AIRPLANE DESIGN

---------------

PART I : PRELIMINARY SIZING OF AIRPLANES

===================================================

D r . J a n Roskam
Ackers Distinguished Professor
of Aerospace E n g i n e e r i n g
The U n i v e r s i t y of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas

NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED WITHOUT

PERMISSION FROM THE AUTHOR

C o p y r i g h t : Roskam A v i a t i o n and E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p o r a t i o n
Rt4, Box 274, O t t a w a , Kansas, 66067
T e l . 913-2421624
F i r s t P r i n t i n g : 1985
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
=================

TABLE OF SYMBOLS v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ix
1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. ESTIMATING TAKE-OFF GROSS WEIGHT, EMPTY

WEIGHT, AND MISSION FUEL WEIGHT, 5

2 . 1 GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE METHOD 5

2 . 2 DETERMINATION OF MISSION PAYLOAD WEIGHT,
AND CREW WEIGHT, 8

2.3 GUESSING A LIKELY VALUE OF TAKE-OFF

WEIGHT, 8
guess
2 . 4 DETERMINATION OF MISSION FUEL WEIGHT, 9

2.5 FINDING THE ALLOWABLE VALUE FOR 17

2 . 6 THREE EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS

2 . 6 . 1 Example 1: Twin Engine P r o p e l l e r
Driven A i r p l a n e
2.6.2 Example 2 : J e t T r a n s p o r t
2.6.3 Example 3 : F i g h t e r
2 . 7 SENSITIVITY STUDIES AND GROWTH FACTORS
2 . 7 . 1 An A n a l y t i c a l Method F o r Computing
Take- off Weight S e n s i t i v i t i e s
2 . 7 . 2 S e n s i t i v i t y of Take- off Weight t o
Payload Weight
2.7.2.1 Example 1: Twin e n g i n e
propeller driven airplane
2.7.2.2 Example 2 : Jet t r a n s p o r t
2.7.2.3 Example 3 : F i g h t e r
2 . 7 . 3 S e n s i t i v i t y of Take- off Weight t o
Empty Weight
2 . 7 . 3 . 1 Example 1: Twin e n g i n e
propeller driven airplane
2.7.3.2 Example 2 : J e t t r a n s p o r t
2.7.3.3 Example 3 : F i g h t e r

2.7.4 S e n s i t i v i t y of Take-of f Weight t o

Range, Endurance, Speed, S p e c i f i c F u e l
Consumption, P r o p e l l e r E f f i c i e n c y and
Lift- to- Drag R a t i o 74

Part I Contents Page i

 2.7.5 Examples of S e n s i t i v i t i e s t o Range,
Endurance and Speed
2.7.5.1 Example 1: Twin e n g i n e
propeller driven airplane
2.7.5.2 Example 2 : J e t transport
2.7.5.3 Example 3 : F i g h t e r
2 . 7 . 6 Examples of S e n s i t i v i t i e s t o S p e c i f i c
F u e l Consumption, P r o p e l l e r E f f i c i e n c y
and L i f t - t o - D r a g R a t i o
2.7.6.1 Example 1: Twin e n g i n e
propeller driven airplane
2.7.6.2 Example 2 : J e t t r a n s p o r t
2.7.6.3 Example 3 : F i g h t e r
2 . 8 PROBLEMS

3. ESTIMATING WING AREA, S, TAKE-OFF THRUST,

(OR TAKE-OFF POWER, P AND MAXIMUM LIFT,
: C L E A N . TAKE-OFTOAND LANDI NG
max
3 . 1 SIZING TO STALL SPEED REQUIREMENTS
3 . 1 . 1 Example of S t a l l Speed S i z i n g
3 . 2 SIZING TO TAKE-OFF DISTANCE REQUIREMENTS
3 . 2 . 1 S i z i n g t o FAR 2 3 Take- off
D i s t a n c e Requirements
3 . 2 . 2 Example of FAR 2 3 Take- off
Distance Sizing
3 . 2 . 3 S i z i n g t o FAR 2 5 Take- off
Distance Requirements
3 . 2 . 4 Example of FAR 2 5 Take-of f
Distance Sizing
3 . 2 . 5 S i z i n g t o M i l i t a r y Take- off
D i s t a n c e Requirements
3 . 2 . 5 . 1 Land based a i r p l a n e s
3.2.5.2 Carrier based a i r p l a n e s
3 . 2 . 6 Example of S i z i n g t o M i l i t a r y
Take- off D i s t a n c e Requirements
3 . 3 SIZING TO LANDING DISTANCE REQUIREMENTS
3 . 3 . 1 S i z i n g t o FAR 2 3 Landing
D i s t a n c e Requirements
3 . 3 . 2 Example of FAR 2 3 Landing
Distance Sizing
3 . 3 . 3 S i z i n g t o FAR 2 5 Landing
D i s t a n c e Requirements
3 . 3 . 4 Example of FAR 2 5 Landing
Distance Sizing
3 . 3 . 5 S i z i n g t o M i l i t a r y Landing
D i s t a n c e Requirements
3 . 3 . 5 . 1 Land based a i r p l a n e s
3 . 3 . 5 . 2 C a r r i e r based a i r p l a n e s
3 . 3 . 6 Example of S i z i n g t o M i l i t a r y
Landing D i s t a n c e Requirements

Part I Contents Page ii

 3.4 SIZING TO CLIMB REQUIREMENTS 118
3 . 4 . 1 A Method for Estimating Drag Polars
at Low Speed 118
3 . 4 . 2 Example of Drag Polar Determination 127
3 . 4 . 3 Summary of FAR 2 3 Climb Requirements 129
3 . 4 . 3 . 1 FAR 2 3 . 6 5 (AEO) 129
3 . 4 . 3 . 2 FAR 2 3 . 6 7 (OEI) 129
3 . 4 . 3 . 3 FAR 2 3 . 7 7 (AEO) 130
3 . 4 . 4 Sizing Method for FAR 2 3 Climb
Requirements 131
3 . 4 . 4 . 1 Sizing to FAR 2 3 rate-of-climb
requirements 131
3 . 4 . 4 . 2 Sizing to FAR 2 3 climb gradient
requirements 132
3 . 4 . 5 Example of FAR 2 3 Climb Sizing 134
3 . 4 . 5 . 1 Sizing to rate-of-climb
requirements 134
3 . 4 . 5 . 2 Sizing to climb gradient
requirements 1 38
3 . 4 . 6 Summary of FAR 2 5 Climb Requirements 140
3 . 4 . 6 . 1 FAR 2 5 . 1 1 1 (OEI) 140
3 . 4 . 6 . 2 FAR 2 5 . 1 2 1 (OEI) 140
3 . 4 . 6 . 3 FAR 2 5 . 1 1 9 (AEO) 142
3 . 4 . 6 . 4 FAR 2 5 . 1 2 1 (OEI) 142
3 . 4 . 7 Sizing Method for FAR 2 5 Climb
Requirements 143
3 . 4 . 8 Example of FAR 2 5 Climb Sizing 143
3 . 4 . 9 Summary of Military Climb
Requirements 149
3 . 4 . 1 0 Sizing for Time-to-climb and
Ceiling Requirements 150
3 . 4 . 1 0 . 1 Sizing to time-to-climb
requirements 150
3 . 4 . 1 0 . 2 Sizing to ceiling
requirements 152
3 . 4 . 1 1 Sizing to Specific Excess Power
Requirements 154
3 . 4 . 1 2 Example of Sizing to Military Climb
Requirements 155
3.5 SIZING TO MANEUVERING REQUIREMENTS 160
3 . 5 . 1 Example of Sizing to a Maneuvering
Requirement 161
3.6 SIZING TO CRUISE SPEED REQUIREMENTS 162
3 . 6 . 1 Cruise Speed Sizing of Propeller
Driven Airplanes 162
3 . 6 . 2 A Method for Finding from
Speed and Power Data O 165
3 . 6 . 3 Example of Cruise Speed Sizing for a
Propeller Driven Airplane 165
3 . 6 . 4 Cruise Speed Sizing of Jet Airplanes 167

Part I Contents Page iii

 3.6.5 Example of S i z i n g t o Maximum Speed
f o r a Jet 168
3 . 7 MATCHING OF ALL SIZING REQUIREMENTS AND THE
APPLICATION TO THREE EXAMPLE AIRPLANES 170
3 . 7 . 1 Matching of A l l S i z i n g Requirements 170
3 . 7 . 2 Matching Example 1: Twin Engine
P r o p e l l e r Driven Airplane 170
3 . 7 . 2 . 1 Take-off d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 170
3.7.2.2 Landing d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 171
3.7.2.3 FAR 2 3 climb s i z i n g 173
3.7.2.4 C r u i s e speed s i z i n g 177
3.7.2.5 Time-to-climb s i z i n g 177
3 . 7 . 2 . 6 Summary of matching r e s u l t s 178
3 . 7 . 3 Matching Example 2 : J e t T r a n s p o r t 179
3 . 7 . 3 . 1 Take-off d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 179
3 . 7 . 3 . 2 Landing d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 180
3.7.3.3 FAR 2 5 climb s i z i n g 182
3.7.3.4 C r u i s e speed s i z i n g 182
3.7.3.5 Direct climb s i z i n g 183
3 . 7 . 3 . 6 Summary of matching results 183
3 . 7 . 4 Matching Example 3 : F i g h t e r 185
3 . 7 . 4 . 1 Take-off d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 185
3.7.4.2 Landing d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 186
3.7.4.3 Climb sizing 188
3 . 7 . 4 . 4 C r u i s e speed s i z i n g 188
3.7.4.5 Summary of matching results 190
3 . 8 PROBLEMS 192

4. A USER'S GUIDE TO PRELIMINARY AIRPLANE SIZING 193

5. REFERENCES 197

6. INDEX

Part I Contents Page i v

 TABLE OF SYMBOLS
================

Aspect r a t i o -----
Regression l i n e c o n s t a n t s -----
d e f i n e d by Eqn. (3.21)
Regression l i n e c o n s t a n t s -----
d e f i n e d by Eqn. ( 2 . 1 6 )
Regression l i n e c o n s t a n t s -----
d e f i n e d by Eqn. ( 3 . 2 2 )
F u e l f r a c t i o n parameter -----
d e f i n e d by Eqn. (2.31)
E q u i v a l e n t s k i n f r i c t i o n -----
coefficient
S p e c i f i c f u e l consumption l b s l l b s l h r
S p e c i f i c f u e l consumption l b s l h p l h r
Drag c o e f f i c i e n t -----
C Zero l i f t drag c o e f f i c i e n t - - - - -
D ,
CGR Climb g r a d i e n t , rad
d e f i n e d by Eqn. (3.28)
CGRP Climb g r a d i e n t p a r a m e t e r , rad
d e f i n e d by Eqn. (3.30)
Lift coefficient -----
D Drag lbs
D(A1ternate
meaning lbs
Propeller diameter ft
Oswald's e f f i c i e n c y factor- - - - -
Endurance hours
), Eqns. ( 2 . 3 7 -----
and 2 . 3 9 )
equivalent p a r a s i t e area
Weight s e n s i t i v i t y
p a r a m e t e r , Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 ) lbs
FAR Federal Air Regulation -----
2
a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y ft/sec
altitude ft

Part I Symbols Page v

 2 1/3
Power i n d e x , Eqn.(3.51) (hp/ft )

number between 0 and 1 -----

2
c o n s t a n t i n Eqn. ( 3 . 9 ) sec / f t
c o n s t a n t i n Eqn. (3.9 -----
factor i n k,, see p. 102
Lift lbs
Lift- to- drag ratio -----
Mission f u e l f ~ a c t i o n none
End weight/Begin weight

Load f a c t o r -----
Nautical mile(6,076 ft) nm
Number of e n g i n e s -----
Power , Ho rs e-powe r hp
(1 hp = 550 f t . l b s / s e c )
Parameter i n s i n y ,
Eqns. ( 3 . 3 8 ) and ( 3 . 3 9 ) -----
S p e c i f i c excess power ft/sec

dynamic p r e s s u r e psf

Range nm o r m
). Eqns. (2.36 -----
and 2.38)
RC Rate of c l i m b fpm or fps
RCP Rate- of - climb p a r a m e t e r s
Eqns. ( 3 . 2 4 ) and ( 3 . 2 5 ) hp/lbs

d i s t a n c e , used i n t a k e -
o f f and l a n d i n g e q u a t i o n s
with s u b s c r i p t s ft
S t a t u t e mile(5,280 f t ) sm
Wing area
S h a f t horsepower
Wetted area

time sec, min, h r

Thrust lbs
FAR 23 Take-of f 2 2
parameter lbs /ft hp
TOP,, . FAR 25 Take-of f 2
parameter lbs/ft

Part I Symbols Page vi

 True a i r s p e e d mph, f p s , k t s
wod, WOD Wind over t h e deck kts
W Weight lbs
l b s o r hp
Greek Symbols
=============
propeller efficiency
product, o r 3.142
a i r density
a i r density r a t i o
ground f r i c t i o n
coefficient
pressure r a t i o -----
f l i g h t path angle deg o r r a d
turn rate
temperature r a t i o
bypass r a t i o
Subscripts
==========
A Approach
abs absolute
cat catapult
cl climb
cr cruise
crew crew
E Empty
f flaps
ff fuel fraction (see
F Mission f u e l
FEQ Fixed equipment
FL Field length
guess guessed
h altitude
L Landing
LG Landing, ground
LO Lift- off
ltr loiter
max maximum
ME M a n u f a c t u r e r ' s empty
MIF Maximum i n t e r n a l f u e l
OE Operating empty
PA Powered approach
PL Pay l o ad
RC Rate-of -climb

Part I Symbols Page v i i

res r e s e r v e , as i n f u e l r e s e r v e
reqd r equi red
s stall
TO Take-of f
TOFL Take-of f f i e l d l e n g t h
TOG Take- off, ground
tent, tentative
t f o t r a p p e d f u e l and o i l
used used, a s i n f u e l used
wet wetted
wod wind o v e r t h e deck
Acronyms
========

AEO A l l engines operating

APU A u x i l i a r y power u n i t
Communication, C o n t r o l , Command,
Intelligence
OEI One e n g i n e i n o p e r a t i v e
OWE O p e r a t i n g weight empty
RFP Request f o r p r o p o s a l
sls Sealevel standard
TBP Turboprop

BEECH DUCHESS

Part I Symbols Page v i i i

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
===============

W r i t i n g a book on a i r p l a n e d e s i g n is i m p o s s i b l e
w i t h o u t t h e s u p p l y of a l a r g e amount of d a t a . The a u t h o r
is g r a t e f u l t o t h e f o l l o w i n g companies f o r s u p p l y i n g t h e
raw d a t a , manuals, s k e t c h e s and drawings which made t h e
book what i t is:
Beech A i r c r a f t C o r p o r a t i o n
Boeing Commercial A i r p l a n e Company
Canadair
Cessna A i r c r af t Company
DeHavilland A i r c r a f t Company of Canada
Gates L e a r j e t C o r p o r a t i o n
Lockheed A i r c r a f t C o r p o r a t i o n
McDonnell Douglas C o r p o r a t i o n
Rinaldo P i a g g i o S.p.A.
Royal N e t h e r l a n d s A i r c r a f t F a c t o r y , Fokker
SIAI M a r c h e t t i S.p.A.
A s i g n i f i c a n t amount of a i r p l a n e d e s i g n i n f o r m a t i o n
h a s been accumulated by t h e a u t h o r over many y e a r s from
t h e f o l l o w i n g magazines:
I n t e r a v i a (Swiss, monthly)
F l i g h t I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( B r i t i s h , weekly)
B u s i n e s s and Commercial A v i a t i o n (USA, monthly)
A v i a t i o n Week and Space Technology (USA, weekly)
J o u r n a l of A i r c r a f t (USA, AIAA, monthly)
The a u t h o r wishes t o acknowledge t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e
p l a y e d by t h e s e magazines i n h i s own development as a n
aeronautical engineer. Aeronautical engineering s t u d e n t s
and g r a d u a t e s s h o u l d r e a d t h e s e magazines r e g u l a r l y .

Part I Page i x
Part I Page x
1. INTRODUCTION
===============

The purpose of t h i s s e r i e s of books on A i r p l a n e

Design is t o f a m i l i a r i z e a e r o s p a c e e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d e n t s
w i t h t h e methodology and d e c i s i o n making involved i n t h e
p r o c e s s of d e s i g n i n g a i r p l a n e s .
. . To d e s i g n an a i r p l a n e it i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t a
specification f o r t h e a i r p l a n e is a v a i l a b l e .
A i r p l a n e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s come about i n d i f f e r e n t
ways, depending on t h e t y p e of a i r p l a n e and sometimes
depending on t h e customer.
F i g u r e 1.1 i l l u s t r a t e s s e v e r a l p a t h s along which
m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o.n s. can evolve.
. . The r e a. d e. r w i l l n o t e ,
t h a t t h e words and d e s i g n
appear i n F i g u r e 1.1. T h i s s e r i e s of books c o n c e n t r a t e s
on t h e s e p h a s e s of a i r p l a n e d e s i g n .
Many a i r p l a n e s n e v e r m a k e i t beyond t h e i n i t i a l o r
p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n phase. I n f a c t , most d o n ' t . What
happens beyond t h e p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n phase depends t o a
l a r g e e x t e n t on t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d d u r i n g p r e l i m i n a r y
d e s i g n and on t h e r e a l o r p e r c e i v e d market i n t e r e s t
afterward.
I f , a s a r e s u l t of t h e p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n s t u d i e s a
s p e c i f i c need can be met, t h e n f u l l s c a l e development o f
t h e a i r p l a n e can follow. I f , as a r e s u l t of t h e
p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n s t u d i e s c e r t a i n problem a r e a s a r e
d i s c o v e r e d ( s u c h as s p e c i f i c t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e f i c i e n c i e s
which need development t o be c o r r e c t e d , o r s u c h a s a
l a c k i n g d a t a b a s e ) t h e n a r e s e a r c h and development
program can be i n i t i a t e d aimed a t overcoming t h e s e
problems. E v e n t u a l l y , w i t h t h e problems s o l v e d , a f i n a l
mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n is evolved which t h e n can l e a d t o
f u l l s c a l e development.
I f it becomes e v i d e n t d u r i n g t h e r e s e a r c h program,
t h a t t h e problems cannot be s o l v e d i n a r e a s o n a b l e t i m e
frame o r a t a r e a s o n a b l e c o s t , t h e s u b j e c t d e s i g n can be
dropped o r modified.
Figure 1.2 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e preliminary design
p r o c e s s as it i s covered i n t h i s s e r i e s of books.
The s e r i e s of books i s o r g a n i z e d a s f o l l o w s :
PART I : PRELIMINARY SIZING OF AIRPLANES
PART 11: PRELIMINARY CONFIGURATION D E S I G N AND
INTEGRATION OF THE PROPULSION SYSTEM
PART 111: LAYOUT DESIGN OF COCKPIT. FUSELAGE, WING
AND EMPENNAGE: CUTAWAYS AND INBOARD
PROFILES
PART I V : LAYOUT DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND SYSTEMS
PART V: COMPONENT WEIGHT ESTIMATION

Part I Chapter 1 Page 1

 PART V I : PRELIMINARY CALCULATION OF AERODYNAMIC,
THRUST AND POWER CHARACTERISTICS
PART V I I : DETERMINATION OF STABILITY, CONTROL AND
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS: FAR AND
MILITARY REQUIREMENTS
P-
-ART V I I I : AIRPLANE COST ESTIMATION: DESIGN,
DEVELOPMENT, MANUFACTURING AND OPERATING

The p u r p o s e of PART I is t o p r e s e n t a r a p i d method

f o r t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g of a n a i r p l a n e t o a g i v e n
mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n .
P r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g i s d e f i n e d as t h e p r o c e s s which
r e s u l t s i n t h e n u m e r i c a l d e f i n i t i o n of t h e f o l l o w i n g
a i r p l a n e d e s i g n parameters:

*Gross Take- off Weight, WTO

* ~ m p t yWeight, WE

*Mission F u e l Weight, Wp

*Maximum Required Take-of f T h r u s t , TTO o r Take-of f

Power, PTO

*Wing Area, S and Wing Aspect R a t i o , A

*Maximum Required L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t ( C l e a n ) , CL
max
*Maximum Required L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t f o r Take- off,

*Maximum Required L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t f o r Landing,

I t i s assumed i n t h i s book t h a t a m i s s i o n
s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e a i r p l a n e is available. Typical
p a r a m e t e r s which a r e n u m e r i c a l l y d e f i n e d i n a m i s s i o n
s p e c i f i c a t i o n are:

*Payload and t y p e of payload

*Range a n d / o r l o i t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s
* C r u i s e speed and a l t i t u d e
* F i e l d l e n g t h f o r t a k e - o f f and f o r l a n d i n g
*Fuel r e s e r v e s
*Climb r e q u i r e m e n t s
*Maneuvering r e q u i rements
* C e r t i f i c a t i o n b a s e ( F o r example: E x p e r i m e n t a l , FAR
2 3 , FAR 2 5 o r M i l i t a r y )

Part I Chapter 1 Page 2

 Some mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w i l l c o n t a i n much more
d e t a i l t h a n o t h e r s . T h i s depends on t h e customer who
wrote t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n and on t h e amount of d e s i g n
f l e x i b i l i t y t h i s customer wants t h e a i r p l a n e d e s i g n e r t o
have.
The s i z i n g methods presented i n t h i s book appear i n
t h e following sequence:
Chapter 2 : Estimating take- of f g r o s s weight, WTO,
empty weight, WE and mission f u e l weight, Wp.
Chapter 3 : Estimating wing a r e a , S, wing a s p e c t
r a t i o , A, take- off t h r u s t , TTO and maximum l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t s , CL .
max
CL and CL
maxL
.
m a x ~ ~
Chapter 4 p r o v i d e s a u s e r ' s guide through t h e
p r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g process.
Commercial A i r p l a n e s
1

Independent Customer Specific Contractor

Market Survey Request Operational Identifies
h A i Requi rement Need t o
Identified Military
by M i l i t a r y

-- and
Initial-
Trade S t u d i e s - It.
--c
Initial
and Trade S t u d i e s
Tl

c o n t a i n s a Mission

F u l l S c a l e Design
and Development

Part I Chapter 1 Page 3

PART Is Preliminary Sizing r Sensitivity Studies

I
W~~
W~
S
*
c~max
(clean,
TO and L)
u D e f i n i t i o n of
R and D Needs

Refinement of
Preliminary Sizing

PART I1 Preliminary Configuration I n i t i a l Layout of

Layout and P r o p u l s i o n Wing and F u s e l a g e
System I n t e g r a t i o n Class I: T a i l
S i z i n g , Weight and
Balance, Drag
9
Polar
Configuration Candidates - * I n i t i a l Landing
I d e n t i f i e d and One o r More Gear D i s p o s i t i o n
S e l e c t e d f o r F u r t h e r Study -- (PARTS 111, I V , V
and V I )
f I
m

I S i z i n g I t e r a t i o n and
Reconfisuration

I Refinement of P r e l i m i n a r y
Configuration I I* Layout of Wing,
F u s e l a g e and
Empennage
C l a s s 11: Weight,
Balance, Drag
Polars, Flap
Effects, Stability
and C o n t r o l
Performance
Verification

I Preliminary Configuration
Design F i n i s h e d
Preliminary
S t r u c t u r a l Layout
Landing Gear
D i s p o s i t i o n and
R e t r a c t i o n Check
Cost C a l c u l a t i o n s

u r e 1 . 2 The Pv-r . . D a a n Process As C o w e d

t s I -ah V U Of 'P -N

Part I Chapter 1 Page 4

2. ESTIMATING TAKE-OFF GROSS WEIGHT, W , EMPTY WEIGRI',
---==----
-,-,--- IPOt=PD051PIII====~====~~===tTP===============
AND MISSION FUEL WEIGRI', W,
D P = = P = = D I S I= = = P I L = P = ' P P P P P I P S ~ -

A i r p l a n e s must normally meet v e r y s t r i n g e n t range,

endurance, speed and c r u i s e speed o b j e c t i v e s w h i l e
c a r r y i n g a g i v e n payload. I t is i m p o r t a n t , t o b e a b l e t o
p r e d i c t t h e minimum a i r p l a n e weight and f u e l weight
needed t o accomplish a g i v e n mission.
For a g i v e n m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n , t h i s c h a p t e r
p r e s e n t s a r a p i d method f o r e s t i m a t i n g :
*Take-of f g r o s s weight. WTo
*Empty weight, WE
* H i s s i o n f u e l weight, WF
The method a p p l i e s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g twelve t y p e s of
a i r p l a n e s:
1.Homebuilt P r o p e l l e r Driven A i r p l a n e s
2.S i n g l e Engine P r o p e l l e r Driven A i r p l a n e s
3.Twin Engine P r o p e l l e r Driven A i r p l a n e s
4.Agricultural Airplanes
5.Business Jets
6.Regional T u r b o p r o p e l l e r Driven A i r p l a n e s
7.T r a n s p o r t Jets
8.Military Trainers
9.Fighters
10.M i l i t a r y P a t r o l , Bomb and T r a n s p o r t
Airplanes
11. F l y i n g Boats, Amphibious and F l o a t A i r p l a n e s
12. Supersonic Cruise Airplanes

2.1 GENERAL OF THE METHOD

A c o n v e n i e n t way t o break down WTO i s as f o l l o w s :

(2.1)
'TO= W~~ + F' + 'PL
where:
wOE i s t h e a i r p l a n e o p e r a t i n g weight empty,
WF is t h e m i s s i o n -f u e l weight,

W~~ is t h e payload weight.

The o p e r a t i n g weight empty, WOE ( a l s o c a l l e d OWE),

part I Chapter 2 Page 5

is f r e q u e n t l y w r i t t e n a s follows:

'OE' E' + 'tfo + 'crew

whera
WE is t h e empty weight,

'tfo is t h e weight of a l l t r a p p e d (=unusable) f u e l

and o i l ,

'crew i s t h e weight of t h e crew r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e

t h e airplane.
I t must be kept i n mind, t h a t t h e empty weight, WE

i s sometimes broken down i n t h e following manner:

where:
'ME
is t h e manufacturers empty weight, sometimes
r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e g r e e n weight,
'FEQ
is t h e f i x e d equipment weight.
Fixed equipment weight can i n c l u d e such items a s :
* a v i o n i c s equipment
e a i r c o n d i t ioning equipment
e s p e c i a l r a d a r equipment
* a u x i l i a r y power u n i t (APU)
* f u r n i s h i n g s and i n t e r i o r s
*other equipment needed t o o p e r a t e t h e a i r p l a n e
during i t s intended mission
A t t h i s j u n c t i o n , two key p o i n t s must be made:

Point 1: I t is n o t d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e t h e
r e q u i r e d mission f u e l weight WF from very b a s i c
considerations. This w i l l be shown i n S e c t i o n 2.4.
Point 2 : There e x i s t s a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between
log,,WTO and logzOWEf o r t h e twelve t y p e s of a i r p l a n e s
mentioned before. Graphical evidence f o r t h i s w i l l be
shown- i n S e c t i o n 2.5.
Based on t h e s e two p o i n t s , t h e p r o c e s s of e s t i m a t i n g
Part I Chapter 2 Page 6
v a l u e s f o r WTO. WE and WF c o n s i s t s of t h e f o l l o w i n g

steps:
S t e p 1. Determine t h e m i s s i o n payload
(Section 2.2).
S t e p 2. Guess a l i k e l y v a l u e of
(Section 2.3).
W~~guess
S t e p 3. Determine t h e m i s s i o n f u e l weight, WF
(Section 2.4).
S t e p 4. C a l c u l a t e a t e n t a t i v e v a l u e f o r WOE from:

'OE t e n t = o - F'
w ~wess -P
'L
S t e p 5. C a l c u l a t e a t e n t a t i v e v a l u e f o r WE from:

''tent = 'OE t e n t - 'tfo- Wcrew

Although Wtfo can amount t o as much a s 0.5%
o r more of WTO f o r some a i r p l a n e s . it is
o f t e n neglected a t t h i s s t a g e i n t h e design
process.
How t o d e t e r m i n e t h e numerical v a l u e f o r
'crew i s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 2 . 2 .
S t e p 6. Find t h e a l l o w a b l e v a l u e of WE from
S e c t i o n 2.5.
S t e p 7. Compare t h e v a l u e s f o r WE and f o r
tent
WE a s o b t a i n e d from S t e p s 5 and 6. Next.
make a n a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e v a l u e of W
Toguess
and r e p e a t S t e p s 3 t h r o u g h 6. Continue t h i s
p r o c e s s u n t i l t h e v a l u e s of W and WE
'tent
a g r e e w i t h each o t h e r t o w i t h i n some
p r e - s e l e c t e d t o l e r a n c e . A t o l e r a n c e of 0.5%
is u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t a t t h i s s t a g e i n t h e
design process.
S e c t i o n s 2.2 t h r o u g h 2.5 c o n t a i n d e t a i l e d methods
f o r e s t i m a t i n g WpL. WTO and Wp. S e c t i o n 2.6 a p p l i e s
t h e s t e p w i s e methodology t o t h r e e t y p e s of a i r p l a n e s .

Part I Chapter 2 Page 7

 Mission payload w e i g h t , WpL is normally s p e c i f i e d i n
t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n . T h i s payload weight u s u a l l y
c o n s i s t s of one o r more of t h e f o l l o w i n g :
1. P a s s e n g e r s and baggage
2. Cargo
3. M i l i t a r y l o a d s such as ammunition, bombs,
missiles and a v a r i e t y of s t o r e s o r pods which
a r e u s u a l l y c a r r i e d e x t e r n a l l y and t h e r e f o r e
a f f e c t t h e a i r p l a n e drag
For p a s s e n g e r s i n a commercial a i r p l a n e an a v e r a g e
weight of 1 7 5 l b s p e r p e r s o n and 3 0 l b s of baggage i s a
r e a s o n a b l e assumption f o r s h o r t t o medium d i s t a n c e
f l i g h t s . For long d i s t a n c e f l i g h t s , t h e baggage weight
s h o u l d b e assumed t o b e 4 0 l b s . p e r person.
The crew weight, Wcrew i s found from t h e f o l l o w i n g
considerations:

The crew c o n s i s t s of t h e c o c k p i t crew and t h e c a b i n

crew. The number of p e o p l e i n each crew depends on t h e
a i r p l a n e and i t s mission. I t depends a l s o on t h e t o t a l
number of p a s s e n g e r s c a r r i e d . Reference 8, FAR 9 1 . 2 1 5
s p e c i f i e s t h e minimum number of c a b i n crew members
required.
For crew members an a v e r a g e weight of 1 7 5 l b s p l u s
3 0 l b s of baggage i s a r e a s o n a b l e assumption.

For m i l i t a r y crew members a weight of 200 l b s should

b e assumed because of e x t r a g e a r c a r r i e d .

Because FAR 2 3 c e r t i f i e d a i r p l a n e s (Types 2 and 3 )

a r e f r e q u e n t l y o p e r a t e d by owner / p i l o t s i t - i s n o t u n u s u a l
t o d e f i n e t h e crew weight a s p a r t o f t h e payload i n t h e s e
cases.
2 . 3 -UG VALUE OF -OFF W m . K
Toguess
An i n i t i a l ' g u e s s ' of t h e v a l u e of t a k e - o f f w e i g h t ,
is u s u a l l y o b t a i n e d by comparing t h e m i s s i o n
'~oguess
s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h e a i r p l a n e w i t h t h e m i s s i o n
c a p a b i l i t i e s of s i m i l a r a i r p l a n e s l i s t e d i n Reference 9.
I f no r e a s o n a b l e comparison can be made ( p e r h a p s because

Part I Chapter 2 Page 8

t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n c a l l s f o r a t y p e of a i r p l a n e never
b e f o r e c o n c e i v e d ) t h e n it w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o make a n
a r b i t r a r y 'guess '.
2.4 DETERMINATION OF MISSION FUEL -, HF
I n S e c t i o n 2 . 1 , Point i n d i c a t e d t h a t it is n o t
d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e a v a l u e f o r WF from b a s i c
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h i s s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s a method f o r doing
just that.
Mission f u e l weight, Wp can b e w r i t t e n a s :
(2.6)
w~ = W~
used + W~
res
where:
w~ used is t h e f u e l a c t u a l l y used d u r i n g t h e m i s s i o n ,

W~
a r e t h e f u e l reserves required f o r t h e
res
mission.
F u e l r e s e r v e s a r e normally s p e c i f i e d i n t h e m i s s i o n
s p e c i f i c a t i o n . They a r e a l s o s p e c i f i e d i n t h o s e FAR'S
which r e g u l a t e t h e o p e r a t i o n of p a s s e n g e r t r a n s p o r t s .
F u e l r e s e r v e s a r e g e n e r a l l y s p e c i f i e d i n one o r more of
t h e following types:
1. as a f r a c t i o n of WF
used
2. as a requirement f o r a d d i t i o n a l range s o t h a t an
a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t can b e reached
3. as a requirement f o r ( a d d i t i o n a l ) l o i t e r time

To d e t e r m i n e WF , t h e f u e l weight a c t u a l l y used
used
d u r i n g t h e m i s s i o n , t h e s o - c a l l e d fuel -f r w t i o n method
w i l l b e used. I n t h i s method t h e a i r p l a n e m i s s i o n i s
broken down i n t o a number of m i s s i o n phases. The f u e l
used d u r i n g each phase is found from a s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n
o r e s t i m a t e d on t h e b a s i s of e x p e r i e n c e .
The f u e l - f r a c t i o n method w i l l b e i l l u s t r a t e d by
a p p l y i n g it t o a n a r b i t r a r y a i r p l a n e . F i g u r e 2 . 1 d e f i n e s
t h e mission p r o f i l e f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e .
I t w i l l b e observed t h a t t h e m i s s i o n p r o f i l e is
broken down i n t o a number of m i s s i o n phases. Each phase
h a s a number. Each p h a s e a l s o h a s a b e g i n weight and an
end weight a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it.

Part I Chapter 2 Page 9

 2
ENGINE
WARMUP CRUISE

I = ACCELERATE
7 DESCENT

f
LANDING
-
E m
S.HUT~>OUI\I
8

w e 2.1 u n PrQfile f o r a n ~ A h X .

w e 2 . 2 Fuel ~ r a c t i o nfor P h ~ 4e of F i - e 2.1

Part I Chapter 2 Page 10

 The f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n is i m p o r t a n t :
. . .
Defrnltlon: The f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r each phase is
d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o of end weight t o b e g i n weight.
The n e x t s t e p i s t o a s s i g n a numerical v a l u e t o t h e
f u e l - f r a c t i o n corresponding t o each m i s s i o n phase. T h i s
i s done a s f o l l o w s :
Phase 1: Engine s t a r t and warm-up.
Begin weight is WTO. End weight is W1.
The f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r t h i s phase is by
p r e v i o u s d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n by: W1/WTO.
Table 2.1 provides a guide f o r determining
t h i s f r a c t i o n f o r t w e l v e t y p e s of
airplanes.
Phase 2 : Taxi.
Begin weight is W1. End weight is W2.
The f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r t h i s phase is W2/Wl.
Table 2.1 provides a guide f o r determining
t h i s f r a c t i o n f o r t w e l v e t y p e s of
airplanes.
Phase 3: Take- off.
Begin weight i s W2. End weight is W3.
The f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r t h i s phase is W3/W2e
Table 2.1 provides a guide f o r determining
t h i s f r a c t i o n f o r t w e l v e t y p e s of
airplanes.
Phase 4 : C l i m b t o c r u i s e a l t i t u d e and a c c e l e r a t e t o
c r u i s e speed.
Begin weight i s W3. End weight i s W4.
The f u e l f r a c t i o n f o r t h i s phase,
W4/W3 may b e determined d i r e c t l y from

F i g u r e 2.2.
However, i n some cases it is d e s i r a b l e t o
c a l c u l a t e t h i s f r a c t i o n from B r e g u e t ' s
e q u a t i o n f o r endurance ( R e f . 1 4 ) :

Part I Chapter 2 Page 11

 T a b l e 2 . 1 Suggested F u e l - F r a c t i o n s For S e v e r a l Mission Phases
= P P P = ~ ~ ~ P P P P P P D ~ ~ S S = ~ ~ ~ P
k~ ~ ~ ~ P ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Engine Taxi Take-of f Climb Descent Landing

Start, Taxi,
Warm-up Shutdown
Mission
Phase No.(See Fig.2.1) 1 2 3 4 7 8
A i r p l a n e Type:
Homebuilt
S i n g l e Engine
Twin Engine
Agricultural
Business Jets
Regional TBP 's
T r a n s p o r t Jets
Military
Trainers
Fighters
Mil.Patro1,
Bomb, T r a n s p o r t
Flying Boats,
Amphibious,
Float Airplanes
Supersonic
Cruise
Notes: 1. The numbers i n t h i s t a b l e a r e based on e x p e r i e n c e o r on judgment.
2. There is no s u b s t i t u t e f o r common s e n s e ! I f and when common s e n s e
s o d i c t a t e s , t h e reader should s u b s t i t u t e o t h e r values f o r t h e
f r a c t i o n s suggested i n t h i s t a b l e .
 Note: Vcl i n Eqn. ( 2 . 7 ) is i n mph.
I f t h e f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r t h e climb phase i s
t o be c a l c u l a t e d i n t h i s manner t h e n it is
n e c e s s a r y t o estimate a v e r a g e v a l u e s d u r i n g
t h e climb f o r Vcl, f o r ( q l c ) and
P P cl
for T a b l e 2.2 p r o v i d e s a g u i d e
from which t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s can be found.

= l l c .1 (L/D)clln(W3/W4)
I cl
I f t h e f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r t h e climb p h a s e is
t o b e c a l c u l a t e d i n t h i s manner t h e n it is
n e c e s s a r y t o estimate a v e r a g e v a l u e s d u r i n g
t h e climb f o r c , and f o r
Jcl
T a b l e 2.2 p r o v i d e s a g u i d e from which it
is possible t o f i n d these quantities.
i n Eqn. ( 2 . 8 ) i s e q u a l t o t h e time
t o climb, u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d as a f r a c t i o n
of a n hour. T h i s can be found i n t u r n by
assuming a v a l u e f o r t h e a v e r a g e
rate- of- climb. The a l t i t u d e a t t h e end of
t h e climb ( u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as t h e
c r u i s e o r l o i t e r a l t i t u d e ) i s normally
provided i n t h e a i r p l a n e m i s s i o n
s p e c i f i c a t i o n . Methods f o r r a p i d e v a l u a -
t i o n of climb performance a r e d i s c u s s e d
i n Chapter 3.
Phase 5: C r u i s e .
Begin weight is W4. End weight is W5.
The r a t i o W5/W4 c a n be estimated from
B r e g u e t ' s range e q u a t i o n (Ref.141, which
can be w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s :

Part I Chapter 2 Page 13

Table 2.2 Suggested Values For LID, c n ,And For c For S e v e r a l Mission Phases
I P P
PDPP=PPfPIIfPPS==IIP=P==================================P=========m======d=====P=

Cruise Loiter

Mission lbs/lbs/hr lbslhplhr lbsllbslhr lbslhplhr

Phase No. (See Fig.2.1) 5 6

Airplane Type
Homebuilt 8-10. 0.6-0. 8 0.7 10-12
S i n g l e Engine 8-1 0 0.5-0.7 0.8 10-12
Twin Engine 8-10 0.5-,0.7 0.82 9-11
Agricultural 5-7 0.5-0.7 0.82 8-10
Business J e t s 10-12 0.5-0.9 12-14
Regional TBP's 11-13 0.4-0.6 0.85 14-16
Transport J e t s 13-15 0.5-0.9 14-18
Military 8-10 0.5-1.0 0.4-0.6 0.82 10-14
Trainers
Fighters 4-7 0.6-1.4 0.5-0.7 0.82 6-9
Mil.Patro1, 13-15 0.5-0.9 0.4-0.7 0.82 14-18
Bomb, Transport
Flying Boats, 10-12 0.5-0.9 0.5-0.7 0.82 13-15
Amphibious, F l o a t A i r p l a n e s
Supersonic C r u i s e 4-6 0.7-1.5 7-9

Notes: 1. T h e numbers i n t h i s t a b l e r e p r e s e n t ranges based on e x i s t i n g engines.

