Class 11 | Biology

03 The Living World

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01. Introduction
Ÿ Biology; Bios = life, Logos = Study, means study of life is biology.
Ÿ “Biology is the science of life forms and living processes”
Ÿ Systematic and monumental description of life forms made human to make a detailed
system of identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms i.e. Taxonomy.
Ÿ Hence the study of identification, nomenclature and identification is called taxonomy.
Ÿ All the organisms have been evolved by a very long and complex process of evolution, so
they all are related to each other by sharing of some common genetic material but up to
varying degrees. This sharing may be less or more among different cases..
Ÿ When human came to know this fact then he humbled and led to cultural movements for
conservation of biodiversity.
Ÿ Sharing of common characters was also proved when human studied the similarities among
living organisms both horizontally and vertically.
Ÿ The living world is full of amazing diversity of living organisms.
Ÿ The diversity of habitats of organisms is also very vast and amazing.
Ÿ This diversity makes us deeply reflect on “What indeed is life” ? This question actually
asks to solve two problems.
(i) First is a technical → What living is as opposed to the non living means Living v/s Non
living.
(ii) Second is a philosophical one → what the purpose of life is?
As scientists we will try to solve the first question, because the second question is more
related to philosophy rather science.

02. Characters of Living Organism

Following are the main characters of “living”-
GROWTH
REPRODUCTION  Not the defining properties/characters/features
METABOLISM  Defining properties/characters/features


CELLULARORGANISATION 

CONSCIOUSNESS 
The character which has no exception is called as defining property of life.
Growth
Ÿ Increase in mass or overall size of a tissue or organism or its parts is called growth.
Ÿ Increase in mass and increase in number of individuals are twin characters of growth.
Ÿ Growth is an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or even of an
individual cell.
Ÿ Growth is of two types :
(a) Intrinsic growth :- This growth is from inside of the body of living organisms.
(b) Extrinsic growth :- This growth is from outside i.e. accumulation of material on any body
surface Non living exhibts this type of growth.

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Ÿ Growth is of two types :

(a) Indeterminate growth = Unlimited growth → Growth which occurs continuously
throughout their life span is indeterminate growth or unlimited growth. It occurs in plants
and not in animals.
(b) Determinate growth = Limited growth → Growth which occurs only up to a certain age
is determinate growth or Limited growth. It occurs in animals. However, cell division
occurs in certain tissues to replace lost cells.
Ÿ In majority of higher plants and animals, growth and reproduction are mutually exclusive
events.
Ÿ Because both living and nonliving exhibit growth so it can not be taken as defining
property.
Ÿ Growth from inside (intrinsic growth) can be taken as defining property.

Reproduction
Reproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. It can be defined
as the production of new individuals of same kind by the grown up individuals. It is
characteristic exhibited by living organisms which can produce new young ones of their own
kind. There are two modes of reproduction ― asexual and sexual.
Ÿ In lower organisms like yeasts and Hydra, budding takes place in which new individuals
are produced by the formation of an outgrowth known as ‘bud’.
Ÿ Fragmentation is another mode of asexual reproduction, as in this, body of an organism
(parent body) breaks up into two or more parts (known as fragments) each of which
grows into a new individual. It is also quite common in filamentous algae, fungus,
bryophytes (at protonema stage which occurs during life cycle in mosses).
Ÿ Planaria (flat worms) exhibit an extraordinary ability to regenerate its lost body parts
completely (which is known as true regeneration).
Ÿ This is a method of reproduction as new planarians develop by splitting of parent
planarian body either lengthwise or transversely. In higher organisms like plants, animals
sexual mode of reproduction is quite common which involves formation of gametes (i.e.,
sex cells) from two parents of opposite sexes but same species. These gametes then fuse
to form zygote (2n) which develops to form a new organism of same kind.
Ÿ Hence, reproduction is shown by all living organisms except a few which are either sterile
or infertile, like mule, worker-bees, infertile human couples, etc. do not reproduce at all.
Ÿ Hence, reproduction can be regarded as characteristic of living organisms but it is not their
exclusive defining characteristic.

Metabolism :
Ÿ The sum total all the chemical reactions occuring in our body is metabolism.
Ÿ All living organisms, both unicellular and multicellular exhibit metabolism.
Ÿ No non-living object shows metabolism.
Ÿ In this way metabolism is a defining character of living organisms because it has no
exceptions.
Ÿ Now we have known most of the chemical or metabolic reactions occuring in our body so
we can demonstrate many of them in a cell free medium or in a test tube in lab.

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Ÿ The isolated metabolic reaction outside the body of an organism, performed in a test tube
(in-vitro) is neither living nor nonliving.
Ÿ These isolated reaction can be regarded as living things, but they are definitely living
reactions because they are similar to the reactions performing in our body.
Ÿ Here we should not forget the fact that metabolism is the total sum of all the chemical
reactions performing in our body, it is not the sum of few or more living reactions.
Ÿ All organisms are made of small or big chemicals perform thousands of reactions and form
some other chemicals also in the bodies of living organisms.
Ÿ All plants, animals, fungi and microbes exhibit metabolism.

Consciousness
Ÿ Most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organism. All living
organisms are able to detect changes, i.e., sense their surroundings and can also respond to
them. This is known as sensitivity which is defined as the ability to detect changes in the
environment and to give response towards it accordingly. Any change that can be detected
by an organism is called stimulus. This can be physical (like intensity, duration, direction
of light, sound, change in temperature, duration of day length, i.e., photoperiod, etc.),
chemical (like acids, pollutants, etc.) or biological (like other organisms).
Ÿ Besides, human being is the only organism, who is aware of himself. He has
self-consciousness too with awareness of the surroundings. He relate his mind to the
changes taking place in the world. He is an intelligent animal with thoughts, feelings and
self-hood. sensitivity or awareness is regarded as defining property of living organisms as
non-living things do not have power of sensing their surroundings and give response
according to it. However, patients lying in coma in hospitals virtually supported by
machines which replace heart and lungs are neither living nor dead otherwise brain-dead.

