BAAP OF FORMULA SHEET

CHEMISTRY

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SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY

Sl No. Formula/Concept

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Some useful conversion factors

0
1A = 10 - 10m

1nm = 10 - 9m

1 ± = 10 - 12m

1litre = 10 - 3m 3 = 1dm 3

1 1atm = 760mm

1 =ˉ 10 5Nm - 2 = 10 5Pa

1cal or ie = 4.184J

1electron volt(ev) = 1.6022 × 10 - 19J

(1J = 10 ergs ) 7

(1cal > 1J > 1erg > 1eV)

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Some useful conversion factors

22.4L of any gas at STP weigh equal to molecular mass expressed in grams . This mass is called 'Gram
2

Molecular Mass' and this volume is called 'Gram Molecular Volume' (G. M. V).

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Some useful conversion factors

Note . 'STP' conditions are 1atm and 0 ∘ C. However , if the conditions taken are 1¯ and 0 ∘ C , instead of
3

22.4L. We have, 22.7L(1atm = 1.01¯)

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Atomic mass

4
It is average relative mass of its atoms as compared with an atom - 12 isotope taken as 12
 5 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Atomic mass

The mass of 1atom = atomic mass(in amu)

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Atomic mass

The mass of 1mole atoms = atomic mass (in g)

6

mass of one O atom = 16 amu

mass of 1 mole O atoms = 16g

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Atomic mass

Calculation of average atomic mass. If an element exists in two isotopes having atomic masses m 1 and m 2

7
in the ratio x : y , then

m1 × x + m2 × y
average atomic mass = .
x+y

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

Molecular mass of a substance is the average realtive mass of its molecules as compared with an atom of
8

C - 12 isotope taken as 12.

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

9
The mass of 1 molecule = molecular mass (in amu)

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

The mass of 1 molecule =molecular mass ( in amu)

10
The mass of 1mole molecule = molecular mass (in g)

e.g Mass of 1 O 2 molecules = 32gm

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

For atom → 1ga → m = 1mole "

11

For molecule → 1gmolecule = 1 mole

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

1
12
1 amu or 1 u = th of the mass of an atom of C - 12 = 1.66 × 10 - 27kg.
12

13 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

 1 mol of H 2O ≠ 22400cc of H 2O (because it is liquid). Instead , 1 mol ofH 2O = 18cc of H 2O (because

density of H 2O = 1g / cc)

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

14
(
Fermi is a unit of length used for expressing nuclear diameter 1fermi = 10 - 13cm = 10 - 15m )
(1fermi = 1femto).

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

The number of molecules in one ml of a gas at STP is known as 'Loschmidt number'. Its value
15

( )
= 6.02 × 10 23 / 22400 = 2.687 × 10 - 19ml - 1.

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

Mass of one mole of electrons = Mass of one e - × Avogadro's N o .

16

(
= 9.11 × 10 - 31kg × 6.02 × 10 23 ) (
= 0.55mg
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

M. W. = 2V. D.

density of gas
V. D. =
dH
2

d H = 0.000089gm / ml.
2
17
wt.
number of moles(n) =
MW / At wt
number of particles
(n) =
NA
volume at S.T.P.(in lit) Volume at STP (in ml)
n= or
22.4litre 22400ml
n = M × V(lit)
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

18
Atomic mass × specfic heat( ∈ cal / gm) ≈ 6.4 (Dulong and Pettit's law)

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

19
Calculations of equivalent weight.
 20 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

Atomic weight
(I) Equivalent weight of element =
Valency

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

Formula weight of ion

21
(ii) Equivalent weight of ions =
Charge on ion

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

(III) Equivalent weight of ionic compound = equivalent weight of cation + equivalent weight of anion
22
Equivalent weight of ionic compound

= equivalent weight of cation

+ equivalent weight of anion

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

Molecular weight
23
(IV)Equivalent weight of acid / base =
Basicity / Acidity

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

Molecular weight
(V)Equivalent weight of salt =
Total charge on cation or anion
24
Equivalent weight of salt

Molecular weight
=
Total charge on cation or anion

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

W
gram equivalent = NV(lit) = = number of moles × V. F
E
W
gram equivalent = N V (lit) = = number of moles
E

× V. F
25

N 1V 1 = N 2V 2

W
N 1V 1 = × V2
E
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY - Molecular mass

W1 W2
=
26

E1 E2

SOLUTIONS

Sl No. Formula/Concept
 27 SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Wt. of the solute (in g)

% by wt. = × 100
Wt. of the solution (in g)
SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Wt. of solute (in g)

% by wt. / vol = × 100
28

Vol. of solution (in cc)

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Vol. of solute (in cc)

% by volume = × 100
29

Vol. of solution (in cc)

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Moles of the solute

Molarity = × 100
30
Vol. of the solution (in cc)
Mass of the solute (in g)
where moles =
Molecular mass of the solute

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Gram equivalents of the solute

Normality = × 1000
31
Vol. of the solution in cc
Mass of the solute(in g)
where gm eq. =
Eq. mass of the solute

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Moles of solute
Molarity = × 1000
32

Mass of the solvent (in g)

33 SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration
 n2 W2 / M2
Mole fraction of solute in solution x 2 = ( ) n1 + n2
=
(w1 / M1 + w2 / M2 )
n2 W1 / M1
Mole fraction of solvent in solution x 1 = ( ) n1 + n2
=
(w1 / M1 + w2 / M2 )
where w 1, M 1 are mass and molecular mass of solvent and w 2, M 2 for the solute. x 1 + x 2 = 1. In general ,

t
for a solution containing many components(A, B,C.....), mo ≤ onofA(x_(A)) = (n_(A))/(n_(A) + n_(B) +
i

n_(C ) + ....) and soon. x_(A) + x_(B) + .... = 1. "Strength" (g//L) = N xx"eq. wt" "Strength" (g//L) = M

xx"mol.wt."`

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

wA

34
Mass fraction of component A x A = ( ) wA + wB
wB
Mass fraction of component B x B = ( ) wA + wB
x A + x B = 1.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Mass of solute
Parts per million (p ± ) = × 10 6
35
Mass of solution
vol. of solute
or p ± = × 10 6
vol. of solution

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

36
Normality equation (for dilution of a solution or for a complete reaction between two solutions)

N 1V 1 = N 2V 2

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

37
Molarity equation (for dilution of a solution) M 1V 1 = M 2V 2

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

If V 1 of a solution with normally N 1 is mixed with V 2 of the solution with normality N 2 , then normality"N 3

38
"of the solution can be calculated using

N 1V 1 + N 2V 2 = N 3 V 1 + V 2 . ( )
39 SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration
 Molarity , mole fraction and mass fraction do not change with temperature because they involve weights,

Normality and molarity change with temperature because they involve volume.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

One molar (1M) aqueous solution is more concentrated than one molal aqueous (1m) solutions of the

same solute.

40
This is because 1M solutions contains 1mo ≤ of the solute in 1000 of the solution which includes the

solute i.e. mass of solvent is less than 1000g (as density of H 2O = 1g / ). However , in case of non-

aqueous solution 1M > 1m or 1M = 1m depending upon the density of the solutions

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

41
Alloys are solutions of solids in solids.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

According to Raoult's law , for solution containing volatile components

A and B ,p′ A = x Ap A∘ and p′ B = x Bp B∘

42

P Total = p′ A + p′ B = x Ap A∘ + x Bp B∘

( )
= 1 - x B p A∘ + x Bp B∘ = p B∘ - p A∘ x B + p A∘ ( )
SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Raoult's law for non-volatile solute containg solution:

p ∘ - ps n2 n2
= (if solution is dilute i.e. < 50 % )
≈
43

p∘ n1 + n2
n1
w2 / M2
w2 / M2
= ≈ (if solution is dilute)
w1 / M1 + w2 / M2 w1 / M1

44 SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Osomotic pressure P or π = C. RT

C = molar conc., T = temp. in K, R = 0.0821L atm K - 1mol - 1

C = molar conc., T = temp. in K, R

−1 −1
= 0.0821L atm K mol
 ("if P is atm and vol. of solution in litres") or 8.314JK - 1mol - 1 ("if P is in Nm - 2 or Pascals and vol. ∈ m 3")

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Isotonic solutions have same osmotic pressure and same molar concentrations. If one solution has lower

45
osmotic pressure , it is called hypotonic with respect to the more concentrated solution. The more

concentrated solution is said to be hypertonic with respect to the dilute solution.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

46
Elevation in boiling point , ΔT b = K bm where K b = molal elevation constant and m = molarity of the solution.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Depression in freezing point , ΔT f = K fm where K f = molal depression constant and

47

m = molarity of the solution.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

RT 20 M 1RT 20
Kb = =
1000I v 1000ΔH v

where T 0 = "boiling point of the liquid (pure solvent )"

I v = " latent heat of vaporisation per g of the solvent"

48

ΔH v = " latent heat of vaporisation per mole of the solvent"

M 1 = " molecular mass of the solvent"

R = gas const.8.314JK - 1mol - 1 if I v or ΔH v is in joules or 1.987calK - 1mol - 1 if I v or ΔH v is in calories.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

RT 20 M 1RT 20
Kf = =
1000I f 1000ΔH f

where T 0 = freezing point of the liquid (pure solvent)

49

I f = latent heat of fusion per g of the solvent .

ΔH f = latent heat of fusion per mole of the solvent.

50 SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

 The lowering of vapour pressure on adding a non-volatile solute to a solvent is due ot covering up

partially the surface of the solution by solute particles which are non-volatile.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Osmotic pressure method is the best method for determination of molecular masses of polymers because

51
for polymer solutions , observed value of any other colligative property is too low to be measured

accurately.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Observed value of Colligative property

Van't Hoff factor(i) =
Calculated value of colligative property
Van't Hoff factor(i)

Observed value of Colligative property

=
Calculated value of colligative property

52

Calculated mol. mass M cal .

= =
Observed mol. mass M obs .

( ∵ Mol mass ∝
1
Colligative property )
SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

For solutes undergoing dissociation / association

53

n
ΔT b = iK bm, ΔT f = iK fm, π = i RT
V
54 SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

For an electrolyte A xB y undergoining dissociation with degree of dissociation α.

 i = 1 - α + nα(n = x + y)

i-1
i = 1 + (n - 1)αorα =
n-1
SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

For a solute A undergoing association"

55
α 1-i
I=1-α+ or α =
n 1
1- n

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Van't Hoff factor (i) > 1 for solutes undergoing dissociation and it is < 1 for solutes undergoing
56

association.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

57
Ethylene glycol is usually added to water in the radiator to lower its freezing point. It is called anti-freeze.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

Common salt (NaCl) or anhydrous CaCl 2 are used to clear shown on the roads. This is because they
58

depress the freezing point of water to such an extent it cannot freeze to form ice.

59 SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

 Freezing point is same as melting point. Hence instead of depression in freezing point, depression in

melting point can be determined. For this purpose camphor is used as solvent because it has molal

depression constant K f39.7 ≈ 40K / m.

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

According to Henry's law mass of gas dissolved ∝ pressure of gas above the solution (i.e. m ∝ p

or m = k Hp where k H is called Henry's constant) or for a mixture of gases , solubility in terms of

60

mole fraction ∝ partial pressure (i.e. x A = k Hp A where k H is in atm - 1 or bar - 1 or p A = k Hx A where

k H is in atm or bar)

SOLUTIONS - Units of concentration

61
Raoult law is a special case of Henry's law.

REDOX REACTIONS

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

62 REDOX REACTIONS - Stock notations

 Expressing the oxidation state of a metal by Roman numerals like , I, II, IIIetc. within parenthlesis is

called Stock notation e.g. FeSO 4 = Iron(II)sulphate, Na 2CrO 4 = Sodium chromate (VI)

F eSO4 = Iron(I I )sulphate, N a2 CrO4

= Sodium chromate (VI)

etc.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

Valency of an element is only a number and as such there is no positive or negative sign attached to it. It

can neither be zero nor fractional. Oxidation number , on the other hand, refers to charge and hence has
63

either positive or negative sign. It can also be zero or fractional. For example , oxidation state of C in

CH 2Cl 2 is zero while that of Fe in Fe 3O 4 is 8 / 3 and of S in Na 2S 2O 3 is 2.0.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

The oxidation number of metals in amalgams and metal carbonyls , ie., Ni(CO) 4, Fe(CO) 5, Cr(CO) 6 etc. is
64

zero.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

A substance acts only as an oxidising agent if the oxidation number of one of its element is in its highest

oxidation state and as a reducing agent if the oxidation number of one of its elements is in its lowest
65

oxidation sate.However , if the oxidation number of one of the elements of a substance is in its

intermediate oxidation state , it can act both as an oxidising as well as a reducing agent . For example ,

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

(a) The O. N. of N ∈ HNO 3 , i.e. + 5 is in the maximum , therefore , it can act only an oxidising agent by

accepting one or more electrons . For example,

66

+5 +4
I 2 + 10H N O 3 → 2HO 3 + 10 N O 2 + 4H 2O

Here , the O. N. of N decreases from + 5 in HNO 3 + 4 in NO 2 "and hence it acts an oxidising agent."

67 REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

 (b) The O. N. of S in H 2S , i.e., - 2 is the minimum and hence it can act only as a reducing agent by losing

one or more electrons . For example ,

0
Br 2 + H 2- 2S → S + 2HBr

Hence the O. N. of S increases from - 2 in H 2S to 0 in elemental sulphur and hence it acts as a reducing

agent.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

(c ) The O. N. of N in HNO 2 i.e., + 3 is neither maxium (i.e., + 5) nor minimum (i.e. - 3 ), therefore , it can act
68

both as an oxidising as well a reducing agent. For example

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

+3 +5
(i) 2KMnO 4 + 3H 2SO 4 + 5H N O 2 → K 2SO 4 + 2MnSO 4 + 5H N O 3 + 3H 2O
69 +3

2KM nO4 + 3H2 SO4 + 5H N O2 → K2 SO4 + 2M nSO4

+5

+ 5H N O3 + 3H2 O

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

+3 +2
(ii) 2H N O 2 + 2HI → 2 N O + 2H 2O + I 2

70
In equation (i) , the ON. Of N decreases from + 3 ∈ HNO 2 → + 2 ∈ NO , therefore , it acts as an oxidising

agent.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

Redox reaction are also called -tranfer reactions since electrons are transferred from the reductant to the
71

oxidant.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

72
Oxidation is also called de-electronation while reduction is called electronation.

73 REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

 If a compound contains two or more atoms of the same element , all of them may or may not have same

oxidation number e.g.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

74
(i) In Na 2S 2O 3 , one S-atom has oxidation number = - 2 while the other has oxidation number = + 6.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

(ii) In CaOCl 2 i.e., Ca(OCl)Cl (bleaching powder ) , oxidation number of one Cl = - 1 while oxidation
75

number of the other Cl = + 1.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

76
(iii) In Fe 3O 4 i.e., FeO. Fe 2O 3 oxidation number of one Fe = + 2 while that of each of the other two = + 3.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

77
(iv) In NH 4NO 3 , oxidation no. of NofNH 4+ = - 3 while that of N in NO 3- = + 5.

REDOX REACTIONS - Valency

(v) In Na 2S 4O 6 (sodium tetrathionate) having the structure

O O
∣∣ ∗ ∗ ∣∣
+ -
78
Na O - S ∣ ∣O -S-S- S ∣ ∣O - O - Na +

The oxidation number of both S ∗ is equal to 0 (pure covalent nature) and other to sulphir atoms have

O. N ⊙ = + 5

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

79 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Specific conductivity

1
(K) (or simply called conductivity) is the reciprocal of specific resistance i.e., K = .
ρ
l 1 1 l l
Hence from R = ρ ⋅ , = ⋅ orK = C ×
a C K a a
l
Where = cell constant.
a
 If l = 1cmanda = 1cm 2, K = C.Hence conductivity is the conductance of" 1cm 2 of the conductor. Units of

K = ohm - 1 or in SI units, these are omga - 1m - 1 or Sm - 1 1Scm - 1 = 100Sm - 1 ( )

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Relationship between Equivalent conductivity ( ∧ eq ) and Specific conductivity (K)

1000 1000
∧ eq = K × =K×
C eq Normality
80
C eq represents the concentration of the solution in gram equivalents per litre (i.e. normality of the

solution).

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Units of equivalent conductivity

81
= ohm - 1cm 2eq - 1 or in SI units, these are Sm 2eq - 1 (1Sm 2eq - 1 = 10 4Scm 2eq - 1 or Scm 2eq - 1 = 10 4Sm 2eq - 1)

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Relationship between molar conductivity ( ∧ m ) and Specific conductivity (K)

1000 1000
∧m = K × V = K × =K×
Cm Molarity
82

where V is volume of solution in cm 3 containing one mole of the electrolyte and C m is molar concentration

(molesL ) -1

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Units of molar conductivity

= ohm - 1cm 2mol - 1 "or in SI units, these are" Sm 2mol - 1 (1Sm 2mol - 1 = 10 4Scm 2mol - 1 or
83

1Scm 2mol - 1 = 10 - 4Sm 2mol - 1)

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Effect of dilution

Conductance increases, specific conductivity decreases, equivalent and molar conductivity increase with
84

dilution.

85 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Kohlrausch's law

The law states that at infinite dilution where dissociation of all electrolytes is complete and all interionic

effects disappear, each ion migrates independently of its co-ion and contributes to the total molar

conductivities of an electrolyte a definite share, which depends on its own nature and not at all on the

ions with which it is associated.

 General formula: For molar conductance ∧ m∞ = mλ c∞ + nλ a∞

where m & n = moles of cation & anion λ c∞ & λ a∞ =molar ionic conductance at infinite dilution for cation &

anion.

" For equivalent conductance:

∞ 1 ∞ 1 ∞
∧ eq = λ
+ c
+ λ
- a
Z Z

Relation between in ∧ m and ∧ eq

∧m
∧ eq =
v. f.

Variation of ∧ m with conc.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Absolute value of electrode potential cannot be determined

because oxidation or reduction half reaction cannot occur alone. Moreover, a reference electrode is
86

required.

87 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Absolute value of electrode potential cannot be determined

A negative value of standard reduction potential means that oxidation takes place on this electrode with

reference to standard hydrogen electrode. The standard electrode potential of hydrogen electrode is
 taken as zero.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Electrochemical series

Arrangement of different elements in increasing order of SRP is known as electrochemical series or

activity series.

Application:

(i) Greater the reduction potential of a substance stronger is the oxidising agent.
88

(ii) In ECS reactivity of metals decreases from top of bottom.

(iii) In ECS reactivity of non metals decreases from top to bottom.

(iv) More reactive metals/non metals displaces less reactive metal/non-metal in their solution.

(v) Metals above H 2 displace H 2 from acids.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - A Galvanic cell or voltaic cell

is a device used to convert chemical energy produced in a redox reaction into electrical energy.
89

LOAN → Left oxidation anode negative.

90 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - A Galvanic cell or voltaic cell

 In galvanic cell, the electrode on which oxidation takes place is called anode or negative pole

(because it is rich in electrons) and the electrode on which reduction takes place is called the

cathode or positive pole (being deficient in electrons).

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

lies in the fact that the former is used to convert chemical energy produced in the spontaneous redox

91
reaction into electrical energy whereas in the latter, electrical energy is passed to bring about the redox

reaction (electrolysis) which is otherwise non-spontaneous.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

In a salt bridge, the electrolytes commonly used are" KCl or KNO 3 or NH 4NO 3. "This is because their
92

cations and anions move almost at the same speed and hence have almost the same transport numbers.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

KCl / NaCl / NH 4Cl etc. cannot be used in the salt bridge of a cell containing Ag + Hg 22 + , Tl 1 & Pb + 2 ions
93

because they react to form a precipitate of AgCl, HG 2Cl 2, TlCl or PbCl 2

E 0cell = E 0O . P . ( Anode ) - E 0O . P . ( Cathode )

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

E 0cell = E 0Red (R.H.S. electrode)- E 0Red (L.H.S. electrode).

94

E 0cell = E 0R . P . ( Cathode ) + E 0O . P . ( Anode )

E 0cell = E 0R . P . ( Cathode ) - E 0R . P . ( Anode )

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

95
E 0R . P . = - E 0O . P . (For same electrode)

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

In balancing of half-cell reactions to get overall reaction, the equations may be multiplied by suitable
96

integers but electrode potentials are fixed quantities and are not multiplied with that integer.

97 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

 For a given reaction to be spontaneous, E cell must be positive.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

98
When the cell reaction attains equilibrium, E cell = 0.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

The EMF of a cell (complete redox reaction) is found by adding the oxidation potential and reduction

potential of the half-cell reaction. But the electrode potential of a half-cell form two other half-cells cannot

be found by simply adding their electrode potentials.

For example, suppose we have to calculate standard electrode potential of Cu + / Cu half-cell from known

values for Cu 2 + / Cu and Cu 2 + / Cu + (which are 0.337V and 0.153V respectively) i.e.

Given: (i) Cu 2 + + 2e - → Cu, E ∘ = 0.337V

99

(ii) Cu 2 + + e - → Cu + E ∘ = 0.153V

Aim : Cu + + e - → Cu, E ∘ = ?

Subtracting equation. (ii) from equation (i) will not give the required result. We have to calculate their free

energy changes. Let the free energy changes of the above three reactions be"ΔG 1∘ , ΔG 2∘ and ΔG 3∘

respectively. Then ΔG 3∘ = ΔG 1∘ - ΔG 2∘

∘
i.e. - 1 × F × E Cu + _(//Cu) = 0.521V.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

W Q
According to Faraday's first law of electrolysis, =
E F
100
Weight of substance liberated ∝ Quantity of electricity passed.

W ∝ Q or W = ZQ = Z × i × t (Z = electrochemical equivalent)

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

E
101
Z = Equivalent wt. of the substance / 96, 500 or Z =
F

102 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

 According to Faraday's second law of electrolysis, for the same quantity of electricity passed through

solutions of different electrolytes, (e.g. CuSO 4 and AgNO 3)

WeightofCudeposited Equivalentwt. ofCu W 1 W2

= =
WeightofAgdeposited Equivalentwt. ofAg E 1 E2

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

In an aqueous solution of SO 24 - and NO 3- , at the anode these ions are not oxidized but H 2O is oxidized to
103

(
give O 2 gas 2H 2O → O 2 + 4H + + 4e - . )
ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

104
Any metal above H 2O in electrochemical series can not be obtained by electrolysis of its salt solution.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

Primary cells are those which can be recharged e.g. dry cell and mercury cell.

Secondary cells are those which can be recharged e.g. lead storage battery and Ni - Cd cells.
105

Fuel cells are those in which energy produced from the combustion of fuels can be converted into

electrical energy e.g". H 2 - O 2 "fuel cel"l.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

106

107 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

 A dry cell does not have a long life because the acidic NH 4Cl corrodes the zinc container even when the

cell is not in use.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Difference between Galvanic and Electrolytic cell

108
Mercury cell gives a constant voltage (1.35V) throughout its life and is used in hearing aids and watches.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Reactions ocurring in lead storage battery

(a) Reactions occuring during discharge

Atanode : Pb + SO 24 - → PbSO 4 + 2e -

Atcathode : PbO 2 + SO 24 - → PbSO 4 + 2H 2O

109
The complete reaction may be written as

Pb + PbO 2 + 2H 2SO 4 → 2PbSO 4 + 2H 2O

As H 2SO 4 is consumed, the voltage of the battery drops.

n factor of H 2SO 4 in changing/discharging is 1.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Reactions ocurring in lead storage battery

In the Appolo moon flights, the source of electrical energy and that of drinking water was the" H 2 - O 2 fuel
110

cell.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Reactions ocurring in lead storage battery

Corrosion is the process of change of metal surface into salts like oxides, sulphides, carbonates etc. due
111

to attack of atmospheric gases.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Reactions ocurring in lead storage battery

112
Rust is hydrated ferric oxide, Fe 2O 3. xH 2O

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Factors which enhance corrosion are

113
(i) Presence of impurities in the metal (pure metals do not corrode).

114 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Factors which enhance corrosion are

(ii) Presence of moisture (e.g. in rainy season).

 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Factors which enhance corrosion are

115
(iii) Presence of electrolytes (e.g. saline water)

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Corrosion can be prevanted

"by the following methods:

116

(i) Barrier protection by oil/grease layer, paints or electroplating."

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Corrosion can be prevanted

(ii) Sacrificial protection by coating the metal with more electropositive metal (e.g. Zn) called
117

galvanisation.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Corrosion can be prevanted

(iii) Electrical protection by connecting the iron pipe to a more electropositive metal with a wire. (Cathodic
118

protection)

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Corrosion can be prevanted

119
Corrosion takes place faster in saline water than in pure water.

120 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Corrosion can be prevanted

According to Nernst equation,

(i) For the reaction half reaction (electrode reaction)

 M n + + ne - → M

RT 1 0.0591 log(1)
ER . P = E 0R . P - 1n = E 0Red - at298K
nF n
[M ] n+
[M ]
n+

RT 1
0 0
ER . P = E − 1n = E
R.P n+ Red
nF [M ]

0.0591 log(1)
− at298K
n+
n [M ]

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Corrosion can be prevanted

(ii) For the cell reaction aA + bB ⇔ xX + yY

RT [X] [Y] x y
0.0591 (
log [X] x[Y] y )
E Cell = E 0Cell - 1n = E 0cell - at298K
nF [A] a[B] b n [A] a[B] b
x y
RT [X] [Y ]
0 0
ECell = E − 1n = E
Cell a b cell
nF [A] [B]

x y
0.0591 log([X] [Y ] )
− at298K
a b
n [A] [B]

121

For a pure solid, pure liquid at 1 atm, put molar conc. = 1.

e.g. for Zn + Cu 2 + → Zn 2 + + Cu.

0.0591
log ([Zn ]) 2+
0.0591 log([Product])
E Cell = E 0Cell - =E 0
cell
-
n n [Reactant]
[Cu ] 2+

2+
0.0591 log([Zn ])
0 0
ECell = E − = E
Cell 2+ cell
n [Cu ]

0.0591 log([P roduct])

−
n [Reac tan t]

122 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Corrosion can be prevanted

RT 2.303RT 0.0591
E 0Cell = 1nK = logK = logKat298K
nF nF n
RT 2.303RT
0
E = 1nK = log K
Cell
nF nF

0.0591
= log Kat298K
n
 (K = Equilibrium constant of the cell reaction).

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Corrosion can be prevanted

ΔG - nFE
123
Thermodynamic efficiency of a fuel cell (η) = =
ΔH ΔH

ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Calculation of ΔG, and ΔS for cell reactions.

