71-76 16/02/2004 10:34 am Page 71

LNG
technology
selection
Dr Tariq Shukri, Foster Wheeler, UK, discusses available
LNG technologies and the important criteria for selection.

echnology selection starts at an early stage in the life of Liquefaction technology

T a baseload LNG project and is typically addressed at the
feasibility study and pre-FEED definition stages.
Process routes must be chosen for the process, utilities and
The refrigeration and liquefaction section is the key element of
the LNG plant. There are several licensed processes available
with varying degrees of application and experience. There are
offsite units of the plant, which include proprietary and non- others proposed or under development but are not considered
proprietary technologies. This also applies to the upstream here.
part of the chain, which supplies the gas to the plant. The basic principles for cooling and liquefying the gas
Potential options must be identified and evaluation criteria using refrigerants involve matching as closely as possible the
established. The selection could be between alternative pro- cooling/heating curves of the process gas and the refrigerant.
cessing technologies for the operating units, the type of major This results in a more efficient thermodynamic process requir-
equipment, or utilities schemes. ing less power per unit of LNG produced. This applies to all liq-
This article presents an overview of the LNG process and uefaction processes. Typical cooling curves are shown in
an introduction to the main processes available for the lique- Figure 2.
faction section of a baseload LNG plant. It also discusses However, the way this is achieved and the equipment used
some selection issues relating to the main technologies that play a major part in the overall efficiency, operability, reliability
affect LNG plant configuration. and cost of the plant. The liquefaction section typically
The LNG process accounts for 30 - 40% of the capital cost of the overall plant.
An example of a LNG plant overall flow scheme, and the main Key equipment items include the compressors used to cir-
process units and supporting utilities, is shown in Figure 1. The culate the refrigerants, the compressor drivers and the heat
process and utility requirement depend, amongst other things, exchangers used to cool and liquefy the gas and exchange
on the site conditions, feed gas quality and product specifica-
tion.
In a typical scheme the feed gas is delivered at high pres-
sure (for example, up to 90 bara) from upstream gas fields via
trunk lines and any associated condensate will be removed.
The gas is metered and its pressure controlled to the design
operating pressure of the plant.
The gas is first pre-treated to remove any impurities that
interfere with processing or are undesirable in the final prod-
ucts. These include acid gases and sulphur compounds (for
example, CO2, H2S and mercaptans), water and mercury.
The dry sweet gas is then cooled by refrigerant streams to
separate heavier hydrocarbons. The remaining gas is made
up mainly of methane and contains less than 0.1 mol% of pen-
tane and heavier hydrocarbons. It is further cooled in the cryo- Figure 1. LNG block flow diagram.
genic section to approximately -160 ˚C and is completely liq-
uefied. The resulting LNG is stored in atmospheric tanks ready
for export by ship.
The heavier hydrocarbons separated during cooling are
fractionated to recover ethane, propane and butane. Ethane is
normally reinjected into the gas stream to be liquefied. The
propane and butane can either be reinjected or exported as
LPG products. The remaining hydrocarbons (pentane and
heavier components) are exported as a gasoline product.
The utilities required to support the processing units
include fuel gas (derived from the process streams) to gener-
ate electric power, cooling medium (water or air), heating
medium (steam or hot oil system), and other services such as Figure 2. Typical natural gas/refrigerant cooling
instrument air and nitrogen. curves.

Reprinted from HYDROCARBON ENGINEERING FEBRUARY 2004

71-76 16/02/2004 10:34 am Page 72

parameter as it can be made either from pure or

mixed components. With a mixed refrigerant the
composition can be adjusted to suit the process
conditions.
The heat exchangers used, for example, the
spiral/coil wound heat exchangers (CWHE) or
the plate fin heat exchangers (PFHE), have
very large surface areas and a large number of
passes, enabling close temperature
approaches.
The main available liquefaction processes
are described below. The MCRTM process will
be described in greatest detail. Many of the prin-
ciples apply to other processes. The main dif-
ferences will be highlighted.

