Dra.

Abat

Methods of Data Presentation

“ more” or “greater than” other
Session Objectives observations.
Ex.
1.To describe the different scales of measurements • Patient’s condition upon admission in
of variables. the hospital: critical, severe, moderate
2.To discuss the various methods of summarizing light.
collected data. • Nutritional status of children: mild ,
3.To discuss the methods of presenting collected moderate, severe
data.
• Staging of hypertension
• Staging of TB by X-ray- Minimal ,
Scales of Measurement moderate, far advance
 degree or precision with which a
characteristic is measured
INTERVAL SCALE
 also determines which statistical methods
 characterized by a numerical unit of
maybe used to analyze the data.
measurements such that the difference
Types:
between any two measurements is explicitly
• 1. NOMINAL SCALE
known in terms of an interval between two
• 2. ORDINAL points on the scale.
• 3. INTERVAL  A peculiar characteristic of this scale is that
• 4. RATIO both unit of measurement and the zero point
• 5. NUMERICAL ( origin of the starting point ) of the scale are
arbitrary and only fixed by conventions.
Categories/scal Description Examples Ex. Temperature – Celsius or Fahrenheit 37-39
es etc.
NOMINAL classifies sex, religion, Ordinal scale can be made to look like an interval
subject into nationality scale by assigning score to the various
one of a measurement
number of
qualitative RATIO SCALE
classes  has all the characteristic of the interval scale
ORDINAL similar to Social class as well as a true or absolute zero so that the
nominal but Profession ratio between two values on the scale is a
classes can be nutritional meaningful measure of the relative
ranked status magnitude of the 2 measurements.
INTERVAL exact distance Temperature Ex. Height in cm
between 2 weight in kg.
categories can
be determined NUMERICAL SCALES - Quantitative
but zero point  observations in which the differences
is arbitrary between the numbers have meaning in the
RATIO similar to Age, numerical scale are also called quantitative
interval but height,weight observations because they measure the
zero point is quantity of something.
fixed Types of numerical data:
A) Continuous scale- values on the
NOMINAL SCALE continuum , can assume integral or fractional
 names, labels, or tags are given to values .
distinguish one measurement from the ex. Age, ht, wt, blood chemistry, length of
other. time of survival,
 Measurements on this scale does not B ) Discreet- values equal to integers or
include any notion of magnitude of the whole numbers
individual measurements. Ex. ex. # of boys, # of fractures , # of
• Outcome of disease: survival or death pregnancies, # of deaths or morbidity from
• Admission status: in patient, a certain disease
outpatient
• Psychiatry patients: psychotic, Data Presentation
neurotic, manic depressive,
Schizophrenics
• Types of DM: Type I , Type 2 A. Textual
B. Semi-textual
ORDINAL SCALE C. Tabular
D. Graphical Presentation
 an observation is measured based on
an inherent order among categories.
 Observations are still classified as with
nominal scales but some observations have
A. Tabular

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FCM/Neurotrans
1. More compact  Table Title--A table title gives an
2. Easier to understand esp. when comparing figures overview of the information displayed in the
3. Appears more orderly table. The title is given at the top of the
4. Can present large sets of information table.
5. Point out trends, comparisons and
interrelationships  Row/Column Labels--The label of
each row or column indicates what type of
Parts of Statistical Table information is contained in that row or
1. Table number column. The table shown here has 2 columns
2. Title of information, each with a label.
3. Head note
4. Column headings
 Individual Cells--Each cell is defined
5. Row headings/stubs
by its row and column location. In the
6. Body of table
example,the cell outlined is in the fourth
7. Footnote
row, first column.
8. Source of data

Table number  Relationship of cells within a row

• numbered consecutively using Arabic or column--Often we want to determine if
numerals there is a trend within a row or column. For
example, do the values increase as we move
Title up or down a row or column?
• complete
Example:
information:what,who,where,when
The Relationship Between
• self-explanatory
Ticket Prices and Attendance at First Union
• may use additional information University
(headnote)
Column headings
• basis of classification of the columns or
vertical series of figures
• should be centered
• capitalization of headings,including row
headings
• Row headings or stubs
• indicate the basis of classification of the
rows or horizontal series of figures
Body
• intersection of a row and a column in a
table is called a cell 1. What is the attendance when ticket
• figures within the cells should be aligned price is $15 dollars?
by decimal points The answer is 9 thousand.
• may contain extra columns or rows for 2. What is the relationship between
marginal totals ticket prices and attendance?
• Footnotes As ticket prices increase, attendance
decreases. The point where no one will buy a
• - small letters are used ;usually placed
ticket is at a cost of $25.
beside figures in the table.
3. What is the optimal ticket price? Give
• placed immediately below the bottom
a reason for your answer.
rule of the table
The optimal ticket price is $15. At a ticket
Source of data
price of $15 the money taken in from ticket
• obligatory if source is not original sales is $135 thousand, which is the greatest
• placed after the footnotes or bottom rule amount. Even though more people attend at
of the table a lower price, the amount of money is less
• should not be placed as a footnote to the than $135 thousand.
page
Pointers in Construction of a Table