2. There i s no s u b s t i t u t e f o r common sense! I f and when a c t u a l d a t a are
a v a i l a b l e , t h e s e should be used.
3. A good e s t i m a t e f o r LID can be made w i t h t h e drag p o l a r method of
Sub- section 3.4.1.
* Homebuilts w i t h smooth e x t e r i o r s a n d l o r high wing l o a d i n g s can have
LID v a l u e s which a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y higher.
 w Rcr i n Eqn. ( 2 . 9 ) is i n s t a t . miles.

Note. t h a t Rcr is u s u a l l y expressed i n n.m.

Values f o r (qplcp)cr. f o r c and
jcr
f o r (LID),, may a g a i n be obtained from
Table 2.2. Values f o r Rcr and f o r Vcr a r e
u s u a l l y given i n t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n .
Phase 6: L o i t e r .
Begin weight is W5. End weight is W6.
The f u e l - f r a c t i o n W6/W5 can be found
w i t h t h e h e l p of Breguet's endurance
equation:

'ltr i n Eqn. ( 2 . 1 1 ) is i n mph.

Note. t h a t Eltr is u s u a l l y expressed i n

hours. Values f o r (qp/cp)ltr, for c and
jlt r
f o r (LID)ltr can be obtained again from
Table 2.2. Values f o r Vltr and f o r E a r e
o f t e n given i n t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

Part I Chapter 2 Page 1 5

 Phase 7 : Descent.
Begin weight is W6. End weight i s W7.
+ The f u e l - f r a c t i o n W7/W6 may b e found
from T a b l e 2.1.
Phase 8: Landing, t a x i and shut-down.
Begin weight i s W7. End weight is W8.
The f u e l - f r a c t i o n W81W7 may b e found
from T a b l e 2.1.
I t is now p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e m i s s i o n
f u e l - f r a c t i o n , M f f from:

Mff = (W IW )X(W~+~IW~) (2.13)

'O/i=l
-7"
The f u e l used d u r i n g t h e m i s s i o n , Wp can b e
used
found from:
= (1 - M
W~
used f f )WTO
The v a l u e f o r m i s s i o n f u e l w e i g h t , WF can f i n a l l y
b e determined from:

WFm (1 - Mff)WTO + W~
res
S p e c i f i c examples of how t h i s f u e l - f r a c t i o n method
can b e a p p l i e d t o a i r p l a n e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n s e c t i o n 2.6.

Part I Chapter 2 Page 1 6

2.5 FINDING -T VALUE FOR YE
I n Section 2.1, w t 2 r a i s e d t h e i s s u e of t h e
e x i s t e n c e of a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between log,,WE and
l o g,Ow T o * Once such a r e l a t i o n s h i p i s e s t a b l i s h e d , it
s h o u l d be e a s y t o o b t a i n WE from WTO.
F i g u r e s 2.3 t h r o u g h 2 . 1 4 d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t s u c h
r e l a t i o n s h i p s indeed e x i s t . The d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n
F i g u r e s 2 . 3 t h r o u g h 2 . 1 4 a r e based on T a b l e s 2.3 t h r o u g h
2.14. These t a b l e s i n t u r n a r e based on d a t a found i n
Reference 9 o r on d a t a o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y from a i r p l a n e
manufacturers.
The t r e n d l i n e s i n F i g u r e s 2.3 t h r o u g h 2.14 were
e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h e h e l p of a r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s . The
r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e s e t r e n d l i n e s t o be a f a i r
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e ' s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t ' of a i r p l a n e
d e s i g n . I t i s d e s i r a b l e t o have a s small a v a l u e f o r WE
f o r any g i v e n v a l u e of WTO. T h e r e f o r e , it is r e a s o n a b l e
t o assume. t h a t a manufacturer w i l l always t r y t o make WE
as s m a l l a s p o s s i b l e f o r any g i v e n t a k e - o f f weight. WTO.
For t h a t reason. a t any v a l u e of WTO i n F i g u r e s 2.3
through 2.14, t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e of WE s h o u l d be
viewed as t h e 'minimum a l l o w a b l e ' v a l u e a t t h e c u r r e n t
'state-of-the-art' of a i r p l a n e d e s i g n .
S e v e r a l ways f o r f i n d i n g WE from WTO p r e s e n t
t h e m s e l v e s:
1. For a g i v e n v a l u e of WTO as o b t a i n e d from S t e p 2
i n Section 2.1. t h e a l l o w a b l e v a l u e f o r WE can b e read
from F i g u r e s 2.3 t h r o u g h 2.14.
2. For a g i v e n v a l u e of WTO as o b t a i n e d from S t e p 2
i n Section 2.1, t h e a l l o w a b l e v a l u e f o r WE c a n b e found
by i n t e r p o l a t i o n from T a b l e s 2.3 t h r o u g h 2.14.

Part I Chapter 2 Page 1 7

 3. For a g i v e n v a l u e of WTO a s obtained from S t e p 2
i n Section 2.1, t h e allowable v a l u e f o r WE can be found
-
from t_he following equation:

T h i s e q u a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e s shown
i n F i g u r e s 2 . 3 through 2.14. Numerical v a l u e s f o r t h e
q u a n t i t i e s A and B a r e l i s t e d i n Table 2.15.
ort- n o t e of m:
The primary s t r u c t u r e s of most of t h e a i r p l a n e s
l i s t e d i n F i g u r e s 2.3 through 2.14 and Tables 2.3 through
2.14 a r e manufactured p r i m a r i l y of m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s .
Exceptions a r e i n d i c a t e d . I f t h e r e a d e r wishes t o o b t a i n
an e s t i m a t e of WE f o r an a i r p l a n e which is t o be made
of composite m a t e r i a l s , t h e following g u i d e l i n e s should
be observed:
1.) Determine which a i r p l a n e components a r e t o be
made from composite m a t e r i a l s .
2.) Determine an average v a l u e f o r Wcomplwmetal
f o r t h e new a i r p l a n e from Table 2.16. The
a l l o w a b l e v a l u e of WE a s found from F i g u r e s 2.3
through 2 . 1 4 must now be m u l t i p l i e d by
W complWmetal,
l i s t e d i n Table 2.16.
The r e a d e r should keep i n mind, t h a t non-primary
s t r u c t u r e s , such a s f l o o r s , f a i r i n g s , f l a p s , c o n t r o l
s u r f a c e s and i n t e r i o r f u r n i s h i n g s , have been manufactured
from composites f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . Claims of weight
reductions r e l a t i v e t o t h e a i r p l a n e s i n Figures 2.3
through 2.14 should t h e r e f o r e be made with g r e a t c a u t i o n .

Part I Chapter 2 Page 18

 GROSS TAKE
103
- OFF WEIQHT - WTON LOS

Part I Chapter 2 Page 19

 w r 2.4 w a h t for EnUhe Pro-
Drive* AirDlanea
Part I Chapter 2 Page 20
10"
GROSSTAKE- OFF WEIGHTO WTOuL6S

w e 2.5 wt Tr- for e- Pro-

Part I Chapter 2 Page 21

 A G W A GON

w e 2.6 w-t TrpnPe for

Part I Chapter 2 Page 22

 104 I o5
G R O S S T A K E - O F F WEIGHT- WT0eL6C
w e 2 . 7 W-t Trendsf o r 8 Jea

Part I Chapter 2 Page 23

 --
GRO55 TAKE- OFF WEIGHT-\hto- LBS

Part I Chapter 2 Page 2 4

 10 I o6
GROSS T A K E - OFF WElGHT- WTON L B S

part I Chapter 2 Page 2 5

10
G R 0 5 5 T A K E - O F F WEIGHT -
104
WTO y L e S

w e t rends for Militarv -

T

Part I Chapter 2 Page 2 6

 G ROSS TAKE -OFF WElGHT - WTO- L65
U e 2.13 -
e
W f o r -lF

part I Chapter 2 Page 2 9

 GROSS T A K E -OFF WEIGHT WTO .* L B S
10

w e 2 . 1 4 W e i w Tr- f o rc-S C r v

Part I Chapter 2 Page 3 0

 10"
G R O S S TAKE -OFF WElGHT - bdTOcv LBS

Part I Chapter 2 Page 27

 GROSS
10"
TAKE-OFF WEIGHT - WTO-C65
10

Part I Chapter 2 Page 2 8

 T a b l e 2 . 3 W e i g h t Data f o r H o m e b u i l t P r o p e l l e r D r i v e n A i r p l a n e s
P P D P I I I P I I = P P P P P P D P = e : = = = = = = = = = i = O = = ~ P = = = = = = = ~ = ~ = = = = = = = ~ ~ = = = = ~ ~

No. TYPe Gross T a k e - o f f Empty W e i g h t , Maximum L a n d i n g Max. I n t e r n a l

W e i g h t , WTO WE(lb$) W e i g h t , WLand F u e l Weight,
(lbs) (lbs) WMIF ( l b s )
FUN OR- T
USA
B o w e r s F l y Baby 1-B 972 972
B u s h b y MM-1-85 87 5 87 5
C a s s u t t I1 80 0 80 0
Monnett S o n e r a i I 750 750
Mooney Mite 7 80 7 80
Pazmany PL-LA 1,416 1,416
Pazmany PL-4A , 850 850
Q u i c k i e Q2 1,000* 1,000
Rutan Variviggen 1,700* 1,700
Rutan Varieze 1,050* 1,050
Rutan Longeze 1,325* 1,325
CANAIlA
Zenith- CH 2 0 0 1,499
ExNum
PIK- 21 705
FRANCE
C r o s e s EAC-3 573
G a t a r d AGO2 617
J o d e l D92 705
J u r c a M. J. SEA2 1,499
P i e 1 E m e r a u d e CP320 1 , 4 3 3
P i e 1 Super D i a m a n t 1 , 8 7 3
P o t t i e r PSO 8 82
XmIx
S t e l i o F r a t i Falco 1,808
F 8L * C o n s t r u c t e d f r o m composites
 T a b l e 2.3 ( C o n t ' d ) Weight Data f o r Homebuilt P r o p e l l e r Driven Airplanes
===-----
-----P=I===PP===PPP====L:==~==L:=~=~=======U==~==~==~=~===============
k

-
No. TYPe Gross Take- off Empty Weight, Max. I n t e r n a l Builder
Weight, W WE(lbs) F u e l Weight,
and ~axim88 W, (lbs)
Landing Weight,
WLand ( l b s )

USA
2 / 3 Westland 1,400 Butterworth
Whirlwind
7 / 1 0 Ju87B-2 S t u k a 182 Langhurst
213 NAA P 51 135 Meyer
8110 S p i t f i r e I X 3 82 Thunder Wings
8/10 C u r t i s s P-40 264 N. A.
8110 FW 190A 294 N.A.
1 / 2 F4U Corsair N.A. WAR
112 FW 190A 70 WAR
518 Hurricane I I C 176 Sindlinger
415 Boeing F4BlP12 235 Aero-Tech
FRANCE
213 P 51 N.A. Jurca MJ7
314 FW 190A N. A. Jurca MJ8
ENGLAND
6/10 S p i t f i r e
CANADA
314 Reggiane 2000 N.A. Tesor i
Falco 1
 T a b l e 2 . 4 W e i g h t Data f o r S i n g l e E n g i n e P r o p e l l e r D r i v e n A i r p l a n e s
===IPPPPPeDSPPPSIPP=PP=="=='PtPP=='I=========================================a=

No. TYPe Gross T a k e - o f f Empty W e i g h t , Maximum L a n d i n g- Max. I n t e r n a l

W e i g h t , WTO WE(lbs) W e i g h t . Wland F u e l Weight,
(lbs) (lbs) WMIF ( l b s 1
BEECH
S i e r r a 200 2,750 1,694
B o n a n z a A36 3,600 2,195
B o n a n z a V35B 3,400 2,106
Turbo Bonanza 3,850 2,338
S k i p p e r 77 1,675 1,100
CESSNA
152 1,670 1,112
Skyhawk I1 2,400 1,427
S k y l a n e RG 3,100 1,757
Skywagon 1 8 5 3,350 1,700
Stationair 8 3,800 2,123
C e n t u r i o n I1 3,800 2,153
Centurion Press. 4,000 2,426
C a r a v a n 2 0 8 (TBP) 7,750 3,385
PIPER
Warrior I1 2,325 1,348
A r r o w IV 2,750 1,637
Saratoga 3,600 1,935
T r ipace r PA2 2 2,000 1,110
S u p e r Cub PA18-150 1,750 930
De HAVILLAND
DHC-2 B e a v e r ( l a n d ) 5,100 2,850
DHC-3 O t t e r ( l a n d ) 8,000 4,168
SOCATA
R a l l y e 125 1,852 1,125
Diplomate ST-10 2,690 1,594
 T a b l e 2.4 ( C o n t ' d ) W e i g h t D a t a f o r S i n g l e E n g i n e P r o p e l l e r Driven A i r p l a n e s
n~5PP~P~PPD~=P~~~PPPPtPPPPPDPPPP~~PP~P30n~=PPP=~~==~~~~~~~n~u~~~~a~~n~n~~n~~=~=~~~~~=~n~

b
Type Gross T a k e- o f f Empty W e i g h t , Maximum L a n d i n g Max. I n t e r n a l
W e i g h t , WTO WE(lbs) W e i g h t . WLand F u e l Weight,
(lbs) (lbs) WMIF ( l b s
ZLIN
142 2,138 1,609 2,138 194
ZSOL 1,587 1,256 1,587 93
MOONEY
2 0 1 (M20J) 2,740 1,640 2,740 376
2 3 1 Turbo(M20K) 2,900 1,800 2,900 462

27 A n t o n o v AN-2 11,574 N.A.

s 28 B e a g l e Be121- 2 P u p 1 , 9 0 0 1,900
Q 29 P a r t e n a v i a P66C 2,183 2,183
(0 30 F u j i FA-200 2,335 2,335
rt 31 P i l a t u s PC-6(TBP) 4,850 4,850
N 32 V a r g a 2150A K a c h i n a 1 , 8 1 7 1,817
 T a b l e 2.5 W e i g h t Data f o r Twin E n g i n e P r o p e l l e r Driven A i r p l a n e s
P = P P X P O P = P P = P P = I I P P = = = = P = = = = = = = = P a = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

No. TYPe Gross T a k e - o f f Empty W e i g h t , Maximum L a n d i n g- Max. I n t e r n a l

W e i g h t , WTO WE(lbs) W e i g h t . WLand Fuel weight,
(lbs) (lbs) W, (lbs)
BEECH
Duchess 76 3,900 2,466
B a r o n 95-B55 5,100 3,236
Duke B60 6,775 4,423
King A i r C90 (TBP) 9,650 5,765
CESSNA
C r u s a d e r T303 5,150 3,305
340A 5,990 3,948
402C B u s i n e s s l i n e r 6,850 4,077
414A C h a n c e l l o r 6,750 4,368
421 Golden Eagle 7,450 4,668
C o n q u e s t I (TBP) 8,200 4,915
PIPER
Navajo 6,500 4,003
Chieftain 7,000 4,221
A e r o s t a r 600A 5,500 3,7 3 7
Seminole PA-44-1 80 3,800 2,354
S e m i n o l e PA-44-1 80T 3,800 2,430
C h e y e n n e I (TBP) 8,700 4,910

17 Wing Derringer D-1 3,050 2,100 2,900 511

18 P a r t e n a v i a P66C-160 2,183 1,322 2,183 25.1
19 P i a g g i o P166-DL3 9,480 5,732 8,377 1,850
'd (TBP
a
P, 20 Gulf-Am 840A (TBP) 1 0 , 3 2 5 6,629 10,325 2,784
(0 21 L e a r f a n 2 1 0 0 (TBP) 7,350. 4,100 7,000 1,572
W 22 Rutan 40 D e f i a n t 2,900* 1,610 2,900 528
tA
* 2 1 a n d 2 2 are composite b u i l t airplanes
 T a b l e 2.6 W e i g h t D a t a f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l A i r p l a n e s
l P P P P P P P I P I P P P P P P P I P ~ 5 I ~ P ~ ~ t ~ 5 : P ~ ~ . i ~ ~ ~ P P P P ~ ~ ~ ~ n n ~

k
No. Type G r o s s Take- off Empty W e i g h t , Maximum L a n d i n g Max. I n t e r n a l
W e i g h t . WTO W e i g h t , WLand F u e l Weight,
(lbs) (lbs) WM,, ( l b s )

2 PZL-104 2,866
3 PZL-106 6,614
4 PZL-MI 8A 9,259
5 T r a n s a v i a T- 300 4,244
6 A y r e s S2R-R1820 10,000
7 S c h w e i z e r AG-CATB 7,020

C e s s n a AG Husky
C e s s n a AG T r u c k
P i p e r PA-36 B r a v e
IAR- 82 7A

P i l a t u s PC-6 4 , 850
NDN 6 N.A.
Ayres Turbo- Thrush N. A.
A i r T r a c t o r AT400 N. A.
M a r s h S2R-T N.A.
iws
17 PZL M-15
Turbocharged
Note: W e i g h t s l i s t e d a r e f o r t h e 'normal category'.
 l-l
Q
C 4J
U C
Q)0nn 0 0 0 - 0 o m n e 0 W O m o u ne
JJ.dV1t4
cant-
"'ZG
edP1
d m n
22;
4 0 0
n-
00-
eod
. . . . a *
m a o n e
.
0 - G
t-uo
*nu
. ...*..
O n u .~- 0
m - t 4 u d + o
3*+czuu
*rl Fvr d rJ d
XQ) H
92;

ci

4J
' Z. .- *.- . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o
n o n
uue
0 0
oo
0 0
0 0 0
m o o
m e n
0 0 0
o a o
oaom
ooon
ooon
0 0
oo
no-t- -0.a
G n u G b n 4-u - d m 0um:?uG
~ m m4
4 - 4- d d d 4 4 4 n m d ~ z d d
X -4P
Q 0l-l
E S-

@ & o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q
&' n u+o n o m o o ooo o n m o n o 0
m .
. . . . . . . d.m.0 . G. m. n . c0. mu.b+ .*ua.oWn.oo.~

1
u cot-oo eon o m o nno
JJ
CQC-d 0 0 0 t4n
mmma - d m ~ t 4ddt4 u*d.r 4-
0 -4 n
Hn-
LI WJJ
a5 l-l
rY ~ U C
H m orl a 0
5 HJJEQ)P= Q
C Q)Q& I M

0
0
n
4
3
JJ
n+n
--* Hb-tn4~nc
a5 W C
QmOPcz
J J Q ) - 0
C Q)Q)Q) u Q ) n* J J - r l O
0 nnn mCI3Q)mc3
0 LILILI w ~ m ~ - n m m
l-l l-l Q Q Q ~ U J J U X I U ~
Q Q Q)Q)Q) I 0 4 0 0 4
a a 444 oaraaaB

Part I Chapter 2 Page 3 7

 Driven A i r p l a n e s
T a b l e 2 . 8 W e i g h t Data f o r R e g i o n a l T u r b o - P r o p e l l e r
=================------
------=------------- ............................
-------------=--------------------------
H
'j;
No. TYPe Gross T a k e - o f f Empty W e i g h t , Maximm L a n d i n g Max. I n t e r n a l
W e i g h t . WTO WE(lbs) W e i g h t . WLand F u e l Weight,
(lbs) (lbs) (lbs)
Antonov 2 8 14,330 7,716 14,330 W'1~3, 4 83
C a s a C212-200 16,424 9,072 16,204 3,527
BAe 74 8 2B(A) 46,500 26,560 43,000 11,326
S h o r t s 330 22,900 14,175 22,600 3,840
S h o r t s 360 25,700 16,075 25,400 3,840
S h o r t s SC7-3 12,500 7,750 12,500 2,303
Beech 1900 15,245 8,500 15,245 2,855
B e e c h C99 11,300 6,494 11,300 2,466
Beech King A i r 12,500 7,538 12,500 3,645
B200
Cessna Conquest I 8,200 4,915 8,000 2,459
Cessna Conquest II 9,850 5,682 9,360 3,183
FS Metro I11 14,500 8 , 3 87 14,000 4,342
Gulfstream I C 36,000 23,693 34,285 10,460
GAF Nomad N22B 8,500 4,613 8,500 1,770
F o k k e r F27 Mk200 45,000 25,525 41,000 9,090
ATR-42-200 34,720 2 0 , s 80 33,730 9,920
A e r i t a l i a AP68TP 5,732 3,245 5,445 1,340
- 200
SM S F 6 0 0 C a n g u r o 7,054 4,299 7,054 1,902
A i r t e c CN235 2 8,660 16,094 2 8,220 8, 8 1 8
D e H a v i l l a n d DHC-7 4 4 , 0 0 0 27,000 42,000 9,925
D e H a v i l l a n d DHC-5D 4 1 , 0 0 0 24,635 39,100 13,696
B u f f a l o (A)
EMB-120 B r a s i l i a 21,165 11,945 21,165 5,624
S a a b - F a i r c h i l d 340 26,000 15,510 25,500 5,900
P i p e r PA-31T 9,000 5,018 9,000 2,555
C h e y e n n e 11
w
P,
1 T a b l e 2.8 ( C o n t ' d ) Weight D a t a f o r R e g i o n a l T u r b o - P r o p e l l e r D r i v e n A i r p l a n e s
fl -- = = = = ~ = = ~ P = S i = = - - - - - - - - - - ----
- - P D P P P P I P = P = = P = = -----------------------------------------=----
I+ No. Type G r o s s Take- off Empty W e i g h t Maximm L a n d i n g Max. I n t e r n a l
W e i g h t , WTo WE(lbs) W e i g h t . WLand F u e l Weight,
(lbs) (lbs) (lbs)
25 P i p e r PA-42 11,200 6,389 10,330 W ~ n 2 , 6 86
C h e y e n n e 111
26 BAe 3 1 Jetstream 14,550 7,606 14,550 3,017
27 E m b r a e r EMB-110 12,500 7,837 12,500 2,974
Bandeirante
28 D e H a v i l l a n d DHC-6 1 2 , 5 0 0 7,065 12,500 2,500
Twin O t t e r - 3 0 0
29 D e H a v i l l a n d DHC-8 3 0 , 5 0 0 20,176 30,000 5,875
C]
30 Dornier 1 2 8 - 6 9,590 5,230 9,127 1,544
3 31 D o r n i e r 228- 200 12,566 6,495 S e e '84 S e e '84
4 Janes Janes
fl
(D
32 Arava 202 15,000 8, 816 15,000 2,876
n 33 D e H a v i l l a n d DHC-7, 5 7 , 2 5 0 34,250 55,600 10,000
N S e r i e s 300

e 3 FOKKER F.27 FRENDSW

 T a b l e 2 . 9 W e i g h t Data f o r T r a n s p o r t Jets
~ P I P ~ = E = D ~ l l = = I I I = P ~ ~ i P 1 4 ~ P P a P ~ P n I a n % 3 : P e P

*
Weight ,
lr
Max. I n t e r n a l
No. Type Gross T a k e- o f f Empty Maxirmm L a n d i n g
W e i g h t , WTO WE(lbs) W e i g h t . WLand F u e l Weight,
(lbs) (lbs) WHIp ( l b s )
BOEING
727- 200 1 8 4 , 800
737- 200 115,500
737- 300 124,500
747-200B 775,000
747- SP 630,000
757- 200 220,000
767- 200 300,000

DC8- Super 71 325,000

DC9-3 0 121,000
DC9-80 140,000
DC10-10 455,000
DClO-40 555,000

13 L o c k h e e d L1011-500 510,000 245,500 3 68,000 1 5 5 , 9 82

14 F o k k e r F28- 4000 73,000 3 8 , 6 83 69,500 16,842
15 Rombac-111-560 99,650 53,762 87,000 24,549
16 VFW-Fokker 6 1 4 44,000 26,850 44,000 10,928
17 BAe 146- 200 89,500 4 8,500 77,500 22,324
IURBUS
18 A300-B4-200 363,760 195,109 295,420 195,109
19 A310-202 291,000 168,910 261,250 94,798

WE h e r e means t y p i c a l a i r l i n e o p e r a t i n g w e i g h t empty, WOE

'd
0,
m T a b l e 2 . 1 0 Weight Data f o r Military T r a i n e r s
rt =PP==PPIIPPI==~====~=X===~~=IP~I=======~~=~=~
H
No. Type Gross T a k e - o f f Empty Weight, Maxinum L a n d i n g Max. I n t e r n a l
Weight, WTO WE(lbs) Weight. WLand F u e l Weight,
( l b s1 (lbs) WMIF ( l b s )

1 Em-312 Tucano 5,622 3,946 6,173 1,193

2 RFB F a n t r a i n e r 600B 5,070 2,337 4,409 75 0
3 P i l a t u s PC7 /CH 4,188 2,800 4,188 82 0
4 B e e c h T34C 4,300 2,960 4,300 85 2
5 NDNlT F i r e c r a c k e r 3,250 2,300 3,250 738
JETS
6 Microjet 2 0 0 2,535 1,433 2,491 688
O
3 7 MDB A l p h a Jet 11,023 7,374 11,023 3,351
4rt 8 MB3 39A 9,700 6,889 N. A. 2,425
9 S M S211 5,511 3,560 5,511 2,491
(0
m 10 Caproni C22J 2,502 1,587 2,502 540
w 11 PZL TS- 11 7,150 5,644 7,150 2,421
12 CASAC-101 1 0 , 6 9 2 (43089) 7,385 10,361 4, 0 78 ( 2 8 6 6 k ~ o r w ~;
c
13 BAe Hawk Mkl 11,100 8,040 10,250 2,497
14 A e r o A l b a t r o s L39 10,028 7,859 9,480 2,170

15 Aerosp. E p s i l o n 2,755 1,936 2,755 325

16 C h i n c u l Arrow 2,900 1,730 2,900 421
17 SM-SF260M 2,425 1,797 2,425 377
18 F u j i KM-2B T-3 3,400 2,469 3,329 4 11
19 Yakovlev- 52 2,844 2,205 2,844 189
20 BAe B u l l d o g 1 2 1 2,238 1,430 2,238 226
'd
Note: W e i g h t s l i s t e d a r e f o r t h e airplanes i n a clean c o n f i g u r a t i o n . With
CD e x t e r n a l l o a d s most weights w i l l increase s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
C
CI
 O n n
e
...
0 d
cue-
o n w
mmcr,

U cu 4
cum d
1 44E
2 : G?Z' *d W 4 4 4d wd dwk rrw4l nk W

~ a ; e r- : ~ .d ~ x e e a s a
am aY m duk b ' , a J n o w d a w Z
CaJ3uoL).r(>Oddd C C C O *
aln4macbw d 4 k a m m m U E Y
31QUMG C
g 4 n cs * 1 8 1 9 n m

Part I Chapter 2 Page 4 2

 T a b l e 2.11 ( C o n t 8 d ) W e i g h t Data f o r F i g h t e r s
P = = P P P P P P P P P ~ = P P P P I ~ = = = = ~ = ~ I = = = = t P 3 P = P P X ~ = P ~

No. TYPe Gross T a k e- o f f

Empty W e i g h t , Maxinum L a n d i n g Max. I n t e r n a l
Weight, F u e l Weight,
(lbs
wTO wE(lbs) W e i g h t . WLand
(lbs) WMIF ( l b s )
CLEAN WITH EXT.
LOAD
JETS
McDD A4F N.A. 27,420 10,448 N.A.
C e s s n a A37B N.A. 14,000 6,211 14,000
S u k h o i SU 7BM N.A. 29,750 19,000 N. A.
M i G 25A N.A. 79,800 44,100 N. A.
TURBOPROPS
FMAIA58BPucaraN.A. 14,991 8, 8 8 4 12,345
GA F20TP C o n d o r N.A. 5,291 3,086 5,291
P i p e r PA-4 8 E n f o r c e r 14,000 7,200 8,000
R o c k w e l l OVlOA N.A. 9,908 6,893 N. A.
Grumman OV-1D N.A. 17,912 12,054 N. A.
Mohawk
'd
P,
n T a b l e 2 . 1 2 W e i g h t Data f o r M i l i t a r y P a t r o l , Bomb a n d T r a n s p o r t A i r p l a n e s
r+
H
PP======PIPD==~5=lere~P==L:=a=P5===5===iP:3E=i==5=~=====~~=~====u=======n
r====
No. Type Gross Take- of f
W e i g h t , WTO
(lbs)
Empty W e i g h t ,
WE(lbs) Weight
(lbs)
.
Maxirmm L a n d i n g
WLand
Max. I n t e r n a l
F u e l Weight,
WMIp ( l b s )
Ecs
1 B o e i n g YC-14 237,000 117,500 N. A. 66,400
2 B o e i n g KC-1 3 5A 245,000 9 8,466 185,000 N. A.
3 McDD C17 572,000 259,000 N.A. N. A.
4 McDD KC-1OA 590,000 240,065 403,000 22 8 , 9 7 5
5 L o c k h e e d S3A 52,539,,, 26,650, 45,914 12,445
6 L o c k h e e d C141B 323,100 1 4 8,120, 343,000 154,527
7 L o c k h e e d CSA 769,000 337,937 635,850 320,950
O
3 8 T u p o l e v Tu- 16 1 5 8,730 82,000 N. A. 78,592
4cr 9 BAe Nimrod Mk2 177,500 86,000 120,000 84,350
fD
10 NAMCXC-1 85,320 53,130 N. A. 26,284
1 lmwEwEs
w 11 DB A t l a n t i c - I 1 96,780 55,775 79,365 40,785
12 T r a n s a l l C-160 112,435 61,730 103,615 38,480
13 A e r i t a l i a G222 61,730 33,950 5 8,420 20,725
14 F o k k e r F27 Maritime 4 5 , 0 0 0 27,600, 41,000 16,000
15 L o c k h e e d C130E 155,000 75,331 130,000 63,404
16 L o c k h e e d P3C 135,000 61,491 103,880 60,260
17 Grumman E2C 51,817 37,945 N.A. 12,400
18 Grumrnan C2A 54,830 31,154 47,372 11,947
19 Shorts Belfast 230,000 130,000 215,000 82,400
20 A n t o n o v AN12 121,475 61,730 N.A. 31,299
21 A n t o n o v AN22 551,160 251,325 N.A. 94, 8 0 0
'd 22 A n t o n o v AN26 50,706 33,113 50,706 12,125
lP,
n 23 D o u g l a s C133B 286,000 120,363 N.A. 118,634
f~ These weights are t y p i c a l W values. * * T h i s is a STOL airplane.
c
c
* * * f o r 2 . 5 0 g o n l y . WTO = 3 4 3 0 8 0 0 i b s f o r 2.229.
 T a b l e 2.13 W e i g h t Data f o r F l y i n g B o a t s and A m p h i b i o u s a n d F l o a t A i r p l a n e s
P===IP=I='tP====PI=IIPPPIPP===P======r:=======PP===================================

No. Type G r o s s Take- off

W e i g h t , WTO
(lbs)
Empty W e i g h t ,
wE(lbs) .
Maximm L a n d i n g
W e i g h t WLand
(lbs)
Max. I n t e r n a l
F u e l Weight,

1 C a n a d a i r CL-2 1 5 43,50O(L) 26,810 34,40O(L)

37,7OO(W) 26,810 37,0OO(W)
2 S h i n Meiwa U S - l ( T B P ) 9 9 . 2 0 0 ( L ) 56.218 N o A.
94,8OO(W) 56,218 N. A.
3 Grumman A l b a t r o s 30,80O(L) 23,500 29,16O(L)
31,15O(W) 23,500 31,15O(W)
4 Martin P5M2 74,000 4 8,000 N.A.
5 Conso1.V PBY-5 34,000 17,564 N. A.
SEIORTS
6 S u n d e r l a n d I11
7 Shetland 130,000 74,985 N.A. 45,000
8 ford 75.000 45.000 N. A. N. q,
9 Lake 200 Buccaneer 2,690 1,555 2,690 323
10 osprey11 1,560 970 1,560 153
11 Spencer A i r Car Jr 1,800 1,150 1,800 317
12 Spencer A i r Car S r 3,200 2,190 3,200 552
13 GAF N22B(Amph) (TBP) 8 , 3 0 0 5,560 N.A. 1,770
14 GAF N 2 2 B ( F l o a t ) (TBP) 8 , 5 0 0 5,050 N. A. 1,770
15 AAC S l B Z ( F 1 o a t ) 1,900 1,073 1,900 23 5
16 IAC TAl6 3,000 1,900 3,000 540
17 M i l i t i MB3 L e o n a r d o 6 83 452 6 83 N. A.
18 M u k a i O l i v e SM6 I11 1 , 2 6 8 948 1,268 46
19 A e r o c a r Sooper- Coot 1 , 9 5 0 1,100 1,950 294
20 Anderson K i n g f i s h e r 1,500 1,032 1,500 117
Notes: 1. ( L ) i n d i c a t e s L a n d , ( W ) i n d i c a t e s Water.
2. ( F l o a t ) i n d i c a t e s a f l o a t e q u i p p e d airplane.
3. (Amph) i n d i c a t e s an a m p h i b i o u s a i r p l a n e , (TBP) i n d i c a t e s t u r b o p r o p .
A l l o t h e r s are P i s t o n - P r o p e l l e r equipped.
 T a b l e 2 . 1 4 W e i g h t Data f o r S u p e r s o n i c C r u i s e A i r p l a n e s
P P I I P P P I = P I P I 5 P = P I ~ P n i a P P ~ ~ a a a t t I P P P P ~ a f a ~ ~ ~ ~ u ~ u ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

1
No. TYPe G r o s s Take- off
W e i g h t , WTO
(lbs
Empty W e i g h t ,
WE(lbs) Weight
(l b s
.
Maximm L a n d i n g
WLand
Max. I n t e r n a l
F u e l Weight,
wMIp ( l b s )
*
1 Concorde 389,000 172,000, 245,000 2 0 2 , 809
2 TU144 396,830 187,400 264,500 209,440
3 B o e i n g 969- 512BA 340,194 162,510 N. A. 155,501
4 B o e i n g 969- 512BB 750,000 358,270 N. A. 342,824
5 SM-SST 56,200 25,200 45,000 29,800
6 GD-FlllA 91,500 47,500 N.A. N.A.
7 GD-B5 8A 160,000 5 8,000 N. A. 9 8,250
O
tf 8 NAA B70A 550,000 190,000 N. A. 300,000
4rt 9 NASA S u p e r s o n i c 47,900 19,620 N. A. N. A.
C r u i s e F i g h t e r (n=4)
'P
r( 10 R o c k w e l l BIB 477,000 N. A. 422,000
N Notes:
1. A i r p l a n e s 1 t h r o u g h 5 a r e commercial t r a n s p o r t s .
2. A i r p l a n e s 3 t h r o u g h 5 a r e s t u d y p r o j e c t s o n l y .
3. R e m a i n i n g a i r p l a n e s a r e m i l i t a r y .
I n d i c a t e s WOE i n t h e s e cases.

------
_=------ ___----
------
 T a b l e 2 . 1 5 R e g r e s s i o n L i n e C o n s t a n t s A a n d B of E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 1 6 )
D=I=rPPPIPPPPPIP=PP~P===i=i:~=I=5==P=i5=P=B======~~=----~=-- - -
----
-P- I ----
A i r p l a n e Type A B A i r p l a n e Type A B

1. H o m e b u i l t s 8. M i l i t a r y T r a i n e r s
Pers. fun and Jets 0.6632 0.8640
transportation 0.3411 0.9519 Turboprops - 1.4041 1.4660
Turboprops
Scaled F i g h t e r s 0.5542 0. 8654 w i t h o u t No.2 0.1677 0.9978
Composites 0.8222 0.8050 Piston/Props 0.5627 0.8761

Single Engine Fighters

Propeller Driven J e t s ( + ext.load)0.5091 0.9505
Jets(c1ean) 0.1362 1.0116
Twin E n g i n e Turboprops(+ 0.2705 0.9 830
P r o p e l l e r Driven ext. load)
Composites
Mil. P a t r o l , Bomb a n d T r a n s p o r t
Agricultural Jets - 0.2009 1.1037
Turboprops - 0.4179 1.1446
B u s i n e s s Jets Flying Boats,
Amphibious and
R e g i o n a l TBP F l o a t A i r p l a n e s 0.1703 1.0083
Supersonic
T r a n s p o r t Jets Cruise 0.4221 0.9876

E q u a t i o n (2.16) i s r e p e a t e d here f o r convenience:

 T a b l e 2 . 1 6 Weight Reduction D a t a f o r Composite
---
---ePI~PPSP~PPPrPPlr=P'PIIIPPP============P==P========P=

Construction
PPD=P==PPa'P

S t r u c t u r a l Component Wcoxnp'wmetal

-
%ge
v Structure
Wing, V e r t i c a l T a i l ,
Canard o r H o r i z o n t a l T a i l
Landing Gear
F l a p s , S l a t s , Access P a n e l s ,
Fairings
I n t e r i o r Furnishings
A i r I n d u c t i o n System
Notes: 1) 'These weight r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r s s h o u l d be used
w i t h g r e a t c a u t i o n . They a r e i n t e n d e d t o a p p l y when
changing from 100% c o n v e n t i o n a l aluminum a l l o y s t o 100%
composite c o n s t r u c t i o n .
2 ) For Lithium-aluminum a l l o y s used i n t h e
f u s e l a g e , wing o r empennage s t r u c t u r e , a weight r e d u c t i o n
of 5 t o 10 p e r c e n t may b e claimed r e l a t i v e t o
c o n v e n t i o n a l aluminum a l l o y s .

