use of ANFO by U.S. Steel Corp.’s Oliver Mining Division.
1969 Emulsion explosives introduced.
1971 Emulsion ANFO blends introduced.
1991 Industry works with USDOT to adopt HM 181, UN classifications for explosives
packaging.

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 CHAPTER 1 – BLASTING OPERATIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

We will first look at some basic applications and techniques of surface blasting.
Here, the major points of the techniques are explored as well as major differences from
the standard bench blasting explored in more depth in later sections. The categories of
surface blasting we will cover are the basics of excavation for highways and roadways,
trenching, ramp blasting, blasting for ground leveling, blasting for foundations, mini hole
blasting, and presplitting.

1.2 EXCAVATION FOR HIGHWAYS AND ROADWAYS

PREPARATION

Many times, we find that the most efficient way to plot a road is through the use
of surface blasting. The first step to be taken is to use heavy machinery to scrape the top
layers of soil off the rock. The depth of material scraped off depends on the type of
machinery available and the type of material being moved, though it is usually 2-4 feet.
When the machine wear costs become too high, it is then more economical to take out the
rest of the material by blasting. Taking this top layer off reduces flyaway.

BENCH

Unlike blasting in a mine or a quarry, there is no set formula to use for every
time one needs to blast a road, nor for every place along that road because the bench
height and material being blasted can vary continuously. There are two types of blasts
that can be done here: a trough cut, made through a hill with slopes on both sides, and a
side cut, that has a slope on one side only, as in figure 1.

Figure 1

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Preferred is, of course, to be able to do the blast in one bench. This is not always
possible, however. The most economical bench height is 20-40 feet. This maintains a
level of drilling precision, which is important because the condition of the rock in the
wall beside the road needs to be good for the safety of both workers and those who will
someday use the road. If the project requires that the blast be deeper than that, multiple
blasts may be desired or required.

HOLE SIZE AND LAYOUT

Smaller holes usually offer more advantages to this type of project. They are
more versatile for varying benches, they fragment the rock better, which make hauling
easier, and they give less damage to the surroundings, both through airblast levels, and
through vibration which damages both the surrounding rock and any nearby structures.
Diameters usually range between 2.6 and 5 inches, but should generally follow the
formula:

benchheight
Diameter =
60

In tight shots, hole spacing must be considerably reduced or larger holes employed. The
depth of the holes tends to follow the formula:

H  β 
depth = + 1 − ×J
cos β  100 

Where:
β is the angle with respect to the vertical in degrees (usually 15 to 20 degrees)
H is the bench height in meters and
J is the sub-drilling, which changes with rock type, but can be estimated using Table 1.

Table 1
Uniaxial compressive strength Low Medium 70-120 High 120-180 very high >180
(MPa) <70
Subdrilling 10*Diameter 11*Diameter 12*Diameter 13*Diameter

The spacing of the holes is related to their size as well as the type of material being
blasted. When the bench height is greater than 100 times the diameter of the hole, which
is most common in the efficient range given above, Table 2 gives a general range of
spacing and burden.

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 Table 2
Uniaxial compressive strength Low Medium 70-120 High 120-180 very high >180
(MPa) <70
Burden 39*Diameter 37*Diameter 35*Diameter 33*Diameter
Spacing 51*Diameter 47*Diameter 43*Diameter 38*Diameter

When the holes are less than 100 times as deep as their diameters, the following equation
describes the burden fairly well.

0.5
 
 Qb 
Burden =  
 S × H × CE 
 B cos β 

Where
Qb is the total charge per blast-hole in kilograms,
H is the bench height in meters,
S/B is the relationship between spacing and burden,
β is the angle with respect to the vertical in degrees, and
CE is the powder factor.

The powder factor and ratio between spacing and burden vary by type of material, safety
of surroundings, and preference. Table 3 holds a guideline for these. The spacing can be
derived from the burden using the S/B ratio.

Table 3
uniaxial compressive strength Low Medium 70-120 High 120-180 very high
(MPa) <70 >180
S/B ratio 1.25 1.20 1.15 1.15
Powder factor (kg/m3) .30 .35 .42 .49

Trenchcuts are always done with vertical blastholes, but side hill cuts can be done several
different ways. Vertical blastholes can be used, either parallel to each other or fanned out
at increasing angles as in figure 2.

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 Figure 2

Horizontal blastholes can be used instead. They require minimal preparation and give
less rock breakage costs as gravity works with the blast to detach the rock. They are not
recommended for larger projects because they give off large quantities of flyrock and
leave behind a fairly damaged rock face. Spacing of horizontal holes can be determined
by

S = 3× D × L

Where S is the spacing in meters, D is the blasthole diameter in meters, and L is the
Blasthole length in meters. A mixture of vertical and horizontal holes can also be used
for side hill cuts.

WASTE

Material that is removed from the blast is usually compacted and used for fill
beneath the road. This usually is 8-36 inches in depth. Any material not used for the fill
and not required for fill in another project is dumped nearby off the roadway. This can be
used to screen the road from snow, wind, wildlife, or view.

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 UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIAL

Sometimes a road must be put through an area where the ground covering is
swampy or otherwise unsuitable to place a permanent structure on. This unconsolidated
material must be moved so that the fill can lie on the stable bare rock. There are several
ways to go about this, four methods of which will be discussed here, but all require that
soundings be taken every 50 feet or so to determine the depth and character of the
unconsolidated material.
One method, Toe Shooting, shoots the unconsolidated material ahead while a fill
buildup behind the explosive displaces it. This can be done about 25 feet at a time with
charges placed in a "V" shape about ten feet apart in a ratio of 2 lb. of explosive per foot
of unconsolidated material depth. This can be seen in figure 3.

Figure 3

The Underfill method places the fill dirt on top of the unconsolidated material.
Charges are then lowered through the fill to liquidate the unconsolidated material and
force it out laterally beyond the fill. This method will handle about 10 to 15 feet of
unconsolidated material but works best when the length of fill placed on top is less than
60 feet.

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 Ditching is a method used for shallow (12-15 feet) unconsolidated material. It
dictates that a very large (as much as 50 foot wide by 8-12 feet deep) ditch be blasted
down the center of the future road, causing most of the unconsolidated material to be
thrown out of the ditch and the rest to liquidate. This is done in small sections and filled
with fill dirt as quickly as possible.
Finally, the Relief method places the fill on top of the unconsolidated material
and blasts a ditch along both sides of it. The theory here is that the much heavier fill dirt
will squeeze the unconsolidated material out laterally into the ditches, leaving the fill in
its place. This works better with clay as sand or gravel fill has the tendency to flow a
little with the unconsolidated material.

1.3 TRENCH BLASTING

Trench blasting is similar to highway trough cuts, but on a much smaller scale
with more precision necessary. Trench blasting is also different in that it is done closer to
urban areas, and thus is more often subjected to smaller vibration and limits. Proper
venting of the gasses produced from blasting must also be taken into account. If they
spread laterally instead of vertically, they have the potential to invade basements nearby,
harming civilians. These trenches are used for water pipelines, sewer lines, drains, and
electrical conduits, among other applications. There are two types of trenching:
conventional and smoothwall, which is used when there is concern about overbreak of the
surrounding rock. Trenches vary in size from 2.6 to 9.9 feet wide and 1.6 to 16.4 feet
deep.

PREPARATION

A ditching machine is used first to remove any loose material or paving down to
solid rock. Blast holes are drilled with high speed, track mounted equipment such as
quad or twin drills. This blasting is usually a fast process due to it's scale. Several
thousand feet of trenching a day is not an unusual workload.

HOLE DRILLING

The major distinguishing factor between conventional and smoothwall blasting is

the placement of the holes. In conventional blasting, the central holes are staggered from
the contour holes where in smoothwall blasting, the central holes and the contour holes
are in line with each other as in figure 4

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 Conventional Blasting

Smoothwall Blasting
Figure 4

Holes generally have between a 2:1 and 3:1 slope (18.5º to 26.5º off vertical) to
help sheer the material away from the free face.

HOLE SIZE

Sources disagree on the optimum size diameter hole. The International Society
of Chemical Engineers, Inc. calls for 3 to 3.5 inches where the preferred hole diameter of
Tamrock Inc. is 2 to 2.5 inches, except in urban settings, where it is 1.2 to 1.4 inches.
This shows that there are a range of diameters that will work and the optimal range varies
by circumstance. There is also a disagreement on how to calculate subdrill for a trench.
Tamrock Inc. calculates it as 10% over the trench depth where Drilling and Blasting of
Rocks calculates it as 50 % of the burden. Both sources agree that the minimum subdrill
should be .2 meters.

CHARGES

Charges are loaded differently depending on whether smoothwall or

conventional blasting is being used. For both, the column charge is significantly less than
the bottom charge by a quarter to a third. Both types of blasting uses the same amount of
explosive, but distributed differently. The length of bottom charge is calculated as

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 H −1
Length = .4 +
5

for all of the holes in conventional blasting and

 H − 1
Length = 1.3 × .4 +
 5 

for the central holes in smoothwall blasting and

 H − 1
Length = .7 × .4 +
 5 

for the contour holes. Stemming in the contour holes increases to 10 times the diameter
of the hole in the contour holes. The column charges are proportional. ANFO is a
popular explosive to use for dry holes, but specialty-trenching products are made for wet
holes or holes in especially tough rock.

DETONATORS

Originally run on cap and fuse detonators, trench blasting is now mostly replaced
with electric and nonelectric systems that are more safe and easier to load. Newer
systems come in multiple delays allowing short-interval delay firing, which gives
lessened vibrations and airblast and improved fragmentation. For example, in a three
hole ditch, the center can be timed with 25ms delays and the other two rows with 75 ms
and 125 ms delays.
The Sequential Timer can be a very useful tool for blasting a narrower ditch
quickly. It employs a two row staggered pattern and is blasted using detonators with
delays of 50ms to 200ms on a repeating pattern for 70 holes (each hole on a separate
delay). The length fired is limited to 10 series, but this can be increased to up to 40 series
by using a slave system to allow continuous repetition of the series as in figure 5.

