Lab # 1

Objective: To determine the relationship between length & resistance of a material

Introduction:

Procedure: (LVDT AC Output)

3
Observations:

Questions:

4
Procedure: (LVDT AC Output)

5
6
Questions:

7
 Lab # 2

Objective: To measure strain using strain gage

Introduction:

8
Procedure:

9
10
11
Observations:

12
Questions:

13
 Lab # 3

Objective: To measure temperature via thermocouple and thermistor

Using Thermouple

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Using Thermistor

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30
31
32
33
34
 Lab # 4

Objective: To understand ON/OFF temperature control using

bimetallic thermostat

Introduction:

35
36
Observations:

37
38
 Lab # 5
Objective: Use of thin wire anemometer to measure
air flow rate
1.0 Overview

The Airmass Module mounts in the Sensor Module area of the board, slots 1 and 2. Note
that it overhangs into the Applications Module area.

Fig. 1.1 the ATK Motherboard

1.1 The Airmass Module

The Air Mass-Flow Measurement Module (Airmass Module) is a dual slot module,
designed to demonstrate the principles of air mass flow measurement using a hot wire
approach. Analogue to digital converters on the MCM are used to monitor different
variables, and a digital to analogue converter on the Airmass Module is used to control
the bridge voltage. The principles of scientific measurement and instrument calibration

39
are also introduced, based on the assumption that the air flow moved by a fan is
proportional to the voltage across the motor.
Digital to
Fan analogue
converter
NTC resistor

Platinum
sensing
element

User controls

Fig. 1.2 The Airmass Module

The Airmass module is designed to fit into slots 1 and 2 of the ATK motherboard,
overhanging into the Applications Module area.

The Airmass Module consists of a duct containing the two sensors and a fan (figure 3.1).
The platinum resistor is heated to approximately 100°C when in use. The NTC resistor
measures the ambient temperature of the air passing through the duct. The fan draws the
air through the duct.

The sensors are controlled through a digital to analogue converter, by the MCM.
Potentiometers are used to control the fan speed and balance the bridge.

4.1 Physical Basis of the Measurement Technique

A hot wire or other heated element situated in a laminar flow of gaseous fluid loses heat
to the streaming gas at a rate determined by:

a) the mass and velocity of the gas flowing over it

b) the temperature difference between the body and the temperature of the laminar stream

One way of realising an air mass flow measuring device based on the factors given above
is to place a platinum wire in a stream of air and, by passing a current through it, heat it to
a temperature significantly higher than that of the air stream. If the temperature difference
between the wire and the air is maintained constant, irrespective of the velocity of the air
flow, then, the following equation links the heating current ‘I’ and mass of air ‘Ma’
flowing per second past the wire.

I 2 = a + b Ma

40
Where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants. Constant ‘a’ is determined by the heat loss to the
surroundings due to free heat convection, radiation and conduction through the fixture
holding the wire, whilst ‘b’ depends on geometrical factors and the properties of the
fluid, namely, thermal conductivity, viscosity, and specific heats.

10

2 5
I( m )
A2

0
0 20 40 60
m (kg/hr)
Fig. 4.1 Typical response curve.

4.2 Principle of the air mass-flow sensor.

The hot wire platinum element is placed in the appropriate arm of a Wheatstone bridge.

4.2.1 Platinum Resistor Elements.

Platinum wire resistor elements are ideal for this application since they are chemically
inert. The increase of resistance of platinum with temperature is well characterised and,
over the range of temperatures involved in this measurement technique, they can be
considered to be linear. The exact law describing the increase of resistance with
temperature is:

Rt = R0 {1 + α t + β t 2 + γ t 3L}
This equation has the form of a polynomial in which the number of terms used, i.e the
value of each of the constants α, β, γ, depends on the temperature range and its length.