124
ΔG = - nFE cell

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES

Sl No. Formula/Concept

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Gas law

(I)Boyle's law:
125
1
V∝ (n, T = const)
P
P 1V 1 = P 2V 2

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Gas law

(II) Charle's law:

126
V ∝ T (n, P = const)

V2 T2
=
V1 T1

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Gas law

(III) Gay lussac's law:

127
P ∝ T (n, V = const)

P2 T2
=
P1 T1

128 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Gas law

(IV) Avogadros's law:

V ∝ moles ∝ number of molecules(P, T = const)

 Ideal gas equation PV = nRT

R = 0.0821lit atmmol - 1K - 1

R = 8.314JK - 1mol - 1 or 8.314 N × mK - 1mol - 1

R = 2calK - 1mol - 1

R = 8.314 × 10 7ergK - 1mol - 1

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Graham's diffusion law:

It is applicable for non reacting gases

1
r∝
√d
1
r∝ : ∣ (P, T = const)
√VD
1
r∝
√Mw
dgas Mw
129 VD = =
dH 2 2
l diffusedgas
rate of diffusion r =
t timetaken

(Where, l = distance travelled by diffused gas)

V diffusedgas
r=
t timetaken
n diffusedgas
r=
t timetaken

130 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Dalton's law of partial pressure

 P moistgas = P drygas + P watervapours It is applicable for non reacting gases".

" Methods of determination of partial pressure

(P A&P Bare partial pressure)

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Dalton's law of partial pressure

131
(I) from ideal gas equation

P AV = n ARTand P BV = n BRT

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Dalton's law of partial pressure

(II) In the form of mole fraction.

nA
P A = X AP T = nT
PT
132

nB
∣ XA + XB = 1
P B = X BP T = nt
PT

P T = sum of partial pressure of all gases"

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Dalton's law of partial pressure

(III)In the form of volume fraction

133

VA VA
PA = P TandP B = PT
V V
134 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Dalton's law of partial pressure
 (IV) If individual pressure and individual volume are given

VA Va
PA = P 1 andP a = P2
V V

P 1, P 2 = pressureofgasesbef or emiξng

P A, P B = pressureofgasesaftermiξng"

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Dalton's law of partial pressure

Kinetic gas equation

135

1
PV = mNV 2rms
3
BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Average KE (KEav)

3
KEav = nRT(n moles)
2
3
136
KEav = RT(1mol or N_A "molecules")K=1.38xx10^(-23)JK^(-1) mol ecu l e^(-1)`
2

K is called Boltzman's constant

137 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Average KE (KEav)

( | | )
2 2 2

√
v 1 + v 2 + ... . v n
v 1 + v 2 + v 3 ... . . v n
v rms = N v av = N 2RT

3RT v av =
√
8 RT
v mp =
√ Mw

√
π Mw
v rms = Mw
2PV

3PV
, ,
v av =
√
8 PV , , v mp =
√ Mw , (, , , , )

√
π Mw
v rms = Mw
2PV

3P v av =
√
8P
v mp =
√ d

√
πd
v rms = d
 2 2 2
v +v + ... . vn
⎛v √ 1 2
rms =
N
⎜
⎜
3RT
⎜v = √
⎜ rms Mw
⎜ ,
⎜
⎜ 3P V
⎜ vrms = √ Mw
⎜
⎜
3P
⎝ vrms = √
d

v1 + v2 + v3 ... . . vn
∣ vav = ∣
N
∣ ∣
∣ 8 RT ∣
vav = √
π Mw
∣ ∣
∣, , ∣,
8 PV
∣ vav = √ ∣
π Mw
∣ ∣
∣ 8 P ∣
vav = √
∣ π d ∣

⎟
2RT ⎟
vmp = √
Mw ⎟
⎟
⎟, (, , , , )
2P V ⎟
vmp = √ ⎟
Mw
⎟
⎟
⎟
2P V
vmp = √
d ⎠

8
v rms : v av : v mp = √3 :
√ π
: √2

= 1: 0.92 : 0.82
8
v mp : v av : v rms = √2 :
√ π
: √3

= 1: 1.128 : 1.224
BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Average KE (KEav)

(Vm )obs ( )
P V m obs
Compressiblity factor (z) = =
V1 RT

138
If z = 1, the gas show ideal gas behaviour.

If z > 1, the gas show positive deviation.

If z < 1, the gas show negative deviation.

139 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Vanderwaal's equation

 ( )P+
an 2
V2
(V - nb) = nRT

an 2
Pi = PR + ⇒ Pi > PR
V2

a ↑ force of attraction ↑ , liquification ↑

b ↑ , effective size of molecule ↑ incompressible vol ↑ , compressible vol ↓

b ↑ , effective size of molecule ↑ incompressible vol ↑ ,

compressible vol ↓

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Vanderwaal's equation

140
(I)At high pressure, Vanderwaal's equation is PV m - Pb = RT

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Vanderwaal's equation

a
141
(II) At low pressure or Moderate pressure Vanderwaal's equation is PV m + = RT
Vm

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Vanderwaal's equation

142
(III) At very low pressure, high temperature Vander waal's Eq n′ isVP=nRT` Ideal gas behaviour.

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES - Vanderwaal's equation

(IV) Gases having ↑ value of a, will have ↑ TC, ↑ rate of liquefaction.

143

Gases having ↑ value of a, will have ↑ TC ,

↑ rate of liquefaction.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Sl No. Formula/Concept

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - ATOMIC STRUCTURE

144
The word Atom was given by Ostwald.

145 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - DISCOVERY & THEIR DISCOVERERS

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

(i) Atomic number(Z) = no. of protons ∗ Mosely's relation ⇒ √v = a(z - b)

146
∗
Atomic number(Z) = no. of protons Mosely's relation

⇒ √v = a(z − b)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

147
(ii) Mass no.(A) = number of(n + p)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

148
(iii)Iso ⊤ es = SameZbut differentA

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

m 1x 1 + m 2x 2 + m 3x 3 + ………
(iv) Average Atomic wt. =
x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + ……….
Average Atomic wt.

m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + ………
=
x1 + x2 + x3 + ……….
149

where m 1, m 2, m 3 are mass of isotopes

x 1, x 2, x 3 are their percentage abundance or relative ratio.

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

150
(v) Isobars = Same A + Different Z

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

151
(vi) Isotones / Isoneutronics / Isotonic = same no. of neutrons

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

152
(vii) Isodiaphers = Same(n - p)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

(viii) Isosters = Molecules with same no. of atoms and electrons

153
Isosters=Molecules with same no. of atoms and electrons

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Definations:

154
(ix) Isoelectronic = Same no. of e^(-) s.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Electromagnetic radiations

The electric & magnetic components of wave have same wavelength, frequency, speed and amplitude
155

but they vibrate in two mutually perpendicular planes.

156 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Electromagnetic radiations

 EM waves do not need any medium for propagation and all EM waves travel with same velocity

(3 × 10 ms ) 8 -1

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Electromagnetic radiations

Relation between frequency (v), wavelentgh(λ), wave number (vˉ ) and time period (T)

c = vλ
157

1 v
→
v = = 1cm - 1 = 100m - 1
λ c
1 λ
T= =
v c
ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Electromagnetic Spectrum

The arrangement of various types of electromagnetic radiations in the order of their increasing or

decreasing wavelength or frequency is known as electromagnetic spectrum.

158

159 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Photoelectric effect

E photon = Threshold Energy (work function) + KE

E photon = hv 0 + KE
 hv = hv 0 + KE

or FE = h v - v 0 ( )
ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Plancks Quantum theory. (Important Formulae)

E = hv(E = Energy of one photon)

160

hc
or E = hv = = hvˉv
λ

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Plancks Quantum theory. (Important Formulae)

Total Energy transferred = N × Energy of one photon.

hc
E T = N × hv = N × hcˉv
λ
161

Where h = plancks constant = 6.626 × 10 - 34Js

= 6.626 × 10 - 27ergs

h × c = 2 × 10 - 25(In SI unit)
ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Bohr's Model

162
Applicable for single e - species only like H, He + , Li + 2, Be + 3, Na + 10 etc.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Bohr's Model

163
Related with particle nature of electron.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Bohr's Model

164
Based on Plancks Quantum theory.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Formulae :

Angular momentum in an orbit is quantized.

165

h
mvr = n ×
2π
166 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Formulae :

n 2h 2
Radius of bohr orbit = r =
4π 2mKZe 2
n2
On solving r = 0.529 × Å
Z

where 0.529Å = a 0is called atomic unit of length (Bohr)

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Formulae :

Velocity of electron in Bohr orbit

2πKZe 2
v=
nh
6
Z
on sloving v = 2.18 × 10 m/s
167

n
Z
v = 2.18 × 10 8 cm / s
n

Energy of electron in Bohr orbit

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Formulae :

Kze 2
Potential Energy (PE) = - i.e. at r = ∞, PE = 0
168

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Formulae :

1 Kze 2
Kinetic Energy (KE) = i.e. at r = ∞, KE = 0
169

2 r

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Formulae :

- 2π 2mK 2z 2e 4
Total Energy (TE) =
n 2h 2
z 2
- 18
on solving TE = - 2.18 × 10 J/a → m
n2
z2
= - 13.6 × eV / a → m
170

n2
z2
= - 313.6 × Kcal / mol
n2
z2
= - 1313.6 × KJ / mol
n2
171 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Formulae :

Relation between TE, PE and KE = ⇒ PE × 2 × TE

⇒ TE = - KE

⇒ PE = - 2KE
172 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Shortcuts

T. E of onlyH - like species = TE of Hydrogen × Z 2

(for same orbit)

ΔEforH - like species = ΔE(For Hydrogen) × Z 2

(For same transition)

E1
th
Energy in n orbit-for H like species = [For same atom]
n2

(I. E. ) Ionisation Energy ⇒ n = 1 → n = ∞

(S. E)Separation Energy

 (K. E) Excitation Energy =

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Spectrum (Important points)

173
continous emission spectrum is given by incandescent sources.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Spectrum (Important points)

174
Emission line sepctrum is given by atoms.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Spectrum (Important points)

175
Emission band spectrum is given by molecules.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Spectrum (Important points)

176
Angle of deviation ∝ frequency of radiation.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Spectrum (Important points)

177
More lines are observed in emission spectrum than absorption spectrum.

178
( ) ( )
ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Hydrogen Spectrum n 2 , n 1
 Lyman → Any higher orbit → 1 [found in U.V.region]
Balmer → Any higher orbit → 2 [found in Visible region]
Pashen → Any higher orbit → 3 [found in I.R. region]
Brackett → Any higher orbit → 4 [found in I.R. region]
Pfund → Any higher orbit → 5 [found in I.R. region]
Lyman → Any higher orbit → 1 [found in U.V.region]

Balmer → Any higher orbit → 2 [found in Visible region]

P ashen → Any higher orbit → 3 [found in I.R. region]

Brackett → Any higher orbit → 4 [found in I.R. region]

P f und → Any higher orbit → 5 [found in I.R. region]

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Rydberg Equation :

vˉ =
1
λ
= R HZ 2
( ) 1
n 21
-
1
n 22
, [where C = velocity of electromagnetic waves]

v = R HCZ 2
( )1
n 21
-
1
n 22

179 E= R HCZ 2h
( ) 1
n 21
-
n 22
1

where R H = Rydberg constant = 109678cm - 1

1
= 10967800m - 1 , = 912Å
RH

R HCh = "Energy of" I st "orbit of hydrogen"

R HChZ 2 = "Energy of Ist orbit of any Hydrogen like species".

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Point :

180
α line / first line / starting line / Initial line (First line of any series)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Point :

181
last line / limiting line / marginal line (Last line of any series)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Important Point :

"Total number of lines in emission spectrum" (For n 2 → n 1)

182 (n2 - n1 )(n2 - n1 + 1 )

(T. E. L)" Total Emission lines" =
2
n(n - 1)
But for (n → 1), T. E. L =
2

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - de-Broglie Equation (Important Formulase)

h h
183
λ= = , Where h = Planck's constant
mv P

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - de-Broglie Equation (Important Formulase)

h
λ= m = mass
√2mKE
184
v = velocity
KE = Kinetic Energy
V = Potential
ATOMIC STRUCTURE - de-Broglie Equation (Important Formulase)

h 150
185
λ=
√2mqv
, (for e- if solved) then λ =
√ V
Å

186 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - de-Broglie Equation (Important Formulase)

 Elctron microscope is based on the wave nature of electron.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - de-Broglie Equation (Important Formulase)

de-Broglie on the basis of Millikan's oil drop experiment (which showed particle nature) and diffraction
187

study (which showed wave nature) suggested the dual nature of electron.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Heisenberg uncertainity principle

h
Δx × ΔP ≥
4π
h
or Δx × Δv ≥
4πm

where Δx = "Uncertainity in position"

188
Δv = " Uncertainity in velocity"

ΔP = "Uncertanity in momentum"

m = "Mass of particle"

h
= 5.27 × 10 - 35Js (In SI unit)
4π

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Quantum number

189
In an atom each shell, subshell, orbital and electron are designated by a set of 4 quantum numbers.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Principal Quantum number (By Bohr)

190
Indicates = Size and energy of the orbit, distance pf e - from nucleus

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Principal Quantum number (By Bohr)

191
Values n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ... ... ...

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Principal Quantum number (By Bohr)

h
192
Angular momentum = n ×
2π

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Principal Quantum number (By Bohr)

193
Total number of e - s in an orbit = 2n 2

194 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Principal Quantum number (By Bohr)

Total number of orbitals in an orbit = n 2

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Principal Quantum number (By Bohr)

195
Total number of subshell in an orbit = n

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

196
Given by = Sommerfeld

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

197
Indicates = Sub shells//sub orbit//sub level

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

198
Values ⇒ 0, 1……. . (n - 1)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

199
Indicates shape of orbital / Sub shell
ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

value of n Values of l [Shape] Initial from word

eg. Ifn = 4 1 = 0(s)[Spherical] Sharp
1[p][Dumbbell] Principal
2 [d][Double dumb bell] Diffused
3 [f][Complex] Fundamental
200
value of n Values of l [Shape] Initial from word

eg. Ifn = 4 1 = 0(s)[Spherical] Sharp

1[p][Dumbbell] Principal

2 [d][Double dumb bell] Diffused

3 [f][Complex] F undamental

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

201
Total no. of e - s in a sub - orbit = 2(2l + 1)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

202
Total no. of orbitals in a sub - orbit = (2l + 1)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

h
Orbital angular momentum = √l(l + 1) = √l(l + 1)h
203
2π

h = "Planck's constant"

204 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Azimuthal//Secondary//Subsidiary//Angular momentum Q.No. (l)

 For H & H-like species all the subshells of a shell have same energy

i.e. 2s = 2p

3s = 3p = 3d
ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Magnetic Quantum number (m)

205
Given by linde

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Magnetic Quantum number (m)

206
Indicates orientation of orbitals i.e. direction of e - density.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Magnetic Quantum number (m)

207
Value of m = - l…….0……. . + l

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Magnetic Quantum number (m)

Maximum no of e's in an orbital = 2 (with opposite spin)

m for p sub shell =

208

m for sub shell =

209 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Spin Quantum no. (m s or s)

 Given by Uhlenback & Goudsmit

1
Values of s = ±
2
1
Total value of spin in an atom = ± × number of unpaired e -
2
h
Spin Angular momentums = √s(s + 1) 2π

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Rules for filling of orbitals :

Aufbau principle : The electrons are filled up in increasing order of the energy in subshell.
210

1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 104p 65s 24d 105p 66s 24f 145d 106p 67s 25f 146d 10
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 2 10 6 2 14 10 6 2 14 10
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Rules for filling of orbitals :

(n + l) rule : The subshell with lowest (n + l) value is filled up first, but when two or more subshells have
211

same (n + l) value then the subshell with lowest value of n is filled up first.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Rules for filling of orbitals :

Pauli exclusion principle : Pauli stated that no two electrons in an atom can have same values of all four
212

quantum numbers.

213 ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Rules for filling of orbitals :

 Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity : Electrons are distributed among the orbitals of subshell in such a

way as to give maximum number of unpaired electrons with parallel spin.

CHEMICAL KINETICS

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

CHEMICAL KINETICS - Rate of reaction:

n 1A + n 2B → m 1C + m 2D

1 - d[A] 1 - d[B] 1 + d[C] 1 + d[D]

ROR = . = . = . = .
n 1 dt n 2 dt m1 dt m2 dt
1 − d[A] 1 − d[B] 1 + d[C]
ROR = . = . = .
n1 dt n2 dt m1 dt

1 + d[D]
= .
m2 dt

214

d[A]
Rate of disappearance of A = -
dt
d[B]
Rate of disappearance of B = -
dt
d[A]
Rate of disappearance of C = +
dt

d[A]
Rate of disappearance of D = +
dt

215 CHEMICAL KINETICS - Order of Reaction:

In general order of a reaction is defined as the sum of the powers to which the concentration terms of the

reactants must be raised in order to determine the reaction rate.

For a reaction, mA + nB → C

dx
Rate equation is = K[A] x[B] y
dt

Order of reaction with respect to A = x

 Order of reaction with respect to B = y

Total order of reaction = x + y

Here K is a rate constant and its value depends on

(1) Temperature

(2) Catalyst

(3) Nature of reactant

216 CHEMICAL KINETICS - Zero Order Reaction

"Eg. Decomposition of gases on metal surface".

"Eg. Photochemical reaction".

hv
H 2(g) + Ci 2(g) → 2HCl(g)

" Integrated rate equation"

[A] t = [A] 0 - kt…(1)

x = kt…(2)

a a
"Half life" t 1 / 2 = ⇒ t 100 % = ⇒ t 100 % = 2 × t 1 / 2
2k k
dx
" Rate equation:" = k[A] 0
dt
 CHEMICAL KINETICS - First Order Reaction

Eg. All radio active disintegration

1
H 2O 2 → H 2O + O2
2

NH 4NO 2 → N 2 + 2H 2O

217
Hydrolysis of ester in acidic medium-(Pseudo first order rx n )
H+
CH 3COOC 2 + H 2O → CH 3COOH + C 2H 5OH

Inversion of cane sugar in acidic medium"- ("Pseudo first order" rx n )

H+
C 12H 22O 11 + H 2O → C 6H 12O 6

dx
Rate equation : = K[A]
dt
CHEMICAL KINETICS - First Order Rate Expression:

2.303 loga
k=
t a-x
0.693
218 ( )
Half- life t 1 / 2 =
k
t 75 % = 2 × t t / 2, t 87.5 % = 3 × t 1 / 2, t 93.75 % = 4 × t 1 / 2, t 100 % = ∞
t75 % = 2 × tt / 2 , t87.5 % = 3 × t1 / 2 , t93.75 % = 4 × t1 / 2 ,

t100 % = ∞

219 CHEMICAL KINETICS - Integrated rate equation for n th order reaction -

 Kt =
1
[
(n - 1) (a - x) n - 1
1
-
1
an - 1 ]
t1 / 2 =
1
(n - 1) [ ] 2n - 1 - 1
an - 1
⇒ t1 / 2 ∝
1
an - 1

(t 1 / 2 ) 1
()a2 n-1
=
a1
(t 1 / 2 ) 2
"It is half life method to determine order of reaction."

CHEMICAL KINETICS - Activation Energy:

The excess energy that is supplied to the reactant molecules in order to raise them to the level of
220

threshold energy is called activation energy.

221 CHEMICAL KINETICS - Activation Energy:

Arrhenius gave a relationship between the temp. and rate constant of a reaction called Arrhenius

equation,

k = Ae - E a / RT

Ea
logk = logA -
2.303RT

or
logk 2
k1
=
2.303R
Ea
( )
T2 - T1
T 1T 2

where k 1 = rate constant at temp. T 1

k 2 = rate constant at temp.T 2

 CHEMICAL KINETICS - Activation Energy:

k T + 10
Temperature coefficient μ =
kT

range of μ = 2 ≤ μ ≤ 3

k2 r2
= at any two different temperatures.
222 k1 r1

Factors affecting activation energy are

(1) Catalyst

(2) Nature of reactant

CHEMICAL KINETICS - Factors affecting rate of reaction.

(i) Nature of reactant.

(a) Physical state

223

(b) Physical size of particles

(c ) Chenical nature

CHEMICAL KINETICS - Factors affecting rate of reaction.

224
(ii) Concentration of reactant

225 CHEMICAL KINETICS - Factors affecting rate of reaction.

 (iii) Pressure

CHEMICAL KINETICS - Factors affecting rate of reaction.

226
(iv) Temperature

CHEMICAL KINETICS - Factors affecting rate of reaction.

227
(v) Catalyst

CHEMICAL KINETICS - Factors affecting rate of reaction.

228
(vi) Exposure to radiation

CHEMICAL KINETICS - Collision theory -

Two condition must be satisfied for effective collision.

229

(i) Reacting molecules must posses a minimum amount of energy which is equal to threshold energy.

230 CHEMICAL KINETICS - Collision theory -

(ii) Proper orientation for collision.

The excess energy that is supplied to the reactant molecules in order to raise them to the level of

thereshold energy is called activation energy.

Thereshold energy = Potential energy of reactants + activation energy

Thereshold energy = Potential energy of reactants

+ activation energy
 CHEMICAL KINETICS - Arrhenius equation:

Arrhenius gave a relathionship between the temperature and rate constant of reaction called Arrhenius

equation
231

K = Ae - Ea / RT

logK = logA -
Ea
2.303RT
or log
()
K2
K1
=
Ea
2.303R [ ]
T2 - T1
T 1T 2

THEROMDYNAMICS

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

232 THEROMDYNAMICS - Work

Mechanical work = force × displacment = F × d

Electrical work = pot.diff. × quantity of current = E × Q

Electrical work = pot.diff. × quantity of current = E

× Q

Gravitational work = gravitational force × quantity of current = E × Q

Gravitational work = gravitational force

× quantity of current = E × Q
 Gravitational work = gravitational force × height = mg × h
Gravitational work = gravitational force × height

= mg × h

Mehanical work = pressure × change in volume = P × ΔV

Mehanical work = pressure × change in volume = P ×

ΔV

For expanssion W = - ve ∵ V 2 > V 1 ( )

For compressionW = + ve ∵ V 2 < V 1 ( )
Units of work 1cal = 4.184x10 7erg = 4.184J
THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthalpy

Enthalphy (H) is defined as the total heat content of the system at constant pressure,

H = E + PV

ΔH = ΔE + PV

ΔH = ΔE = + Δ(PV)
233

or ΔH = ΔE + P 2V 2 - P 1V 1( )
ΔH = ΔE + PΔV + VΔP

at constant pressure ΔH = ΔE + PΔV

so ΔH = ΔE + Δn gRT (for chemical reaction)

234 THEROMDYNAMICS - First Law of Thermodynaimics

Mathematically

q = ΔE - w

or ΔE = q + w

q = heat absorbed or evolved( + ve if absorbed and - ve if evolved)

 q = heat absorbed or evolved( + ve if absorbed and

− ve if evolved)

THEROMDYNAMICS - For Isothermal process

ΔT = 0 ∵ ΔE = 0q = - W
235

i.e., "heat absoreted is used in work done by the system."

THEROMDYNAMICS - For Adiabatic process

∵ q = 0, ∵ ΔE = W

236
i.e.," Internal energy is used up in work done by the system. If work is done on the sytem, its internal

energy will increases of if work is done by the system its internal energy will decrease".

THEROMDYNAMICS - For Adiabatic process

237
In adiabatic process work behaves as state function.

THEROMDYNAMICS - For Isochoric process,

ΔE = q - PΔV

238
∵ ΔV = 0, q v = ΔE

i.e.," heat absorbed at constant volume increases internal energy".

THEROMDYNAMICS - For Isochoric process,

239
For isochoric process heat behaves as state function.
 THEROMDYNAMICS - For Isobaric process

240
∵ ΔP = 0, q P = ΔH

THEROMDYNAMICS - Work done

241 For irreversible process -

W = Pext × ΔV
THEROMDYNAMICS - Work done

242
For reversible process -

W = - ∫ V _ (1) V 2PdV

THEROMDYNAMICS - Work done

For reversible isothermal process -

243

log 10 V 2( ) ( )
log 10 P 1
W = - 2.303nRT = - 2.0303nRT
V1 P2

THEROMDYNAMICS - Work done

In adiabatic process - W = ΔE

244
For an ideal gas W = nC V T 2 - T 1 ( )
nR
or W =
(γ - 1) (T 2 - T 1 )
THEROMDYNAMICS - Work done

245
When an ideal gas freely expands in vacumm then the obtained work done is zero because P ext = 0

THEROMDYNAMICS - Work done

246
Reversible expansion process are more efficient than the irrevesible expansion process

THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

Entropy of a system is a measure of the degree of randomness or disordemess of the system and is
247

denoted by S.

248 THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

 (1) ΔS "for reversible isthermal process"

( )
log V 2

q rev - W rev 2.303nRT V1

ΔS = = =
T T T

log V 2( ) ( )
log P 1
ΔS = 2.303nR = 2.303nR
V1 P2

(q rev = "heat supplied to a system at temp". T K "in a reversible manner")

THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

249
(2) ΔS = S products - S rectants (for a chemical reaction)

THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

(3) ΔS total = ΔS system + ΔS surroundings

+q -q
ΔS total = +
T system T surroundings
250
If T system:) lt T_(surround ∈ gs" heat flows a hot region to cold one" ΔS total is + ve "and heat flow is

spontaneous".

If ΔS total is - ve "the change is no-spontaneous" .

THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

(4) ΔS for reversible adiabatic process

251

q rev
ΔS = =O
T
THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

(5) ΔS for reversible Isobaric process

252

( )
log T 2
= 2.303nC P
T1

THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

(6) ΔS for reversible Isochoric process

253

log T 2 ( )
= 2.303nC v
T1
 254 THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

(7) ΔS for phase transition

ΔH rev
q rev = ΔH rev ⇒ ΔS =
T
ΔH f
Entropy change of fusion, ΔS f =
T

(T = frezzing point or melting point)

ΔH v
Entropy change of vapourization, ΔS v = (T = boiling point)
T

THEROMDYNAMICS - Enthropy

255
( )
(8) Standard entrophy S ∘ = entrophy of one mole of a substance at 1 atm and 25 ∘ C.

THEROMDYNAMICS - Free Energy

Free energy (G) is a measure of maximum useful work done.

G = H - TS,

"At constant" T&P

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS (Gibbs - Helmoholz equaction)

256
ΔG = G_("products") - G_("reactants")(i)Delta G^(@) = Delta G_("f products")^(@) - Delta G_("f

reactants")^(@)(ii)Delta G^(@) = Delta G_(f "products")^(@) - Delta G_(f" reactants")

(ii) ΔG ∘ for the element = 0

(iii) ΔG ∘ = - 2.303RT log K (K = "equillibrium constan"t)

if ΔG ∘ is - ve, K < 1

257 THEROMDYNAMICS - Condition for spontaneity of a chemical reaction is ΔG = - ve

 ENERGETICS

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

In the balanced chemical reaction which give information about the physical states of reactant and
258

product and heat change is called as thermo chemical reaction .

e. g. 2KCIO 3(s) → 2KCI(s) + 3O 2(g), ΔH = + Xcal

ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

Thermochemical reactions are of two types:(i)Endothermic reaction : The reaction which absorbs heat

259
ΔH = H p - H R = + Ve

Ex Dissociation fusion, Vapourization, sulimation, photosynthesis reaction.

ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

Thermochemical reactions are of two types:(ii)Exothermic reaction : The reaction which evolve heat

260
ΔH = H p - H R = - Ve

Ex Combustion, Neutralisation, hydration, Respiration ,Reaction

261 ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

 The amount of heat evolved or absorbed when number of moles of the reaction indicated in the chemical

reaction hed completely reached is callled as heat of reaction

factor effecting the heat of reaction.

ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

262
(i)Quantity of reactants and products.

ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

263
(ii)Physical state of products and reactions

ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

264
(iii)Allotropic form

ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

265
(iv) Temperature

ENERGETICS - Thermochemical reaction :

266
(v) Reaction is carried out at constant volume or at constant pressure

ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

(i) Heat of formation ΔH p or Δ tH : ( )

Amount of heat absorbed or evolved 1 mole of substance is formed from its constituent elements which

267
are in their standerd state called as heat of formation.

For a chamical reaction

ΔH = ΣΔH 1 ( ) ∏ uct = (ΣΔH1 )reaction

268 ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

(ii) Heat of combustion ΔH comb : ( )

amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of substance is completely burnt in excess of oxygen .
 For a chemical reaction ΔH = ΣΔH comb ( )reaction - (ΣΔHcomb )reaction
ΔH comb
Note :Calorific value = kcal / gm or kJ / gm
Molecular Weight
ΔHcomb
Calorific value = kcal / gm or kJ
Molecular Weight

/ gm

ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

(iii) Heat of neutrallsation ΔH ≠ utralisation : ( )

If one of the acid or base or both are weak then heat of netrallsation is usually is less than

- 13.7localeq - 1 or - 57.3kJeq - 1
269

The heat evolved when one equivalent of acid is compietelly neutraliseby one equivalent of base in dilute

solution .Its value is - 13.7kcal / ≡ a ≤ nt or - 57.3kJ// ≡ a ≤ nt "for the neutralisation of strong acid and

strong base"

H + OH → H 2OΔ NH = - 13.7kcal / eq

270 ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

(iv)Heat of hydrogenation ΔH hydro ≥ nation ( )

The heat evolved during the complkete hydrogenation of one mole unsaturated organic compound
 , it is excitheerrnic process

ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

(v)Heat of atomization ΔH a → m : ( )
271
The amount of heat required to convert 1 mol gaseous molelcule (stable substance) into constituent

gaseoous atoms , it is endothemic reaction .

ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

272
(vi)(A) Heat of fusion ΔH fusion : ( )
The required amount of convert 1 mol solid in to liquid.

ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

273
(B) Heat of vapourization ΔH vapour : ( )
The required amount of heat to convert 1 mol liquid in to gas

ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

274
(C ) Heat of sublimation ΔH ⊂ : ( )
The required amount of heat to convert 1 mol solid in to gas.

ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

(vii) (A ) Heat of hydration ΔH hydration : ( )

275
Amount of heat evolved when one mol of anhydrous salt converted into its hydrated form . It is

exothermic.

ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

(B) Heat of solution ΔH solution : ( )

276
Amount of heat absorbed when 1 mol of anhydrous salt converted into its hydrated form , it is exothermic

or exothermic.

277 ENERGETICS - Type of heat of reaction

 (viii) Bond Energy (B.E)

(Bond dissociation energy):

(i) The required amount of heat to dissociate one mol gaseous bond into separate gaseous atoms is

called bond dissociation energy

ΔH = Σ(B. E) R - Σ(B. E) P

(ii) The average amount of energy required to break one mole gaseous bond into separate gaseous

atoms is called bond energy

For polyatomic molecules

e ≠ rgyrequired → breakallbonds
avera ≥ bonde ≠ rgy =
→ talνmberofbonds
avera ≥ bonde ≠ rgy

e ≠ rgyrequired → breakallbonds
=
→ talνmberof bonds

ENERGETICS - Laws of thermochemistry:

(i)Lavosior and laplace law:

278
Enthalpy of formation of compound is numerically equal to the enthalpy of decomposition of the

compound with opposite

ENERGETICS - Laws of thermochemistry:

(ii) Hess law :

279
The heat charge in a chemical reaction always remain same whether reaction completes in one or more

steps

ENERGETICS - Resonance Energy:

280
R. E = (ObservedDelta H) - (Calculated Delta H)`

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Equilibrium is a dynamic process :

equilibrium is established in a system when reaction combine to form products at the same rate at which

281 products combine to from reaction

( ) ( )
dx
dt 1
=
dx
dt 0
or R 1 = R 0

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Equilibrium is a dynamic process :

Chemical equibrium can be approached from after side .A catalyst can faster the approach of equilibrium
282

but does not after the state of equilibrium .

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Equilibrium is a dynamic process :

283
System can be homogeneous or heterogeneous

284 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Equilibrium is a dynamic process :

For a reaction in equilibrium

`aA + bB

[C] a[D] b
Kc = a b
" in terms of active mass"
[A] [B]
 [pc ] c [pD ]d
Kp = "in terms of pertial pressure"
[p A ] b [ p B ] b
[Xc ]c [XD ]d
Kx = " in terms of mole fraction
[ X A ] b [X B ] b
peticle pressure of solid is taken as unity and in calculaction of partial pressure of solids their number of

moles corisidered"

K p = K c(RT) Δ n c

(i) When Δn b = 0thenK p = K C

(ii) When Δn b > 0thenK p = K C

(iii) When Δn b < 0thenK p = K C

M.Imp : "While determining" Δn p "take gaseouss species"

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

285

K2 = K

286 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

 (i)

1
Kc =
K
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

(ii)

287

K_(c) = K^(2)`

288 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

 (iii)

Kc = √K
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

(iv)

289

Kc = K1

K c = K 1K 2K 3

290 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

 (v)

Kc = K1

291 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

Reaction quothent Q for the reversible reaction

[C][D]
Q=
[A][B]
 Q is taken at any condition of system,

⇒ IfQ = K eq taken system is in equilibrium

⇒ IfQ > K eq system produced in bacloward side to attain equilibrium

⇒ IfQ < K eq system produced in forward side to attain equilibrium

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

D-d
Degree of dissociation ∝ =
d(n - 1)

For the equilibrium

292

where n is the number of moles of products from one mole of reaction D is the theoretical vapour density

if no dissociation takes place and d is the observed vapour density idea to dissociation or association)

vapour density × 2 = molecular weight

293 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

Number of dissociated moles (x)

Degree of dissociation (α) =
initial number of moles (a)

Equilibrium constant [K] depends upon temperature and way of writing the reaction
 Le- Chatelier's principal : If system adjusts itself in such a way as to nullify the effect of the charge.

The following conclusions have been derived from this principal

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

294
(i) Increases in concentration of any susbtance favours the reaction in which it is used up.

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

(ii)High pressure is favourable for the reaction in which there is decreases in volume or number of moles
295

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Properties of equilibrium constant :

296
(iii) A rise in temperature favours the endothermic reaction .

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Application of Le-charelier's principal :

(i) Ice water system (melting of ice):

297

It is an endothermic and there is decreases in volume .Thus , the favourable condition for melting of ice

are :(a) High temperature and (b) High prossure.

298 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - Application of Le-charelier's principal :

 Solubility of gases in liquids:

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM

Sl No. Formula/Concept

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Acid and Base

299
Arrhenius concept : Acid ionic in water to give H 3O + ion while base ionises to give OH ion

300 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Acid and Base

Bronsted -Lowry's protonic conept:Acid is H + ion donor and base is H^(+) ion acceptor

HCl and CI - is conjugate acid base pair .If acid is conjugate base is strong and vice verce.

A substance that can accept H + can donate H ion called Amphiprotic or amphoteric .
 A Brosted- Lowry acid base reaction is always favoured to the direction from the stronger to the

weaker acid/ base combination .

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

Lexils acid is an electron - pair accaption

301
Lexils acid is an electron - pair accaption (brgt All lewis bases are bronsted - Lowry bases but all the

lewis acid are not brosted acids

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

302
K w = H 3O +[ ][OH -
= 1 × 10 - 14at298K

K w is called ionic product of water or autoionisation or autoprotolysis constant .

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

In a mixture of strong acids / or bases

303

ΣNV ΣNV
[ ] [
H + = H 3O + = ] ΣV [ ]
, OH - =
ΣV
304 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

In a mixture of acid and base resultant is

(a) acidic maximum if N 1V 1(acid) > N 2V 2(base)

 (N1V1 ) - (N2V2 )
[H O ] =
3
+
V1 + V2

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

(b) basic mixture if N 2V 2(base) > N 1V 1(acid)

(N2V2 ) - (N1V1 )
305

[OH ] = -
V1 + V2

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

306
(c ) Neutral mixture if N 1V 1(acid) = N 2V 2(base)

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

For conjugation acid base bairs

307

K aK b = K w = 1 × 10 - 14at25 ∘ C

K aK b = K w = 10 12at90 ∘ C

308 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

where K a is the ionisation constant of acid and K b is the ionisation constant of its conjugate base

pK a + pK b = 14 = pK w

pH = - log [H_(3)O^(+)]pOH = - log OH - [ ]

pX = - logX

pH + pOH = = pK w = 14
 According to ostwald dilution law α ∝ √dilution

At infinite dilution , ∝ = 100 %

For a weak acid by Ostwald dilution law

Cα 2
Ka = ≈ Cα 2
(1 - α)
1
[ ] √
H+ = K aC pH =
2 [pKa - logC ]
[H ] = Cα
+

and for a weak base

Cα 2
Kb =
(1 - α)
≈ Cα 2 OH - = Cα[ ]
1
[ ]
OH - =
√ K bC, pOH =
2 [pKb - logC ]
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

309
Ostwald dilution law is only applicable for weak electrolytes

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

310
Buffer solutions are which have resistive nature are for pH change

311 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

 (i) On dilution pH of buffer solution remains unchanged

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Lewis Concept :

(ii) When small amount at SA or SB is mixed in bulfer solution then pH of buffer solution remain rest
312

unchanged

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of buffer solution :

313
(i) Simper buffer solution (Aq. solution of WAWB salts)

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of buffer solution :

314
(ii) Mixed buffer solution

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of buffer solution :

315
(a) Acidic buffer solution (WA + WASBsa < s)

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of buffer solution :

316
(b) Basic buffer solution (WB + WBSAsa < s)

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of buffer solution :

Henderson - Hasselbalch equation for buffer

log([conjugatebase] or [sa < ])

317
Acidic : pH = pK a +
[weakacid]
log([conjugateacid] or [sa < ])
Basic: pOH = pK b +
[weakbase]

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of buffer solution :

318
Ionisation of weak electrolyte is decreased in the presence of common ion is called common -ion effect

319 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of buffer solution :

"Solubility product of the sparingly soluble salt A xB y with solubility (s) mol//litre in saturated solution
 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of buffer solution :

Salt analysis of inorganic mixture depends on common ion effect and value of solubility products.

320
In the presence of common ion solubility of electroyte always decreases Solute AB is precipitated if

[A ][B ] > K
+ -
sp

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Salt and salt hydropsis:

321

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of salt:

322
(i) General (ii) Acidic (iii) Basic (iv) Mixture (v) Double (vi) Complex
323 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Types of general salt :

(a) SASB (b) SAWB (c ) WASB (d) WAWB

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - For WA - WB type of salt:

324

325 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Summary:

 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Group precipitation

(i) K sp > [][] > Ionic product ⇒ unsaturated

K sp = [][] = Ionic product ⇒ saturated

K sp < [][] < Ionic product ⇒ ⊇ rsaturated

rArr precipittation occours

326

327 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Group precipitation

( )
For precipitation of common salt (NaCI), HCI gas is passed & for soap C 17H 35COONa , NaCI is mixed .
 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Group precipitation

328
For amphiprotic anion asHCO - _ (3) )
)
( )
pH = pK 1 + pK 2
2
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Group precipitation

For acidic indicator [HIn], For basic indicator [InOH], `

329

330 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - Group precipitation

 Colour change of the indicator is explained by

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM - ACID- BASE TITRATION

331

SOLID STATE

Sl No. Formula/Concept

332 SOLID STATE - The seven crystal systems

 Geometry of a cube Contribution of atom atdifferent sites of cube:
Number of corners=8
Number of faces=6 at corner=1/8
Number of edges=12 at face=1/2
Number of body centre =1 at edge=1/4
Number of body diagonals=4 at body centre=1
Number of face diagonals=12
Number of face centre=12
Number of face centres=6
Number of edge centres=12
333 SOLID STATE - Types of Unit Cell (Bravais Lattice)
 n×M
Density of unit cell = gcm - 3 where M = Molecular weight or atomic weight
V × NA

SOLID STATE - Three dimensional close packing

334

SOLID STATE - Three dimensional close packing

335
Note:OnlyMncrystallizes inS. C. C.

336 SOLID STATE - Voids in any close packed structure:

per atom < < 2Tetrahedral void 1octahedral void)

)
 SOLID STATE - Limiting radius ratio for various types of sites

337

SOLID STATE - Limiting radius ratio for various types of sites

NaCl type:for NaCl :Distance between two nearest ions r + + r - ,- ( ( )

338
2r + + 2r - = a

`i.e,r^(+)+r^(-)=(a)/(2)

SOLID STATE - Limiting radius ratio for various types of sites

CsClType:For CsCl :distance between two nearest ions r + + r - :- ( )

339
2r + + 2r - = √3a for ZnS CaF_(2) Na_(2)O type

√3a : ∣ √3a
+ -
r+ + r- = r +r = 4
2

340 SOLID STATE - defects of imperfections is solids:

Defects or imperfection in solids:

 SOLID STATE - defects of imperfections is solids:

341
Note:AgBrshows both schottky and Frenkel defects.

SOLID STATE - B.TYPES OF IONIC CRYSTAL

342

SURFACE CHEMISTRY

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

343 SURFACE CHEMISTRY - Classification based on interaction of phases:-

 LYOPHILIC AND LYOPHOBIC SOLS

Colloidal solutions in which the dispersed phase has considerable affinity for the dispersion medium,are

called lyophilic sols(solvent-liking).For example -dispersion of gelatin,starch,gum and proteins in

water.Colloidal solutions in which the dispersed phase has no affinity or attraction for the medium or for

the solvent are called Lyophobic colloidal(Solvent hating)solutions.

344 SURFACE CHEMISTRY - COMPARISION OF LYOPHOBIC AND LYOPHILICS SOLS

 SURFACE CHEMISTRY - PEPTIZATION

by the action of an electrolyte in solution is termed as peptization.The electrolyte used is called is

peptizing agent. ltrbgt Hardy schulze Rule-This rule states that the precipitaion effect of an ion on

dispered phase of opposite charge increases with the valency of the ion.

The higher the valency of the flocculating ion the greater is its precipitating power.Thus for the

precipitation of As 2S 3sol( - ve)the precipitating power of Al + 3 > Ba + 2 > Na +

345

( ) [
Similarly for precipitating Fe OH 3 sol(positive)the precipitating power of Fe(CN) 6 ]3 - > SO24 - > Cl -
The minimum concentration of an electrolyte in milli moles required to cause precipitation of 1litre sol in 2

hours is called FLOCCULATION VALUE

. thesmal ≤ rthefloa̲t ∈ gvalue, thehigherwillbethecoaga̲t ∈ gpoweroftheion.

. thesmal ≤ rthef loat ∈ gvalue,
–
thehigherwillbethecoagat ∈ gpowerof theion.
–

"Flocculation value"=(1)/("flocculation power")`

346 SURFACE CHEMISTRY - GOLD NUMBER

The number of milligram of a hydrophillic colloid that will just prevent the precipitaion of10mlof standard

gold sol on addition of1ml of 10 % NaClsolution is known as Gold number of that protector (Lyophillic
 colloid).

The precipitation of the gold sol is indicated by a colour change from red to blue when the particle size

just increases.

The smaller the gold number of a protective Lyophillic colloid greater is its protection power. ltrbgt

ProtectionCapacityα = (1)/(underset("Gold number")(Protection Number)`

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - GOLD NUMBER

347
Note, Gelatin is best protecting colloid because it has least gold number.

348 SURFACE CHEMISTRY - GOLD NUMBER

 Critical temperature increases

Ease of liquification increases

`overset(Extent of adsorption increases(true for physisorption))rarr

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

349
A catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical compositon but can change their physical state.

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

350
Only a very small amount of catalyst is suffcient to catalyse a reaction.

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

351
A catalyst does not initiate a reaction.

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

352
Soild catalyst is more efficient when used in finely divided form

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

353
Generally catalyst does not change the nature of products.

354 SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

 A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state of a reversible reaction but helps to achieve the

equilibrium state or positions of equilibrium in lesser time.

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

355
The catalyst is generally specific in nature.

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

356
Changes rate constant of reason

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

357
Does not change free energy of reaction.

SURFACE CHEMISTRY - General characteristics of catalysis:-

358
Participate in,mechanism of reaction.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Sl No. Formula/Concept

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

359
SiO 2 , CO 2 , N 2O 5 , SO 3

360 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

 MgO , AI 2O 3 , SiO 2 , P 4P 10

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

361
HCIO , HCIO 2 , HCIO 3 , HCIO 4

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

362
CH 4 , NH 3 , H 2 , HF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

363
SiH 4 , PH 3 , H 2S , HCI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

364
H 2O , H 2S , H 2Se , H 2Te

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

365
HF , HCI , HBr , HI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

366
InCI 3 , GaCI 3 , AICI 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Acidic property

367
BF 3 , BCI 3 , BBr 3 , BI 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

368
CH 4 , C 2H 4 , C 2H 2 (Hint : % S)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

369
H 2O , NH 3 , CH 4 , CO 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

370
H 2O , NH 3 , CH 4 , BH 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

371
NO 2- , NO 2 , NO 2+

372 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

H 2Se , H 2S , H 2O
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

373
AsH 3 , PH 3 , NH 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

374
PF 3 , PCI 3 , PBr 3 , PI 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

375
NF 3 , NCI 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

376
NF 3 , NH 3 , NCI 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Angle

377
OF 2 , OH 2 , CI 2O

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Basic Character

378
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Basic Character

379
Be(OH) 2 , Mg(OH) 2 , Ca(OH) 2 , Ba(OH) 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Basic Character

380
BeO, MgO, CaO, SrO

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Basic Character

381
NiO, MgO, SrO, K 2O , Cs 2O

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Basic Character

382
CO 2 , B 2O 3 , BeO, Li 2O

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Basic Character

383
SiO 2 , AI 2O 3 , MgO, Na 2O

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Basic Character

384
SbH 3 , AsH 3 , PH 3 , NH 3

385 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Basic Character

 F - , OH - , NH 2- , CH 3-

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

386
Li 2CO 3, Na 2CO 3, K 2CO 3, Rb 2CO 3, Cs 2CO 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

387
BeCO 3, MgCO 3, CaCO 3, BaCO 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

388
Be(OH) 2 , Mg(OH) 2 , Ca(OH) 2 , Sr(OH) 2 , Ba(OH) 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

389
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

390
BeSO 4, MgSO 4, CaSO 4

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

391
CsH, RbH, KH, NaH, LiH

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

392
SbH 3 , AsH 3 , PH 3 , NH 3

393 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

H 2Te, H 2Se, H 2S, H 2O

 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermal Stability

394
HI, HBr, HCI, HF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

395
BaCO 3, CaCO 3, MgCO 3, BeCO 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

396
Be(OH) 2, Mg(OH) 2, Ca(OH) 2, Ba(OH) 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

397
BaSO 4, SrSO 4, CaSO 4, MgSO 4, BeSO 4

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

398
Li 2CO 3, Na 2CO 3, K 2CO 3, Rb 2CO 3, CsCO 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

399
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

400
LiF, LiCI, LiBr, LiI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

401
LiF, NaF, KF, RbF, CsF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

402
BaF 2, SrF 2, MgF 2, CaF 2, BeF 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

403
CaF 2, CaCI 2, CaBr 2, CaI 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

404
AgI, AgBr, AgCI, AgF Solubility ∝
1
c
ove ≤ ntchar
)
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Solubility

405
PbO 2, CdI 2, RbI Solubility ∝
1
c
ove ≤ ntchar
)
406 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character
 LiBr, NaBr, KBr, RbBr, CsBr

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

407
LiF, NaF, KF, RbF, CsF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

408
BeCI 2, MgCI 2, CaCI 2, SrCI 2, BaCI 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

409
BCI 3, AICI 3, GaCI 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

410
VCI 4, VCI 3, VCI 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

411
AIF 3, MgF 2, NaF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

412
AIN, AI 2O 3, AIF 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

413
HI, HBr, HCI, HF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

414
CuCN, AgCN

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Character

415
AgCI, KCI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Atomic/Ionic Size

416
Mg 2 + , Na + , F - , O 2 - , NH 3 - (Hint : Isoelectronic series)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Atomic/Ionic Size

417
Ca 2 + , Ar, CI - , S 2 -

418 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Atomic/Ionic Size

 O, C, S, Se

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Atomic/Ionic Size

419
B, Be, Li, Na

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Atomic/Ionic Size

420
F, O, F - , O 2 -

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Oxidizing Power

421
Cr 2O 27 - , MnO 4-

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Oxidizing Power

422
MnO 24 - , MnO 4-

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Oxidizing Power

423
WO 3 , MoO 3, CrO 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Oxidizing Power

424
GeCI 4, SnCI 4, PbCI 4

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Oxidizing Power

425
I 2, Br 2, CI 2, F 2

426 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Oxidizing Power

 Zn + 2, Fe + 2, Pb 2 + , Cu 2 + , Ag +

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionization Energy

427
Na, AI, Mg, Si

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionization Energy

428
Li, B, Be, C, O, N, F, Ne, He, (I st I.P.)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionization Energy

429
Be, C, B, N, F, O, Ne, Li, He, (II nd I.P.)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Melting Point

430
Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Melting Point

431
Mg, Ba, Sr, Ca, Be

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Melting Point

432
CaI 2, CaBr 2, CaCI 2, CaF 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Melting Point

433
BeCI 2, MgCI 2, CaCI 2, SrCI 2, BaCI 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Melting Point

434
NaI, NaBr, NaCI, NaF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Melting Point

435
CsCI, RbCI, KCI, NaCI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Melting Point

436
AICI 3, MgCI 2, NaCI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Density

437
Na, AI, Fe, Pb, Au

438 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Density

Li, K, Na, Rb, Cs

 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Density

439
Ca, Mg, Be, Sr, Ba

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Density

440
Highest Density = Os/Ir

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Density

441
Lowest density = H

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Density

442
Metal of lowest Density = Li

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Boiling Point

443
PH 3, AsH 3, NH 3, SbH 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Boiling Point

444
H 2S, H 2Se, H 2O

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Boiling Point

445
HCI, HBr, HI, HF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Boiling Point

446
NH 3, HF, H 2O

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Boiling Point

447
He, Ne, Ar, Kr

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Boiling Point

448
H 2O, D 2O

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Boiling Point

449
H 2, CI 2, Br 2
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Electrical conductivity

450
Cr, Pt, Fe, AI, Au, Cu, Ag

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reactivity with water

451
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reactivity with water

452
Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Extent of Hydrolysis

453
ℂI 4, MgCI 2, AICI 3, SiCI 4, PCI 5

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Extent of Hydrolysis

454
BiCI 3, SbCI 3, AsCI 3, PCI 3, NCI 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

455
HI, HBr, HCI, HF

456 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

457
N - N, N = N, N ≡ N

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

458
As - H, Sb - H, P - H, N - H

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

459
N 22 - , N 2- , N 2+ , N 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

O 22 - , O 2- , O 2, O 2+ , O 22 +

LiI, LiBr, LiCI, LiF

460
NaI, NaBr, NaCI, NaF

CsCI, RbCI, KCI, NaCI

BaO, SrO, CaO, MgO

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

461
F 2, H 2, O 2, N 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

462
NO - , NO, NO +
 463 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

I 2, F 2, Br 2, CI 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

464
O - - O, S - - S

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond strength

465
F - F, O - O, N - N, C - C, H - H

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reducing Power

466
PbCI 2, SnCI 2, GeCI 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reducing Power

467
HF , HCI , HBr , HI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reducing Power

468
Ag, Cu, Pb, Fe, Zn,

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reducing Power

469
HNO 3, H 2SO 3, H 2S

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reducing Power

470
H 3PO 4, H 3PO 3, H 3PO 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Covalent character

471
LiCI, BeCI 2, BCI 3, ℂI 4

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Covalent character

472
SrCI 2, CaCI 1, MgCI 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Covalent character

473
TiCI 2, TiCI 3, TiCI 4

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Covalent character

474
LiCI, LiBr, LiI

475 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Covalent character

 Na 2O, Na 2S

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Covalent character

476
AIF 3, AI 2O 3, AIN

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Covalent character

477
HF, HCI, HBr, HI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Strength of Hydrogen bonding (X…H-X)

478
S, CI, N, O, F

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Strength of Hydrogen bonding (X…H-X)

479
NH 3, H 2O, HF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Radii in water

480
Cs + , Rb + , K + , Na + , Li +

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Radii in water

481
Li + , Be + 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Ionic Radii in water

482
Na + , Mg + 2, AI + 3

483 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Molar Conductivity in water

Li + , Na + , K + , Rb + , Cs +
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reactivity with Hydrogen

484
Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reactivity with Hydrogen

485
Ba, Sr, Ca, Mg, Be

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reactivity Towards Air

486
Be, Mg, Cs, Sr, Ba

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Hydration of lons/Hydration Energy

487
Ba + 2, Sr + 2, Ca + 2, Mg + 2, Be + 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Hydration of lons/Hydration Energy

488
Cs + , Rb + , K + , Na + , Li +

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Hydration of lons/Hydration Energy

489
Na + , Mg + 2, AI + 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Electron Affinity

490
I, Br, F, CI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Electron Affinity

491
Cu, Ag, Au, (EA, of Au is very high = 222 kJ mol - 1)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Electron Affinity

492
O, S, f, CI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Electron Affinity

493
N, P, O, S

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Electronegativity

494
As, P, S, CI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Electronegativity

495
I, Br, CI, F

496 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Electronegativity

 C, N, O, F

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

497
N 2, O 2, F 2, CI 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

498
N ≡ N, C ≡ N, C ≡ C

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

CO,

499

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

500
NO + , NO, NO -

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

501
O 2, O 3, H 2O 2, (O-O bond length)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

502
CO, CO 2, CO 3- 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

503
N 2, N 2- , N 2- 2

504 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

 O 2+ 2, O 2, O 2- , O 2- 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Bond Length

505
HF, HCI, HBr, HI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

506
ℂI 4, CHCI 3, CH 2CI 2, CH 3CI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

507
NH 3, NH 3, H 2O, HF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

508
Cis-chloropropene, Trans-chloropropene

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

509
p, m, o-dichlorobenzene

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

510
CH 3I, CH 3Br, CH 3F, CH 3CI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

511
NH 3, SO 2, H 2O, HF

512 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

H 2S, H 2O
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

513
HI, HBr, HCI, HF

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

514
PH 3, ASH 3, SbH 3, NH 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Dipole moments

515
H 2O, H 2O 2

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Abundance of Elements

516
Elements on earth crust - Fe, AI, Si, O

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Abundance of Elements

517
Metals on earth crust - Ca, Fe, AI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Abundance of Elements

Non-metals - Si, O

518
In atmosphere - O, N

In universe - He, Si, H

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - GENERAL TREND OF DIFFERENT PROPERTIES IN THE PERIOD AND GROUNDS

519
 PERIODIC TABLE

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

PERIODIC TABLE - GENERAL TREND OF DIFFERENT PROPERTIES IN THE PERIOD AND GROUNDS

Arrangement of known element in horizontal rows and in vertical column in such a way elements of
520

similar properties are grouped together in one vertical column.