Figure 5

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 Non-electric systems such as shock tube or low energy det cord can also be used. Its
continuous hookup has the advantage of being able to load all day while still having only
one hole per delay. They also make for easier and faster hookups.

SAFETY

There are very simple measures that can be taken to prevent damage to people or
to equipment. Holes can be covered in loose dirt or blasting mats to contain the broken
rock. When using det cord, the MS connectors are tied outside the ditch to avoid being
damaged by the matting material. Wires or shock tubes are covered with sand to protect
from possible damage from blasting mats or coarse fill.

1.4 RAMP BLASTING

When blasting for mines and quarries, there are two options, to place it either on
the side of a hill or in the flat ground. Where the area is hilly, a mine can be placed on the
free face of a hill. In contrast, where the terrain is flat it is necessary to ramp downward
into a deposit for mining. Ramp blasting is necessary for every new level that is opened
in order to create a new free face to make subsequent blasting more efficient.

GEOMETRY

Figure 6

The geometry of this project is quite simple, needing only a basic understanding
of triangles. We can see from figure 6 that the total length of the cut (LD) is related to
the desired bench depth by

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 H H
Length of cut = = 100 ×
tan α Pr

Where
H is the bench height,
α is the ramp inclination in degrees and
Pr is the percent grade of the ramp.

THEORY AND CALCULATIONS

Because of the similarity of Triangles, the design of each row can be solved with
a program such as an Excel ® spreadsheet. Because it has been proven that

 J′ 
 H′ + 
 2
= 19 ± 1
D
2

For spherical charges of J length buried under a stemming of length H and we know that

J' = 2.4 D

and
H' = 8.3 D

We can find the burden through the equation

B = K*J

Where

H′ + J′ H+J
= =K
LD′ + X LD + X

and
 H′ 
(H ′ + J ′) H 
 − (H + J ) 
X =  tan α   tan α 
(H + J ) − (H ′ + J ′)

These equations are repetitive for each row used and allow even a fairly simple solving

15
program to create the blasting plan.

1.5 BLASTING FOR GROUND LEVELING

Ground leveling is most commonly done as a preparation for a building

construction. Leveling is most commonly done with bench blasting, with horizontal
blasts only when the bench height is too low or when the face left needs to be especially
smooth. This speeds up the process as it allows for almost continual drilling and blasting
because the face does not have to be cleaned between bench blasts. A large amount of
care must be taken to keep fragmentation fairly small and regular because the debris has
to be hauled in smaller equipment that can be used in a residential or industrial area.
Care must also be exercised to control vibration for the same reason of taking care with
the surroundings.

BENCH HOLES

Where the hole length and burden calculations are the same as those of
excavation for highways and railways the majority of diameters are between 38 and 65
mm. Holes should be drilled at about 2:1 or 60º from the vertical and may be initiated all
with the same delay.

HORIZONTAL BLASTS

The horizontal blasts for leveling are slightly different from those of highway
excavation. The blasts are laid out in a single row and blasted to a free face. The
spacing between the holes can be found by

S = .7 × H −1.1

Because the blast is so open, it rarely needs a bottom charge, but the stemming should be
between 10 and 20 times the diameter. A typical powder factor is .2 kg/m3.

1.6 BLASTING FOR FOUNDATIONS

Unlike other types of surface blasting, what is left behind in foundation

excavation is more important than what is removed. This is among the more attention
intensive types, as there are so many specifications that need to be met in order to finish
the project. Fragmentation must be in the correct size for hauling and possible uses
elsewhere, vibration must be kept under control, and there is a very specific size and
shape that needs to be blasted with as little less or extra as can be helped. There are two
types of foundations that required different types of care while blasting: poured to solid
foundations and poured to form foundations.

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 POURED TO SOLID

A poured to solid foundation uses the rock wall left behind as a wall of the
concrete form. This means that any extra rock that is removed will have to be filled with
an often more expensive concrete mixture. Methods that minimize backwall damage
such as presplitting are necessary to employ here with as much precision as possible.

POURED TO FORM

A poured to form foundation requires a good amount less care. The concrete will
be poured into a freestanding frame and having a little extra space around the hole is
usually considered a good thing so that the workers will have space to walk behind.
Presplitting is still usually a good idea in this case, because it minimizes the damage to
the rock wall and makes the hole a safer one overall. It also can be extremely costly to
add rock bolts or having additional excavation to correct for poor blasting.

HOLES

Standard diameter, burden, and spacing rules as discussed in Highway

excavation apply to foundations, though the explosives used are generally of higher
strength and density as there is no free face to begin with. Stemming for the holes is
slightly different as shown in Table 4.

Table 4
uniaxial compressive strength Low Medium 70-120 High 120-180 very high >180
(MPa) <70
Powder Factor - CE .35 .42 .50 .60
(kg/m3)
Stemming – T 35*Diameter 34*Diameter 32*Diameter 30*Diameter

If stemming lengths are reduced from these values, flyrock is more likely.
Fragmentation and diggability can often be improved by increasing the powder factor
through use of additional decks fired on separate delays. This increased powder factor
will often decrease vibration levels.

PLACEMENT

Holes for a foundation blast should be mostly at an angle of 2:1 (60º). A few of
the holes may be tilted slightly more in a wedge shape (Figure 7) in order to create a free
face to make later charges easier. Adding other free faces in other directions later may be
necessary to direct block movement away from critical areas such as other structures.
The first blast should be made in an area that offers a little forgiveness for minor errors.

17
 Figure 7

1.7 MINI – HOLE BLASTING

There are times when the surroundings of an area need to be disturbed as little as
possible with an explosion. This could happen when the blast is too close to a building or
other delicate structure.

SPECIAL EXPLOSIVES

Higher strength and density explosives are often used for holes up to 22mm in
diameter. Most common is a gel mixture of nitroglycerin/nitroglycol, nitrocellulose,
PETN, and ammonium nitrate. It produces 5.5 MJ/kg, is very water resistant, and has a
detonation velocity of 6000 m/s. Charges are created in small packages of about 80 g,
leaving a cavity for the detonator. These stronger explosives reduce vibration and flyrock
because so much less is needed.

SMALL TRENCHES

There are three very common uses for mini-hole blasting: small trenches for
cables, small trenches for pipelines, and postholes. Cable trenches are done between .3
and .6 meters are done with 22 mm blastholes at 18º angles of inclination. The following
rules for the holes should be followed:

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 L = H +.2

B = .018 x D

T=B

Qb = .2 x H

where H is the depth of the trench in meters, D is the diameter of the blasthole in mm, B
is the burden in meters, T is the stemming in meters, and Qb is the charge of high
explosive per blasthole in kg.
Trenches for pipelines done with this technique are under .8 meters. Although
the holes are basically the same as trenches for cables, the widths of the cuts are generally
larger. Thus, the parameter for the charge as related to the depth of the bench is changed
to:

Qb = .03 + .25 x (H - .3)

If the width of the trench is between .8 and 1.2 meters, three rows of blastholes should be
used in the trench. If the trench is between 1.5 and 2 meters wide, four rows of blastholes
should be used.

POST HOLES

For post holes, special explosives as described above are truly useful to avoid
large crater holes and vibrational damage to the surrounding rock. 22 mm holes are
drilled around the parameter and at strategic points within the planned hole. One or two
larger holes (28 to 34 mm are also placed within the parameter as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8

19
The smaller holes are charged with high strength explosive and set off with at least a 60
ms delay timing. The larger holes are not charged.

BLASTING AS ART

Sometimes the precision of mini hole blasting is good enough that it can be used
for very fine work such as creating pieces of art. Early in the evolution of this application
of surface blasting very crude methods were employed. The Mount Rushmore
Monument, for example, was blasted roughly out of the rock face using only dynamite
beginning in 1927. The finer work had to be done with jack hammers, small drills,
hammers, wedges and air hammers. More recent progess in technology has allowed this
kind of work to be completed much more quickly and efficiently. The Crazy Horse
Monument is being built almost entirely with explosives.

Figure 9 The Crazy Horse Monument

In order to create this, the rock is presplit using detcord as the explosive to avoid
damaging the rock behind. Burden is determined by bench depth:

20
 • if the bench to be blasted is less than 5 feet deep, holes are drilled 6 inches apart
and loaded with a single strand of 50 grain det cord.
• if 5 to 15 feet deep, hole spacing is 12 inches and a strand of 100 grain det cord is
used.
• if they are 15-30 feet deep, hole spacing is 20 - 24 inches with 200 or 250 grain
det cord.
• beyond 30 feet deep, holes are drilled 3 to 4 feet apart with water gel in it
this technique gives a large amount of control, anywhere from 12 inches to 8 feet of rock
can be removed with little damage to the rock. Delay patterns like those used in
trenching, typically with less than a half pound of explosive per delay, are calculated to
keep vibration to below 3 inches per second.
Even with the most precise techniques possible, explosives cannot be used for
the finest work, mechanical wedges are usually used to do the last few inches and jet
finishing torches are used to smooth and polish the rock when it is finished.

1.8 PRESPLITTING

Presplitting is the process of increasing the natural fragmentation of rock

Water gel emulsions are made in many small diameters and are created in coils with a
built in detonator cord as seen in figure 10.