APCI propane pre-cooled

mixed refrigerant process
Figure 3. APCI propane precooled mixed refrigerant process (MCR™)
This process accounts for a very significant pro-
(typical).
portion of the world’s baseload LNG production
capacity. Train capacities of up to 4.7 million tpy
were built or are under construction. It is illustrated in Figure 3
as part of an overall LNG plant flow scheme.
There are two main refrigerant cycles. The precooling
cycle uses a pure component, propane. The liquefaction
and sub-cooling cycle uses a mixed refrigerant (MR)
made up of nitrogen, methane, ethane and propane.
The precooling cycle uses propane at three or four pres-
sure levels and can cool the process gas down to -40 ˚C. It is
also used to cool and partially liquefy the MR. The cooling is
Figure 4. Phillips optimised cascade process.
achieved in kettle-type exchangers with propane refrigerant
boiling and evaporating in a pool on the shell side, and with the
process streams flowing in immersed tube passes.
A centrifugal compressor with side streams recovers
the evaporated C3 streams and compresses the vapour to
15 - 25 bara to be condensed against water or air and
recycled to the propane kettles.
In the MR cycle, the partially liquefied refrigerant is sepa-
rated into vapour and liquid streams that are used to liquefy
and sub-cool the process stream from typically -35 ˚C to
between -150 ˚C - -160 ˚C. This is carried out in a proprietary
spiral wound exchanger, the main cryogenic heat exchanger
(MCHE).
The MCHE consists of two or three tube bundles
arranged in a vertical shell, with the process gas and
refrigerants entering the tubes at the bottom which then
flow upward under pressure.
The process gas passes through all the bundles to emerge
liquefied at the top. The liquid MR stream is extracted after the
warm or middle bundle and is flashed across a Joule Thomson
Figure 5. Black & Veatch PRICO process. valve or hydraulic expander onto the shell side. It flows down-
wards and evaporates, providing the bulk of cooling for the
heat between refrigerants. For recent baseoad LNG plants this lower bundles. The vapour MR stream passes to the top (cold
equipment is among the biggest of its type and at the leading bundle) and is liquefied and sub-cooled, and is flashed across
edge of technology. a JT valve into the shell side over the top of the cold bundle. It
The natural gas, being a mixture of compounds, liquefies flows downwards to provide the cooling duty for the top bun-
over a wide temperature range. Heat curves can be matched dle and, after mixing with liquid MR, part of the duty for the
by minimising the temperature difference between the cooling lower bundles.
process gas and refrigerant streams. This is achieved by using The overall vaporised MR stream from the bottom of the
more than one refrigerant to cover the temperature range and MCHE is recovered and compressed by the MR compressor
using the refrigerant at different pressure levels to further split to 45 - 48 bara. It is cooled and partially liquefied first by water
the temperature ranges to closely matching ones. The process or air and then by the propane refrigerant, and recycled to the
gas side is normally operated at high pressure (for example, MCHE. In earlier plants all stages of the MR compression
40 - 55 bara) to reduce equipment size and provide more effi- were normally centrifugal, however, in some recent plants
cient refrigeration. axial compressors have been used for the LP stage and cen-
The composition of the refrigerant gives an added control trifugal for the HP stage. Recent plants use Frame 6 and/or

Reprinted from HYDROCARBON ENGINEERING FEBRUARY 2004

71-76 16/02/2004 10:35 am Page 73

achieved in a cascade process using three pure component

refrigerants; propane, ethylene and methane, each at two or
three pressure levels.
This is carried out in a series of brazed aluminium PFHEs
arranged in vertical cold boxes. Precooling could be carried
out in a core-in-kettle type exchanger.
The refrigerants are circulated using centrifugal compres-
sors. Each refrigerant has parallel compression trains.
Frame 5 gas turbine drivers were used.

Black & Veatch PRICO® process

This is a single mixed refrigerant process used on an earlier
baseload plant in Algeria. Train capacity has been uprated to
1.3 tpy per train. It is illustrated in Figure 5.
The mixed refrigerant is made up of nitrogen, methane,
ethane, propane and iso-pentane. The cooling and liquefac-
tion is carried out at several pressure levels, in PFHEs in cold
boxes. The refrigerant is compressed and circulated using a
single compression train. In the Algerian plant axial compres-
sors driven by steam turbines were used.