PERIODIC TABLE - Development of periodic table:

(i) Prout concept

All element made up of H-atom.

521

At wt of an element : nx [At wt of H]

Draw back: Could not explain fractional atomic mass.

PERIODIC TABLE - Development of periodic table:

(ii) Doberinier law of triads:

Triads : The atomic mass of middle element is the avg. of 1 st&3 rd element.

7 + 39 46
Li 7 = = 23
2 2

Na 23

522
K 39

Triads: (Li, NaK)(Be, MgCa)(Ca, Sr, Ba)(K, Rb, Cs)(P, AsSb)(S, Se, Te)(Cl, Br, I)

(Li, N aK)(Be, M gCa)(Ca, Sr, Ba)(K, Rb, Cs)(P ,

AsSb)(S, Se, T e)(Cl, Br, I )

Drawback: Not applicable for all element.

523 PERIODIC TABLE - Development of periodic table:

 (iii) Newland law of octave:

Base : Increasing order of atomic mass.

Law : Properties of 1 st and 8 th elements are almost similar

LiBeBCNOF

NaMaAlSiPSCl

KCa

Draw back:

(i) Applicable only upto Ca.

(ii) Discovery of inert gas gives death blow.

PERIODIC TABLE - Development of periodic table:

(iv) Lothyer meyer:

Curve between atomic mass and atomic volume.

524

Advantage : Elements of similar properties finds similar position e.g. alkali metals finds top position on

curve alkaline earth metals on descending position, halogen are on ascending position.

525 PERIODIC TABLE - Development of periodic table:

(v) Mendeleef Periodic Law : physical & chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of

atomic mass.

Atomic mass = equivalent mass × valency

Characterstics:

(i) 8 group (I to VIII)

(i) I to VII group divides into A&B

 (iii) A sub group - Normal element

(iv) B group & VIII - Transition element

Advantage:

(i) Study of element becomes easy.

(ii) Prediction of elements: Four elements named EKA.

EKA Boron → Scandium

EKAAl → Gallium

EKASi → Germanium

EKAMn → Technitium

(iii) Correction of doubtful masses: Atomic mass of three elements (U, Be, In, Au, Pt) were connected

Drawback:

(i) Position of hydrogen: Not fixed can be placed in IA&VIIA

(ii) Position of Isotopes.

(iii) Anomalous pair : Where increasing order of atomic mass not considered.

[ Ar39.9, K39.1
][ Co59.9, Ni56.6
][
Te127.5, I127
][
Th232, Pa231
]
(iv) Similar property elements find position in different group.

(iv) Different property elements find position is same group.

Couldnot explain why the property of element repeated after a regular interval.

526 PERIODIC TABLE - Development of periodic table:

(vi) Mosely Base : Changed from atomic mass to atomic number.

Characterstices : (group Zero) of inert gas included in the periodic table.

 Advantage

(i) Position of isotypes resolved

(ii) Short coming of anomalous pair resolved.

Drawbacks:

(i) Position of hydrogen.

Problem of periodic function. could be solved.

PERIODIC TABLE - Long form of periodic tabel

(Given by Bohr-Bury & Rang-Werner)

- Based on electronic configuration of outermost shell.

Achievement: Electronic configuration of outermost shellof elements repeats at regular interval i.e. why

porperty repeats.

Characteristics: Having 18 group & 7 periods.

Description of periods

527

528 PERIODIC TABLE - IUPAC Nomenclature:

 (a) IUPAC gave names to elements above atomic No. 100 as follows-

PERIODIC TABLE - IUPAC Nomenclature:

529
(b) In all the elements suffix is - ium.

530 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Classification of elements ltbgt (A) Bohr classification: Based on electronic configuration.

Classify element into four type.

 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(I) Noble gas :

531

(a) Element in which outermost/ultimate shell is completely filled.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

532
(b) General configuration - ns 2np 6

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

533
(c ) Present in ′ 0′ group & from 1 st to 6 th period

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

534
(d) Total element 6(He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

535
(II) (a) Element in which outermost/ultimate shell is incomplete.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

536
(b) General configuration ns 1 - 2np 0 - 5

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(c ) Element of A subgroup of mendeleef & from 1 st, 2 nd and 13 th to 17 th group in the long form of periodic
537

table.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(III) Transition elements: (a) Element in which ultimate as well as penultimate shell are incomplete either
538

in ground state as well as in ionic state.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(b) ′ B′ subgroups & VIII group of Mendeleef & from 3 rd to 11 th group of long form of periodic table
539

belongs to transition element.

 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

540
(c ) According to this conecopt Zn, Cd, Hg Uub are not transitional elements.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

541
(d) General electronic configuration = (n - 1)s 2p 6d 1 - 10ns 1 2

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Inner transition elements:

542

(a) Element in which ultimate (n), penultimate (n - 1) & prepenulimate (n - 1) all the shells are incomplete.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

543
(b) Elements of IIB (except La, Ac) are known as. Inner transition element.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

544
(c ) Total elements. (28).

545 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(B) Classification based on last electron entry:

(I) s-block elements: last electron enters in s-subshell.

- Lie in two group 1 st / IA and 2 nd / IIA & period from 1 st to 7 th

 - General formula ns 1 - 2.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(II) p-block elements : in which last electron enters in p-subshell.

-IIIA to ′ O′ group or 13 th to 18 th group & from period 2 nd to 6 th

546

- Total elements - 30

- In this block metal, non-metal & metalloids are present.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(III) d-block element in which last electron electron enters in d-subshell

547
- lies in between 3 rd → 7^(th)- Period 4 th to 7 th

General configuration - (n - 1)d 1 - 10ns 2

548 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(IV) f-block last electron enters in f-subshell.

lies in IIIB / 3 rd group & period 6 th to 7 th period. ltbgt General configuration - (n - 2)f 1 - 14(n - 1)d 0 - 1, ns 2

Total element 28
 14 Lanthanoids - found rerely on earth

14 Actinoides - All are radioactive

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Determination of period, block and group of an element

549
Period numbe : Maximum principal quantum number in the electonic configuration of an element denotes

period number.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Block number: Can be decided by last e - entrance.

Last e - enters in

s-subshell - s-block
550

p-subshell-p-block

d-subshell-d-block

f-subshell-f-block

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Group number:

551
(A) s-block element:

Group number = Number of electron in ns subshell.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(B) p-block element:

552

Group number = Number of electron in np subshell + 10

553 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(C ) d-block element:

Group No = number of electron in (n - 1)d sub shell + ns e - .

 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

554
(D) f-block element : Group no. = IIIB / 3 rd

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Predict the period, block & groupk number of element having atomic number 17

Period = 3 rd, block = p, group number = 12 + np e -

∴ 12 + 5 = 17

555

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Periodicity :
556

∗ Regular gradiation in properties from top to bottom in group and from left to right in a period.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

557
∗ Cause of periodicity : Due to repeatition of same outermost shell configuration coming regular internal

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Periodic properties:
558

There are two type of periodic properties:

559 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

 (I) Atomic propterties : Properties shown by individual atom i.e. valency, I. P. , E. A, E. N and atomic

radius.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

560
(II) Molecular property : Properties shown by the molecule i.e. density M. P. &B. P.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(I) Atomic properties:

561
Valency : Combining capacity of an atom.

Two concept:

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(a) Old concept (i) w. r. t. ′ H′ &′ Cl′

(ii) w. r. t. ′ O
562

- w. r. t. H&Cl valency of an element in a period initially increase from 1 to 4 & then decrease to 1

w. r. t. ′ O′ along the period increase from 1 to 7.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(b) New concept (electronic concept): The number of electron required to gain or donate to achieve the

nearest inert gas configuration.

Fro example : Na = 1s 2, 2s 22p 6, 3s 1 → one electron required to donate

563
i.e., valency = 1

Cl = 1s 2, 2s 22p 63s 23p 5 → One electron required to gain

i.e. valency = 1

Valency in a group remains same.

564 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

 (II) Screening effect/Shielding effect (σ) :

Repulsive force created by inner electron on a last electron is known as screening effects. In sinle

electron system σ is absent.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Slater : Rule calculation of σ

(a) ns, npe - = 0.35

565
(b) (n - 1)s, p = 0.85. (n - 1)d&f → 1

(c ) (n - 2)s, p, d, f = 1.0

(d) (n - 3) & all innershell = 1.0

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Calculation of σ

566
[{Number of electron in n th shell - 1) × 0.35 + number to electron in (n - 1) shell × 0.85 + number of

electron in (n - 2) shell & all inner shell × 1]

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Variation σ, along the period & down the group increases.

567

Order of σ s > p > d > f.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(III) Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

Net nuclear attraction force exert of nuclei on a valence electron is known as Zeff.
568

Zeff = Z - σ

For single e - species σ = 0

Z eff = Z

569 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

 Variation

(a) Along the period: (i) Normal element :

Z increases by 1

σ increase by 0.35

Zeff increase by 0.65

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(ii) d-block :
570

Z increase by 1sigma ∈ creaseby0.85Zeff ∈ creasesby0.15`

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

571
(b) Down the group : Remains constant.

572 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(IV) Atomic radii : Average distance between nucleus & valency electron cloud. Accurate value of atomic

radii cannot b meaused due to

(i) Isolation of atom is quite difficult.

(ii) No. definite boundary of atom.

 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Type of radii

(a) Covalent radii (C. R. )

573
Metallic radii (M. R)

(c ) Vanderwall radii (VWR)

Ionic radii (I. R) {:Cationic radius anionic radius"}`

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(a) Covalent radii : Half to the internuclerar distance when two hormo atom bonded together with single

bond.

574

575 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(b) Metallic radii : Aslo called as crystal radii. Half of the inter nuclear distance when two adjacent atom

(metal) bonded together with metallic bond.

 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(c ) Vanderwall radii : Half of the internuclear distance between two non- bonded atom of a inert gas.

Vanderwal radii is almost double of a covalent radii

VWR = 2 × C. R.

576

577 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

(d) Ionic radii : (a) Cationic radii : Carbon is always samller than its parent atom due to

Increased Zeff to remaining electron.

 Mn + 7 < Mn + 4 < Mn + 2 < Mn
PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

578
(b) Anionic radii : Anion is always more than its parent atom due to increment in σ & decrement in Zeff.

O -2 > O - > O
PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Isoelectronic species:
579

Anion gt Neutral gt Cation

O - 2 > F - > Ne > Na + > Mg + 2

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Variation :
580

(a) Along the period : Radius decreases.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

581
(b) Down the group : Radius increases.

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Imp. In each period max. measured covalent radii - Alkali - metal

582
In d-block along the period, Initially atomic size decreases then constant & then increases due to

increment in σ.

583 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Except :

Size of 4d ≅ size fo 5d due to lanthanoide contraction.

 PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Factors affecting atomic size

584

(i)Numberofshellsprop` Atomic size

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

1
585
(ii) Zeff ∝
atomic size

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

1
586
(iii) Bond order ∝
amtoic size

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

1
587
(iv) Magnitude of + ve charge ∝
atomic size

PERIODIC TABLE - STUDY OF LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

588
(V) Magnitude of - ve charge ∝ atomic size

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Sufficient amount of energy required to remove most loosely bonded outermost shell electron from an
589

isolated gaseous atom.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

590
Mg + E → M + + e -

591 PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

 Property of metal

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

592
Tendency of form cation

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

593
Always an endothermic process.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Sucessive I. P.
594

IP 3 > IP 2 > IP 1, due to increment in Zeff.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Factors affecting I. P.
595

(i) I. P ∝ Zeff

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

1
596
(ii) I. P. ∝
Atomic size

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

597
(iii) I. P. Magnitude of + ve charge

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

1
598
(iv) I. P. ∝
Magnitue of - ve charge

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

(v) Stability of Half-filled & fully filled orbital → Half filled of p 3, d 5, f 7 or fully filled

s 2p 6. d 10. f 14arem or estab ≤ i. e. , whym or eamt. ofe ≠ rgyisrequired → removee ≤ ctronso

599 2 6 10 14
s p . d . f arem or estab ≤ i. e. , whym or eamt. of e

≠ rgyisrequired → removee ≤ ctronso

I.P.ism or eF or ex. I.P.of'N' gt I.P. or 'O'I ≠ rtgashas max iμmI.P.` in respective period
 PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

600
(vi) Penetration power : s > p > d > f1IPofMg gt IP or AlIPofBe gt IPofB`

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Periodicity :-

601
(i) Along the period I. P generally increases.

Except : IIA > IIIA, VA > VIA

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

(ii) Along the group I. P. generally decreases.

602

Except: Last two element due to Lanthanoid cantraction.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Application of I. P.
603

1
(i) Metalic character ∝
I. P.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

1
604
(ii) Reactivity of metal ∝
I. P.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

1
605
(iii) Basic character ∝
I. P

606 PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

 (iv) Number of valence electron : Number of valence electron can be predicted counting lower value of

successive I. P

Number of valence electron = Number of lower I. P. value.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

(v) Stability of oxidation state:

607

(a) If ΔIP ≤ 11eV then higher oxidation state is stable.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

608
(b) If ΔIP ≥ 16eV then lower oxidation state is stabel

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Electron Affinity//(Electton gain enthaply) (Δeg. H)

-Amt. of energy released or absorb when an electron is added to neutral gaseous atom.

X ( g ) + e - → X -( g )
609

EA 1 = exothermic generally ( + veE. A. )

E. A 2 = endothermic

+ veE. A. = - ΔegH

- veE. A. = + ΔegH
PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

610
Inert gas has + ve value of ΔegH to stable configuration.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

611
Formation of polynegative ion is always an endothermic.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Factors :
612

1
(i) size ∝
E. A.

613 PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

 (ii) Zeff ∝ E. A.

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

(iii) Stable configuration: Be, N & inert gas have a very low value of EA due to stable configuration.
IP EA
614
Max. ← stable configuration → min

overset(darr EN)(Unaffected)`

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Variation :

(a) Along the period size ↓ EA ↑

615

Along the period ΔegH becomes - ve

In each period halogen has a maximum E. A due to more Zeff.`

PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

616
(b) Down the group size ↓ EA ↑

617 PERIODIC TABLE - IONISATION POTENTAL

Exception : EA of 2 nd period < EA of 3 rd period

Imp : Max E. A. → Cl

EA of X = IP of X -
 PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

618
Tendency of bonded atom to attract shared pair of electron towards itself.

PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

619
Unit of less property

PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

620
No energy released or absorbed

PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

Factors :
621

(i) EN ∝ Zeff

PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

1
622
(ii) EN ∝
Atomic size

PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

623
(iii) % s-character ∝ EN

sp > sp 2 > sp 3
624 PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

Periodicity : Along the period Zeff ↑ EN ↑

Downthegroupa → micsizeuarr EN darr`

 PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

Max . EN - F

625
Min. EN - Cs

Inert gas has zero value of EN

PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

626
Exception : EN Scale Zn < Cd < Hg

PERIODIC TABLE - Electronegativity

According to mulliken scale : -

PI + EA
Xm =
2
627
2X m - IP - EA = 0

Relation between X m & X p :-

Xm
XP =
2.8
PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

(i) Nature of element

628
EN ∝ Non-metalic nature

1
EN ∝
Metallic nature
PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

1
(ii) Bond length ∝
ΔEN
629
d A - B = r A + r B - 0.09(ΔEN)

Schoemaker & Stevenson law

 PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

630
(iii) Bond strength ∝ ΔEN

PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

631
(iv) Bond energy ∝ ΔEN

PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

632
(v) Acidic character of hydride in period (left to right) ∝ EN

PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

(vi) Nature of oxide

633
Basic nature ∝ EN

1
Acidic nature ∝
EN

PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

(vii) % ionic character ∝ ΔEN

634

% I. C. = 16(ΔEN) + 3.5(ΔEN) 2

PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

635
(viii) Acidic strength of oxy acid ∝ EN of central atom.

636 PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

1
(ix) Lewis base strength ∝
EN
 PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

637
(x) Bond polarity ∝ ΔEN

PERIODIC TABLE - Application of electronegativity

In short:

638

CHEMICAL BONDING

Sl No. Formula/Concept

CHEMICAL BONDING - Introduction :

639
Force of attraction exist between various atom to hold them in a molecule .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Reason for chemical bonding :

640
To attain the maxium stability (inert gas configuration 0 & minimum energy state.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Condition for chemincal boning :

(a) Force of attraction gt Force of repulsion

641

(b) Potential energy shold be mibnimum .

642 CHEMICAL BONDING - Lewis octet rule :

 Every atom try to attain 8e - or nearest inert gas configuration by donating , by gaining or by sharing the

electron.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Exception of lewis law :

1. Electron deficient molecule : Compound in which central atom has less than 8e - in its valence shell .
643

For example ` BeI_(2),BH_(3),AlCl_(3),BF_(3),BCl_(3),BBr_(3),BeF_(2),BeCl_(2)etc,

CHEMICAL BONDING - Exception of lewis law :

2. Electron rich compound : Compound in which central atom has more than 8e - in the outermost shell
644

for example IF 7, SF 6, PCI 5, XeF 6 etc.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Exception of lewis law :

3. Odd electron molecule : The compound in which central atom has odd number of electron in their
645

valence shell . e. g. NO, CIO 2, NO 2,

CHEMICAL BONDING - Exception of lewis law :

`4. H, Li, never obeyed octet law .

646

647 CHEMICAL BONDING - Ionic bond:

 (a) Bond between cation (&) anion.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Ionic bond:

(b) Bond between metal (&) non-metal.

648

Except : LiCI, MgCI 2, AICI 3. BeO etc.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Ionic bond:

649
(c ) ΔEN > 1.7.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Condition for ionic bond formtion :

(a) Size of metal should be large

650

` I.P. should be low

CHEMICAL BONDING - Condition for ionic bond formtion :

(b) Size of non-metal sholud be small.

651

E.A. shoud be more .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Condition for ionic bond formtion :

652
(c ) Lattice energy should be high.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Energy involved in ionic bond formation (Born haber Cycle )

ΔH = (S. E. + I. E. + D / 2) - (EA + U)(Totale ≠ rgy| or |bed) - (Totale ≠ rgyre ≤ ased)F or bondf or mation
ΔH = (S. E. + I . E. + D / 2)

− (EA + U )(T otale ≠ rgy| or |bed)

653

− (T otale ≠ rgyre ≤ ased)F or bondf or mation

Delta H =-` ive (exothermic process ).

CHEMICAL BONDING - Properties for ionic compound :

1. Physical state : Due to strong electrostatic force of attraction between cation(&) anion these
654

compounds are hard, crystalline (&) brittle .

655 CHEMICAL BONDING - Properties for ionic compound :

 2. Isomorphism : two compounds are said to isomorphs if they have similar number of electron i.e.,

similar configuration fo cation (&) anion e.g., [NaF, MgO][CaCl_2, k_2S]`.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Properties for ionic compound :

656
Melting point (&) boiling point : High M.P. B.P. due to presence of strong electrostatic force between ions .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Properties for ionic compound :

657
Covalent solid like SiO 2, B 4C, have more m.p.t. due to 3 - D giant network.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Properties for ionic compound :

658
- lonic solid like NaCl, Al 2O 3, have more m.p.t. due to high lattice energy.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Properties for ionic compound :

659
- Molecular solid like CO 2 have least m.p.t. due to presence of weak vanderwaal force.

660 CHEMICAL BONDING - M.P,& B.P.

 .

If molecular mass of two covalent compound are same then ΔEN will be considered .

CHEMICAL BONDING - M.P,& B.P.

Imp. order LiH > NaH > KH > CsH

MgO > CaO > BaO

LiCl < NaCl > KCl > RbCl > CsCl

661
LiF > NaF > KF > RbF > CsF

Li 2O > Na 2P > K 2O > Rb 2O > Cs 2O

Amongmηlhalide, flouridehas max iμmm. p. t. LiF gt LiCl gt CiBr gt Lil

NaF > NaCl > Nal.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Solubility :

662
lonic compounds are soluble in polar solvent like water.

663 CHEMICAL BONDING - Factro affecting solubility :

(i) Dielectric constant ∝ solubility .

1
(ii) Lattice energy ∝ (solubility)
 (iii) Hydration energy ∝ solubility

For any compound to be soluble in water

Hydration energy > Lattice energy.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Imp.order :

664
No compound is 100 % inic. Every compound contain some covalent character due to polarization.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Polarization (covalent character in ionic compound )

Due to strong electrostatic force of attraction between cation (&) anion electron density of anion becomes

more in between two ions (&) covalent character is developed.

665 Covalent character ∝ Polarization ∝ Zeff of cation

Polarizationpower(Ionicpotenital : ∩ acityofcation → polarizeanionrepresentedby

P olarizationpower(I onicpotenital : ∩ acityof cation

→ polarizeanionrepresentedby

phi)phi = (charge on cation)/(Size of cation )`.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Polarisability :

666
Tendency of an anion to get polarized by cation.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Factor affecting polarization (fajan`s rule)

(i) Charge on cation //anion ∝ polarization ∝ covalent character

1 1
(ii) Size for cation ∝ ∝
Polarization cova ≤ ntcharacter

(iii) Size of anion ∝ polarization ∝ covalent character

667 (iv) Pseudo inert gas configuration : Cation having pseudo inert gas configuration (i.e. 18

e ≤ ctron ∈ outermostshellhavem or epoarizationpowerdue → highZeff.

e ≤ ctron ∈ outermostshellhavem or

epoarizationpowerdue → highZef f .

CuCl gt NaCl (covalent character )

[Due to poor Shielding effect of de - in Cu + 1 . ]

668 CHEMICAL BONDING - Some important facts
 (i) Sulphides are less soluble in water than oxides for metal .

(ii). Li salt are soluble in organic solvents .

Polarization increases Covalent character increases.

CHEMICAL BONDING - M.P. decreases rarr

Naf > NaCl > NaCr > Nal

669

NaCl > MgCl 2 > AlCl 3

BaCl 2 > SrCl 2 > CaCl 2 > MgCl 2 > BeCl 2

CHEMICAL BONDING - Covalent bond

670
Bond between two highly electronegative element .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Covalent bond

671
- Mutual sharing of electron takes place.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

672
- An orbital can accommodate at the most 2 electron with opposite spin.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

673
- Only those orbital will participlate in bond formation which have unpired electron.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

674
- Empty orbital accepts two electrons to complete the orbital .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

675
- Pairing of electron is an essential condition for covalent bond .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

- 3^(rd), 4^(th), 5^(th)

periode ≤ mentsdue → presenceofvacantd - or bitalcanexp and theiroctet ∈ thepresenceofhighlye ≤ tro ¬ ativee ≤

periode ≤ mentsdue → presenceof vacantd
676

− or bitalcan exp and theiroctet

∈ thepresenceof highlye ≤ tro ¬ ativee ≤ mentlike

F, Cl, O, N etc.

677 CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

 - PCl_5, SF 6, IF 7 is possible but NCl 5, Of 5, ar not pssible .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

678
- PF_5, PCl_5arepossib ≤ but PH_5`, is not.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

679
- An element which have even valency will always show even valency in excited state.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

680
- An element which have odd valency will always show odd valency in excited state.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Orbital concept of covalent bond :

681
- PCl_4, SF-3, SF_5are ¬ possib ≤ but PCl_3, PCl_5, SF_2, SF_4 & SF_6` are possible.

CHEMICAL BONDING - rArr Short coming :

682
Could not provide information regarding shape of molecule (&) strength of bonds.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Wave Mechanical model

Two Model :

683
(i) valence bond theory (VBT)

(ii) Molecular orbital theory (Mot).

CHEMICAL BONDING - (1) Valence bond theory :

Given by Heitler (&) London Extended by Pauling & Slater .

684
Strength of bond ∝ Extent of overlapping.

` Extent of overlapping depends on two factor.

CHEMICAL BONDING - (i) Nature of orbital :

685
(a) directional orbital : p, d& (more extent of ovelapping ) .

686 CHEMICAL BONDING - (i) Nature of orbital :

(b) non-directional orbital : (s) (less extent of overlapping )

Order of overlapping p - p > s - p > s - s .

 Exception 1s - 1s - > 2p - 2p.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Nature of overlapping :

(a) Co-axial overlapping (Along the internuclear axis )

687

Extent of overlapping is maximum , σ - bond is formed.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Nature of overlapping :

(b) Co-lateral overlapping : Side wise overlapping .

688
Extent of verapping is minimum , π - bond is formed.

π - bondisf or medafter sigma-bond`.

CHEMICAL BONDING - `- For maximum bond stength :-

(i) Lower value of principal quantum number .

689
(ii) sigmaisstron ≥ rthan pi` (when value of n is same )

(iii) Directional nature (when type of overlapping is same ).

CHEMICAL BONDING - Limitation :

690
(i) Does not define the shape of the molecule.

691 CHEMICAL BONDING - Hybrdisation (Pauling & Slater )

 - Imaginary concept .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Hybrdisation (Pauling & Slater )

- Mixing of different shape and approximate equal energy atomic orbital to give new orbital of same
692

shape.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Hybrdisation (Pauling & Slater )

693
- Hybrid orbital always forms sigma-bond. (Except -Benzyne)

CHEMICAL BONDING - Hybrdisation (Pauling & Slater )

- In hybridization all type of orbitals participitate.

694

(vacant. Half-filled or Fully filled )

CHEMICAL BONDING - Hybrdisation (Pauling & Slater )

695
- Number of hybrid orbital forms will be equal to the number of atomic orbials taking part in hyridization.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Valence shell electron pir repulsion theroy (VSEPRT):

696
- Given by Glessipie (&) Nyhom.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Valence shell electron pir repulsion theroy (VSEPRT):

697
- Defines the shape of molecule.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Case -I

Molecules in which central atom does not have any lone pair are called symmetric structure (&) their
698

shape will be accroding to their hybridization.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Case-II

Molecules in which central atom has lone pair are known as asymmetric structure. In that case lone pair

699
should be kept at that position where lone pair exerts minimum repulsive force.

Order of repulsion : L. P. - L. P. > L. P. - B. P > . - B. P :M.B.-M.B gtM.B.-S.B gt S.B.-S.B`.

