PRINCIPLES OF ILLUMINATION

Illumina on – objec ve of study

• to understand importance of proper illumina on from
human factors point of view eg. Ergonomics, anthropometry,
Psychology etc.
• to know about proper ambient ligh ng for areas where
people work. eg. to provide safety and prevent accidents.
• Ligh ng energy consump on contribute to 20 to 45% in
commercial buildings and about 3 to 10% in industrial plants.
Hence, to increase awareness of energy savings in ligh ng
systems realized with a minimal investment of capital and
“common sense”.
Ambient Lighting
Also known as general lighting, ambient lighting provides an area
with overall, non-specific illumination. Ambient lighting radiates a
comfortable level of brightness, enabling one to see and walk about
safely. It can be accomplished with chandeliers, ceiling or wall-
mounted fixtures, recessed or track lighting or with outdoor fixtures.
A basic form of lighting that replaces sunlight, ambient lighting is
fundamental to lighting a home.
Accent Lighting
Localized and directional lighting used to highlight or focus attention
on a specific area of a room or outdoor space. It may be used to
spotlight paintings, houseplants and other possessions, or to
highlight the texture of a wall, drapery or outside landscaping.
Accent lighting generally requires at least three times as much light
on the focal point as the general lighting around it.
Task Lighting
Lighting directed to a specific area or surface that provides
illumination for visual tasks, such as reading, sewing or cooking. It
can be provided by recessed and track lighting, portable lighting or
pendant lamps. Task lighting should be free of distracting glare and
should be bright enough to prevent eyestrain.
Visual task is the term given to an activity requiring visual The fact that light and colour affect the productivity and the
perception and located in a certain place (e.g. reading, writing, psycho-physiological well-being of the worker should encourage
drawing, computer working). The activity involved can change the initiatives of illumination technicians, physiologists and
in the course of the day or from day to day. For that reason a ergonomists, to study and determine the most favourable
variety of visual tasks must be taken into account when planning conditions of light and colour at each work station.
a lighting system. The visual task involves certain requirements
to be met by the lighting system relating to such factors as :: The combination of illumination,
Illuminance, Glare Control, Contrast, Uniformity and so on, so :: The contrast of luminances,
that the task can be completed without discomfort or physical :: The colour of light,
hindrance. :: The reproduction of colour or the selection of colours

CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR VISUAL COMFORT are the elements that determine colour climate and visual comfort.

Light is a key element in human capacity to see, and it Factors that Determine Visual Comfort
The prerequisites that an illumination system must fulfil in order
is necessary to appreciate the form, the colour and the
to provide the conditions necessary for visual comfort are :
perspective of the objects and spaces that surround us.
:: uniform illumination
From the point of view of safety at work, visual capacity :: optimal luminance
and visual comfort are extraordinarily important. This is because :: no glare
many accidents are due to, among other reasons, illumination :: adequate contrast conditions
deficiencies or errors made by the worker because he or she :: correct colours
finds it hard to identify objects or the risks associated with :: absence of stroboscopic effect or intermittent light.
machinery, conveyances, dangerous containers and so on.
It is important to consider light in the workplace not only by
The correct design of an illumination system should offer the quantitative criteria, but also by qualitative criteria. The first step
optimal conditions for visual comfort. is to study the work station, the precision required of the tasks
performed, the amount of work, the mobility of the worker and so
Among the most important aspects that should be kept in mind on. Light should include components both of diffuse and of direct
are radiation. The result of the combination will produce shadows of
greater or lesser intensity that will allow the worker to perceive
:: The type of lamp that will be used the form and position of objects at the work station. Annoying
:: The lighting system that will be installed, reflections, which make it harder to perceive details, should be
:: The distribution of luminance, eliminated, as well as excessive glare or deep shadows.
:: Illumination efficiencies
:: The Spectral composition of light.
Levels of illumination

Each activity requires a specific level of illumination in

the area where the activity takes place. In general, the
higher the difficulty for visual perception, the higher
the average level of illumination should be as well.
The level of illumination is measured with a luxometer that Contrast: Difference in luminance between an object and its
converts luminous energy into an electrical signal, which is then surroundings or between different parts of an object.
amplified and offers an easy reading on a calibrated scale of lux.
When selecting a certain level of illumination for a particular Reflectance: Proportion of light that is reflected by a surface. It
work station the following points should be studied: is a non-dimensional quantity. Its value ranges between 0 and 1.