Figure 10

Coiled products in deep holes reduces labor cost and increases loading rates. low density
ANFO will work to an extent, but the crushing around the hole parameter tends to have
dissatisfactory results.
Presplitting lines are mostly all shot at once, unless lines are excessively long, in
which case an MS delay can be used to separate portions. Smoother walls with less
overbreak can be achieved by shooting all of the holes as once or with a minimum delay
between them to create a shearing action. The best results are obtained when the

21
presplitting holes are shot before the primary holes are drilled, but this is not always
feasible or is too inefficient, in which case the presplit holes should just be blasted before
the primary holes. Care should be exercised when doing this, as the vibration from the
presplit can disturb the first primary hole, which has the potential to leave undetonated
explosives in the rubble.
The maximum depth that can be presplit at once depends on the equipment and
driller's capabilities. The holes must maintain good alignment. Small deviations from
the angles are exaggerated with depth. Deviation from the shear plane yields poor
results, and thus 15.2 meters (50 feet) is generally the maximum depth for 51 to 89 mm
(2 to 3.5 feet) in diameter holes.
Spacing varies depending on material - a line where the holes are too far apart
may not be well enough established, but if the holes are too close together, they may
cause overbreak. Especially weak of soft material may require guide holes to reduce
backbreak and generally improve results, but they decrease the distance between loaded
holes because they tend to terminate the crack.

22
 CHAPTER 1 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS

1. What is the difference between contour and central holes in trench blasting?

2. Define fragmentation. Why might the fragmentation size be important?

3. You are drilling 80mm holes in rock that has uniaxial compressive strength of 100
MPa for a highway construction project. Assuming you drill at a 15º angle, how
deep should you drill in meters?

4. What powder factor would you use for the above situation? What total charge in
kilograms per meter would be used?

5. What length of charge would be placed in a trench blasting hole if the bench height
were 1 meter and you needed a very smooth wall?

6. You are trying to start a mine. You want to have a bench 6 meters deep and you
plan to make the ramp in 3.5 meters long. What is the ramp inclination? Is this
feasible and why?

7. What is the major difference between poured to solid and poured to form foundations
and what does it mean to an Explosives Engineer?

8. Describe one method for removing unconsolidated material from a future highway
bed. Why is this necessary?

9. How can we reduce vibration in our blasts to be more cautious about surrounding
structures?

23
 CHAPTER 2 – BENCH BLASTING
2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter on bench blasting is written to stand alone, but to better understand
and utilize the chapter it is assumed that you, the reader, have already read and
understood the following concepts: influence of rock properties upon fragmentation,
criteria for selecting explosives, the relationship between blast parameter and effect on
results. This chapter will help you understand and use geometric configuration of
blastholes, explosive charges, initiation sequence, and the delay timing.
With the continued evolution of drilling equipment, and the extension of surface
mining, bench blasting is fast becoming the most popular method of rock fragmentation
with explosives.
Bench blastings for surface are classified according to their purpose. Mentioned
below are some of the more common types blasting.
-Conventional bench blasting – The pursuit of maximum fragmentation and
swelling of the rock
-Rip-rap blasting- Obtaining large fragments of rock.
-Cast blasting - Using explosives to not only fragment the rock, but to also
project a large quantity of it, overburden, to a
predetermined place.
-Road and railway blasting- Conditioned by the terrain and road plan.
-Trench and ramp blasting- Lineal operations due to the shape and narrowness
of the excavations the confinement of explosives
is high.
-Ground leveling and foundation blasting - Usually shallow, and over a small
area.
-Preblasting - Increasing the natural fractures in the rock mass with as little
displacement as possible.
The main focus of this chapter will be on bench blasting (both small and large
diameter) and cast blasting.
Many formulas and methods for calculating geometric parameters such as
burden, spacing, and subdrilling have been around since the early 1950’s. The
previously mentioned formulas use one or more of the following parameters: hole
diameter, characteristics of explosives, compressive rock strength, and many more.
Bench blasting can also be classified by the diameter of the blast hole. These fall
into two categories, small diameter blasting (65 mm to 165 mm, 2.56 in to 6.50 in) and
large diameter bench blasting (180 mm to 450 mm, 7.09 in to 17.72 in)
In small diameter blasting the most common technique developed by Langefors
and Kihlström is used; however, it is better to use the crater technique by Livingston or
the American criteria for the larger diameter blasts. Due to the different nature of rocks
the best method is continuous trial and error to arrive at the best conclusion.
Obviously, every situation in the field cannot be predicted, and is beyond the
scope of this chapter. What this chapter will do is give an initial approach to the
approximate geometric design of blasting, the calculation of charges, and characterization
of rocks by their uniaxial compressive strengths. It will be necessary to adjust patterns,

24
explosive charges to suit the need in the field according to the type and make up of the
material encountered.

2.2 SMALL DIAMETER BENCH BLAST

As stated before, the dimensions of the small diameter bench blast range from 65
mm (2.56 in) to 165 mm (6.50 in). The small diameter bench blasts are mostly used in
small surface mining operations, construction excavations, and quarries. Many variables
must be considered when preparing for any blast. The variables that need to be
considered are: drilling diameters, bench height, drilling/subdrilling and stemming
patterns, inclination of blastholes and charge distribution.

DRILLING DIAMETERS

When selecting the proper blasthole diameter, the average production per hour, or
rhythm of excavation, must be taken into account. In addition, the type of material
excavated must also be accounted for, see Table 1.

Table 1
Blasthole Diameter D Average production per hour (m³b/h)
(mm) Medium-soft rock Hard-very hard rock
< 120 MPa > 120 MPa

65 190 60
89 250 110
150 550 270

An important aspect when drilling is the drilling cost. The cost usually goes down as the
diameter of the hole increases.

BENCH HEIGHT

When determining the bench height it is important to take into account the drilling
diameter and the loading equipment used, see Table 2.

Table 2
Blasthole diameter Recommended
Bench Height H D loading
(m) (mm) Equipment

8.0-10 65-90 Front end loader

10.0-15 100-150 Hydraulic or rope
shovel

Table 2 is a list of recommended dimensions taking into account the abilities of each
group of machines.

25
 There is a limit to how high to have your bench. For most mines and quarries this
height is roughly 15 m (49.21 ft). Only for special occasions, such as rip-rap blasting,
may the height exceed 15 m, to as high as 20 m (65.62 ft).

BLAST GEOMETERY

BURDEN AND SPACING

The burden B is the minimum distance from the axis of a blasthole to the free
face, and the spacing S is the distance between blastholes in the same row. These
parameters are dependent on the following variables: drilling diameter, properties of the
rock and explosive, the height of the bench, and the degree of fragmentation and
displacement.
There are many formulas that have been suggested for calculating the burden,
taking into account one or more of the variables mentioned. Of all these formulas the
range falls in between the values of 25 to 40 times the diameter, see Table 3.

Table 3
Design Parameter Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)
Low Medium High Very High
< 70 70-120 120-180 > 180

Burden - B 39 x D 37 x D 35 x D 33 x D
Spacing - S 51 x D 47 x D 43 x D 38 x D
Stemming - T 35 x D 34 x D 32 x D 30 x D
Subdrilling - J 10 x D 11 x D 12 x D 12 x D

Be accurate of the measurements. Values that are outside those that are
established can lead to some of the following situations.
-Marking and collaring errors.
-Inclination and directional errors.
-Deflection errors while drilling.
-Irregularities in the face of the slope.
If the burden is too great, then the explosion gases encounter too much resistance
to effectively fracture and displace the rock. Part of the energy used is turned into seismic
energy and intensifies ground vibration. This is most evident in presplitting blasts where
there is total confinement and vibration levels can be as much as 5 times larger then
normal bench blasting.
If the burden is not large enough, the gases escape and expand at high speeds
towards the free face. This pushes the fragmented rock, and projects it uncontrollably
causing an increase in overpressure of the air and noise.
The spacing S value is calculated with burden and the delay timing between
blastholes. The value for spacing is approximately 1.15 B for hard rocks, and 1.30 B for
soft rocks, see Table 3. As with burden, if the dimensions for spacing are inadequate then
irregularities occur in the rock face. If the spacing is too large then the fracturing between
the charges is inadequate and leads to toe problems. If the spacing is too close together

26
then excessive crushing between charges occurs, along with superficial crater breakage,
large blocks in front of the blast hole, and toe problems.

STEMMING

Stemming T is the inert material packed within the blasthole meant to confine the
gases produced with the explosion, improving the quality of the blast. Just as with any
other calculations, this too must be accurate. If the stemming is too great (excessive) then
this leads to a large quantity of boulders coming from the top of the bench, poor swelling
of the muckpile, and an elevated vibration level. However, if the stemming is too small
(insufficient) then this leads to a premature escape of the gases leading to an airblast and
a danger of flyrock, the hurling of rock fragments in a blast.
To properly calculate stemming, the type and size of material used, and the length
of the stemming column must be taken into account. Studies have shown that coarse
angular material, such as crushed rock, is the most effective stemming product. Crushed
rock effectively lowers the stemming length by up to 41%. The optimal stemming length
varies between 20 and 60 times the diameter of the blast hole with at least 25 times the
diameter maintained to avoid the problems listed above, see Table 3.

SUBDRILLING

Subdrilling J is the length of the blasthole underneath the floor level needed to
break the rock at bench height and achieve adequate fragmentation and displacement, this
allows the loading equipment to achieve optimum level of productivity. However,
subdrilling is not used in calculating the volume of rock being blasted.
If subdrilling is too small, the rock will not completely shear off resulting in a toe
appearance (this leads to an increase in loading costs). However, if the subdrilling is too
large the following can happen:
-Increase in drilling and blasting costs
-An increased vibration level.
-Excessive fragmentation of the bench, affecting slope stability in the
endzones and open pit.
-Increased risk of cutoffs and overbreak.
The value of subdrilling that produces the optimum level of breakage is roughly
0.3 times B. See Table 3.

INCLINATION OF THE BLASTHOLES

In bench blasting it has been discovered that inclined drilling gives the most
benefits with few disadvantages. Some of the benefits include: better fragmentation, less
subdrilling, increased drilling productivity, and a lower powder factor. Some of the
disadvantages are an increased drilling length, more wear on bits, and problems in
charging the explosive.
The blasthole length L increases with inclination; however, the subdrilling J
decreases. To calculate L use the following equation:

27
 H  β 
L= + 1 − × J
cos β  100 

Where β, in degrees, represents the angle with respect to the vertical.

CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

The required energy needed to produce rock breakage is not uniform in bench
blasting. The energy generated by the explosive must overcome the tensile strength of the
rock in the section CDD’C’ and the shear strength in section A’B’C’D’.
To achieve this effect the explosive with the greater density and strength should
be placed on the bottom of the blasthole, known as the bottom charge. It should be noted
that placing this charge on the bottom of the blasthole increases the diameter of shaped
charges by roughly 10%. The explosive with the lighter density should be placed in the
column, this is known as the column charge. For more information see Figure A.

Figure A

The energy per unit length for the bottom charge should be roughly 2 to 2.5 times
more then the energy necessary for rock breakage.
For recommended lengths of bottom charges see Table 4.

Table 4
Design Parameter Compressive strength (MPa)
Soft Medium Hard Very Hard
< 70 70-120 120-180 > 180

Bottom charge 30 x D 35 x D 40 x D 46 x D
length lf

The height of the column charge is calculated by the difference between total length of
blast hole and the sum of stemming and bottom charge lengths.

28
 POWDER FACTOR

The powder factor is defined as the explosive necessary to fragment 1 m3 of rock.

This equation can also be defined as the amount of explosives over the cubic yards of
material desired to be blasted.

kg
CE =
m3

It is the opinion of many specialists this is not the best tool for designing a blast, unless it
is referring to pattern explosives or expressed as energetic consumption.
For the rock groups shown in Table 4 the powder factor varies between 250 and
550 g/m3.

2.3 LARGE DIAMETER BENCH BLASTING

Diameters from 180 mm (7.09 in) to 450 mm (17.71 in) are considered to be large
diameter bench blasts. Large diameter bench blasts are used mostly in large surface
mining operations and certain civil engineering excavations like power stations and
quarries for the construction of dams. Many of the same variables are required for the
proper calculations.

DRILLING DIAMETERS

Much of the same criteria for drilling parameters are the same for large diameter
blasts as they are for small diameter blasts. The average production per hour and type of
rock being fragmented are still the variables needed for consideration. (see Table 5)

Table 5
Blasthole Diameter
D Average production per hour (m³b/h)
Medium
(mm) Soft Rock Hard Very Hard Rock
< 70 MPa 70-180 MPa > 180 MPa

200 600 150 50

250 1200 300 125
311 2050 625 270

BENCH HEIGHT

There are a couple of ways to calculate the bench height of a large diameter blast
hole, the first of which relates to the size and reach of the rope shovel. The height in
meters can be estimated by the following equation:

H = 10 + 0.57 (Cc – 6)

29
Where Cc = the bucket size of the shovel (m3). Another way to calculate bench height is
to take into account the compressive rock strength and relate it to the diameter D, as can
be seen in Table 6.

Table 6
Design
Parameter Compressive rock strength (MPa)
Medium- Very
Low high High
< 70 70-180 >180

Bench Height H 52 x D 44 x D 37 x D
Stemming - T 40 x D 32 x D 25 x D

STEMMING

To determine the proper length of the stemming refer to Table 6. The table uses
the relationship between diameter D and compressive rock strength.

SUBDRILLING

Subdrilling J is usually calculated from blasthole diameter, as is done in Table 7.

Table 7
Design Parameter Blasthole Diameter (mm)
180-250 250-450

Subdrilling - J 7-8 x D 5-6 x D

When drilling vertical blastholes the first row should reach values of
approximately 10 to 12 times D. Shorter lengths then those that are indicated if used in
the following cases:
-Horizontal bedding planes that coincide with the bench toe.
-Application of select explosive charges.
-Use of inclined blastholes.

INCLINATION

Most drills have a difficult time drilling holes of diameters of a large magnitude.
Because of the difficulty in this, most blast holes are drilled vertically. There are a few
exceptions though, when drilling in soft rocks with a bench height over 24 meters (78.74
ft) it is recommended that inclined drilling be used. The best example of the use of
inclined drilling in large diameter bench blasting is in coal mining operations.

DRILLING PATTERNS

30
 The burden B, as indicated previously, is in function with the charge diameter,
compressive rock strength, and specific energy of the explosive used. The diameter of the
column charge is usually the same as the drilling diameter. See Table 8 for a list of
burden and spacing values for various compressive rock strengths and explosives.

Table 8
Type of Design Compressive rock strength (MPa)
Medium- Very
Explosive Parameter Soft Hard Hard
< 70 70-180 > 180

ANFO Burden - B 28 x D 23 x D 21 x D
Spacing - S 33 x D 27 x D 24 x D
Watergels/ Burden - B 38 x D 32 x D 30 x D
emulsions Spacing - S 45 x D 37 x D 34 x D

CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

When doing large surface operations ANFO, ammonium nitrate fuel oil, is
primarily used due to the following advantages.
-Low cost.
-High Bubble Energy.
-Safety
-Easy mechanization, etc.
In the cases where ANFO cannot be used, when the blasthole might be filled with
water or when the charges on the bottom have been used as an initiator or primer for the
rest of the charge column, watergels have been used as a substitute.
Currently the system consists of creating a bottom charge of a high density
explosive with a length approximately 8 to 16 times the diameter of the blast hole, in
accordance with the rock type, and filling the rest of the blasthole with ANFO. It should
be noted that the diameter of the bottom charge does not increase due to compression as
there was in small diameter bench blasting.
The technique listed above gives the minimum costs in drilling and blasting,
while allowing for the optimum results in fragmentation, swelling, floor conditions and
geometry of the muckpile.

POWDER FACTOR

In large diameter blastings the powder factors range from 0.25 to 1.2 kg/m3.

2.4 CAST BLASTING

There exists this blasting technique that not only fragments the rock, but also
moves a large volume of it into spoil poles and pits. This a very popular technique, as it
allows for reduced investment in machinery, operation and maintenance. By using cast
blasting it is possible that 40-60% of a large volume of rock can be projected, thus less
manipulation of material.

31
 According to some there are two categories of criteria that need be considered to
design this type of blast. These two categories are the operative, and those pertaining to
the actual blast.
The following conditions should be considered for the operative criteria:
-Bench height – A minimum height of 12 m (39.37 ft) is the recommended
height, however a smaller height is feasible.
-Pit width – Usually the width of a previous blast, and should be between
1 and 1.25 times the height of the face.
-Wall angle – To achieve the optimal results it is best that the active face
walls be excavated vertically by the use if presplitting, a contour blast in
blastholes creating a fissure plane in the rock, blasts before. By using this,
the burden remains constant on the front row and all the blastholes can be
drilled vertically, and the rock mass can be drained allowing for the use of
ANFO. (Presplitting has been carried out with blasthole diameters as large
as 251 mm (9.88 in) with spacing of 3 m (9.84 ft) for soft rock, and 5-6 m
(16.40-19.69 ft) for hard rock.
-Type of rock formation – Different types of rock affect the blast, for
example soft rock generally requires a larger powder factor then hard rock.
Structural properties also vary, and should be taken into consideration.
When analyzing actual blast criteria, the most important variables are:
-Burden – This value can vary based on the rock type and geology of the
rock mass. Optimal displacement is obtained with reduced burdens
between 0.9 and 1.35 m/(kg/m)1/2. When a limited cast is desired it is then
okay to use superior values.
-Type of explosive – The ratio between burden and explosive energy
controls the ejection velocity of material from the face, this in turn
controls the distance of projection. This velocity has been calculated
experimentally to follow this equation:

−1.17
 B ( m) 
V0 (m / s ) = 1.14 ×  
 ( Energy ) 
3

Where: Energy (kcal/m) = 0.07853 x d2 x pc x PAP

d = Charge diameter (cm)
pc = Explosive density (g/cm3)
PAP = Absolute weight strength (cal/g).

The minimum velocity is recommended to be about 15 m/s (33.55 mph). If

the trajectory exit angle β is known then the maximum horizontal reach
can be calculated with the following equations:

V02 × sin 2β
DM 1 = (floor level rock)
g

32
 V × sin β + (V × sin β ) 2 × 2 gh 
DM 2 = V0 × cos β  0 0

 g 

Where: DM1 = The distance traveled by a fragment along a

horizontal line level with the height of itself above
the pit floor (m)
DM2 = The total distance traveled by a fragment, taking
into account the height above the pit floor (m).

-Spacing – The best results are obtained with rectangular staggered

patterns, and spacing between blastholes of 1.3 to 1.6 times the burden.
-Stemming – The type of rock indicates the diameter of the blasthole,
usually between 20 and 25 times the blasthole diameter.
-Subdrilling – Negative subdrilling, backfilling the blasthole 4 to 6 times
the blasthole diameter, is used to prevent harm and dilution of the ore.
-Initiation sequences and delay timing – All the blasthole in the same row
explode at the same time, and the only delay is between the rows
themselves. If the blast has two free faces, the arrangement should follow
Figure B. The minimum delay times between blastholes are calculated
with 20 to 35 ms/m of burden.

Figure B

-Powder factors – Usually between 0.3 and 0.8 kg/m3 for an ANFO type
of explosive.
-Initiation – Should maximize the Bubble Energy at the expense of Strain
Energy, using the energy developed in rock displacement better.
A method for calculating the blasts that produce the maximum displacement has
been developed by D’ Appolonia Consulting Engineers. This technique uses four
nomographs and five equations, so care must be taken in making calculations. If care is
taken then the calculations are fairly simple.

33
 The types of rocks are classified by what is known as the Strain Energy Factor
and Blastability factor. An example can be seen in Table 9.