700 CHEMICAL BONDING - TUPE FO HUBRIDIZATION & POSSIBLE STRUCTURE

 CHEMICAL BONDING - Co- ordinate bond

This type of bond is formed by one side sharing of pair electron between atoms . Electron pair of one
701

atom is shared between two atom.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Co- ordinate bond

702
- atom which provide lone pair for sharing is called donor.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Co- ordinate bond

703
- Atom which accepts electron pair is called acceptor.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Co- ordinate bond

704
- Shown by → & direction is form donor to acceptor.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Necessary condition:

705
- Acceptor should have vacant orbital.

706 CHEMICAL BONDING - Necessary condition:

- Donor should have complet octet.

 CHEMICAL BONDING - Example :

(i) Protonation : H 2O → H 3O + . , NH 3 → NH 4+ , N 2H 4 → N 2H 5+

707
(ii) Polymerization : AlCl 3 → Al 2Cl 6, BeCl 2 → BeCl 2 ( )n
During the formation of coodinate bond, structure (&) shape of the molecule changed .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Dipole moment (mu)

708
- Measure the polarity in molecule (mu) = q xx d`

CHEMICAL BONDING - Dipole moment (mu)

709
- Unit debye = esu-cm,

CHEMICAL BONDING - Dipole moment (mu)

- 1Debye =10^(-18)esu - cm. Homoνc ≤ ardiatiomic H_2, N_2, O_2, F_2 ((mu) =0) rarr

non - polarHeteroνc ≤ ardia → mic(μ ∝ ΔEN)HF > HCl > HBr > HI
non − polarH eteroνc ≤ ardia → mic(μ ∝ ΔEN )H F

> H Cl > H Br > H I

710

Polyatomic molecule resultant dipole moment is a vector addition of bond moment of various bond.

overset (larr) (O) = C overset (larr) (=) O mu =0` non-polar.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Imp.order :

711
(a) NH 3, > NI 3 > NBr 3 > NCL 3 > NF 3 .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Imp.order :

712
(B) ` NH_3 gt SbH_3 gt AsH_3 gt PH_3 ,.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Imp.order :

713
(c ) HF > HCI > HBr > HI.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Imp.order :

714
(d) H 2O > H 2S.

715 CHEMICAL BONDING - Imp.order :

(e ) CH 3CI > CH 3F > CH 3Br > CH 3I.

 CHEMICAL BONDING - Imp.order :

716
(f) CH 3CL > CH 2CL 2 > CHCI 3 < CCL 4 = CH 4

CHEMICAL BONDING - Application :

717
(i) Predict shape (&) polartiy of moecule

CHEMICAL BONDING - Application :

718
- If central atom contain lone pair than ` mu !=0 then molecule will be polar (&) unsymmetrical shape.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Application :

719
- If central atom surroundes with all identical atom then μ = 0, molecule non-polar.

720 CHEMICAL BONDING - Application :

(ii) Distinguish between cis (&) trans form

`
 (iii) To find out dipole moment of a substituent of benzene ring .

CHEMICAL BONDING - H-bonding

721
- given by Latimer (&) Rodebush.

CHEMICAL BONDING - H-bonding

722
- Electrostatic force of attraction between H & highly electronegative atom.

723 CHEMICAL BONDING - H-bonding

 - This is intermolecular force i. e. , why exist only in covalent molecule .

CHEMICAL BONDING - H-bonding

724
- Also known as dipole-dipole attraction.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Necessary conditions :

(i) Hydrogen should be covalently bonded will highly electronegative element .

(ii)Highlye ≤ ctro ¬ aivee ≤ mentsholudhave EN gt-3

. (iii)Hydro ≥ nbond ∈ gispossib ≤ only ∈ thosemo ≤ ce̲ ∈ which(H)isdirectlyaachedwith

725 . (iii)H ydro ≥ nbond ∈ gispossib ≤ only ∈ thosemo

≤ ce ∈ which(H )isdirectlyaachedwith
–

F, O, N,

stren > hfoH - bondprop` EN of highly electronegtive element .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Type of hydrogen bonding

726

Strength of intermolecular H-bond gt Intramolecular bond.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Type of hydrogen bonding

727
Imp. Intermolecular H-bonding taking place only in ortho-derivative of aromation compound.
 728 CHEMICAL BONDING - Application:

(i) Physical state : H 2O is liquid H 2S gas.

HF is liquid HCl gas.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Application:

(ii) M.P. & B.P. : Due to presence of H-bonding M.P. & B.P. increases
729

M.P. of alcohol gt M.P. fo thiol

CHEMICAL BONDING - Application:

(iii) volatillity : M.P. & B.P

730

CHEMICAL BONDING - Application:

(iv) Viscosity (&) Surface tension:

Viscosity ∝ Hydrogen bonding

731

732 CHEMICAL BONDING - Application:

 (v) Solubility in H 2O : Any organic compound which get dissolve in H 2O is due to H-bonding

Extent of solubility ∝ H-bonding

CHEMICAL BONDING - Application:

(vi) Association of molecule :

733

CHEMICAL BONDING - MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY

- Given to explain.

734
(i) Paramagnetic nature of O 2 molecule.

(ii) Existence of species like H 2+ , H 2- & species having fractional bond order.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Main point of M.O.T

735
(a) Atomic orbital represented by ψ (wave function) participate to form molecular obital.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Main point of M.O.T

736
(b) Z-axis is considered as main so P z combination must have almost orbital.

737 CHEMICAL BONDING - Main point of M.O.T

 (c ) The number of orbital participating in combination must have almost same energy (&) same

symmetry. Will produce same bumber of orbital.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Main point of M.O.T

(d) Two type of molecular orbital formed.

738
(i) Bonding molecular

(ii) Anti-bonding molecular

CHEMICAL BONDING - Main point of M.O.T

(e ) Number of atomic orbital participate =

739

1
number or B.M.O. + 1/2νmberofABMO.
2

CHEMICAL BONDING - Main point of M.O.T

(f) BMO is formed by addition of two wave function

740
(ψA + p - siB )whentheyare ∈ oppositephase, representedbu
(ψA + p − siB )whentheyare ∈ oppositephase,

representedbu

sigma^*, pi^*`.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Main point of M.O.T

(g) ABMO is formed by subtraction of two wave function (psi_A -psi_B) when they are in opposite phase,
741

represented by σ ⋅ , π ⋅ .

742 CHEMICAL BONDING - Main point of M.O.T

- Energy of ABMO > E ≠ rgyof A.O gt energy of BMOImp. Sequence or derf or B_2,C_2. N_2

8-4
(Numberof (eˉ )′ sle 14 ) = sigma_(1s). sigma_(1s)^*, sigma_(2s) , sigma_(2s)^*B. O. ofC 2 2
= 2 (pi_(2px)

⋅
= pi _(2py)), sigma_(2pz) (It coniains two (pi) bonds without (sigma) bond π 2px ⋅
(
= π 2py ) ⋅
, σ 2px

:. last four e - enters in (pi) B.M.O.)

)
f or O_2, F 2, Ne 2 (Number of overl ∈ ee . s > 14 = σ 1s, σ 1s& ⋅ , sima 2s
⋅
, σ pz
 (π2px = π2py
( ⋅
π 2px ⋅
= π 2py ⋅
)
, singma 2py =z
.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Significance of M.O.T. :

(a) Concept of bond order:

Bond order = 1/2 [N_b-N_a]N_a = number of antibonding (eˉ )′ s

743

If 1N b > N a B.O. = + ve molecule exist

` N_b lt N_b ltN_a B.O. =- ve moleculed does not exost .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Significance of M.O.T. :

744
(b) Stability ∝ B. . Alpha bond dissociation energy .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Significance of M.O.T. :

1
745
(c ) B. O. ∝
Bond ≤ n > h

CHEMICAL BONDING - Significance of M.O.T. :

746
- Iso electronic species have same bond order (&) have same magnetic property .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Significance of M.O.T. :

747
- If species have fractional bond order it will always be paramangnetic .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Significance of M.O.T. :

- If in two species bond order is same the stability, will be decided by counting number of antibonding

eˉ . s. Ifνmberofantibond ∈ gism or e, thanνmberofbond ∈ g

748 .
ē s. I f νmberof antibond ∈ gism or e,

thanνmberof bond ∈ g

overline e^. S` then molecule will be unstable.

749 CHEMICAL BONDING - Bonding parameters

Imp.points :

1. Bond length : Internuculear distance between two atom when they are bonded together .
.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Factor affecting bond Ilength

(i) ΔEN value

d A - B = r A + r B - 0.09(ΔEN)

750

H - F < H - Cl < H - Br < H - I .

 751 CHEMICAL BONDING - Factor affecting bond Ilength

(ii) Atomic size

B. L. propA → micsize

CHEMICAL BONDING - Factor affecting bond Ilength

1
752
(iii) Bond order : B. O. ∝
B. L.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Factor affecting bond Ilength

1
(iv) Hybridisation : B. L. ∝
s - character

753

CHEMICAL BONDING - Factor affecting bond Ilength

2. Bond angle : the angle between any two adjacent bond is kbown as bond angle
754

factor affecting bond angle .

755 CHEMICAL BONDING - Factor affecting bond Ilength

(a) Hybridization : On increasing (%) s-character bond angle also increases .

 CHEMICAL BONDING - Case-I

When hybridization is same, bonded atom are same but central atom (&) lone pair are different .

B. A prop 1/(Number of L.P.) Example:

756

757 CHEMICAL BONDING - Case -II

When hybridization is same, number of lone pair is same central atom is different (&) side atom are dide

atom are same then

 Bond∠ rorp EN of central atome

CHEMICAL BONDING - Case -III

When bybridization is same , number of lone pair are same and central atom are same , but side atoms

are different .
758

1
B. A. ∝
NEofsidea → m

OF 2 < OCI 2 < SB 2 < OI 2 NF 3 < NCI 3 < NBR 3 < NI 3.

CHEMICAL BONDING - Note:

Note : Symmetrical mol . Having no I. P. and same hyb. B.A. are same eg.

759
(I) BF 3 = BCI 3 = BBr 3 = BI 3

(ii) SO 24 - = PO 34 - = CIO 4- .

CHEMICAL BONDING - Imp. Pont:

In ethers oxygen has sp^3 hyridization having two L.P. but still bond angle is 110 2 because fo larger size

760
of alkyl group.

R - O - R.
 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Physical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

1. Order of metallic or lonic radii:

761
Cs > Rb > K > Ba > Sr > Ca > Na > Mg > Li > Be
Cs > Rb > K > Ba > Sr > Ca > N a > M g > Li

> Be

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Physical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

2. Order of density:
762

I stACsgt Rbgt Nagt K gt LiII^(nd)A Bagt Srgt Begt Mggt Ca

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Physical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

3. Order of MP & BP:

763

I stALi > Na > K > Rb > Cs

II ndBe > Ca > Sr > Ba > Mg

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Physical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

4. Order of hydration in cation:

764

IALi + > Na + > K + > Rb + > Cs +

IIABe + 2 > Mg + 2 > Ca + 2 > Sr + 2 > Ba + 2

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Physical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

5. Order of conductivity of cations in polar solvent

765

IACs + > Rb + > K + > Na + > Li +

IIABa + 2 > Sr + 2 > Ca + 2 > Mg + 2 > Be + 2

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Physical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

6. Order of conductivity in non-polar solvent

766

IALi + > Na + > K + > Rb + > Cs +

IIABe + 2 > Mg + 2 > Ca + 2 > Sr + 2 > Ba + 2

767 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Physical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:
 7. Colour of s-block metal in flame test

LiCrimsonredNaGoldenyellowKPa ≤ vio ≤ tRbReddishvio ≤ tCsSkyblue

BeMgXXDue → highIPCaBrickredSrCrimsonredBaApp ≤ green

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

1. Reaction with air N 2&O 2 ( )

768
All forms their normal oxide & nitrides.

Exception: Nitride of Na, K, Rb, Cs is not possible.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

2. Reaction with O_(2) & Excess of air

Li - normal oxide Be - normal oxide

769
Na - peroxide Mg - normal oxide
K - superoxide Ca - peroxide
Rb - superoxide Sr - peroxide
Cs - superoxide Ba - peroxide
s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

3. Reaction with H 2O: All form their hydrogen & H 2 gas Order of basic strength

Cs 2O > Rb 2O > K 2O > Na 2O > Li 2O

BaO > SrO > CaO > MgO > BeO

CsOH > RbOH > KOH > NaOH > LiOH

Ba(OH) 2 > Sr(OH) 2 > Ca(OH) 2 > Mg(OH) 2 > Be(OH) 2

Ba(OH ) > Sr(OH ) > Ca(OH )
770 2 2 2

> M g(OH ) > Be(OH )

2 2

Exception: Be does not react with H 2O:

Order of reactivity with H 2O in IA and IIA group

Cs > Rb > K > Na > Li

Ba > Sr > Ca > Mg > Be

771 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:
 4. CO 3- 2 & SO 4- 2 salt of Na, K, Rb and Cs only are not decomposed on heating due to large size weak

polarising power.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

5. In nitrate salts
Δ 1
2Na / K / Rb / CsNO 3 → 800 c > Na / K / Rb / CsNO 2
∘
+ O2
2
Δ

2N a / K / Rb / CsN O3 −−−−−→ N a / K / Rb / CsN O2

∘
800 c>

1
+ O2
2

Δ 5
2Na / K / Rb / CsNO 3 → 800 c or 800 C < Na / K / Rb / Cs 2O
∘ ∘
+ N2 + O2
2
Δ
772
2N a / K / Rb / CsN O3 −−−−−−−−−−−−→ N a / K / Rb
∘ ∘
800 c or 800 C<

5
/ Cs2 O + N2 + O2
2

In other

1
2LiNO 3 → Li 2O + 2NO 2 + O2
2

and IIA nitrate Ba NO 3 ( )2 → BaO + 2NO2 + O2

( )2 → BeO + 2NO2 + O2
Be NO 3

773 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

6. Types of hydride
 The higher oxides, peroxides and superoxide are strong oxidising agents. They react with water and

dilute acids forming H 2O 2 and O 2.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

774
7. Sodium is obtained on large scale by Down's process.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

8. The alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia without evolution of hydrogen. The colour of dilute

solutions is blue. On heating colour changes to bronze. The colous is colour is due to ammoniated

electron.

775
M + (x + y)NH 3 → M NH 3 [ ( )x ] + + e (NH3 )y
These solutions are good conductors of electricity and have strong reducing properties. The solutions are

paramagnetic in nature.

When dry ammonia is passed over hot metal, amides are formed.

776 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:
 9. Alkali metals have a very little tendency to form complexes. Lithium being small in size form form

certain complexes but this tendency decreses as the size increases.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

10. Lithium shows abnormal properties due to its small size (atom and ion). Lithium ion on account of its

777
small size exerts polarising effect on negative ions. Consequently, convalent character is developed in Li-

salts. Li has highest ionisation energy and electronegativity as comarared to other alkali metals.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

(i) LiCl is more covalent than NaCl. LiCl is soluble in alcohol, pyridine, etc. Its melting point is lower than
778

that of NaCl.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

(ii) LiOH, Li 2CO 3, LiNO 3 behave differently than other alkali corresponding salts towards heating.

2LiOH → Li 2O + H 2O, Li 2CO 3 → Li 2O + CO 2, 4LiNO 3 → 2Li 2O + 4NO 2 + O 2

2LiOH → Li2 O + H2 O, Li2 CO3 → Li2 O + CO2 ,

4LiN O3 → 2Li2 O + 4N O2 + O2
779

Hydroxides and carbonates of other alkali metals are stable. The nitrates of other metals decompose

giving only oxygen.

 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

780
(iii) Lithium directly combines with nitrogen.

6Li + N 2 → 2Li 3N

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

781
(iv) LiHCO 3 is known only in solution but not in solid state.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

782
(v) Li 2SO 4 does not form double salt.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

783
(vi)LiF, Li 3PO 4, Li 2C 2O 4, Li 2CO 3 are sparingly soluble in water.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

784
(vii) LiOH is weaker base in comparison to NaOH or KOH.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

(viii) Although Li has highest ionisation potential, yet it is strongest reducing agent because of its high
785

heat of hydration.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

786
11. Table salt becomes wet in rainy seasons due to presence of impurities of MgCl 2 and CaCl 2.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

12. Sodium carbonate (washing soda), Na 2CO 3, 10H 2O, is generally prepared by a process called

ammonia-soda process or Slavay process.

NH 3 + H 2O + CO 2 → NH 4HCO 3

787
NaCl + NH 4HCO 3 → NaHCO 3 + NH 4Cl

2NaHCO 3 → Na 2CO 3 + H 2O + CO 2

Solvay process cannot be employed for the manufacture of K 2CO 3 because KHCO 3 is fairly soluble in

water.

788 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:
 13. Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) is manufactured on a very large scale by the following processes:

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

Electrolytic process: The electrolysis of sodium chloride is carried out in an electrolytic cell. The following

electrolytic cells are used:

789

(a) nelson cell:

(b) Castner-Kellner cell:

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

14. Sodium peroxide (oxone), Na 2O 2, is formed by heating sodium at about 350 ∘ C in excess of air free

790
from moisture. It is a pale yellow power. It is used as an oxidising agent, for purification of H 2O 2 and

benzoyl peroxide.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

15. Except Be, alkaline earth metals are easily tarnished in air as a layer of oxide is formed on their
791

surface. The effect increases and barium in powered form bursts into falme on exposure to air.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

16. Like alkali metals, alkaline earth metals react with acids and displace hydrogen.
792

However, Be dissolves in caustic//alkalies with liberation of H 2.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

793
17. Be(OH) 2 is amphoteric but rest are basic so is not alkaline earth metal.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

18. Alkali earth metals directly combine with halogens, when heated with them. Be-halides are covalent.

This is due to small size and high charge of Be 2 + ion i.e., it has high polarising power. Halides of Be are
794

known to have chains of - - - - - X 2BeX 2Be - - - - - . The halides of rest of the members are ionic. The

halides are hygroscopic and readily form hydrates.

795 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

19. Alkaline earth metals burn in nitrogen and form nitrides of the type, M 3N 2. Be 3N 2 is volatile while rest

are non-volatile being ionic crystalline solids. These are hydrolysed with water liberating NH 3.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

20. With the exception of Be, other combine with carbon in an electric furnace to form carbides of the

type, MC 2. These called acetylides as on hydrolysis evolve, C 2H 2. MG also form Mg 2C 3 by heating,

796

Mg 2C 3 on hydrolysis forms propyne. Beryllium oxide when heated with carbon forms Be 2C. This on

hudrolysis gives methane.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

21. Like alkali metals, alkaline earth metals also dissolved in liquid ammonia to form coloured solutions.
797

Dilute solutions are bright blue due to solvated ions.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

22. Quick lime: (CaO) is obtained when limestone is heated at about 1000 ∘ C. On adding water, quick lime

gives a hissing sound and forms calcium hydroxide, known as slaked lime. The paste of lime in water is
798

called milk of lime while the filtered and clear solution is known as lime water. Chemically both are

Ca(OH) 2.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

23. Quick lime is used for making caustic soda, bleaching power, calcuim carbide, mortar, cement, glass,

dye stuffs and purification of sugar.

799

Mortar: It is building material. It consists slaked lime and silica in the ratio of 1 : 3. The mixture made a

paste with water. It is called mortar.

800 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:
 ( )
24. Gypsum CaSO 4. 2H 2O found in nature, when heated, it first change from monoclinic from to

orthorhombic form without loss of water. At 120 ∘ C, it loses three-fourth of its water of crystallisation and

forms hemihydrate CaSO 4 ( .1

2 )
H 2O known as plaster of Paris. It becomes anhydrous at 200 ∘ C is known

as dead burnt plaster and on strong heating it decompose to give either calcium oxide and SO 3 or

mixture of SO 2 and O 2.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

25. Plaster of Paris has the property of setting to a hard mass CaSO 4. 2H 2O, slight expansion occurs

during setting addition of alum to plaster of Paris makes the setting very hard. The mixture is known as

Keene cement.
801

Plaster of Paris is used for setting broken or disslocated bones, castes for statues, toys and in dentistry.

When plaster of Paris is heated at 200 ∘ C, it forms anhydrous calcium sulphate which is known as dead

plaster. It has no setting property.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

26. (a) Hydroxyapatite,

802
( ) 3OHisthema ∈ compo ≠ ntof → othenamel. Cavitiesaref or medwhenacidsdecomposethisenamel. Thiscan
Ca 5 PO 4

Ca_(5)(PO_(4))_(3).F`.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

803
(b)Mg 2 + and Ca 2 + ions present in water are responsible for hardness of water.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

(c ) CaCl 2 is obtained by heating a mixture of CaO and carbon. It reacts with nitrogen forming nitrolium,
804

used as a feritilizer.

CaC 2 + N 2 → CaCN 2 + C⏟nitrolium

805 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:
 27. Cement is an important building material. The average composition of portland cement is:

CaO61.5 % , SiO 222, .5 % , Al 2O 37.5 % . Cement is a dirty grayish heavy powder containing calcium

silicates and aluminates. Cement consists of:

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO. SiO 2

Dicalcium silicate 2CaO. SiO 2

Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO. Al 2O 3

Tetracalcium alumino - ferrite 4CaO. Al 2O - 93 . Fe 2O 3 )

For manufacture, limestone and clay are fused at 1400 - 1600 ∘ C in a rotary kiln. The product obtained is

called clinker. It is mixed with 2 - 3 % gypsum and powdered.

When cement is mixed with water, it sets to a hard mass, this is called setting. Setting is an exothermic

process. During setting hydration occurs.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

28. Solutions of beryllium salts are acidic and dissolve appreciable quantities of Be(OH) 2. In alkali

solution Be(OH) 4 [ ]2 - is formed.

806

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS - Chemical property of alkali metal & alkaline earth metal:

807
29.BaSO 4 is used in medicine as a contrast medium for stomach and intestinal X-rays.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS

Sl
Formula/Concept
No.
808 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

PHYSICAL PROPERTY

Boron to Indium show + 3 oxidation state in their compounds while thallium also show + 1 oxidation state

(due to inert pair effect) in their compounds. Relative stabillity of M and M 3 + ions may be given as:

B + < Al + < Ga + < In + < Tl +

B 3 + < Al 3 + < Ga 3 + < In 3 + < Tl 3 +

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Action of air:

809
4M + 3O 2 → 2M 2O 3

Reaction occurs at high temperature. With Al, a protective oxide layer is formed which makes it passive.

Tl also froms Tl also forms Tl 2O. Ga and In are not affected by air.

810 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Action of water:

2M + 3H 2O → M 2O 3 + 3H 2
 Boron is not affected by water. It reacts with steam at red hot. Al decomposes cold water if it is not

passive by oxide layer formation. Ga and In are not attacked by cold or hot water unless oxygen is

present. Tl reacts wtih molst air to from TlOH.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

811
Action of nitrogen : 2M + N 2 → 2MN

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Action of halogen : 2M + 3X 2 → 2MX 3,

812

( )
All the group 13 elements from trihalide except Tl. Tl from TlXTlI reacts with I 2 and from Tll 3 Tl + l 3 - .

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Action of acids: 2M + 6H + → 2M 3 + + 3H 2

813
Boron is not affected by non-oxiding acids like HCl and dilute H 2SO 4 while other elements dissolve to

from trivalent salts.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Action of alkalies :

814
2M + 2NaOH + 2H 2O → 2NaMO 2 + 2H 2O (M- element)

Only B, Al and Ga react with alkali.

815 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Action of metals:

Boron combines with metals on heating to from borides which are hard and refratory. Borides are

decomposed by acids forming borances.

2Mg + 2B → Mg 3B 2

Mg 3B 2 + 6HCl → 3MgCl 2 + B 2H 6
 The rest of the elements do not combine with metals. This show that boron is a non-metal and rest of the

elements are metal.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Boron is known to exist in two from (a) amorphous and (b) crystalline.

Amorphous boron is obtained by reduction of B 2O with Na or K and Mg at high temperature in a curved

crucibile.

816
Crystalline from is obtained by the reduction of B 2O with Al poweder Crystalline boron is black and

chemically inert in nature. It is very hard. Amorphous boron is brown and chemically active. Boron is

used as a deoxidiser in the casting of copper and for making boron steel which are used as control rods

in nuclear reactrons.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Hydrides

817
Boron forms a number of stable covalent hydribes called diborances with genral formula B nH n + 4 (called

nido boranes) and B nH n + 6 (called arachno boranes, less stable).

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

818
(
Aluminum forms a polymeric hydric called allane with general formula AlH 3 )n. Ga forms Ga2H6 and in
forms (In H 3)_(n). Tl` does not from hydrides.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Oxides and hydroxides

819
The members of boron family from oxide and hydroxides of the general formula M 2O 3 and M(OH) 3

respectively.

820 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

 The acid nature is represented as represented as

Oxides: B 2O 3 > Al 2O > GaO 3 > In 2O 3 > Tl 2O 3

(
Hydroxides: B(OH) 3 > Al OH 3 > Ga(OH) 3 > In(OH) 3 > Tl(OH) 3

Nature: Acidic, Amphoteric, Ampoteric, Basic, Strongly basic

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Halides

821
BX 3 is electron deficient so behaves as a Lewis acid.

BX 3Lewis acid + : NH 3Lewis base → H 3N → BX 3 [ ]Adduct

822 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Reltaive Lewis acid strength of boron halides are as follow:

Bl 3 > BBr 3 > BCl 3 > BF 3 (due to pπ - pπ back bonding)

In BF 3, each F has completely filled unullised 2P orbitals while B has a vacant 2p orbital. Now since both

of these orbitals belong to same energy level (2p) they can overlap effectively as a result of which

electrons of B resulting in the formation of an additional pπpπ bond. This type of bond fomation of bcak as

dative or back bonding. Formation of back bonding B and F in BF 3 molecule as given below figure...
 As a result of back donation of electrons form F to B the electron defiviency of B is reduced and Lewis

acid character is decreased, the tendency for the back bonding is maximum in BF 3 and decreases from

BF 3 to Bl 3, BBr 3 and BCl 3 are stronger Lewis acids than BF 3.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 13 ELEMENTS

Anomalous behaviour of boron:

823
Boron shows anomalus behaviour due to its small size, high nuclear charge, high electronegativity and

non-availability of d-orbits.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

Boric acid H 3BO 3 ( )

Preparation:

(
(a) From borax Na 2B 4O 7. 10H 2O : )
824
Boric acid can be prepared by adding a hot conventrated soltuion of borax to a calculated quanity of

conc. H 2SO 4. The solution on cooling gives crystals of boric acid, which cna be separated by filtraction.

Na 2B 4O 7 + H 2SO 4 + H 2O → Na 2SO 4 + 4H 3BO 3

(boric acid)

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

825
(
(b) From Colemanite Ca 2B 6O 11. 5H 2O : )
Ca 2B 6O 11 + 4SO 2 + 11H 2O → 2Ca HSO 3 ( ) 2 + 6H3BO3 ↓
826 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

Properties:

(a) Action of heat:

 100 ∘ C 160 ∘ C red hot
H 3BO 3boric acid → - H 2OHBO 2metaboric acid → - H 2OH 2B 4O 7tetrabiric acid → - H 2OB 2O 3boron trioxide

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

(b) Reaction with alcohol (test of boric acid):

827
H 3BO 3 + 3C 2H 3OH → B OC 2H 5 ( ) 3 + 3H2O
Triethyl borate

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

828
( ) [
Borax Na 2B 4O 7. 10H 2O or Na 2 B 4O 5(OH) 4 .8H 2O ]
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

Properties: (i) Its solution in basic in nature due to hydrolysis.