03. Diversity In The Living World

Ÿ We consider vast areas like forest, desert, plateau etc. we find that number and kinds of
living organisms increase many folds. These different kinds of plants, animals and other
organisms are referred to as ‘Biodiversity’ of this earth.

Ÿ Biodiversity is the number and various kinds of organisms found on earth. It stands for the
variability found among living organisms inhabiting this world.

Ÿ Biodiversity (Greek word bios = life; diversity = forms) or biological diversity can be
defined as the vast array of species of microorganisms, algae, fungi, plants, animals
occuring on the earth either in the terrestrial or aquatic habitats and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part.
Ÿ According to IUCN (International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural resources),
currently known and described species of all organisms are between 1.7-1.8 million. These
millions of plants, animals and other organisms in the world cannot be recognised, studied
or described by an individual on its own.

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Ÿ There is need to standardize the names of all living organisms after proper identification, in
order to study such diverse life forms. Therefore, for better understanding of biodiversity
scientists have established a definite system of principles, procedures and terms which
identifies, categories and assigns specific name to each and every organism known to us.
Such systems are acceptable to all biologists all over the world.
Ÿ The scientific need for simple, stable and internationally accepted systems for naming the
living organisms of the world has generated, a process called “Nomenclature”. And, before
assigning a specific name to an organism, one should determine or know its kind or
features correctly, so that one can identify it in each every part of the world. This is
known as “Identification”

04. Taxonomy
Ÿ This word was proposed by A.P. De Candolle in his book “Theories elementaire de la
botanique” (Theory of elementary botany)

Ÿ Taxonomy includes study of following 4 points

Characterization - Identification of character
Identification - Identification of living organisms
Nomenclature - Nomenclature of living organisms
Classification - Classification of living organisms in groups

05. Systematics
(i) The term “Systematics” was pro posed by Linnaeus. The word systematics is derived
from the latin word “systema” which means systematic arrangement of organisms.
(ii) According to G. Simpson : Systematics is the study of diversity of organisms and all
their comparative and evolutionary relationship.

NOTE It includes description of external morphological characters of plants of living

☞ organisms.
eg. Morphological characters of Root, Stem, Leaves, Flowers.

06. New Systematics or Neosystematics or Biosystematics

Ÿ Neo-systematics – A new branch – Name given by Julian Huxley (1940)
Ÿ It includes description of all the characters (external + internal)
e.g. Anatomical characters, Histological characters, Embryological characters, Identical
characters

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Ÿ It is used to know the inter-relationship between living organisms.

NOTE ☞ New systematics is mainly based on evolutionary as well as genetic relationship as

compared to morphological characters.

07. Types of Taxonomy

Ÿ Alpha taxonomy or classical taxonomy : It is based on external morphology of plants.
Ÿ Bete taxonomy or Explorative taxonomy : Besides external morphology it also includes
internal characters like embryological, cryological, anatomical characters etc.
Ÿ Omega taxonomy or Encyclopaedic taxonomy : Omega taxonomy have widest scope. It is
based on all the information or data available about plants.
Ÿ Chemotaxonomy : The uses of chemical characters of plants in classification or in solving
taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy or chemical taxonomy. It is based on the
chemical constituents of plants. The fragrance and taste vary from species to species.

The basic chemical compounds used in chemotaxonomy are alkaloids, carotenoides, tannins,
polysaccharide, nucleic acids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds etc.

Ÿ Cytotaxonomy : The use of cytological characters of plants in classification or in solving

taxonomic problems is called cytotaxonomy.

Ÿ Following characters are used in cytotaxonomy

v Chromosome number.
v Chromosome morphology – including chromosome size, total length of chromatin, arms
ratio, primary and secondary constriction.
v Heterochromatin.
v Chromosome behaviour at meiosis.
v Polyploidy – autopolyploidy, allopolyploidy and aneuploidy.
v Chromosomal aberrations.
v Different type of cytochromes.

Cytological data have been used in many cases to find out the affinities among genera.

Ÿ Karyotaxonomy : Based on characters of nucleus and chromosomes. Pattern of chromosomal

bands (dark bands and light bands) is most specific character.
Ÿ Adansonian system or Phenetic Classification or Numerical Classification.
v Proposed by “Sokel and Sneath”
v In it plants are classified on the basis of number of similarities and dissimilarities.
v In this, importance to any one character is not given, all characters have same
importance.
While in natural classification floral characters have importance than morphological
characters.

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08. Significance of Taxonomy

Ÿ Most significant feature is identification of living organism.
Ÿ With the help of taxonomy diversity of living being can be studied easily.
Ÿ Maximum diversity of living beings are found in tropical rain forests.
Ÿ These forest have heavy rain fall through out the year.
Ÿ In India maximum tropical rain forest are found in Andaman & Nicobar and in all eastern
states (Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal etc.)
Ÿ At present, 300 lakh (30 million) type of living organism are found on our earth.
Ÿ 17 lakh (1.7 million) type of living organism have been discovered till now.
Ÿ Out of them 12 lakh types are animal and 5 lakh types are plants.

09. Taxonomic Category

Classification is not a single step process but involves heirarchy of steps in which each step
represent a rank or category.
Ÿ Species :
Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organism with fundamental similarities as
a species. One should be able to distinguish one species from the other closely related
species based on the distinct morphological difference.
Ÿ Genus :
Genus comperises a group of related species which has more characters in common in
comparison to species of other genera.
Ÿ Family :
Family has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to
genus and species. Families are characterized on the basis of both vegetative and
reproductive feature of plant species.
For example :Three different genera Solanum, Petunia and Datura are included in family
solanaceae.
Ÿ Order :
Order being a higher category is the assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar
character.
For example : Plant families like convolvulaceae, Solanaceae are included in the order
polymoniales mainly based on the floral characters.
Ÿ Class :
Class includes organism of related orders having less similarities than orders.
Ÿ Division :
Division includes all organisms belonging to different classes having a few common
characters. There 7 main taxonomic categories. They are obligate or essential or broad
categories i.e. they are strictly used at the time of any plant classification. There are some
extra or sub categories, like sub division, sub order, sub family, etc. They are used only
when they are needed.