 It should be simple,clear and direct

 Clean,uniform and professional look

1. Positioning of the table

• immediately after the text where it is first
cited
• should never be placed before its
mentioned/cited in the textlarge tables
which could not fit in the conventional
vertical position maybe positioned
horizontally or in facing pages

2. Uniformity of style

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 • Standardize a particular design for a e. Relative
single report f. cumulative frequency
• Creates a feeling of “normal expectation”
on the part of the reader a. Class limits
• Unnecessary confusion results if the lower class limit
format of one table differs from the other upper class limit
format of other tables within the same
report EXAMPLE:
3. Numbers of variables presented weight in kg No. of
Mothers
• Two or at the most three variables
28-34 9
4. Self-explanatory
35-41 137
• Can understand the content without 42-48 306
referring to textual explanations. 49-55 196
• Title must be complete and concise 56-62 75
• Units of measure should be clearly 63-69 37
indicated 70-76 9
• Codes, abbreviations and symbols that 77-83 4
are not common should be explained in 84-90 3
footnotes 91-97 1
5. Rules
• lines which separate rows or columns b. Class boundaries
within a table
True lower class limit
• Closely-spaced double rules are used
True upper class limit
for the top rule of the table and
succeeding rules, including the bottom
c. Class midpoint
ones are single-ruled
• Codes, abbreviations and symbols - value which divides the class into 2 subclasses of
that are not common should be explained equal width
in footnotes
• horizontal rules should separate the sum of the class boundaries divided by 2
column headings from the figures 28 + 34 / 2 = 31
• Vertical rules used for closely-spaced
figures

DATA PRESENTATION

A census conducted in Brgy X in Cavite City by IRRI weight in kg No. of Mothers Class
in 1988, showed that there were 272 females aged midpoint
between 15-44 years old. Of these 75 or 28% were 28-34 9 31
less than 20 yrs old, 107 or 39 % were between 20 35-41 137 38
and 29 while 91 or 33 % were between 30 & 44. 42-48 306 45
Approx. 77% or 181 of women had married at least 49-55 196 52
once. Among the 15-19 age group , only of 7 of the 56-62 75 59
women or 8% ever get married . The proportion of 63-69 37 66
the ever married women increased sharply in the 20- 70-76 9 73
29 age group to 81% or 87 women. For the 30-44 77-83 4 80
age group , the number of ever married women was 84-90 3 87
89 or 98% of the women in the age bracket. 91-97 1 94

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY

d. Cumulative frequency

sum of all class frequencies preceding a

given class and the frequency of the class under
consideration

Example:

weight in kg no. of Mothers Class midpoint

cum.freq
28-34 9 31 9
Common type of table used to summarize counts of 35-41 137 38
observation 146
Components of the table: 42-48 306 45
a. Class limits 452
b. Class boundaries 49-55 196 52
c. Class midpoint 648
d. Cumulative frequency 56-62 75 59
723
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 63-69 37 66 • identify the entities being measured
760 along horizontal as well vertical axis.
70-76 9 73 • scale graduations should be clearly
769 indicated
77-83 4 80 Grid or Guide rulings
773 • Used to guide the eye
84-90 3 87 • Should be drawn lightly
776 • Use minimally
91-97 1 94
• Should be neat and businesslike quality
777
• Simple and devoid of unnecessary
trimmings and draftsmanship
e. Relative frequency • Simplest graphs are the most effective
• Basis of classification is generally
class frequency divided by the total number represented on the horizontal scale while
of observations expressed in percentage frequencies, whether absolute or relative ,
are placed along the vertical
EXAMPLE: • Vertical scale should always start with
weight in kg no. of Mothers Class midpoint zero.
cum.freq relative freq
• Use of color for emphasis or to differentiate
28-34 9 31 9 between items
1.2
• Equal distances between tick marks on an
35-41 137 38 146
axis should represent equal numerical units.
17.6
42-48 306 45 452
39.4
49-55 196 52 648
25.2
56-62 75 59 723
9.7
63-69 37 66 760
4.8
70-76 9 73 769
1.2
77-83 4 80 773
0.5
84-90 3 87 776
0.4
91-97 1 94 777
0.1

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY

sum of all relative frequencies preceding a

given class and the relative frequency of the class What is a BAR GRAPH?
under consideration
allows us to see how many observations, in A bar graph is a visual display used to compare the
relative terms lie below a certain class. amounts or frequency of occurrence of different
characteristics of data. This type of display allows us
to:
• compare groups of data, and
• To make generalizations about the data
quickly.