829

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

(ii) Na_(2)B_(4)O_(7).10H_(2)O overset(Delta) underset(10H_(2)O) rarr underset((swell up))

830

underset(anhydrous)(Na_(2)B_(4)O_(7))overset(740^(@)C)rarr underbrace(2NaBO_(2)+ B_(2)O_(3))`

831 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

(iii) Borax bead test: Borax on strong heating forms B 2O 3 which forms coloured glassy bead with

coloured compounds of certain metals. It is called borax bead test.

 Colour of beads CrGreenMnPinkFeGreenCoBlueNiBrownCuBlue

Blue beadeg. Cu (BO_(2))_(2))`

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

Diborane B 2H 6 ( )
832
Preparation:

Δ H 3PO 4
(i) 3Mg + 2B → Mg 3B 2 → Mixture of boranes ( MainlyB 4H 10 ) → B 2H 6diborance

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

150 ∘ C
833
(ii) B 2O 3 + 3H 2 + 2Al → pressureB 2H 6 + Al 2O 3

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

180 ∘ C
834
(iii) 2BF 3 + 6NaH → B 2H 6 + 6NaF

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

Properties:

(i) Reaction with ammonia:

835
low high
B 2J 62NH 3 ← temperatureB 2H 6 + NH 3 ( excess ) → temperature(BN) nInorganic graphic of Borazone

[ ( )2 ] [BH4 } or B2H6 + NH3ratio1.2

high temperature
BH 2 NH 3 + → B 3N 3H 6 ( borazine )

836 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

(ii) Reaction with amine:

..
B 2H 6 ( Lewis acid ) + Me 3N ( Lewis base ) → 2Me 3N → B 2H 6 [ ]addict
Borazine is known as inorganic benzence

Anhydrous AlCl 3 is prepared by passing dry HCl or CL 2 gas over heated mixture of Al 2O 3 and coke. It

used as a catayst in Friedel. Craft's reaction.The molecule is an autocomplex and is representes as:
 Anhydrous AlCl 3 is a Lewis acid. Anhydrous from is covalent while hydreated ACl 3.6H 2O is ionic.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

ALUMS

837
Alums are the double sulphates of the type M 2SO 4. M 2 SO 4 ( )324H2O where M is a univalent cation like
Na + , K + and NH 4+ and M + is a trivalent cation like Al 3 + , Fe 3 + and Cr 3 + .

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

Potash alum K 2SO 4. Al 2 SO 4 ( )3.24H2O

Sodium alum Na 2SO 4Al 2 SO 4 24H 2O ( )
838
Ferric alum NH 4 ( )2SO4. Fe2 (SO4 )3.24H2O
Ammonium alum NH 4 ( )2SO4. Al2 (SO4 )3. 24H2O
Chrome alum K 2SO 4. Cr 2 SO 4 ( )3. 24H2O
839 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF BORON

( )
Ultramanrine is an artificial Lapis-Lazuli a rare mineral Na 3Al 3. Si 3S 3O 12 which has fine blue colur. It is

used in making blue paint.

 Precious stones such as sapphire, ruby, topaz, etc are Al 2O 3 containing oxides of transition metals.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Stability order

840
C + 4 > Si + 4 > Ge + 4 > Sn + 4 > Pb + 4

C + 2 < Si 2 + < Ge + 2 < Sn 2 + < Pb 2 +

(due to inert pair effect

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

I. P. Order

C > Si > Ge > Sn < Pb

841

(due to lanthanoid contraction)

Catenation C > > Si > Ge = Sn = Pb

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

842
Except lead, all other elements of this group show allotrophy.

843 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

 Diamond, fullerene and graphite are alltropes of carbon.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Action of air:
844

(i) 2M + O 2 → 2MO
COSiOGeOSnOPbO
eg. → unstable

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

(ii) Dioxide: M + O 2 → MO 2

Acidic Nature

845

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

Action of water:

846
C, S, Ge and Pb are unaffected by H 2O

Sn + 2H 2O ("steam") rarr SnO_(2) + H_(2)O`

847 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

 Action of acids: Non oxiding acids do not attack C and Si, Ge is not attacked by dilute HCl. When Ge is

heated in a steam of HCl gas, germanium chlorform is formed.

Sn disscolves slowely in dilute HCl but reallity in concentrated HCl.

Pb dissolves in conc. HCl forming chloroplumbous acid, but the reaction stops after sometime due to

deposition of PbCl 2.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 ELEMENTS

Action of alkali: C is unaffected by cold alkali with cold aquecous NaOH and really with hot NaOH forming

848
silicate.

Sn and Pb form stannate and plumbate respectively on reaction with hot alkali.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

Hydrides : MH 4 (Genral formula)

849
CH 4
SiH 4
GeH 4 Germane
SnH 4 Stanane
Methane
silicon

PbH 4 Plambane
↓ on moving top to bottom
→ B. L. ↑
→ T. stability ↓
→ Acidic nature ↑
→ Reducing nature ↑

850 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

Halides:

All the element forms convalent halides, MX 4 (except PbBr 4 and Pbl 4) the thermal stabliltiy or haliders

decreases as:

CX 4 > SiX 4 > GeX 4 > SnX 4 > PbX 4.

MF 4 > MCl 4 > MBr 4 > Ml 4

The halides are readily hydrolsled by water (expert CX 4, due to absence of d-orbital). The order of ease
 of hydrolysis is

SiCl 4 > GeCl 4 > SnCl 4 > PbCl 4.

Degree of hydrolysis ∝ covalent chr.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

Carbides:
851

The binary compounds of carbon with elements other than hydrogen are called carbides.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

Ionic cabides are formed by the most electropositive metals such as alkali and alkaline earth metals and

852
Al

Both Be 2C and Al 4C 3 are called methanides because they react with H 2O yielding methane.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

853
Covalent carbides are formed by metalloids like Si and B.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

SiC (carboround) has a diamond like sturcture, hence it is called artificial diamond. B 4C (Norbide) is
854

hardest known artifical substance.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

Interstitial carbides are formed by transition elements in which C atoms occupy tetrhedical holes in the
855

close-packed arrays of metal atoms. W, Zr, Ti, Ta and Mo can form ideal intersitial carbides.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

Sillicones:

856
Silicones are polymeric organo-silicon compounds containg Si - O - Si liknkage. The name silicone has

( ) (
been given from similarly of their empirical formula R 2SiO with ketonwess R 2CO )
857 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:
 Silicones are formed by the hydrolysis of alkyl or aryl substituted chlorosilanes and their subsequent

polymerisation.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

858
Cupowder
2RCl + Si → 570KR 2SiCl 2dialkyldichloro silane

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

859

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

Silocones have good thermal, oxidates stability. These are excellent water repelants and chemically inert
860

substances. Liquid slicones are used as excellent lubricants.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

861
[ ( ]
Silicates: Silicates are metal derivative of silicic acid H 4SiO 4 or Si OH 4 . Silicates are made up of SiO 44 -

tetrahedral units in which Si is sp 3 hybridised and is surrounded by four oxygen atoms.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

862
All these elements combine with halgens forming corresponding halides.

863 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 14 ELEMENTS:

 Note: Boron and aluminium combine with nitrogen and carbon on heating to from nitrides and carbides

respectively.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Melting and boiling points

864

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Oxidation state: These elements can show negative as well as positive oxidation states.

865
As we down the group, the stability of + 3 oxidation state increases while that of + 5 oxidation state

decreases due to inert effect.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

866
Non-metallic and metallic character: Down to the group, metallic character increases.

867 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Allotopy: All the elements except bismuth show allotropy. Phosporous exists in three allotopic forms such

as while or yellow, red or violet and black phosphorus.

868 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

General formula for hydrides is MH 3.

e. g. NH 3, PH 3, AsH 3, SbH 3, BiH 3.

 As we go down the group, the bond angle decreases. This is due to the increase in size and decrease in

eletronegativity of central metal ion.

869 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Halides:

Elements of group 15 from two type of halides viz (i) trihalides and (ii) perntahalides. The trihalides are

predominantly basic(Lewis bases in nature) and have pair of electron(central atom is sp′ hybridised). The

perpendicualr are thermically less stable than the trihalides.

870 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Formation of oxides:

All the elements of this group from two type of oxides, i. e. M 2O 3 and M 2O 5 and are called trioxides

and pentoxides.
 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Uses:

871
Nitrogen N 2 ( )
Manufacture of HNO 3, NH 3, CaCN 2. Etc.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

872
Provides insert atmosphere in many metallugical process.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

873
Phosphorous P 4 ( )
Uses in manufacture of mathces in rat poison, in the manufacture of tracer bullets etc.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

1. Ammonia NH 3 ( )
A
874
Preparation: (i) 2NH 4Cl + Ca(OH) 2 → CaCl 2 + 2NH 3 + 2H 2O

(ii) Mg 3N 2 + 6H 2O → 3Mg(OH) 2 + 2NH 3

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Physical prorerties :
875

Colourless, pungent smell, basic in nature.

 876 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Liquifies on cooling under pressure.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

877
On heating it causes cooling.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Chemical properties:

878
4NH 3 + 3O 2 → 2N 2 + 6H 2O
pt , 110K
4NH 3 + 4O 2 → 4NO + 6H 2O

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

879
8NH 3excess + 3Cl 2 → 6NH 4Cl + N 2

NH 3 + 3Cl 2excess → Ncl 3 + 3HCl

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Uses:
880

It is used as refrigerant

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

881
In the manufacturer of fertilizers and HNO 3.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

882
It is used for removing greases

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

883
Used as a solvent.

884 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

2. HNO 3, nitric acid was earlier called as aqua fortis (meaning strong water). It usually yellow colour. Due

to its decomposition by sunlight into NO 2.

In tcts as a strong oxidising agent. Non-metals converted into highes oxyacids by hot and conc. NH 3. NO 2

gas is evolved (S to H 2SO 4 : to H 2CO 3, I 2 to HlO 3: As to H 3AsO 4, Sb to H 3SbO 4 and Sn to H 2SnO 3). Most of
 the metals, i.e., it acts as an acids as well as an oxidising agent.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

3. Phosphine PH 3 ( )
885

Preparation:

Ca 3P 2 + 6H 2O → 3Ca(OH) 2 + 2PH 3

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

886
(ii) PH 4I + NaOH → Nal + H 2O + PH 3

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

887
Laboratory preparation:

P 4 + 3NaOH + 3H 2O → 3NaH 2PO 2 + PH 3

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Physical properties:
888

Coloureless gas having smell of garlic or rotten fish, slightly soluble in water and slightly heavier than air.

889 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Chemical properties:

(i) 2PH 3 + 4O 2 → P 2O 3 + 3H 2O
 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

713K
890
(ii) 4PH 3 → P 4 + 6H 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

891
(iii) PH 3 + 4Cl 2 → PCl 5 + 3HCl

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Uses:
892

As Holme's signals in deep seas and oceans

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

893
For the production of smoke screens.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

4. Phosphorus halides:
894

Phosphorous from types of halides, phosphorus trihalides, PX 3 and phosphorous pentahalides,

PX 5(X = F, Cl, Br)

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

(i) PCl 3 :
895

Preparation:

P 4 + 6Cl 2 → 4PCl 3

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Properties:

896
PCl 3 + 3H 2O → H 2PO 3 + 3HCl

2PCl 3 + O 2 → 2POCl 3

PCl 3 + Cl 2 → PCl 5

897 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Structure:
 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

(ii) PCl 5 :

898
P 4 + 10Cl 2 ( g ) → 4PCl 5 ( s )

PCl 3 + Cl 2 ( g ) → PCl 5 ( g )

P 4 + 10SO 2Cl 2 → 4PCl 3 + 10SO 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Properties:
899

pale yellow cystalline solid.

900 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

 In solid state in exists as PCl 4 [ ] + [PCl6 ].
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

In subimes on heating.

901

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

902

903 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Structure:
 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Structure of oxides of nitrogen and phosphorus

Nitrogen

904

905 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Phosphorous

Structure of phosphorus trioxide P 4O 6 ( )

 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

Structure of phosphorus pentaoxide P 4O 10 ( )

906

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
907

Melting and boiling points:

O 2 < S 8 < Se 8 < Te 8 < Po metal

908 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

 Metallic and non-metallic character:

O > S > Se > Te > Po

I. P ↓ metallic character ↑
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Element state: Oxygen exists as diatomic gaseous molecule. Sulphur and selenium exist as octa-atomic
909

moleucles. Both have puckererd ring structure.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Allotropy: All the elements of this group show allotrophy. Oxygen exists in two non-metallic forms i.e., O 2
910

and O 3. Sulphur provides a very good example of an element of this exhibits allotropy..

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Allotropic forms of sulphur:

911
Rhombic sulphur of octahedral or α sulphur: This is the common and stable form of sulphur. It is a plae

yellow crystalline solid consisting of S n structurlal units and packed in ochtahedral shape.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Mononclinic or prismatic or β-sulphur: This form is stable above 95.6 ∘ C. It exists as amber yellow, needle
912

shaped crystal soluble in carbon disulphide.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

913
Plastic sulphur: It is an amber brown, soft rubber like mass which hardens on standing.

914 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

Hydrides:

All these elements from stable hybrides of the type H 2M

 FeS + H 2SO 4 → H 2S + FeSO 4

NaSe + H 2SO 4 → H 2Se + Na 2SO 4

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

915
)
H 2 O is a liquid due to hydrogen bonding. Others are colourless gases with unpleasent smell.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

916
Compound:Bond angle:H 2O105.5 ∘ > H 2S92.5 ∘ ( allsp hybridised ) > H2Se91
3 ∘
> H 2Te90 ∘

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

The weakening of M - H bond with the increases in the size of M(not the elecronegativity) explains the
917

increasing acid character of hydrides down the group.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Halides:

All these elements form a number of halides. The halides of oxygen are not very stable. Selenium does
918

not from dihalides.

e. g. OF 2, Cl 2, I 2O 5. Etc

919 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

 Oxides:

Oxides of other elements are as follows:

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

SO 2 is a gas having sp 2 hybridisation and V-shape

920

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

SO 3 is a gas, sp 2 hybridised and planar in nature.

□

921

922 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

( ) 3α- from or as linear cross-linked sheets, β - from.

In solid state it exists as a cyclic trimer SO 3
 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

1. Oxygen O 2 : ( )
923
Preparation: By action of heat on oxygen rich compound:

From oxides:

2HgO ( Δ ) ( → ) 2Hg + O 2
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

From peroxides
924

2Na 2O 2 + 2N 2O → O 2 + 4NaOH

2BaO 2 ( Δ ) ( → ) 2baO + O 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

From decomposition of certain compounds

925 Δ
2KClO 3 → MnC 22KCl + 3O 2

2KNO 3 → 2KNO 2 + 3O 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Properties: It is colourless, odourless, tasteless, slightly heavier than air, sparingly soluble in water but
926

soluble in phyrogallol

927 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

 Chemical properties: On heating it combines directly with metals and non-metals

C + 0 2 → CO 2

S + O 3 → SO 2

Pb + O 2 → PbO 2

2CH 2OH + O 2

2CH 3OH + O 2 → 2HCO + 2H 2O

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

928
Uses: When mixed with He or CO 2 used, it used for artifical respiration.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

929
In weliding and cutting.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

930
As a fuel in rockets

931 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

2. Ozone O 3 : ( )
Preparation:
 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Properties: Pale blue gas with characteristic strong smell, slightly soluble in water but more soluble in
932

turpentine oil or glacial acetic acid.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Decompostion:
933

573K
2O 3 → 3O 2 + 68Kcal

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Oxidising action:
934

O3 → O2 + O

PbS + 4O → PbSO 4

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Reducing action:
935

H 2O + O 3 → H 2O + 2O 2

BaO 2 + O 3 → BaO + 2O 2

936 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Stucture:
 Oxidation state of O is + 1 and - 1.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

937
Uses: Bleaching ivory, flower, delicates fabrics,etc.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

938
As germicide and disinfectant for sterlising water.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

939
Manufacture of KMnO 4 and artifical silk.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

3. Sulphur dioxide SO 2 ( )
preparation:
940

By heating suphur in air

Δ
S + O 2 → SO 2

941 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Lab method:

By heating Cu with conc. H 2SO 4.

 Cu + 2H 2SO 4 → CuSO 4 + SO 2 + 2H 2O

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Properties:

942
As reducing agent:

SO 2 + Cl 2 + 2H 2O → H 2SO 4 + 2HCl

2KMnO 4 + 5SO 2 + 2H 2O → K 2SO 4 + 2MnSO 4 + 2H 2SO 4

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

As oxidising agent:
943

2H 2S + SO 2 → 2H 2O + 3S ↓
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Bleaching action: In bleaching action is due to reduction.

944
SO 2 + 2H 2O → H 2SO 4 + 2H

`"Coloured matter" underset("Nascent hydrogen")(+H rarr) "Coloureless mater".

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

945
Uses: In the manufacutre of sulphuric acid , sulphine and hydrogen sulphide.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

946
As a disnfectant and furmigate.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

947
For bleaching delicate aricles.

948 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Manufacture of sulphuric acid:

"Lead chamber process":

"The various steps involved are:"

(a)" Production of SO 2: By burning s or iron pyrites."

 Δ
S + O 2 → SO 2

4FeS 2 + 11O 2 → 2Fe 2O 3 + 85O 2

□

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

949
(b) "Production of catalyst: Oxides of nitrogen."

2NaNO 3 + H 2SO 4 → Na 2SO 4 + 2HNO 3

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

(c) "Reaction in lead chamber"

SO 2 + NO 2 → SO 3 + NO
950

SO 3 + H 2O → H 2SO 4

2NO + O 2 ("used again")

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

"Contact process:"

" The steps involved are:"

951

(a) "Production of" SO 2 : "It is produced by buring sulphur or iron pyries and puriefed by purifed by

treating with steam to remove dust particles".

952 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

(b) Conversion of SO 2 to SO 3 : It is done in container or catalyst chamber after being pre-heated to

450 ∘ C )
 Catalyst: Fromerly platinised asbestos was uses which is costly and easily piosoned. These days V 2O 5 is

used.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

(c) SO 3 is absorbed by conc. H 2SO 4 and then water is added to produce the acid of desired

953
concentration,

H 2SO 4 + SO 3 → H 2S 2O 7

H 2S 2O 7 + H 2O → 2H 2SO 4

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

954
Properties: Its specific gravity is 1.8 and it is 98 % by weight.

955 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

It is strong dibasic acid.

 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

956
It acts as an oxidising agent.

H 2SO 4 → H 2O + SO 2 + O

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

957
Non metals are oxidised to their oxides and metals to the corresponding sulphates.

C + 20 → CO 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Dehydrating agent: It is strongly dehydrating in nature.

958
H 2SO 4
(Charring of sugar) C 12H 22O 11 → 12C + 11H 2O

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

Uses:
959

In lead stroage batteries.

 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

960
In manufacture of paints and pigements .

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - IMPOTANT COMPOUNDS OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

961
In mentallurgy for electrolytic refining of metals

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

962
Oxidation state: All the halogents show an oxidation state of - 1. Except fluroine, all halogens show

positive oxidation states also.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

963 Metallic character:

F < Cl < Br < I < At

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Bond dissociation energy: Bond dissociation energy of flurine is lower than those of chloring (Cl - Cl) and

bromine (Pr - Br) because inter-elecronic repulsions present in the small atom of fluroine. Hence bond
964

energy decreases in the order.

Cl 2 > Br 2 > F 2 > l 2.

965 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

 Bond length:

F 2 < Cl 2 < Br 2 < l 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

966
Melting point and boilibng point:

F 2 < Cl 2 < Br 2 < l 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

967
Reactivity: All halogens are chemically very reactive elements. This is due to their low dissociation

energy and high EN. Fluroine is the most reactive and iodine is the least reactive halogen.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

968
Oxidising power: F is the most oxidising element due to high hydration enthalpy.

F 2 > Cl 2 > Br 2 > I 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Hydrogen halides:

Bond strength bond length an thermal stability:

969

Since size of halogen of H - X bond increases down the group. ∴ reactivity and acidic character ↑ .

HF < HCl < HBr < Hl.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Bond strength is inversly, proportional to bond length i.e., larger the bond length, lower the bond strength
970

is

HF > HCl > HBr > Hl

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Higher the bond dissociation energy, greater will be thermal stability. Thus, thermal stability follow the

971
order.

HF > HCl > HBr > Hl.

972 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Reducing character: The reducing character of hydrogen halides increases down the group as

HF < HCl < HBr < Hl.

2HX → H 2 + X 2.

A less thermically stable compound has more tendency to release hydrogen easily and show greater

reducing property.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Acidic strength: The acidic strength of these acids increases down the group and hence follows the

order.

973
Hf < HCl < HBr < HI.

Since H - I bond is weakest, it can be easily dissociated into H - and I - ions while HF with greater bond

dissoication energy can be dissociated with maximum diffculty.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

CHLORINE Cl 2 ( )
974
Prerparation: By oxidation of conc. HCl.

PbO 2 + 4HCl → PbCl 2 + 2H 2O + Cl 2

2KMnO 4 + 16HCl → 2KCl + 2MnCl 2 + 8H 2P + 5Cl 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Manufacture:
975

Weldon's process: By heating pyrolusite with conc. HCl

MnO 2 + 4HCl → MnCl 2 + 2H 2O + Cl 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Properties: It is a yellowish green gas, poisonous in nature, soluble in water. Its aqueous soltuion is
976

known as chlorine water which on careful cooling gives chlorine hydrate Cl 2.8H 2O

977 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

 Bleachng action and oxidising property

(i) Cl 2 + H 2O → HOCl + HCl

HOCL → HCl + [O]

Cp,ired matter + nascent [0] → Coluless matter

The bleaching action of chlorine is permanent and is due to its oxidising nature.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

978
(ii) SO 2 + Cl 2 + 2H 2O → J 2SO 4 + 2HCl

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Action of hydrogen
979

UVlight
H2 + Cl 2 → Charcoal catalyst2HCl

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Displacement reaction:
980

2KBr + Cl 2 → 2KCl + Br 2

2Kl + Cl 2 → 2KCl + l 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Action of NaOH:

underset((cold))(2NaOH) + underset("dry")(Cl_(2)^(0)) rarr NaCl^(-1) + underset("sodium hypochlorine")

981

(NaOCl^(-1)) + H_(2)Ounderset("hot and conc")(6NaOH) + underset("dry")3Cl_(2)^(0) rarr 5NaCl^(-1) +

underset("sodium chlorate")(NaCl^(-5)O_(3)) + 3H_(2)O`

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Addition reactions:
982

SO 2 + Cl 2 → SO 2Cl

CO + Cl 2 → COCl 2

983 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

 Uses:

It is used as a

(i) bleaching agent

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

984
(ii) disinfectant

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

985
( )
(iii) in the manufacture of CHCl 3, ℂl 4. DDT, bleaching powder, poisonous gas phosgene COCl 2 , tear

( )
gas ℂl 3NO 2 and mustard gas ClC 2H 4SC 2H 4Cl ( )
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

HYDROCHLORIC ACID, (HCL)

986
Preparation: By dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water. Hydrogen chloride gas required in turn can be

prepared by the following methods:

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

By the direct combination of hydrogen and chlorine.

987

Sunlight
H 2 ( g ) + Cl z ( g ) → 2HCl ( g )

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

988
Hydrogen chloride gas can also be obtained by burning hydrogen in chlorine.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Properties: Hydrogen chloride is a covalent compound but when dissolved in water it ionizes to from

hydrogen ions and chloride ions.

989
HCl ( aq ) → H +(aq ) → + Cl -( aq ) )
Thus anhydrous HCl does not show acididc properties. Only aqueous HCl or in presence of moisture,

HCl behaves ions and chloride ions.

 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Metal + Hydrochloric acid → Metal chloride + Hydrogen

990

Mg + 2HCl → MgCl 2 + H 2 ↑
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

991
It react with bases and basic oxides or hydroxides to from their repective chlorides and water.

CaO + 2HCl → CaCl 2 + H 2O

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

It reacts with metal carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphidies, sulphities, thiousulphates and nitrities, etc, to
992

from their respective chlorides.

NaCO 3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl → 2NaCl + H 2O + CO 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

It reacts with silver nitrate and lead nitrate solution to from their white precipitates.
993

AgNO 3 + HCl → HNO 3 + AgCl ↓

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

994
Reducing property: HCl is a strong reducing agent.

MnO 2 + 4HCl → MnCl 2 + 2H 2O + Cl 2

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

995
Uses: In the production of dyes, paints, photographic, chemicals, etc.

996 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

 Used in the perparation of chlorides, chlorine, aqua-regia, etc.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

997
Used as a laboratory reagant,

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

INTERHALOGEN COMPOUNDS:
998

These compounds are regarded as halides of more electropositive (i.e. less eleronagtive) halogens.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Types of interhalogen compound:

AB type : ClF, BrF, Brcl, Icl, Ibr

999
AB 3 type: ClF 3, BrF 3, Icl 3

AB 5 type: BrAF 5, IF 5

AB 7 type : IF 7

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

1000

1001 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

 Oxidation number of the central atom increases

(X = + 1, + 3, + 5, + 7) →

-Thermal stabillity increases →

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

Covalent character of X - O bond increases →

1002
-Oxidising power decreases →

-Basicity fo decreses →

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

← Electronegativity of the central atom decreases -

1003
← Thermal stability decreases - 1

← ′ Oξdisingpowerdecreses-larrAcidicstren > hdecreases-`

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY

Sl No. Formula/Concept

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Complex formation

1004
Due to high polarising power and partially filled ′ d′ subshell, transition elements from complex.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Terminology:

Ligand: The species which donates ther e - pair is called as ligand. On the basics of the number of e -

pairs available for donation: ligands are claasified as:

1005

Monodentate (One pair of e - )

(b) Bidentate (Two pair of e - )

1006 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Terminology:

 Ambidetate Ligand: It is the monodentate lignad having more than one (e - pair) to donote, but always

acts as unidentate due to inactivation of the secound e - pair for donation. For example , - CN - , and

- NC′ , - SCN and - NCS - , N - 2 and ONO - , - OCN and NCO - . THese ligands are responsible for linkage

isomerism.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Terminology:

1007
Flexidentate ligands : Exhibit varible denticity eg. SO_(4)^(2) CO_(3)^(2), EDTA^(4-)`.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Terminology:

Chelating ligand : These are the polydentate ligands which bind to the central metal to from a puckered

1008
ring structure. Chelation always, leads to extra stability, for example, EDTA (ethylene cliamine tetra

acetate).