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Biggest group → Kingdom

Division/Phylum
Class
Order - Cohort
Family
Genus
Species

v The classification of any plant or animal is written in descending or ascending order.

v Hierarchy – Descending or ascending arrangement of taxonomic categories is known as
hierarchy.
v Species : Smallest taxonomic category → It is basic unit of classification.

NOTE ☞ As we go higher from species to kingdom, number of common characters decreases.

Lower the taxa more are the characteristics that the members with in the taxon share.
Higher the category, greater is the difficulty of determining the relationship to other
taxa at the same level.
Suffix for taxa (Taxon)
Division ― phyta
Sub div ― phytina
Class ― opsida, phyceae, ae
Order ― ales
Sub-order ― ineae
Family ― aceae
Sub Family ― oideae

NOTE ☞ There is no suffix for Genus, Species and Kingdom.

10. Nomenclature
Ÿ Polynomical system :
v According to this system name of any plant consists of many words.
v For eg. Caryophyllum → Caryophyllum saxatilis folis gramineus umbellatis corymbis
v Based of morphology mainly

Ÿ Trinomical system :
v Proposed by Lamarck.
v According to this system name of any plant or species is composed of three names-
Ÿ Generic name
Ÿ Specific epithet
Ÿ Subspecific name (Name of variety)

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v When members of any species have large variations then trinomial system is used.
v On the basis of dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species. eg.
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)

Ÿ Binomial system :
v Binomial system was first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book -“Pinax Theatre
Botanica”
v Carolus Linnaeus : Linnaeus used this nomenclature system for the first time on large
scale and proposed scientific name of all the plants and animals.
v Linnaeus is the founder of binomial system.
v Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book “Species Plantarum”
v It was published on 1 May, 1753. So this was the initiation of binomial system for
plants.
v So any name proposed (for plants) before this date is not accepted today.
v Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book “Systema Naturae” (10th
edition).
v This 10th edition of Systema Naturae was first published on 1 August, 1758.
v So initiation of binomial system for animals is believed to be started on 1 August,
1758.

11. ICBN
Ÿ Main rules of ICBN :
v According to binomial system name of any species consists of two components or
words.
Ÿ Generic name Name of genus
Ÿ Specific epithet
e.g. Solanum tuberosum (Potato) Mangifera indica (Mango)
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Generic name Specific epithet Generic name Specific epithet
v In plant nomenclature (ICBN) tautonyms are not valid i.e. generic name and specific
epithet should not be same in plants.
eg. Mangifera mangifera
But tautonyms are valid in animal nomenclature (ICZN-International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature)
eg. Naja naja (Indian cobra), Rattus rattus (Rat)
v First letter of generic name should be in capital letter and first letter of specific epithet
should be in small letter.
eg. Mangifera indica

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v But if specific epithet is based on the name of any person, its first letter should be in
capital letter.
eg. Isoetes Pantii
v When written with free hand or typed, then generic name and specific epithet should
be separately underlined.
But during printing name should be in italics to indicate their latin orgin.
v Name of scientist (who proposed nomenclature) should be written in short after the
specific epithet.
eg. Mangifera indica Linn.
v Name of scientist should be neither underlined nor in italics, but written in Roman
letters (simple alphabets)
v Sciectific names should be derived from Latin (usually) or Greek languages because
they are dead languages.
v Type specimen (Herbarium Sheet) of newly discovered plant should be placed in
herbarium (Dry garden).

12. Classification
According to “A.P. de Candolle”, Classification is of two types

(i) Empirical Classification (ii) Rational Classification

Ÿ Empirical Classification :
v In this type, the actual nature or character of plants is not considered.
v Plants are classified on the basis of their alphabetical order.
v In this way plants are classified into 26 groups.

Ÿ Rational Classification
In this classification, plants are classified on the basis of their actual character or nature
i.e. by viewing the characters.
Types of rational classification
(iii) Practical classification
In this type of classification, plants are classified on the basis of their economic importance.
e.g. Oil yielding plants → Coconut, Walnut, Soyabean
Fibre yielding plants → Jute, Cotton
Medicinal plants → Rauwolfia, Cinchona, Eucalyptus

NOTE ☞ In this classification, any one plant can be a member of more than one group.
eg. Turmeric : Multi uses plant, it gives both medicines and spices.

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(iv) Artificial classification :

In this type of classification plants are classified on the basis of one or two morphological
characters. i.e. over all morphology is not considered.
for e.g. - Classification proposed by Linnaeus is Artificial
Linnaeus classified plant kingdom on the basis stamen into 24 classes.

NOTE ☞ Linnaeus classification is also called sexual classification.

NOTE ☞ Linnaeus divided flowering plants into 23 classed starting with class monandria with a
single stamen (eg. Canna) and plants with twenty or more stamens attached with calyx
were assigned to class Icosandria. He also included all non-flowering plants such as
algae, fungi, mosses and ferns in a separate class called cryptogamia.