Part I Chapter 2 Page 4 8

 The method f o r e s t i m a t i n g WTO, WE and WF w i l l

now be i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h t h r e e examples:
2.6.1 Example 1: Twin Engine P r o p e l l e r Driven
P r o p e l l e r Driven A i r p l a n e
2.6.2 Example 2 : J e t T r a n s p o r t
2.6.3 Example 3 : F i g h t e r
2.6.1 Examr>l e 1: T w i n EnQFne P r u r Driven Ain>lane
T a b l e 2 . 1 7 g i v e s a n example m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n
f o r a t w i n e n g i n e p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e . Note t h a t
t h e v a r i o u s m i s s i o n p h a s e s have been numbered. The
example f o l l o w s t h e s t e p - b y - s t e p p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d i n
S e c t i o n 2.1.
S t e p 1. From T a b l e 2 . 1 7 , t h e payload weight, WpL
is:

S t e p 2. A l i k e l y v a l u e f o r WTO i s o b t a i n e d by
looking a t d a t a f o r s i m i l a r a i r p l a n e s . I n
Reference 9 , t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n can
be found:
A i r p l a n e Type Range
'crmax

Beech Duke B 6 0 1,300 6,775 2 39 1,080

Beech Baron M58 1,500 5,400 200 1,200
Cessna T 3 0 3 1,650 5,150 196 1,000
P i p e r PA-44-1 80 1,250 3,800 1 68 725

From t h e s e d a t a a v a l u e f o r WTO of
7,000 l b s seems r e a s o n a b l e , s o :

g u e s s = 7,000 l b s
'TO
S t e p 3. To d e t e r m i n e a v a l u e f o r Wp, t h e procedure
i n d i c a t e d i n S e c t i o n 2 . 4 w i l l be followed.
Mission p h a s e s a r e d e f i n e d i n T a b l e 2.17.

Part I Chapter 2 Page 4 9

Table 2.17 Mission S p e c i f i c a t i o n For A Twin Engine
-,
-,
- --
- - -,
=-
= -,
--
-,
- --
- - --
- - -,
- -,
- -,
- -,
- -,
- - -,
-=
, -, -------- --------
- - -,--,--
=--------
- - - --

P r o p e l l e r Driven A i r p l a n e
===='P=3======I'PP======a=

Payload: S i x passengers a t 175 l b s each ( t h i s

== i n c l u d e s t h e p i l o t ) and 200 l b s t o t a l
baggage.
Range: 1,000 s m w i t h max. payload. Reserves
equal t o 25% of r e q u i r e d mission f u e l .
Altitude: 10,000 it ( f o r t h e d e s i g n range).

C r u i s e Speed: 250 k t s a t 75% power a t 10,000 it.

Climb : 10 minutes t o 10.000 f e e t a t max. WTO.

Take-off and
Landing : 1,500 it groundrun a t s e a l e v e l , ' s t d . day.
Landing performance a t WL= 0.95WT0.
Powerplants: PistonIPropeller
P r e s s u r i z a t i o n : None
Certification
Base: FAR 23

Mission P r o f i l e :

I ENGINE S T A R T AND WARMUP

Part I Chapter 2 Page 50

 Phase 1: Engine s t a r t and warm-up.
Begin weight i s WTO. End w e i g h t is W1.

The r a t i o Wl/WTo is t y p i c a l l y 0.992 as

indicated i n T a b l e 2.1.
P h a s e 2: Taxi.
Begin w e i g h t i s W1. End w e i g h t is W2.

The r a t i o W2/Wl is t y p i c a l l y 0.996 as

i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 2.1.

Phase 3: Take- off.

Begin weight i s W2. End w e i g h t is W3.
The r a t i o W3 /W2 i s t y p i c a l l y 0.996 as
i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 2.1.

Phase 4: C l i m b t o cruise a l t i t u d e .
Begin weight i s W3. End w e i g h t is W4.

The r a t i o W4/W3 depends on t h e c l i b

performance of t h e a i r p l a n e which is
b e i n g d e s i g n e d and on t h e s p e c i f i e d
cruise a l t i t u d e . A reasonable value f o r
t h i s r a t i o i s 0.990 a s i n d i c a t e d i n
T a b l e 2.1.

Phase 5: C r u i s e .
Begin w e i g h t is W4. End w e i g h t is W5.
The r a t i o w ~ / w , can b e e s t i m a t e d from

B r e g u e t ' s r a n g e e q u a t i o n which f o r
p r o p e l l e r - d r i v e n airplanes is:

(2.9)
Rcr= 375(qP / cP cr (L/D)crln(W4/W5)
From T a b l e 2.17 t h e r a n g e , R is 1 , 0 0 0 nm.

During cruise, c = 0.5 l b s / h p / h r and

P
= 0.82 a r e r e a s o n a b l e c h o i c e s ,
'P
a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 2.2. With good aero-
dynamic d e s i g n a v a l u e of ~ / ~ = s h olu lld
be a t t a i n a b l e , even though T a b l e 2.2

Part I Chapter 2 Page 51

 s u g g e s t s t h a t a v a l u e of l o is high.
With t h e s e numbers, Eqn. ( 2 . 9 ) y i e l d s :

from which is found:

Phase 6: Descent.
Begin weight i s W5. End weight is W6.
The f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o l l o w s from T a b l e 2.1 :

Phase 7 : Landing, T a x i , Shutdown.

Begin weight is W6. End weight is w7.
The r a t i o W7/W6 is assumed t o be 0 . 9 9 2 ,
based a g a i n on T a b l e 2.1.
The o v e r a l l m i s s i o n f u e l f r a c t i o n . M f f c a n be
computed w i t h t h e h e l p of Eqn.(2.13):

The f u e l used d u r i n g p h a s e s 1 t h r o u g h 7 is g i v e n
by Eqn. ( 2 . 1 4 ) . T h i s y i e l d s h e r e :

-
W~ used = (1 0. 827)WT0= 0.173WT0.
T h e v a l u e f o r WF needed f o r t h e m i s s i o n is e q u a l

t o t h e f u e l used p l u s f u e l r e s e r v e s . The l a t t e r
a r e d e f i n e d i n T a b l e 2 . 1 7 as 25% of t h e f u e l used.
Thus:

S t e p 4. A t e n t a t i v e v a l u e f o r WOE is found from

Eqn. ( 2 . 4 ) a s :

Part I Chapter 2 Page 5 2

 'OE t e n t
= 7,000 - 0.216~7r000 - 1,250 =

= 4,238 l b s

S t e p 5. A t e n t a t i v e v a l u e f o r WE is found f r o m
Eqn. ( 2 . 5 ) as:

W = 4,238 - 0.005x7,OOO = 4,203 l b s .

%ent
The crew is c o u n t e d h e r e as p a r t of t h e
payload.

S t e p 6. The a l l o w a b l e v a l u e f o r WE is found from

F i g u r e 2.5 as: WE= 4 , 3 0 0 l b s .

S t e p 7. The d i f f e r e n c e between WE and WE

tent
is 97 l b s . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e is t o o l a r g e .
An i t e r a t i o n w i l l t h e r e f o r e b e n e c e s s a r y .
The r e a d e r i s a s k e d t o show, t h a t when
7,900 l b s , t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s f o r
W ~ ~ =
empty w e i g h t a r e o b t a i n e d :

W = 4,904 l b s and:
%ent
WE= 4,900 l b s . T h e s e numbers a r e w i t h i n

0.5% of e a c h o t h e r .

To summarize, t h e f o l l o w i n g p r e l i m i n a r y numbers
d e f i n e t h e airplane with t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
T a b l e 2.17:

06 l b s . n

Part I Chapter 2 Page 53

2.6.2 Exarm> l e 2: J e t T e

T a b l e 2.18 g i v e s a n example m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n
f o r a jet t r a n s p o r t . Note t h a t t h e v a r i o u s m i s s i o n
p h a s e s have been numbered. The example f o l l o w s t h e
-
step-Jy-step p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n 2.1.

S t e p 1. From T a b l e 2.18, t h e p a y l o a d w e i g h t , WpL

is:

S t e p 2. A l i k e l y v a l u e f o r WTO is o b t a i n e d by
examining d a t a f o r s i m i l a r airplanes. In
R e f e r e n c e 9, t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
can b e found:
Airplane Type WpL Range
vcr max
(lbs) (lbs) (kts) (nm)
Boeing 737-300 35,000 135,000 460 1,620
McDD DC9- 80 38,000 140,000 Ms. 8 2,000
A i r b u s A320 42,000 145,000 450 2,700

From t h e s e d a t a a v a l u e f o r WTO of

130,000 l b s seems r e a s o n a b l e , s o :

guess
S t e p 3. To d e t e r m i n e
= 130,000 l b s .

a v a l u e f o r Wp, t h e procedure

i n d i c a t e d i n S e c t i o n 2.4 w i l l b e f o l l o w e d .
M i s s i o n p h a s e s a r e d e f i n e d i n T a b l e 2.18.

P h a s e 1: Engine S t a r t and Warmp.

Begin w e i g h t i s WTO. End w e i g h t is W1.

The r a t i o Wl/WTO i s t y p i c a l l y 0.990 as

indicated i n T a b l e 2.1.
P h a s e 2: T a x i .
Begin w e i g h t is W1. End w e i g h t is W2.

The r a t i o W2/W1 i s t y p i c a l l y 0.990 a s

i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 2.1.

Part I Chapter 2 Page 54

 T a b l e 2.18 Mission S p e c i f i c a t i o n F o r A J e t T r a n s p o r t
~ ~ O P P I I D P P P P I P I P P I D P P E I P t I P = ~ P P P E P P = = I P ~ ~ n = ~ x ~ P ~ O n E ~

Payload: 150 P a s s e n g e r s a t 1 7 5 l b s e a c h and 3 0 l b s

o f baggage each.
Crew: Two p i l o t s and t h r e e c a b i n a t t e n d a n t s a t
1 7 5 l b s e a c h and 30 l b s baggage each.

Range: 1,500 nm, f o l l o w e d by 1 hour l o i t e r ,

f o l l o w e d by a 1 0 0 nm f l i g h t t o a l t e r n a t e .
A l t i t u d e: 35,000 f t ( f o r t h e design range).

Climb: Direct c l i m b t o 3 5 , 0 0 0 it. a t max. WTO

is d e s i r e d .
Take-of f and
Landing : FAR 2 5 f i e l d l e n g t h , 5 , 0 0 0 f t . a t a n

a l t i t u d e o f 5 , 0 0 0 f t and a 9 5 ' ~day.

Landing performance a t WL- 0. 85WT0.
P o w e r p l a n t s: Two t u r b o f a n s .
P r e s s u r i z a t i o n : 5,000 f t . c a b i n a t 35,000 f t .
Certification
Base: FAR 2 5
Mission P r o f i l e :
5
CRUISE

FLV T O ALTERNAE -8
AND 'DESCEND
d *- 9 & -

I T AXI L A N D I ~G ,TAXI, SHUTDOWAJ\

\
1 ENGINE S T A R T A N D WARMUP

Part I Chapter 2 Page 5 5

 Phase 3 : Take- off.
Begin weight i s W2. End weight is W3.
The r a t i o W3/W2 i s t y p i c a l l y 0 . 9 9 5 as
a i n d i c a t e d by T a b l e 2.1.

Phase 4 : Climb t o c r u i s e a l t i t u d e and a c c e l e r a t e

t o c r u i s e speed.
Begin weight i s W3. End weight is W4.
The r a t i o W4/W3 i s t y p i c a l l y 0.980 as
i n d i c a t e d by Table 2.1.
A s s u g g e s t e d by t h e m i s s i o n p r o f i l e of
T a b l e 2 . 1 8 , r a n g e c r e d i t is t o be t a k e n
f o r t h e climb. I t w i l l be assumed, t h a t
c l i m b i s performed a t a n a v e r a g e speed of
2 7 5 k t s and w i t h a n a v e r a g e c l i m b - r a t e o f
2 5 0 0 fpm. To 3 5 , 0 0 0 i t , it t a k e s 1 4 min.
and t h i s c o v e r s a r a n g e of (14/60)x275 =
64 nm.

Phase 5 : C r u i s e .
Begin weight is W4. End weight is W5.
The s p e c i f i c a t i o n of T a b l e 2 . 1 8 c a l l s f o r
a c r u i s e Mach number of 0 . 8 2 a t an
a l t i t u d e of 3 5 , 0 0 0 it. T h i s amounts t o a
c r u i s e speed of 4 7 3 k t s .
The amount of f u e l used d u r i n g c r u i s e can
b e found from B r e g u e t ' s r a n g e e q u a t i o n
which f o r j e t t r a n s p o r t s is:

I t w i l l be assumed, t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t
w i l l b e a b l e t o c r u i s e a t a LID v a l u e of
1 6 and an ( o p t i m i s t i c ) v a l u e of c j= 0.5

l b s / l b s / h r . T a b l e 2.2 shows t h e s e numbers

t o be reasonable.
S u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e s e numbers i n Eqn. ( 2 . 1 0 )
w i t h a range of 1 , 5 0 0 - 6 4 = 1 4 3 6 nm,
yields:

Part I Chapter 2 Page 5 6

 Phase 6 : L o i t e r .
Begin weight i s W5. End weight i s W6.
The r a t i o W6/W5 can b e e s t i m a t e d from
B r e g u e t ' s endurance e q u a t i o n which f o r a
jet t r a n s p o r t is:

I t w i l l be assumed, t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t
b e a b l e t o l o i t e r a t a LID v a l u e of 1 8
and a v a l u e of c = 0.6 l b s l l b s / h r .
j
T a b l e 2.2 shows t h e s e t o be r e a s o n a b l e
numbers. Note from T a b l e 2 . 1 8 , t h a t t h e
m i s s i o n p r o f i l e assumes n o range c r e d i t
d u r i n g l o i t e r . L o i t e r time is 1 hour.
S u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e a f o r e mentioned
numbers i n t o Eqn. ( 1 2 y i e l d s :

Phase 7 : Descent.
Begin weight i s W6. End weight i s W7.
No c r e d i t is t a k e n f o r range. However, a
p e n a l t y f o r f u e l used d u r i n g d e s c e n t s
from h i g h a l t i t u d e s n e e d s t o be a s s e s s e d .
T y p i c a l l y t h e r a t i o W7IW6= 0 . 9 9 0 , as
s e e n from T a b l e 2.1.
Phase 8: F l y t o a l t e r n a t e and descend.
Begin weight is W7. End weight is W8.
The r a t i o W81W7 c a n be e s t i m a t e d from
Eqn.(l.lO). T h i s time however, b e c a u s e of
t h e s h o r t d i s t a n c e t o f l y , it w i l l n o t be
p o s s i b l e t o r e a c h an economical c r u i s e
a l t i t u d e . I t w i l l be assumed, t h a t f o r
t h e c r u i s e t o a l t e r n a t e a v a l u e f o r LID
of o n l y 1 0 c a n b e achieved. For c a v a l u e
j
of o n l y 0.9 w i l l b e used. Because t h e
f l i g h t t o a l t e r n a t e w i l l p r o b a b l y be
c a r r i e d o u t a t o r below 1 0 , 0 0 0 i t , t h e
c r u i s e speed can b e no more t h a n 250 k t s
i n accordance w i t h FAA r e g u l a t i o n s . With
t h e s e d a t a and w i t h Eqn.(2.10) it is found

Part I Chapter 2 Page 5 7

 t h a t:

No c r e d i t o r p e n a l t y was t a k e n f o r t h e
-= descent i n t o t h e a l t e r n a t e airport.

Phase 9 : Landing, T a x i , Shutdown.

Begin weight is W8. End weight is Wg.
For a j e t t r a n s p o r t t h e r a t i o Wg/W8
c a n ' b e assumed t o be 0.992, i n accordance
w i t h T a b l e 2.1.

The o v e r a l l m i s s i o n f u e l - f r a c t i o n , M f f can now be

computed from Eqn. (2.13) as:

The f u e l used d u r i n g p h a s e s 1 t h r o u g h 9 is g i v e n
by Eqn. (2.14) a s :

-- - --
S i n c e t h e f u e l reserves a r e a l r e a d y accounted f o r ,
it is seen t h a t i n t h i s case a l s o :

S t e p 4. A t e n t a t i v e v a l u e f o r WOE is found from

Eqn. (2.4) a s :

W~~
= 130,000 - 0.204x130,OOO - 30,750 =
tent
= 72,730 l b s

S t e p 5. The crew w e i g h t , WcrW = 1,025 l b s is

found from t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n ,
T a b l e 2.18.
A t e n t a t i v e v a l u e f o r WE is found from
Eqn. ( 2 . 5 ) as:

" tent
= 71,055 l b s .
Part I Chapter 2 Page 5 8
 S t e p 6. The a l l o w a b l e v a l u e f o r WE is found from
F i g u r e 2.9 ( o r from Eqn. (2.16) as:
WE= 70,000 l b s . I t is seen t h a t t h e
d i f f e r e n c e between WE and We is
tent
1,055 l b s . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e is t o o l a r g e .
An i t e r a t i o n i s t h u s needed.

S t e p 7. Note t h a t t h e i t e r a t i o n i n t h i s example
w i l l have t o d r i v e t h e estimate f o r WTO
down. I t is l e f t t o t h e r e a d e r t o show,
that a v a l u e of WTO= 127,000 l b s d o e s
s a t i s f y t h e i t e r a t i o n c r i t e r i o n as s t a t e d
i n S e c t i o n 2.1, S t e p 7.
To summarize, t h e f o l l o w i n g p r e l i m i n a r y numbers
d e f i n e t h e a i r p l a n e w i t h t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
T a b l e 2.18:

127,000 l b s
'TO=
= 68,450 l b s
W~
= 25,850 l b s
w~

FOKKER F.28 FELLOWSHIP

Part I Chapter 2 Page 5 9

 T a b l e 2.19 g i v e s a n example m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n
for a ground a t t a c k f i g h t e r a i r p l a n e . Note t h a t t h e
v a r i o u s m i s s i o n p h a s e s have b e e n numbered. The exanple
f o l l o w s t h e s t e p - b y - s t e p method o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n 2.1.
3

S t e p 1. From T a b l e 2.19, t h e p a y l o a d w e i g h t , WpL

is: 2,000 + 20x500 = 12,000 l b s

S t e p 2. A likely v a l u e f o r WTO is o b t a i n e d by
examining d a t a f o r s i m i l a r a i r p l a n e s . In
Reference 9, t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i s
found:

A i r p l a n e Type WpL 'TO 'max Range

(lbs) (lbs) (kts) (nm)

F.R. AlOA 1 5 , 0 0 0 50,000 450 540
Grumman A6 1 7 , 0 0 0 60,400 689 1,700
Tornado F.Mk2 1 6 , 0 0 0 5 8 , 4 0 0 600. 750
* w i t h e x t . s t o r e s , 1 , 1 0 6 clean!
From t h e s e d a t a , a n i n i t i a l g u e s s f o r WTO

is: = 60,000 l b s .
ue ss

S t e p 3 . To d e t e r m i n e a v a l u e f o r Wp, t h e procedure

of S e c t i o n 2.4 w i l l b e f o l l o w e d . Mission phases

a r e d e f i n e d i n T a b l e 2.19.
P h a s e 1: Engine S t a r t and Warm-up.
Begin w e i g h t i s WTO. End w e i g h t is W1.

The r a t i o WllWTO i s t y p i c a l l y 0.990 as

indicated i n Table 2.1.

P h a s e 2: T a x i .
Begin w e i g h t is Wl. End w e i g h t is W2.

The r a t i o W Z I W l is t y p i c a l l y 0.990 a s
i n d i c a t e d by T a b l e 2.1.

Part I Chapter 2 Page 60

 T a b l e 2 . 1 9 Mission S p e c i f i c a t i o n For A F i g h t e r
=PI===PPDIS'====PP====PIPI==P PISPIPP=S=PPIP'P=

Payload: 20x500 l b s bombs, c a r r i e d e x t e r n a l l y and

2 , 0 0 0 l b s of ammunition f o r t h e GAU- 81A
m u l t i - b a r r e l cannon. The cannon weight
of 4 . 0 0 0 l b s , i s p a r t of WE.
Crew: One p i l o t ( 2 0 0 l b s ) .
Range and
Altitude: See m i s s i o n p r o f i l e . No r e s e r v e s .
C r u i s e Speed: 400 k t s a t s e a l e v e l with e x t e r n a l load.
450 k t s a t sealevel, clean.
M = 0. 80 a t 4 0 , 0 0 0 f t w i t h e x t e r n a l load.
M = 0 . 8 5 a t 40,000 i t , c l e a n .
Climb: D i r e c t climb t o 40,000 f t . a t max. WTO
i n 8 minutes is d e s i r e d .
Climb r a t e on one e n g i n e , a t max. WTO
0
s h o u l d exceed 500 fpm on a 9 5 F day.
Take-of f and
Landing : groundrun of l e s s t h a n 2 , 0 0 0 it a t
0
s e a l e v e l and a 9 5 F day.
Powerplants: Two t u r b o f a n s .
Pressurization: 5,000 f t . cockpit a t 50,000 ft.
Certification
Base: -
Military.
Mission P r o f i l e : 30 MIN. DESCENT
6 LO\TER
CRUISE-

14

LANDING,

I TAXI
ENGII'JE S T A R T A N D W A R M U P
Part I Chapter 2 Page 6 1
 Phase 3. Take- off.
Begin weight i s W2. End weight is W3.
The r a t i o W3/W2 i s t y p i c a l l y 0 . 9 9 0 a s

+s
s e e n i n T a b l e 2.1.
Phase 4. C l i m b t o c r u i s e a l t i t u d e and a c c e l e r a t e
t o c r u i s e speed.
Begin weight is W3. End weight is W4.
The r a t i o W4/W3 is 0 . 9 7 1 as s e e n from
F i g u r e 2.2, w i t h VcruiseS 4 5 9 k t s , which

corresponds t o M = 0.8 a t 40,000 ft.

Range c r e d i t n e e d s t o be t a k e n , a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e m i s s i o n p r o f i l e of T a b l e 2 . 1 9 . I t
w i l l b e assumed, t h a t t h e climb i s
performed a t a n a v e r a g e speed of 3 5 0 k t s
and w i t h a n a v e r a g e c l i m b - r a t e of
5,000 fpm. To 4 0 , 0 0 0 f t t h i s takes 8 min.
The r a n g e covered i s (8/60)x350 = 4 7 nm.
Phase 5. Cruise- out.
Begin weight i s W4. End w e i g h t is W5.
The c r u i s e p h a s e is t o be c a r r i e d o u t
a t 4 0 , 0 0 0 f t and w i t h a speed c o r r e s p o n -
d i n g t o M-0.80 ( w i t h e x t . l o a d ) .
T h i s means Vcruise 1 4 5 9 k t s . F u e l used
d u r i n g t h i s p a r t of t h e m i s s i o n c a n be
e s t i m a t e d from B r e g u e t ' s r a n g e e q u a t i o n :

The range is 300 - 4 7 - 253 nm. Because

t h i s f i g h t e r c a r r i e s i t s bomb l o a d e x t e r -
n a l l y and because it c r u i s e s a t a r a t h e r
h i g h c r u i s e s p e e d , t h e L/D v a l u e d u r i n g
c r u i s e - o u t is n o t l i k e l y t o be v e r y high.
A v a l u e of 7 . 0 seems r e a s o n a b l e . For c
j'
T a b l e 2.2 i n d i c a t e s t h a t 0.6 might be a n
o p t i m i s t i c c h o i c e . With t h e s e numbers t h e
f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r t h i s p h a s e f o l l o w s from
Eqn. ( 2 . 1 0 ) a s : W5/W4= 0 . 9 5 4 .
Phase 6. L o i t e r .
Begin weight is W5. End weight is W6.

P a r t I: Chapter 2 Page 6 2
 During l o i t e r , t h e l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o
w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r t h a n d u r i n g
h i g h speed c r u i s e - o u t . A v a l u e of 9 . 0
f o r (LID) lt w i l l be used. For c I B

T a b l e 2 . 2 i n d i c a t e s t h a t 0 . 6 is o.k.
L o i t e r t i m e i s s p e c i f i e d a t 3 0 min.
The f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r t h i s p h a s e f o l l o w s
from Breguet 's endurance e q u a t i o n :

T h i s y i e l d s : W6/W5= 0 . 9 6 7
Phase 7. Descent.
Begin weight is W6. End weight is W7.
T a b l e 2 . 1 s u g g e s t s t h a t W7/W6 i s 0 . 9 9
No range c r e d i t i s t o be t a k e n , as s e e n
from t h e m i s s i o n p r o f i l e of T a b l e 2 . 1 9 .
Phase 8. Dash-out.
Begin weight i s W7. End weight is W8.

-
The speed d u r i n g dash- out is s p e c i f i e d as
400 k t s i n t h e ext.load configuration.
T h i s means a poor l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o : a , 1 ..-
v a l u e of 4 . 5 "ill b e assumed- -
With a range of 1 0 0 nm , c+- 0 . 9 akd Przrp-r --P
- A;-
-
d
'67 l3.u-b- %t L*.
L / D = 4.5, t h e f u e l f r a c t i o n c a n be found
a g a i n w i t h Eqn. ( 2 . 1 0 ) : W8/W7= 0.951.
Phase 9. Drop Bombs.
Begin weight i s W8. End weight is Wg.
No f u e l p e n a l t y i s a s s e s s e d and n o range
c r e d i t i s taken. The r a t i o Wg/W8= 1. 0.
TIO&
The bomb l o a d which is dropped is g i v e n
i n T a b l e 2.19 as 1 0 , 0 0 0 l b s .
The t o t a l f u e l f r a c t i o n up t o t h i s p o i n t
i n t h e m i s s i o n is found as:
M f f1- 9= 0.818. T h e r e f o r e , (1 - 0 . 8 1 8 ) =
0 . 1 8 2 i s t h e f u e l used as a f r a c t i o n of
'TO*
The l a t t e r was guessed t o be:

Part I Chapter 2 Page 6 3

 60,000 l b s . T h e r e f o r e , j u s t p r i o r t o t h e
bomb-drop:
W = 6OD000x(1- 0.182) = 49,080 l b s .
Immediately a f t e r t h e bomb-drop:
W 49,080 - 10,000 = 39,080 l b s .
S i n c e t h e n e x t w e i g h t r a t i o is p r e d i c a t e d
on t h e w e i g h t a f t e r bomb-drop, it w i l l
be necessary t o correct t h e following
f u e l - f r a c t i o n of P h a s e 10.

P h a s e 10. Strafe.
Begin w e i g h t is Wg. End w e i g h t is Wlo.

S t r a f i n g time is d e f i n e d as 5 min.
Assuming t h a t d u r i n g t h e s t r a f i n g p h a s e
maximum m i l i t a r y t h r u s t is u s e d , c is
j
p r o b a b l y h i g h : a v a l u e of 0.9 w i l l be
assumed. The l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o w i l l a l s o
b e poor d u r i n g t h i s phase. A value of
4.5 w i l l b e assumed. Using t h e l o i t e r
equation ( 2 . 1 2 ) . t h e r a t i o W l o l w g can
b e c a l c u l a t e d t o be 0.9 83. This r a t i o
n e e d s t o be c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e weight
change which o c c u r r e d d u r i n g bomb-drop.
The bomb-drop weight r a t i o i s found a s :
39,080149,080 = 0.796.
The c o r r e c t e d r a t i o W I 0 1 W g is now

found as: (1- (1 - 0.983)x0.796) = 0.986.

TI=
During t h e s t r a f i n g r u n 2 , 0 0 0 l b s of
ammunition is expended. The weight a t
t h e end of t h e s t r a f i n g r u n due t o f u e l
consumed is found a s :

39,080 - (1 - 0 . 9 8 3 ) ~ 3 9 , 0 8 0 = 38,416 l b s .

A f t e r ammo f i r i n g t h i s becomes: 36,416 l b s

Again, t h e f o l l o w i n g f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o r
P h a s e 11 w i l l have t o be c o r r e c t e d .

Part I Chapter 2 Page 64

 Phase 11. Dash-in.
Begin weight is WlO. End weight is Wll.
During t h i s dash, t h e f i g h t e r is back
i n a c l e a n c o n f i g u r a t i o n . For LID, a
v a l u e of 5 . 5 w i l l be used, w h i l e f o r c
j
0 . 9 seems r e a s o n a b l e h e r e . The dash-
o u t speed i s 4 5 0 k t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n T a b l e 2.19. The range
i s 1 0 0 nm. With Eqn. (2.10) t h e f u e l -
f r a c t i o n is computed as:

T h i s r a t i o needs t o b e c o r r e c t e d a g a i n .
The weight r a t i o due t o ammo f i r i n g is:
36,416138,416 = 0.948.
The c o r r e c t e d weight r a t i o , Wll/W10
is found as:
(1- (1- 0 . 9 6 4 ) ~ 0.9481 = . 9 6 6 .

Phase 1 2 . Climb t o c r u i s e a l t i t u d e and a c c e l e r a t e

t o c r u i s e speed.
Begin weight i s Wll. End weight is W12.
The m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n t h i s c a s e
c a l l s f o r a c r u i s e speed of M = 0 . 8 5 .
I t w i l l be assumed, t h a t t h i s p h a s e is
executed i n t h e same manner a s Phase 4.
T h e r e f o r e : Wl2/Wl1= 0 . 9 6 9 and t h e
range covered is t a k e n t o be 4 7 nm.
Phase 1 3 . C r u i s e - i n .
Begin weight i s W12. End weight i s W13.
C r u i s e - o u t speed i n T a b l e 2 . 1 9 is g i v e n
as M = 0.85 a t 4 0 , 0 0 0 f t o r 4 8 8 k t s
The f i g h t e r is now l i g h t e r t h a n it was
d u r i n g Phase 5. T h i s m a k e s LID lower.
The f i g h t e r i s a l s o a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y
c l e a n e r , because t h e e x t e r n a l l o a d h a s
been dropped. For LID a v a l u e of 7 . 5
w i l l b e assumed. The range i s 2 5 3 nm
and c w i l l be assumed t o be 0 . 6 , as f o r
j
Phase 5. I t is found t h a t :

Part I Chapter 2 Page 65

 P h a s e 14. Descent.
Begin w e i g h t is W13. End w e i g h t is W14.

N o c r e d i t f o r r a n g e is t a k e n . From
T a b l e 2.1: W14/W13= 0.99.
+s

P h a s e 15. Landing, T a x i and Shutdown.

Begin w e i g h t i s W14. End w e i g h t is W15.
T a b l e 2 . 1 s u g g e s t s : W15/W14= 0.995.

The o v e r a l l mission f u e l - f r a c t i o n f o l l o w s f r o m
Eqn. (2.13 as:

It m u s t be observed t h a t t h i s value f o r Mff is

already t h e corrected fuel- fraction.
For m i s s i o n f u e l . WF it i s f o u n d t h a t :

WF= (1-0.713)x60.000 = 17.220 lbs.

S t e p 4. The v a l u e f o r WOE follows with t h e

tent
h e l p of Eqn. ( 2 . 4 ) as:

'OE
= 60,000 - 17,220 - 12,000 =
tent
= 30.780 lbs.

S t e p 5. A t e n t a t i v e v a l u e f o r WE f o l l o w s w i t h
t h e h e l p of Eqn. ( 2 . 5 ) as:

S t e p 6. The a l l o w a b l e v a l u e f o r WE is found in
F i g u r e 2.11 as: WE= 31,000 l b s .

S t e p 7. The d i f f e r e n c e between WE and WE is

tent
Part I Chapter 2 Page 6 6
 s e e n t o b e 7 2 0 l b s . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e is
t o o l a r g e . An i t e r a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e
needed. The r e a d e r is asked t o show,
t h a t a f t e r i t e r a t i o n , WTO 6 4 , 5 0 0 l b s .
P

To summarize, t h e ground a t t a c k f i g h t e r a i r p l a n e
w i t h t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n of T a b l e 2 . 1 9 is
d e f i n e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g i n i t i a l weight e s t i m a t e s :

'TO
= 64,500 l b s (with external s t o r e s )

'TO
= 54,500 l b s (without e x t e r n a l s t o r e s )
= 33,500 l b s
E'

Part I Chapter 2 Page 6 7

 I t is e v i d e n t from t h e way t h e r e s u l t s i n S e c t i o n
2 . 6 were o b t a i n e d , t h a t t h e i r outcome depends on t h e
v a l u e s s e l e c t e d f o r t h e v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s i n t h e range
and endurance e q u a t i o n s .
&is s e c t i o n w i l l show w i t h some examples, how
a i r p l a n e take- of f weight, WTo v a r i e s w i t h :
I . Payload. WpL

2. ~ m p t yweight, WE
3. Range, R
4. Endurance, E
5. Lift- to- drag r a t i o , L/D
6. S p e c i f i c f u e l consumption, c or c
P j
7. Propeller efficiency, n
P
A f t e r p r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g of a new a i r p l a n e w i t h t h e
methods o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n 2 . 4 , it is mandatory t o
conduct s e n s i t i v i t y s t u d i e s on t h e p a r a m e t e r s 1- 7 l i s t e d
before.
The r e a s o n s f o r doing t h i s a r e :
A. To f i n d o u t which p a r a m e t e r s ' d r i v e ' t h e design
B. To d e t e r m i n e which a r e a s of t e c h n o l o g i c a l change
must b e pursued, i f some new m i s s i o n c a p a b i l i t y
must b e achieved.
C. I f p a r a m e t e r s 5 , 6 o r 7 were s e l e c t e d o p t i m i s t i -
cally (or pessimistically), t h e sensitivity
s t u d i e s p r o v i d e a q u i c k estimate of t h e irrpact
of s u c h optimism ( o r pessimism) on t h e d e s i g n .
2.7.1 A n a l M e m d For
- -~moC -
With t h e h e l p of Eqns. (2.4) and (2.51, it is
possible t o write:

E' a W~~ - F
' -
'tfo Wcr e w
'PL -
- (2.17)

Equation ( 2 . 6 ) can a l s o be w r i t t e n a s :
WF = (1 - Mff)WTO + W~
res
Reserve f u e l , WF can i n t u r n be w r i t t e n as:
res
Part I Chapter 2 Page 6 8
 -- Mres(l - Mff)WTo.
res
where:

M r e s i s t h e r e s e r v e f u e l f r a c t i o n expressed i n terms
of mission f u e l used.
If M t f o is introduced a s t h e t r a p p e d f u e l and o i l
f r a c t i o n expressed i n terms of t h e take- off g r o s s weight,
'TO' t h e n it follows t h a t :
WE = 'Toil - (1 + M r e s ) ( I - riff) - M 3 +
~ ~ ~

- LP'(
'crew ) +

The l a t t e r can i n t u r n be w r i t t e n a s :

E' "TO - D.
where:
C = (1 - (1 + M r e s ) (1 - Mff) - Mtfol
and :
(2.23)
=L
P'( 'crew 1
+

The r e a d e r is asked t o show. t h a t WE can be

e l i m i n a t e d from Eqns. ( 2 . 2 1 ) and ( 2 . 1 6 ) t o y i e l d :

The parameters A and B a r e t h e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e c o n s t a n t s

of Table 2.15. The parameters C and D a r e t h o s e of
Eqns. ( 2 . 2 2 ) and ( 2 . 2 3 ) .
I t is observed, t h a t Eqn. ( 2 . 2 4 ) a l s o o f f e r s t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a numerical s o l u t i o n t o t h e i t e r a t i o n
p r o c e s s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 2.4.
I f t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o some paramete P"
d e s i r e d , it i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h a t s e n s i t i v i t y by
p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of WTO i n Eqn.(2.24). This
r e s u l t s in:

Part I Chapter 2 Page 69

 S i n c e t h e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e c o n s t a n t s A and B v a r y
o n l y - w i t h a i r p l a n e t y p e , t h e p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s aA/ay
and aB/ay a r e zero.
~ r o kEqn. ( 2 . 2 5 ) it is p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e f o r aWT0/dy
as :

The parameter y c a n b e any o n e of t h o s e l i s t e d a s

1 - 7 a t t h e beginning of t h i s s e c t i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g s e n s i t i v i t i e s w i l l now be d e r i v e d :
2.7.2 S e n s i t i v i t y of Take- off Weight t o Payload
Weight
2.7.3 S e n s i t i v i t y of Take- off Weight t o Empty
Weight
2.7.4 S e n s i t i v i t y of Take- off Weight t o Range,
Endurance, Speed, S p e c i f i c F u e l Consump-
t i o n , P r o p e l l e r E f f i c i e n c y and L i f t - t o -
Drag R a t i o .
2.7.2 S m. .t. v of T a k e -o f f Weigbt t o Pavload W e i a
I£ y=wpL, t h e n a ~ l a w
= 1~. 0~ by Eqn. ( 2 . 2 3 ) . Also.
ac/awpL = o by Eqn. (2.22).

Therefore:

The d e r i v a t i v e aWTo/ay i s c a l l e d t h e a i r p l a n e growth

f a c t o r due t o payload. Some examples w i l l now be
d i s c u s s e d . The examples u t i l i z e t h e a i r p l a n e s which were
d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 2.6.
2.7.2.1 E w l e 1: T w i n o ~ e l l e drr i v e n
For t h i s t w i n , t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a c a n be found:

Part I Chapter 2 Page 7 0

 C = 1 1 - 1 . 2 5 ( 1 - 0. 827) - 0.005) = 0.779
( S e e SubSect i o n 2.6.1)
D = 1,250 lbs(Tab1e 2.17)

Note t h a t s u b s t i t u t i o n of A, B, C and D i n
Eqn.(2.24) yields:

7,935 l b s , which a g r e e s q u i t e w e l l w i t h t h e
'TO'
i t e r a t i v e s o l u t i o n found i n Par. 2.6.1.
With t h i s v a l u e f o r WTO, it is p o s s i b l e t o compute

t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of W T O t o WpL from Eqn.(2.27) as:

This means, t h a t f o r e a c h pound of payload added,

t h e a i r p l a n e t a k e - o f f weight w i l l have t o be i n c r e a s e d by
5.7 l b s . T h i s assumes, t h a t t h e m i s s i o n performance
s t a y s t h e same. The f a c t o r 5.7 is c a l l e d t h e growth
f a c t o r due t o payload f o r t h i s t w i n .

2.7.2.2 w l e 2: Jet t r m
For t h i s jet t r a n s p o r t , t h e following d a t a can be
found :

A = 0.0833(Table 2.15)
B = 1.0383(Table 2.15)
C 11 - (1 - 0.796) -0.005) = 0.791
( S e e S u b s e c t i o n 2.6.2)
D = 31,775 l b s ( T a b l e 2.18)

Note t h a t s u b s t i t u t i o n of A, B , C and D i n
Eqn.(2.24) y i e l d s :

126,100 l b s , which a g r e e s v e r y well w i t h t h e

'TO=
i t e r a t i v e s o l u t i o n found i n S u b s e c t i o n 2.6.2.
With t h i s v a l u e f o r WTO it i s p o s s i b l e t o compute

t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o i WTO t o WpL irom Eqn.(2.27) as:

T h i s means t h a t f o r e a c h pound of payload added, t h e

a i r p l a n e t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight w i l l have t o b e i n c r e a s e d
by 3.7 l b s . T h i s assumes, t h a t t h e m i s s i o n performance
s t a y s t h e same. I n t h i s case t h e f a c t o r 3.7 is c a l l e d
t h e growth f a c t o r due t o p a y l o a d f o r t h i s j e t t r a n s p o r t .