:: the nature of the work Factors that affect the visibility of objects
:: reflectance of the object and of the immediate surroundings
:: differences with natural light and the need for daytime
The degree of safety with which a task is executed depends, in
illumination
:: the worker’s age. large part, on the quality of illumination and on visual
capacities. The visibility of an object can be altered in many
ways. One of the most important is the contrast of luminances
Units and magnitudes of illumination due to reflection factors, to shadows, or to colours of the object
itself, and to the reflection factors of colour. What the eye really
Several magnitudes are commonly used in the field of perceives are the differences of luminance between an object
illumination. The basic ones are: and its surroundings, or between different parts of the same
object.
Luminous flux: Luminous energy emitted per unit of time by a Contrasts between colours in descending order.
light source. Unit: lumen (lm).

Luminous intensity: Luminous flux emitted in a given

direction by a light that is not equally distributed.
Unit: candela (cd).

Level of illumination / Illuminance: Level of illumination

of a surface of one square metre when it receives a luminous
flux of one lumen.
Unit: lux = lm/m2.

Luminance or photometric brilliance: Is defined for a

surface in a particular direction, and is the relation between
luminous intensity and the surface seen by an observer situated
in the same direction (apparent surface). Unit: cd/m2.
The luminance of an object, of its surroundings, and of the work
area influence the ease with which an object is seen. It is
therefore of key importance that the area where the visual task
is performed, and its surroundings, be carefully analysed.

The size of the object that must be observed, which may be

adequate or not depending on the distance and the angle
of vision of the observer, is another factor. These last two
factors determine the arrangement of the work station,
classifying different zones according to their ease of vision. We
can establish five zones in the work area .

Distribution of visual zones in the work station

Another factor is the time frame during which vision occurs.

The time of exposure will be greater or smaller depending
on whether the object and the observer are static, or whether
one or both of them are moving. The adaptive capacity of the
eye to adjust automatically to the different illuminations of objects
can also have considerable influence on visibility.

Light distribution; Glare

Key factors in the conditions that affect vision are the distribution
of light and the contrast of luminances. In so far as the
distribution of light is concerned, it is preferable to have good
general illumination instead of localized illumination in order
to avoid glare. For this reason, electrical accessories should be
distributed as uniformly as possible in order to avoid differences
in luminous intensity. Constant shuttling through zones that are
not uniformly illuminated causes eye fatigue, and with time this
can lead to reduced visual output.
Glare is produced when a brilliant source of light is present 2. Location of the source of light: This kind of glare occurs
in the visual field; the result is a diminution in the capacity when the source of light is within a 45-degree angle of the
to distinguish objects. Workers who suffer the effects of glare observer’s line of sight, and will be minimized to the degree that
constantly and successively can suffer from eye strain as well the source of light is placed beyond that angle. Ways and
as from functional disorders, even though in many cases they methods of avoiding direct and reflective glare can be seen in the
are not aware of it. following figures.

Glare can be direct when its origin is bright sources of light Factors that affect glare
directly in the line of vision, or by reflection when light is reflected
on surfaces with high reflectance. The factors involved in glare In general, there is more
are: glare when sources of light
are mounted at lower
1. Luminance of the source of light: The maximum tolerable elevations or when
luminance by direct observation is 7,500 cd/m2. shows some of installed in large rooms,
the approximate values of luminance for several sources of light. because sources of light
in large rooms or sources
of light that are too low
can easily fall within the
angle of
vision that
produces glare.
3. Distribution of luminance among different objects
and surfaces: The greater the differences in luminance are
among the objects within the field of vision, the greater will be
the glare created and the greater will be the deterioration in the
capacity to see due to the effects on the adaptive processes of
sight. The maximum recommended luminance disparities are:

:: visual task—work surface: 3:1

:: visual task—surroundings: 10:1

4. Time frame of the exposure: Even light sources with a low

luminance can cause glare if the length of the exposure is
prolonged too much.

Avoiding glare is a relatively simple proposition and can be

achieved in different ways. One way, for example, is by placing
grilles under the sources of illumination, or by using enveloping
diffusers or parabolic reflectors that can direct light properly, or
by installing the sources of light in such a way that they will not
interfere with the angle of vision. When designing the work site,
the correct distribution of luminance is as important as the
illumination itself, but it is also important to consider that a
distribution of luminance that is too uniform makes the three-
dimensional and spatial perception of objects more difficult.
Lighting Systems

The interest in natural illumination has increased recently. This is

due less to the quality of illumination it affords than to the well-
being that it provides. But since the level of illumination from
natural sources is not uniform, an artificial lighting system is
required.