(v) Natural classification:

In this type, plants are classified on the basis of their complete morphological characters of
stem, root, leaves, flowers etc.
Importance ―
Natural classification is believed to be the best classification, because it represents the
natural similarities and dissimilarities of plants i.e. it represents the interrelationship among
plants.
In this classification, the plants belonging to the same group shows many similarities, while
in artificial classification, the plants belonging to the same group shows only, 1 or 2 similar
characters. They have many dissimilarities.
Natural classification is of two types

Ÿ Natural formal
Ÿ Natural phylogenetic

(a) Natural formal → In this classification, the phylogeny of the plant is not considered
i.e. only the morphology of the plant is considered.
(b) Natural phylogenetic → In this classification, both morphology and phylogeny are
considered. In phylogenetic classification, the plants are arranged on the basis of their
evolution.
Thallophyta → Bryophyta → Pteridophyta → Gymnosperm → Angiosperm (most advanced
plants)
Note : Phylogenetic classification also known as cladistic classification

(vi) Adansonian system or phenetic classification or Numerical classification :

In it plants are classified on the basis of numbers of similarities and dissimilarities. This
classification is easily carried out by using computers and it is based on all observable
characteristics. In this classification number and codes are assigned to all the characters and
the data are prepared and then processed. Those organism which have maximum similarities
are placed in same group. In this way each character is given equal importance and at the
same hundreds of characters can be considered.

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NOTE ☞ In this classification importance to any one character is not given, all characters have
same importance. While in natural classification floral (reproductive) characters have
more importance than vegetative (root, stem and leaves) characters.

13. Taxonomical Aids

Ÿ Accurate classification and identification of organisms is required which needs field studies
and intensive laboratory work. This is done after collection of actual specimens of plants
and animal species which is the primary source of all taxonomic studies.
Ÿ Hence, these taxonomical studies help in
Fundamental study of different living organisms.
Also aid in their systematic study.
Information gathered is stored with specimens for future studies.

Herbarium

Ÿ It is defined as “store house of collected plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
preserved on sheets”. Further, these sheets are arranged in the sequence of a universally
accepted system of classification.
Ÿ Such herbaria serve as quick source of reference in taxonomical studies. It also provides
information about the local flora as well as flora of distant areas. This information is also
useful in locating wild varieties and relatives of economically important plants.
List of some Herbaria of the world :
(i) Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (England)
(ii) Central National Herbarium, Calcutta

14. Botanical Gardens

Botanical garden is an institution located in an enclosed piece of land which grows numerous
kinds of plants obtained from different places for botanical studies. Each plant is first
identified and then labelled indicating its botanical/scientific name and its family.
List of some Botanical Gardens
(i) Royal Botanical Garden, Kew (England)
(ii) National Botanica Garden, Lucknow
(iii) Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah
(iv) Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling

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15. Museum
Ÿ Museum is a place used for storing, preservation and exhibition of both plants and
animals. All educational institutes and universities maintain museums in their Botany and
Zoology departments.
Ÿ A commonly used preservative solutions is “Formalin”. Plants and animals specimen may
also be preserved as dry specimens. For instances, insects are collected, killed and pinned
before preserving them in special insect boxes while larger animals like reptiles, birds
and mammals are usually stuffed and then preserved.
Ÿ National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) in Delhi is important from natural science
point of view.

16. Zoological Parks

Ÿ Zoological parks commonly known as zoos are the places where live wild animals are
kept in protected environment which is made similar to their natural habitats as much as
possible. Here, they are provided with protection and care by human beings.
Ÿ These parks serve as ideal means to study and learn different food habits and behaviour
of variety of animals. So, students should visit nearby zoos for knowledge and
entertainment both.
Ÿ National Zoological Park (Delhi) is one of the finest zoos of Asia.

17. Key
Ÿ Key is an important taxonomic aid used for identification of plants and animals based on
the similarities and dissimilarities. Actually, it is a set of alternate characters of different
types arranged sequence wise in such a fashion that by selection and elimination one can
quickly find out the name of the organism.
Ÿ The keys are based on the set of contrasting characters generally in a pair known as
“couplet”. Each character of the couplet or statement in the key is called as “lead”.
Ÿ One has to choose correct option between two statements of characters of definite species
so that the animal or plant is identified accurately. Keys are generally analytical in nature.

18. Flora, Manuals, Monographs and Catalogues

Ÿ These flora, manuals, monographs, etc. are recorded descriptions of plants, animals and
other organisms. They provide correct identification and description of variety of living
organisms.
v Flora : It is a book containing information about plants found in a particular area. It
gives the actual account of habitat and distribution of various plants of a given area.
These provide the index to the plant species found in a particular area. For example,
Flora of Delhi by J.K. Maheshwari.

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v Manual : It is a book containing complete listing and description of the plants growing
in a particular area. They provide useful information for identification of names of
various species found in an area.
v Monograph : It contains information of any one taxon.
v Catalogue : It include the alphabetical arrangement of species of a particular place
describing their features.

19. Species concept

John Ray : Proposed the term and concept of species.

Ÿ Biological concept of species

v Ernst Mayr (Darwin of 20th century) proposed the biological concept of species.
v Mayr defined the “species” in the form of biological concept.
v According to Mayr “All the members that can interbreed among them self and can
produce fertile offsprings are the members of same species”

But this definition of Mayr was incomplete because this definition is applicable to
sexually reproducing living beings because there are many organisms that have only
asexual mode of reproduction.
eg. Bacteria, Mycoplasma, BGA

v The main character in determination of any species is interbreeding. But this character
is not used in taxonomy. In taxonomy, the determination of species is mainly based on
morphological characters.
v In higher plants, the determination of species is mainly based on the morphology of
flower (floral morphology). Because floral (reproductive) characters are more
conservative as compared to vegetative (Root, Stem, Leaf) characters i.e. they do not
show major changes.

Ÿ Typological Concept
v It was proposed by “Aristotle” and “Plato”.
v This concept is based on single individual of a species.
v According to this concept, “There is a definite type or pattern of characters in the each
species and every living organisms and all the members of species shows maximum
resemblance with this pattern”.
v The species in which one foxed pattern of characters is present are called as monotypic
species.
eg. Bacteria, Blue green algae
v In many species, more than one type of pattern of characters are present. These are
called “Polytypic species” or “Macrospecies”.
eg. Brassica oleracea → Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol-Khol.