Statoil/Linde mixed fluid cascade

process (MFCP)
Figure 6. Statoil/Linde mixed fluid cascade process In this process three mixed refrigerants are used to provide the
(MFCP). cooling and liquefaction duty. It has been selected for the
Snøhvit LNG project (Ekofisk, Norway) which is under
design/construction. This is a single train 4 million tpy LNG
Frame 7 gas turbine drivers. Earlier plants used steam turbine
plant. The process is illustrated in Figure 6.
drivers.
Pre-cooling is carried out in PFHE by the first mixed refrig-
A recent modification of the process, which is being con-
erant, and the liquefaction and subcooling are carried out in a
sidered for large LNG capacity plants (> 6 million tpy), is the
spiral wound heat exchanger (SWHE) by the other two refrig-
APX-process, which adds a third refrigerant cycle (nitrogen
erants. The SWHE is a proprietary exchanger made by Linde.
expander) to conduct LNG subcooling duties outside the
It may also be used for the pre-cooling stage. The refrigerants
MCHE.
are made up of components selected from methane, ethane,
Phillips optimised cascade process propane and nitrogen.
This process, a modified version of a process used in an ear- The three refrigerant compression systems can have sep-
lier plant in Alaska during the 1960s, was used for the Atlantic arate drivers or integrated to have two strings of compression.
LNG plant in Trinidad and for a baseload plant under con- Frame 6 and Frame 7 gas turbine drivers have been proposed
struction in Egypt. Train capacities of up to 3.3 million tpy have for large LNG trains (> 4 million tpy). A novel feature of the
been constructed with larger trains in development. This Snøhvit project is that all motor drivers will be used for the
process is illustrated in Figure 4. main refrigerant compressors, with sizes up to 60 MW.
Refrigeration and liquefaction of the process gas is The SWHE itself is being installed with other liquefaction
processes, in new and expansion projects or as a
Table 1. Some technology selection parameters replacement for old cryogenic exchangers.
Technology selection items Pros Cons
Spiral wound exchanger Flexible operation Proprietary/more expensive Axens Liquefin™ process
PFHE Competitive vendors Require careful design to This is a two-mixed refrigerant process, which is
available. Lower pressure ensure good 2-phase flow
being proposed for some new LNG base load pro-
drop and temperature distribution in multiple
differences exchanger configurations jects of train sizes up to 6 million tpy. It is illustrated
Axial compressors High efficiency Suitable only at high flow in Figure 7.
rates. Detailed studies have been made including input
Large gas turbines Proven, efficient and cost Less reliable/strict
from main equipment vendors. All cooling and lique-
effective maintenance cycle/
more complicated control faction is conducted in PFHE arranged in cold
/fixed speed boxes. The refrigerants are made up of components
Large motor drivers Efficient, flexible & more Untried in LNG at speeds from methane, ethane, propane, butane and nitro-
available needed/require large
gen. The first mixed refrigerant is used at three dif-
power plant.
Mixed refrigerant process Simpler compression system. More complex operation. ferent pressure levels to precool the process gas
Adjusting composition and precool and liquefy the second mixed refriger-
allows process matching ant. The second mixed refrigerant is used to liquefy
Pure component cascade Potential higher availability More equipment and
and subcool the process gas.
process with parallel compression complicated compression
system Using a mixed refrigerant for the precooling
Air cooling (compared to Lower cooling system Less efficient process stage allows a lower temperature to be achieved
sea water cooling) CAPEX /higher operating costs (for example, -60 ˚C) depending on refrigerant com-
Fluid medium heating Eliminates the need for Higher reboiler costs
position.
(compared to steam) steam generation & water
treatment The PFHEs are non-proprietary and can be
Larger train capacity Lower specific costs Some equipment/ supplied by independent vendors. Two large dri-
(CAPEX per tonne LNG) processes may require vers can drive the refrigerant compression sys-
further development
tems. Frame 7 gas turbines are being proposed