In the range 00C to 600 0C resistance values are calculated with the following formula:

Rt = R0{ 1 + 3.90802 . 10-3.t - 0.580195.10-6.t2}

In the range -200 0C to 0 0C the resitance is calculated according to:

Rt = {1+3.9082.10-3 .t - 0.580195.106t2 -4.27350.10-12.(t-100)t3}

41
 Table 4.1 shows standard values calculated with these equations.

Standard Max Tolerances

values
0
C of platinum Class A Class B

resistors Ω Ω Ω
0 0
C C
-200 18.49 ±0.24 ±0.55 ±0.56 ±1.3
-100 60.25 ±0.14 ±0.35 ±0.32 ±0.8
±0 100.00 ±0.06 ±0.15 ±0.12 ±0.3
+100 138.50 ±0.13 ±0.35 ±0.30 ±0.8
+200 175.84 ±0.20 ±0.55 ±0.48 ±1.3
+300 212.02 ±0.27 ±0.75 ±0.64 ±1.8
+400 247.04 ±0.33 ±0.95 ±0.79 ±2.3
+500 280.90 ±0.38 ±1.15 ±0.93 ±2.8
+600 313.59 ±0.43 ±1.35 ±1.06 ±3.3
Table 4.1

The range of interest here i.e. 00 C - 1000C and the polynomial truncates to:

R t = R 0 {1 + α t}

Thus ‘α’, the coefficient of increase of resistance with temperature is given by:

R100 − R0 1
α= × Ω / Ω / 0C
R0 100

Frequently quoted in manufacturers handbooks as:

R100 − R0 1
α= × × 10 6 ppm / 0 C ( i.e parts per million per degree Celcius)
R0 100

Thus by measuring the resistance of the element using, for example, a Wheatstone bridge,
the temperature of the device and the environment with which it is in thermal
equilibrium, can be determined.

4.2.2 The Wheatstone Bridge.

The general circuit for the Wheatstone bridge is shown in figure 4.2. In this
situation the bridge will be “balanced”.

42
 A

R1 R2

D
B ∆VAB

E
R3 R4

Fig. 4.2 Wheatstone bridge circuit.

At balance the potential difference measured across the diagonal of the bridge is
zero i.e.

∆VAB= 0

Under this condition the following relationship holds:

R1 R3
=
R2 R4

100Ω 100Ω

E
100 - RPt= 107.8Ω
200Ω @ 20 0C

Fig. 4.3 Wheatstone bridge dimensioned for 00C to 1000C.

4.3 Active and passive use of the platinum resistor.

In the previous section it was assumed that the current in the arms of the bridge was
small, so no self heating of the bridge elements took place. The platinum resistor
therefore took up the temperature of its surroundings and behaved as a conventional
thermometric element.

43
Alternatively, the element can be used in the so called ‘active’ mode. In this case, a
current large enough to cause self heating of the element is passed through it. The
diagram given below shows how the active element can be included in bridge.

100Ω 100Ω

B C ∇VAB
E
100 - RPt (Heated Wire)
200Ω

Fig. 4.4 Active bridge arrangement.

When an element used in this way is placed in a draught of air then cooling of the
element occurs and its temperature is lowered. The extent of the temperature decrease
depends primarily on the strength of the draught and its gaseous composition. The
cooling effect causes a change in the resistance offered to the bridge by the platinum
element, which, assuming the bridge balanced in still air causes an out of balance voltage
∆VAB ≠ 0 to occur.

4.4 Measurement technique.

However, a more practical and convenient way of measuring the effect of the
cooling effect of the air stream is to rebalance the bridge, by increasing the value
of ‘E’ the bridge supply voltage . This causes the current through the active
element to increase and temperature of the active element rises with an
associated increase in resistance. At a particular value of ‘E’ and, in the steady
state, the resistance of the platinum element will attain the value which it had in
still air and, at this point, the bridge is once more balanced. In this condition the
I 2 = a + b Ma
temperature of the platinum resistor regains the value which it had in still air and
the element gains heat at the same rate at which it loses it to the air stream. The
current ‘I’ now flowing through the platinum resistor is:

4.5 Compensations and corrections required.

4.5.1 Compensation for changes in the ambient temperature of the air stream.

We remember that a constant temperature difference must be maintained between the

active element and the airflow temperature. To compensate for changes in the ambient
temperature of the airflow it is necessary to include a second platinum resistor in the
other limb of the bridge.

4.5.2 Compensation for self heating of the dummy element.

44
When the bridge is re-balanced an increased flow of current also occurs through
the dummy element which, as a consequence, heats up. The simplest, but not
necessarily the best, way of avoiding this is to use a dummy element having a
reistance of up to 100 times greater than that used in the active leg. Figure 4.5
shows the dimensions of the compensated bridge.