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AIIMS Pattern
Exercise (1)

1. The label of a herbarium sheet does not carry information on-

(a) date of collection
(b) name of collector
(c) local names
(d) height of the plant

2. Biological organisation starts with

(a) sub-microscopic molecular level
(b) cellular level
(c) organismic level
(d) atomic level

3. The living organisms can be un-exceptionally distinguished from the non-living things on the
basis of their ability for
(a) responsiveness to touch
(b) interaction with the environment and progressive evolution
(c) reproduction
(d) growth and movement

4. Carbohydrates the most abundant biomolecules on earth, are produced by

(a) all bacteria, fungi and algae
(b) fungi, algae and green plant cells
(c) some bacteria, algae and green plant cells
(d) viruses, fungi and bacteria

5. There is no life on moon due to the absence of

(a) O2
(b) water
(c) light
(d) temperature

6. Reason of diversity in living being is

(a) mutation
(b) gradual change
(c) long term evolutionary change
(d) short term evolutionary change

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7. First life on earth was

(a) cyanobacteria
(b) chemoheterotrophs
(c) autotrophs
(d) photoautotrophs

8. The most important feature of all living systems is to

(a) utilise oxygen to generate energy
(b) replicate the genetic information
(c) produce gametes
(d) utilise solar energy for metabolic activities

9. Pedology is science of
(a) earth
(b) soil
(c) diseases
(d) pollution

10. homeostasis is
(a) tendency to change with change in environment
(b) tendency to resist change
(c) disturbance in regulatory control
(d) plants and animals extracts used in homeopathy

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Answer & Solution

Q1
Herbarium is a collection of plants that usually have been dried pressed preserved plant on sheets
and are arranged in accordance with any accepted system of classification for future reference and
study. It does not have information on height of the plant.

Q2
Biological organisation starts with sub-microscopic molecular level where four types of molecules i.e
carbohydrates. Lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are organised into organelles

Q3
All living organisms interact with their environment and shows progressive evolution They can
sense and respond to environmental uses. On the other hand reproduction growth and movement
cannot be all inclusive defining properties of living organisms

Q4
Some photosynthetic bacteria such as Rhodopseudomonas can prepare carbohydrates. But during this
type of food synthesis O2 is not evolved because. In this case hydrogen donor is other than H2O
Algae (green and blue-green) and all green plant cells prepare their food (carbohydrate) through
photosynthesis. Here hydrogen ions are donated by water molecules by the process of photolysis of
water i.e O2 is released during this type of food synthesis.

Q5
Water is an essential constituent of cytoplasm of all living organsms. It helps in distribution of
substances within the organism, elimination of waste products, maintenance of body temperature etc.
Etc It is absent on the moon.
Anaerobic organisms that can live in the absence of O2. Light and temperature are already know to
exist on the moon

Q6
Though mutation provides the source of variation. The diversity in living being is due to the
natural selection of variations and consequent evolutionary change over a long period of time.

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Q7
First living being were formed in the environment of sea having abundant organic molecules. They
absorbed the organic materials for the sake of nutrition and hence were chemoheterotrophs

Q8
Reproduction is necessary for continuity of life However production of gametes is not only method
for this. A number of organisms reproduce asexually In any case, cell division in necessary which
involves replication DNA.

Q9
Pedology is the study of soil and soil properties

Q10
Homeostasis (Gr. homesos = similar; stasis = standing) is the tendency of maintaining a relatively
stable intemal physiological environment in an organism or steady-state equilibrium in a population
or ecosystem. It is carred out by regulatory mechanisms which coordinate internal functions such as
providing nutrient to cells and transporting substances.

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Class 12 | Biology
03 Reproduction in Organisms
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01. Introduction
A vast number of plant and animal species have existed on the earth for several thousand of
years. The process in living organisms that ensures this continuity is Reproduction. Reproduction
is one of the most characteristic feature of living organisms. Life will not exist on the earth if
plants and animals do not reproduce to make offsprings.

02. Life span

Life span can be defined as the period from birth to the natural death of an organism. It can
vary from as short as few days to as long as a number of years.
Maximum Life Span : Maximum life span is the maximum number of years survived or the
greatest age reached by any member of a species. The average life span refers to the average
number of years survived or age reached by the members of a population. The maximum life
span of a domestic dog is about 20 years and that of a laboratory mouse is 4.5 years. The
maximum life span of humans has been estimated to be about 121 years. This rests on the fact
that a man in Japan, Shirechiyo lzymi, reached the age of 120 years and 237 days in 1986. He
died after developing pneumonia. Average life span and life expectancy of humans have grown
dramatically. In general the rate of mortality of humans has gone down and the life span has
increased. It is 56 in India whereas in the United State, it is 78.

03. Reproduction

Reproduction is the means of self perpetuation of a race in which new, young, similar looking
individuals are formed by the grown up or adult individuals. The adults which give rise to young
ones are called parents.

Functions of Reproduction :
(i) It replaces the individuals dying due to senescence or ageing.
(ii) Individuals removed from population due to predation or disease are replaced through
reproduction.
(iii) It introduces variations essential for adaptability and struggle for existence.

Basic Features of Reproduction :

(i) Replication of DNA.
(ii) Division of cells. It may or may not involve meiosis.
(iii) Growth due to synthesis of more protoplasm.
(iv) Formation of reproductive units.
(v) Elaboration and development of reproductive units to form new young individuals.

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04. Types of Reproduction

Broadly speaking, there are two types of reproduction, asexual and sexual. Asexual
reproduction does not involve gamete formation and fusion. It is uniparental. On the other
hand, sexual reproduction consists of formation and fusion of gametes of opposite sexes. It is
mostly biparental with two types o parents of different sexes but can be single/uniparental
also, as in case of bisexual or hermaphrodite animals.