Part I Chapter 2 Page 71

 For t h i s f i g h t e r , t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a can be found:
A = 0.5091(Table 2.15)
B = 0.9505(Table 2.15)
4 = {l - (1 - 0.713) - 0.005) = 0.708
( S e e S u b s e c t i o n 2.6.3)
D = 12,200 l b s ( T a b 1 e 2.18)

Note, t h a t s u b s t i t u t i o n of A, B , C and D i n t o
Eqn.(2.24) y i e l d s :

64,000 l b s , which a g r e e s q u i t e w e l l w i t h t h e
'TO'.
i t e r a t i v e s o l u t i o n found i n S u b s e c t i o n 2.6.3.
With t h i s v a l u e of WTO it is p o s s i b l e t o compute

t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o WpL from Eqn.(2.27) as:

T h i s means t h a t f o r e a c h pound of payload added, t h e

a i r p l a n e t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight w i l l have t o be i n c r e a s e d
by 6.1 l b s . T h i s assumes, t h a t m i s s i o n performance is
k e p t t h e same. The f a c t o r 6.1 i s c a l l e d t h e growth
f a c t o r due t o payload f o r t h i s f i g h t e r .

2.7.3
. . . -
S e w t i v & y of Take o f f weighf; t o Emgtv weiqhf;

From Eqn.(2.16) it f o l l o w s t h a t :

logloWTO = A + Blog,,WE (2.28)

By p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of WTO w i t h r e s p e c t t o

WE t h e t a k e - o f f weight t o empty w e i g h t s e n s i t i v i t y i s
e x p r e s s e d as:

To i l l u s t r a t e t h e meaning of E q n . ( 2 . 2 9 ) , t h r e e
examples w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . The a i r p l a n e s used a r e t h o s e
of S e c t i o n 2.6.

2.7.3.1 w l e 1: Twin m a n e ~ o ~ e 1 -d r i v e n airPlane

For t h i s a i r p l a n e , t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s were
p r e v i o u s l y found:

Part I Chapter 2 Page 7 2

 Eqn.(2.29) y i e l d s w i t h t h e s e d a t a :

For each l b s of i n c r e a s e i n empty weight, t h e

t a k e - o f f weight must be i n c r e a s e d by 1 . 6 6 l b s , t o keep
t h e mission performance t h e same. The f a c t o r 1 . 6 6 is t h e
growth f a c t o r due t o empty weight f o r t h i s twin.
2.7.3.2 w l e 2 : J e t tr-ort
For t h e j e t t r a n p o r t , t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a were
p r e v i o u s l y found:

Eqn.(2.29) produces w i t h t h e s e d a t a :

For each pound of i n c r e a s e i n empty weight, t h e

t a k e - o f f weight must be i n c r e a s e d by 1 . 9 3 l b s , t o keep
t h e m i s s i o n performance t h e same. The f a c t o r 1 . 9 3 i s t h e
growth f a c t o r due t o empty weight f o r t h i s jet t r a n s p o r t .

For t h i s f i g h t e r a i r p l a n e , t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a were
p r e v i o u s l y determined:

I t i s found w i t h Eqn.(2.29) and t h e s e d a t a t h a t :

For each pound of i n c r e a s e i n empty w e i g h t , t h e

t a k e - o f f weight must be i n c r e a s e d by 1 . 8 3 l b s , t o keep
t h e m i s s i o n performance t h e same. The f a c t o r 1 . 8 3 is t h e
growth f a c t o r due t o empty weight f o r t h i s f i g h t e r .

Part I Chapter 2 Page 7 3

g . . .a - e , w a n c e L
n. P r o w l e r E f f i -

I n t h i s s u b - s e c t i o n t h e p a r a m e t e r s Range, R,
Endumnce, E , Speed, V, S p e c i f i c F u e l Consumption, c
P
and c Propeller Efficiency, and Lift- to- Drag
I "P
R a t i o , LID a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e symbol y.
The s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o any p a r a m e t e r y. rrhiEhiS
nu-. WpL i s found from Eqn. ( 2 . 2 6 ) as:

where C is d e f i n e d by Eqn. ( 2 . 2 2 ) which c a n a l s o be

w r i t t e n as:
C = {Mff(l + M - (2.31)
res) - Mtfo Mres)
P a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n with respect t o y gives:
aC/ay = (1 + M r e s )dMff/dy (2.32)
A s was s e e n i n t h e examples of t h e f i g h t e r and t h e
j e t t r a n s p o r t , t h e r e s e r v e f r a c t i o n Mres is o f t e n z e r o ,
b e c a u s e t h e r e s e r v e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e m i s s i o n
profile.
For t h e t w i n p r o p e l l e r , t h i s was n o t t h e c a s e and
t h e v a l u e f o r Mres was 0 . 2 5 . The r e a d e r s h o u l d c a r e f u l l y
inspect t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n , b e f o r e assigning a
v a l u e t o Mres.
The d i f f e r e n t i a l aMfflBy c a n be found from
Eqn. ( 2 . 1 3 ) a s :

~ 'ff ( W 1. I W i+l) a t w i + l / w i ) / a y
a M f f / a' (2.33)
A t t h i s p o i n t , it i s r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e r a t i o w ~ ~ W ~ + ~

c a n be determined from B r e g u e t ' s e q u a t i o n s . These

Breguet e q u a t i o n s t a k e on two d i f f e r e n t forms, depending
on whether range o r endurance is sought. B r e g u e t ' s
e q u a t i o n s can be g e n e r a l i z e d a s :

Part I Chapter 2 Page 7 4

o r as:

The q u a n t i t i e s R and E in t u r n a r e found as f o l l o w s :

- - -

E = EVc (375q LID)-'

P P
For jet a i l a l a m s i
-
R =. RC . ( ~ ~ 1 ~ 1 - l (2.3 8)
- 3
E = E C . (LID)-' (2.39)
3
The r e a d e r i s asked t o show t h a t e q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 3 4 )
and ( 2 . 3 5 ) can be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t o y i e l d :

and :

respectively.

By combining E q n s . ( 2 . 3 0 ) , (2.321, and ( 2 . 3 3 ) w i t h

( 2 . 4 0 ) o r ( 2 . 4 1 ) . t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO w i t h r e s p e c t t o

y can be w r i t t e n as:

f o r t h e case i n v o l v i n g a r a t i o (Wi+llWi) dependent on

r a n g e , and:

f o r t h e case i n v o l v i n g a r a t i o ( W ~ + ~ / W d~e)p e n d e n t on
endurance.

The f a c t o r F i n t h e s e e q u a t i o n s is d e f i n e d as:

The form t a k e n by t h e s o - c a l l e d B r e g u e t p a r t i a l s

Part I Chapter 2 Page 7 5

a f i l a y and a i l a y depends on whether t h e p a r t i c u l a r weight
r a t i o being d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i s d e f i n e d by Eqn.(2.34) o r by
Eqn. ( 2 . 3 5 ) . Table 2.20 g i v e s t h e f o r m f o r t h e Breguet
p a r t i a l s . These p a r t i a l s a r e d e r i v e d by p a r t i a l l y
d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g Eqns. ( 2 . 3 6 ) t h r o u g h ( 2 . 3 9 ) w i t h r e s p e c t
t o R, E , V, c P n C j s q P o r LID.

2.7.5 Examr>les of S m. t. i. e. s t o BgDae. Endurance and

SDeed
Range, R , endurance, E and s p e e d , V a r e a l l i t e m s
which a r e normally s p e c i f i e d i n t h e m i s s i o n
s p e c i f i c a t i o n . Since mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e o f t e n
open t o n e g o t i a t i o n , it i s of g r e a t i n t e r e s t t o be a b l e
t o d e t e r m i n e how t h e s e i t e m s a f f e c t t h e d e s i g n g r o s s
weight, WTO of a n a i r p l a n e .
T h i s s u b - s e c t i o n w i l l show w i t h e x a n p l e s , how t h e
s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o changes i n R , E and V c a n be found.
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e d e s i g n of t h e a i r p l a n e w i l l be
indicated.
By s e t t i n g R, E and V s e q u e n t i a l l y e q u a l t o y it i s
p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o t h e s e
p a r a m e t e r s from Eqns. ( 2 . 4 2 ) and ( 2 . 4 3 ) . The c o r r e s p o n -
d i n g Breguet P a r t i a l s aR/ay and a i l a y
can be found from T a b l e 2.20.
2.7.5.1 E x m l e 1: Twin e n a i n e ~ r o ~ d roi v er n
F i r s t it i s noted from t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
T a b l e 2 . 1 7 t h a t no v a l u e f o r E was s p e c i f i e d . Also, it
i s observed, t h a t R , f o r a p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e d o e s
n o t depend on V. T h e r e f o r e , t h e o n l y s e n s i t i v i t y t o be
computed h e r e i s aWTOIaR.
The r e a d e r i s asked t o show, t h a t t h e take- of f
weight t o range s e n s i t i v i t y i n t h i s c a s e can be found
from:

where F i s d e f i n e d by Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 ) .
For t h i s t w i n , t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a a r e found:
B = 1.0298 (Table 2.15)
C = 0.779 (2.7.2.1)
s 0.25 (incl. in Mff)
Mre=

Part I Chapter 2 Page 7 6

 T a b l e 2 . 2 0 B r e g u e t P a r t i a l s f o r Propeller D r i v e n and f o r J e t A i r p l a n e s
............................................................................

Propeller Driven Jet

Range C a s e y = ~a R l a y = cp(375q LID)-'

P
Endurance Case y = E aElay = vc ( 3 7 5 q LID)-'
P P

Range Case y = c aR/ay = ~ ( 3 7 5 " LID)-' y = c

P P j aRlay = R(VLID)-'
Endurance Case y = c a i l d y = ~ ~ ( 3 7 LID)-'
5 1 y = c a%ay = E(LID)-'
P P j
(d
rt
n,
m
Range Case Y = lp aiilay = -RC
P
(375" 2 ~ ~ ~ ) - 1
P
Not Applicable
N Endurance Case y =
"P a i l i ~ y= -EVC P ( 3 7 5 " P 2 ~ ~ ~ ) - 1 Not Applicable
2
Range C a s e y = V Not Applicable a h y = -RC. ( V LID)-'
I
Endurance Case y = V aElay = EC ( 3 7 5 " LID)-' Not Applicable
P P

Range C a s e y = LID aR/ay - -Rc

P
(375"
P
(LID)
2 -1

2 -1
aR/ay = -Rc. ( V ( L I D )
3
2 -1
)

Endurance Case y = LID ailay = -EVc

P
(375qp(LID) 1 ailay = -EC .(LIDI-~
w 3
Note: R i n sm N o t e : R i n nm o r s m
V i n mph V i n k t s o r mph
 D = 1,250 l b s (Table 2.17) Mff= 0. 8 2 7 ( 2 . 6 . 1 )
7,935 l b s (2.7.2.1)
'TO'
c
= 0.5, = 0. 8 2 , LID = 11 as g i v e n i n 2 . 7 . 2 . 1 .
P q~
K i t h these d a t a s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 ) it is
found that:

F r o m Eqn. ( 2 . 4 5 ) it now f o l l o w s t h a t :

T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s p a r t i a l is a s follows.
S u p p o s e t h a t t h e range i n t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
T a b l e 2 . 1 7 i s c h a n g e d from 1 , 0 0 0 nm t o 1 , 1 0 0 nm. The
r e s u l t j u s t f o u n d i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s w o u l d require a n
i n c r e a s e i n g r o s s w e i g h t a t t a k e - o f f of 1 0 0 ~ 6 . 9 = 6 9 0
lbs.

2.7.5.21e 2: Jet t r e
T h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e j e t t r a n s p o r t is
g i v e n i n T a b l e 2.18. I t i s seen t h a t b o t h range a n d
e n d u r a n c e a r e specified. T h e r e f o r e t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s of
'TO
t o b o t h R and t o E need t o b e c a l c u l a t e d .

F o r t h e jet transport, t h e following d a t a are found:

B = 1.0383 ( T a b l e 2.15)
C = 0.791 (2.7.2.2)
Mres= 0 ( i n c l i n M f f )
D = 31,775 l b s (Table 2.18) Mff= 0.796 (2.6.2)

= 126,100 l b s (2.7.2.2) F = 369,211 l b s

'TO (Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 )
f o r cruise:
c = 0 . 5 , LID = 1 6 and V = 473 k t s as given i n
j
S u b - s e c t i o n 2.6.2.

for endurance:
c = 0 . 6 , L I D = 1 8 as g i v e n i n S u b - s e c t i o n 2 . 6 . 2 .
j
T h e r e a d e r is a s k e d t o v e r i f y , t h a t t h e
s e n s i t i v i t i e s of t a k e - o f f g r o s s w e i g h t t o r a n g e a n d t o
e n d u r a n c e can b e w r i t t e n as:

a n d:

Part I Chapter 2 Page 78

where F i s a g a i n g i v e n by Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 ) .
When t h e jet t r a n s p o r t d a t a a r e s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o
Eqns. ( 2 . 4 6 ) and ( 2 . 4 7 1 , t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n s i t i v i t i e s a r e
found:
aWTOIaR = 2 4 . 4 lbslnm, and:

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e s e n s i t i v i t i e s is a s
f o l l o w s . I f t h e range i n t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
T a b l e 2 . 1 8 i s d e c r e a s e d from 1 , 5 0 0 nm t o 1 , 4 0 0 nm, t h e
t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight can be d e c r e a s e d by 1 0 0 ~ 2 4 . 4 =
2 , 4 4 0 l b s . S i m i l a r l y , i f t h e l o i t e r requirement of T a b l e
2 . 1 8 i s i n c r e a s e d from 1 hour t o 1 . 5 h o u r s , t h e t a k e - o f f
g r o s s -w e i g h t w i l l be i n c r e a s e d by 1/2x12,307 = 6 , 1 5 4 l b s .
The t r a n s p o r t is a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o the specification
of c r u i s e speed. S i n c e c r u i s e speed h a s a major impact
on block- speed, it w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o compute t h e
s e n s i t i v i t y of t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight t o c r u i s e speed.
The r e a d e r is asked t o v e r i f y t h a t :

where F i s d e f i n e d i n Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 ) .
With t h e d a t a a t t h e beginning of t h i s example
s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o Eqn. ( 2 . 4 8) it is found t h a t :

What t h i s means, i s t h a t i f t h e c r u i s e speed c o u l d

be i n c r e a s e d w i t h o u t changing any of t h e o t h e r
p a r a m e t e r s , t h e g r o s s weight would a c t u a l l y come down.
From a mathematical v i e w p o i n t , t h i s r e s u l t i s c o r r e c t .
From a p r a c t i c a l v i e w p o i n t J t is n o t . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l
r e a s o n s f o r t h i s . When t h e c r u i s e s p e e d i s i n c r e a s e d ,
t h e c r u i s e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t is d e c r e a s e d . This usually
means a d e c r e a s e i n L/D. I t a l s o u s u a l l y means a change
in c F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s t h e e f f e c t of i n c r e a s e d Mach
j
number on LID. T h i s a l s o t e n d s t o d e c r e a s e LID.

From t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n of T a b l e 2 . 1 9 it is
s e e n , t h a t t h e f i g h t e r h a s r a n g e , endurance and speed
s e n s i t i v i t y . Because t h e m i s s i o n p r o f i l e c o n s i s t s of

Part I Chapter 2 Page 7 9

s e v e r a l range p h a s e s and a n endurance phase, it w i l l be
necessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s with respect t o
t h e s e phases separately.
The r e a d e r i s asked t o v e r i f y , t h a t t h e
s e n s i k i v i t i e s of f i g h t e r t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight t o changes
i n range and endurance c a n be computed a l s o from Eqns.
( 2 . 4 6 ) and ( 2 . 4 7 ) . For t h e f i g h t e r , t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a
can be found:
B = 0.9505 (Table 2.15) = 0 ( m i s s i o n spec.
C = 0.708 ( 2 . 7 . 2 . 3 ) Mres shows no r e s e r v e s )
D = 12,200 l b s (Table 2.19) Mff= 0.713 (2.7.2.3)

64,000 (2.7.2.3) F = 278,786 l b s

'TO' (Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 )
Values f o r c V and L / D vary w i t h each m i s s i o n
1
phase. The f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n shows t h e s e numbers a s
found i n ( 2 . 7 . 2 . 3 ) and a l s o shows t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
sensitivities.
Cruise- Dash- Dash- Cruise- Loiter
out out in in

awTO/a~ N. A. N.A. N.A. N.A. 18,586

I t i s c l e a r from t h e s e d a t a , t h a t t h e dash- out p a r t

of t h e m i s s i o n h a s t h e g r e a t e s t s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o
range. I f t h e r e is a m i l i t a r y need t o i n c r e a s e t h e
dash- out range from 1 0 0 nm t o 2 0 0 nm, t h e consequence is
an i n c r e a s e of t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight of 100x139 = 1 3 , 9 0 0
l b s . A t t h e c u r r e n t f i g h t e r c o s t of 5 0 0 d o l l a r s l l b s ,
t h a t would i n c r e a s e t h e u n i t c o s t of t h e f i g h t e r by 7 . 0
m i l l i o n d o l l a r s ! I t w i l l be c l e a r t o t h e r e a d e r , t h a t
m i l i t a r y need and a f f o r d a b i l i t y must be t r a d e d a g a i n s t
each o t h e r i n t h e f i n a l d e f i n i t i o n of t h e m i s s i o n
specification.
I t is a l s o c l e a r from t h e d a t a , t h a t i f t h e l o i t e r
t i m e of 3 0 min c o u l d be c u t t o 1 5 min. ( s u c h a s by
improved C 3 I ) , t h e t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight would d e c r e a s e
by 0.25x18.586 = 4 , 6 4 5 l b s . T h i s would r e s u l t i n a
d e c r e a s e i n u n i t c o s t of 2 . 3 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s !

Part I Chapter 2 Page 80

 S p e c i f i c f u e l consumption,
efficiency, and l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o , LID a r e a l l
"P
i t e m s which t h e d e s i g n e r h a s under h i s c o n t r o l t o t h e
e x t e n t of t h e e x i s t i n g s t a t e of technology. The f u e l
consumption is dependent on t h e s t a t e of e n g i n e
technology. P r o p e l l e r e f f i c i e n c y depends on t h e s t a t e of
p r o p e l l e r technology. A i r p l a n e l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o
depends on t h e aerodynamic c o n f i g u r a t i o n , t h e method used
t o i n t e g r a t e t h e p r o p u l s i o n system i n t o t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n
and on t h e s t a t e of aerodynamic t e c h n o l o g y ( f o r example
l a m i n a r v e r s u s t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s 1 .
S e n s i t i v i t i e s of g r o s s weight a t t a k e - o f f t o t h e s e
f a c t o r s must be e v a l u a t e d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s :
1. A l a r g e s e n s i t i v i t y may f o r c e a d i f f e r e n t
c o n f i g u r a t i o n d e s i g n approach. Higher wing l o a d i n g ,
d i f f e r e n t schemes of p r o p u l s i o n system i n t e g r a t i o n o r
d i f f e r e n t e n g i n e c h o i c e s may r e s u l t .
2. I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e n s i t i v i t y r e s u l t s
l e a d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of improvement t a r g e t s i n t h e s e
f a c t o r s . Sometimes such irrprovements can be b r o u g h t
about by a d i r e c t e d r e s e a r c h and development program.
The p u r p o s e of t h i s s u b - s e c t i o n is t o i l l u s t r a t e ,
w i t h examples, how t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o t h e s e
f a c t o r s can be computed.
2.7.6.1 l e p m r d r i v e n aFLglane
For t h i s a i r p l a n e , t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o t h e
parameters c q and LID needs t o be determined.
P* P
Because t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s twin
( T a b l e 2 . 1 7 ) d o e s n o t s p e c i f y a requirement f o r
endurance, o n l y t h e range dependent Breguet P a r t i a l s i n
T a b l e 2 . 2 0 a r e needed.
The r e a d e r i s asked t o show t h a t t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of
t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight t o s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption can b e
o b t a i n e d from:
aWTOlac = F R ( 3 7 5 1 LID) -1,
P P
where F i s d e f i n e d by Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 ) .

Part I Chapter 2 Page 81

 The r e q u i r e d d a t a f o r t h e t w i n were a l r e a d y g i v e n i n
(2.7.5.1). The v a l u e f o r r a n g e , R i s 1000 nm, a c c o r d i n g
t o T a b l e 2.18.
E9n. (2.49) y i e l d s i n t h i s case:

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s f i n d i n g is a s f o l l o w s .
Suppose a n e n g i n e c o u l d be found w i t h a c of 0.45
P
i n s t e a d of 0.50. The t a k e - o f f g r o s s w e i g h t of t h i s t w i n
c o u l d t h e n be d e c r e a s e d by 0 . 0 5 ~ 1 3 , 8 1 7 = 691 l b s .

The s e n s i t i v i t y of t a k e - o f f g r o s s w e i g h t t o
p r o p e l l e r e f f i c i e n c y can be c a l c u l a t e d from:

awTO/aqp = -FRC (375q 2 ~ / ~ ) - 1 ,

P P
where F is g i v e n by Eqn. (2.44)

Using t h e p r e v i o u s d a t a i n Eqn. ( 2 . 5 0 ) y i e l d s :
awTo/aq = - 8,425 l b s .
P
The meaning of t h i s f i n d i n g is a s f o l l o w s . If the
p r o p e l l e r e f f i c i e n c y c o u l d b e i n c r e a s e d from 0.82 t o
0.84, t h e t a k e - o f f g r o s s w e i g h t would d e c r e a s e by
0 . 0 2 ~ 8 ~ 4 2=5 1 6 8 l b s .

The s e n s i t i v i t y of t a k e - o f f g r o s s w e i g h t t o
l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o can be computed from:
2 -1
aWTO/a(L/D) = -FRc (37531 ( L I D ) 1 , (2.51)
P P
where F i s a g a i n g i v e n by Eqn. ( 2 . 4 4 ) .

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e p r e v i o u s d a t a i n t o Eqn. (2.51)
results in:

T h i s r e s u l t means, t h a t i f LID c o u l d be i n c r e a s e d
from 11 t o 12. t h e take- of f g r o s s weight would come down
by 628 l b s . I t comes a s no s u r p r i s e , t h a t L I D i n a r a n g e
dominated a i r p l a n e h a s a p o w e r f u l e f f e c t on g r o s s weight.

2.7.6.2 E x w l e 2: J e t t r a m
I n t h e case of t h e j e t t r a n s p o r t , t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s
of t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight t o s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption a n d

Part I Chapter 2 Page 82

t o L/D need t o be determined. Since t h e mission
s p e c i f i c a t i o n c a l l s f o r b o t h r a n g e and l o i t e r , two
s e n s i t i v i t i e s need t o be looked a t f o r each parameter.
The r e a d e r i s asked t o v e r i f y t h a t :
With r e s p e c t t o t h e r a n g e r e q u i r e m e n t :

With r e s p e c t t o t h e l o i t e r r e q u i r e m e n t :

From p r e v i o u s d a t a i n (2.7.5.2) it is found t h a t F =

369,211 l b s i n t h i s i n s t a n c e .

Eortheraae case, t h i s y i e l d s t h e f o l l o w i n g
sensitivities:

369,211x0.190 = 70,056 lbs/lbs/lbs/hr.

and :
-
a w T O / a ( ~ / ~ )3 6 9 , 2 1 l x ( - 0.00593) = - 2,189 i b s .

T h e s e numbers have t h e f o l l o w i n g i n p l i c a t i o n s :

1. I f s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption was i n c o r r e c t l y
assumed t o be 0.5 and i n r e a l i t y t u r n s o u t t o be 0.8, t h e
d e s i g n take - of f g r o s s w e i g h t w i l l increase by 0 . 3 ~ 7 0 ~ 0 5 6
= 21,017 l b s .

2. I f t h e l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o of t h e a i r p l a n e were 1 7
i n s t e a d of t h e assumed 1 6 , t h e d e s i g n t a k e - o f f g r o s s
w e i g h t would d e c r e a s e by 2,189 l b s .

F o r t h e 1oi.t-e, t h e following sensitivities are

found:

369,211x0.0556 = 20,512 l b s / l b s / l b s / h r .
and :
a w T O / a ( ~ / =~ )3 6 9 , 2 i i ~ ( - 0.001852) = - 684 l b s .

T h e s e numbers have t h e f o l l o w i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e :

Part I Chapter 2 Page 83

 1. I f t h e s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption d u r i n g l o i t e r
c o u l d b e i m p r o v e d from t h e a s s u m e d value of 0 . 6 t o 0 . 5 ,
t h e t a k e - o f f gross w e i g h t would d e c r e a s e by 0.1x20,512 =
2,051 lbs.
-3s

2. I f t h e l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o d u r i n g l o i t e r c o u l d b e
i m p r o v e d from t h e a s s u m e d v a l u e of 1 8 t o 1 9 , t h e t a k e - o f f
g r o s s w e i g h t would b e r e d u c e d b y 684 l b s .

T h e s e s e n s i t i v i t y d a t a show a g a i n how s e n s i t i v e t h e
t a k e - o f f g r o s s w e i g h t of a r a n g e - d o m i n a t e d a i rplane is t o
LID a n d t o specific f u e l consumption.

F o r t h e f i g h t e r , w i t h f o u r range t y p e m i s s i o n p h a s e s
a n d one e n d u r a n c e type mission phase, a r a n g e of
s e n s i t i v i t i e s need t o b e computed. E q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 5 2 1 ,
( 2 . 5 3 1 , ( 2 . 5 4 ) a n d ( 2 . 5 5 ) a l s o apply t o t h i s f i g h t e r .
T h e v a l u e of F i n t h e s e e q u a t i o n s was p r e v i o u s l y
d e t e r m i n e d t o b e 278,786 l b s . The f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n
s h o w s t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s f o r t h e f i v e i m p o r t a n t mission
phases.

Cruise- Dash - Dash- Cruise- Loiter

out out in in
c 0.6 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.6
j
V(kts) 459 400 450 4 88 N.A.
LID 7.0 4.5 5.5 7.5 9.0
R(nm) 253 100 100 2 53 N.A.
E(hr) N.A. N. A. N.A. N. A. 0.5
awTol ac 21,952 15,488 11,264 19,271 15,488
< Eqn. ( 2 . 5 2 ) ><Eqn.(2.54) >
awT0la (LID) -1.882 - 3,098 - 1,843 -1,542 -1,033
< Eqn. ( 2 . 5 3 ) ><Eqn.( 2 . 5 5 ) )

Implications of t h e s e r e s u l t s w i l l now b e d i s c u s s e d .
An improvement i n s f c b y 0 . 1 i n t h e d a s h - o u t p a r t o f t h e
m i s s i o n w o u l d save 0 . 1 ~ 1 5 , 4 8 8 = 1 , 5 4 9 l b s i n t a k e - o f f
g r o s s weight. An increase i n LID b y 0 . 5 i n t h e
c r u i s e - o u t p a r t of t h e m i s s i o n w o u l d r e s u l t i n a d e c r e a s e
i n t a k e - o f f g r o s s w e i g h t of 0 . 5 ~ 1 ~ 8 8=2 9 4 1 l b s .

Part I Chapter 2 P a g e 84
 1.) For t h e j e t t r a n s p o r t exarrple of 2 . 6 . 2 redo t h e
m i s s i o n f u e l - f r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s by s p l i t t i n g t h e c r u i s e
p h a s e (Phase 5 ) i n t o f i v e e q u a l d i s t a n c e s . Account f o r
t h e e s t i m a t e d weight changes due t o f u e l consumption by
a d j u s t i n g t h e LID t o t h e a v e r a g e weight which p r e v a i l s
d u r i n g each sub- phase. Keep t h e c r u i s e Mach number and
t h e c r u i s e a l t i t u d e a s i n T a b l e 2.18. Assume t h a t t h e
d r a g p o l a r of t h e a i r p l a n e is:

Compute t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s of WTO t o C
"0
.
2 . ) A regional t r a n s p o r t has t h e following mission
specification:
Pay l o ad : 3 4 p a s s e n g e r s a t 1 7 5 l b s each and 3 0 l b s
of baggage each.
Crew: two p i l o t s and o n e c a b i n a t t e n d a n t .
Range : f o u r c o n s e c u t i v e t r i p s of 2 5 0 nm:
R1 through R 4 , w i t h max. payload.

Reserves f o r f l i g h t t o a n a l t e r n a t e
a i r p o r t , 1 0 0 nm. away, followed by
4 5 min. l o i t e r .
Altitude: 2 5 , 0 0 0 f t f o r d e s i g n mission.
C r u i s e speed: 250 k t s .
Climb: Climb t o 2 5 , 0 0 0 f t i n 10 min.
Take-of f and
landing: FAR 2 5 f i e l d l e n g t h , 5 , 0 0 0 f t a t a n

a l t i t u d e of 5 , 0 0 0 f t and a 9 5 ' ~day.

A s s u m e t h a t WL= 0. 9WT0.
Powe r p l a n t s : Two t u r b o p r o p s o r propfans.
Pressurization: 5,000 f t cabin a t 35,000 f t .
Certification
Base: FAR 25.
Determine WTO, WE and WF f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e .

Compute t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s of WTO t o c
P' "P'
and t o LID. Find how WTO v a r i e s i f t h e range segment
is changed from 2 5 0 nm t o 2 0 0 nm and t o 3 0 0 nm.

Part I Chapter 2 Page 85

 3 . ) A h i g h a l t i t u d e l o i t e r and r e c o n n a i s s a n c e
a i r p l a n e has t h e following mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n :
Payload : 3,000 l b s of a v i o n i c s equipment and a
r o t a t i n g e x t e r n a l antenna (equivalent
i
:
t o t h a t on t h e Grumman E2C) w i t h
a weight of 3 , 5 0 0 l b s .
Crew: Two p i l o t s , o n e a v i o n i c s systems opera-
t o r p l u s a r e l i e f crew of t h r e e . Use
2 0 0 l b s p e r crewmember.
Range : 1 5 0 0 nm from a c o a s t a l b a s e , followed by
4 8 h o u r s of l o i t e r on s t a t i o n , followed
by r e t u r n t o base. No r e s e r v e s .
Altitude: L o i t e r a l t i t u d e : 4 5 , 0 0 0 ft. Must be
a b l e t o maintain s t a t i o n with 1 2 0 k t s
wind.
C r u i s e speed: Larger t h a n 250 k t s desired.
Climb: Must be a b l e t o c l i m b t o 4 5 , 0 0 0 f t a t
a r r i v a l on l o i t e r s t a t i o n .
Take- off and
Landing : 5 , 0 0 0 f t groundrun, s t a n d a r d day, s e a -
l e v e l a t maximum t a k e - o f f weight and a t
maxirmm l a n d i n g w e i g h t r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Assume t h a t WL= 0.75WT0.
Powerplants: Propfans. A t l e a s t two e n g i n e s .
Pressurization: 5,000 f t cabin a t 45,000 f t .
Certification
Base: Military.
Note: To s a v e w e i g h t , it is a c c e p t a b l e t o
set t h e l i m i t l o a d f a c t o r a t 2 . 0 i n s t e a d
of t h e u s u a l 2 . 5 , f o r t h e outgoing l e g
of t h e mission. Upon a r r i v a l a t t h e
l o i t e r s t a t i o n , l i m i t l o a d f a c t o r should
be t h e s t a n d a r d 2.5.
Determine WTO, WE and Wp f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e .

C a l c u l a t e t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s of WTO t o Rs E , LID and

to c and q
P P'
Determine how WTO changes, i f t h e l o i t e r s t a t i o n is
2000 nm and 1 0 0 0 nm from base. A l s o f i n d WTO f o r l o i t e r
times of 2 4 , 3 6 and 5 0 hours. How would WTO change, i f
LID c o u l d b e improved by 3 0 p e r c e n t ?

Part I Chapter 2 Page 86

 4 . ) A homebuilt composite a i r p l a n e h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g
mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n :
Payload: Two p i l o t s a t 1 7 5 l b s each and 3 0 l b s
of baggage each.
Range : 800 nm, r e s e r v e s f o r 2 0 0 nm f l i g h t t o
alternate airport.
Altitude: 1 0 , 0 0 0 f t f o r t h e d e s i g n range.
C r u i s e Speed: 250 k t s a t 10,000 f t .
Climb: 1 0 min. t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 f t .
Take-of f and
Landing : 2,500 f t f ieldlength.
Powerplant : P i s t o n - p r o p e l l e r, s i n g l e engine.
Pressurization: None.
Certification
Base: Experimental. Use FAR 2 3 f o r Take-of f
and l a n d i n g .
Determine WTO, WE and WF f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e .

C a l c u l a t e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of WTO t o R, c and q
P P*

5.) A supersonic c r u i s e a i r p l a n e has t h e following

mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n :
Payload : 3 0 0 p a s s e n g e r s a t 1 7 5 l b s each and 3 0
l b s of baggage each.
Crew: Two p i l o t s and t e n c a b i n a t t e n d a n t s a t
1 7 5 l b s e a c h and 30 l b s baggage each.
Range : 3 , 5 0 0 nm, followed by 1 hour l o i t e r ,
followed by a 1 0 0 nm f l i g h t t o a n
alternate airport.
Altitude: 75,000 f t ( f o r t h e design range).
C r u i s e Speed: Mach 2.7.
Climb: D i r e c t t o 7 5 , 0 0 0 f t a t WTO.
Take- off and
Landing : 1 0 , 0 0 0 f t FAR f i e l d l e n g t h , 9 S 0 day,
a t sealevel.
Assume t h a t WL= 0. 8WT0.
Powerplants: A t l e a s t t h r e e turbofans. These c o u l d
be f i t t e d f o r a f t e r b u r n i n g , i f needed.
Pressurization: 7,500 f t cabin a t 75,000 f t .
Certification
Base: FAR 2 5 .
Determine WTO, WE and WF f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e .

Find t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s of WTO t o c r u i s e range and t o

s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption.
Part I Chapter 2 Page 87
 6 . ) A h i g h a l t i t u d e , unmanned comnunications
a i r p l a n e has t h e following mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n :
Payload : 2,000 lbs.
Crew? Not a p p l i c a b l e .
Range : 1 , 0 0 0 nm o u t and 1 , 0 0 0 nm i n .
No r e s e r v e s .
Endurance : 1 6 8 h o u r s ( = 7 d a y s ) on s t a t i o n .
C r u i s e Speed: 250 k t s is desired.
L o i t e r Altitude: 85,000 f t .
L o i t e r Speed: A t l e a s t 3 5 k t s , t o cope w i t h
p r e v a i l i n g winds.
Take- off and
Landing : 8 , 0 0 0 f t groundrun is a c c e p t a b l e .
A s s u m e t h a t WL= 0. 65WT0.
Powerplants: Up t o d e s i g n e r . F u e l must be J P 4 o r 5.
Determine WTO, WE and WF f o r t h i s v e h i c l e .

Show how s e n s i t i v e t h e v e h i c l e is t o changes i n L/D, E

and c o r t o c and q
j P P*

FOKKER S.14 'MACH TRAINER'

Part I Chapter 2 Page 88

3. ESTIMATING WING AREA, S, TAKE-OFF THRUST, T (OR
='===P=I====S"'PIPP==I=======Pe=======zQ====
TAKE-OFF POWER, P AND MAXIMUM LIFT COEFFICIENT,
-- -------------- ------
--,--------------TQ-----,---------
--------==IP=DI===P==e3.==:
C : CLEAN, TAKE-OFF AND LANDING
PhmaX=============================

I n a d d i t i o n t o meeting range, endurance and c r u i s e

speed o b j e c t i v e s , a i r p l a n e s a r e u s u a l l y designed t o meet
performance o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s :
a. S t a l l speed
b. Take-off f i e l d l e n g t h
c. Landing f i e l d l e n g t h
d. C r u i s e speed (sometimes maximum s p e e d )
e. Climb r a t e (u e n a i g e s OD,- AEO
and e- ni,- OEI)
f . T i m e t o climb t o some a l t i t u d e
.
g Maneuvering
I n t h i s c h a p t e r , methods w i l l be p r e s e n t e d which
a l l o w t h e r a p i d e s t i m a t i o n of t h o s e a i r p l a n e d e s i g n
p a r a m e t e r s which have a major i n p a c t on t h e performance
c a t e g o r i e s a ) through f ) . The a i r p l a n e d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s
are:
1. Wing Area, S
2. Take- off T h r u s t , TTO o r Take- off Power. PTO

3. Maximum Required Take-of f L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t w i t h

f l a p s up: CL (clean)
max
4. Maximum Required L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t f o r Take-of f ,
C,

5. Maximum Required L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t f o r Landing,

C~ max # o r CL
L m a x ~ ~
The methods w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a
r a n g e of v a l u e s of wing l o a d i n g , W/S, t h r u s t l o a d i n g , T/W
( o r power l o a d i n g , W/P) and maximm l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t ,
CL
, w i t h i n which c e r t a i n performance r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e
max
met. From t h e s e d a t a it u s u a l l y f o l l o w s t h a t t h e
combination of t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e wing l o a d i n g and t h e

Part I Chapter 3 Page 89

l o w e s t p o s s i b l e t h r u s t l o a d i n g ( o r power l o a d i n g ) which
s t i l l meets a l l performance r e q u i r e m e n t s r e s u l t s i n an
a i r p l a n e w i t h t h e l o w e s t weight and t h e l o w e s t c o s t .
S i n c e WTO was a l r e a d y determined w i t h t h e methods
of ~ E a p t e r2. it is c l e a r t h a t now S and TTO can a l s o be
determined.