Table 9
Strain
Rock Rock group Compressive energy Strain
blast- classification Strength factor factor
ability (MPa) (FEt ) (FV)

Tertiary I 27 2.9 2.5

II 30 2.9 2.5
III 66 3.3 2.8
Cretaceous II 21 2.8 2.8
III 49 3.1 2.7
Pennsyl- VI 87 3.5 2.6
vanian VII 122 3.9 2.5
VIII 108 3.7 2.4

In order to help with understanding of the D’ Appolonia method an example

problem has been provided with a walkthrough step by step.
Given:
-Drilling diameter D = 152 mm
-Strain Energy Factor FE1 = 3
-Height of bench H = 7.5 m
-Desired throw distance of material DP = 18 m
-Density of explosive ρe = 0.87 kg/m3
Steps
Step 1) Using nomograph 1 connect FE1 = 3 with DP = 1.8 with a strait line and
the powder factor is obtained, the value should be roughly CE = 0.592 kg/m3
Step 2) Now, using nomograph 2 connect D = 152 mm and ρe = 0.87 kg/m3 with a
strait line. This should lead to a value of roughly ql = 15 kg/ml.
Step 3) Values C1 and C2 are calculated using the values of K1 and K2. Both K1
and K2 initially equal 1, meaning that burden and spacing are equal.

10.66 × q1
C1 =
CE × K 2
.3 × K1 × C1
C2 =
H

Step 4) Using nomograph 3 is a 2 part process. By connecting C1 and C2 by a

strait line C3 is approximately 1.4. C’2 and C’3 equal C2 and C3 respectively. By
connecting C’3 and C’2 by a strait line the burden is approximately B = 3.6 m.
Step 5) The length of the charge in the blasthole is calculated using the following:

l = H – K1 x B = 7.5 – 3.6 = 3.9 m

34
 Step 6) Going back to nomograph 2, connect l = 3.9 with ql = 15 kg/ml arriving at
a total charge per blasthole of Qb = 51 kg.
Step 7) With the Table of Blastability Factors posted within nomograph 4 find FV
(FV = 2.6 when FE = 3). By connecting FV = 2.6 and Qb = 51 kg with a strait line Bo =
4.0 can be obtained.
Step 8) The values of B and Bo are compared. If the values are roughly equal then
no other step are required to be taken. The rest of the blasting parameters can be obtained
using the following equations:

S = K2 x B
T = K1 x B

Step 9) If B and Bo are not equal, as is the case this time, K1 and K2 must be
reduced. A general rule of thumb was developed by D’ Appolonia wherein K2 = (K1)3.
For example if K1 = 0.8, then K2 = 0.51. These values must be plugged back into C1 and
C2 until B and Bo are approximately equal.

35
Nomograph I

Nomograph II

36
Nomograph III

Nomograph IV

37
 CHAPTER 2 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS

2.1) You are assigned to clear a quarry. After careful measurements you find that the
rock has a compressive strength of 90 MPa and a bench height of 12 m. The only
drill you have available drills at 150 mm. To blast you are given 2 explosives: a
cartridged slurry with a diameter of 130 mm and a density of 1.3 g 3 , and
cm
ANFO with a density of 0.8 g 3 . To decrease subdrilling you decide to select a
cm
10 degree inclination. Before drilling you must submit drilling pattern
specifications and charge distributions. SHOW ALL WORK !!!

a) Subdrilling, Burden, Spacing.

b) Blast hole length.
c) Volume of rock broken.
d) Length, concentration, and amount of bottom charge.
e) Length, concentration, and amount of column charge.
f) Total charge.
g) Powder factor.

2.2) Your boss sent you out to survey a site and come back with calculations for a
large diameter bench blast. After a test hole you notice water in the bottom of the
hole, and you estimate a bench height of 20 m. After a few samples you calculate
the compressive rock strength of 65 MPa and the optimal drilling diameter of 200
mm. You must submit to your boss drilling pattern specifications and charge
distribution(s). SHOW ALL WORK !!!

a) Bucket size.
b) Subdrilling, stemming, burden, spacing.
c) Blasthole length and volume of broken rock.
d) If the density of is 1.1 g 3 how much explosives must be used, and what
cm
is the concentration of the explosive charge?
e) Powder factor.

2.3) You are driving through a large quarry and see that a crew is trying to move a
large amount of rock from one area to another. After taking a few measurements
you suggest a cast blast. The resident explosives engineer went to DU and is
unsure how to do this, so being from Colorado School of Mines you must show
him. You decide to use the D’ Appolonia method. You measure the following
variables:

Drilling Diameter – 200 mm

Strain Energy Factor – FE = 3.4
Bench Height – 10 m
Throw Distance – 10 m

38
Density of Explosive - .83 kg/m³

In order to leave you must calculate the following variables: stemming, spacing,
optimal burden, powder factor, length of charge in the blast hole, and the total
charge per blast hole. SHOW ALL WORK !!!

39
 CHAPTER 3 – EXPLOSIVE SELECTION CRITERIA

3.1 INTRODUCTION

There are many things the technician in charge of a blast must consider when
deciding on what type of explosives to use. This selection plays a major role in the blast
design and the blast results that will occur. An explosive has many characteristics that
need to be analyzed in making this decision. These include: minimum diameter in which
detonation will occur, the ability to resist water and water pressure, generation of toxic
fumes, ability to function under different temperature conditions, input energy needed to
start reaction, reaction velocity, detonation pressure, bulk density, and strength. Other
things the technician must consider are: explosive cost, charge diameter, characteristics
of the rock to be blasted, volume of the rock to be blasted, presence of water, safety
conditions, and supply problems.

3.2 TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES

The explosive used as the main borehole charge can be broken up into four
categories. These categories are dynamite, slurries, emulsions, and dry blasting agents
Because all the categories mentioned contain explosives that will detonate, they are
considered high explosives. A high explosive is an explosive with a very high rate of
reaction and pressure that reacts at a speed greater than that of sound.

DYNAMITE

In Sweden in 1867, Alfred Nobel discovered how to create dynamite. Most

dynamites are nitroglycerin based. Nitroglycerin was the first high explosive used in
commercial blasting. Being the most sensitive of all explosives used, dynamite is more
susceptible to accidental initiation. There are two major subclasses of dynamite.
Granular dynamite and gelatin dynamite. Granular dynamite is a compound which
uses nitroglycerin as its explosive base. There are three subclasses of granular dynamite.
These include straight dynamite, high-density extra dynamite, and low density extra
dynamite. Gelatin dynamite uses a mixture of nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose. This
produces a waterproof compound. Three subclasses make up the types of gelatin
dynamites: straight blasting gelatin, ammonia gelatin, semigelatin.

SLURRY EXPLOSIVES

Slurry explosives, also called water gels, are made up of ammonium nitrate partly
in an aqueous solution. Depending on the rest of the ingredients slurries can be classified
as a blasting agent or an explosive. Slurries were developed to replace ANFO in wet
conditions. Slurry blasting agents contain nonexplosive sensitizers or fuels such as
carbon, sulfur, or aluminum. These blasting agents are not cap sensitive. On the other
hand slurry explosives contain cap- sensitive ingredients such as TNT and the mixture
itself may be cap sensitive. The slurries are thickened with a gum, such as guar gum.
This gives them very good water resistance. “Slurry boosting” is practiced when a slurry

40
and a dry blasting agent are used in the same borehole. Most of the charge will come
from the dry blasting agent. Boosters placed at regular intervals may improve
fragmentation. In another application of slurry boosting, the slurry is placed in a position
where fragmentation is difficult, such as a hard toe or a zone of hard rock in the burden.
The disadvantages of slurries include higher cost, unreliable performance, and
deterioration with prolonged storage.

EMULSIONS

An emulsion is a water resistant explosive material containing substantial

amounts of oxidizers, often ammonium nitrate, dissolved in water and forming droplets,
surrounded by fuel oil. The droplets of the oxidizer solution are surrounded by a thin
layer of oil and are stabilized by emulsifiers. To achieve more sensitivity within the
emulsion voids are added. These voids may include small nitrogen bubbles or micro-
spheres made out of glass. Sensitivity of an emulsion decreases as the density increases.
To adjust the density and strength of an emulsion dry products are used. Some examples
being powdered aluminum, gasifying agents to reduce density. It is therefore necessary
to work above the critical diameter and use powerful initiators. If the emulsion is not cap
sensitive it is considered a blasting agent. Emulsions have high energy, reliable
performance, excellent resistance to water, and relative insensitivity to temperature
changes. The direct cost of an emulsion explosive is higher but this is offset by time
saved in loading and a reduction in nitrate content of broken muck. Some other
advantages to using emulsions in rock blasting include: a lower cost, excellent water
resistance, high detonation velocities, and it’s very safe to handle and manufacture.

DRY BLASTING AGENTS

Dry blasting agents are the most widely used explosive used in the world. In the
U.S, about 80 percent of the explosives used are dry blasting agents. ANFO is the most
common dry blasting agent. An oxygen balanced mixture of ANFO is the lowest cost
source of explosive energy today. To increase energy output, ground aluminum foil is
added to dry blasting agents. A downfall of this however, is that the cost is increased.
Two categories make up dry blasting agents: cartridged blasting agents and bulk ANFO.
Bulk ANFO is prilled ammonium nitrate with fuel added. Bulk ANFO is either blown or
augured into a blast hole from bulk truck. These blasting agents will not function
properly if placed in wet holes for extended periods of time. Cartridged blasting agents
however, are made for use in wet blasting holes. Cartridged blasting agents are available
with densities that are greater than that of water if you would like them to sink, or less
than that of water if you would like them to float. Another widely used type of ANFO is
heavy ANFO. Heavy ANFO is made up of mixtures of ammonium nitrate prills, fuel oil,
and slurries. The main advantage of heavy ANFO is that they can be mixed at the blast
hole and quickly loaded into a hole. The ratio of the amount of slurry mixed with the
ANFO can be changed to offer either a higher energy load or a load which is water
resistant. The cost of heavy ANFO rises with increasing amount of slurry. These have
an advantage over cartridged blasting agents because they fill the entire blast hole with
energy and have to wasted volume that would occur with cartridges.