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Terminology:

Coordinate complex:

1009

1010 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Terminology:

Ionisation sphere: constitutes of the ions which may satisfying the primary valency. Coordination sphere

constitute the metal coordinates with ligands, which cannot be ionised after dissoultuion and exist as
 stable identities either neutral or charged.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Terminology:

Coordinate number: It is the number of ligands by which central metal is surrounded in corrdination

sphere or it is the number of coordinate bonds arround central metal iion in a complex entity.
1011

Charged ligands can satisfy primary valency beside being the part of coordination sphere hence, satisfy

both primary adn secoundary valencies but still remain unionisable.

1012 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Werner's theory

Metal in a complex two type of valencies .Primary & secondary.

1013 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - EAN rule:

(According to sidgwick and Lowrry)

Primary valence - loss of electrons.

Secondary valence - gain of electrons.

∴ Total number of electron associated with metal ion in a complex entity is called EAN .

Central metal ion tendency to acheive atomic number of nearest inert gas element during formation of

complex. Called EAN rule.

EAN~ = A → micνmberofCentralmηlion - Oξdationstate+(2xxC∞rd ∈ ationνmber)K_(4) [Fe(CN)_(6)] EANof

Fe = 26 - 2 + (2 × 6)

Stable accrording to EAN rule = 24 + 12

= 36

(equals to atomci number of Kr 36)

[ ]
K 3 Fe(CN) 6 EAN = 26 - 3 + 12

(Less stable) = 35

∴ acts as oxidising agent.

 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Isomeism

1014

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Sturctural

(a) Ionisation Isomerism: Same molecular formula but gives different ionisable species. (Only anionic)

1015

1016 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Sturctural

(b) Hydrate isomerism: Same molecular formula but different number of water molecules associated with

central metal.
 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Sturctural

(
(c) Linkage isomerism : Structural isomerism shown by ambidenable ligends NO 2, CSN, CN - , CNO, etc )
1017

[ ( ) 5(SCN) ]2 -
Fe NH 3

[ ( ) 5(SCN) ]2 -
Fe NH 3

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Sturctural

(d) Coordination Isomerism: Isomets having both anion and cation as complex entity.

Can their change poistion of ligends as well as metal.

1018

[ ( )6 ] (Co(CN)6 ]
Cr NH 3

[ ( )6 ] (Cr(CN)6 ]
Cr NH 3

1019 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Streoisomerism

(a) Geometrical Isomerism (GI)

 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Streoisomerism

1020
sq planar complex with symmetyrical bidentate ligand No. Gl

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Streoisomerism

1021
Sq. planar complex can exhibit Gl only in two types
[ M(AB) 2
M(AB) ab ]
On increasing number of one type of ligand total number of geometrical decreases.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Streoisomerism

1022
[ ] [ ]
Octahedral M( ∀ )a 4 and M( ∀ ) 3 type of complex can not exhibit G. l

1023 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Streoisomerism

 [M( ∀ )2a2 ] type of complex have two Gl (cis & trans)
COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Streoisomerism

(b) Optical Isomerism (Ol)

1024

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Streoisomerism

[M( ∀ )2a2 ] type of complex gives three stereoismoer:

(1) cis
1025

(2) trans

(3) mirror image of cis

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Crystal field theory (CFT)

1026
( )
If the complex is formed by the use of inner d-orbits for hybridisation d 2sp 3 , it is called inner orbital

complex.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Crystal field theory (CFT)

If the complex is formed by the use of outer orbital complex. Such a complex is also called as high spin
1027

complex e.g CoF 6 [ ] - 3.

1028 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Crystal field splitting
 The splitting of five degenerate d-orbitals of the metal into different sets of orbitals having different

energies in the presence of electrostatic field of ligands is called crystal field spliitling.

eg set - dx 2 - y 2, dz 2

t 2gset - dxy, dyz, dxz

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Crystal field splitting

Crystal field splititing energy. (Δ 0 for octahedral and Δ t for tetraahedral structure) is the difference
1029

between the various sets of energy levels formed by crystal field splitting.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Crystal field splitting

Weak field legands are those ligands which cause a small degree of crystal fied splitting e.g
1030

I - , Br, Cl - , NO 3 - , F - , OH - , C 2O 24 - , H 2O, etc.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Crystal field splitting

Strong field legends are those ligands which cause a high degree of splitting e. g. CO, CN-, NO-_()2)`,
1031

etc.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Crystal field splitting

Spectrochemical series

I - < Br - < CI - < NO 3 - < F - < OH - < ox 2 < H 2O < py~en < dippy < 0 - phen
1032

< NO 2 - < CN - < CO.

(C and N donar acts as a SFL except N.)

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Organometallic compounds

Compounds in which the central metal atoms are boned directly to carbon atoms of hydrocarbon
1033

molecules are called organometllic compounds.

1034 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Organometallic compounds

 σ-bonded compounds: formed by nontransition elements. R - Mg - X, CH 3 - CH 2 ( )2Zn, Ziegier natta
cataylst, etc.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Organometallic compounds

π- bonded organometallic compounds: are generally formed by transition elements e.g. Zeise salt,
1035

ferrocen, dibenzence chormium etc.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Organometallic compounds

σ and π bonded organometallic compounds formed metal and carbon monoxide belong to this class,
1036

Ni(CO) 4, Fe(CO) 5 etc

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Synergic bonding

1037

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - IUPAC momenclature of complex compounds

(A) For anionic complex (like K 4 Fe(CN) 6 [ ])

Common name of normal cation (without numercial prefix) + name of ligands (with numeral preflix) +
1038

latin name of CMl along with suffix are + Ox. St (in rommon number)

eg : Potassium hexacyanoferrate (II)

1039 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - IUPAC momenclature of complex compounds

 (B) For cationic (like Cu NH 3 [ ( )4SO4 )
Name of ligands (with numerical [prefix)

eg : Tetraammine copper (II) suilphate.

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - IUPAC momenclature of complex compounds

(C) For neutral complex (like Fe(CO) 5 [ )

Name of ligands (with numercal prefix) + Common name of CMI + Ox. St. (in rommon number)

1040
eg : Pentacorbony iron (O)

[ ( )2Cl2 ]
Pt NH 3

Diammindichioroplatinum (II)

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Some important rules

1041
Ligands are to be written in alphabetical order

COORDINATION CHEMISTRY - Some important rules

Repetition of organic ligands having numercal prefix in their name is not be done by using prefix - bis,
1042

tris, tetrakis etc.

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS)

Sl No. Formula/Concept

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Defination:

1043
Incomplete n and n - 1 shell in atomic or in ionic state. Zn, Cd&Hg - are d-block nontransition elements.

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - General electronic configuration:

ns 0 - 2(n - 1)d 1 - 10

{
1044

Cr 4s 1 3d 5
Exceptions
Cu 4s 1 3d 10

1045 d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Transition series:

 (1 , 3dseries, Sc
st
21 )( )(
- Zn 30, , 9 + 1 = 10 , 2 nd, 4dseries, Y 39 - Cd 45, , 9 + 1 = 10 , 3 rd, 5dseries, La 57Hf 72 - Hg

_(80),,9+1=10),(4^(th),6d series,Ac_(89)Unq-Uub,,9+1=10):}`

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Atomic radius:

3d series Sc > Ti > V > Cr > Mn ≥ Fe ≅ Ni ≤ Cu < Zn

In a group 3d to 4d series increases but 4d and 5d series nearly same due to poor shileding of fe -

1046
(Lanthanide contraction)

3d < 4d = 5d

e. g. : Ti lt Zr = Hf :|{:(Small est radius -Ni,,,,),(larg est radius-Na,,,,):}`

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Melting point:

s - block metals < d - block metals

In a series on increasing number of unpaired e - mpt increases upto Cr than decreases.

SC < Ti < V < Cr > Mn < Fe > Co > Ni > ↓ Halffil ≤ dd 5weakmηllicbondCu > Zn ↓ Fullyfil ≤ dd 10weakmηllicbond
1047

Zn > Cd > Hg
Meltingp∮ : ∣
Cu > Ag ≤ Au

E. N. Exception Zn < Cd < Hg

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Density:

s - block metals < d - block metlas

1048

3d series Sc < Ti < V < Cr < Mn < Fe < Co ≤ Ni < Cu < Zn

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Density:

1049
Density in a Group 3d < 4d < < 5d
 d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Metallic character:

They are soild, hard, ductile, malleable, good conductor of heat and electricity and exhibit metallic

lusture, high tensile strength. Hg is liquid

Elect.cond.

1050

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Oxidation state:

Transition elements exhibit variable oxidation state due to small enegry difference of ns and (n - 1)d
1051

electrons.

1052 d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Oxidation state:

Sc( + 3) and Zn( + 2) exhibit only one oxidation state

 d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Oxidation state:

1053
Common oxidation state is + 2

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Oxidation state:

1054
3d series highesr oxidation state is + 7(Mn)

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Oxidation state:

1055
In d - block series highest oxidation state is + 8(Os)

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Oxidation state:

1056
In carbonyl compound oxidation state of metals is zero due to synergic effects.

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Oxidation state:

1057
Their higher oxidation states are more stable in fluoride and oxides.

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Oxidation state:

Higher oxidation states in oxides are normally more stable than fluorides due to capability of oxygen to

1058
form multiple bonds.

e.g. stable fluoride in higher oxidation state of Mn is MnF 4 while oxide is Mn 2O 7

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Some more stable oxidation states of d-block elements:

Cu + 2 Mn + 2 Pt + 4
1059
Ag + 1 Cr + 3 Sc + 3
Au + 3 Ni + 2
d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Common oxidation states:

Cu + 2 Mn + 2 Pt + 4
Ag + 1 Cr + 3 Sc + 3
Au + 3 Ni + 2

1060
In p - block lower oxidation states of heavier elements are more stable while in d - block heavier element,

higher oxidation state are more stable.

e.g. IN VIBgpMo( + 6)&W( + 6) are stable than Cr( + 6)

1061 d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Magnetic property:

 All transition elements are paramagnetic due to presence of unpaired electrons. They attract when

magnetic field is applied. Magnetic moment of unpaired electron is due to spin and orbital angular

momentum.

''Spin only'' magnetic moment can be calculated by using formula

- .)
μ= √n(n + 2) Bohr magneton. (n is number of unpaired e

If nis 1μ = 1.73BM

n is 2μ = 2.84BM

n is 3μ = 3.87BM

n is 4μ = 4.90BM

n is 5μ = 5.92BM

Substances that are not attracted by applied magnetic field are diamagnetic. They have all the

electrones paired. d - block element and ions having d ∘ and d 10 configuration are diamagnetic.

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Colour:

Colour in transition metal ions is associted with d - d transition of unpaired electron form t 2g to e g set of

energies.

1062
This is achieved by absorption of light in the visible spectrum, rest of the light is no longer white.

Colourless - Sc 3 + , Ti 4 + , Zn 2 + etc

Coloured - Fe 3 + yellow, Fe 2 + green, Cu 2 + blue, Co 3 + blue etc

1063 d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Interstitial compounds:

When less reactive nonmentals of small atomic size eg. H, B, N, C, Trapped in the interstitial space of

transition metals, interstitial compounds are formed, like:-

TiC, Mn 4N, Fe 3H etc.

 They are nonstoichiometric compounds.

They have high melting point than metals.

They are chemically inert.

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Alloys:

Solid mixture of metals in a definite ratio (15 % differene in metallic radius)

They are hard and having high melting point.

1064
eg. Brass (Cu + Zn)

Bronze (Cu + Sn) etc.

Hg when mix with other metals form semisolid amalgam except Fe, Co, Ni, Li.

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Catalyst:

Transition metals & their compounds act as catalyst deu to-

- Variable oxidation state

- Tendency to form complex

1065

eg. V 2O 5 - Contact process

Fe - Haber process

Ni - Catlytic hydrogenation

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Important reactions of d-block elements:

1066
(a) Cu 2 + + 4I - → Cu 2I 2 ( s ) + I 2

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Important reactions of d-block elements:

(b) CuSO 4 + KCNExcess → K 2SO 4 + Cu(CN) 2Unstable

1067

2Cu(CN) 2 → 2CuCN + (CN) 2Cyanogen

CuCN + 3KCN → K 3 Cu(CN) 4 [ ]

1068 d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Important reactions of d-block elements:
 H 2O - CO 2
(c ) Cu → Most airCuCO 3green. Cu(OH) 2

Aquaregia
Au → ( 3HCI + HNO3 ) H [AuCI 4 ] + NOCI + H 2O
d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Important reactions of d-block elements:

Heat ∈ g 1
(d) AgNO 3 → Ag + NO 2 + O2
1069
2
Heat ∈ g 1
AgCO 3 → Ag + CO 2 + O2
2
d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Important reactions of d-block elements:

100 ∘ C 230 ∘ C 720 ∘ C 1

1070
(e) CuSO 4.5H 2O → CuSO 4. H 2Olight greenish blue → CuSO 4Colourless → CuO + SO 2 + O2
2

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Important reactions of d-block elements:

(f)

1071

d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Important reactions of d-block elements:

FeSO 4 + H 2SO 4
1072
(g) NO 3- / NO 2- → (
Fe H 2O )5NO + Brown ri ng complexSO4
d-BLOCK (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) - Important reactions of d-block elements:

1073
(h) AgBr + 2Na 2S 2O 3 → Na 3 Ag S 2O 3 [ ( )2 ] + NaBrPhotographic complex

METALLURGY

Sl No. Formula/Concept
 METALLURGY - Important reactions of d-block elements:

1074
Branch of process to extract metal from their respective ore

METALLURGY - Ore :

Minerals from which metal can be extracted economically & easily.

1075

METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

1076
Mining: Ore obtain in big lumps (less reactive)

METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

1077
Crushing/grinding/pulverization: big lumps convert into powder (more reaction)

METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

Concentration: To remove matrix/gangue (major impurities) from ore to increase the concenration of ore
1078

particle in ore sample.

1079 METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

Ag, Au , are concentrated by cyanide process.

1080 METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:
 METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

Reduction: To obtains metal (95 % → 98 % ) from metal oxide.

1081

METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

1082
(II) Self reduction ↓ For Cu,Pb,Hg ↓ For sulphide or only

METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

1083
(III) Metal displacement reduction ↓ Metal placed below H.in E.C.S. ↓ Ag,Au,Cu ↓

1084 METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

 (i) Cyano colmplex or Mac-Arther process
O2
Ag 2S + NaCN → Na 2 Ag(CN) 2 + NaSO 4 [ ]
Ag + 2KCN + H 2O → K Ag(CN) 2 [ ]
METALLURGY - Metallurgical process:

(ii) Reduction to free metal

1085

[ ]
2Na Ag(CN) 2 + Zn → Na 2 Zn(CN) 4 + 2Ag [ ] ↓
[ ]
2K Au(CN) 2 + Zn → K 2 Zn(CN) 4 + 2Ag [ ] ↓
METALLURGY - (IV) Electrolytic reduction

1086
↓ For IA, IIA, Al ↓ Electolysis of molten sol. ↓

METALLURGY - (IV) Electrolytic reduction

(i) Extraction of All (Hall-Herault Process)

1087
- AlcanbeextractedomAl_(2)O_(3)- TOdecreasefusiontemp. ofAl_(2)O_(3).Na_(3)AIF_(6)&CaF_(2)is → added-

Na_(3)AIF_(6)&CaF_(2)` (Neutral flux) increase the conductivity & reduce the fusion temp.

METALLURGY - (IV) Electrolytic reduction

(ii) Extraction of Na (Down cell process)

- Na can be extracted from NaCl

1088
( )
-Neutral flux CaCl 2 to be added to decrease the fusion temp. of NaCl

-Neutral flux-substance used to increase the conductivity of NaCl

-decrease the fusion temp. of ionic compounds of (IA, IIA, Al) which is more than the melting point of

metal.

1089 METALLURGY - (IV) Electrolytic reduction

Refining: To obtain metal (99.98 % )

(I) Physical Process

 METALLURGY - (IV) Electrolytic reduction

(II) Chemical Process

1090

1091 METALLURGY - (IV) Electrolytic reduction

(III) Thermal decomposition

 METALLURGY - (IV) Electrolytic refining

underset(Anode-made up of impure metal)(darr)`

Cathode-made up of impure metal

1092

(pure metal deposited)

Impurity deposited below anode as anode mud

METALLURGY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

The graphical representationof Gibbs energy was fisrt used by H. I. T. Ellingham. This provide a sound

1093
basis for considering te choice of reducing agent in the reduction of oxides. This is known as Ellingham

diagram such help us is predicular the feasibility of thermal reduction of an ore.

METALLURGY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

1094
The critesion of feasibility is that at a given temperature.Gibbs energy of reaction must be negative.

METALLURGY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

1095
AT high temperatureCis the best reducing agent

METALLURGY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

1096
At low temperatureCOis the best redusing agent .

1097 METALLURGY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

 In blast furnace reduction takes place at low temperaturei.e.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Sl No. Formula/Concept

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

The order priority of functional groups used in IUPAC nomenculture of organic compounds.

1098

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

1099
Isomerism

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

1100
Type of Iosmerism : (A) Structural isomerism (B) Stereo isomerism

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

(A) Structural isomerism is a form of isomerism in which moleculars with the same molecular formula
1101

have atoms bonded together in different orders.

1102 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

 Types of structural isomerism :

Chain isomerism : This types of isomerism is due to difference in the arrangement of carbon atoms

constituting the chain.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Key points : Parent carbon chain or side chain should be different.

e.g. C 5H 12 : CH_(3) - CH_(2) - CH_(2) - CH_(3)`

1103

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Positional isomerism : It occurs when functional groups or multiple bonds or substituents are in different
1104

position on the same carbon chain.

1105 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Key points : Parent carbon chain or remain same and substituent, multiple bond and functional group

changes its position.

e.g. C 6H 4 CH 3 ( )2
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Functional isomerism : It occurs when compounds have the same molecular formula but different

functional groups.
1106

C 3H 9N : CH 3 - CH 2 - CH 21-propanamine - NH 2 underset("N-methylethanamine")(CH_(3)-CH_(2)-NH-CH_(3)),

underset("N-N-dimethylmethanamine")(CH_(3)-overset(CH_(3))overset(|)((N)-CH_(3))`

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Metamerism : This type of isomerism occurs when the isomers differ with respect to the nature of alkyl

1107
groups around the same polyvalent functional group.

e.g. C 4H 10O : CH 3 - O - CH 2 - CH 2n-propyl methylether - CH 3

CH 3 - CH 2 - O - CH 2diethyl ether - CH 3

1108 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Ring-Chain isomerism : In this type of isomerism, one isomer is open chain but another is cyclic.
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Tautomerism : This type of isomerism is due to spontaneous interconversion of two isomeric forms into
1109

each other with different functional groups in dynamic equilibrium.

1110 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Conditions:

(i) of a

(ii) Presence of at least one α - H atom which is attached to a saturated C- atom.

 e.g. Acetoacetic ester.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Enol content

∝ Acidity of α - H of keto form

1111
∝ Intra molecular H - Bonding in enol form

∝ Resonance in enrol form

∝ Aromatisation in enrol form

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

1112
1. For chain, positional and metamerism, functional group must be same.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

1113
2. Metamerism may also show chain and position isomerism but priority is given to metamerism .

1114 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

 (B) Stereoisomerism : Compounds with the same molecular formula and structural but having difference

in the spatial arrangement of atoms of groups are called stereoisomer and the phenomenon is called

stereoisomerism.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Types of stereoisomerism

Geometrical isomerism : It is due to restricted rotation and is observed in following systems : -

1115

1116 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

Cis-transisomerism : The cis compound is the one with the same groups on the same side of the bond,

and the trans has the same groups on the opposite sides. Both isomers have different physical and

chemical properties.
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Thermodynamics principle of metallurgy

General physical properties of geometrical isomers of but-2-ene

(i) Stability trans gt cis

1117
(ii) Dipole moment cis gt trans

(iii) Boiling point cis gt trans

(iv) Melting point trans gt cis

1118 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

where n = no. of sites where GI is possible.

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Optical isomerism : Compounds having similar molecular and structural formula but differing in the

1119
stereo chemical formula and behaviour towards plane polarised light are called optical isomers and this

phenomenon is called optical isomerism.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Types of optical isomers

(1) Optically active (2) optically inactive

1120

dextrorotatory (d) meso

laevorotatory (l)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1121
Condition : Molecule should be asymmetric or chiral i.e. symmetry element (POS&cos) should be absent.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1122
The carbon atom linked to four different groups is called chiral carbon.

1123 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Fischer projection : An optical isomer can be represented by Fischer projection which is plannar

representation of three dimensional structure.

Fischer projection representation of lactic acid

(2-hydroxypropanoci acid)
3 2 1
C()H 3 - C ∣ OHH - COOH :
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1124
Configuration of optical isomer : ltbr (a) Absolute configuration (R / S system)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1125
(b) Relative configuration (D / L system)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Determination of R / S configuration :
1126

Rule : Assign the priority to the four groups attached to the chiral carbon according to priority rule.

1127 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Rule 2 If lowest priority 4 is bonded to vertical line then moving

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Rule 3 If lowest priority 4 is bonded to horizontal line then moving

1128

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Determination of D / L system :
1129

Reference molecule glyceraldehyde

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1130
It is used to assign configuration in carbohydrate, amino acid and similar compounds

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1131
Rule : Arrange parent carbon chain on the vertical line

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1132
Placed most oxidised carbon on the top or nearest to top.

1133 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

On highest IUPAC numbered chiral carbon

If OH group on RHS → D
 If OH group on LHS → L

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

CIP Sequence rule: The following rules are followed for deciding the precedence order of the atoms ro
1134

groups.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

(i) Highest priority is assigned to the atoms of higher atomic. Number attached to asymmetric carbon
1135

atom.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1136
(ii) In case of isotopes, isotopes having higher atomic mass is given priority.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

(iii) If the first atom of a group attached to asymmetric carbon atom is same then we cansider the atomic
1137

number of 2 nd atom or subsequent atoms in group.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1138
(iv) If there is a double bond or triple bond, both atoms are considered to be duplicated or triplicated.

1139 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

 Non-superimposable mirror images are called enantiomers which rotate the plane polarised light up to

same extent but in opposite direction.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Diastereomers are stereoisomers which are not mirror images of each other. They have different
1140

physical and chemical propteries.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Meso compounds are those compounds whose moleculess are superimposable on their mirror images
1141

inspite of the presence of asymmetric carbon atom.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

An equimolar mixture of the enantiomers (d & l) is called racemic mixture. The process of converting d-
1142

or l- form of an optically active compound into racemic form is called reacemisation.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

The process by which dl mixture is separated into d and l forms with the help of chiral reagents or chiral
1143

catalyst is known as resolution.

1144 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Compound containing chiral carbon may or may not be optically active but show optical isomerism.
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

1145
For optical isomer chiral carbon is not the necessory conditions.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Where n = no.of chiral carbon

1146

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Conformational isomerism : The different arrangement of atoms in space the results from the carbon-

1147
carbon single bond free rotation by 0. - 360 ∘ are called conformations or conformational isomers or

rotational isomers and this phenomenon is called conformation isomerism.

1148 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Newmann projection : Here two carbon atoms forming the σ bond are represented one by circle and

other by centre of the circle. Circle represents rear side C and its centre represents front side carbon.

The C - H bonds of front carbon are depicted from the cetre of the circle while C - H bond of the carbon

are drawn from the circumference of the circle.

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

Conformations of butane:

^ (4)CH 3 - ^(3)CH_(2) - overset(2)CH_(2) - overset(1)CH_(3)`

1149

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

The order of stability of conformations of n-butance. Anti staggered gtGauche gt Partially eclipsed gt
1150

Fully eclipsed.

1151 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Calculation of number of geometrical isomer

 Relative stabiity of various conformation of cyclohexane is Chair gt Twist boat gt half chair

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Electrophiles are electron deficient species.

(
1152

⊕
e.g. H ⊕ , R ⊕ , NO 2⊕ , X ⊕ , PCl 3, PCl 5 ltbgt N H 4 and H 3O ⊕ are not electrophile)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Nucleophiles are electron rich species.

1153

ɵ ɵ ɵ .. ..
eg. ɵ
Cl , CH ɵ
, OH, RO , CN, NH
3 3, RO..H, CH 2 = CH 2, CH ≡ CH

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Relative electron withdrawing order (-I order)

1154 ⊕ ⊕ ⊕
- N F 3 > - R 3 > - N H 3 > - NO 2 - CN > - COOH > - X > - OR >

- OH > - C ≡ CH > - NH 2 > - C 6H 5 > - CH = CH 2

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Relative electron releasing order (+ I order)

1155

ɵ
- NH > - O ɵ > - COO ɵ 3 ∘ alkyl > 2 ∘ alkyl > 1 ∘ alkyl > - CH 3

1156 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Relative stability order:

(A) Stability of carbocation

⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕
(CH3 )3 C > (CH3 )2CH3 C H2 > C H3 > CH2 = C H > CH = ⊕
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(B) Stability of free radical

1157
(Ph) 3C > (Ph) 2CH > PjCH 2 > CJ 2 = CH - CH 2 >

(CH3 )3C > (CH3 )2CH > CH3CH2 > CH3

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(C) Stability of Carbanion

ɵ ɵ ɵ ɵ ɵ
1158 (Ph) 3 > (Pj) 2CH > Pj - CH 2 > CH 2 = CH - CH 2 > CH 3 >

ɵ
CH 3CH 2 > CH 3 ( ) 2CH >
ɵ

( ɵ
CH 3 _ (3)C

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

1
Acidic strength ∝ Stability of conjugate base ∝ K a ∝
1159
pK a

(i) H 2O > CH ≡ CH > NH 3

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

1160
(ii) CH ≡ CH > CH 2 = CH 2 > CH 3 - CH 3

1161 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(iii)
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

1162
(iv) HCOOH > CH 3COOH > CH 3CH 2COOH

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(v)

1163

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

1164
(vi) ℂl 3COOH > CHCl 2COOH > CH 2ClCOOH

1165 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(vii)
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(viii)

1166

1167 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(ix)
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(x)

1168

1169 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(xi) o > p > m benzoic acid

1170 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(xii) o > bezoic acid > m > P

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(xiii) o > m > benzoic acid > p

1171

1172 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

(xiv) o > m > p benzoic acid `

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

1
1173
Basic strength ∝ K b ∝
pK b

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Basic strenght of amine : -

In aqueous medium

R ⇒ CH 3 2 ∘ > 1 ∘ > 3 ∘ NH 3

1174
R ⇒ CH 2CH 3 2 ∘ > 3 ∘ > 1 ∘ NH 3

Ir gaseous medium

R ⇒ - CH 3 3 ∘ > 2 ∘ > 1 ∘ NH 3

R ⇒ - CH 2CH 3 3 ∘ > 2 ∘ 1 ∘ > NH 3

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Reactivity towards nucleophile (NAR)

1175

(1)HCHO > CH 3CHO > CH 3 ( ) 2CO

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

1176
(2) CCl_(2) CHO gt CHCl_(2) CHO gt CH_(2) ClCHO`

1177 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

 Reactivity order towards acyl nucleophilic substitution reaction

Acid chloride gt anhyride gt ester gt amide

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Order of electronic effect

1178

Mesomeric gt Hyperconjugation gt Inductive effect

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

Stability of alkene of ∝ no. of α- hydrogen

1179
R 2C = CR 2 > R 2C = CHR > R 2C = CH 2 > RCH = CHRtran or m > RCH = CHRcisf or m

RCH = CH_(2) gt CH_(2) = CH_(2)`

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Reaction mechanism

1
1180
Heat of hydrogen ∝
Stability of alkene

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkane

Reactivity of alkane towards free redical halogenation is ∝ stability of free radical

1181

CH 6H 5 - CH 3 > CH 2 = CH - CH 3 > CH 3 ( )3CH > CH3 - CH2 - CH3 > CH3CH3 > CH4
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkane

1182
Reactivity of halogen towards free radical substitution

F 2 > Cl 2Br 2 > I 2

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkane

Knocking tendency of petroleum as fuel decrease with in increase in side chain.