I. Asexual Reproduction
It is the mode of reproduction in which new individuals develop directly from specialised or
unspecialised parts of a single parent without involving fusion of gametes or sex cells.
Asexual reproduction occurs in both single celled and multicelled individuals. The parent
individual splits, buds or fragments to form identical daughter cells or individuals, e.g.,
Amoeba, Paramoecium, Euglena (acellular protists), Sycon, Hydra, Tubularia, Planaria, Ascidia
(metazoans). Asexual reproduction is also called agamogenesis or agamogeny. In this mode of
reproduction, somatic cells undergo mitosis during the formation of a new individual.
Therefore, it is also called somatogenic reproduction. Young ones resulting from asexual
reproduction are exactly identical with the parent except in size and are called clones. Each
individual of a clone is referred to as a ramet.

Asexual reproduction occurs by fission, budding and fragmentation.

(A) Fission : It is a mode of asexual reproduction in which the body of a mature individual
divides into two or more similar and equal sized daughter individuals. Fission can be
binary fission or multiple fission.
(a) Binary Fission : It is the division of the body of an individual into two equal halves,
each of which functions as an independent daughter individual. In unicellular
organisms, binary fission is accompanied by mitotic division of nucleus followed by
cytokinesis. In metazoans. The organisms which undergo binary fission seldom die of
senescence or old age because as soon as they mature, they divide into two
daughters. They are, therefore, nearly immortal. Depending on the plane of division,
binary fission is of the following types:
(i) Simple Binary Fission (Irregular Binary Fission) : Division can occur through
any plane e.g., Amoeba.
(ii) Longitudinal Binary Fission : The plane of fission passes along the longitudinal
axis of the organism, e.g., Euglena, Vorticella.
(iii) Oblique Binary Fission : The plane of binary fission lies at an angle to the
transverse axis e.g., Ceratium, Gonyaulax.
(iv) Transverse Binary Fission : The plane of binary fission runs along the
transverse axis of the individual, e.g., Paramoecium, diatoms, bacteria. In
Paramoecium, transverse binary fission is preceeded by a mitotic division of
meganucleus and mitotic division of micronucleus. In it, binary fission produces
two dissimilar daughters, one proter (anterior) and the other opisthe (posterior).
Both develop the deficient components and become similar.

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(b) Multiple Fission : The nucleus divides several times by amitosis to produce many
nuclei, without involving any cytokinesis. Later, each nucleus gathers a small amount
of cytoplasm around it and the mother individual splits into many tiny daughter cells
(e.g., Amoeba, Plasmodium, Monocystis, etc). In course of time, each of these
daughter cells starts a free life and transforms into an adult individual. This kind of
fission is called multiple fission.
Cyst formation : In response to unfavourable living conditions, an Amoeba withdrawn
its pseudopodia and secretes a three-layered hard covering or cyst around itself. This
phenomenon is termed as encystation. During favourable conditions, the encysted
Amoeba divides by multiple fission and produces many minute amoubae or
pseudopodiospores; the cyst wall bursts out and the spores are liberated in the
surrounding medium to grow up into many Amoebae. This phenomenon is known as
sporulation. Acellular protists like sporozoans (e.g., Monocystis, Plasmodium, etc.)
typically exhibit sporulation in their life cycles.
(B) Budding : In budding, new individuals are formed by mitosis. Initially, a small outgrowth
of the parent’s body develops into a miniature individual. It then separates from the
mother to lead a free life (e.g., Hydra). This type of budding is known as exogenous
budding. Sometimes, the buds do not get separated from the mother individual and form
a colony. For example, in Obelia, the colony consists of a number of individuals jor
zooids that perform different functions. In all fresh water sponges (e.g., Spongilla) and
some marine sponges (e.g., Sycon), the parent individual releases a specialized mass of
cells enclosed in a common opaque envelope, called the gemmule. On germination, each
gemmule gives rise to offspring and the archeocytes present in it give rise to various
cells of the body of sponge as they are totipotent. Gemmules are thought to be internal
buds.
(C) Fragmentation : The body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which can
produce an offspring (e.g., Hydra, some marine worms, sea-stars).

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction :

(a) It is uniparental.
(b) It is a rapid mode of reproduction.
(c) The young ones are exact replicas of their parent.
(d) Asexual reproduction is simpler than sexual reproduction.

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction :

(a) As there is rapid multiplication, a large number of young ones are formed which causes
overcrowding.
(b) There is no mixing of genetic material, so no new combination or variation takes place.
(c) There is no crossing over, hence hew linkages are not formed.
(d) It has no role in evolution.
(e) Adaptability to changes in environment is low due to absence of new variations.

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05. Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves formation and fusion of gametes to form the zygote which
develops to form a new organism.

Characteristics :
(a) Two fusing gametes can be produced by same individual or different individuals.
(b) Offsprings produced are not identical to parents.
(c) It involves meiosis and syngamy (fusion or gametes).
(d) It is a slow, elaborate or complex process, so multiplication is not so rapid.

06. Phases in Life Cycle

(a) Juvenile phase

(b) Reproductive phase
(c) Senescent phase

(a) Juvenile phase/Pre-reproductive phase : During this phase organism will show growth so
that it can attain certain maturity to perform the sexual reproduction. This phase is known
as vegetative phase in plants. It is of variable durations in different organisms.
(b) Reproductive phase : Reproductive organs develop and mature during this phase. In the
higher plants (Angiosperms). end of juvenile phase or onset of reproductive phase is
easily marked. In the higher plants during this phase, there is formation of reproductive
structures i.e., flowers.
(c) Senescent phase : It is a post-reproductive phase. It involves structural and functional
deterioration of body by accumulation of waste metabolites which ultimately leads to
death.

07. Events in Sexual Reproduction

After attainment of maturity, all sexually reproducing organisms exhibit events and processes
that have remarkable fundamental similarity, even though the structures associated with sexual
reproduction are indeed very different. These sequential events may be grouped into three
distinct stages, namely, the pre-fertilization, fertilization and the post-fertilization events.
A. Pre-fertilization Events
These are events in sexual reproduction which occur prior to the process of fertilization.
The two main pre-fertilization events are gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
(a) Gametogenesis : It refers to the process of formation of gametes – male and female.
Categories of Gametes :
(i) Isogametes : When the fusing gametes are morphologically similar they are
known as isogametes or homogametes. They are produced in some algae and
fungi.