General uniform illumination

In this system light sources are spread out evenly without regard
to the location of the work stations. The average level of
illumination should be equal to the level of illumination required
for the task that will be carried out. These systems are used
mainly in workplaces where work stations are not fixed.

It should conform to three fundamental characteristics:

1:: Equipped with anti-glare devices (grilles, diffusers,

reflectors and so on).
2:: Distribute a fraction of the light toward the ceiling and the
upper part of the walls.
3:: Light sources should be installed as high as possible, to
minimize glare and achieve illumination that is homogeneous.

Local illumination and general illumination

This system tries to reinforce the general illumination scheme

by placing lamps close to the work surfaces. These types of
lamps often produce glare, and reflectors should be placed in
such a way that they block the source of light from the direct
sight of the worker. The use of localized illumination is
recommended for those applications where visual demands are
very critical, such as levels of illumination of 1,000 lux or greater.
Generally, visual capacity deteriorates with the age of the
worker, which makes it necessary to increase the level of
MODERN THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOUR
general illumination or to second it with localized illumination.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
:: Photon model
:: Light functions both as
particle and wave
:: Light is composed of particles
(photons) that travel as waves
:: Each photon has energy that
is proportional to the
frequency of its wave.

Wave Theory of Light proved that light propagates as a wave.

Wave Properties of Light

:: Reflection
:: Refraction
:: Diffraction
General localized illumination :: Interference
This type of illumination consists of ceiling sources distributed Particle Theory
with two things in mind—the illumination characteristics of the
equipment and the illumination needs of each work station. This
type of illumination is indicated for those spaces or work areas :: Light can behave as particles called photons
that will require a high level of illumination, and it requires :: Photons are little packets of energy, they have no
knowing the future location of each work station in advance of mass, but their energy can be calculated using
the design stage. :: E = hf
:: h is Planck’s Constant 6.626E-34 J.s
:: Higher energy means higher frequency.
Reflection SLOWER FASTER
when a wave strikes an object and bounces off

Normal
incident ray reflected ray Laws of Reflection
:: The angle of incidence
equals the angle of
reflection.
:: The incident ray, reflected
ray and the normal lie on
Surface the same plane. Diffraction is bending of waves around a barrier
:: depends on the wavelength and size of the opening barrier

Refraction
Bending of waves when passing from one
medium to another.
Diffraction Gratings
Refraction caused by a change in speed :: glass or plastic made up of many tiny parallel slits
•slower (more dense) refracted ray bends toward the normal :: may also be reflective
•faster (less dense) refracted ray bends away from the normal :: spectroscopes, reflective rainbow stickers, CD surfaces

Interference is when two waves meets, they

have an effect with each other.
Newton showed visible light can be separated into different Artists were fascinated by Newton’s clear demonstration that
colors. light alone was responsible for color. His most useful idea for
artists was his conceptual arrangement of colors around the
He did not know these were wave-lengths. circumference of a circle (right), which allowed the painters’
primaries (red, yellow, blue) to be arranged opposite their
complementary colors (e.g. red opposite green), as a way of
denoting that each complementary would enhance the other’s
effect through optical contrast.

Each color corresponds to a different wavelength.

 Printing presses use color inks that act as filters and subtract
Types of Colour Theories
portions of the white light striking the image on paper to produce
Subtractive Theory / other colors.The offset printing process uses cyan, magenta and
Pigment Theory yellow (CMY) process color inks and a fourth ink, black. The
The subtractive, or pigment black printing ink is designated K to avoid confusion with B for
theory deals with how white blue
light is absorbed and reflected
off of coloured surfaces.