Straight chain gt Branched chain

1183

Knocking tendency is in order

Olefin gt cycloalkance gt aromatic

1184 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkane

 Boiling point decrease with increase in number of side chain

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkane

Order of reactivity of olefins for hydrogenation

1185

CH 2CH 2 > R - cH = CH 2 (Reverse of stability)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkane

1186
Order of reactivity of alkene towards hydration

CH 3 - C ∣ CH 3 = CH 2 > CH 3 - CH = CH 2 > CH 2 = CH 2

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkyl halide

Order of reactivity of alkyl halide towards

S N 1 ∝ Benzylic gt Allylic > 3 ∘ > 2 ∘ > 1 ∘

1187

S N 1 ∝ Stability of carbonation

1
SN2 ∝
Steric hindrane
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkyl halide

1188 Reactivity order towards S N 1 or S N 2 and E 1 or E 2

R - I > R - Br > R - Cl > R - F

1189 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alkyl halide
 With increase in number of strong electron withdrawing group at ortho and para position, reactivity of X

towards aromatic nuclephilic substitution increases.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alcohal

1190
Solubility of alcohol increase with increase in branching n < iso < ≠ o (isomeric)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Alcohal

Relative order of reactivity

(i) 1 ∘ > 2 ∘ > 3 ∘ (O - H bond fission)

1191

(ii) 3 ∘ > 2 ∘ > 1 ∘ (C - O bond fission)

(iii) 3 ∘ > 2 ∘ 1 ∘ (Dehydration)

1192 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Distillation Techiques:
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Lassaigne's method (detection of elements)

1193

1194 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Ouantitative analysis or orgainc compounds :

Estimation of carbon and hydrogen - Leebig's method

C xH y + O 2excess ⇒ xCO 2 + (y / 2)H 2O

 12 wt. ofCO 2
% of C = × × 100
44 wt. of organic compound
2 wt. ofH 2O
% of H = × × 100
18 wt. of organic compound

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Note : This method is suitable for estimation if organic compound contains C and H only. In case if these

elements e.g., N, S, halogens are also present the organic compound will also give their oxides which is
1195

being absorbed in KOH and will increase the percentage of carbon and therefore following modification

should be made.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Estimation of nitrogen

Duma's method : In this method a nitrogen containing compound is strongly heated with CuO in the
1196

atmosphere of CO 2 to get free nitrogen along with CO 2 and water

28 )
% of N = × (vol. ofN_(2)col ≤ ctedatN.T.P. × 100
22400 wt. of organic compound

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1197
Note : This method can be used to estimate nitrogen in all types of organic compounds

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Kjeldal's method : In this method nitrogen containing compound is heated will conc. H 2SO 4 in presence

of copper sulphate to convert nitrogen into ammonium sulphate which is decomposed with excess of
1198

alkali to liberate ammonia. The ammonia evolved is

% of N = (14. × "vol. of acid used in ml × normality of acid ")/("wt. of organic compound")`

1199 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Note : This method is simpler and more convenient and is mainly used for finding out the precentage of

nitrogen in food stuffs, soil, fertilizers and various agricultural products. This method cannot be used for
 compound having nitro groups, azo group ( - N = N - ) and nitrogen in the ring (pyridine, quinole etc).

since nitrogen in these compounds is not quantitatively converted in to ammonuim sulphate.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

DISTINCTION BETWEEN PAIRS OF COMPOUNDS

Unsaturation test
1200

(a) Double/Triple bondedcompounds+ underset(colour)(Br_(2) ∈ CCl_(4)) rarrColour ≤ sscompound(C =

C)//(C -= N)`

1201 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1202

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1203
(b) Double//Triple bondedcompounds + Baeyer's reagentPink color → Brow precipittate

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1204

1205 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 R - C ≡ C - R + (Hot, dilute) KMnO 4 →

MnO 2Brown ppt. + RCOOH + RCOOH

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

R - C ≡ C - H + (Hot, dilute)KMnO 4 solution having pink colour.

1206

Note : The above test are not given by Benzene. Although it has unsaturation.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Test for terminal alkyne

1207

1208 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Nature of X-group in C - X bond

1209
R - X + aqueous KOH → R - OH + KXunderset(HNO.)overset(AgNO,)rarr underset("Precipitate")AgXIfX

isCl, ≺ iπtatewillbewhite and f or Br` yellow precipitate will be obtained.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Distinction between 1 ∘ , 2 ∘ and 3 ∘ alcohols

1210
R R
∣ Lucas reagent ∣
R - C ∣ RTertiary alcohol - OH → Room temperatureR - C ∣ R - ClCloudiness appears immediately
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

R R
1211
∣ Lucas reagent ∣
R - CH - OHsecondary alcohol → Room temperatureR - CH - ClCloudines appears within five minutes
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Lucas reagent is anhydrous ZnCl 2 + cone. HCl

1212

Lucas reagent
R - CH 2 - OHPrimary alcohol → Heat R - CH 2 - ClCloudines appears after 30 minute

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

OH
∣
H 3C - C H - R type of alcohols give iodo form test
1213

OH
∣ NaOH
H 3C - C H - R + I 2 → Iodoform testCHI 3Iodoform(Yellos ppt.) + RCOONa

1214 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 Phenol

Pheno `+ "ferric" underset("neutral")("chloride") rarr violet colouration

1215 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Carbonyl group

Carbonyl compound + 2,4 Dinitrophenylhydrazine

(Bredy's reagent) → Yellow / orange crystal

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

(All aldehydes and only aliphatic methyl ketones) + NaHSO 4 → white crystaline bisulphite

1216

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Aldehydes group

1217 Aldehyde + Tollesn's reagent → silver mirror

O

[ ( )2 ] + → RCOO Θ + 2H2O + 4NH3 + 2Ag ↓ (Silver mirror)

∣∣
r - C - H + 3OH Θ + 2 Ag NH 3

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Aldehyde + Fehling'solution → Redish brown precipated

1218
O
∣∣
R - C - H + 2Cu 2 + + 5OH - → RCOO Θ + 3H 2O + Cu 2O(Reddish brown ppt)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

O
∣∣
H 3O - C - group also give idoform test
1219

O
∣∣ Iodoform test
H 3O - C - R + I 2 + NaOH → CHI 3Iodoform (Yellow ppt.) + RCOONa

1220 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 Aromatic aldehyde group

Aromatic aldehyde + Tollen's reagent → silver mirror

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Aromatic aldehyde + Felling's solution → Negative test

1221

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Carboxylic group

1222

Carboxylic acid + sodium bicarbonate → effervescence

RCOOH + NaCHO 3 → RCOONa + H 2O + CO 2 ↑

1223 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Formic acid
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1224
Anines 1 ∘ ( )
Primary `+ KOH + CHCl_(3) overset("Carbylamine reaction")rarr underset("Offensive smell")"Isonitrile"

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1225
( )
Anines 1 ∘ , 2 ∘ &3 ∘ (Hinsberg's test)

Primary amine + Bchlorideenze ≠ sp̲honylrarrunderset(overset(KOH)rarr "soluble")`Precipitate

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

KOH
1226
Secondary amine + underset("chloride")Benze ≠ sp̲honylrarr → insolublePrecipitate

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Tertiary amine + Benzenesulphoryl chloride → No reaction

1227

Note. Benzensuplhony is called Hinsberg's reagent.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1. Chloroethane and chlorobenzene

1228

Boll HNO ,
C 2CH 5 - Cl + aqueousKOH → C 2H 5 - OH + KCl → AgNO , AgClWhiteppt .

1229 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1230 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

2. Chrocyclohexane and chlorobenzene

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1231

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

3. Chloroethane and bromoethane

1232

Boil HNO ,
C 2H 5 - ClChloroentane + aqueousKOH → C 2H 5 - OHKCl → AgNO , AgClWhite ppt.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1233
Boil HNO
C 2H 5 - BrBromoethane + aqueousKOH C 2H 5 - OH + KBr → AgNOAgBrYellow ppt.

1234 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 4. Benzyl chloride and chlorbenzene

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1235

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

5. Ethy chloride and vinyl chloride

1236

Boil HNO
C 2H 5 - ClEthyl chloride + aqueousKOH C 2H 5 - OH + KCl → AgNOAWhite ppt.gCl

1237 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 Boil
H 2CVinyl chloride = CH - Cl + aq. KOH → HNO , AgNO No reaction

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

6. n-propyle alcohol and iso-propyl alcohol

ZnCl 2
1238
CH 3CH 2CH 2OH + HCl → CH 2CH 2CH 2Cl

NO cloudiness at room temp.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Cloudiness within 5 minutes

OH Cl
1239 ∣ ZnCl_(2))underset(HCl ∣
H 3C - C H - CH 3 → H 3C - CH - CH 3

Cloudiness within 5minutes

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1240
7. Ethyl alcohol and methyl alcohol (Iodofrom test)

CH 3CH 2OH + 4I 2 _ 6NaOH → ChI 2Yellow ppt. + HCOONa

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1241
CH 3OH + 4I 2 + 6NaOH → No yellow ppt.

1242 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

8. Ethyl alcohol and acetone (2,4, - DNP)

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

2 , 4 - DNP
1243
C 2H 5OH → No reaction

1244 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

9. Phenol and ethyl alcohol (Neutral FeCl 3 )

Phenol + Netural ferric chloride → Violet colouration
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1245
CH 3CH 2OH + Neutral ferric chloride → NO violet colouration

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

10. Benzoic acid and phenol NaHCO 3 ( )

1246

Benzoic acid + Sodium bicarbonate → effervescence

C 6H 5COOH + NaCHO 3 → C 6H 5COONa + CO 2 ↑ + H 2O

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Phenol + sodium bircarbonate → No effervescence

1247

(Phenol is less acidic than benzoic acid)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

11. propanone and propanol (2, 4 - DNP)

1248

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1249
Propanol + 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine → No crystals

1250 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 12. Propanal and propanone (Tollen's and Fehling reagent

Propanal + Tollen's reagent → silver mirror

O

[ ( )2 ] + →
∣∣
H 3C - CH 2 - C H + 3OH - + 2 Ag NH 3

CH 3CH 2COO - + 2H 2O + 4NH 3 + 2Ag ↓ ( Silver mirror )

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Propanal + Fehling's solution → Reddish brown precipitate

1251
O
∣∣
H 3C - CH 2 - C H + 2Cu 2 + + 5OH → CH 3CH 2COO + 3H 2O + Cu 2O ( Reddishbrownppt . )

1252 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

13. Ethanal and propanal (Iodoform test)

1253
O
∣∣ Idoform test
H 3C - CEthanol - H + I 2 + NaOH → ( )
)Iodoform (yellowppt . CHI 3 + HCOONa

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

O
1254 ∣∣ Iodoform test
H 3C - CH 2Propanal - C - H + I 2 + NaOH → No yellow ppt

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

14. Pentan - 2 - one and pentan - 3- one (Iodoform test)

1255
O
∣∣ Iodoform test
H 3C - CH 2 - CH 2 - CPropanal - CH 3 + I 2 + NaOH → CHI 3Iodoform yellow ppt. + CH 3CH 2CH 2COONa

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

O
1256 ∣∣ Iodoform test
H 3C - CH 2 - CPentane 3-one - CH 2 - CH 3 + I 2 + NaOH → Noyellowppt.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

15. propanal and benzaldehyde (Fehling solution)

1257
O
∣∣
H 3C - CH 2 - C - H + 2Cu 2 + + 5OH - Fehling's solution → CH 3CH 2COO - + 3H 2O + CU 2O

1258 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 Benzaldehyde + Fehling's solution → No precipitate

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

16. Methanoic acid and ethanoic acid `(Tollen's Fehling solution)

1259
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1260

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

17. Ethanal and methanal (Iodoform test)

1261

Iodoform test
CH 3CHO + I 2 + NaOH → CHI 3 + HCOONaIodoform 〈 Yellowppt . ) Ethanal

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

Iodoform test
1262
+ MethanalI 2NaOH → No yellow ppt.

1263 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 18. Acetophenone and benzophenone (Iodoform test)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1264

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

19. Benzoic acid and ethylbenzoate NaHCO 3 ( )

1265

Benzoic acid + Sodium bicarbonate → effervesence

C 6H 5COOH + NaHCO 3 → C 6H 5COONa + CO 2 + H 2O

1266 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 Ethyl benzoate + Sodium bicarbonate → NO effervesccence

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

20. Benzaldehyde and acetophenone (Tollen's test)

Bezaldehyde + Tollen's reagent → silver mirror

1267

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1268
Acetophenone + Tollen's reagent → No silver mirror

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1269
21. Methyl amine and dimethyl amine (Isocyanide test)

CH 3NH 2Methyl amine + CHCl 3 + 3KOHalc. → CH 3NC + 3KCl + 3H 2OMethyl isocyanide ( Offensive smell )

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

CH 3
1270
∣
H 3C - NH Di-methyl amine + CHCl 3 + 3KOH(alc. ) → No offensive smell

1271 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

22. Aniline and ethyl amine (Diazotisation)

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1272

1273 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

23. Aniline and N-methylaniline (Isocyanide test)

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1274

1275 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

24. Aniline and Benzylamine (Diazotistion + phenol)

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1276

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

25. Glucose and fructose

1277

Glucose+ Br 2 + H 2OBrown colour → Gluconic acit+ 2HBrColourless)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1278
Fructose + Br 2 + H 2OBrown colour → Brown colur (no change in colour)

1279 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

 26. Glucose and sucrose

Glucose + Tollen,s reagent → Silver mirror

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1280
Sucrose + Tollen's reagent → No silver mirror

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

27. Glucose and starch

1281

Glucose + Felling's solution → Red ppt.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1282
Starch + Felling's solution → No red ppt.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1283
Glucose + I 2 solution → No blue colour

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PURIFICATION METHODS

1284
Starch + I 2 solutionk → Blue colour

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ALKANES

1285

1286 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ALKANES

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ALKYNES

1287

1288 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ALKYL HALIDIES

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ALCOHOL

1289
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ETHER

1290

1291 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - PHENOL

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBONYL

1292

1293 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ALIPHATIC AMINES

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ANILINE

1294

1295 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Comparison of S N1 and S N2

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Comparison of E 1 and E 2

1296

1297 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Summary of S N1, S N2, E 1, and E 2 reaction

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1298
1. Alcoholic KOH R - X → Alkene : Elimination

1299 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

2. Aluminium Ethoxide

RCH = O → R - C ∣ ∣ O - O - CH 2R

Aldehyde → Ester (Tischenko Reaction)

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

3. Aqueous KOH / NaOH

1300

)
(Alkanline cold dilute KMnO 4 alkene → 1,2 diol (used to detect unsaturation)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

5. Bromine (i) used to detect unsaturation,

(ii)

1301

(iii)
1302 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

6. Benedict's solution used to detect aldehyde group RCHO - > RCO 2- [ketone gives - ve test]

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1303
7. Cu 2Cl 2 + nH 4OH ( Fehling solution ) Used to Detect Terminal Alkyne Red precipitate observed

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

8. CrO 2Cl 2

1304

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

9. CrO 3 (i) RCH 2OH → RCHO

1305
(ii) R 2CHOH → R 2C = O

R 3COH → no reaction

1306 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

ˉ
10. ℂl 4 + OH

(Reimer Tiemann)
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

11. CO + HCl + AlCl 3

1307

1308 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

12. HCN + HCI + AlCl 3

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

13. CHCl 3 + KOH

(i)

1309

(ii) RNH 2 - > RNC (Carbyl amine reaction) (used to detect 1 ∘ Amine) (Isocyanide test)

1310 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

14. CO 2 + OH - high.temp. + pressure ltbr gt

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

15. Cu / Δ (i) RCH 2OH → RCHO

(ii) R 2CHOH → R 2C = O

(iii)

1311

1312 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

16. 2, 4 - D. N. P.

used to detect carbonyl group

(orange ppt observed)

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1313
17. DMSO Polar aprotic solvent: favour S N2 mechanism

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

18. Fe + Br 2 / FeBr 3

1314

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

19. Fehling solution used to identify - CH = O group PhCHO gives - ve test Observation: red ppt. of Cu 2O
1315

formed

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

20. Grignard Reagent Follow (i) Acid base reaction (ii) NAR
1316

(iii) NSR

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1317
(
21. H 2 Pd / CaCO 3 Lindlar catalyst )
Quinoline R - C ≡ R → R - CH = CH - R (cis)

1318 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS
 22. H 3PO 2

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1319
23. HN 3 + H 2SO 4

R - C ∣ ∣ O - OH → RNH 2(Schmidt Reaction)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1320
24. H 3PO 4 / Δ H 3PO 4 ⇒ same as H 2SO 4 / Δ

1321 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS
 25. H 3SO 4 / Δ

RCH ∣ OH - CH 3 → RCH = CH 2

Saytzeff product , C + mechanism,

Rearranged alkene can be formed

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

( )
26. HNO 2 NaNO 2 + HCl (i) RNH_(2) rarr R - OH, (ii)PjNH_(2) rarr PhN_(2)^(+) (0 - 5^(@))(iii)

PhNH_(2)^(2) rarr PhO^(4)H` (high temperature

1322

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

27. HIO 4 (Periodic acid) underset("Oxidative cleavage of diol")(underset(OH)underset(|)(RCH)-

1323

underset(OH)underset(|)(CH)-R'toRCH=O+R'CH=0)

1324 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

28. H 2(Ni) H 2(Ni) can reduce `

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1325
(
29 H 2 Pd / BaSO 4 )Quinline ltntgt R - C ∣ ∣ O - C < oRCH = O(Rosenmund reduction )
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1326
( )
30. Jones Reagent CrO 3 + dil.H 2SO 4 + acetone (i)RCH_(2) OH rarr RCH - O, (ii)R_(2) CHOH rarr R_(2)

C = O`

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

31. KSHO 4 Dehydrating Reagent

1327

Dehydrating Reagent

CH 2 ∣ OH - CH ∣ OH - CH 2 - OH → CH 2 = CH - CH = O

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

32. K 2Cr 2O 7 / H +

1328
(i) RCH 2OH → RCO 2H,

(ii) R 2CHOH → R 2C = O

1329 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

33. MnO 2 (i) CH 3 - CH = CH - CH 2 - OH → CH 3 - CH = CH - CH = O

(ii) PjCH 2OH → PjCH = O

 To oxidise allyic / benzylic hydroxyl group into corresponding carbonyl.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

↑
14
1330 NaH CO 3 14
34. NaHCO 3 RCO 2H → RCO 2- Na + + CO 2

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

35. NaHSO 4

1331

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

36. NaOH(aq) (i) R - X → R - OH

NaOH
(ii) R - C ∣ ∣ O - OR′ → (H_(2)O)R - C ∣ ∣ O - O - + R′ OH

1332
Basic hydrolysis of ester

OH -
HCO H CO 2 + (cannizaro)

OH -
H 3C - CH = O → 4H 3C - CH = CH - CH = O

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1333
37. Ninhydrin Detection of amino acid Observation : Purple coloured ion

1334 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS
 38. NaOR strong :

(i) RCH - CH 2 - R → RCH = CH - R ∣ X(Saytzeff Product, E_(2)elimination)

(ii) H 3C - C ∣ ∣ O - OeoH 3C - C ∣ ∣ O - CH 2 - C ∣ ∣ O - OEt ( βketo easter ) (Claisen condensation)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

39. NaOH + X 2
1335
2
(i)RC ∣ ∣ O - CH 3 → - CHI 3RCO (Haloform reaction),
2

(ii)R - C ∣ ∣ O - NH 2 → RNH 2(Hofmann Degradation)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1336
40. NaOH + CaO RCO 2 → RH

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1337
41. NaOX Same as NaOH + X 2

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

42. NBS

(i)

1338

(ii) PhCH 2 → PhCH 2 - Br

 1339 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

43. NaNO 2 + HCl RNH 2 → R - OH

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

44. NaNH 2 in paraffin Non-terminal Alkyne → Terminal Alkyne

1340

(2-Butyne → 1-butyne)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1341
45. Na / EtOH reduce all except c / c double & triple bond

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1342
46. Zn(Hg) + HCl → R - C ∣ ∣ O - R → R - CH 2 - RClemmensen's reduction

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1343
47. NH 2 - NH 2 / OH - R - CO - R → R - CH 2 - R Wolf kisher

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

48. Nain LiqNH 3

1344

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1345
49. OsO 4 + H 2O → RCH = CHR → RCH ∣ OH - CH ∣ OH - R(syn addition)

1346 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS
 O3
50. O 3, R - CH = CH - RH ∅ n → R - CHO + R - CHO(Ozonolysis process)
Z

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1347
51. Oxirane followed by H + RMgX → RCH 20 - CH
2 - OH

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

52. Pℂ (i) RCH 2OH → RCHO

1348
(ii) R 2CHOH → R 2C = O

R 3COH → no reaction (Mild oxidizing reagent)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

53. P(red) + Br 2 (i) CH 3CO 2H → H 2C ∣ Br - CO 2H(HVZ reaction)

1349

(ii) ROH → R - Br

1350 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

54. P(red) + HI (strong reducing agent can reduce any oxygen or halogen containing compound to

alknane)

CH 3CO 2H → CH 3 - CH 3
 CH 3CH = O → CH 3 - CH 3

CH_(3) CH_(2) OH rarr CH_(3) - CH_(3)`

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

55. Perbenzoic acid

R - C ∣ ∣ O - R′ → R - C ∣ ∣ O - OR′
1351

R′ having more migrating tendency than R

(Baeyer Villager Oxidation)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

56. RCl + AlCl 3

1352

1353 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

57. RCOCl + AlCl 3

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1354 58. Ester formed (Esterification reaction)

ROH + R - C ∣ ∣ O - OH
1355 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

59. SnCl 2 + HCl

(i) R - N = N - R′ → RNH 2 + R′ NH 2
 (iii) RCN → RCH - O Stephen reduction

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

60. Sn + HCl

1356

(ii) RCN → R - CH 2NH 2

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

61. Silver salt RCOOAg Br 2 / ℂl 4 / Δ → BBr + CO 2 + AgBr

1357

Hunsdiecker reaction

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

+ +
62. (i) AgOH / moistAg 2O R 4 Xˉ → R 4NOH:
ˉ
1358

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1359
63. SOCl 2 , R - C ∣ ∣ O - OH / R - OH → R - C ∣ ∣ O - Cl / R - Cl

1360 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS
 64. Tollens Reagent - CH = O → - CO 2- + Ag(Shining silver mirror)

(i) α-hydroxy ketons, Ph - NH - OH, HCO 2H gives positive test

(ii) Reagent also used to distinguish

H
∣
(i) - C = O Vs - C ∣ ∣ O - R

(ii) HCOOH Vs other acid

(iii) ketone gives -ve test:

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

65. Benzene sulphonyl chloride (Hinsberg reagent)

1361

It is used to distinguish and separate 1 ∘ , 2 ∘ , and 3 ∘ amines.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

1362
66.Tetra ethyl lead Used as antiknock compound

1363 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Nutshell Review and Preview of #br# ORGANIC REAGENTS

67. V 2O 5

(i)
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Aldol Condensation

1364

1365 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Clasen Condensation
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Perkin Condensation

1366

1367 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Benzoin Condensation
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Haloform Reaction
1368
OH O O
∣ NaOI ∣∣ NaOH ∣∣
H 3C - C H - 1
R →H R1 ˉ
+ R 1 - C - ONa ⊕
3C - C - → l 2CH 3I

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Carbylamine Test

1369

1370 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS
 Reimer Tiemman Reaction

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Kolbe's Schimdt Reaction

1371

1372 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Hoffmann Bromamide Degradation

O
∣∣ Br 2
R - C - NH 2 → KOHR - NH 2 + K 2CO 3
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Curtius Reaction
1373
O
∣∣ NaN 3
R - C - Cl → Δ 1H 3OR - NH 3

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Sachimdt Reaction
1374
O
∣∣ HN 3 H 3O ⊕
R- C -H→ H 2SO 4R - N = C = O → R - NH 2

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Cannizzaro reaction

1375

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Bayer villiger oxidation

1376

1377 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS
 Cumene

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Pinacol-Pincolone rearrangement

1378

1379 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Birch Reduction
1380 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - NUTSHELL REVIEW & PREVIEW OF #br# ORGANIC NAME REACTIONS

Gabriel synthesis
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CONDENSATION POLYMERS

1381

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Carbodydrates are defined as optically active polydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compound which
1382

produce such units on hydrolysis.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

1383
( )
Monosaccharide C nH 2nO n , single unit, can't be hydrolysed

Glucose and fructose.

1384 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

 Oligosaccharides gives two to ten monosaccharides on hydrolysis.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Disaccharides (by glycosydic linkage)

H 3O +
Sucrose → αD. Glucose + β - D. Fructose.
1385

H 3O +
Maltose → 2α - D. Glucose unit.

H 3O +
Lactose → β - D. Galactose

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

1386
(
Polysaccharide : contain more than ten monosaccharide units C 6H 10O 5 )n: Starch & cellulose.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

1387

1388 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Mutarotation: When either form of D-glucose is placed in aq. Solution it slowly form the other via open

chain aldehyde and gradual change in specific rotation unitl specific rotation ( ± 52.5 ) is reached
∘
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Anomer's : Differ in configuration at 1st carbon due to hemi (acetal or ketal) ring formation. The new-
1389

asymmetric carbon is referred to as Anomeric carbon

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Epimer's : Diastereomer's which differ in conformation at anyone chiral carbon

1390
eg D-glucose & D-monnose

D-Glucose & D-Galactose

1391 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Sucrose:
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Maltose :

1392

1393 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Lactose :
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

1394
Starch : (Amylose & Amylopectin)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

Amylose : (Straight chain) :

(i) Soluble in H 2O & gives blue colour with I 2

1395

1396 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

 Amylopectine (Branch chain) : C 6H 12O 5( )n

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - CARBOHYDRATES

1397

1398 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ADDITION POLYMERS

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - ADDITION POLYMERS

1399

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