100 -
1000Ω 200 Ω
B D ∇VBD
E
Passive RPt (Heated Wire)
Wire
1000Ω

Fig. 4.5 Dimensions of the compensated active bridge.

4.6 Basis of a self balancing automatic instrument.

The description above requires human intervention to balance the bridge. The out of
balance voltage is read and the value of the bridge supply voltage ‘E’ varied until the
bridge is re-balanced i.e. ∆VBD ~ 0. An exact balance is impossible to achieve. Figure 4.6
shows the principle of a self balancing bridge system, which uses a high gain differential
amplifier.

RC RRPt (Heated Wire)

Air Flow
D E
B +

R1
R2
R1’ V0
C

Fig. 4.6 Self balancing bridge circuit.

To understand the action of the circuit, assume that the bridge is balanced in still air with
about one third of the supply voltage (E/3) applied to the bridge. The air flow in the tube
is then switched on and the platinum resistor cools tending to cause the appearance of an
out of balance voltage across B-D. If the difference amplifier connected between B-D has

45
a high gain then the amplifier adjusts the voltage supplied to the bridge in such a way as
to minimise the voltage VBD i.e. VBD~ 0.

Suppose that the supply voltage VAC at balance in still air is 5V and that after cooling in
the air stream the voltage VAC is 12 V. The out of balance voltage VBD acts as an input to
the amplifier. Thus if the gain of the amplifier is 20,000, then the value of VBD which
produces an output voltage from the amplifier of 12 V is 12 ÷ 20,000 i.e. 0.6 mV. Thus
the bridge is brought to within 0.6 mV of the (in any case unachievable) perfect balance.
The higher the gain of the amplifier then clearly the more accurate is the balance
achieved. However, with higher amplifier gains the system may run into electronic
stability problems. Depending on the dimensioning of the bridge the accuracy required,
inherent problems of drift, component tolerance etc., it may well be that a balance to
within 0.6mV is satisfactory.

The current ‘I’ through the platinum resistance element at balance, which is a measure of
the mass air flow per second through the tube, is realised as the voltage V0 taken across
the resistor R’1 , whose ohmic value is constant and known. This DC voltage can be
converted into a digital value and if necessary acquired into a microcontroller system for
use in the fuel control system as a measure of the air mass provided for combustion.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

a) Familiarisation with the Hardware Platform

1. Overview of the IDE, and the Automotive Transducer Kit, ATK.

i) Ensure that the ATK motherboard is fitted with:

Micro-Controller Module, MCM
Keypad/Display Module
DC Motor Module , DCMM

ii) Connect ±15V, and connect the communications lead to the PC and the ATK.

iii) Invoke the Monisys IDE, check that the serial communication parameters are set to
9600 Baud, no parity, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit, (i.e. 9600, n, 8, 1), and select
[Applications][Forth Terminal].

(For successful uploads, it may also be necessary to modify the CHAR and LINE
PACING fields, in the serial communications parameters menu, prior to invoking the
terminal).

iv) Power-up the ATK, and follow the instructions on the LCD screen i.e. press <F4>
followed by <F1>. The sign-on message should then appear in the terminal window,
similar to that below. If no message appears, consult a tutor.

MONISYS MCM196 V1.2

46
MPE 80C196 ROM PowerForth
MAL V2.1 AJW 10/98 v3.10
6960 bytes free

ok

v) To confirm the comms link function, press return once or twice on the PC keyboard.
The ‘OK ‘ prompt should appear for each key-press.

2. Uploading programs to the ATK

i) As an example of uploading a program, we shall upload “sweep.fth”, which is a Forth

program to cause the LEDs to turn on and off, in a sweep from side to side.

Using either:

<Page Up> or [Application][Upload] or the button, invoke the ‘Upload’

process.

Select the required file, “sweep.fth”, and hit the OK button. If all is well, a window
should appear with the message “Upload Completed”. If any error messages appear,
consult the tutor.

ii) The sweep program may be executed by typing ‘sweep’ at the OK prompt. Any key-
press will halt the program.

e.g. ok
ok
sweep <CR>
ok

b) Setting up the Airmass Module

WARNING: THE PLATINUM SENSING ELEMENT BECOMES VERY HOT.