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Ÿ Algae : Cladophora, Chlamydomonas debaryana, Ulothrix

Ÿ Fungi : Synchytrium, Rhizopus
(ii) Heterogametes : When the fusing gametes are morphologically distinct types, they
are known as heterogametes. It is the feature of majority of sexually reproducing
organisms. e.g.
(a) Algae : Fucus, Volvox, Chara
(b) All Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
In such organisms, male gamete is called antherozoid or sperm and the
female gamete is called egg or ovum

Cell Division During Gamete Formation : Gametes are always haploid i.e., they possess only
one set of chromosomes or genome though the parent body producing gametes may be either
haploid or diploid. As gametes are always haploid so surely in haploid parent, gametes are
produced by mitotic division.
In plants belonging to group pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms and animals the
parental body is diploid. Here reductional division occurs before or at the time of gamete
formation. The cells which undergo meiosis ar called meiocyte. If meiocyte is indulged in
gamete formation, then it is called gamete mother cell.
In haploid organisms, gametes are produced through mitosis but you must not think that
meiosis never occurs in life cycle of haploid organisms. This could be made clear from what
you have learnt in previous classes. In these organisms like haploid algae and some fungi,
meiosis occurs in zygote or zygospore which is called zygotic meiosis.

08. Sexuality in Organisms :

Lower Organisms : In most of the lower sexually reproducing organisms, two fusing gametes
are morphologically similar. If these gametes belong to the same parent then such organisms
are called homothallic, e.g., fungi (Mucor mucedo). When these gametes belong to different
parents then these organisms are called heterothallic.

Higher Organisms : In higher plants there are well-developed sex organs and there is clear
distinction between male and female sex organs. Angiosperms possess flowers as reproductive
structures. The male sex organ is called stamen and female sex organ is carpel or pistil. If
male and female sex organs occur in the same flower then these plants are called bisexual,
e.g., China rose. If flowers possess only stamen or carpel then these plants are called
unisexual. When male flower (staminate) and female flower (pistillate) are present on same
plant body such plants are monoecious, e.g., cucurbits, coconut and maize. However, if they
are present on separate plant body then these plants are known as dioecious, e.g., date palm
and papaya.

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09. Gamete Transfer :

After the formation of male and female gametes, compatible gametes must be physically
brought together to facilitate fusion (fertilisation or syngamy). In few fungi and algae, both
types of gametes are motile. But in majority of organisms male gamete is motile and the
female gamete is non-motile. So there is a need of a medium through which the male
gametes move.
In seed plants both male and female gametes are non-motile. Here pollen grains are the
carrier of male gametes and ovule has the egg. As the male gamete is non-motile so it
cannot swim through water medium to reach female gamete rather pollen tube serve this
purpose.
For this pollen grain produced in anther (♂ part) are transferred to the stigma of female
organ i.e., carpel through the process of pollination. Pollination is of two type i.e., self
pollination and cross pollination. Self pollination is the transfer of the pollen grains from
anther of a flower to the stigma of same flower or different flower of the same plant. Cross
pollination is transfer of the pollen grain from anther of one flower to the stigma of different
flower of other plant.

10. Fertilization
The most vital event of sexual reproduction is the fusion of gametes. This process is called
syngamy or fertilization which results in the formation of a diploid zygote.

(a) External fertilization : Syngamy occurs outside the body of organism in external medium
(water). It is shown by majority of aquatic organisms like most of algae, fishes as well
as amphibians.
(b) Internal fertilization : Syngamy occurs inside the body of organisms. It is present in
majority of plants like bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. It occurs
in few algae like spirogyra. In all these organisms egg is formed inside the female body
where syngamy occurs.

11. Post-Fertilization Events

Events in sexual reproduction after the formation of zygote are called post-fertilization events.
Zygote : It is the first cell of the new generation in all sexually reproducing organisms.
Zygote is always diploid. It is formed in the external aquatic medium in those organisms
which perform external fertilization. Zygote is produced inside the body in cases where
fertilization in internal.
In many algae and fungi, the zygote secretes a thick wall that is resistant to desiccation and
damage, which help organisms to tide over unfavourable conditions. During unfavourable
conditions it undergoes a period of rest until a swing back to sustainability occurs.
Embryogenesis : Embryogenesis is the process of development of embryo from zygote.
Embryo is a multicellular stage in the life cycle of a plant or animal prior to formation of
an independent individual.

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In embryogenesis, the zygote undergoes repeated cell divisions through mitosis. Cell
differentiation occurs at specific locations resulting in production of different tissues, organs
and organ systems. Development of different external and internal structures is called
morphogenesis. Embryo formation is present in all plant groups, except algae. In flowering
plants, zygote develops into embryo. The food for development of embryo comes from a
special tissue known as endosperm. Ultimately, the fertilized ovule matures into a seed. Inside
the mature seed is the progenitor of the next generation, the embryo. A number of seeds
develop in an ovary depending upon the number of ovules. Meanwhile, wall of the ovary
also proliferates. It produces pericarp or fruit wall. The pericarp can be dry or fleshy. The
ripened ovary with pericarp and seeds is called fruit.