For some a i r p l a n e s t h e m i s s i o n t a s k demands a s t a l l

speed n o t h i g h e r t h a n some minimum v a l u e . I n s u c h a
case, t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n w i l l include a
requirement f o r a minimum s t a l l speed.
FAR 2 3 c e r t i f i e d s i n g l e e n g i n e a i r p l a n e s may n o t
have a s t a l l speed g r e a t e r t h a n 6 1 k t s a t WTO.
I n a d d i t i o n , FAR 2 3 c e r t i f i e d m u l t i e n g i n e a i r p l a n e s
w i t h WTO < 6.000 l b s must a l s o have a s t a l l speed of no
more t h a n 6 1 k t s . u n l e s s t h e y meet c e r t a i n c l i m b g r a d i e n t
c r i t e r i a ( R e f . 8, Par.23.49).
These s t a l l speed r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n be m e t f laps- up
o r flaps- down a t t h e o p t i o n of t h e d e s i g n e r .
T h e r e a r e n o r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r minirmm s t a l l speed i n
t h e c a s e of FAR 2 5 c e r t i f i e d a i r p l a n e s .
The power-of f s t a l l speed of a n a i r p l a n e may be
d e t e r m i n e 2 from:
(3.1)
vs C&aA
-.
max ascra
By s p e c i f y i n g a maximum a l l o w a b l e s t a l l speed a t
some a l t i t u d e , Eqn.(3.1) d e f i n e s a maximum a l l o w a b l e wing
l o a d i n g W / S f o r a g i v e n v a l u e of CL
rnax
.
T a b l e 3 . 1 p r e s e n t s t y p i c a l v a l u e s of CL for
max
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of a i r p l a n e s w i t h a s s o c i a t e d f l a p
settings.
The r e a d e r s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h e f a c t t h a t CL is
s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by such f a c t o r s as: max
1. Wing and a i r f o i l d e s i g n
2. F l a p t y p e and f l a p s i z e
3. C e n t e r of g r a v i t y l o c a t i o n

Part I Chapter 3 Page 9 0

 T a b l e 3.1 T y p i c a l Values For Maximum L i f t C o e f f i c i e n t
P==P=====DPP========P=====t===I========I~============

A i r p l a n e Type C~ C~ C~ maxL
max m a x ~ ~
1. Homebui lt s 1.2-1.8 1.2-1.8 1.2-2.0*

2. S i n g l e Engine 1.3- 1.9 1.3-1.9 1.6- 2.3

P r o p e l l e r Driven
3. Twin Engine 1.2 - 1 . 8 1.4 -2.0 1.6- 2.5
P r o p e l l e r Driven
4. Agricultural 1.3 - 1.9 1.3 - 1.9 1.3 - 1.9

5. Business Jets 1.4 - 1.8 1.6 - 2.2 1.6 - 2.6

6. Regional TBP 1.5 - 1.9 1.7 - 2.1 1.9 - 3.3

7. Transport Jets 1.2-1.8 1.6-2.2 1.8-2.8

8. Military Trainers 1.2 - 1.8 1.4 - 2.0 1.6 - 2.2

9. Fighters 1.2-1.8 1.4-2.0 1.6-2.6

10. M i l . P a t r o l , Bomb and

Transports 1.2-1.8 1.6-2.2 1.8- 3.0

11. F l y i n g Boats, Amphibious and

Float Airplanes 1.2 - 1. 8 1.6 - 2.2 1. 8 - 3.4

12. S u p e r s o n i c C r u i s e
Airplanes 1.2-1.8 1.6- 2.0 1.8-2.2

The Rutan V a r i e z e r e a c h e s 2.5, based on s t a l l speed

d a t a from Ref.9.
Not- 1. The d a t a i n t h i s table r e f l e c t e x i s t i n g (1984)
f l a p design practice.
2. C o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r v a l u e s f o r maxirmm l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t a r e p o s s i b l e w i t h more s o p h i s t i c a t e d f l a p
d e s i g n s a n d / o r w i t h some form of c i r c u l a t i o n c o n t r o l .
3. Methods f o r computing CL values a r e
c o n t a i n e d i n R e f . 6. max

Part I Chapter 3 Page 91

 Reference 5 p r e s e n t s methods f o r computing CL
while accounting f o r t h e s e t h r e e f a c t o r s . max
During t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g p r o c e s s it s u f f i c e s
t o ' s e l e c t ' a v a l u e f o r CL c o n s i s t e n t with t h e
max
missron r e q u i r e m e n t s and c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e t y p e of
f l a p s t o b e employed.
An example of s t a l l speed s i z i n g w i l l now be
discussed.
3. I . 1 E w l e of S t a l l S D - ~ SUUU
. .
Assume t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g marketing requirement must
be m e t :
A p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e must have a power-of f
s t a l l speed of no more t h a n 50 k t s a t s e a l e v e l w i t h f l a p s
f u l l down ( i . e . l a n d i n g f l a p s ) . With f l a p s up t h e s t a l l
speed is t o be l e s s t h a n 60 k t s . Both r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e
t o b e m e t a t t a k e - o f f g r o s s weight. WTO.
From T a b l e 3.1 it is s e e n t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g maximm
l i f t coefficient values a r e within t h e
'state- of- the- art':

C~
= 1.60 and CL = 2.00
max maxL
With t h e h e l p of Eqn. (3.1) it now f o l l o w s t h a t :
To meet t h e f l a p s down requirement:
(WIS)TO < 17.0 p s f .
To meet t h e f l a p s up requirement:
(WIS)TO < 19.5 p s f .
T h e r e f o r e , t o meet b o t h r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e t a k e - o f f
wing l o a d i n g , (WIS)TO must be l e s s t h a n 17.0 p s f .
F i g u r e 3.1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s . Because t h e s t a l l
speed requirement was f o r m u l a t e d as a power-off
requirement, n e i t h e r power l o a d i n g nor t h r u s t l o a d i n g a r e
important i n t h i s case.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 92

 I
OR
STALL SPEED STALL SPEED
wp R E Q U I RE M E N T U€Qc)l KEMENT
MET N O T MET

u r e 3 . 3 E f f e c t of T a k e -o f f Paxxmt?ter* -
2 3-
T a k e -o f f D = s t a n c e S
Part I Chapter 3 Page 9 3
P.2-OFF D-CE REgUIREMENTS

Take- off d i s t a n c e s of a i r p l a n e s a r e determined by

t h e following f a c t o r s :
k Take- off weight. WTO
2. Take-of f speed. VTO ( a l s o c a l l e d l i f t - o f f s p e e d )
3. Thrust- to- weight r a t i o a t take- of f , (T/WITO ( o r
weight- to- power r a t i o . (WIP)TO and t h e
corresponding p r o p e l l e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s )
4. Aerodynamic d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t . C and ground
f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . pG D~
5. P i l o t technique
I n t h i s s e c t i o n it w i l l be assumed, t h a t t a k e - o f f s
t a k e p l a c e from hardened s u r f a c e s ( c o n c r e t e o r a s p h a l t )
unless otherwise stated.
Take- off r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e n o r m a l l y g i v e n i n t e r m s of
t a k e - o f f f i e l d l e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t s . These r e q u i r e m e n t s
d i f f e r w i d e l y and depend on t h e t y p e of a i r p l a n e under
consideration.
For c i v i l a i r p l a n e s , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of FAR 2 3 and
FAR 2 5 must b e adhered t o . I n t h e c a s e of homebuilt
a i r p l a n e s it is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o d e s i g n t o t h e FAR'S. In
t h a t c a s e . t h e i n d i v i d u a l d e s i g n e r may s e t h i s own
take- of f requirements.
For m i l i t a r y a i r p l a n e s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y
s e t f o r t h i n t h e s o - c a l l e d Request- for- Proposal o r RFP.
A l l take- of f c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r m i l i t a r y a i r p l a n e s must be
done w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n s of R e f e r e n c e 1 5 .
Depending on t h e t y p e of m i s s i o n , t h e t a k e - o f f
requirements a r e frequently s p e l l e d o u t i n terms of
minimm ground r u n r e q u i r e m e n t s i n combination w i t h some
minimum climb c a p a b i l i t y . For Navy a i r p l a n e s w i t h
c a r r i e r c a p a b i l i t y , t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e c a t a p u l t
s y s t e m on t h e c a r r i e r must b e accounted f o r .
Sub- sections (3.2.1) through (3.2.6) address t h e
s i z i n g t o take- off requirements f o r a i r p l a n e s with
e s s e n t i a l l y mechanical f l a p systems. For a i r p l a n e s w i t h
'augmented' f l a p s systems o r f o r v e c t o r e d t h r u s t
a i r p l a n e s t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t R e f s . 1 2 and 1 3 .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 9 4

3.2.1 S mnq- t o FAR 2 3 T a k e-o f f D-ce Recruirements
F i g u r e 3.2 p r e s e n t s a d e f i n i t i o n of t a k e - o f f
d i s t a n c e s used i n t h e p r o c e s s of s i z i n g a n a i r p l a n e t o
FAR 2 3 requirements. FAR 2 3 a i r p l a n e s u s u a l l y a r e
propeller driven airplanes.
I n Reference 11 it is shown, t h a t t h e t a k e - o f f
ground run, sTOG of an a i r p l a n e is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o take-
o f f wing l o a d i n g (WIS)TO, t a k e - o f f power l o a d i n g , (WIP)TO
and t o t h e maximum t a k e - o f f l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t . CL
maxTO
(3.2)
"TOG(WIS)TO(WIP)ToIaCL
a TOP23,
m a x ~ ~
where TOPZ3 i s t h e s o - c a l l e d take- of f parameter f o r
FAR 2 3 a i r p l a n e s . I t s dimension is l b s 2 / f t 2 hp.
The r e a d e r s h o u l d keep i n mind, t h a t t h e l i f t
coefficient a t lift- off, C is r e l a t e d t o t h e
L ~ O
maximum t a k e - o f f l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , CL by :
m a x ~ ~ (3.3)
C = C~
11.21
L ~ O
m a x ~ ~
F i g u r e 3.3 r e l a t e s sTOG
t o t h e take- off parameter,
TOPZ3 f o r a range of range of s i n g l e and twin e n g i n e
FAR 2 3 c e r t i f i e d a i r p l a n e s . F i g u r e 3.4 r e l a t e s sTOand
t o each o t h e r . T h e r e i s a l o t of s c a t t e r i n t h e
d a t a . One r e a s o n i s , t h a t t a k e - o f f p r o c e d u r e s v a r y
widely. Another i s t h a t t a k e - o f f t h r u s t depends s t r o n g l y
on p r o p e l l e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . F i n a l l y , take- of f r o t a t i o n
t o l i f t - o f f a t t i t u d e depends on c o n t r o l power, c o n t r o l
f e e l and on a i r p l a n e i n e r t i a . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is u s e f u l
t o employ t h e c o r r e l a t i o n l i n e s of F i g u r e s 3.3 and 3 . 4 i n
t h e preliminary s i z i n g process. The c o r r e l a t i o n l i n e s
drawn s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s :

"TOG
= 4.9T0P23 + 0.009TOP23 2
and, s i n c e F i g u r e 3.4 implies:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 9 5

 F i a u r e 3 . 4 C o r r e l a t i g n of Ground D i s t a n c e Total

0 10 20 30
WIGG LOA01)36 - 40
U / S ) ~
f e c t of T a k e -o f f Wina
--
SO
p*-

. . Jloadi-
Take -o f f JLLft C o e f f i c m t on Take-off P o w
Loadlncr
Part I Chapter 3 Page 9 6
it f o l l o w s t h a t :

The assumption was made t h a t FAR 2 3 a i r p l a n e s a r e

n e a r l y always p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e s . For jet
a i r p l a n e s t h e parameter WIP i n Eqn.(3.2) s h o u l d be
r e p l a c e d by WIT. The r e a d e r i s a d v i s e d t o u s e t h e s i z i n g
p r o c e d u r e of 3.2.3 f o r FAR 2 3 j e t a i r p l a n e s .
An example of FAR 2 3 t a k e - o f f s i z i n g w i l l now b e
discussed.
f c e - . .
S u u g

Assume t h a t it is r e q u i r e d t o s i z e a
propeller- driven a i r p l a n e t o t h e following take- off
criteria:

'TOG
< 1,000 f t and sTO< 1 , 5 0 0 f t a t an

a l t i t u d e of 5 , 0 0 0 f t i n s t a n d a r d atmosphere.
S i n c e Eqn.(3.5) s t i p u l a t e s t h a t sTOG
and sTOa r e
r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r , t h e f i r s t requirement t r a n s l a t e s
into:

"TO
< 1,660 f t .

This c l e a r l y v i o l a t e s t h e second requirement.

Therefore t h e second requirement dominates. From
Eqn.(3.5) it f o l l o w s t h a t f o r b o t h t a k e - o f f r e q u i r e m e n t s
t o be m e t , it is n e c e s s a r y t h a t :

From t h i s i n t u r n it f o l l o w s t h a t :

S i n c e a = 0.8616 a t 5,000 f t r t h i s r e s u l t when

combined w i t h Eqn. ( 3 . 2 ) t r a n s l a t e s i n t o :

The f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n c a n now be made f o r t h e

r e q u i r e d v a l u e s of (W/P)TO:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 97

 F i q u r e 3.5 t r a n s l a t e s t h i s t a b u l a t i o n i n t o r e g i o n s
of (w1sjT0 and (WIP)TO f o r given v a l u e s of CL
m a x ~ ~
s o t h a t t h e take- off d i s t a n c e requirement is s a t i s f i e d .
3.2.3 - D
e- Re-
F i g u r e 3 . 6 d e f i n e s t h o s e q u a n t i t i e s important t o FAR
2 5 take- off f i e l d l e n g t h requirements.
I n Reference 11 it i s shown t h a t t h e take- off f i e l d
l e n g t h , sTOFL
is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o take- off wing loading,
(WIS)To, take- of f thrust- to- weight r a t i o , (T/WITO and t o
maximum take- of f l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t . CL
m a x ~ ~

where TOPZ5 is t h e take- off parameter f o r FAR 2 5

c e r t i f i e d a i r p l a n e s . Its dimension is l b s l f t
2
.
F i g u r e 3.7 shows t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p expressed by
Eqn.(3.7) can be w r i t t e n a s :

Typical v a l u e s f o r CL can be found i n Table 3.1.

Tomax
FAR 2 5 c e r t i f i e d a i r p l a n e s can be both j e t - d r i v e n o r
p r o p e l l e r - d r i v e n ( f o r example prop- fans o r t u r b o p r o p s ) .
I n t h e c a s e of p r o p e l l e r - d r i v e n a i r p l a n e s it is necessary
t o convert t h e v a l u e of T/W r e q u i r e d i n take- off t o t h e
corresponding v a l u e of WIP. F i g u r e 3 . 8 shows how t h i s
can be done, depending on t h e assumed p r o p e l l e r
characteristics.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 9 8

 UU NWAY ST0 PWAY
-
r

. . .
E i a u r e 3 . 6 D e f u i t i o n o f FAR 2 5 Tgke -o f f D i s t a n ces

T A H E - O F F P A R A M E T E A c Topzs
c
< ~ / 5 > ~ / 6 L lldT/~jr.
- <w/s),,

u r e 3 . 7 Effect of Take -o f f Parameter, TOP

EBB 2 5 me-o f f F i e l d JlengjA -
2 5-

Part I Chapter 3 Page 9 9

 0 l,OOO 2,000
TAKE - O F F S H A F T HORSE POLd€R .r GO
r Take -off T h r m
j'iaure 3 . 8 Effect of Shaft H o ~ e ~ o w eon

fiaure 3 . 9 u c t of Take- o f f Wina L o U a an-

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 0 0

-
3.2.4 -le of FAR 2 5 T a k e -Qff D-ce S. . u
I t is required t o s i z e a passenger a i r p l a n e s o t h a t
.- t h e FAR 2 5 f i e l d l e n g t h i s g i v e n by:

S~~~~
< 5 , 0 0 0 f t a t 8 , 0 0 0 f t s t a n d a r d atmosphere
-
From Eqn. ( 3 . 8 ) it i s s e e n , t h a t t h e f i e l d l e n g t h
r e q u i r e m e n t w i l l b e s a t i s f i e d as long a s :

A t 8 , 0 0 0 f t , o = 0.786. Therefore with Eqn.(3.7):

The f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n c a n now b e made f o r t h e

r e q u i r e d v a l u e s of (TIWIT0:

F i g u r e 3.9 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r a n g e of v a l u e s of
(WIS)To, (TIWITO and CL f o r which t h e
m a x ~ ~
f i e l d l e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t is s a t i s f i e d .

3.2.5 S-a t o m. . v- T a k e -o f f D-e -eR

Reference 15 d e f i n e s t h e m i l i t a r y take- off f i e l d

l e n g t h as t h a t i n F i g u r e 3.6 e x c e p t f o r t h e o b s t a c l e
h e i g h t , which is 5 0 f t i n s t e a d of 35 f t .
M i l i t a r y take- off requirements are f r e q u e n t l y
s p e c i f i e d i n t e r m s o f maximum a l l o w a b l e groundrun, sTN.
The groundrun may b e e s t i m a t e d from:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 0 1

 k l (WIS)TO
....................................
pICL (k2(XIW)T0 - pGl - 0 . 7 2 C
m a x ~ ~
D . 1
(3.9)

$ h i s e q u a t i o n is a v a r i a t i o n of Eqn. ( 5 - 7 5 ) i n
Ref. 1 6 - I t assumes t h a t t h e following c o n d i t i o n s
prevail:
a. no wind
b. l e v e l runway
The q u a n t i t i e s kl, k 2 and X. a r e d e f i n e d a s follows:
for jets: f o r props:
X - T

A = engine f o r c o n s t a n t speed props:

bypass r a t i o lp = 5.75
f o r f i x e d p i t c h props:
lp = 4 . 6 0

The term PTO/ND is t h e p r o p e l l e r d i s k loading.

P
Note. t h a t PTO s t a n d s f o r t h e t o t a l take- off power w i t h
a l l engines o p e r a t i n g . N is t h e number of engines.
Typical v a l u e s f o r p r o p e l l e r d i s k loading can be deduced
from t h e d a t a i n Ref.9. Lacking such d a t a it is
suggested t o use t h e following ranges:
-2

Equation ( 3 . 9 ) a p p l i e s whenever power o r t h r u s t

e f f e c t s on l i f t can be neglected. I f t h i s is n o t t h e
c a s e t h e reader i s r e f e r r e d t o Refs. 1 2 and 13.
Table 3.2 g i v e s t y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r t h e ground
f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , pG f o r d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e s .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 0 2

 T a b l e 3 . 2 Ground F r i c t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t , p
PP===P=======PP==e===========~=====P===tGP
S u r f a c e Type 'G
Concrete 0.02 - 0.03 (0.025 p e r Ref.15)
Asphalt 0.02 - 0.03
Hard Turf 0.05
S h o r t Grass 0.05
Long G r a s s 0.10
S o f t Ground 0.10 - 0.30

For c a r r i e r based a i r p l a n e s , t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e
c a t a p u l t system need t o be accounted f o r . These limita-
t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y s t a t e d i n terms of r e l a t i o n s between
t a k e - o f f weight and launch speed a t t h e end of t h e cata-
p u l t s Vcat. F i g u r e 3.10 p r o v i d e s some d a t a f o r e x i s t i n g
c a t a p u l t systems used by t h e USNavy.
A t t h e end of t h e c a t a p u l t s t r o k e , t h e f o l l o w i n g
r e l a t i o n s h i p must be s a t i s f i e d :

From Eqn.(3.10) it is p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
range of v a l u e s f o r WIS, TIW and CL which e n s u r e
m a x ~ ~
staying within catapult c a p a b i l i t i e s .
3.2.6 w l e of
. . to m . . v Take -o f f Distance

I t is r e q u i r e d t o s i z e a Navy a t t a c k a i r p l a n e s u c h
that:
< 2,500 f t a t
a ) f o r l a n d based t a k e - o f f s : sTOO
s e a l e v e l , s t a n d a r d atmosphere, c o n c r e t e runways.
b ) f o r c a r r i e r t a k e - o f f s : w i t h Vwod = 25 k t s the
a i r p l a n e is t o be c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e Mark C 1 3 c a t a p u l t
system.
F i g u r e 3.11 shows t h e r a n g e of v a l u e s of WTO/S,

Part I Chapter 3 Page 103

 CATAPULT E N D SPEED - vcA7 &-I-3

m u r e 3 . 1 0 E f f e c t of Take -o f f We t on C a t W
d f o r Three T v ~ e sof Cat-

0
T A K E - O F F W W G C0A'I)INC. u CW~S) u PLf
TP
. .
Take -o f f LLft Coef f 1c=e*t
Fiaur
Cat-t
. .
Llmltations-
a and T W t -t o -Weiaht Ratlo a t
-
Take o f f
Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 0 4
(T/WITO and CL , which s a t i s f y t h e l a n d based
m a x ~ ~
groundrun requirement f o r pG = 0.025. f o r an assumed
bypass r a t i o of A
c o e f f i c i e n t of CD
Q
=
-
1.5 and f o r an assumed z e r o - l i f t d r a g
0.0130.

The C 1 3 c a t a p u l t d a t a of F i g u r e 3.10 i n d i c a t e t h a t
'TO
< 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 l b s must always be s a t i s f i e d . Below t h a t
weight, F i g u r e 3 . 1 0 shows t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p
between weight and c a t a p u l t speed:
Take- off Weight, WTO C a t a p u l t Speed, Vcat
( l b s) (kts)

Eqn. (3.10) can b e used t o r e l a t e v a l u e s of t a k e - o f f

weight, WTO t o a l l o w a b l e t a k e - o f f wing l o a d i n g s , (WISITO
f o r d i f f e r e n t t a k e - o f f l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s , CL
m a x ~ ~
F i g u r e 3 . 1 1 shows t h e r e s u l t s f o r a WOD of 2 5 k t s .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 0 5

 Landing d i s t a n c e s of a i r p l a n e s a r e determined by
four factors:
1. Landing Weight, WL
2. Approach speed, VA
3. D e c e l e r a t i o n method used
4. F l y i n g q u a l i t i e s of t h e a i r p l a n e
5. P i l o t technique
Landing d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e n e a r l y always
f o r m u l a t e d a t t h e d e s i g n l a n d i n g weight, WL of an
airplane. T a b l e 3.3 shows how WL i s r e l a t e d t o WTO f o r
t w e l v e t y p e s of a i r p l a n e s .
K i n e t i c energy c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e
approach speed s h o u l d have a ' s q u a r e ' e f f e c t on t h e t o t a l
l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e . A f t e r a n a i r p l a n e h a s touched down,
t h e f o l l o w i n g d e c e l e r a t i o n methods can b e used:
a. Brakes
b. Thrust reversers
c. Parachutes
d. A r r e s t i n g systems ( f i e l d - b a s e d o r c a r r i e r - b a s e d )
e. Crash b a r r i e r s
Data p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e based on e x i s t i n g
industry practice i n decelerating airplanes a f t e r
touchdown.
For c i v i l a i r p l a n e s , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of FAR 2 3 and
FAR 2 5 are i n f o r c e . I n t h e case o f homebuilt a i r p l a n e s ,
it is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o d e s i g n t o FAR l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e
requirements.
For m i l i t a r y a i r p l a n e s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y
l a i d down i n t h e RFP. Ground r u n s a r e sometimes
s p e c i f i e d w i t h o u t t h e i r accompanying a i r d i s t a n c e s .
I n t h e case of Navy a i r p l a n e s t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of
t h e on deck a r r e s t i n g system need t o be t a k e n i n t o
consideration.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 0 6

 Table 3 . 3 T y p i c a l Values For Landing Weight t o Take-
- --------- -
-=---------=-=- - = P I I P S = P I I I = D I P I P I ~ 3 i P = r : P = o I I = r i ~ = = = = =

o f f Weight R a t i o
=PPfPPPfPP=P==PP

A i r p l a n e Type Minimum Average Maximum

1. Homebuilts 0.96 1.0 1.0

2. S i n g l e Engine 0.95 0.997 1.0

P r o p e l l e r Driven
3. Twin Engine 0.88 0.99 1.0
P r o p e l l e r Driven
4. Agricultural 0.7 0.94 1.0

5. Business J e t s 0.69 0. 88 0.96

6. Regional TBP 0.92 0.98 1.0

7. Transport Jets 0.65 0 . 84 1.0

8. Military Trainers 0.87 0.99 1.1

9. Fighters (jets) 0.78 insufficient 1.0

(tbp's) 0.57 data 1.0

10. M i l . P a t r o l , Bomb and

Transports (jets) 0.68 0.76 0. 83
( t b p ' s ) 0.77 0 . 84 1.0

11. F l y i n g B o a t s , Amphibious and

Float Airplanes
(land 0.79 insufficient 0.95
(water 0.98 data 1.0

12. Supersonic Cruise

Airplanes 0.63 0.75 0.88

Note: These d a t a a r e based on T a b l e s 2.3 through 2.14.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 107

 S u b - s e c t i o n s 3 . 3 . 1 t h r o u g h 3.3.6 a d d r e s s t h e s i z i n g
t o landing requirements f o r a i r p l a n e s with e s s e n t i a l l y
mechanical f l a p systems. For a i r p l a n e s w i t h 'augmented'
f l a p s o r f o r vectored t h r u s t a i r p l a n e s t h e reader should
c o n s u l t Refs. 1 2 and 1 3 .
m a t o FAR 2 3 -a Distance Re-
F i g u r e 3.12 p r e s e n t s a d e f i n i t i o n of l a n d i n g
d i s t a n c e s used i n t h e p r o c e s s of s i z i n g an a i r p l a n e t o
FAR 2 3 requirements.
The r e a d e r s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h e approach speed is
s p e c i f i e d as :

L1
F i g u r e 3.13 shows how t h e l a n d i n g ground run, sLGis
r e l a t e d t o t h e s q u a r e of t h e s t a l l s p e e d ,
VsL* The
speed h e r e is t h a t i n t h e l a n d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r
down, l a n d i n g f l a p s and power- off.
The d a t a i n F i g u r e 3 . 1 3 s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g
relation:

l.8

Note, t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e is i n f t and t h e s t a l l speed

is i n k t s .
F i g u r e 3.14 shows how t h e t o t a l l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e ,
sL is r e l a t e d t o sLG. T h i s f i g u r e s u g g e s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g
relationship:

S~ = 1 . 9 3 8 ~ ~ ~ (3.13)
By s p e c i f y i n g t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e t o t a l l a n d i n g
d i s t a n c e . sL, it i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
l a n d i n g groundrun, sLG. From t h e l a t t e r t h e maximum
a l l o w a b l e s t a l l speed can b e found. I t was a l r e a d y shown
i n s e c t i o n 3 . 1 t h a t t h i s i n t u r n c a n be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a
r e l a t i o n between wing- loading (WISIL and CL
max~.

I t is o f t e n u s e f u l t o combine Eqns. ( 3 . 1 2 ) and (3.13)

into:
2
sL = 0.5136V (3.14)
S~
Part I Chapter 3 Page 108
 m e 3 . 1 3 Effect of S q u u e of S u S ~ e e d
Groundrun

Part I Chapter 3 Page 109

 0
LANDING
boo0
GROUND RUN - 2000
SLb - Fr

r e 3 . 1 4 C o r r e l a t i o n Retween Groundrun and ~ g ~ d l n g

Fiaure 3 . 1 5 W l e W i Q g JIoad..has t o Meet a rla-

r em-

Part I Chapter 3 Page 110

3.3.2 w l e of FAR 23 J.-a D i s t a n c e S- . .
I t is required t o s i z e a p r o p e l l e r driven twin t o a
l a n d i n g f i e l d l e n g t h of 2,500 f t . a t 5,000 f t a l t i t u d e .
The d e s i g n l a n d i n g weight is s p e c i f i e d as: WL = 0.95WT0.

From Eqn. ( 3 . 1 4 ) it f o l l o w s t h a t :
= ~ 2 , 5 0 0 1 0 . 5 1 3 6'I2
~ = 69.8 kts
Vs .
L
With t h e h e l p of Eqn.(3.1) this translates i n t o t h e
following requirement:

L L
max,
From t h i s it f o l l o w s t h a t :

(WISIL = 14.2CL
max,
With WL = 0.95WT0. t h i s yields:

(WIS)To = 14.9CL
max,
F i g u r e 3.15 p r e s e n t s t h e r a n g e of v a l u e s of (WIS)TO

and CL which meet t h e l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e requirement.

maxL
3.3.3 S w t o FAR 25 -Distance-
F i g u r e 3.16 d e f i n e s t h e q u a n t i t i e s which a r e
important i n t h e FAR 25 f i e l d l e n g t h requirements.
The FAR l a n d i n g f i e l d l e n g t h is d e f i n e d as t h e t o t a l
l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e ( F i g u r e 3.16) d i v i d e d by 0.6. This
f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s i n c l u d e d t o account f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n
p i l o t t e c h n i q u e and o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s beyond t h e c o n t r o l
of FAA.
Note t h a t t h e a p p r o a c h speed is always d e f i n e d as:

L
F i g u r e 3.17 r e l a t e s t h e FAR f i e l d l e n g t h t o vA2:

where sFLis i n f t and VA is i n k t s .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 111

 NOTE : S = SL/6
FL -
TOIJCHDOWN

7 I

. . .
F i a u r e 3 . 1 6 D e f l n l t l o n of FAR 2 5 L m a D i s t a n c e s

F i a u r e 3 . 1 7 E f f e c t of S a w e of Amroach S ~ e e don
PAR 2 5 F i e l d Jlenath

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 1 2

 With t h e h e l p of Eqn.(3.1) and a requirement f o r a
maximum a c c e p t a b l e l a n d i n g f i e l d l e n g t h it is a g a i n
p o s s i b l e t o r e l a t e (WISIL (and t h u s (WIS)TO) t o CL
maxL
.
The r e a d e r w i l l have observed t h a t under FAR 23 t h e
f i e l d l e n g t h i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h V, w h i l e under FAR 25 it
L
i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h VA. The r e a s o n i s t h a t d a t a a v a i l a b l e
i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( s u c h as Ref.9) t e n d s t o b e p r e s e n t e d
i n s u c h a way as t o f o r c e t h i s t y p e of c o r r e l a t i o n .

3.3.4 w l e of FAR 25 a- Distq~lceS-

. .
I t is required t o s i z e a jet transport f o r a landing
f i e l d l e n g t h of 5,000 f t a t sealevel on a s t a n d a r d day.
I t may b e assumed, t h a t : WL = 0.85WT0.
From Eqn.(3.16) it f o l l o w s t h a t :
V, = (5.00010.3) 'I2= 129.1 k t s
With Eqn.(3.15):

= 129.111.3 = 99.3 kts.

With Eqn. ( 3 . 1 ) t h i s i n turn yields:

2 ( w I S ) ~ / O002378CL
. = 28,100 f t 2 lsec 2
= (99.3~1.688)~
maxL
Therefore:

(WISIL = 33.4C , so that:

Lmax.

F i g u r e 3.18 i l l u s t r a t e s how (WIS)TO and C are

LmaxrL
r e l a t e d t o s a t i s f y t h e s t a t e d f i e l d l e n g t h requirement.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 113

 F i a u r e 3 . 1 8 Allowable m a J , o a d b ~ st o Meet a F i e l d
henath Rewi rement

- so
A~RQLANE
100
EN6AGiN6 SPIED - vA
I SO
H CT5

F i a u r e a t
. .o
i n s of Three T w

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 1 4

3.3.5.1 Land based ai-
M i l i t a r y requirements f o r landing d i s t a n c e s a r e
normally d e f i n e d i n t h e RFP. The s i z i n g methods f o r FAR
2 5 c a n b e employed w i t h one p r o v i s o : m i l i t a r y approach
s p e e d s a r e u s u a l l y l e s s t h a n t h o s e of commercial
a i r p l a n e s . From Reference 1 5 :

L
The e f f e c t of t h i s is t o d e c r e a s e t h e l a n d i n g
d i s t a n c e by t h e s q u a r e of t h e approach speed r a t i o .
3.3.5.2 C u e r based ai-
For c a r r i e r based a i r p l a n e s , t h e approach speed is
u s u a l l y g i v e n by:

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e a r r e s t i n g system
need t o be accounted f o r . F i g u r e 3.19 i l l u s t r a t e s
typical arresting gear limitations.

For t h e same Navy a t t a c k a i r p l a n e of Sub- section

3.2.6, it i s r e q u e s t e d t o perform t h e s i z i n g t o l a n d i n g
r e q u i r e m e n t s such t h a t :
a ) f o r s h o r e based l a n d i n g s : spL = 3 , 5 0 0 f t a t s e a -
l e v e l , s t a n d a r d atmosphere, c o n c r e t e runways.
b ) f o r c a r r i e r landings t h e a i r p l a n e is t o be
c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e Mark7 Mod3 a r r e s t i n g g e a r .
C) l a n d i n g weight, WL i s e q u a l t o 0 . 8 0 times t h e
t a k e - o f f weight, WTO
F i r s t i t e m a ) w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . The FAR 2 5 d a t a of
F i g u r e 3.17 a r e used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e f a c t , t h a t f o r a
f i e l d l e n g t h of sFL= 3 , 5 0 0 i t , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
approach speed is ( 1 1 , 8 0 0 1 'I2 = 108.6 kts.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 1 5

approach s t a l l speed of 108.611.2 -
However, f o r m i l i t a r y a i r p l a n e s t h i s i m p l i e s a n
90.5 k t s .
From Eqn.(3.1) it now f o l l o w s t h a t :

Therefore:

From i t e m c ) it f o l l o w s t h a t :

F i g u r e 3 . 2 0 shows t h e a l l o w a b l e wing l o a d i n g s a t
t a k e - o f f , t o meet t h i s l a n d i n g requirement.
To s a t i s f y i t e m b ) , it is observed from F i g u r e 3.19
t h a t f o r t h e Mark7 Mod3 a r r e s t i n g g e a r . VA = 1 4 5 k t s , a s
long as t h e l a n d i n g weight is under 40,000 l b s . T h a t
i m p l i e s a t a k e - o f f weight of l e s s t h a n 5 0 , 0 0 0 l b s .
From Eqn.(3.18) it f o l l o w s t h a t :
= 11511.15 = 126.1 kts
'SPA
With Eqn.(3.1) t h i s i n t u r n y i e l d s :

T h i s i m p l i e s a t a k e - o f f wing l o a d i n g o f :

F i g u r e 3 . 2 0 shows how t h i s requirement compares w i t h

t h e s h o r e based f i e l d l e n g t h requirement. I t is s e e n
t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h i s example, t h e l a t t e r i s t h e more
critical.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 1 6

wE\GHTRATlO -
T A K E - O F F Tt-IROST - T O -
CT/W>, *
 A l l a i r p l a n e s must meet c e r t a i n climb r a t e o r c l i m b
g r a d i e n t requirements. To s i z e a n a i r p l a n e f o r climb
r e q u i r e m e n t s , it is n e c e s s a r y t o have a n estimate f o r t h e
a i r p l a n e d r a g p o l a r . Sub- section 3 . 4 . 1 p r e s e n t s a r a p i d
method f o r e s t i m a t i n g d r a g p o l a r s f o r low speed f l i g h t
c o n d i t i o n s . Sub- section 3 . 4 . 2 a p p l i e s t h i s method t o a n
example a i r p l a n e .
For c i v i l a i r p l a n e s , t h e clinb r e q u i r e m e n t s of
e i t h e r FAR 2 3 o r FAR 2 5 m s t b e met. S u b - s e c t i o n s 3 . 4 . 3
and 3 . 4 . 6 summarize t h e s e requirements. S u b - s e c t i o n s
3 . 4 . 4 and 3 . 4 . 7 p r e s e n t r a p i d methods f o r s i z i n g
a i r p l a n e s t o t h e s e requirements. Exanple a p p l i c a t i o n s
a r e p r e s e n t e d i n S u b - s e c t i o n s 3 . 4 . 5 and 3.4.8.
For m i l i t a r y a i r p l a n e s e i t h e r t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of
Reference 1 5 o r , whatever c l i m b r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e
s p e c i f i e d i n t h e RFP must be met. The m i l i t a r y c l i m b
r e q u i r e m e n t s of Reference 1 5 a r e summarized i n
S u b - s e c t i o n 3.4.9.
The methods of S u b - s e c t i o n s 3 . 4 . 3 and 3 . 4 . 6 c a n a l s o
b e used t o s i z e m i l i t a r y a i r p l a n e s t o low s p e e d climb
requirements. For s i z i n g t o : v e r y h i g h clinb r a t e s ,
time- to- climb t o a l t i t u d e and c e i l i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e
r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d t o S u b - s e c t i o n 3.4.10. Sizing t o
s p e c i f i c e x c e s s power r e q u i r e m e n t s is d i s c u s s e d i n
Sub- section 3 . 4 . 1 1 . An a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e m i l i t a r y
requirements is p r e s e n t e d i n Sub- section 3.4.12.