Reprinted from HYDROCARBON ENGINEERING FEBRUARY 2004

71-76 16/02/2004 10:35 am Page 74

produce LNG, is not solely related to the thermodynamic effi-

ciency of the liquefaction process but also to the efficiency of
the main equipment such as the main refrigerant compressors
and drivers.
Site conditions may favour one type of process over another.
For example, with very cold ambient temperatures multi-mixed
refrigerant processes may offer the optimum solution.
Process requirements and configuration will have an influ-
ence on selection. A requirement for greater LPG recovery
may suit processes with lower precooling temperatures.
Wider feed gas range will require better process adapt-
ability and may favour mixed refrigerant processes with the
added flexibility of changing refrigerant composition.
Refrigerants made up from components that can be pro-
duced in the process (in the fractionation unit) will obviate the
Figure 7. Axens Liquefin process. need for external supply to make up refrigerant losses.
Compressors and drivers
for the large LNG trains. The rotating equipment selection is affected by the character-
istics of the process, such as composition and flow rate of the
refrigerant and head required. Some will fit available frames
Shell double mixed refrigerant and casings while others will require some development.
process (DMR) The choice of drivers, compressors and driver arrange-
This is a dual mixed refrigerant process, which is being applied ments, and their fit with the process and power generation is
in the Sakhalin Island project with a capacity of critical to the selection process.
4.8 million tpy per train. The larger the drivers and compressors the more efficient
Process configuration is similar to the propane pre-cooled and cost effective they are likely to be. However, if some
mixed refrigerant process, with the precooling conducted by a machinery is limited by available designs, smaller proven
mixed refrigerant (made up mainly of ethane and propane) equipment may be installed in parallel trains, offsetting
rather than pure propane. Another main difference is that the increased costs by higher availability.
precooling is carried out in SWHEs rather than kettles. The The choice of drivers for the main compressors is not lim-
precooling and liquefaction SWHEs will be supplied by Linde. ited to gas and steam turbines. Studies carried out by Foster
The refrigerant compressors are driven by two Frame 7 Wheeler have shown that the use of large electric motor dri-
gas turbines. An axial compressor is also used as part of the vers is a feasible option to support high capacity baseload
cold refrigerant compression stages. LNG plants.
Other processes The selection of cooling system will have an impact on
The above processes are used in current LNG plants or are compressor design, as it dictates compressor interstage and
applied in LNG projects in progress. There are other discharge conditions.
processes developed or in development for baseload LNG Often the selection of process and drivers, particularly for
applications, which can be or are being considered in feasibil- expansion projects, is dictated by the desire to stay with famil-
ity studies or for future projects but are not discussed here. iar designs and configurations and to standardise sparing, etc.
The trend is to extend the capability of existing processes Equipment
and develop new processes to support large LNG capacities All the main processes are licensed processes, and some also
of over 5 million tpy per train. Larger train capacities result in use proprietary equipment. The main spiral wound heat
lower specific costs. exchangers used by APCI and Linde are both proprietary. Tube
Process selection leakage problems experienced previously with some designs of
Technology selection of process and equipment will be based spiral wound exchangers have been addressed several years
on technical and economic considerations. Foster Wheeler ago and minimised. The PFHEs used by some processes are
has carried out selection studies as part of major LNG projects non-proprietary and can be offered by different vendors.
and proposals during the various phases of feasibility, FEED Installations on large capacity plants comprising multiple paral-
and detailed engineering. In addition to an extensive in-house lel exchangers require more careful design for two phase
LNG database, contacts are made with the liquefaction licen- (vapour and liquid) flow conditions within the unit. Some other
sors and main equipment vendors to obtain data and develop considerations for equipment selection are given in Table 1.
designs to enable valid comparisons and optimum selections.
Depending on the stage of project development, sufficient Other selections
process details must be developed to define main equipment Another important area is deciding the heating and cooling
and operating parameters to evaluate options using relevant media types as they directly impact process and equipment.
criteria. Cooling medium is normally a choice between air and water in
Technical considerations include process and equipment a direct or indirect system. For the heating medium, steam or
experience, reliability, process efficiency, site conditions and hot oil systems can be considered. For example a selection of
environmental impact. Economic issues include capital cost, air for cooling, oil for heating and gas turbine drivers eliminates
operating cost and lifecycle costing. All of these aspects will the need for a steam generation system including water treat-
need to be evaluated to arrive at the optimum solution. ment, and a cooling water system which may include a costly
Technical risks associated with a process relate to the seawater intake.
track record of the process in operation, and any develop- The above criteria are typical of the main issues that must
ments required for the project for example, capacity increase. be considered when selecting the technology for an LNG
Process efficiency, for example, energy required to plant.

Reprinted from HYDROCARBON ENGINEERING FEBRUARY 2004