DO NOT TOUCH IT.

Turn off the motherboard, plug the Airmass Module into slots 1/2, and turn the
motherboard back on.

Upload the programme “am01.fth”. Turn off the fan using pot P3.

We now set up and balance the bridge. For this, you will need a voltmeter. An
oscilloscope may be used, but a meter is preferred.

Execute the programme by typing:

47
 set-up

at the ok prompt. The display summarises the steps that need to be taken. Press
a key on the keypad to move on to the next step. Figure 8.1 provides an outline
of the circuit; the full schematic can be found in appendix C.

1. Attach the meter between test point TE2 and a ground (GND)
pin on the motherboard. It should be set to read DC volts.
2. Adjust P1 until the meter reads 6.5V. You can go above this, but
it is inadvisable to go below this. This places 6.5V across the
bridge circuit. This is the voltage that will be increased when the
fan is turned on, to force more current through the platinum
sensor element.
3. Set switch S1 to position B. This acts as if the bridge was
perfectly balanced, as it connects the two central points
together. Connect the meter to test point TE11; this is the output
of the amplifier used to amplify the signal coming from the
bridge. You will see an offset: write this down.
4. Now switch S1 back to position A. Using a small screwdriver,
adjust potentiometer P2 until TE11 is as close as possible to the
value recorded in step 4. Note this will be tricky, as the bridge
needs to settle after each adjustment, but you should be able to
get to within about 10mV. The bridge is now balanced in still air.
U1
Bridge ↑ ← DAC i
Control c SR
r I/
G ue
o( e
O
pg
CM n pu
A C M
P2 o e l l
Rpt M o
n r ya
t) a
d
U
10,000Ω 100Ω →
S1 llSlot1
D ∝
∆VBD U3
11
B M
Slot2
× ↓
R4
10Ω
Rc
1000Ω C
Fan speed

15V
12 Adjustable U4
regulator Fan
P3 control

Fig. 8.1 Outline of the ATK Air Mass Flow Rate module. Circled numbers indicate
test points on the module (n.b. points 3 and 4 occur after additional signal
conditioning, not shown in this diagram).

48
c) Calculating the resistance of the platinum element at balance

i) Connect the meter between test point TE2 and ground. Write down the value -
Vbridge (it should be the 6.5V that you have just set it to). Now connect the meter
between TP10 and ground.

This will give you the voltage dropped across the 10 ohm resistor, R4 in figure
8.1. Record this voltage (V4). By Ohm’s law (which suggests that the voltage
dropped across a resistive element is equal to the current flowing through the
element multiplied by its resistance), the current flowing through this resistor (and
by implication, also flowing through the platinum sensing element) is equal to the
voltage divided by the resistance. i.e:
Ipt = V4 / 10

Calculate the current flowing through the platinum sensing element, Ipt.

Again, using Ohm’s law, it is possible to calculate the resistance of the platinum
element:

Rpt = (Vbridge – V4) / Ipt

Record this value:

At balance the resistance of the

platinum sensing element is:

Now, using the knowledge you gained in chapter 4, calculate the temperature of
the platinum sensing element.

ii) Turn the fan up to maximum, using P3. Do NOT balance the bridge again.
Wait a few minutes for the bridge to settle (use the meter attached to TP10).

Now repeat the measurements above, calculate the resistance of the platinum
element, and calculate the temperature.

iii) The microcontroller can be made to balance the bridge by increasing the
voltage across it (and hence the current flowing through the element), with the
fan running at full. Enter the command:

autobalance

This can be stopped by pressing a key on the keyboard of the PC.

Allow the system to settle, and repeat the previous measurements. Note that you
will need to measure TE2 again (Vbridge), since this will have changed.

What is the resistance of the element ? And its temperature ?

49
d) Measurement of air mass flow rate

The microcontroller uses the resistance of the platinum sensing element at

balance, as recorded in c part (i) to compute the current flowing through the
element, since it knows Vbridge. Enter the value you recorded into the
microcontroller’s memory using the following command:

value resistance !

Where value is the number that you recorded in ohms. For example:

158 resistance !