Assuming a p a r a b o l i c d r a g p o l a r , t h e d r a g
c o e f f i c i e n t of a n a i r p l a n e can be w r i t t e n as:

The z e r o - l i f t d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t , C can be expressed

as: Do

where f is t h e e q u i v a l e n t p a r a s i t e a r e a and S is t h e
wing a r e a .
I t is p o s s i b l e t o r e l a t e equivalent p a r a s i t e a r e a , f
t o w e t t e d a r e a Swet. T h i s is shown i n F i g u r e s ( 3 . 2 1 a and
b).
I t is p o s s i b l e t o r e p r e s e n t F i g u r e s ( 3 . 2 1 ) with t h e
followirig e m p i r i c a l l y o b t a i n e d e q u a t i o n :

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 1 8

 I CFSSLIA L-S g AG-HtJCW
C ~ ~ ~ A J A ~r88 c
S P M Y s 4 R ON
2 J
3 J
n2
152 lo hb-HtJS&Yr188~
ST-Y W O F F
4 J I82 t~ J 30 s*
5 / I go 12
/ 310*
6 J 210* 3 ./ 3 I o 8 CP*BTOTVPC)
7 J 2 08 14 402"
8 BECUI ?s* I5 J 421 * +. 6 a U -UP
QTHERS 6-P 90L3h)

f i a u r e 3 . 2 1 a ) E f f e c t of E-ent
- Skin F . w. n on
te m e d A r w

Part I Chapter 3 Page 119

 F i a u r e 3.21b) Effect of Eauivf

Part I Chapter 3 Page 120

 The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s a and b a r e themselves
a f u n c t i o n of t h e e q u i v a l e n t s k i n f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of
a n a i r p l a n e , c f . The l a t t e r i s determined by t h e
smoothness and s t r e a m l i n i n g designed i n t o t h e a i r p l a n e .
T a b l e ( 3 . 4 ) shows t y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r a and f o r b f o r a
range of cf- v a l u e s . F i g u r e s ( 3 . 2 1 ) i n t u r n a l l o w t h e
reader t o quickly estimate a r e a l i s t i c value f o r cf.
I t i s e v i d e n t , t h a t t h e method f o r e s t i m a t i n g drag
b o i l s down t o t h e a b i l i t y t o p r e d i c t a r e a l i s t i c v a l u e
f o r Swet. I t t u r n s o u t . t h a t Swet c o r r e l a t e s w e l l w i t h

'TO
f o r a wide range of a i r p l a n e s . F i g u r e s (3.22a-dl
show t h i s . The s c a t t e r i n t h e s e f i g u r e s i s mainly due
t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n wing l o a d i n g , c a b i n s i z e s and n a c e l l e
d e s i g n . Most a i r p l a n e s f a l l i n t h e t e n p e r c e n t band.
With t h e h e l p of F i g u r e s 3 . 2 2 i t is p o s s i b l e t o
o b t a i n a n i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e f o r a i r p l a n e wetted a r e a
w i t h o u t knowing what t h e a i r p l a n e s a c t u a l l y l o o k s l i k e .
F i g u r e s ( 3 . 2 2 ) a l s o imply t h e f o l l o w i n g :

The c o n s t a n t s c and d a r e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e
c o e f f i c i e n t s . Values f o r c and d were o b t a i n e d by
c o r r e l a t i n g wetted a r e a and t a k e - o f f weight d a t a f o r 2 3 0
a i r p l a n e s . These a i r p l a n e s were c a t e g o r i z e d i n t h e same
t y p e s used i n Chapter 2. T a b l e 3 . 5 l i s t s t h e v a l u e s of
t h e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e c o e f f i c i e n t s c and d f o r t w e l v e t y p e s
of a i r p l a n e s .
S i n c e a n estimate f o r WTO was a l r e a d y o b t a i n e d i n
Chapter 2 , t h e d r a g p o l a r f o r t h e c l e a n a i r p l a n e can now
be determined.
For take- of f and f o r l a n d i n g , t h e e f f e c t of f l a p s
and of t h e l a n d i n g g e a r need t o be accounted f o r . The
a d d i t i o n a l z e r o - l i f t - d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t s due t o f l a p s and
due t o l a n d i n g g e a r a r e s t r o n g l y dependent on t h e s i z e
and t y p e of t h e s e items.
T y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r AC a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 3.6.
D,

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 2 1

T a b l e 3.4 C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r P a r a s i t e Area
P=P==P==DP====DP==3PflllP==IIePI==P==9=================~==========~

V e r s u s W e t t e d A r e a (Eqn. ( 3 . 2 1 ) )
===I'P=II=II'PP==P=~==========I:

Equivalent Skin F r i c t i o n
C o e f f i c i e n t , cf

T a b l e 3.5 R e g r e s s i o n L i n e C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r T a k e - o f f
P====PSP====I'==aP=====I======P===~================

W e i g h t V e r s u s W e t t e d A r e a (Eqn. ( 3 . 2 2 )
===P=IP===PP==P==P='=P=IIPPI=lrll===~a=============

A i r p l a n e Type c d

1. Homebuilts 1.2362 0.4319

2. S i n g l e Engine P r o p e l l e r Driven 1.0892 0.5147

3. Twin E n g i n e P r o p e l l e r Driven 0. 8635 0.5632

4. Agricultural 1.0447 0.5326

5. B u s i n e s s Jets 0.2263 0.6977

6. Regional Turboprops - 0.0 866 0. 8099

7. T r a n s p o r t Jets 0.0199 0.7531

8. Military T r a i n e r s * 0.8565 0.5423

9. Fighters* - 0.1289 0.7506

10. Mil. P a t r o l , Bomb a n d T r a n s p o r t 0.1628 0.7316

11. F l y i n g B o a t s , Amph. and F l o a t 0.6295 0.6708

1 2 . S u p e r s o n i c C r u i s e Airplanes - 1.1868 0.9609

F o r t h e s e a i r p l a n e s , wetted areas were c o r r e l a t e d w i t h

'clean', maximum t a k e - o f f w e i g h t s . No s t o r e s were
accounted for.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 122

 2 s 4 5 e 7 8 0 1 2

104
MAXIM U M TAU€ -OFF
EQN.(3.22) AND TABLE 3.5
--- t lo O/o Of sw,
w e 3 . 2 2 a ) CorreZgtion Retween W e t t e d e a awl

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 2 3

 104
s
Io IoY
MAXIMUM T A K E -OFF WEIGHT nWTOrv L 0 5

\ 04 I oS
MAXIMUM TAKE - O F F WEIGHT LBS
WTO-
EQN.(3.22) A N D TABLE 3.5
, - , _t \oO/o OF SWET

Part I Chapter 3 Page 124

 104 104
MAXlMUM TAKE - OFF WEIGHT N W T O d~ 6 5

04
M A X I M U M T A K E - O F F WEIGCIT
EQN.13.22) AND TAgLE
- WTOu L65
3.5
- - +- 10% O F SdET

Part I Chapter 3 Page 125

 MAXIMUM TAKE- OFF WElGtlT u WTON LBS

-
/ I
3
-- ,yT#.* -* . + A
-tt
- .-*--.--
--
...'-- I

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . 9 0 1

104 Io5 lo6

M A X I M U M TAME - OFF WEIGHT n W T O uL B S
EQN. ( 3 . 2 2 5 A N D TABLE 3.5
+
- 10% OF SWFT

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 2 6

 T a b l e 3 . 6 F i r s t Estimates f o r AC and 'e'
I'=t=IPI=II=PI=rXP===r:==r:~======~o==~=====
With F l a p s and Gear Down
tP==l=3=PP=PI=PIP=PPIIP=

Configuration AC e
D,
Clean 0 0.80 - 0.85
Take-of f f l a p s 0.010 - 0.020 0.75 - 0.80
Landing F l a p s 0,055 - 0.075 0.70 - 0.75
Landing Gear 0.015 - 0.025 no e f f e c t
Which v a l u e s a r e s e l e c t e d depends on f l a p and g e a r
type. S p l i t f l a p s a r e more 'draggy' t h a n Fowler f l a p s .
F u l l span f l a p s a r e more 'draggy' t h a n p a r t i a l span
f l a p s , Wing mounted l a n d i n g g e a r s on h i g h wing a i r p l a n e s
a r e more 'draggy' t h a n t h o s e on low wing a i r p l a n e s .
Reference 5 p r o v i d e s d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on how t o
e s t i m a t e t h e s e d r a g items.

I t i s r e q u i r e d t o f i n d t h e c l e a n , t a k e - o f f and
l a n d i n g d r a g p o l a r s f o r a jet a i r p l a n e w i t h WTO= 1 0 , 0 0 0
lbs.
Figure (3.221, o r Eqn. (3.22) shows t h a t f o r t h i s
a i r p l a n e , Swet = 1,050 f t z . From F i g u r e (3.21) it i s
a p p a r e n t , t h a t a cf v a l u e of 0 . 0 0 3 0 is r e a s o n a b l e . The
r e a d e r is asked t o show, t h a t u s e o f Eqn. ( 3 . 2 1 ) g i v e s t h e
same r e s u l t . From F i g u r e ( 3 . 2 1 ) o r from Eqn.(3.21) it
now f o l l o w s t h a t :

For a j e t a i r p l a n e i n t h i s c a t e g o r y , t y p i c a l wing
l o a d i n g s w i l l range from 5 0 p s f t o 100 p s f . I t w i l l b e
a i r p l a n e i s 7 5 p s f . With t h e weight of WTO
t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a a r e now o b t a i n e d :
-
assumed, t h a t a n a v e r a g e wing l o a d i n g f o r t h i s c a t e g o r y
l o , 000 l b s ,

The r e a d e r w i l l n o t e , t h a t when wing a r e a is v a r i e d

a t c o n s t a n t weight, t h e wetted a r e a w i l l change.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 2 7

 ~f it is now a s s u m e d , t h a t A = 1 0 a n d e = 0 . 8 5 t h e n
it i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d t h e 'clean' d r a g p o l a r s a t low
s p e e d as:

The a d d i t i o n a l z e r o - l i f t d r a g coefficients due t o

f l a p s and d u e t o g e a r a r e a s s u m e d f r o m S u b - s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1
as:
AC due to:
"0

take- off flaps = 0.015, w i t h e = 0.8

landing flaps = 0.060, w i t h e = 0.75

Landing g e a r = 0.017

T o summarize, t h e a i r p l a n e d r a g p o l a r s are:

LOW speed, clean: = 0.0237 + 0.0374CL 2

C~
T a k e - o f f , g e a r up cD = 0.0387 + 0.0398CL 2
T a k e - o f f , g e a r down CD = 0.0557 + 0.0398CL 2
Landing, g e a r u p = 0.0837 + 0.0424CL L
C~
L a n d i n g , g e a r down CD = 0 . 1 0 0 7 + 0.0424CL 2

M r DONNELL- DOUGLAS DC~-I0

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 2 8
3.4.3 s u u r w ~ ~ F A R Re2
- 3

The FAR 2 3 climb r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n

Ref.8. The climb r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e g i v e n f o r two f l i g h t
c o n d i t i o n s : t a k e - o f f and balked l a n d i n g .
These r e q u i r e m e n t s must be met w i t h t h e power ( o r
t h r u s t ) a v a i l a b l e minus i n s t a l l a t i o n l o s s e s and minus
l o s s e s caused by a c c e s s o r y o p e r a t i o n . For r e c i p r o c a t i n g
e n g i n e powered a i r p l a n e s , t h e e n g i n e power must be t h a t
f o r 80 p e r c e n t humidity a t and below s t a n d a r d
t e m p e r a t u r e , For t u r b i n e powered a i r p l a n e s , t h e e n g i n e
t h r u s t ( o r power) m u s t be t h a t f o r 3 4 p e r c e n t humidity
0
and s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e p l u s 5 0 F. FAR 2 3 . 4 5 p r o v i d e s
more d e t a i l s .
The m e -o f f d.j.rob re- of FAR 2 3 . 6 5 (AEO =
A l l Engines O p e r a t i n g ) and FAR 2 3 . 6 7 ( O E I = One Engine
I n o p e r a t i v e ) can be summarized a s f o l l o w s :
3.4.3.1 FAR 23.65 ( B E ~ ~ \ - ' A L L5dG1dE6 Q P ~ I W T ~ U G
A l l a i r p l a n e s must have a minimum climb r a t e a t
s e a l e v e l of 3 0 0 fpm and a s t e a d y climb a n g l e of a t l e a s t
1 : 1 2 f o r l a n d p l a n e s and 1 : 1 5 f o r s e a p l a n e s , i n t h e
following configuration:
1) Not more t h a n maximum c o n t i n u o u s power on a l l
engines
2 ) Landing g e a r r e t r a c t e d
3 ) Flaps i n t h e take- off p o s i t i o n
4 ) Cowl f l a p s a s r e q u i r e d f o r p r o p e r e n g i n e c o o l i n g
(FAR 23.1041-1047).
For t u r b i n e powered a i r p l a n e s , t h e r e i s a n
a d d i t i o n a l requirement f o r a s t e a d y climb g r a d i e n t of a t
l e a s t 4 p e r c e n t a t a p r e s s u r e a l t i t u d e of 5 , 0 0 0 it and a t
0
81 F, under t h e same c o n f i g u r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s 1- 4.

3.4.3.2 FAR 2 3 . 6 7 (QEI)

For m u l t i e n g i n e ( r e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e s ) a i r p l a n e s
w i t h WTO > 6 , 0 0 0 l b s , t h e s t e a d y c l i m b r a t e must b e a t
l e a s t 0. 027Vs 2 fpm, a t 5 , 0 0 0 f t a l t i t u d e , where
0

is i n k t s .
vs 0
T h i s requirement a p p l i e s w i t h t h e a i r p l a n e i n t h e

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 2 9

following c o n f i g u r a t i o n :
1) C r i t i c a l e n g i n e i n o p e r a t i v e and i t s p r o p e l l e r i n
t h e minimum drag p o s i t i o n
2 ) Remaining engines a t no more t h a n maximum
continuous power
3 Landing g e a r r e t r a c t e d
4 ) Wing f l a p s i n t h e most f a v o r a b l e p o s i t i o n
5 ) Cowl f l a p s a s required f o r proper engine c o o l i n g
(FAR 23.1041- 1047)

For multiengine ( r e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e s ) a i r p l a n e s
with WTO < 6.000 l b s r and w i t h V, > 61 k t s the
0

p r e v i o u s requirements a l s o apply.
For multiengine ( r e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e s ) a i r p l a n e s
w i t h WTO< 6.000 l b s * and with Vs < 6 1 k t s t h e
requirement i s t h a t t h e s t e a d y climb r a t e a t 5.000 f t
altitude m u s t Note. t h a t t h i s i m p l i e s
t h a t a n e g a t i v e climb r a t e w i t h one engine i n o p e r a t i v e i s
allowed.
For t u r b i n e powered a i r p l a n e s , t h e following
requirements apply r e g a r d l e s s of t h e weight:
a ) minimum climb g r a d i e n t of 1 . 2 p e r c e n t o r minimum
climb r a t e of 0. 027Vs a t 5.000 f t . s t a n d a r d
0

atmosphere. whichever is t h e most c r i t i c a l .

b ) minimum climb g r a d i e n t of 0.6 p e r c e n t o r minimum
climb r a t e of O.O14V, a t 5.000 f t p r e s s u r e
a l t i t u d e and 81°F. whichever is t h e most
critical.
These requirements apply i n t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s
p r e v i o u s l y given.

The w e d re- of FAR 2 3 . 7 7

can be summarized a s follows:
3.4.3.3 FAR 23.77 (AE03

T h e . s t e a d y climb a n g l e s h a l l be a t l e a s t 1 : 3 0 w i t h
t h e a i r p l a n e i n t h e following c o n f i g u r a t i o n :

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 3 0

 a ) Take-off power on a l l e n g i n e s
b ) Landing g e a r down
C) F l a p s i n l a n d i n g p o s i t i o n , u n l e s s t h e y can be
s a f e l y r e t r a c t e d i n two s e c o n d s w i t h o u t l o s s of
a l t i t u d e and w i t h o u t r e q u i r i n g e x c e p t i o n a l p i l o t
skills
For t u r b i n e powered a i r p l a n e s it is a l s o n e c e s s a r y
t o show, t h a t a z e r o s t e a d y climb r a t e can b e maintained
0
a t a p r e s s u r e a l t i t u d e of 5 , 0 0 0 f t and 81 F i n t h e
aforementioned c o n f i g u r a t i o n .
The r e a d e r s h o u l d n o t e t h a t . engine- out.
climb performance, f o r FAR 2 3 c e r t i f i e d a i r p l a n e s i n t h e
l a n d i n g conf i g u r a t i o n , i s n o t z s ~ ~ U ~ U
3.4.4 S
- Me f o r -F Re-

Reference 11 c o n t a i n s r a p i d methods f o r e s t i m a t i n g
rate- of- climb (RC) and c l i m b g r a d i e n t (CGR) of a n
airplane.
3.4.4.1 So ' -of - cJ&nb re-
E q u a t i o n s 6 . 1 5 and 6.16 of Reference 11 c o n t a i n a l l
i n g r e d i e n t s needed f o r s i z i n g t o r a t e - o f - c l i m b c r i t e r i a :
RC = Rate of climb = d h l d t = 33,000xRCP (3.23)

where:
RCP = Rate of c l i m b Parameter =
312/~D)01121I (3.24)

The r e a d e r s h o u l d n o t e t h a t RC i n Eqn.(3.23) i s
g i v e n i n fpm.
To maximize RC, it is e v i d e n t l y n e c e s s a r y t o make
C~ 3 1 2 / ~ Da s l a r g e as p o s s i b l e . T h i s is a c h i e v e d when:

and :
C (3.26)
*
D~~
max
Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 3 1
which y i e l d s :
3 1 2 ~ ~ = 1.345(Ae) 314 / c D 0114
( C ~ D max

F i g u r e 3 . 2 3 shows how A and C a f f e c t t h e value

D,
of (cL3 1 2 D~ max ~ f o r an an example c a s e . Observe,
t h a t F i g u r e 3 . 2 3 a l s o shows t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t , CL
RCmax
3.4.4.2 S-a t o FAR 2 3 c u -ra
E q u a t i o n s ( 6 . 2 9 ) and ( 6 . 3 0 ) of Reference 11 c o n t a i n
a l l i n g r e d i e n t s needed f o r s i z i n g t o climb g r a d i e n t
criteria:
CGR = Climb g r a d i e n t = ( d h / d t ) / V (3.28)

and :
CGRP = Climb g r a d i e n t parameter =

where:
CGRP = 18.971 a1121 (WIP)(WIS)1 1 2
P
To f i n d t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e climb g r a d i e n t , it is
n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d t h e minimum v a l u e of CGRP. T h i s
minimum v a l u e depends on t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t and on t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o . A problem i s , t h a t t h e
minimum v a l u e of CGRP is u s u a l l y found a t a v a l u e of CL
v e r y c l o s e t o CL .max
Some margin r e l a t i v e t o s t a l l speed is always
d e s i r e d . FAR 2 3 does n o t s p e c i f y t h i s margin. I n s t e a d .
FAR 2 3 demands, t h a t t h e manufacturer c l e a r l y i d e n t i f y t o
t h e o p e r a t o r , what t h e speed f o r b e s t z a t e of climb is.
There i s no requirement t o i d e n t i f y t h e speed f o r b e s t
climb g r a d i e n t . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t o t h e r e a d e r , t o e n s u r e
t h a t a margin of 0 . 2 e x i s t s between CL and CL
max climb

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 3 2

w3.23Effectoect Ratlo and t Drag
. .
QL(CL 3'2/~ D maxau the Lift C o flclent
Where This O = = ~

Part I Chapter 3 Page 133

 I t is r e q u i r e d t o s i z e a t w i n e n g i n e p r o p e l l e r
d r i v e n a i r p l a n e w i t h a t a k e- o f f weight of 7,000 l b s and a
l a n d i n g weight of 7,000 l b s , t o t h e FAR 23 c l i m b
requirements.
R e f e r r i n g t o s u b - s e c t i o n 3.4.3 it is seen t h a t t h i s
a i r p l a n e m u s t meet t h e f o l l o w i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s :

FAR 23.65 (AEO): RC & 300 fpm

CGR & 1 / 1 2 r a d
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r up, t a k e - o f f f l a p s ,
max. c o n t . power on a l l e n g i n e s .
FAR 23.67 ( O E I ) : RC & 0.027Vs fpm a t 5,000 f t
0

C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r up, f l a p s most
f a v o r a b l e , stopped p r o p e l l e r f e a t h e r e d ,
t a k e - o f f power on o p e r a t i n g engine.

FAR 23.77 (AEO): CGR 8 1 / 3 0 r a d

C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r down, l a n d i n g
f l a p s , t a k e - o f f power on a l l e n g i n e s .

The c l i m b s i z i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s proceed as f o l l o w s :

3.4.5.1 a- -
t o r a t e of -climb re-

From Eqn.(3.23):

RCP = ( 3 3 , 0 0 0 ) - ~ d h / d t = ( 3 3 , 0 0 0 ) - ~ ~ ~

For FAR 23.65: -

RCP = ( 3 3 , 0 0 0 3 - ~ ~ 3 0 0 0.0091 h p l l b s .

For FAR 23.67: Vs needs t o b e computed f i r s t .

a
Assuming t h a t f l a p s - u p r e p r e s e n t s t h e most f a v o r a b l e c a s e
( t h i s h a s t o be checked later11 and t h a t CL = 1.7
max
( c o n s i s t e n t w i t h T a b l e 3.1, f l a p s - u p ) , t h e value of Vs
0

a t 5,000 f t is found from:

W = CL (1/2)pVs 2 ~ .
max a
or:
= {(2W/S)/pC
)I12
v~a Lmax

For W/S a range of 20-50 p s f w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d .

The d e n s i t y of t h e atmosphere a t 5,000 f t i s

Part I Chapter 3 Page 134

 0.002049 slugslit3. The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e can now b e
constructed:

sf fps kts fpm hpllbs

N e x t , t h e d r a g p o l a r s of t h i s a i r p l a n e need t o b e
estimated. T h i s w i l l b e done u s i n g t h e method d i s c u s s e d
i n S u b - s e c t i o n 3.4.1.
From F i g u r e 3.22 t h e w e t t e d area of t h i s a i r p l a n e is
2
seen t o b e i n t h e neighbourhood of 1 , 0 6 0 f t . From
2
F i g u r e 3.21 t h i s y i e l d s f = 5 f t i f cf i s t a k e n t o b e
0.0050.

The e f f e c t of wing l o a d i n g on t h e zero l i f t d r a g

w i l l b e assumed. T h i s y i e l d s : -
w i l l b e n e g l e c t e d . An a v e r a g e wing l o a d i n g of 35 p s f
51200 = 0.0250.
C ~ ,
F o r ' e ' , a value of 0.80 w i l l b e assumed. For
aspect r a t i o , A a v a l u e o f 8 w i l l b e used.
The f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s w i l l a l s o b e
made :

F o r t a k e - o f f f l a p s : ACDo = 0.0150

For l a n d i n g f l a p s : AC
Do
-
0.0600

For l a n d i n g g e a r : ACDo = 0.0200

The d r a g polar f o r t h e FAR 23.65 requirement i s now:

CD - 0.0250 + 0.0150 + ~ ~ ~ 1 2 0 . 1
CD - 0.0400 + ~ ~ ~ 1 2 0 . 1

With t h i s d r a g polar t h e v a l u e of (CL3 1 2 1D ~

1 max = 12.1.

From Eqn.(3.24) it now f o l l o w s t h a t :

where it was assumed t h a t q

P
- 0.8.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 135

 This relationship translates i n t o t h e following
t a b u l a r results:

(WIS)To WIP WIP

cont. take - of f
psf lbslhp lbslhp
20 28.1 25.5 On t h e b a i s of t y p i c a l
30 24.3 22.1 p i s t o n engine d a t a , t h e
40 21.9 19.9
50 20.1 18.3
PtolPmax. cont.
:1.1 was t a k e n t o b e 1.1
F i g u r e 3.24 shows t h e r a n g e of WIS and WIP v a l u e s
f o r which t h e FAR 23.65 c l i m b requirement i s s a t i s f i e d .

For t h e FAR 23.67 requirement t h e drag p o l a r is:

= 0.0250 + 0.0050 + C 2 / 2 0 . 1
C~
stopped
L
propeller

I n t h i s case, t h e v a l u e of (CL 3 1 2 / D~ 1 max is: 13.0.

Using Eqn. (3.24) a g a i n , b u t now a t 5,000 f t :
10.81 (WIP) - ( w I s ) ~ ~ ~ ~ 8617
~ ~'I2]
x ~ =~ RCP,
x o .o r :

where RCP is t h e p r e v i o u s l y d e t e r m i n e d f u n c t i o n of wing

l o a d i n g , s i n c e i n FAR 23.67 t h e c l i m b performance i s a
f u n c t i o n of Vs
0
.
The f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p can now be
constructed:

(WIS)To WIP WIP WIP

take - of f take - of f take - of f
one engine two e n g i n e s two e n g i n e s
5,000 f t 5,000 f t sealevel
psf lbslhp lbslhp lbslhp

Part I Chapter 3 Page 136

 , . ... - + - A

. ,.-, -
I
,
1 ! . . ,
-
I . k
8

l ,
- , I I I t ' I
I
1 i- I - a .-i
I I , j / I /
1 I l l .
I I
' I i / I
I I
1
I I . L I I .. . I

0 20 40 60
TAKE- OFF WIN& L O A D I N & ~ ( W / S ) ~ ~PSF

c 3 . 2 4 Reqairements on t h e
r u s t -t o -Weiq

BEECH piJc~ES5
Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 3 7
 T h e t a k e - o f f power r a t i o b e t w e e n 5 , 0 0 0 f t a n d
sealevel was a s s u m e d t o b e 0.85. T h i s r a t i o is f a i r l y
t y p i c a l f o r normally a s p i r a t e d p i s t o n e n g i n e s .
F i g u r e 3 . 2 4 a l s o shows how t h i s requirement compares
t o t h a t of FAR 23.65.
3.4.5.2 - S t o w re-
Climb g r a d i e n t requirements a r e c o m p u t e d w i t h t h e
h e l p of Eqn. ( 3 . 2 9 ) :

CGRP =

F o r t h e FAR 23.65 requirement: CGR = 1 / 1 2 = 0.0833.

T h e d r a g polar f o r t h i s case was a l r e a d y f o u n d t o b e :

v a l u e of CL
max
-
I t w i l l b e a s s u m e d now, t h a t w i t h t a k e - o f f f l a p s t h e
1.8. Observing a margin of ACL = 0.2:

C = 1.6
Lclimb
This yields = 9.6

Therefore:

CGRP = ( 0 . 0 8 3 3 + 1 / 9 . 6 ) / 1 . 6 'I2 = 0.1482

T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t now y i e l d s :

(WIP) (WIS) 'I2 = 1 8 . 9 7 ~ 0 . 8 1 0 . 1 4 8 2 = 1 0 2 . 4

T h e f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p can now b e
constructed:

(WIS)To WIP
max
cont.
. WIP
max .
take- off
psf lbslhp lbslhp

F i g u r e 3 . 2 4 a l s o s h o w s how t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t compares
w i t h t h e previous two.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 138

 I n t h e c a s e of t h e FAR 2 3 . 7 7 r e q u i r e m e n t :
CGR = 1 / 3 0 = 0.0333

I t w i l l b e assumed. t h a t w i t h t h e g e a r down and

l a n d i n g f l a p s . a v a l u e of CL = 2 . 0 c a n be a c h i e v e d .
maxL
The d r a g p o l a r i n t h i s c a s e is:
CD = 0.1050 + ~ ~ ~ 1 2 0 . 1

Assuming t h a t t h e c l i m b is c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e same
margin as b e f o r e :

The c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e of L I D i s found t o b e 6.8.

T h i s i n t u r n means:
CGRP = (0.0333 + 1/6.8)11. 812 = 0 . 1 3 4 5

Therefore:

This r e s u l t s i n t h e following t a b u l a r relationship:

(WIS)To W/P
take- of f

F i g u r e 3 . 2 4 compares t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t w i t h t h e o t h e r
t h r e e . I t i s clear t h a t t h e FAR 23.67 ( O E I ) r e q u i r e m e n t
i s t h e most c r i t i c a l o n e i n t h i s case.
The r e a d e r i s a s k e d t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t of aspect
r a t i o . CL and C on t h e s e r e s u l t s .
max D,

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 3 9

c m 25 b Re-
The FAR 2 5 c l i m b r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n
Ref.8. The climb r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e g i v e n f o r two f l i g h t
c o n d i t i o n s : t a k e - o f f and balked l a n d i n g .
These r e q u i r e m e n t s must be m e t w i t h t h e t h r u s t ( o r
power) a v a i l a b l e minus i n s t a l l a t i o n l o s s e s and minus
l o s s e s caused by a c c e s s o r y o p e r a t i o n . For t u r b i n e
powered a i r p l a n e s , t h e e n g i n e t h r u s t o r power must be
t h a t f o r 3 4 p e r c e n t humidity and s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e
0
p l u s 5 0 F. For r e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e powered a i r p l a n e s ,
t h e e n g i n e power must be t h a t f o r 80 p e r c e n t humidity a t
and below s t a n d a r d temperature. FAR 2 5 . 1 0 1 p r o v i d e s more
details.
The t - a k eof FAR 2 5 . 1 1 1 ( O E I )
and FAR 2 5 . 1 2 1 ( O E I ) can be summarized as f o l l o w s :

The climb g r a d i e n t w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l e n g i n e
i n o p e r a t i v e must be a t l e a s t :
a ) 1 . 2 p e r c e n t f o r two- engine a i r p l a n e s
b) 1.5 percent f o r three- engine a i r p l a n e s
C ) 1 . 7 percent f o r four- engine a i r p l a n e s ,

i n t h e following configuration:
1) Take- off f l a p s
2) Landing g e a r r e t r a c t e d
3) Speed ~ s - v , ( =1 . 2 V
'TO
4 ) Remaining e n g i n e s a t t a k e - o f f t h r u s t o r power
5 ) Between 3 5 f t and 4 0 0 f t a l t i t u d e , ground e f f e c t
must be accounted f o r
6) Ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s
7 ) A t maximum t a k e - o f f weight

This is r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e U
. a. l c l i m b seame&
.
The climb g r a d i e n t w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l e n g i n e
i n o p e r a t i v e must b e a t l e a s t :
a ) p o s i t i v e f o r two- engine a i r p l a n e s
b ) 0.3 p e r c e n t f o r t h r e e - e n g i n e a i r p l a n e s
C ) 0.5 percent f o r four- engine a i r p l a n e s ,

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 4 0

i n t h e following configuration:
1) Take- off f l a p s
2) Landing g e a r down
3) Remaining e n g i n e s a t t a k e - o f f t h r u s t o r power
4) Between VLOF and V,
5 ) I n ground e f f e c t
6 ) Ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s
7 ) A t maximum t a k e - o f f weight

T h i s requirement i s a l s o r e f e r r e d t o as t h e
seament c
The s o - c a l l e d secQad seqment clm re-
demands a climb g r a d i e n t w i t h one e n g i n e i n o p e r a t i v e of
no less t h a n :
a ) 2 . 4 p e r c e n t f o r two- engine a i r p l a n e s
b) 2.7 percent f o r three- engine a i r p l a n e s
C ) 3.0 p e r c e n t f o r four- engine a i r p l a n e s ,

i n t h e following configuration:
1 ) Take-of f f l a p s
2 ) Landing g e a r r e t r a c t e d
3 ) Remaining e n g i n e s a t t a k e - o f f t h r u s t o r power

5 ) Out of ground e f f e c t
6 ) Ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s
7 ) A t maximum t a k e - o f f weight

The e n - r o u t e climb re- w i t h one e n g i n e

i n o p e r a t i v e demands t h a t t h e climb g r a d i e n t be no l e s s
t h a n:
a ) 1 . 2 p e r c e n t f o r two- engine a i r p l a n e s
b) 1.5 percent f o r three- engine a i r p l a n e s
C ) 1 . 7 percent f o r four- engine a i r p l a n e s ,

i n t h e following configuration:
1) Flaps r e t r a c t e d
2 ) Landing g e a r r e t r a c t e d
3 ) Remaining e n g i n e s a t maxinU;lm C O ~ ~ ~ ~ U t Oh rUu Ss t o r
power
4 ) A t 1.25Vs

5 ) Ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s
6 ) A t maximum t a k e - o f f weight

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 4 1

 The r e a d e r w i l l have observed, t h a t t h e r e is no AEO
t a k e - o f f c l i m b requirement. The r e a s o n is t h a t t h e O E I
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s o s e v e r e , t h a t climb w i t h AEO is n o t a
problem i n FAR 2 5 a i r p l a n e s .
The landina r- of FAR 2 5 . 1 1 9 (AEO)
and FAR 2 5 . 1 2 1 ( O E I ) can b e summarized as f o l l o w s :
3.4.6.3 FAR 2 5 . 1 1 9

The c l i m b g r a d i e n t may n o t b e less t h a n 3.2 p e r c e n t

a t a t h r u s t o r power l e v e l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h a t o b t a i n e d
e i g h t s e c o n d s a f t e r moving t h e t h r o t t l e s from mininum
f l i g h t i d l e t o t h e t a k e - o f f p o s i t i o n . T h i s requirement
a p p l i e s i n t h e following configuration:
1) Landing flaps
2 ) Landing g e a r down
3 ) A t 1.3Vs

4 1 Ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s
5 A t maximum d e s i g n l a n d i n g weight

3.4.6.4 FAR 25.121 ( O m

The c l i m b g r a d i e n t w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l e n g i n e
i n o p e r a t i v e may n o t b e less t h a n :
a ) 2 . 1 p e r c e n t f o r two- engine a i r p l a n e s
b) 2.4 p e r c e n t f o r t h r e e - e n g i n e a i r p l a n e s
C) 2.7 percent f o r four- engine a i r p l a n e s ,
i n t h e following configuration:
1) Approach f l a p s
2) Landing g e a r as d e f i n e d by normal AEO o p e r a t i n g
procedures
3 ) A t no more t h a n 1 . 5 V
S~
4 V must n o t b e more t h a n 1 . 1 V
A
5) Remaining e n g i n e s a t take- of f t h r u s t o r power
6 ) Ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s
7 ) A t maximum d e s i g n l a n d i n g weight

These l a s t two r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e known as t h e

part I Chapter 3 Page 1 4 2

3.4.7
. . Method For FAR 2 5 CJ,j,& Re-

To s i z e a n a i r p l a n e , s o t h a t it c a n meet t h e FAR 2 5
c l i m b r e q u i r e m e n t s it is s u g g e s t e d t o u s e :
1) f o r p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e s : Eqns.(3.23) and
( 3 . 2 8 ) of Sub- section 3 . 4 . 3

2) f o r j e t powered a i r p l a n e s :
w i t h one e n g i n e i n o p e r a t i v e ( O E I ) :
(TIW) = IN/ ( N - 1)I ((I,ID)-' + CGRI (3.31a)

w i t h a l l engines o p e r a t i n g (AEO):
(TIW) = {(LID)-' + CGRI (3.31b)
where:
CGR is t h e r e q u i r e d c l i m b g r a d i e n t ( t h i s i s t h e
same as t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e r ) ,
N is t h e number of e n g i n e s ,

LID i s t h e l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o i n t h e f l i g h t
c o n d i t i o n being a n a l y z e d , and
T/W i s t h e t h r u s t - t o - w e i g h t r a t i o i n t h e f l i g h t
c o n d i t i o n being analyzed.
The r e a d e r n o t e c a r e f u l l y , t h a t (TIW) and (LID) a r e
t h o s e f o r t a k e - o f f o r f o r l a n d i n g , depending on t h e
requirement being analyzed.
The p r o c e s s of s i z i n g f o r c l i m b r e q u i r e m e n t s amounts
t o f i n d i n g r e l a t i o n s between (WIS)TO, (TIW)TO o r (WIP)TO
and A f o r a g i v e n v a l u e of WTO-

w i t h : WTO -
1 2 5 , 0 0 0 l b s and WL -
I t is required t o s i z e a twin engine jet t r a n s p o r t
1 1 5 , 0 0 0 l b s t o FAR 2 5

c l i m b requirements.
From t h e climb r e q u i r e m e n t s i n Sub- section 3.4.6 it
f o l l o w s t h a t t h i s a i r p l a n e must b e s i z e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g
requirements:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 4 3

For W e -o f f climb:
25.111 ( O m : CGR > 0.012
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r up, take- of f
f l a p s , t a k e - o f f t h r u s t on remaining
e n g i n e s , ground e f f e c t , l . 2 V s
TO
.
PAR 25.121 (m:CGR > 0
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r down, t a k e - o f f
f l a p s , t a k e - o f f t h r u s t on remaining
e n g i n e s , ground e f f e c t , speed between
'LOF
and 1. 2Vs
TO
.
EBB 25.121 ( O m : CGR > 0.024
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r up, t a k e - o f f
f l a p s , no ground e f f e c t , t a k e - o f f
t h r u s t on remaining e n g i n e s , 1. 2Vs .
TO
EAR 25.121 ( O m : CGR > 0.012
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r up, f l a p s up, e n
r o u t e climb a l t i t u d e , maximum c o n t i -
nuous t h r u s t on remaining e n g i n e s ,
1.25Vs.

PAR:CGR > 0 . 0 3 2
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r down, l a n d i n g
f l a p s , t a k e - o f f t h r u s t on a l l e n g i n e s ,
maximum d e s i g n l a n d i n g weight. 1.3Vs
L
.
EBB 25.121 ( O m : CGR > 0.021
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r down. approach
f l a p s , t a k e - o f f t h r u s t on remaining
engines, 1.5V
S~
.
A l l FAR 25 climb c r i t e r i a i n v o l v e t h e c l i m b
g r a d i e n t , CGR and t h e l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o o f t h e a i r p l a n e
i n some c o n f i g u r a t i o n , a s s e e n from Eqn.(3.31a and b ) .
~t i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n an i n i t i a l estimate
of t h e d r a g p o l a r of t h i s a i r p l a n e . The method of
Sub- section 3 . 4 . 1 w i l l b e used t o f i n d t h i s d r a g p o l a r .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 4 4

 From F i g u r e 3 . 2 2 b t h e w e t t e d area o f t h i s a i r p l a n e
2
i s a b o u t 8,000 f t f o r t h e 125,000 l b s take- off weight.
2
From F i g u r e 3 . 2 1 t h i s y i e l d s f = 2 3 f t i f cf i s t a k e n t o
b e 0.0030. Assuming an a v e r a g e w i n g l o a d i n g of 1 0 0 p s f
it i s f o u n d t h a t S = 1 , 2 5 0 f t .
2
From t h i s it f o l l o w s :

The f o l l o w i n g d r a g polar d a t a w i l l now b e a s s u m e d :

Configuration A e C~
C ~ . max
2
Clean 0.0184 10 0.85 CL 126.7 1.4

Take- off f l a p s 0.0334 10 0.80 * ~ ~ ' / 2 5 . l 2.0

2
Landing flaps 0.0784 10 0.75 CL 1 2 3 . 6 2.8

Gear down 0 . 0 1 5 0 f o r incremental no

zero- lift drag c o e f f i c i e n t effect

The c l i m b s i z i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s can now p r o c e e d as

follows:

S i n c e t h e v a l u e a s s u m e d f o r CL = 2.0, t h e actual
Tomax
l i f t coefficient i n t h i s f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n is 2 . 0 1 1 . 4 4 =
1.4.

T h e d r a g polar is: CD - 0.0334

I
+ CL 125.1.
T h i s y i e l d s LID - 12.6. Therefore:

However, t h i s d o e s n o t account f o r t h e 5 0 F
temperature e f f e c t . T y p i c a l t u r b o f a n d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t
a t sealevel, t h e r a t i o o f maximum t h r u s t a t s t a n d a r d

Part I Chapter 3 Page 145

temperature t o t h a t a t a 5 0 F h i g h e r temperature is 0.80.
T h u s , f o r s i z i n g purposes: (T/W)TO = 0 . 1 8 2 / 0 . 8 0.23. -
EBR 25.121 ( O m ( g e a r down, t . 0 . flaps):

( T / w ) ~= ~2 { 11 ( L I D ) + 01. b e t w e e n VLOp a n d V2.

I t w i l l b e a s s u m e d , t h a t VLoF = l . l V s
TO
.
Because c = 2.0, cL = 2.0/1.12 = 1.65.
L ~ O LOF
max
T h e d r a g polar i s : CD - 0.0484 + c L 2 / 2 5 . 1.
T h i s y i e l d s L/D - 10.5. Therefore:

A t V2, t h e value of t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t is:

2.0l1.44 = 1.4.

T h e r e f o r e LID = 11.1 a n d (T/WITO = 2 { 1 / 1 1 . 1 1 = 0.18.

I t is seen t h a t t h e requirement a t VmF is t h e more

c r i t i c a l . C o r r e c t i n g f o r temperature t h i s requirement
now b e c o m e s : (T/WITO = 0 . 1 9 / 0 . 8 = 0.24.
25.121 ( O m (gear up, t , o . f l a p s ) :

The l i f t coefficient is 2 . 0 / 1 . 4 4 = 1.4.

The d r a g polar is: CD - 0.0334

2
+ CL I 2 5 . 1 .
T h i s y i e l d s L/D = 12.6. Therefore:

(T/W)TO -
With t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e c t i o n t h i s b e c o m e s :
0 . 2 1 / 0 . 8 = 0.26.