41
 3.3 EXPLOSIVE CHARACTERISTICS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

There are many physical attributes that must be considered in the selection of
explosives. These factors affect six characteristics of the explosives: sensitiveness, water
resistance, water pressure tolerance, fumes, and temperature resistance.

SENSITIVENESS

Table 1
Critical
Type Diameter
< 1 in. 1-2 in > 2 in
Granular
Dynamite x
Gelatin Dynamite x
Cartridged Slurry x x x
Bulk Slurry x x
Emulsion x x
Poured ANFO x
Packaged ANFO x x
Heavy ANFO x

Sensitiveness is the characteristic of an explosive which defines its ability to

propagate a stable detonation through the entire length of the charge and controls the
minimum diameter for practical use. By determining the explosive’s critical diameter
you can measure the sensitivity of the explosive. The critical diameter is the minimum
diameter of explosive column which will detonate reliably. This diameter has quite a
wide range between different explosives. Some may have a critical diameter of three
inches, while others may have a critical diameter of a few thousandths of an inch. The
explosive diameter, the diameter of the borehole, must be greater than the critical
diameter of the explosive you choose to use for this blast to function. Thus, if your
borehole size is already determined you may eliminate explosives that have a critical
diameter which is greater than your predetermined explosive diameter.

42
 WATER RESISTANCE

Table 2 Water Resistance

Type Resistance
Granular
Dynamite Poor to Good
Gelatin
Dynamite Good to Excellent
Cartridged Slurry Very Good
Bulk Slurry Very Good
Emulsion Very Good to Excellent
Poured ANFO Poor
Packaged ANFO Very Good*
Heavy ANFO Poor to Very Good
*Becomes poor if package is
broken

Water resistance is the explosive’s ability to withstand exposure to water

without suffering detrimental effects in performance. Explosives have two types of water
resistance: internal and external. Internal water resistance is water resistance provided
by the composition of the explosive. External water resistance is the water resistance is
provided by the packaging or cartridging in which the explosive is placed. Water is
harmful to the explosive because it can dissolve or leach out some of the explosive
ingredients. It can also cool the explosive to a point where it will not function properly.
To describe the water resistance you can use the terms excellent, good, fair, or poor. If
there is water in your blast sight you are going to want to use an explosive with at least a
fair rating. The more water resistant an explosive is, the higher the cost.

WATER PRESSURE TOLERANCE

Water pressure tolerance is the explosive’s ability to remain unaffected by high

static pressures. These high pressures will occur when you have deep boreholes that are
filled with water. Explosives may be densified and desensitized in these conditions.
Some examples of explosives that have big problems with water pressure tolerance are
slurries and heavy ANFO.

FUMES

Table 3 Fume Quality

Type Quality
Granular
Dynamite Poor to Good
Gelatin Dynamite Fair to Very Good
Cartridged Slurry Good to Very Good
Bulk Slurry Fair to Very Good
Emulsion Good to Very Good
Poured ANFO Good*
Packaged ANFO Good to Very Good
Heavy ANFO Good*
*Can be poor under adverse conditions

43
 The fume class of an explosive is a measure of the amount of toxic gases
produced in the detonation process. The most common gases considered in fume class
ratings are carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. Commercial explosives are made to
get the most energy out as possible while minimizing these gases. This is done by
balancing the oxygen in chemical reaction of the explosive. This alone doesn’t solve the
problem of toxic fumes. These can still occur due to environmental conditions. Blasters
should be especially careful with underground blasts. The Institute of Makers of
Explosives (IME) have adopted a method of rating fumes and the test is conducted by the
Bichel Gauge method. The cubic feet of poisonous gases released per 200 grams of
explosive is measured. If less than .16 cu ft of toxic fumes are produced, the fume class
rating would be 1. If .16 to .33 cu ft are produced, the fume class rating is a 2, and if .33
to .67 cu ft of toxic fumes are produced, the fume class rating is a 3.

TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE

Table 4 Temperature Resistance

Type Between O°F - 100°F
Granular
Dynamite Good
Gelatin
Dynamite Good
Cartridged
Slurry Poor Below 40°F
Bulk Slurry Poor Below 40°F
Emulsion Good
Poured ANFO Poor Above 90°F
Packaged ANFO Poor Above 90°F
Heavy ANFO Poor Below 40°F

The performance of explosives can be affected a great deal if they are exposed to
extremely hot or cold conditions. Under hot condtions, above 90 degrees F, many
explosive compounds will slowly decompose or change properties. Shelf life will also be
decreased. Cycling can occur when you store ammonium nitrate blasting agents in
temperatures above 90 degrees F. This will affect not only the performance of the
explosive, but also the safety.

PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES

After considering all of the environmental factors, the performance characteristics

of explosives must be considered in the explosive selection process. These
characteristics include: Sensitivity, velocity, detonation pressure, density, and strength.

44
 SENSITIVITY

Table 5 Sensitivity
Performance
Type Hazard Sensitivity Sensitivity
Granular
Dynamite Moderate to High Excellent
Gelatin Dynamite Moderate Excellent
Cartridged Slurry Low Good to Very Good
Bulk Slurry Low Good to Very Good
Very Good to
Emulsion Low Excellent
Poured ANFO Low Poor to Good*
Packaged ANFO Low Good to Very Good
Heavy ANFO Low Poor to Good*
*Heavily dependent on field
condition

The sensitivity of an explosive product is defined by the amount of input energy

required for the product to detonate reliably. Other common names for this are the
minimum booster rating, or minimum priming requirements. While some explosives
require very little energy to detonate reliably with just a blasting cap, others require the
use of a booster or primer along with a blasting cap to get a reliable detonation. Factors
such as water in the blast hole, inadequate charge diameter or temperature can affect the
sensitivity of an explosive. Sensitivity of an explosive defines its primer requirements,
primer size, and energy output. When reliable detonation fails to happen, the amount of
fumes increase, and ground vibration levels tend to rise. Sensitivity is also the measure
of the explosive’s separation distance between a primed donor cartridge and an
unprimed receptor cartridge, where reliable detonation transfer will occur. Hazard
sensitivity is the explosive’s response to accidental addition of energy, an example being
a fire.

VELOCITY

Detonation Velocity
Table 6 (fps)
Detonation Velocity
Type (fps)
Granular Dynamite 7-19000
Gelatin Dynamite 12-25000
Cartridged Slurry 13-19000
Bulk Slurry 12-19000
Emulsion 14-18000
Poured ANFO 6-15000
Packaged ANFO 10-15000
Heavy ANFO 11-19000

45
 The speed at which a detonation occurs through an explosive is called the
detonation velocity. Detonation velocity is important to consider only on explosive
applications where a borehole is not used. Detonation velocity is used to determine the
efficiency of an explosive reaction. If it is suspected that and explosive is performing sub
par then you can test the detonation velocity. If this measured velocity is significantly
lower than its rated velocity the explosive is not performing as should be expected. The
greater the detonation velocity the more the breakage that occurs. Factors that affect the
detonation velocity include: charge density, diameter, confinement, initiation, and aging
of the explosive.

DETONATION PRESSURE

Table 7 Detonation Pressure

Detonation Pressure
Type (kbars)
Granular
Dynamite 20-70
Gelatin
Dynamite 70-140
Cartridged
Slurry 20-100
Bulk Slurry 20-100
Emulsion 40-90
Packaged ANFO 20-60
Heavy ANFO 20-90

The detonation pressure is the pressure associated with the reaction zone of a
detonating explosive. It’s is measured in the C-J plane, behind the detonation front,
during propagation through an explosive column. This pressure can be estimated using
the following formula:

1
pd = ρecd210− 6
2

Where: pd = Detonation pressure (MPa)

ρe = Density of explosive (kg/m3)
cd = Velocity of detonation (m/s)

Detonation pressure is related to the density of the explosive and its reaction velocity.
When selecting explosives for primers, detonation pressure is an important consideration.
In hard and competent rocks the fragmentation is done more easily with high detonation
pressure explosives, owing to the direct relationship that exists between detonation
pressure and the breakage mechanisms of the rock.

46
 DENSITY

Table 8 Density (g/cc)

Type Density (g/cc)
Granular
Dynamite 0.8-1.4
Gelatin
Dynamite 1.0-1.6
Cartridged
Slurry 1.1-1.3
Bulk Slurry 1.1-1.6
Emulsion 1.0-1.2
Poured ANFO 0.8-0.85
Packaged ANFO 1.1-1.2
Heavy ANFO 1.1-1.4

The density of an explosive is important because explosives are purchased, stored

and used on a weight basis. Then density of an explosive determines the weight of
explosive that can be loaded into a specific borehole diameter. In the bottom of the blast
holes where more energy concentration is required, higher density explosives such as
gelatin explosives or watergels are used. In column charges where lower density is
required, ANFO based or powder explosives are used. Loading density is the weight of
explosive per linear foot of charge in a specified diameter. Loading density is used to
determine the total amount of explosive which will be used per borehole and per blast.
Loading density can be calculated using the following equation:

q1  kg  = 7.854 × 10− 4 × ρ e × D 2
 m

Where: ρe= Explosive density (g/cm3)

D = Charge Diameter (mm)

STRENGTH

The strength of an explosive refers to the energy content of an explosive which in

turn is the measure of the force it can develop and its ability to do work. Strength is rated
in two different ways. One is on an equal volume basis, called bulk strength. The other
is rated on an equal weight basis, called weight strength. Strength is measured using
various methods and tests. Some of these include: the Ballistic mortar test, seismic
strength test, Traulz test, and cratering.