Turn the fan up to maximum and enter the command:

start

The programme balances the bridge and displays the fan voltage (in volts) and
computed current (in mA) in the sensing element. Note that the software
assumes that the bridge is balanced in order to compute the current, so after
changing the fan, let the bridge settle before making measurements.

(If the control algorithm decides to drop the current down to 0, then start again
with a higher voltage across the bridge. Additionally, the programme can be
halted by pressing a key on the PC’s keyboard).

If you have a meter available, use this to measure the bridge voltage and current.
You will notice discrepancies between the measured and displayed values – why
may this be ?

Now start decreasing the fan voltage, about 1 volt at a time. Record the fan
voltage and the sensing element current. As you get down towards 5V, you may
like to start decreasing the fan voltage about 0.5V at a time.

There is a linear relationship between the fan voltage and the volume flow of air.
This is given by:

volumeflow ≈ 243 × 10−6 ⋅ V fan − 4.811× 10−4

Where the volume flow is in m3s-1 and the fan voltage is in volts. If you know the
density of air, the mass flow can be calculated by multiplying the volume flow by
the density. At standard temperature and pressure, the density of air is 1.293 kg
m-3. From this, you can plot the current (Ipt) against air mass flow rate.

The equation linking ‘I’ with mass air flow is: I2 = a + bMa½. (See section 4.1).

We plot the following graphs:

50
i) I2 vs Ma

ii) I2 vs Ma½

iii) We test the validity of the equation I2 = a + b.Man by plotting the graph of :
Log10(I2 -a ) = Log( b) + n.Log10(Ma)

Graph (i) should have the characteristic curve associated with the square root. Graph (ii)
should be a straight line: the intersect will give you a, and the gradient will give you b.
The gradient of graph (iii) will give you the index – which should be 0.5 for a square
root. So you can check that the equation matches your data.

51
 LAB # 06
OBJECTIVE:

To control the continuous flow of water by using a servo motor.

THEORY:

➢ A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular
or linear position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor
for position feedback. It also requires a relatively sophisticated controller, often a dedicated
module designed specifically for use with servomotors.

➢ Servomotors are controlled by sending an electrical pulse of variable width, or pulse width
modulation (PWM), through the control wire. The position of a DC servo motor can be
controlled using PID Control algorithms.

➢ A PID (Proportional Integral Derivative) is a closed loop feedback mechanism. A PID

controller continuously calculates the error value as the difference between desired set point
and measured process variable and apply the correction based on PID terms.

➢ Systems in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input to the control process are
called Open-loop Control Systems, and that open-loop systems are just that, open ended
non-feedback systems.

➢ A Closed-loop Control System, also known as a feedback control system is a control system
which uses the concept of an open loop system as its forward path but has one or more
feedback loops (hence its name) or paths between its output and its input. A closed loop is
incapable of sending back the feedback of the measured value back to the input to improve
it
PROCEDURE:

Sensed Position is process variable & Set Position is desired point. The level of water
in a tank is being set by the help of PID controller which senses the measured value at every instant
of time and provides feedback to the input which is controlled by the servo valve. The water in the
tank flows from the servo valve into it and at the same time is being drained into the secondary tank
and guided back to the primary tank to make a continuous flow. The desired value of the water level
in the primary tank is entered into the computer that is connected to the PID controller. The
measured value is sensed by a sensor and is also displayed on the computer interface along with the
preset value. The preset value line remains constant but the measured value line keeps fluctuating
showing us the error present. The value of the measured value can be observed by the PID controller.

By applying the proportional band (PD) value, the measured value line comes closer to a straight
line. It may be below the preset value line or above but it’s preferred to keep it below the preset
value. In these cases, we have to take the measured line as close as possible to the preset value as
possible once it has attained a constant value. This is done by applying integration.

Tank 1 Servo Valve

Rotor

Motor

Tank 2 Solenoid Valve

OBSERVATION:

We can read measured values at every instance of time and graph is also appearing
on the computer, first thing we need to control is the Proportional Band (PB). Initially, we need to
enter a small value of PB and see the output. It should decrease the amplitude of the oscillations of
the measured value line. Then we apply second value which is bigger value. If the amplitude
decreases further then we need to increase the PB value and keep on increasing till we get a constant
line. If the amplitude increases on entering the second value then it means that we have to reduce
the PB value to obtain the PB value at which the line becomes straight.