EBR 25.121 ( O m (gear up, f l a p s u p ) :

Since i n t h e clean c o n f i g u r a t i o n CL
max
- 1.4,

Part I Chapter 3 Page 146

 - 1.411.25~ - 0.9.
C~
The d r a g p o l a r is: CD - 0.0184 + CL 2 /26.7.
T h i s y i e l d s : L/D = 18.5. Therefore:

However, t h i s i s f o r maximum c o n t i n u o u s t h r u s t . A
typical value f o r t h e r a t i o of maximum c o n t i n u o u s t h r u s t
t o maximum t a k e - o f f t h r u s t is 0.94 f o r t u r b o f a n e n g i n e s .
With t h i s correction and w i t h t h e temperature c o r r e c t i o n ,
t h e requirement is: (T/WITO = 0.136/0.94/0.8 0.18. -
FAR ( b a l k e d landing):

(T/WIL = { l / L / D + 0.0321 a t 1.3Vs

L
.
I n t h e l a n d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n it was assumed t h a t
C = 2.8, t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h i s case is:
LmaxL
2. 8 1 1 . 3 ~ - 1.66.
2
The d r a g polar now is: CD = 0.0934 + CL /23.6.
T h i s y i e l d s : L/D = 7.9. Therefore:

S i n c e t h e d e s i g n l a n d i n g w e i g h t is 115,000 l b s , t h i s
t r a n s l a t e s i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g t a k e - o f f requirement, a f t e r
a l s o a p p l y i n g t h e temperature correction:

EAR 25.121 ( O m (balked landing):

I t w i l l b e assumed, t h a t i n t h e approach
c o n f i g u r a t i o n , CL = 2.4. T h i s results i n t h e
maxA
following value f o r a p p r o a c h l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t :

With a p p r o a c h f l a p s , t h e d r a g increment due t o f l a p s

w i l l b e assumed t o be h a l f w a y between l a n d i n g and

Part I Chapter 3 Page 147

take- off f l a p s . T h i s y i e l d s f o r t h e drag polar:

T h e r e f o r e : L/D = 9.0 and:

With t h e weight and t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e c t i o n s as

b e f o r e , it f o l l o w s t h a t :

I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s l a s t requirement i s t h e most
c r i t i c a l one f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e . F i g u r e 3.25 shows how
t h e s i x climb r e q u i r e m e n t s compare w i t h each o t h e r .
The r e a d e r is asked t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t of
a s p e c t r a t i o . CL and CD on t h e s e r e s u l t s .
max 0

F i a u r e 3 . 2 5 Effect of FAR 2 5 m m b R-e a a e m e n t s -on - t h e

owable Values of Take o f f Thu~stt o Wel4ht
l o and Take -o f f a- L o a W

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 4 8

 M i l i t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r climb c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e
u s u a l l y s p e c i f i c t o an RFP. Those r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t d e a l
w i t h climb r a t e o r climb g r a d i e n t minima a r e g i v e n i n
Reference 1 5 : MIL- C- 005011B.
The r e q u i r e m e n t s a p p l y t o & a l e e n g i n e -a . .
to u i w i t h t h e most cr-
The r e q u i r e m e n t s must be met a t WTO and w i t h
applicable external stores.
A summary of t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s now f o l l o w s :
1) Take -o f f c- re-
a ) Ref. 1 5 , par.3.4.2.4.1:
A t take- of f speed, VTO = 1. lV, , t h e climb g r a d i e n t
TO
must be a t l e a s t 0.005.
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r down, f l a p s take- of f , maximum
power .
b ) Ref. 1 5 , par.3.4.2.5:
A t t h e 5 0 f t o b s t a c l e and a t 1 . 1 5 V , t h e climb
'TO
g r a d i e n t m u s t b e a t l e a s t 0.025.
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r up, f l a p s take- of f , maximum
power .
a ) Ref. 1 5 , par.3.4.2.11:
A t t h e 5 0 i t o b s t a c l e and a t 1 . 2 V t h e climb
S~~
g r a d i e n t must be a t l e a s t 0.025.
C o n f i g u r a t i o n : g e a r up, f l a p s approach, maxirmm dL;y
power .
NOTE: t h e s e clinb r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n be a n a l y z e d w i t h
t h e methods of Sub- section 3 . 4 . 7 .
F r e q u e n t l y , m i l i t a r y a i r p l a n e s have t o meet c e r t a i n
time- to- climb and c e i l i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s . A method f o r
r a p i d s i z i n g t o t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s is p r e s e n t e d i n
Sub- section 3 . 4 . 1 0 .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 4 9

 P a r t i c u l a r l y f o r f i g h t e r a i r p l a n e s . where combat
maneuverability plays an important r o l e , t h e r e f r e q u e n t l y
e x i s t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a c e r t a i n amount of s p e c i f i c
e x c e s s power, Ps. S u b - s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 1 p r e s e n t s a method
f o r s i z i n g t o s p e c i f i c e x c e s s power requirements.

F i g u r e 3 . 2 6 shows a n assumed l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p
between r a t e - o f - c l i m b and a l t i t u d e . Whether o r n o t t h i s
r e l a t i o n i n r e a l i t y i s l i n e a r depends on t h e e n g i n e and
on t h e a i r p l a n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s w e l l as on t h e f l i g h t
speed a t which t h e c l i n h is c a r r i e d o u t .
F i g u r e 3.26 i n t r o d u c e s t h e following q u a n t i t i e s :
RC, = r a t e of c l i n h a t s e a l e v e l i n fpm
RCh = r a t e of c l i m b a t a l t i t u d e . h i n fpm

The r e a d e r is asked t o show, t h a t t h e rate- of- climb

a t a g i v e n a l t i t u d e can be w r i t t e n as:

T y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r habs a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 3.7 f o r
d i f f e r e n t propulsive i n s t a l l a t i o n s .
When s i z i n g a n a i r p l a n e t o a g i v e n time- to- climb
requirement. t h e time- to- climb. tcl w i l l be s p e c i f i e d .
A v a l u e f o r hbs c a n be s e l e c t e d from T a b l e 3 . 7
u n l e s s it i s s p e c i f i e d i n t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n . The
r a t e - o f - c l i m b a t s e a l e v e l . RC, c a n be c a l c u l a t e d from:
RC, = (hbs/tcl)ln(l - h/habs)-l (3.33)

Having determined RC,, it is p o s s i b l e t o f i n d

t h e r e q u i r e d power l o a d i n g o r t h r u s t - t o - w e i g h t r a t i o as
f o l l o w s:
For W w f u t pa-s: Y < 1 5 dea,

a ) For p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e s :
from Eqns.(3.23) and ( 3 . 2 4 )

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 5 0

 RATE OF C L I M B -- RC- F P M
F i a u r e 3 . 2 6 Linear- - - With Withtit&

Table 3 . 7 Typical Values f o r t h e Absolute C e i l i n g , hbs

P P P P I = = P I P = P I ' P P = = I = 3 1 ~ ~ = I = = = I P = = O = = 3 = = P ~ = = = = = ~ ~ = = = = =

A i r p l a n e Type

A i r p l a n e s w i t h p i s t o n - p r o p e l l e r combinations:
normally a s p i r a t e d 12- 18
supercharged 15- 2 5

A i r p l a n e s w i t h t u r b o j e t o r t u r b o f a n engines:
Commercial 40- 50
Military 40-55
Fighters 55- 75
Military Trainers 35- 45

A i r p l a n e s w i t h t u r b o p r o p e l l e r o r propfan engines:
Commercial 3 0-4 5
Military 30-50
Supersonic C r u i s e A i r p l a n e s ( j e t s ) 5 5- 80

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 5 1

 b ) For j e t d r i v e n a i r p l a n e s :
from Eqn.(3.34):

I f t h e climb r a t e i s t o be maximized, Ref.14 shows

t h a t LID needs t o be maximized. I n t h a t c a s e :

and :

From Eqns. ( 3 . 2 3 ) and ( 3 . 2 4 ) o r from Eqns. ( 3 . 3 4 )

t h r o u g h ( 3 . 3 6 ) it i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d r e g i o n s of (TIWITO
and (W/S)TO f o r which t h e climb r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e
satisfied.

The r e a d e r should n o t e t h a t t h i s c a s e a p p l i e s t o
f i g h t e r t y p e a i r p l a n e s only.
RC = Vsiny, (3.37)

where:

and where:

For b e s t climb performance, t h e v a l u e of LID i n

Eqn.(3.39) can be t a k e n t o be (LID)max.

When s i z i n g t o a g i v e n c e i l i n g requirement, t h e
minimum r e q u i r e d r a t e of climb a t t h e c e i l i n g a l t i t u d e i s
s p e c i f i e d . T a b l e 3 . 8 d e f i n e s t h e minirmm climb r a t e s f o r
different ceilings.
The r a t e of climb a t any a l t i t u d e is g i v e n by:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 5 2

Table 3.8 Definition of Airplane Ceilings
=========P====PP==PP=====================t-- --
Ceiling Type Mininum Required
Climb Rate
Absolute ceiling 0 fpm
Service ceiling
CommerciallPiston-propeller 100 fprn
Commercialljet 500 fprn
Military at maximum power 100 fprn
Combat ceiling
MilitaryISubsoniclmaximum power 500 fpm at M < 1
Military/Supersonic/maximum power 1,000 fpm at M > 1
Cruise ceiling
MilitarylSubsoniclmax. cont. power 300 fpm at M < 1
MilitarylSupersonic1max.cont. power 1,000 fpm at ~ > 1

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 5 3

 a ) For p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e s :
from Eqns. ( 3 . 2 3 ) and ( 3 . 2 4 )
b ) For j e t d r i v e n a i r p l a n e s :
from Eqns. ( 3 . 3 4 ) t h r o u g h ( 3 . 3 6 )
From t h e s e e q u a t i o n s it is a g a i n p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e
r a n g e s of v a l u e s f o r (TIWITO and (WIS)TO f o r which t h e
c e i l i n g requirement i s met.
3.4.11 -a to . . Excess P o w Re-
S p e c i f i c e x c e s s power i s d e f i n e d a s f o l l o w s :

where:
2
he = s p e c i f i c energy = V 129 + h
For c e r t a i n f i g h t e r a i r p l a n e s t h e v a l u e of Ps c a n b e
s p e c i f i e d a t a g i v e n combination of Mach number, M ,
weight, W and a l t i t u d e , h. The r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t o
a s s u r e combat s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r some known o r p e r c e i v e d
threat.
To o b t a i n t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e Ps, Eqn. ( 3 . 4 0 ) s u g g e s t s
to:
a ) i n s t a l l a h i g h v a l u e of T/W and,
b ) d e s i g n f o r a h i g h v a l u e of LID.
For p r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g p u r p o s e s it i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t
a range of r e a l i s t i c v a l u e s a r e assumed f o r LID. From
Eqn. ( 3 . 4 0 ) i t i s t h e n p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d
v a l u e of TIW f o r a g i v e n v a l u e of Ps. T h e t h u s o b t a i n e d
v a l u e f o r TIW needs t o be t r a n s f e r r e d t o a corresponding
v a l u e f o r (TIWITO u s i n g e n g i n e d a t a .

FAIRCI-I I CD
~EPUBLIc
A IOA

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 5 4

 An a t t a c k f i g h t e r w i t h t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
T a b l e 2 . 1 9 needs t o be s i z e d s u c h t h a t i t s climb
performance meets t h a t s p e c i f i e d i n T a b l e 2.19.
The s p e c i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s of two requirements:
0
1) RC > 5 0 0 fpm w i t h one e n g i n e o u t , s e a l e v e l 9 5 F
and a t maximum t a k e - o f f weight. T h i s i n c l u d e s e x t e r n a l
stores.
The m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n d o e s n o t s p e c i f y t h e
a i r p l a n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . I t i s assumed, t h a t t h i s i s g e a r
up and f l a p s take- of f .

2 , Tcl
= 8 min. t o 4 0 , 0 0 0 f t a t maximm ( c l e a n )
take- of f weight.
I n a d d i t i o n . it i s assumed, t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g Ps
requirement must a l s o be met:
3 ) ps - 80 f p s a t 4 0 , 0 0 0 f t and M = 0.8. in the
c l e a n c o n f i g u r a t i o n and a t maximum ( c l e a n ) t a k e - o f f
weight.
F i r s t , t h e d r a g p o l a r must be e s t i m a t e d . To do
t h i s , t h e p r o c e d u r e of Sub- section 3.4.1 w i l l be used.
From p. 6 7 , it f o l l o w s t h a t WTO = 64,500 lbs. This
weight i n c l u d e s e x t e r n a l s t o r e s ! The e f f e c t of e x t e r n a l
s t o r e s i s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e wetted a r e a c o r r e l a t i o n of
F i g u r e 3.22b. The c l e a n maximum t a k e - o f f weight f o r t h i s
f i g h t e r is 64.500 - 10,000 = 54,500 l b s .
From F i g u r e 3 . 2 2 ~ it is found t h a t t h e corresponding

'wet = 3,500 f t .
2
T h i s v a l u e is t a k e n t o F i g u r e 3.21b
A

and, assuming Cf = 0.0030, it f o l l o w s t h a t f = 1 0 . 5 ft'.

A r e a s o n a b l e a v e r a g e wing l o a d i n g f o r t h i s t y p e of

a t t a c k f i g h t e r is 50 p s i .
Therefore:
T h i s y i e l d s Sw = 1,090 ft .
2

C = 10.5l1.090 = 0.0096
"0

I t w i l l be assumed t h a t t h e e x t e r n a l s t o r e s c a u s e an

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 5 5

increase i n e q u i v a l e n t f l a t p l a t e a r e a o f : Af = 3.2 ft
2
.
This yields:

The f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s a r e made:

Wing a s p e c t r a t i o , A = 4
Oswald's e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r , e = 0.8 clean and
e = 0.7 f l a p s take- off
Incremental v a l u e f o r f l a p s t a k e - o f f z e r o l i f t d r a g
coefficient:

AC = 0.0200.
Do
Compressibility drag increment, clean, a t M = 0.8:

= 0.0020.
A C ~ o
The d r a g p o l a r s may be summarized as f o l l o w s :
2
C l e a n , low speed: CD = 0.0096 + 0.0995CL
2
C l e a n , M = 0.8: = 0.0116 + 0.0995CL
=D
2
Take - off, g e a r up: CD = 0.0296 + 0.1137CL
The t h r e e c l i m b requirements w i l l now be a n a l y z e d
one by one.
t - 1): u e out. t.0.. a ~ UQu

With t h e h e l p of Eqns.(3.34) t h r o u g h (3.36) it is

now p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n between WIS and
TIW s o t h a t t h i s c l i m b r a t e is s a t i s f i e d .
I t w i l l be assumed t h a t t h e c l i m b can be performed
a t (LlDImax. From Eqn. ( 3 . 3 6 ) it is found t h a t :

From Eqn. (3.35) it is s e e n t h a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

s p e e d depends on wing l o a d i n g and on d e n s i t y . The l a t t e r
0
i s t o b e t a k e n on a 95 F day. I n t h a t case t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e m p e r a t u r e r a t i o i s : 554.71518.7 = 1.069.
The d e n s i t y r a t i o a t sealevel now i s :

a = 111.069 = 0.935, SO t h a t p = 0.002224 s l u g s l f t

3
.
With t h e h e l p of Eqns. (3.34) and (3.35) it i s now
Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 5 6
possible to construct t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n :

psf fps one e n g . two e n g . two e n g .

0
9 5 ' ~ 95 F sls
(3.35) (3.34)
40 265 0 . 0 3 1 0.116 0.147 0.294 0.346
60 325 0.026 0.116 0.142 0.284 0.334
80 375 0.022 0.116 0.138 0.276 0.325
100 420 0.020 0.116 0.136 0.272 0.320
x2 : O . 85

To o b t a i n t h e numbers i n t h e l a s t column, i t was

0
a s s u m e d t h a t f o r t h e 9 5 F day, t h e t h r u s t is 0 . 8 5 times
t h a t a t sealevel s t a n d a r d ( s l s ) .
F i g u r e 3.27 shows t h e region of (WIS)TO a n d (T/WITO

f o r w h i c h t h i s c l i m b requirement i s met.

T h e t i m e - t o - c l i m b t o 4 0 , 0 0 0 it is t o b e 8 min. i n
t h e clean c o n f i g u r a t i o n . I t w i l l be a s s u m e d t h a t t h e
a b s o l u t e c e i l i n g is 45,000 f t . From E q n . ( 3 . 3 3 ) it
f o l l o w s t h a t:

RC, = ( 4 5 , 0 0 0 / 8 ) 1 n ( 1 - 4 0 1 4 5 ) = 1 2 , 3 5 9 fpm = 2 0 6 f p s

B e c a u s e t h i s i s a f i g h t e r a i r p l a n e , t h e climb a n g l e
is probably steep. T h e r e f o r e , t h e m e t h o d of E q n s . ( 3 . 3 7 )
t h r o u g h ( 3 . 3 9 ) w i l l b e u s e d i n t h e s i z i n g process.
I t is a s s u m e d , t h a t t h e c l i m b w i l l t a k e place a t

Since C = 0.0096, it f o l l o w s from E q n . ( 3 . 3 6 ) that:

Do
(L/DImax = 1 6 . 2 . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g speed follows a g a i n

from Eqn. ( 3 . 3 5 ) .
T h e value f o r Pdl may be found from E q n . O . 3 9 ) as:
0.996. W i t h E q n s . ( 3 . 3 7 ) and ( 3 . 3 8 ) it a l s o f o l l o w s t h a t :

I t i s now p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t t h e f o l l o w i n g
tabulation:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 157

clean maximum ( 3.3 5 clean maximum
(without (with (without (with
stores) stores) . stores) stores)
psf psf fps

The f a c t o r 1 . 1 8 r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of t a k e - o f f
weight w i t h stores (64,500 l b s ) t o t h a t w i t h o u t s t o r e s
(54,500 l b s ) .

F i g u r e 3.27 shows r e g i o n s of ~ ~ ( T I W ) ~ ~
( W I S ) and

where t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t is met.

With Ps = 80 f p s , Eqn. ( 3 . 4 0 ) can b e r e a r r a n g e d t o

yield:

A t M = 0 . 8 and 40,000 f t , t h e dynamic pressure is:

-
q = 1 4 8 2 ~ 0 . 1 8 5 1=~ 176
~ ~ psf

The clean d r a g p o l a r a t M = 0.8 was p r e v i o u s l y

given. The clean maximum w e i g h t is 54,500 l b s . The
f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n c a n now b e c o n s t r u c t e d :

clean
(without
stores)
psf psf

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 5 8

maximum M = 0.8 sls
(with
stores)
psf
47 0.103 0.177 0.96
71 0.103 0.171 0.92
95 0.103 0.173 0.93
118 0.103 0.180 0.97
x5.4
The l a s t column was o b t a i n e d by m u l t i p l y i n g (TIW) a t
40,000 f t and M = 0 , 8 by 5 . 4 , which is t h e p r e s s u r e r a t i o
f o r t h a t a l t i t u d e . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s roughly t o t h e
t h r u s t r a t i o f o r t h e s e two c o n d i t i o n s .
From t y p i c a l e n g i n e d a t a it c a n be observed t h a t a t
h i g h a l t i t u d e and s u b s o n i c f l i g h t no s i g n i f i c a n t change
i n t h r u s t o c c u r s between M = 0 and M = 0 . 8 .
F i g u r e 3 . 2 7 shows t h e r e g i o n of (WIS)TO and (TIWlTO
where t h i s s p e c i f i c e x c e s s power r e q u i r e m e n t i s m e t . It
is c l e a r t h a t t h i s requirement i s by f a r t h e more
c r i t i c a l one i n t h i s case.

w e 3 . 2 7 Effect of e n t s on fhe
l e ~ a l y e sof Take -o f f TkrUst -t o -Welqhf;
J 4 o ~

Part I Chapter 3 Page 159

3 . 5 S I m G TO MANEWERING REQUIREMENTS

S p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s u s t a i n e d maneuvering
c a p a b i l i t y ( i n c l u d i n g sometimes s p e c i f i c t u r n r a t e ) a r e
o f t e n contained i n t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r u t i l i t y ,
agricultural, aerobatic or for military airplanes.
S u s t a i n e d maneuvering r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y
f o r m u l a t e d i n t e r m s of a combination of s u s t a i n e d l o a d
f a c t o r ( g ' s ) t o be p u l l e d a t some combination of speed
and a l t i t u d e .
The s u s t a i n e d maneuvering c a p a b i l i t y of a n a i r p l a n e
depends s t r o n g l y on i t s maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t and on
its i n s t a l l e d t h r u s t .
F o r e q u i l i b r i u m p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f l i g h t p a t h , it
is necessary t h a t :

The maximum l o a d f a c t o r c a p a b i l i t y of a n a i r p l a n e ,
max can b e found from Eqn. ( 3 . 4 2 ) as:

T h i s l o a d f a c t o r can be s u s t a i n e d a s long a s t h e r e
is s u f f i c i e n t t h r u s t . Since:

A f t e r d i v i d i n g Eqn. ( 3 . 4 4 ) by W and r e a r r a n g i n g :

I f some maximum l o a d f a c t o r . nmX is d e s i r e d on a

s u s t a i n e d b a s i s a t a g i v e n combination of Mach number, M
and a l t i t u d e ( 6 1 , t h e n Eqn.(3.45) c a n be used t o f i n d
t h e r e l a t i o n between TIW and WIS, f o r a g i v e n v a l u e of
C
D,
. The l a t t e r c a n be found w i t h t h e methods d i s c u s s e d
i n Sub- section 3 . 4 . 1 .
I f a requirement is i n c l u d e d f o r a s p e c i f i c minirmm
t u r n r a t e , t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n may be used:
.
\)' = (g/V) ( n - 1)
112
(3.46)

Part I Chapter 3 Page 160

 This equation is derived i n Ref.14, p.493.

I f t u r n r a t e is s p e c i f i e d a t a g i v e n s p e e d , t h e
r e q u i r e d s u s t a i n e d l o a d f a c t o r , n may be found from:

E q u a t i o n ( 3 . 4 5 ) c a n t h e n be used t o f i n d t h e
r e l a t i o n between (TIW) and (WIS) f o r which t h e t u r n r a t e
requirement is s a t i s f i e d .

The f i g h t e r w i t h t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n of T a b l e
2.19 m u s t a l s o meet t h e f o l l o w i n g maneuvering
requirement: a sustained steady t u r n corresponding t o
3.5g a t s e a l e v e l , 450 k t s and w i t h a clean weight of
54,500 l b s .
I t i s assumed, t h a t t h e clean C of t h e a i r p l a n e a t
''0

M =450/661.2 = 0.68 and sealevel i s 0.0096. With A =4

and e = 0 . 8 it f o l l o w s from Eqn.(3.45) t h a t :
= 6 - 6 1 ( ~ 1 s+) 0.00178(W/s)
reqd

+p4sc
The
dogl l oa wki nrg4 t, aybcu 1git yx-%a;L n G made:
(WIS) (W/S)To First Second (TIW) (T/WITO (TIWITO
actual max Term Term clean max max
psf psf M = 0.68 static

The v a l u e of (T/WITO i n t h e l a s t column is o b t a i n e d

from t h a t a t M = 0.68 by m u l t i p l y i n g by 1.6. T h i s number

i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e t h r u s t r a t i o between M = 0 and
M = 0.68 a t sealevel. Such a number comes from t y p i c a l
engine data.

F i g u r e 3.27 a l s o shows t h e r e g i o n s of (WIS)TO and

(WIS)TO f o r which t h e maneuvering requirement is met.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 6 1

 The power r e q u i r e d t o f l y a t some speed and a l t i t u d e
i s given by:
-

T h i s can a l s o be w r i t t e n a s :

C r u i s e speeds f o r p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e s a r e
u s u a l l y c a l c u l a t e d a t 7 5 t o 80 p e r c e n t power. I n t h a t
c a s e it can be shown t h a t t h e induced drag is s m a l l
compared t o t h e p r o f i l e drag. Frequently, t h e
assumption:
C = O.lCD (3.50)
Di 0
is made.
L o f t i n ( r e f . 1 1 ) showed, t h a t because of t h i s f a c t ,
c r u i s e speed t u r n s o u t t o be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
following f a c t o r :

From t h i s , L o f t i n d e r i v e d t h e f a c t t h a t :

where:
I = I ( W / S ) / ~ ( W / P 1) I1 3
P
The parameter I is c a l l e d t h e power index.
P
Figures 3.28, 3 . 2 9 and 3 . 3 0 show how Vcr is related
to I f o r a range of example a i r p l a n e s . These f 'gures
P
can t h e r e f o r e be used a s a f i r s t e s t i m a t e f o r I f o r a
P
g i v e n d e s i r e d c r u i s e speed. From t h a t i n t u r n it is
p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between (WIS) and
(W/P) needed t o meet a given c r u i s e speed requirement.
I t is p o s s i b l e t o u s e t h i s method t o r e c o n s t r u c t C
from measured speed and power d a t a . De

The next Sub- section p r e s e n t s an a p p l i c a t i o n .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 6 2

 Power mdex, 1
P

with
Fiaure 3 . 2 8 C o r r e h t i o n of A i r ~ 1 - e S ~ e e d Pow=
ex for R e t r a c t a b l e Gear. C a n t l l e v e r d
Confiaurat-

Part I Chapter 3 Page 163

 s denote retmctable

C O P I E D FROM

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.9 5.2

Porer Index, b

F i a u r e 3 . 3 0 C o r r e l a t i o n of Ai-ne S ~ e e dw i t h P o w e r
d e x f o r ~ i & m a n d . u t e d Monowlanes
u l ! !

f o r Zero- lift Drag C o e f f i c i e n t

T a b l e 3.9 T y p i c a l Values
.......................................................
a n d Maximum L i f t - t o - d r a g R a t i o
..............................
..............................
A i r p l a n e Type

B o e i n g 247D 0.0212
D o u g l a s DC-3 0.0249
B o e i n g B-17G 0.0236
S e v e r s k y P-3 5 0.0251
P i p e r 5-3 Cub 0.0373
B e e c h c r a f t D17S 0.034 8
C o n s o l i d a t e d B- 24J 0.0406
M a r t i n B- 26F 0.0314
N o r t h A m e r i c a n P-51D 0,0161
L o c k h e e d L.1049G 0.0211
P i p e r Cherokee 0.035 8
C e s s n a Skyhawk 0.0319
B e e c h B o n a n z a V-35 0.0192
C e s s n a C a r d i n a l RG 0.0223

Note: T h e s e d a t a a r e copied from R e f . 1 1 , T a b l e 5.1.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 164

3.6.2 AMethod f o r F1.-a . C
Dornm and Power
L o f t i n , i n Ref . l l , Eqn. (6.3) d e r i v e s t h e following
equation:

With Eqn. ( 3 . 5 3 ) it i s p o s s i b l e t o r e w r i t e t h i s a s :

By now assuming t h a t i n a h i g h speed c r u i s e

c o n d i t i o n q = 0. 8 5 and t h a t CD = 0. 9CD, Eqn. ( 3 . 5 5 )
becomes: 0

I t must b e noted t h a t V i n Eqn. ( 3 . 5 6 ) i s i n mph!

I f f o r a g i v e n a i r p l a n e t h e maximm power and speed

a t some a l t i t u d e a r e g i v e n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o u s e
Eqn. (3.56) t o estimate C
D,
.T a b l e 3 . 9 shows some
r e s u l t s a s o b t a i n e d by L o f t i n i n Ref. 11.
3.6.3 w l e of Cr-eed S . m. a f o r a ~ror>eller
Driven
The a i r p l a n e of T a b l e 2 . 1 7 must a c h i e v e a c r u i s e
speed of 2 5 0 k t s a t 85 p e r c e n t power a t 1 0 , 0 0 0 f t and a t
t a k e - o f f weight. S i z e t h e a i r p l a n e s o it c a n do t h a t .

From F i g u r e 3 . 2 8 it f o l l o w s t h a t : I
P
1.7.-
Observe, t h a t 2 5 0 k t s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 2 8 8 mph.

~t 1 0 , 0 0 0 f t , a = 0.7386. Therefore, with

Eqn.(3.53) it i s found t h a t :

F i g u r e 3 . 3 1 shows t h e range of c o m b i n a t i o n s of WIS

and WIP f o r which t h e c r u i s e speed requirement i s met.
Note t h a t (WIP) is a t 10,000 f t . To t r a n s f e r t h a t
r a t i o t o s e a l e v e l it i s n e c e s s a r y t o m u l t i p l y by t h e
power r a t i o f o r c r u i s e power a t 1 0 , 0 0 0 f t t o t h a t a t
s e a l e v e l . T h i s r a t i o i s t y p i c a l l y 0.7 f o r r e c i p r o c a t i n g
engines without supercharging.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 6 5

 u r e 3.31 A l l o w a b l e ~ a l u e w o f Thrustd -
l o to Meet a Given C r u s e Speed

9 4 .S .6 .7 -8 .9 1.0
MACH N * I L ) r l S E R .u M

re 3.32 -Method for Estimatina D u

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 6 6

 A t maximum l e v e l speed t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s a r e
simultaneously s a t i s f i e d :

I f a p a r a b o l i c d r a g p o l a r i s assumed, Eqn. ( 3 . 5 7 ) can

be w r i t t e n as:

D i v i d i n g by weight:

I f t h e maximum speed is s p e c i f i e d a t some combi-

n a t i o n of Mach number and a l t i t u d e , t h e n t h e dynamic
pressure, q i s known. For a g i v e n v a l u e of z e r o l i f t
drag c o e f f i c i e n t , , it is p o s s i b l e t o u s e
C ~ O
Eqn.(3.60) t o c o n s t r u c t r e l a t i o n s between T/W and W/S
which s a t i s f y t h e maximum speed r e q u i r e m e n t s .
The maximum speed t e n d s t o be s p e c i f i e d a t a v a l u e
of weight, below t a k e - o f f weight, t h a t is a t :

where k is a number 0 < k < 1.0. The r e q u i r e d t a k e - o f f

wing l o a d i n g must t h e r e f o r e be o b t a i n e d from:

Similarly, t h e required thrust- to- weight r a t i o a t

take- of f must b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e t h r u s t - t o - w e i g h t
r a t i o found from Eqn. ( 3 . 6 0 ) . To do t h i s r e q u i r e s
knowledge of how t h e i n s t a l l e d t h r u s t of t h e a i r p l a n e
v a r i e s w i t h Mach number and w i t h a l t i t u d e .
The methodology j u s t d i s c u s s e d works f i n e f o r s p e e d s
a t Mach numbers below t h a t where c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s
p l a y a r o l e . I f c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y is i n p o r t a n t (and
g e n e r a l l y above M-0.5 it i s ) , a m o d i f i c a t i o n of CD

.
0

w i l l be required. F i g u r e (3.32) shows how AC

D
c a n b e q u i c k l y found.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 6 7

3.6.5 Examgle of a
-
. . to Maximum S ~ e e df o r a Jek
I t i s d e s i r e d t o s i z e an a i r p l a n e w i t h WTO =

10,000 l b s s o t h a t it h a s a maximum speed of M = 0.9 a t

sealevel.
A t t h i s h i g h Mach Number, t h e e f f e c t s of d r a g r i s e
need t o be a c c o u n t e d f o r .

From F i g u r e 3.22b, a t 10,000 l b s , a w e t t e d area

estimate f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e is: Swet = 1,050 f t

2
.
From F i g u r e 3.21b, assuming a Cf = 0.0030, it is
s e e n t h a t : f = 3.2 f t .
2
A t y p i c a l v a l u e f o r wing l o a d i n g i s t a k e n t o be
2 2
60 f t . T h i s implies S = 167 f t and t h e r e f o r e :

C = 0.0192
D@
The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d r a g i n c r e m e n t i s assumed t o be
0.0030. Assuming A = 5 and e = 0.8, Eqn.(3.60) c a n be
w r i t t e n as:

The f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n c a n now be made:

(WIS)TO P r o f i l e Drag Induced Drag T/W (T/WITO

Term Term
M = 0.9 static
psf

F i g u r e 3.33 shows t h e r e g i o n of W/S and T/W f o r

which t h e speed r e q u i r e m e n t is met. Note t h e a d v a n t a g e
of h i g h wing l o a d i n g a t h i g h speed and a t sealevel.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 168

w e 3.33 m l e Values of W u L o w a d T h r u s t-
ven M a u m u m

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 6 9

3.7.1 Matchina a l l S
. . u R-e
Having e s t a b l i s h e d a s e r i e s of r e l a t i o n s between:
Take-of f t h r u s t - t o - w e i g h t r a t i o ,
Take-of f wing l o a d i n g ,
Maximm r e q u i r e d l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s ,
and Aspect r a t i o ,
it i s now p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e ' b e s t * combina-
t i o n of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s f o r t h e d e s i g n a t hand. The
word ' b e s t ' is used r a t h e r t h a n *optimum* b e c a u s e t h e
l a t t e r i m p l i e s a c e r t a i n mathematical p r e c i s i o n . What is
u s u a l l y done a t t h i s p o i n t i s t o o v e r l a y a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s
and s e l e c t t h e l o w e s t p o s s i b l e t h r u s t - t o - w e i g h t r a t i o and
t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e wing l o a d i n g which a r e c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h a l l requirements. T h i s p r o c e s s is a l s o known a s t h e
matching p r o c e s s .
T y p i c a l matching diagrams r e s u l t i n g from t h i s
matching p r o c e s s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S u b - s e c t i o n s 3 . 7 . 2
through 3.7.4.

Table 2.17 contains t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r

t h i s a i r p l a n e . To d e t e r m i n e t h e a l l o w a b l e power and wing
l o a d i n g s , t h e l a n d i n g , t a k e - o f f , c l i m b and c r u i s e speed
r e q u i r e m e n t s w i l l a l l b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o r a n g e s of
a l l o w a b l e v a l u e s f o r (WIS), (WIP) and CL
max
.
3 . 7 . 2 . 1 T a k e -o f f s. . u
Table 2.17 r e q u i r e s s = 1 , 5 0 0 f t under FAR 2 3
G~~
r u l e s a t s e a l e v e l and f o r a s t a n d a r d day. From Eqn.(3.4)
it is found t h a t :
1 , 5 0 0 = 4 . 9 TOP,, + 0.009TOPa, 2

This yields:
TOP,, = 218 hp/ft2
Because a = 1.0 i n t h i s c a s e , Eqn. ( 3 . 2 ) y i e l d s :

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 7 0

.
m c3
.
*V,drl
n o . .
rlr(C5'en
 . .
p r o ~ e u rDriven Ai-

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 7 2

 From T a b l e 3 . 1 it f o l l o w s t h a t t y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r
C~
f o r t h i s t y p e a i r p l a n e a r e : 1 . 6 - 2.5.
maxL
I n t h i s c a s e a range of v a l u e s of 1 . 7 , 2.0 and 2 . 3
w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d , l e a d i n g t o maximum a l l o w a b l e wing
l o a d i n g s of 3 4 . 3 , 4 0 . 4 and 46.5 psf r e s p e c t i v e l y .
F i g u r e 3 . 3 4 shows how t h i s f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t s t h e
u s e f u l range of combinations of (W/S)TO and (W/P)TO.

The example i n Sub- section 3 . 4 . 4 showed t h a t f o r

t h i s t y p e of a i r p l a n e , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of FAR 2 3 . 6 5 and
2 3 . 6 7 were t h e most c r i t i c a l . Therefore only these
r e q u i r e m e n t s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s example
calculation.
The i n e x p e r i e n c e d r e a d e r i s warned n o t t o always
t a k e t h i s outcome f o r g r a n t e d . When i n doubt: check a l l
requirements!

A s shown i n S u b - s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 4 t h e c l i n b g r a d i e n t
component of t h i s requirement was more c r i t i c a l t h a n t h e
climb r a t e component.
From Eqn. ( 3 . 3 0 ) :

The drag p o l a r f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e i n t h e gear- up,

t a k e - o f f f l a p s con£ i g u r a t i o n i s found w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e
of S u b - s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 .
From p.53, 'TO = 7 , 9 0 0 l b s . With F i g u r e 3.22a, t h i s
y i e l d s : Swet = 1 , 4 0 0 f t z . F i g u r e 3.21a shows t h a t
2
f = 7 f t is a r e a s o n a b l e v a l u e f o r e q u i v a l e n t p a r a s i t e
area. 2
Using an a v e r a g e wing l o a d i n g of 3 0 p s f , S = 2 6 3 f t
and t h u s :
C = 0.0266. For t a k e - o f f f l a p s an i n c r e m e n t a l
Do
drag c o e f f i c i e n t of 0 . 0 1 3 4 w i l l be assumed. T h e drag
p o l a r s f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e can b e summarized a s f o l l o w s :
f o r the clean
c o n f i g u r a t i o n : CD = 0 . 0 2 6 6 + CL 2 / n ~ e ,w i t h e = 0.8

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 7 3

 f o r take- of f :
g e a r up CD = 0 . 0 4 0 0 + c L 2 / n ~ e ,w i t h e = 0 . 8

F o r t h i s a i r p l a n e , a s p e c t r a t i o s of 8 and 1 0 w i l l be
c o n s i d e r e d . Values f o r CL were t a k e n as 1 . 4 , 1 . 7
m a x ~ ~
and 2 . 0 . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g ' s a f e ' v a l u e s of CL f o r t h i s
f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n a r e : 1 . 2 , 1 . 5 and 1.8. This y i e l d s a
'margin' of ACL = 0.2. With t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t h e
f o l l o w i n g table of LID v a l u e s can now be determined:

Assuming q = 0 . 0 , w h i l e u = 1 . 0 it is p o s s i b l e
P
t o t a b u l a t e v a l u e s f o r WIP a s f o l l o w s :

The r e a d e r w i l l n o t e t h a t f o r i n c r e a s i n g A and f o r
i n c r e a s i n g CL less power i s r e q u i r e d !
m a x ~ ~
F i g u r e 3 . 3 4 superimposes t h e FAR 2 3 . 6 5 r e s u l t s on r e s u l t s
o b t a i n e d from p r e v i o u s s i z i n g c r i t e r i a .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 7 4

 FAR 23.67 ( O m

To meet t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t t h e f l a p s may be i n t h e
most f a v o r a b l e p o s i t i o n . Most f a v o r a b l e i n t h i s case
means t h a t p o s i t i o n of t h e f l a p s which y i e l d s t h e

h i g h e s t v a l u e of (CL 3 ' 2 ) The d r a g p o l a r s f o r

t h i s case a r e e s t i m a t e d as f o l l o w s :
F l a p s up, g e a r up, o n e
propeller feathered: CD = 0.0266 + 0.0034 + cL2/nAe
Prop*
F l a p s t a k e - o f f , g e a r up, o n e
propeller f e a t h e r e d :
= 0.0266 + 0.0034 + 0.0134 + cL2/nAe
C~
ProPo flaps
The f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s a r e now o b t a i n e d :
f l a p s up f l a p s t.0.

( C 3 ~/ 2 /D~ max ( E q n . ( 3 . 2 7 ) ) 13.6 16.1

I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e f l a p s up case is t h e more
f a v o r a b l e one. For f l a p s up it was a l r e a d y assumed t h a t
= 1.7. The l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t values of 1 . 4 and 1 . 6
C~ max
a r e reasonably compatible with t h i s .
N e x t , Vs a t 5,000 f t n e e d s t o be determined as a
0

f u n c t i o n of wing l o a d i n g .

This yields: = 23.96 ( ~ 1 s ) ~The

~ r~e q. u i r e d
vs0
v a l u e of r a t e of c l i m b parameter, RCP can now be computed
as follows:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 175

 I
=. 0 27Vs Eqn. ( 3 . 2 3 )
0

P sf fps kts fpm

E q u a t i o n 3.24 r e l a t e s t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e of RCP t o
those of allowable v a l u e s f o r WIS a n d WIP. F o r t h e two
v a l u e s of aspect r a t i o it can now b e s h o w n t h a t
Eqn.(3.24) yields:

F o r A = 8:

RCP = 0 . 8 1 (WIP) - ( ~ 1 ~ ) ~ ' ~ 1 2 3 a9n.d9,

F o r A = 10:

RCP = 0 . 8 1 (W/P) - ( W I S )' l 2 1 2 84

T h e f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n can now b e m a d e :

(W/S)TO ( ~ 1 ~ ) ~ ~ ~ 1 2 RCP
3 9 . 9 (W/P) (WIP)
5.000 f t seale$?l
psf lbslhp lbs/hp

A = 10
(WIS)To ( W I S )' l 2 / 2 84 RC P (WIP) (WIP)
5.000 f t sealeT?l
psf lbslhp lbslhp

O n l y t h e A = 8 r e q u i r e m e n t is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 . 3 4 .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 176

 I t i s c l e a r , t h a t f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e , t h e AEO c l i m b
r e q u i r e m e n t i s t h e more c r i t i c a l o n e . Since t h i s finding
i s s t r o n g l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e v a l u e s u s e d f o r t h e d r a g
p o l a r s , it s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d a s s o o n as more a c c u r a t e
estimates o f t h e d r a g p o l a r s a r e a v a i l a b l e . Such a n
estimate i s a v a i l a b l e as s o o n as t h e f i r s t c o n f i g u r a t i o n
threeview of t h e airplane h a s been generated. How t h i s
can b e d o n e is t h e s u b j e c t o f P a r t I1 i n t h i s s e r i e s
(Ref.1).