OTHER IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS

There are a few more parameters that must be considered when selecting an
explosive other then the before mentioned. These include: the explosive cost, charge
diameter, characteristics of the rocks being blasted, volume of the rocks being blasted,
safety conditions, and supply problems.

47
 EXPLOSIVE COST

When selecting an explosive, the cost of the explosive is a very important thing to
consider. The goal is to find the lowest cost explosive that is able to complete the job at
task. Being the cheapest explosive, ANFO is used the majority of the time. Explosive
cost is more correctly expressed in terms of cost per unit of energy available rather than
cost per weight because energy is what is used to break the rock. For a blast design using
a fixed hole size requiring an explosive or explosives of a particular bulk strength the
lowest blast costs will be achieved by selecting the explosive having the required bulk
strength at the lowest cost per unit length of loaded blast hole. The best explosive is not
always the least expensive but rather the one that achieves the lowest blasting costs.

CHARGE DIAMETER

If explosives with detonation velocities that vary greatly with the diameter are
used, you should take the following precautions:
- With blastholes under 50mm diameter, it is better to use slurries or cartridged
dynamites
- With blast holes between 50mm and 100mm diameter, ANFO is adequate for
bench blastings as a column charge and in inner charges increasing the density by
20 percent with pneumatic chargers and effective priming
- With blast holes above 100mm in diameter, there are no problems with ANFO,
although in hard rocks it is better to design columns with selective charges and a
good initiation system.
- In large diameters with different mixtures of bulk explosives it is very
economical to charge by mechanical means.
- Gelatin and granular cartridged explosives are still used in small diameters, but
in medium type calibers they are being substituted for cartridged slurries and
emulsions.

Drilling and Blasting of Rocks 1997

ROCK CHARACTERISTICS

When blasting rocks, they are categorized into four types, resistant massive rocks,
highl fissured rocks, rocks that form blocks, porous blocks. Different types of explosives
are recommeneded for each one of these types.
Resistant massive rock formations have very few fissures and planes of weakness.
As a result, an explosive is needed that creates a large number of new surfaces based on
its strain energy. The strain energy is the potential energy stored in the linear part of a
strained elastic solid. An explosive with a high density and detonation velocity will work
well in this case. Thus slurries and emulsions would be good choices.

48
 Highly fissured rock formations have many preexisting fissures. Explosives with
high strain energy don’t work in this case. ANFO is the recommended choice here
because of its high gas energy.
When masses with large spacing between discontinuities that form large blocks,
and in ground where large boulders exist within plastic matrixes, the fragmentation of the
rock is more based on the geometry of the blast than the properties of the explosive.
Thus, you want an explosive with a balanced strain/gas energy relationship such as heavy
ANFO.
In porous rock formations there are many things to consider when blasting along
with selecting the proper explosive. The proper explosive would be one with low
densities and detonation velocity, such as ANFO. To retain gases in the blasthole for as
long as possible the blaster should:
- control the stemming material and height
- properly sized burden
- priming the bottom
- reduce blast hole pressure by decoupling the charges

Drilling and Blasting of Rocks 1997

VOLUME OF ROCK BEING BLASTED

The volume of the rock being blasted will determine the amount of a certain
explosive you will use for the blast. When this volume is very large you are going to
want to consider the use of bulk explosives. This makes mechanized charging possible
from the transports, thus lowering labor costs.

Drilling and Blasting of Rocks 1997

SUPPLY PROBLEMS

Lastly another minor detail has to be considered. Are you able to obtain the
explosive you wish to use in your area? You also have to worry about the storage of
these explosives.

49
 CHAPTER 3 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT

3.1) Complete the following table:

Explosive Chemical Advantages Disadvantages

Makeup
ANFO

Dynamite

Slurries

Emulsions

3.2) What is the critical diameter of the explosive and why is it important?

3.3) What is the difference between water resistance and water pressure tolerance?

3.4) Calculate the loading density in kg/m of an emulsion with a density of 1.08 g/cc
and a diameter of 40 mm.

3.5) Calculate the detonation pressure in MPa of a gelatin dynamite which has a
density of 1.54 g/cc and detonation velocity of 5,300 m/s.

3.6) You are the blaster in charge at a job site of a surface blast. It is up to you to
determine what explosive to use with the following conditions:

• You are in Death Valley, California. The temperatures have regularly

been reaching over 100 degrees F and it hasn’t rained for weeks.
• You will be blasting through some very hard rocks with very few fissures.
• Lots of heavy machinery is being used in the area, so be careful to avoid
accidental detonation.

50
 GLOSSARY
Airblast - vibrations that propagate through the air caused by the detonation of
explosives

ANFO - A blasting agent in powder form consisting of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil.

Backbreak - large fragments or blocks of unblasted material that become dislodged

Block movement - A general failure of the hanging wall.

Borehole - cylindrical hole drilled by a mechanical device or jet-piercing equipment into

the rock

Bottom charge - An explosive, normally of high strength, placed on the bottom of the
blast hole.

Bubble Energy - Energy of the gases produced by an explosion, usually measured in

underground tests.

Burden - Distance from blasthole to free face of rock, measured perpendicularly to the
axis of the whole.

Central holes - in a set of three or four rows, the one or two on the inside, away from the
edge

Collaring - Point on the surface where blasthole drilling begins.

Column charge - An explosive, usually of medium or light strength, placed between the
stemming and bottom charge.

Contour holes - in a set of three or four rows, as in trench blasting, the two on the
outsides of the set

Crater - A cone shaped hole made in the rock by an explosive charge placed inside.

Critical Diameter - is the minimum diameter of explosive column which will detonate
reliably.

Cutoff - Part of the charged blasthole is cut off by detonation of adjacent holes with
lower delay numbers.

Cycling - is the ability of a material to change its crystal from with temperature

51
Detonation Pressure - is the pressure associated with the reaction zone of a detonating
explosive

Detonation Velocity - speed at which a detonation occurs through an explosive

Emulsifier - a material in small quantities that increases the stability of a dispersion of

one liquid in another.

Emulsion - a water resistant explosive material containing substantial amounts of

oxidizers, often ammonium nitrate, dissolved in water and forming droplets, surrounded
by fuel oil.

Explosive Column - column that contains the explosives

Explosive Diameter - the diameter of the borehole

External Water Resistance - is the water resistance is provided by the packaging or

cartridging in which the explosive is placed

Flyrock - The hurling of rock fragments in a blast.

Fragmentation - Measure to describe the size of distribution of broken rock after

blasting.

Fume Class - is a measure of the amount of toxic gases produced in the detonation
process

Gelatin dynamite - uses a mixture of nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose

Grain - number of grains of explosive per foot, (50 grain is equal to about 1/70th of a
stick of dynamite per foot)

Granular dynamite - dynamite is a compound which uses nitroglycerin as its explosive

base

Guar gum - a water-soluble paste made from the seeds of the guar plant and used as a
thickener

Guide hole - unloaded holes located between loaded holes

Hazard Sensitivity - sensitivity is the explosive’s response to accidental addition of

energy

High explosive - an explosive with a very high rate of reaction and pressure which
creates a shock wave to propagate through the explosive column at a high velocity called
the detonation velocity

52
Internal Water Resistance - is water resistance provided by the composition of the
explosive

Loading Density - density is the weight of explosive per linear foot of charge in a
specified diameter.

Nitrocellulose - a pulpy or cotton-like polymer derived from cellulose treated with

sulfuric and nitric acids and used in the manufacture of explosives

Nitroglycerin - a thick, pale yellow liquid, C3H5N3O9, that is explosive and used in the
production of dynamite

Overburden - The surface soil that must be moved away to get at coal seams and
mineral deposits.

Overbreak - Rock breakage occurring outside the theoretical contour of a blast.

Powder factor - The quantity of explosive needed to fragment 1 m3 of rock.

Presplitting - A contour blast consisting in blastholes which break before the stoping
blasts and create a cut or fissure plane in the rock.

Prill - in blasting a small bead of a chemical, formed to ensure free-flowing

characteristics

Primed Donor Cartridge - cartridge that includes a detonator

Sensitivity - is defined by the amount of input energy required for the product to detonate
reliably.

Slurry explosives - are made up of ammonium nitrate partly in an aqueous solution.

Spacing - Distance between blastholes of the same row.

Stemming - Areas of the blasthole without explosive charge that are filled with inert
material such as dust, sand, clay, etc.

Strain Energy - energy is the potential energy stored in the linear part of a strained
elastic solid.

Strength - to the energy content of an explosive which in turn is the measure of the force
it can develop and its ability to do work

Subdrilling - The length of the blasthole drilled below the planned level of breakage.

53
Technician - the blaster, qualified person in charge of a blast who certifies his or her
qualifications to supervise blasting activities

Toe - Unfragmented parts of the rock mass which appear in the lower areas of the bench.

Uniaxial compressive strength - strength of a material to being compressed

in one direction

Unprimed Receptor Cartridge - cartridge that doesn’t have a detonator

Water Pressure Tolerance - is the explosive’s ability to remain unaffected by high static
pressures

Water Resistance - is the explosive’s ability to withstand exposure to water without

suffering detrimental effects in performance

54
 ANSWERS TO HOMEWORK

CHAPTER 1 HOMEWORK (ANSWERS)

1. What is the difference between contour and central holes in trench blasting?

Contour holes are the outer ones, and central holes are the inner ones. In smoothwall
blasting, contour holes have less explosive in them than central holes.

2. Define fragmentation. Why might the fragmentation size be important?

Fragmentation is a measure to describe the size of distribution of broken rock after

blasting. If you have too large a fragmentation, you may not be able to move it
efficiently. If you have too small a fragmentation, you may not be able to move it
efficiently and you wasted a bit of energy.

3. You are drilling 80mm holes in rock that has uniaxial compressive strength of 100
MPa for a highway construction project. Assuming you drill at a 15º angle, how deep
should you drill in meters?