To reduce the remaining errors, set the value of the Integral Band (Tr) which takes the straight line
obtained by tuning PB value, closer to the set point. There can be different combinations of PB and
Tr values for an experiment. If there is small errors remaining we can further reduce it using
Differential Band (Td). The values our group used for PB, Tr and Td were for set point 35 cm height
for the primary tank were:

Set Point 35.0

PB 14.0

Tr 50

Td 0

CONCLUSION:

PID controller is an automatic process, which can easily control through computer. It is
an extremely efficient method for these kind of closed loop applications which requires a feedback
system for improving the output and maintain it to a preset value. They are used in most automatic
process control applications in industry. PID controllers can be used to regulate flow, temperature,
pressure, level, and many other industrial process variables.
 LAB # 07
OBJECTIVE:
To control water level via ON/OFF solenoid valve.
THEORY:

➢ A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by

an electric current through a solenoid.
➢ Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks
are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many
application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service
life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact
design.

➢ Solenoid valves are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid can
generate a limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the valve, then
a direct acting solenoid valve is possible. An approximate relationship between the
required solenoid force Fs, the fluid pressure P, and the orifice area A for a direct
acting solenoid value is

Fs = PA =P𝝅𝒅𝟐 /4

Where d is the orifice diameter.

When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are required.
PROCEDURE:
In this experiment we have to fix a set point for our primary tank where we
want our water level to be maintained. Solenoid valve is a part of the whole process
which also includes other components such as float level switch which works in
conjunction with the solenoid valve. Now, as the water level strikes the float level switch,
the float level switch opens the circuit and as a result the electrically operated solenoid
valve is closed (OFF) preventing the water flow into the primary tank. But at the same
time the water is also being drained so the float level switch closes the circuit and
solenoid valve is ON now allowing water to flow into the primary tank. In this manner
solenoid valve and float level switch work together to maintain the water level.

OBSERVATION:
Fix the set point manually at a certain point using float level. Turn off the
solenoid valve. It allows the water to flow into the primary tank until the fixed point
reached. When fixed point is reached the solenoid valve is on, block the flow of the water.
As the water is drained down into the secondary tank, decreasing the level of water in the
primary, the solenoid valve is turned off, allowing the water to flow again in the tank. In
this way by turning on and off solenoid valve maintain the water level to the set point.
CONCLUSION:
Solenoid valves are used in fluid power pneumatic and hydraulic systems,
to control cylinders, fluid power motors or larger industrial valves. Automatic irrigation
sprinkler systems also use solenoid valves with an automatic controller.
Domestic washing machines and dishwashers use solenoid valves to control water entry
into the machine.
The more the fluctuation of the water level in the primary tank, there will be gradual
ON/OFF conditions for solenoid valve which results in inaccuracy and errors. This is
caused by the large flow rate of the drained water.
 LAB # 08
OBJECTIVE:
To control water level via float level switch.
THEORY:
➢ A float switch is a device used to detect the level of liquid within a tank.
➢ The switch may be used to control a pump, as an indicator, an alarm, or to control other
devices.
➢ One common type is a float that raises a rod to actuate a micro switch. Another type of float
switch uses a mercury switch inside a hinged float.
➢ All float operated liquid levels controls on the basic buoyancy principle.

PROCEDURE:
The procedure of this experiment is same as the previous one. The purpose of this
experiment is to show us the working principle of the float level switch.

In this experiment we have to fix a set point manually through float level for our primary tank
where we want our water level to be maintained. Solenoid valve is a part of the whole process
which also includes other components such as float level switch which works in conjunction with
the solenoid valve. Now, as the water level strikes the float level switch, the float level switch
opens the circuit and as a result the electrically operated solenoid valve is closed (OFF)
preventing the water flow into the primary tank. But at the same time the water is also being
drained so the float level switch closes the circuit and solenoid valve is ON now allowing water to
flow into the primary tank. In this manner solenoid valve and float level switch work together to
maintain the water level.

OBSERVATION:
Fix the set point manually at a certain point using float level. Turn off the
solenoid valve. It allows the water to flow into the primary tank until the fixed point reached. When
fixed point is reached the solenoid valve is on, block the flow of the water. As the water is drained
down into the secondary tank, decreasing the level of water in the primary, the solenoid valve is
turned off, allowing the water to flow again in the tank. In this way by turning on and off solenoid
valve maintain the water level to the set point.