Photographs, magazines and other objects of nature such as

Additive Theory / Light Theory
an apple; create color by subtracting or absorbing certain
The Additive, or light theory
wavelengths of color while reflecting other wavelengths back
deals with radiated and filtered
to the viewer. A red apple is a good example of subtractive color;
light.
the apple really has no color; it has no light energy of its own, it
merely reflects the wavelengths of white light that cause us to
see red and absorbs most of the other wavelengths which
evokes the sensation of red. The viewer (or detector) can be the
human eye, film in a camera or a light-sensing instrument.
:: Black radiates no light
:: Black absorbs most light :: White (sun) radiates all light
:: White reflects most light :: Video is the process of capturing and radiating light, therefore it
:: Coloured Pigments absorb light and reflect only the frequency uses Additive (Light) Theory not Subtractive (Pigment) Theory.
of the pigment colour. ::The primary colours in Additive Theory are:
:: All colours other than the pigment colours are absorbed so –Red( R ) –Green ( G ) –Blue( B )
this is called subtractive colour theory. :: Combining all three primary lights (colors) in equal intensities
::The primary colours in Subtractive Theory are: produces white.
Cyan( C ) Magenta( M ) Yellow( Y ) Black( K ) :: Combining one of these additive primary colors with another
•Subtractive or Pigment Theory is used in printing and painting. in equal amounts produces the additive secondary colors
Cyan, Magenta, and Yellow.
In Theory, an Overprint of all three process colours absorbs all
portions of white light and produces the appearance of black. In :: Light Theory is also called Additive Theory.
reality a muddy brown is produced. For this reason Black is :: Light Theory is used in Television, theater lighting, computer
used as a fourth printing Ink. monitors, and video production.
The term utilization factor in lighting refers to what Depreciation factor
percentage of the actual light physically reaches the surface of The ratio of initial illumination on an area to the present
the room. It is the ratio of the lumens received by a particular illumination of the same area, used in lighting calculations to
surface to the total lumens emitted by the light source.The account for depreciation of lamp intensity and reflective
utilization factor of a room can be affected and changed by surfaces.
several different components of the room. It is important to
understand the utilization factor of your lighting when you install The effective candle power of all lamps deteriorates over
lights in a room, so you know how much lighting you need. a period of time due to blackening or accumulation of
dust.
The average illuminance produced by a lighting installation, or • Depreciation factor
the number of luminaires required to achieve a specific average p = Illumination under actual conditions
illuminance, can be calculated by means of utilization factors Illumination when everything is perfectly clean
(UF), a UF being the ratio of the total flux received by a
particular surface to the total lamp flux of the installation.

Lumen method formula MEAN SPHERICAL CANDLEPOWER

The average illuminance E(h) over a reference surface s can be
calculated from the “lumen method” formula. Lumen method formula

Mean spherical candlepower (MSCP) rating is measured at

where: the design voltage and is the total amount of light given off
from a light source in ALL directions.

It is the mean or average of the candle power in all planes.

Mean spherical candlepower is the generally accepted method

.F – the initial bare lamp flux (lumens) of rating the total light output of miniature lamps.
·n – the number of lamps per luminaire MSCP = total flux in all directions (lumens) / 4pi
·N – the number of luminaires
·LLF – the total light loss factor
·UF(s) – the utilization factor for the reference surfaces of the 1 MSCP equals 12.57 (4 pi) lumens
chosen luminaire
η = lumens received by a particular surface / lumens emitted by the light Mean horizontal candle power (MHCP or MHC):
source
• For direct lighting, η varies between 0.4 and 0.6 It is the mean of the candle powers in all directions in the
• For indirect lighting, η value lies between 0.1 and 0.35 horizontal plane containing the source of light.
• Factors affecting coefficient of utilization are shape of the room, type and
mounting height of fittings
 :: As intensity is the power per unit area (W/m2), it naturally
Assumption that the source is a point source, or is decreases with the square of the distance as the size of the
otherwise sufficiently far away from the surface: radiative spherical wavefront increases with distance.
:: Illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square
E (Illumination) is directly proportional to the luminous of the distance between the surface and the light source
intensity of the source. provided that the distance between the surface and the source
is sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as a
There are two laws of illumination. point source.

(1) Law of Inverse Square. Established by J.H. Lambert.

The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the

square of the distance between the surface and the light source
provided that the distance between the surface and the source
is sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as a
point source.

E : Illuminance I
I : Intensity E 2
d : Distance
d
(2) Lambert’s Cosine Law. According to this law the illumination :: Sometime surface is not normal to the direction of Light.
at any point on a surface is proportional to the cosine of the :: But, inclined by some angle.
angle between the normal at that point and the direction of :: The area over which the light is spread is then increased in
luminous flux. the ratio.
:: The illumination decreases in the ratio cos
According to this law, if the surface is turned so that the rays hit 1
it at an angle, the illuminated area will increase in size and the :: According to this law, Illumination at any point on a surface is
illuminance will drop accordingly. proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal at
that point and the direction of luminous flux.