T h e 250 k t s s p e e d r e q u i r e m e n t a t 1 0 , 0 0 0 f t ( T a b l e
2 . 1 7 ) was u s e d i n S u b - s e c t i o n 3.6.3 a n d t h e r e s u l t s
p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 3.31. T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e now
s u p e r i m p o s e d o n F i g u r e 3.34. I t is seen, t h a t t h i s a
r a t h e r c r i t i c a l requirement.

3.7.2.5
. .
Time -t o -c l i m b s l u

T a b l e 2.17 r e q u i r e s a 1 0 min. t i m e - t o - c l i m b t o
1 0 , 0 0 0 it. I t w i l l b e assumed. t h a t habs = 2 5 , 0 0 0 , w h i c h

is compatible w i t h a normally a s p i r a t e d piston engine

installation.

From E q n . ( 3 . 3 3 ) it now f o l l o w s t h a t :
RCo = 1 , 2 7 7 fpm, i n t h e clean configuration.

From E q n . ( 3 . 2 3 ) a v a l u e f o r RCP is f o u n d as: 0.0387.

With Eqn.(3.27), and C = 0.0266 it is f o u n d t h a t :
DO
F o r A = 8: ( c L 3 I 2 ) / c D = 13.4

For A = 10: ( c ~ ~ ~= 15.

~ 8) I c ~
Eqn.(3.24) now y i e l d s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s :
F o r A = 8 : 0.0387 = 0.8/(WIP) - ( ~ 1 ~ ) ~ ~ ~ 1 2 5 5

F o r A = 1 0 : 0.0387 = 0.81 (WIP) - ( ~ / ~ ) ~ ~ ~ 1 3 0 0

T h e f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n c a n now b e made:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 7 7

psf lbs/hp lbslhp

These time- to- climb results are also plotted i n

F i g u r e 3.34.

Examining t h e matching r e q u i r e m e n t s of F i g u r e 3.34,

P o i n t P seems a r e a s o n a b l e c h o i c e . With t h i s c h o i c e , t h e
twin p r o p e l l e r d r i v e n a i r p l a n e is now c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
t h e following design parameters:

Take-off weight: 7,900 l b s

Empty weight: 4,900 l b s
Fuel weight: 1 , 7 0 6 l b s

These d a t a were a l r e a d y known on p.53.

Maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s :
Clean: CL = 1.7
max
Take- off: CL = 1.85 (Point P i n F i g u r e 3.34)
m a x ~ ~
Landing: CL = 2.3 (Point P i n F i g u r e 3.34)
maxL
Aspect r a t i o : A = 8 i s s u f f i c i e n t by F i g u r e 3.34.

Take-off wing l o a d i n g : 46 p s i ( P o i n t P i n Fig. 3.34)

2
Wing area: 172 f t

Power l o a d i n g a t t a k e - o f f : 8.8 l b s / h p

Take-off power: 898 hp

I n P a r t IS of t h i s t e x t an example is g i v e n showing
how a c o n f i g u r a t i o n can be developed on t h e b a s i s of t h i s
information.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 178

 T a b l e 2.18 d e f i n e s t h e m i s s i o n f o r t h i s airplane.
Note, t h a t t h e f i e l d l e n g t h is 5 , 0 0 0 f t a t 5 , 0 0 0 it
0
a l t i t u d e a n d f o r a 95 F d a y .

3.7.3.1 T a k e -o f f W c
. .
e srzlna
For take- of i f l a p s a corresponding range of values
of CL = 1 . 6 t o 2 . 2 is f o u n d f r o m T a b l e 3.1. For
m a x ~ ~
t h i s example values o f 1 . 6 , 2.0 a n d 2.4 w i l l b e
investigated.

N e x t , it is o b s e r v e d t h a t a t 5 , 0 0 0 i t , t h e pressure
0
r a t i o 6 = 0.8320. W i t h a temperature o f 95 F , t h e
temperature r a t i o 8 = ( 9 5 + 459.711518.7 = 1.0694. This
y i e l d s a = 0. 832011.0694 = 0.7780.

From Eqn. ( 3 . 8 ) :

5 , 0 0 0 = 3 7 . 5 ( w / S ) (0.7780CL (TIw)1-I
max
TO
A f t e r rearrangement t h i s y i e l d s :

I n t h e l a t t e r e q u a t i o n , (TIW) i s t h e same as (T/WITO

for t h e 5,000 f t , h o t day c o n d i t i o n .
The following t a b l e can now b e c o n s t r u c t e d :

5,000 it, h o t sealevel s t d .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 179

 A f a c t o r of 1 . 1 7 was u s e d t o t r a n s l a t e t h e 5 , 0 0 0 f t ,
h o t d a y t h r u s t requirement i n t o a s e a l e v e l , s t a n d a r d d a y
t h r u s t requirement. T h i s f a c t o r was o b t a i n e d f r o m
t y p i c a l t u r b o f a n d a t a f o r t h i s t y p e of airplane.

F i g u r e 3.35 shows t h e a l l o w a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n of
(WIS)To, (TIWITO a n d CL for which t h e t a k e - o f f
max,,
requirement i s s a t i s f i e d . 'I'V

From E q n s . ( 3 . 1 5 ) a n d ( 3 . 1 6 ) it i s f o u n d t h a t :

Therefore:
L
= 9,862, o r : Vs = 99.3 kts.
L
From E q n . ( 3 . 1 ) this now y i e l d s :
= 2(WIs)/pCL
vsL max L
A t t h e 5,000 f t h o t day c o n d i t i o n , t h i s results i n :

(W/SIL = 26.0CL
max
L
From T a b l e 3 . 1 it f o l l o w s t h a t a s u i t a b l e r a n g e o f
maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e l a n d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n
i s : 1 . 8 t o 2.8. F o r t h i s example t h e v a l u e s 1.8, 2.2,
2.6 and 3.0 w i l l be investigated.
The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e can now b e constructed:

1. 8 46. 8 55.1 I t m u s t b e remembered

2.2 57.2 67.3 from T a b l e 2 . 1 8 t h a t
2.6 67.6 79.5 l a n d i n g w e i g h t is 0. 85x
3.0 7 8.0 91.8 t h e take- off weight.
: O . 85

F i g u r e 3 . 3 5 shows t h e s e results graphically.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 180

 U
- . .
e 3 . 3 5 Maws R e u s f o r m a of

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 8 1

 F o r a similar t r a n s p o r t , it was a l r e a d y shown i n
S u b - s e c t i o n 3.4.8, t h a t t h e most c r i t i c a l requirement was
t h a t of FAR 2 5 . 1 2 1 ( O E I ) . F o r t h a t reason, o n l y t h i s
requirement w i l l b e a c c o u n t e d f o r . T h e example i n
S u b - s e c t i o n 3.4.8 d e a l t w i t h a j e t transport w i t h
= 125,000 l b s . T h e airplane r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e
'TO
s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f T a b l e 2 . 1 8 h a s WTo = 127,000 l b s .

T h i s is judged t o b e s u f f i c i e n t l y similar, so t h a t t h e
numerical r e s u l t s o f F i g u r e 3 . 2 5 apply. F i g u r e 3.35
s h o w s t h e FAR 2 5 . 1 2 1 ( O E I ) l i n e f r o m F i g u r e 3.25.

T a b l e 2 . 1 8 s p e c i f i e s a c r u i s e s p e e d of M = 0.82 at
3 5 , 0 0 0 it. T h e low s p e e d , clean d r a g p o l a r f o r t h i s
a i r p l a n e is r o u g h l y t h a t of p a g e 1 4 5 :
CD = 0 . 0 1 8 4 + C 2 / 2 6 . 7 , f o r A = 1 0 a n d e = 0.85.
L
From F i g u r e 3.32 t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d r a g increment
at M = 0.82 i s a s s u m e d t o b e 0.0005. At 35,000 it,

Eqn.(3.60) now y i e l d s :
= 4.42/(W/S) + (W/S)/6,249
reqd
The following t a b u l a t i o n r e s u l t s from t h e speed
s i z i n g process:

(W/SlT0 (T/W) (T/WITO

sf cruise take- of f
0.083 0.36 T h e r a t i o of t h r u s t a t
0.068 0.30 M = 0.82 a t 3 5 , 0 0 0 f t t o
0.060 0.26 t h a t a t sealevel, s t a t i c
0.056 0.24 is r o u g h l y 0.23. This is
:0.23 b a s e d on t y p i c a l t u r b o f a n
d a t a f o r t h i s type of
airplane.
F i g u r e 3.35 shows t h e s e r e s u l t s g r a p h i c a l l y .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 182

 3.7.3.5 Direct cJ&ub s u
T a b l e 2.18 s p e c i f i e s t h a t d i r e c t c l i m b t o 35,000 f t
a t take- off g r o s s weight m u s t b e p o s s i b l e .
b e assumed he=, t h a t t h i s means t h a t t h e
a i r p l a n e s e r v i c e c e i l i n g a t g r o s s t a k e - o f f weight is t o
b e 3 5 , 0 0 0 f t . From T a b l e 3.8 t h i s means a clinb r a t e of
5 0 0 fpm a t 35,000 f t and i n t h i s c a s e a t M = 0.82

Eqn.(3.34) w i l l b e used i n t h e c l i m b s i z i n g t o t h i s
requirement. I n Eqn.(3.34):
RC = 5 0 0 / 6 0 = 8.33 fps V = 7 9 8 fps
-
S = 127,000/100 = 1 , 2 7 0 f t 2 q = 234 psf

LID = 1 6 . 7 , so that:

and a t M = 0.82. Therefore, t h e s e a l e v e l , s t a t i c value

f o r T/W is:

F i g u r e 3.35 shows t h i s r e s u l t a l s o .

F i g u r e 3.35 shows t h a t t h e r e is a n i n t e r e s t i n g
problem w i t h t h i s a i r p l a n e . The t a k e - o f f r e q u i r e m e n t
from t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t f i e l d on a h o t day dominates
t h e (T/W) r e q u i r e m e n t s . I t w i l l t h e r e f o r e be of utmost
importance t o d e v e l o p a low d r a g h i g h l i f t system f o r t h e
t a k e - o f f c o n f i g u r a t i o n . Trimmed v a l u e s f o r C with
Lm=To
e x i s t i n g mechanical f l a p s a r e l i m i t e d t o about 2.4 w i t h a
c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n . With a c a n a r d o r
t h r e e - s u r f a c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n it may b e p o s s i b l e t o g e t up
t o 2.8. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g l a n d i n g v a l u e of trimmed
maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t i s 3.2. I f t h e s e numbers a r e
s e l e c t e d , t h e matching p r o c e s s y i e l d s an a i r p l a n e d e f i n e d
by p o i n t P i n F i g u r e 3.35.
I t is clear, t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of h i g h l i f t
development w i l l b e needed, t o make t h i s a i r p l a n e v i a b l e .

Part I Chapter 3 Page 183

 I f p o i n t P is a c c e p t e d a s a s a t i s f a c t o r y match
p o i n t , t h e a i r p l a n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can b e summarized a s
follows:
Take-of f weight: WTO = 127,000 lbs
Empty weight: = 68,450 l b s
W~
F u e l weight: = 25,850 l b s
wF
These d a t a were a l r e a d y known on p.59.
Maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s :
Clean: = 1.4 (p.145)
C~
max

Landing: CL = 3.2
max L
Aspect r a t i o : 1 0 . (Note: t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t of d e s i g n i n g toward a
higher aspect r a t i o .
Take-of f wing l o a d i n g : (WIS)TO = 9 8 p s i ( P o i n t P )
Wing a r e a : S = 127,000198 = 1,296 f t2
Take- off t h r u s t - t o - w e i g h t r a t i o :
(TIWITO = 0 . 3 7 5 (Point P)
Take- off t h r u s t : TTO = 47,625 lbs
I n P a r t I1 of t h i s t e x t a n example i s g i v e n of how
t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n d e s i g n f o r t h i s jet t r a n s p o r t can be
s t a r t e d w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g e n e r a t e d i n t h e
preliminary s i z i n g process.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 8 4

 T a b l e 2 . 1 9 d e f i n e s t h e m i s s i o n of t h i s airplane. To
d e t e r m i n e t h e allowable r a n g e of w i n g l o a d i n g s a n d
thrust- to- weight ratios, t h e t a k e - o f f , l a n d i n g , c l i m b and
c r u i s e s p e e d requirements w i l l a l l be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
r a n g e s of a l l . o w a b l e values f o r (WISITO, (T/WITO a n d t h e
v a r i o u s v a l u e s of C
3.7.4.1
Lmax'
T a k e -off W c e s
. '
u
T a b l e 2 . 1 9 s t i p u l a t e s a g r o u n d r u n of 2 , 0 0 0 f t at
0
sealevel a n d f o r a 9 5 F day. I t w i l l be a s s u m e d t h a t
t h i s t a k e - o f f is from a h a r d surface. Ref.15 specifies:
= 0 . 0 2 5 i n t h a t case.
IG
0
On p a g e 1 5 5 it was d e t e r m i n e d t h a t f o r a 9 5 F d a y
3
t h e d e n s i t y is: p = 0 . 0 0 2 2 2 4 s l u g s l f t
Eqn.(3.9) yields:

From p . 1 0 2 , w i t h an assumed b y p a s s r a t i o of A = 3:1,

k , = 0 . 7 5 ~ 8 1 7 = 0.857. From p a g e s 1 5 4 a n d 1 5 5 , t h e

v a l u e of CD w i t h o u t s t o r e s is:
0

C = 0.0096 + 0.0030 = 0.0126.

DO
T h e r e f o r e , t h e t a k e - o f f d i s t a n c e requirement can be
reduced to:

The following t a b u l a t i o n can now b e made:

part I Chapter 3 Page 1 8 5

 A f a c t o r of 1 . 1 8 was u s e d t o t r a n s l a t e t h e h o t d a y
t h r u s t d a t a into standard day thrust data. T h i s factor
comes from t y p i c a l t u r b o f a n d a t a f o r t h i s type of
airplane.
F i g u r e 3 . 3 6 shows t h e g r a p h i c a l r e s u l t s .

A c c o r d i n g t o 3.3.5.1 t h e FAR 2 5 m e t h o d can be used

e x c e p t t h a t a c o r r e c t i o n f o r a p p r o a c h speed must b e made.
T a b l e 2 . 1 9 specifies t h e g r o u n d r u n as < 2 . 0 0 0 f t .
T h e r a t i o of g r o u n d r u n t o t o t a l d i s t a n c e d u r i n g l a n d i n g
i s r o u g h l y 1 . 9 u n l e s s special r e t a r d a t i o n p r e c e d u r e s a r e
used:

For this fighter therefore: sL = 1.9x2,OOO =

= 3,800 f t .

From F i g u r e 3.16. sL = 3 . 8 0 0 1 0 . 6 = 6.333 ft.

From F i g u r e 3.17 t h i s y i e l d s : VA = 21.200 kts .
2

However. since f o r a f i g h t e r VA = 1.2Vs i n s t e a d of

1.3Vs it f o l l o w s t h a t : L
L
VA = ~ 2 1 . 2 0 0 ( 1 . 3 1 1 . 2 ) 1 'I2 = 1 5 8 k t s
Therefore. V
s,L = 15811.2 = 1 3 2 k t s = 222 fps.
F r o m Eqn. ( 3 . 1 ) :

222' = ( 2 1 0 . 0 0 2 2 2 4 ) (WIS) I C r or:

'maxL
(WISIL = 54. 8CL
max L
~f it i s a s s u m e d . t h a t WL - 0. 85WT0 ( n o t specified
i n T a b l e 2.19). t h e following t a b u l a t i o n can now b e made:

C~
max,

Part I Chapter 3 Page 186

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 8 7
 F i g u r e 3.36 shows t h a t t h e l a n d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t i s
n o t c r i t i c a l i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of wing l o a d i n g . The
reason is t h a t a 2,000 f t g r o u n d r u n is v e r y l i b e r a l f o r
t h i s t y p e of a f i g h t e r .

The c l i m b performance s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e g i v e n i n
T a b l e 2.19. Examples were a l r e a y computed i n S u b - s e c t i o n
3.4.12 and g r a p h i c a l l y shown as r e q u i r e m e n t s 1) and 2 ) i n
F i g u r e 3.27. These l i n e s a r e r e p e a t e d i n F i g u r e 3.36.
The r e a d e r w i l l n o t e t h a t requirement 3 ) of F i g u r e 3.27
i s n o t shown i n F i g u r e 3.36 b e c a u s e t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t was
n o t a p a r t of t h o s e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 2.19.

According t o T a b l e 2.19 t h e a i r p l a n e m u s t s a t i s f y
f o u r d i f f e r e n t s p e e d requirements:

A t sealevel: 450 k t s ' c l e a n ' and

400 k t s w i t h e x t e r n a l s t o r e s

A t 40,000 f t : M = 0.85 'clean and

M = 0.80 w i t h e x t e r n a l s t o r e s

These requirements w i l l be s u b j e c t e d t o t h e speed

s i z i n g p r o c e s s of S u b - s e c t i o n 3.6.4.

The Mach numbers a t t h e s e s p e e d s a r e 0.68 and 0.6

respectively. I t w i l l be assumed t h a t t h e r e a r e no
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s a t t h e s e Mach numbers. The d r a g
p o l a r s of S u b - s e c t i o n 3.4.12 can t h e r e f o r e b e used:

Low speed 'clean:

C~
= 0.0096 + 0.0995CL 2
2
L OW speed + s t o r e s : CD = 0.0126 + 0.0995CL

Eqn.(3.60) w i l l be used f o r t h e speed s i z i n g . The

f o l l o w i n g i s found:

F o r 450 k t s ' c l e a n ' :

This results i n t h e following tabulation:

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 8 8

 with M=0.68 static with
stores clean clean clean stores
(psf (psf I

F o r 400 k t s w i t h s t o r e s :

This results i n t h e following t a b u l a t i o n :

with M=0.60 static with

stores clean clean clean stores
(psf) (psf)

F i g u r e 3 . 3 6 shows t h e g r a p h i c a l r e s u l t s of t h e
sealevel s p e e d s i z i n g .

A t M = 0 . 8 a c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d r a g increment o f
0.0020 was a s s u m e d f o r t h i s a i r p l a n e on p.152. At M =
0 . 8 5 a c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d r a g increment of 0.0030 w i l l b e
assumed. The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d r a g d u e t o t h e s t o r e s w i l l
b e n e g l e c t e d . T h i s is a r e a s o n a b l e assumption b e c a u s e
s l e n d e r s t o r e s show no d r a g r i s e u n t i l a b o u t M = 0.9.
T h e f o l l o w i n g d r a g polars a r e t h e r e f o r e u s e d :
2
at M = 0.85 'clean': CD = 0 . 0 1 2 6 + 0.0995CL
2
at M = 0.80, + stores:
C~
= 0.0146 + 0.0995CL

Eqn.(3.60) w i l l again b e used i n t h e speed s i z i n g .

It is found t h a t :

Part I Chapter 3 Page 189

 For M = 0.85 'clean':

This r e s u l t s i n t h e following t a b u l a t i o n :
(WIS)To (WIS) (TIW) (TIWITO (T/WITO

with 1450. 85 static with

stores clean clean clean stores
(psf (psi

For M = . 0.8 with s t o r e s :

This r e s u l t s i n t h e following tabulation:

with M=O. 8 static with

stores clean clean clean stores
(psf) (psf)

F i g u r e 3.36 shows t h e g r a p h i c a l r e s u l t s of t h e
4 0 , 0 0 0 it speed s i z i n g .

3.7.4.5 w v of m a w a re-

I t c a n b e s e e n from F i g u r e 3.36 t h a t t h e t a k e - o f f
requirement and t h e time- to- climb requirement a r e t h e
c r i t i c a l ones. Assuming a take- of f l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t of
= 1 . 8 , p o i n t P i s s e l e c t e d as t h e matching p o i n t
C~
m a x ~ ~
f o r t h i s f i g h t e r . T h e r e f o r e , by s e l e c t i n g :

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 9 0

 (WIS)TO ' 5 5 p s f .

a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e met. The l a n d i n g l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t
i s s e e n t o b e n o t c r i t i c a l . T h e r e f o r e it would b e
possible t o put a separate landing f l a p s e t t i n g i n
t h e airplane.
The f i g h t e r a i r p l a n e is now determined by t h e
following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
Take- off weight w i t h s t o r e s : 64,500 lbs
Take-off weight ' c l e a n ' : 54,500 lbs
Empty weight: 33,500 lbs
F u e l weight: 18,500 lbs
These d a t a were a l r e a d y known on p.67.
Maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s :
Clean: CL n o t determined
max
Take- off: CL = 1. 8
m a x ~ ~
Landing: CL not c r i t i c a l
maxL
Aspect r a t i o : 4 (The r e a d e r s h o u l d c a r r y o u t a n
a n a l y s i s t o see what t h e e f f e c t i s o f a s p e c t r a t i o s o f
3 . 5 and 4 . 5 ) .

Wing a r e a : 6 4 , 5 0 0 / 5 5 - 1,173 f t
2

T h r u s t a t t a k e - o f f : TTO - 64,500x0.46 - 29,670 lbs

I n p a r t I1 of t h i s t e x t a n example is g i v e n of how
t h e configuration design f o r t h i s f i g h t e r a i r p l a n e can be
s t a r t e d with t h i s information.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 9 1

 1) For t h e r e g i o n a l t r a n s p o r t of S e c t i o n 2 . 8 ,
problem 2 , do t h e t a k e - o f f , climb and l a n d i n g s i z i n g
a c c o r d i n g t o FAR 2 5 requirements.
2 ) For t h e h i g h a l t i t u d e l o i t e r and r e c o n n a i s s a n c e
a i r p l a n e of S e c t i o n 2 . 8 , problem 3 , perform t h e t a k e - o f f ,
climb and l a n d i n g s i z i n g t o FAR 2 5 r e q u i r e m e n t s .
3 For t h e homebuilt a i r p l a n e of S e c t i o n 2 . 8 ,
problem 4 , c a r r y o u t t h e t a k e - o f f , c l i m b and l a n d i n g
s i z i n g t o FAR 2 3 requirements.
4 ) For t h e s u p e r s o n i c c r u i s e a i r p l a n e of S e c t i o n
2.8, problem 5 , do t h e t a k e - o f f , c l i m b and l a n d i n g s i z i n g
t o FAR 2 5 requirements.
5 ) Do t h e FAR 2 3 s i z i n g f o r a n a g r i c u l t u r a l a i r p l a n e
with t h e following ( s e a l e v e l only) mission requirements:
s p r a y o r d u s t l o a d of 4,000 l b s .
f e r r y d i s t a n c e is 1 0 miles.
f e r r y speed should b e 1 6 0 mph.
swath turn- around must b e less t h a n 2 0 sec.
l o a d d i s p e r s a l r a t e is 4 5 l b s p e r a c r e .
swath width must be 80 f t .
speed w h i l e s p r a y i n g s h o u l d b e 1 0 0 mph.
* t a k e - o f f d i s t a n c e t o a 5 0 f t o b s t a c l e must be
less t h a n 1 , 5 0 0 f t .
f u e l r e s e r v e s a f t e r emptying t h e hopper must
b e s u f f i c i e n t f o r 2 0 min. a t 1 6 0 mph.
6 ) Do t h e FAR 2 5 s i z i n g f o r a 9 0 p a s s e n g e r , twin
e n g i n e t u r b o p r o p w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g mission:
range 1 , 5 0 0 n.m. a t M = 0.7 and 3 0 , 0 0 0 f t .
crew: two p i l o t s and t h r e e f l i g h t a t t e n d a n t s .
assume 2 0 0 l b s p e r p e r s o n , i n c l u d i n g baggage.
f i e l d l e n g t h 7 , 0 0 0 f t . f o r a s t a n d a r d day a t
9 , 0 0 0 it a l t i t u d e .
engine- out s e r v i c e c e i l i n g : 1 6 , 0 0 0 f t .
maximum approach speed less t h a n 1 3 0 k t s .
f u e l r e s e r v e s p e r FAR P a r t 1 2 1 .
7 ) For t h e f i g h t e r of T a b l e 2 . 1 9 , d e t e r m i n e t h e r e -
l a t i o n between T/W and W/S a t t a k e - o f f i f t h e a i r p l a n e
must p u l l s u s t a i n e d l e v e l t u r n s w i t h l o a d f a c t o r s of 4 , 6
and 8. Do a t r a d e s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t of maximum l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t v a l u e s of 1 . 0 , 1 . 2 and 1 . 4 . All this at
s e a l e v e l and M = 0.8.

Part I Chapter 3 Page 1 9 2

4. A USER'S G U I D E TO PRELIMINARY AIRPLANE SIZING
~ = = = S P = I P P P P ~ = ~ P P I P ~ ~ = ~ P = ~ ~ : P ~ I ~ ~ L ~ P ~ ~

The p r o c e s s of p r e l i m i n a r y a i r p l a n e s i z i n g t o a
v a r i e t y of m i s s i o n and c e r t i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s was
d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n c h a p t e r s 2 and 3.
I n t h i s c h a p t e r a step- by- step g u i d e is provided t o
h e l p g u i d e t h e r e a d e r t h r o u g h t h e maze of s i z i n g methods-
S t e p 1. Obtain a m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n and c o n s t r u c t
from i t a m i s s i o n p r o f i l e . Example m i s s i o n p r o f i l e s a r e
g i v e n i n T a b l e s 2 . 1 7 , 2.18 and 2 . 1 9 .
S t e p 2. Number t h e m i s s i o n p h a s e s i n sequence, as
shown i n t h e examples of T a b l e s 2.17 through 2.19.
S t e p 3. For c e r t a i n m i s s i o n p h a s e s t h e f u e l f r a c t i o n
can be e s t i m a t e d d i r e c t l y from T a b l e 2 . 1 . For o t h e r
m i s s i o n p h a s e s , estimate t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g L/D and s f c
v a l u e s . T a b l e 2 . 2 can b e used a s a g u i d e .
S t e p 4. Determine t h e o v e r a l l m i s s i o n f u e l f r a c t i o n ,
Mff w i t h t h e method of S e c t i o n 2 . 4 : Eqn.(2.13).
S t e p 5. From t h e m i s s i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n d e t e r m i n e t h e
f u e l r e s e r v e s , Wp o r t h e f u e l r e s e r v e f r a c t i o n , MreS.
res
S t e p 6. Follow t h e s t e p - b y - s t e p p r o c e d u r e s o u t l i n e d
as s t e p s 1- 7 of page 7.
Note: i f t h e m i s s i o n demands dropping o f w e i g h t s
(such as i n many m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n s ) some of t h e f u e l
f r a c t i o n s need t o b e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h i s . The p r o c e d u r e
f o r doing t h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d i n Sub- section 2.6.3.
A t t h e t e r m i n a t i o n of S t e p 6 , t h e f o l l o w i n g
information is a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e a i r p l a n e :
Take-off weight, WTO
Empty w e i g h t , WE
F u e l weight, Wp
Payload and crew w e i g h t s , WpL and Wcrew. f o l l o w from
t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

Part I Chapter 4 Page 1 9 3

 S t e p 7. Note from t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n what t h e
c e r t i f i c a t i o n base is f o r t h e a i r p l a n e : homebuilt, FAR
2 3 , FAR 2 5 o r m i l i t a r y . I f a homebuilt is being
considered, FAR 23 should be used f o r f u r t h e r p r e l i m i n a r y
sizing.
S t e p 8. Make a l i s t of performance parameters t o
which t h e a i r p l a n e must be s i z e d . Such a list can be p u t
t o g e t h e r from t h e mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n and from t h e
c e r t i f i c a t i o n base. The following examples a r e d i s c u s s e d
i n Chapter 3 :
3.1 Sizing to s t a l l speed requirements.
3.2 Sizing to take- off d i s t a n c e requirements.
3.3 Sizing to landing d i s t a n c e requirements.
3.4 Sizing to climb requirements.
3.5 Sizing to maneuvering requirements.
3.6 Sizing to c r u i s e speed requirements.
S t e p 9. Perform t h e s i z i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s i n
accordance w i t h t h e methods of S e c t i o n s 3.1 through 3.6.
T h i s i n v o l v e s e s t i m a t i n g a drag p o l a r . T h i s can be done
r a p i d l y with t h e method of Sub- section 3.4.1.
S t e p 10. Construct a s i z i n g matching graph f o r a l l
performance s i z i n g requirements. Examples f o r
c o n s t r u c t i n g such matching graphs a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
S e c t i o n 3.7.
S t e p 11. From t h e matching graph s e l e c t :
1) Take-off power loading: ( w I P ) o~r ~
Take-off thrust- to- weight r a t i o : (T/WITO
2 ) Take-off wing loading: (W/S)TO
3) Maximum ( c l e a n ) l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t : CL
max
4 ) Maximum take- off l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t :
C~
m a x ~ ~
5 Maximum landing lift c o e f f i c i e n t : CL
maxL
6) Wing a s p e c t r a t i o : A
S t e p 1 2 . Determine t h e take- off power. PTO o r t h e
take- of f t h r u s t , TTO from:

Part I Chapter 4 Page 1 9 4

 'TO = WTO/(W/P)TOo r from:

S t e p 11. Determine t h e wing a r e a , S from:

A l l a i r p l a n e parameters needed t o b e g i n t h e
development o f a c o n f i g u r a t i o n a r e now d e f i n e d . Part I1
o f t h i s book, ( R e f . 1 ) p r e s e n t s a methodology f o r t h e
s e l e c t i o n and l a y o u t o f a preliminary a i r p l a n e
configuration.

~b
ml'
- 84 -
--=-
-
-
N-N
Y.M

P-P

GATES
LEAATET
MODEL G S

Part I Chapter 4 Page 1 9 5

Part I Chapter 4 Page 1 9 6
5. REFERENCES
PISPPPIIPIPIS

1. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part 11, Preliminary

Configuration Design and Integration of the
Propulsion System.
2. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part 111, Layout Design
of Cockpit, Fuselage, Wing and Empennage: Cutaways
and Inboard Profiles.
3. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part IV, Layout Design
of Landing Gear and Systems.
4. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part V, Component
Weight Estimation.
5. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part VI, Preliminary
Calculation of Aerodynamic, Thrust and Power
Characteristics.
6. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part VII, Determination
of Stability, Control and Performance
Characteristics: FAR and Military Requirements.
7. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part VIII, Airplane
Cost Estimation and Optimization: Design, Development
Manufacturing and Operating.
Note: These books are all published by: Roskam Aviation
and Engineering Corporation, Rt4, Box 274, Ottawa,
Kansas, 66067, Tel. 913-2421624.
8. Anon., Federal Aviation Regulations, Department of
Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration,
Distribution Requirements Section, M-482.2,
Washington, D.C., 20590.
9. Taylor, J.W.R., Jane's All The World Aircraft,
Published Annually by: Jane's Publishing Company,
23 8 City Road, London EClV 2PU, England.
(Issues used: 1945146, 19681 84)
10. Nicolai, L.M., Fundamentals of Aircraft ~ e s i g n ,
METS, Inc., 6520 Kingsland Court, CA, 95120.
11. Loftin, Jr., L.K., Subsonic Aircraft: Evolution and
the Matching of Size to Performance, NASA Reference
Publication 1060, 1980.

Part I References Page 197

12. Kohlman, D.L., Introduction to V/STOL ~irplanes,
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 50010,
1981.
13. McCormick, B.W., Aerodynamics of V/STOL Flight,
Academic Press, New York, 1967.
14. Lan, C.E. and Roskam, J., Airplane Aerodynamics and
Performance, Roskam Aviation and ~ngineeringCorp.,
Rt4, Box 274, Ottawa, KS, 66067, 1981.
15. MIL-C-005011B(USAF), Military Specification, Charts:
Standard Aircraft Characteristics and Performance,
Piloted Aircraft (Fixed Wing), June 1977.
16. Torenbeek, E., Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane
Design, Kluwer Boston Inc. , Hingham, ~ a i n e ,19 82.

Part I References Page 198

6 . INDEX
=Pa=====

A g r i c u l t u r a l a i r p l a n e weight d a t a
Allowable empty weight
Amphibious a i r p l a n e weight d a t a
Approach speed
APU ( A u x i l i a r y Power U n i t )
A ~ ~ r e s t i ngear
g
Breguet
B r e g u e t ' s equation f o r endurance
B r e g u e t ' s e q u a t i o n f o r range
Breguet p a r t i a l s
Business j e t weight d a t a
Bypass r a t i o
C a r r i e r requirements
Catapult
Ceiling d e f i n i t i o n s
ceiling sizing
C l i n b sradient
Climb g r a d i e n t parameter
Climb ~ h a s e
c l i m b ingle
Climb r a t e
Climb r a t e parameter 131
Climb s i z i n g 150,143,131,118
C o n p o s i t e ( s ) weight 48,18
C o r r e c t i o n f o r dropping w e i g h t ( s 1 64,63
C r u i s e phase 14,13
C r u i s e range e q u a t i o n 13
C r u i s e speed s i z i n g 168,167,165,162

Descent phase
D i s k loading ( p r o p e l l e r )
Driver (design)
Drag p o l a r s
Empty weight 17,6,5
Empty weight v e r s u s g r o s s take- off weight:
l o g a r i t h m i c g r aphs 19- 30
tables 31- 46
regression l i n e constants 47
Endurance 11
Endurance e q u a t i o n 13,ll
Engine s t a r t and warm-up phase 12,ll
Equivalent p a r a s i t e a r e a 122,120,119,118
Equivalent s k i n f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t 121

Part I Index Page 1 9 9

FAR 2 3 climb r e q u i r e m e n t s 129
FAR 2 5 climb r e q u i r e m e n t s 140
FAR 2 3 climb s i z i n g 134
FAR 2 5 climb s i z i n g 143
FAR 2 3 l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s 108
FAR 2 3 l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e d e f i n i t i o n 109
FAR 2 5 l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s 111
FAR 2 5 l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e d e f i n i t i o n 112
FAR 2 3 l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 111,108
FAR 2 5 l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 113,111
FAR 2 3 take- of f d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s 95
FAR 2 3 take- of f d i s t a n c e d e f i n i t i o n 93
FAR 2 5 t a k e - o f f d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s 98
FAR 2 5 t a k e - o f f d i s t a n c e d e f i n i t i o n 99
FAR 2 3 t a k e - o f f d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 97,95
FAR 2 5 t a k e - o f f d i s t a n c e s i z i n g 101,98
F i g h t e r weight d a t a 43,42,27
F l y i n g b o a t weight d a t a 45,29
Fuel f r a c t i o n 16,9
Fuel f r a c t i o n d a t a 12,lO
F u e l f r a c t i o n method 9
F u e l weight s e e weight
Ground run ( t a k e - o f f 1
Growth factor
Growth f a c t o r due t o empty weight
Growth f a c t o r due t o payload
Homebuilt weight d a t a 32,31,19

Landing d i s t a n c e : s i z i n g and r e q u i r e m e n t s 106

Landing, t a x i and shut-down phase 15,12
Landing weight 107
L o i t e r phase 15,12
Lift- to- drag r a t i o 14
Lift coefficient
maximum c l e a n 91
maximum l a n d i n g 91
maximm t a k e - o f f 91

Maneuvering r e q u i r e m e n t s 160
Matching of s i z i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s 170
Maximum l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s ( S e e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t ) 91
M i l i t a r y requirements:
climb
ceiling
landing distance
maneuver i n g
take- off distance
time- to- climb
s p e c i f i c e x c e s s power
Part I Index Page 2 0 0
M i l i t a r y p a t r o l , t r a n s p o r t and bomber wht d a t a 44,28
M i l i t a r y t r a i n e r weight d a t a 41,26
Mission f u e l f r a c t i o n 16
Mission f u e l weight ( u s e d ) 16,9
Mission p h a s e 11,9
Mission p r o f i l e 61,55,50,10
Mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n 61,55,50,4,3,2,1

Oswald's e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r , e 127

Parasite area (equivalent) 122,120,119,118

Power index 162
Power r e q u i r e d a t t a k e - o f f ( s e e t a k e - o f f power)
Preliminary design ( s t u d i e s 3,1
Preliminary s i z i n g ( s t u d i e s ) 3,1
Propeller disk loading 102
Propeller efficiency 74,14,13

Range e q u a t i o n 13
Rate of c l i m b s i z i n g 134
Regional t u r b o p r o p weight d a t a 39,38,24
Regression l i n e c o n s t a n t s f o r weight d a t a 18,47
Regression l i n e c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r
wetted a r e a d a t a 122,121
RFP (Request f o r p r o p o s a l ) 3

Sensitivity studies 68
Sensitivity to:
empty weight 72
endurance 76,74
lift- to- drag r a t i o 81,74
payload weight 70
propeller efficiency 81,74
range 76,74
s p e c i f i c f u e l consumption 81,74
speed 76,74
Shallow f l i g h t p a t h a n g l e s 150
S i n g l e e n g i n e p r o p e l l e r a i r p l a n e weight d a t a 34,33,20
Sizing t o :
Ceiling requirements 150
Climb r e q u i r e m e n t s 118
C r u i s e speed r e q u i r e m e n t s 162
Landing d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s 106
Maneuvering r e q u i r e m e n t s 160
S p e c i f i c e x c e s s power r e q u i r e m e n t s 154
S t a l l speed r e q u i r e m e n t s 90
Take- off d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s 94
Time- to-climb r e q u i r e m e n t s 150
Skin f r i c t i o n ( e q u i v a l e n t ) 121
S p e c i f i c f u e l consumption 14,13
S p e c i f i c e x c e s s power 154

Part I Index Page 201

Speed power index
S t a l l speed
S t a l l speed s i z i n g
Steep f l i g h t path angles
Supersonic c r u i s e a i r p l a n e weight d a t a
Take-off d i s t a n c e (requirements) 103,101,98,97,95,94
Take-off f i e l d l e n g t h 99,98
Take-of f phase 12,ll
Take-off parameter 98,95
Time t o climb s i z i n g 150
Transport j e t weight d a t a 40,25
Twin e n g i n e p r o p e l l e r a i r p l a n e weight d a t a 35,21

U s e r ' s guide t o p r e l i m i n a r y a i r p l a n e s i z i n g 193

Weight:
Crew
Empty 5
Empty t o g r o s s c o r r e l a t i o n 18
Empty and g r o s s d a t a 46- 19
Fixed equipment 6
Fuel 9,s
Guess 8.7
Landing 107
Manufacturer's empty 6
Operating empty 5
Payload 8,6,5
Reserve f u e l 9
Take-of f g r o s s 5
Tentative 7
Trapped f u e l and o i l 6
Used f u e l 9
Wetted a r e a 127,126,125,124,123,122, 121,120, 119

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