CONCLUSION:
Error can be occurred due to fluctuations as solenoid is turning on and off to
maintain the water level at the set point. The higher the set point, the more error are introduced
due to fluctuations.
This type of level switch is widely used in household water tanks to prevent the water level
rising from a certain level so that the water does not overflow.
 LAB NO: 09
OBJECTIVE: Introduction

To demonstrate and learn the process of controlling individual stations

THEORY

What is CIM system?

A CIM cell is an automated assembly line that uses a network of computers to control robots,
production machines and quality control devices. The CIM cell can be easily programmed to
produce custom parts and products. Educational CIM cells are used to simulate the production
cycle and enable control and analysis of various aspects of the cycle, from the planning through
production.

Main Components of CIM

All CIM systems generally share the following components, which are necessary for most
production processes:

Robotic Arms: CIM systems are fully automated, and robotic arms are critical components in
these automated systems. In CIM, robotic arms perform tasks that would otherwise require human
intervention, thus enabling the system to be fully automated. Examples of tasks performed by
robotic arms include the picking and placing of parts in/from machines, removing of parts from
storage, assembling of parts and handling of parts for quality control. In later activities, you will be
introduced to some of the robot types and robot tasks used in CIM.

Storage: A storage stationis used to store raw materials prior to production, as well as finished
products following the production process. Such
stations are fully automatic and controlled by
robotic arms.

A typical CIM storage station includes a machine

known as an ASRS or Automated Storage and
Retrieval System. The ASRS is a robotic storage
device used to store and retrieve parts in a CIM cell.
The ASRS is used as the main source of raw material for the cell, and can also serve as a
warehouse for parts in various stages of production. Storage cells in the ASRS contain templates,
either empty or containing parts. A CIM cell may contain any number of ASRS Stations.

Machines: “Machine” is a generic term used to describe a wide variety of

production devices, such as CNC machines and laser engravers. Such machines
require that parts be inserted or placed into them, usually by a robotic arm. The
inserted parts are predefined size and nature. The machine is programmed in
advance to process a particular part, ensuring precise and exact part production.

Quality Control (QC): This group of equipment includes measuring devices,

such as optical systems, laser scan meters and CMMs (Coordinate Measuring Machines). The
purpose of these devices is to determine whether a product meets the quality control specifications
defined prior to the production process.

QC components include high precision measuring tools that the system uses to determine whether
the product should advance to shipment or be rejected. Following the rejection of a product, the
system must be capable of adjusting itself so that it does not automatically reject subsequent parts.

Closed Loop Conveyor: By nature, CIM components tend to be located in multiple production
stations that are physically distant from one another. This requires a
system that moves parts from one robotic station to another (for example
from an ASRS to a CNC machine). A closed loop conveyer with stop
stations controlled by PLC is typically used for this purpose. Stop and release units (i.e. stop
stations) are located on the conveyor in front of each production station. The stop stations are
controlled by the PLC and enable the robot to pick apart from the conveyor and place the part on
it.

Technologies:
• FMS, (flexible manufacturing system)
• ASRS, automated storage and retrieval system
• AGV, automated guided vehicle (mobile robot )
• Robotics
• Automated conveyance systems

This system consists of 5 stations and 5 station controller.

All stations are controlled by the CIM manager which configures all station simultaneously.
CIM manager maintains sequence of all the stations.CIM manager is used for on-line
production and manufacturing.
Station # 1 ASRS (Automatic Storage and Retrieval System): it picks and place the raw
material or finished goods.
Station #2 CNC lathe & robot Er4u is a 6 axis robot and it picks the parts from the
conveyor and places it in the CNC lathe and CNC mill.
Station # 3 QC robot Er4u: It is also a 6 axis robot and it picks the material places it on QC
station where it is measured by a digital Vernier caliper pneumatically operated. It also picks
and places the pallet with raw material from buffer to AGV.
Station # 4 Quality control: At the QC station material is inspected by using a digital
camera when defects are identified by digital image processing.
Transportation and Verification: The material is transported to all the stations by a
conveyor system where it is placed on pallets. The material transportation and identification
is controlled by a PLC.
 TASK
Q1: Refer to the actual SCORBOT-ER 4u robot. In the figure on the worksheet, mark the
following parts of the robot:
✓ Robot joints: base, shoulder, elbow, wrist pitch, wrist roll
✓ Gripper
✓ Motors and encoders

Q2: What are the three key elements in the definition of a robot?