When reading a bar graph there are several things

we must pay attention to: the graph title, two axes,
including axes labels and scale, and the bars. Since
bar graphs are used to graph frequencies or
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION amounts of data in discrete groups, we will need to
determine which axis is the grouped data axis, as
Pointers
well as what the specific groups are, and which is the
TITLE
frequency axis.
• it should be self-explanatory
• Clear and concise title- what,when Things we must pay attention to:
where,source of data if secondary • graph title
• Position of title is a matter of • two axes, including axes labels and scale
choice,although in technical papers, it is • bars
below the chart Since bar graphs are used to graph frequencies
SCALES or amounts of data in discrete groups, we will
• it should be properly labeled need to determine which axis is the grouped data

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 axis, as well as what the specific groups are, and 1. Which course has the most students enrolled
which is the frequency axis. in it?
2. Order the courses by enrollment from lowest
Price of Corn versus Quantity Demanded to highest.
3. The enrollment in Econ is approximately how
many times bigger than the enrollment in
Chem.?
4. Approximately how many students were
enrolled in the course with the most
students?
5. Approximately how many more students are
in Econ than in Physics?

CIRCLE GRAPHS

- Pie charts, are a type of graph used to represent a

part to whole relationship. Properties of Circle
Graphs:

• Graph Title--overview of the information • They are circular shaped graphs with the
being presented in the graph. The title is entire circle representing the whole.
given at the top of the graph. • The circle is then split into parts, or sectors.
• Axes and their labels--Each graph has two • Each sector represents a part of the whole.
axes. The axes labels tell us what information • Each sector is proportional in size to the
is presented on each axis. One axis amount each sector represents, therefore it is
represents data groups, the other easy to make generalizations and
represents the amounts or frequency of comparisons.
data groups.
• Grouped Data Axis--The grouped data axis Properties of Circle Graphs:
is always at the base of the bars. This • Circular shaped graphs with the entire circle
axis displays the type of data being graphed. representing the whole.
• It is then split into parts, or sectors.
• Each sector represents a part of the whole.
• Each sector is proportional in size to the
amount each sector represents, therefore it is
easy to make generalizations and
comparisons.

Revenue Sources for the Federal Government

Enrollment in Introductory Courses at Union

University

Circle Graphs

• Graph Title--gives an overview of the

information displayed in the graph. The title
is given at the top of the graph.

• Sectors--Each sector represents one part of

the whole. The size of each sector represents
its fraction of the whole.

• Sector Labels--The label of each sector

indicates the category of information it refers
to, and may also give numeric data (often a

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 percentage) so we know the size of each trends whatsoever. The following plots demonstrate
sector. the appearance of positively associated, negatively
associated, and non-associated variables:

LINE GRAPHS

A line graph is used to show the relationship

between two variables, the independent variable and
the dependent variable. The variables being Associated variables:
compared go on the two axes of the graph

The independent variable always goes on the

horizontal axis, called the x-axis.

The dependent variable always goes on the vertical

axis, or y-axis.

A SCATTERPLOT or SCATTERPOINT DIAGRAM is

often employed to identify potential associations
between two QUANTITATIVE variables

A positive association upward trend (positive

slope)

e.g. where higher incomes correspond to higher

education levels and lower incomes correspond to
fewer years of education.
associated variables:
A negative association would be indicated by the
opposite effect (negative slope) COMPONENT BAR DIAGRAM
e.g. where the most highly educated individuals
would have lower incomes than the least educated A simple bar diagram is used to present only one
individuals. variable.

Or, there might not be any notable association, in

which case a Scatterplot would not indicate any
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 But when a breakdown of total or a series of totals is
to be represented, we have to use what is called
sub-divided or component bar diagrams.

This is preferable to the pie chart in situations where

comparisons has to be done between 2 or more
groups

HISTOGRAM

graphical representation of the frequency

distribution of a continuous quantitative variable
including age.
Used to depict counts , absolute or relative of each
class groupings.
The horizontal axis is a continuous scale showing
units of measurements of the variables under
consideration .
The vertical scale shows absolute and relative
frequencies

The area of a rectangle is proportional to both the

frequency and width of the class under consideration
( comparisons between groupings are based on the
area of the rectangle and not on the heights).

The limits of the ends of the base of the rectangles

are the true class boundaries.

Histogram : Points in the construction:

1. The limits of the ends of the bases of the

rectangles are the true class limits or boundaries .
There should be no gaps between the rectangles of a
histogram since the distribution of a continuous
variable is being depicted

2. The area of a rectangle is proportional to both the

frequency and width of the class being depicted, any
distortion regarding the data could be secondary to
this point not being heeded.

Double Bar Graphs

Double bar graphs can be found from time to time.

They are used for when each data group contains

two different sets of frequency data. A double bar
graph is used to compare both between and within
data groups.

Quarterly Reports of Income and Expenses for

Dry Cleaning Associates and Co.

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