Differences between Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
i. New individuals are formed from a i. Commonly two parents are involved
single parent. in the formation of new individuals
through sexual reproduction.
ii. Asexual reproduction does not require ii. Formation of sex organs is a
the production of sex organs. pre-requisite for sexual reproduction.
iii. It does not involve meiosis. All iii. Sexual reproduction involves meiosis
divisions are mitotic. at one or the other stage. In higher
plants, it occurs at the time of spore
formation or sporogenesis.
iv. Asexual reproduction does not iv. It involves fusion of gametes.
involve fusion of cells or gametes.
v. New individual develops from one v. New individual develops from zygote
cell or a part of one parent. i.e., fusion product of two gametes.
vi. New individuals are genetically vi. Offspring or new individuals are
similar to the parents. genetically different from either of
the two parents.
vii. It does not introduce variability. vii. It introduces variability and is, hence
Hence, asexual reproduction has no of evolutionary importance.
evolutionary importance.
viii. It is quick method of multiplication. viii. Sexual reproduction is a slower
method of multiplication.
ix. It is simple process. ix. It is elaborate or complex process.

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AIIMS Pattern
Exercise (1)

1. Choose the correct pair :

(a) Coconut, cucurbits – dioecious
(b) Honeybee Rotifers – parthenogenesis
(c) Ornithorhyncus, Whale – viviparity
(d) Frog, peacock – external fertilisation

2. Which of the following is not an invasive species?

(a) Parthenium hysterophorus
(b) Nelumbo (lotus)
(c) Lantana camara
(d) Eichhornia crassipes

3. Apiculture is associated with which of the following groups of plants?

(a) Grapes, maize, potato
(b) Sugarcane, paddy, banana
(c) Guava, sunflower, strawberry
(d) Pineapple, sugarcane, strawberry

4. Which of the following is best method of germplasm conservation?

(a) Herbarium
(b) Botanical gardens
(c) Seed bank
(d) Zoological park

5. Which form of reproduction is correctly matched :

(a) Euglena → transverse binary fission
(b) Paramecium → longitudinal binary
(c) Amoeba → multiple fission
(d) Plasmodium → binary fission

6. A scion is grafted to a stock. The quality of fruits produced will be determined by the genotype
of :
(a) Stock
(b) Scion
(c) Both stock and scion
(d) Neither stock not scion

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7. The asexual production of seed is called:

(a) Fragmentation
(b) Apomixis
(c) Self-fertilisation
(d) Both (a) and (b)

8. The root cell of wheat plant has 42 chromosomes. What would be the number of chromosomes
in the synergid cell ?
(a) 21
(b) 7
(c) 28
(d) 14

9. During formation of which of the following free nuclear division occurs ?

(a) Flower
(b) Endosperm
(c) Gametes
(d) Fruit

10. Xenia and metaxenia terms are related with:

(a) Pollen culture
(b) Xylem and phloem
(c) Endosperm
(d) Embryo

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Answer & Solution

Q1
Honeybee, Rotifers —Parthenogenesis Coconut and cucurbits are monoecious plants (bisexual.).
Honeybee and Rotifers are parthenogenetic (female undergo development to form new organism
without fertilisation).
Ornithorhynchus is oviparous (egg-laying) mammal while whale is viviparous (give birth to young
ones). Frog shows external fertilization and medium is water but peacock shows internal fertilisation.

Q2
It has ornamental use for decoration.
Invasive species has tendency to spread to a degree believed to cause damage to environment and
is not native to a specific location e.g. water hyacinth (Eicchornia)

Q3
Bees are the pollinators of many of our crop species such as Guava Sunflower, Brassica,
Strawberry, apple and pear.

Q4
Endangered plants may be preserved in part throudh seed bank also called germplasm bank.
Herbarium is collection of dried plants that are preserved and pressed on sheets. It can not be use
for germplasm (alleles of a gene) conservation.
Botanical garden serves the purpose of identification of plants.
Zoological parks are the places where wild animals are kept in protected environments human care.

Q5
Reproduction is an essential feature of all living organism. It is the process by which an individual
multiplies in number by producing more individuals of its own type. It maintains the continuity of
race by replacing old dying members and help in increasing the total number of individuals.
Ameoba proteus does not reproduce sexually. The reproduction is essentially asexually takes place
by various method such as binary fission. multiple fission and sporulation. Binary fission is the
most common mode or reproduction. It results in the division of the parent Amoeba into two
daughter amoebea. Amoeba reproduces by multiple fission during adverse environmental conditions.
The animals secretes a three-layered protective, chitnous cyst around it and becomes inactive. Inside

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the cyst, the nucleus repeatedly divides to form several daughter nuclei, favourable conditions arrive
the cyst breaks off liberating the young pseudopodiospres each with fine pseudopodia. They feed
and grow rapidly to become adults and lead an independent life

Q6
Grafting is the technique of joining parts of two plants so as to form composite plant. stock, and
the other plant having better flower or fruit yield is known as scion. When a scion is grafted to a
stock the root system of the plant has the genotype of stock and fruits produced show genotype of
the scion.

Q7
apomixis was defined by Hans Winkler as replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by
asexual reproduction, without fertilization. In flowering plants, the term "apomixis" is commonly
used in a restricted sense to mean agamospermy, i.e. clonal reproduction through seeds.

Q8
The lower end of the embryo sac consists of the haploid egg cell positioned in the middle of two
other haploid cells, called synergids. The synergids function in the attraction and guidance of the
pollen tube to the megagametophyte through the micropyle. So number of chromosomes in
synergids will be 21(because root cells are diploid)

Q9
In nuclear endosperm the primary endosperm nucleus divides repeatedly without wall formation
producing a large number of free nuclei It is most common type of endosperm.

Q10
The direct or indirect effect of male parent (pollen grain) on structures inside embryo sac except
embryo has been termed by Focke, 1881 as xenia. This phenomenon is limited to endosperm part
only and is seen in Zea mays. Metaxenia may be defined as the effect of pollen on the seed coast
or pericarp lying outside the embryo sac. In Phoenix dactylifera, the size and time of maturity of
fruits depend on the type of pollen grains fertilising the ovules. There is secretion of certain
hormones or similar substances by endosperm or embryo or both which diffuse out into the wall of
the seed and fruit and exert specific effect. The secretion of these substances, in turn, is influenced
by the pollen grains which fertilise the ovules.

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