Q3: To work on station 1, which software you will operate?

Q4: what is difference between station 3 and station 4?

 LAB NO: 10

OBJECTIVE:

SCORBASE Er-4u Software demonstration + pick & Place program training.

EQUIPMENT:

SCORBOT-ER 4u Robot and Controller USB

♦ Computer with SCORBASE for ER 4u software
♦ Experiment Table
♦ Gray Conveyor Belt (24V) with photoelectric sensor
♦ Gravity Parts Feeder with micro switch
♦ Parts Bin
♦ 6 Round blocks: 4 large, 1 medium, 1 small
♦ 4 Square blocks: 2 large, 1 medium, 1 small

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION:

Number of axes: Two axes are required to reach any point in a plane; three axes are required to
reach any point in space. To fully control the orientation of the end of the arm (i.e. the wrist) three
more axes (yaw, pitch, and roll) are required. Some designs (e.g. the SCARA robot) have trade
limitations in motion possibilities for cost, speed, and accuracy.

Degrees of freedom: This is usually the same as the number of axes.

Working envelope: The region of space a robot can reach.

Kinematics : The actual arrangement of rigid members and joints in the robot, which determines
the robot's possible motions. Classes of robot kinematics include articulated,
Cartesian, parallel and SCARA.

Carrying capacity or payload : How much weight a robot can lift.

Speed – how fast the robot can position the end of its arm. This may be defined in terms of the
angular or linear speed of each axis or as a compound speed i.e. the speed of the end of the arm
when all axes are moving.

Acceleration - how quickly an axis can accelerate. Since this is a limiting factor a robot may not
be able to reach its specified maximum speed for movements over a short distance or a complex
path requiring frequent changes of direction.

Accuracy – how closely a robot can reach a commanded position. When the absolute position of
the robot is measured and compared to the commanded position the error is a measure of accuracy.
Accuracy can be improved with external sensing for example a vision system or Infra-Red.
Accuracy can vary with speed and position within the working envelope and with payload (see
compliance).

Repeatability - how well the robot will return to a programmed position. This is not the same as
accuracy. It may be that when told to go to a certain X-Y-Z position that it gets only to within
1 mm of that position. This would be its accuracy which may be improved by calibration. But if
that position is taught into controller memory and each time it is sent there it returns to within
0.1mm of the taught position then the repeatability will be within 0.1mm.
PROCEDURE:

1. Open the software ScorBase for Scorbot ER4U ST2.

2. HOME the robot and click on ON iconin tool bar.

3. Select STAND ALONE in operation mode.

4. Press PICK AND PLACE command

1. open the window RUN PICK AND PLACE

2. select part ID i.e. MILL PROD 2
3. select source ID i.e. RACK 1
4. Put source index i.e. 1
5. Target ID same as SOURCE ID
6. Put the value of target index i.e. 3
7. press ok
CONCLUSION:

This system makes:

1. Reduced manufacturing times,

2. Lower cost per unit produced,
3. Greater labor productivity,
4. Greater machine efficiency,
5. Improved quality,
6. Increased system reliability,
7. Reduced parts inventories,
8. Adaptability to CAD/CAM operations.
9. Shorter lead times

Precautions:

1. Set up a protective screen or guard rail around the robot.

2. Make sure the robot base is properly bolted to a table or pedestal. Otherwise, the robot may
become unstable and topple during operation.
3. Do not use physical force on the robot arm to change its position, or for any other reason.
4. Be sure the robot arm has sufficient space in which to operate freely, especially during
homing.
5. Before connecting any input or output to the controller, and before approaching or handling
the robot, make that the controller’s main power switch is turned off.
6. Before opening the controller housing, be sure to unplug the controller power cable from
the AC power outlet. It is not sufficient to switch off the power; the power supplies inside
the controller still contain dangerously high voltages.
7. Before removing any fuses, be sure to turn off the controller and unplug the controller
power cable from the AC power outlet.