5.717 m

4. What powder factor would you use for the above situation? What total charge in
kilograms per meter would be used?

18.286 kg/m

5. What length of charge would be placed in a trench blasting hole if the bench height
were 1 meter and you needed a very smooth wall?

Contour holes: .52 m

Central holes: .28 m

6. You are trying to start a mine. You want to have a bench 6 meters deep and you plan
to make the ramp in 3.5 meters long. What is the ramp inclination? Is this feasible and
why?

59.04º No, it is not. This is way too steep for a large truck to go up and down on,
especially when the road is made of dirt. Assuming that a heavily weighted truck could
get up that ramp, it would erode really quickly.

7. What is the major difference between poured to solid and poured to form foundations
and what does it mean to an Explosives Engineer?

A poured to solid foundation uses the rock wall left behind as a wall of the concrete form.

55
A poured to form foundation will have a full form that the concrete will be poured into
and having a little extra space behind it is not always a bad thing. A poured to form
foundation requires a good amount less care.

8. Describe one method for removing unconsolidated material from a future highway
bed. Why is this necessary?

Ditching, the relief method, the underfill method, or toe shooting are all methods.
Roadways need to rest on solid material. Unconsolidated, marshy material isn’t useful.

9. How can we reduce vibration in our blasts to be more cautious about surrounding
structures?

We can shoot less explosive at a time by spreading it out over several delays or using less
of a special kind.

CHAPTER 2 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS (ANSWERS)

2.1) You are assigned to clear a quarry. After careful measurements you find that the
rock has a compressive strength of 90 MPa and a bench height of 12 m. The only
drill you have available drills at 150 mm. To blast you are given 2 explosives: a
cartridged slurry with a diameter of 130 mm and a density of 1.3 g 3 , and
cm
ANFO with a density of 0.8 g 3 . To decrease subdrilling you decide to select a
cm
10 degree inclination. Before drilling you must submit drilling pattern
specifications and charge distributions. SHOW ALL WORK !!!

a) Subdrilling, Burden, Spacing.

Subdrilling – 11 x Diameter = 1650 mm or 1.65 m
Burden – 37 x Diameter = 5550 mm or 5.55 m
Spacing – 47 x Diameter = 7050 mm or 7.05 m
b) Blast hole length.
12m  10 
L= + 1 −  ×1.65m = 13.67 m
cos(10)  100 
c) Volume of rock broken.
(5.55 m) x (7.05 m) x 12 m / cos (10) = 476.77 m³
d) Length, concentration, and amount of bottom charge.
Length – 35 x Diameter = 5.25 m
Amount of bottom charge – (7.15cm)² x π x (1.3 g/cm³) x 5.25m=109.6kg
Concentration of charge – 109.6 kg/5.25 m = 20.88 kg/m
e) Length, concentration, and amount of column charge.
Length – 13.67 m – (34 x Diameter) – 5.25 m = 3.32 m
Amount of bottom charge – (7.5cm)² x π x (.8 g/cm³) x 3.32 m= 46.93 kg
Concentration of charge – 46.93/3.32m = 14.14 kg/m

56
 f) Total charge.
46.93 kg + 109.6 kg = 156.53 kg
g) Powder factor.
156.53 kg/476.77 m³ = .328 kg/m³

2.2) Your boss sent you out to survey a site and come back with calculations for a
large diameter bench blast. After a test hole you notice water in the bottom of the
hole, and you estimate a bench height of 20 m. After a few samples you calculate
the compressive rock strength of 65 MPa and the optimal drilling diameter of 200
mm. You must submit to your boss drilling pattern specifications and charge
distribution(s). SHOW ALL WORK !!!

a) Bucket size.
20 m = 10 + .57(Cc – 6) → Cc = 23.54 m³
b) Subdrilling, stemming, burden, spacing.
Stemming – 40 x Diameter = 8.0 m
Subdrilling – 7,8 x Diameter = 1.4→1.6 m
Burden – 38 x Diameter = 7.6 m
Spacing – 45 x Diameter = 9.0 m
c) Blasthole length and volume of broken rock.
L = 20 + Subdrilling = 21.4→21.6 m
7.6 m x 9.0 m x 20 m = 1368 m³
d) If the density of is 1.1 g 3 how much explosives must be used, and what
cm
is the concentration of the explosive charge?
Amount of explosive – (10.0cm)² x π x (1.1 g/cm³ ) x 1200 cm x 1kg/1000g
= 414.69 kg
Concentration of charge – 414.69/12 m = 34.56 kg/m
e) Powder factor.
414.69 kg/1368 m³ = .303 kg/m³

2.3) You are driving through a large quarry and see that a crew is trying to move a
large amount of rock from one area to another. After taking a few measurements
you suggest a cast blast. The resident explosives engineer went to DU and is
unsure how to do this, so being from Colorado School of Mines you must show
him. You decide to use the D’ Appolonia method. You measure the following
variables:

Drilling Diameter – 200 mm

Strain Energy Factor – FE = 3.4
Bench Height – 10 m
Throw Distance – 10 m
Density of Explosive - .83 kg/m³

In order to leave you must calculate the following variables: stemming, spacing,
optimal burden, powder factor, length of charge in the blast hole, and the total
charge per blast hole. SHOW ALL WORK !!!

57
Step 1) Using nomograph I draw a strait line from FE = 3.4 to DP = 10 m
to obtain the powder facter of CE ≈ .56 kg/m³
Step 2) Using nomograph II draw a strait line from D = 200 mm to ρe = .83
kg/m³ to obtain q1 ≈ 25 kg/m
10.66 × 25kg / m
Step 3) C1 = = 475.89
.56kg / m3 × 1
.3 × 1 × 475.89
C2 = = 14.27
10m
Step 4) Using nomograph III Connect C1 and C2 to obtain C3. Connect C’2
and C’1 to obtain C’3. The burden is then calculated to be ≈ 5.5 m
Step 5) The length of the charge in the blasthole is calculated by:

l = H – K1 x B = 10 – 5.5 = 4.5 m

Step 6) Using nomograph II again, connevt l = 4.5 m with q1 ≈ 25 kg/m to

obtain the total charge per blast hole of Qb ≈ 140 kg
Step 7) Using nomograph IV and the Table of Blastability Factors the
optimal burden is calculated by connecting FE = 3.4 and FV = 2.7,
and it equals ≈ 5.5 m.
Step 8) Since B and Bo are the same then calculating the stemming and
spacing are done with the following equations:

S = K2 x B = 1 x 5.5 m = 5.5 m
T = K1 x B = 1 x 5.5 m = 5.5 m

58
Nomograph I

Nomograph II

59
Nomograph III

Nomograph IV

60
 CHAPTER 3 HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT (ANSWERS)

3.1) Complete the following table:

Explosive Chemical Advantages Disadvantages

Makeup
ANFO Ammonium Very Cheap, Safe No water
Nitrate, Fuel Oil to transport and resistance, high
handle nitrate content
Dynamite Nitroglycerin High Strength, Extremely
High Detonation Sensitive,
Velocity, Nitroglycerin poses
Excellent Water health risk, high
resistance manufacturing
costs
Slurries TNT, carbon, Very good water Higher Cost,
sulfur, or resistance, safe to deterioration with
aluminium handle and prolonged storage
manufacture
Emulsions Ammonium Excellent water Can be altered by
Nitrate resistance, high low temperatures
detonation
velocities

3.2) What is the critical diameter of the explosive and why is it important?
The minimum diameter of explosive column which will detonate reliably. It is important
because if the explosive diameter is not greater than this critical diameter the explosive
will not function properly.

3.3) What is the difference between water resistance and water pressure tolerance?

Water pressure tolerance is the explosive’s ability to remain unaffected by high static
pressures

Water resistance is the explosive’s ability to withstand exposure to water without

suffering detrimental effects in performance

3.4) Calculate the loading density in kg/m of an emulsion with a density of 1.08 g/cc
and a diameter of 40 mm.

Using the formula for loading density we get (7.854E -4)(1.08)(40)2= 1.357 kg/m

61
3.5) Calculate the detonation pressure in MPa of a gelatin dynamite which has a
density of 1.54 g/cc and detonation velocity of 5,300 m/s.

Converting the density to kg/ m3 we get 1.54 g/cc = 1540 kg/m3

Using the formula for loading density we get (0.5)(1540)(5300)2(10-6)=21629.3 MPa

3.6) You are the blaster in charge at a job site of a surface blast. It is up to you to
determine what explosive to use with the following conditions:

• You are in Death Valley, California. The temperatures have regularly

been reaching over 100 degrees F and it hasn’t rained for weeks.
• You will be blasting through some very hard rocks with very few fissures.
• Lots of heavy machinery is being used in the area, so be careful to avoid
accidental detonation.

In this case an emulsion or slurry would be your best bet. ANFO is probably your worst
choice here because it is affected by high temperatures and has a tough time with hard
rocks. Dynamite is too sensitive to accidental detonation with all the machinery around.

62
 REFERENCES

All figures, tables, equations and pictures were obtained from the following
sources:

1) Blaster's Handbook, 17th Edition. International Society of Chemical Engineers, Inc.

1998 Cleveland, OH ISBN:1-892396-00-9

2) Handbook of Surface Drilling and Blasting Tamrock Inc. Denver

Printed in Finland by J.F. Olán Oy, Tre 1978 ISBN 951-99145-7-9

3) Drilling and Blasting of Rocks. Carlos and Emilio Lopez Jimeno. Printed in
Netherlands. ISBN 90 5410 199 7.

4) www.explosives.org/HistoryofExplosives.htm

5) www.digistar.mb.ca/minsci/course/online2.htm

6) Rock Blasting Terms and Symbols. Agne Rustan. Printed in Netherlands. ISBN 90
5410 441 4

7) Surface Blast Design. Calvin J. Konya and Edward J. Walter. Printed in the United
States of America. ISBN 0 13 877994 5

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