LECTURE NOTES ON = MICROWAVE ENGINEERING- 2018 — 2019 IV B. Tech I Semester (SNTUA-R15) Mr.V.Mahesh, Assistant Professor 4 HADALAWADA RAMANAMMA ENGINEERING COLLEGE — {AUTONOMOUS} — : Chadalawada Nager, Renigunta Road, Tirupati ~ 517 506- “Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering =NIT I -— MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES —_ INTRODUCTION -— Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from | mm to 1 mzor— frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. ~— ‘= increasing Frequency (3 — olf mf eae wien to WP? - Increasing Wavelength 0-7 ‘Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as "microwave" when the wavelengii of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the equipment, so that lumped=etement circuit theory is inaccurate, As a consequence, practical microwave technique tendsto meve= away fiom the discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used with lower frequency raga waves, Instead, distributed circuit elements and transmission-line theory are More use methods for design, analysis. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines give way to Waveguides and lumped-element tuned circuits are replaced by cavity resonators or resonant lines. Etecisor— reflection, polarization, scattering, diffraction, and atmospheric absorption usually” ass0 with visible light are of practical significance in the study of microwave propagation. The Same equations of electromagnetic theory apply at all frequencies. = While the name may suggest a micrometer wavelength, it is better understood as indicating wavelengths very much smaller than those used in radio broadcasting, The boundaries hetwweem— far infrared light, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio.svaves af fainly arbitrary and are used variously between diferent fields of study. The term-sserow Electromagnetic waves longer (lower frequency) than microwaves are called "radiowave—— Electromagnetic radiation with shorter wavelengths may be called "millimeter waves", TerahertzFadiation oF even 110 GHz to 300 GHz. MICROWAVE FREQUENCY BANDS ‘The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from -—— approximately | GHz to 1000 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower frequencies: Most common applications are within the | to 40 GHz range. Microwave frequency bands, defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in the table below: Micron frequency bands Designation Frequency LbandS range band C band | to.2 GHz : 2104 GHz Xband Ku 4198 GHz band K 8 to 12 GHz band Ka 1210 18 GHz band 18t026.SGHz 26.510 40GHz Discovery ‘The existence of electromagnetic waves, of which microwaves are part of the frequesicy- spectrum, was predicted by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864 from his equations. In 1888_Hei Hertz was the first to demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic waves by buildi apparatus that produced and detected microwaves in the UHF region. The design-neeessaaly-— used horse-and-buggy materials, including a horse trough, a wrought iron point spark-beyder jars, and a length of zine gutter whose parabolic cross-section worked as a reflection-amteni 1894 J. C. Bose publicly demonstrated radio control of a bell using millimetre wavekengths; and conducted research into the propagation of microwaves. Plot of the zenith atmospheric transmission on the summit of Mauna Kea throughodC The eit gigahertz range of the electromagnetic spectrum at a precipitable water vapor level of 7,001 ina (Simulated) Frequency range The microwave range includes ultra-high frequency (UHF) (0.3-3 GHz), super high frequency— (SHF) (3-30 GH), and extremely high frequency (EHF) (30-300 GHz) signals. Above 300 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic that it is effectively opaqu infrared and optical window frequency ranges.Microwave Sources — Vacuum tube based devices operate on the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under THE influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron klysteam travelling wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. These devices work in the density modulated- made. rather than the current modulated mode. This means that they work on the basis of clumps-of— electrons flying ballistically through them, rather then using a continuous stream. -—— ~— Solid-state sources include the field-effect transistor, at least at lower frequencies, tuimet diodes and Gunn diodes TS ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVES Communication -— + Before the advent of fiber optic transmission, most long distance telephoné Calls Were carried via microwave point-to-point links through sites like the AT&T Cong Lines— Starting in the early 1950's, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to. $,40¢— telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio-chanwislz=— combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away. -—— + Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specificatioiS, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band_and_U-Stt— frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km} Wirelés Internet Access services can be found in many countries (but not the USA) in-the 3.546 Giz range = * Metropolitan Area Networks: MAN protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) based in the IEEE 802.16 specification,..The— IEEE 802.16 specification was designed to operate between 2 to 1] -GHe. ~The commercial implementations are in the 2.3GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHztanges— + Wide Area Mobile Broadband Wireless Access: MBWA protocols based on Standards— specifications such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (e.g. iBurst) are designed to operate between 1.6 and 23 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but with + Cable TV and Internet access on coaxial cable as well as broadcast television use somect— the lower microwave frequencies. Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, also-use tire lower microwave frequencies _—_ Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissioiS Because due to their short wavelength, highly directive antennas are smaller and therefore iiere— practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies), There is alsomore a Eo spectrum, me a Test abi radio spi il usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used “— above 300 MHz, Typically, mi 7 from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van rowaves are used in television news to transmit si Remote Sensing » Radar uses microwave radiation to detect the range, speed, and other characteris remote objects. Development of radar was accelerated during World War Il dueoits great military utility. Now radar is widely used for applications such as air traffie— control, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement + A Gunn diode oscillator and waveguide are used as a motion detector for automatic door— openers (although these are being replaced by ultrasonic devices) _—_ + Most radio astronomy uses microwaves, -— Microwave imaging; see Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine Navigation ig (GPS) and the Russian (GLONASS) broadcast navigational signals in various bands between —— about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz. -— Power + A microwave oven passes (non-ionizing) microwave radiation (at a frequen GHz) through food, causing dielectric heating by absorption of ener; and sugar contained in the food. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances iz Western countries in the late 1970s, following development of inexpensive-cadij— magnetrons. — + Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for drying and curing producis * Many semiconductor processing techniques use microwaves to generate plasmatar. purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor-deposi (PECVD). = ® Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War #— research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 19805 to research the possibilities of using Solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large si arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves. -—— skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away_A 1500 second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130.F (54.77currently using this type of Active Denial System [2] APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE ENGINEERING * Antenna gain is proportional to the electrical size of the antenna. At higher fiequen more antenna gain is therefore possible for a given physical antenna size; which important consequences for implementing miniaturized microwave systems. * More bandwidth can be realized at hi depleted -— * Microwave signals travel by line of sight are not bent by the ionosphere as-are lower frequency signals and thus satellite and terrestrial communication links with very Hig&— capacities are possible = * Effective reflection area (radar cross section) of a radar target is proportional-to ihe target’s electrical size. Thus generally microwave frequencies are preferred-for radar systems, © Various molecular, atomic, and nuclear resonances occur at microwave frequencies— creating a variety of unique applications in the areas of basic science, remote sensing. medical diagnostics and treatment, and heating methods. — * Today, the majority of applications of microwaves are related to “radar” ami communication systems. Radar systems are used for detecting and locating ‘argets and— for air traffic control systems, missile tracking radars, automobile collision avoidance. systems, weather prediction, motion detectors, and a wide variety of remote_sen: systems, * Microwave communication systems handle @ large fraction of the world’s intéfaatTOral — and other long haul telephone, data and television transmissions —_ * Most of the currently developing wireless telecommunications systems, suchas digi broadcast satellite (DBS) television, personal communication systems (PCSs}-wires=— local area networks (WLANS), cellular video (CV) systems, and global positioning (GPS) systems rely heavily on microwave technology. WAVEGUIDE : -—— ‘The transmission line can’t propagate high range of frequencies in GHz due to skin-effe—— Waveguides are generally used to propagate microwave signal and they always operate beyand— certain frequency that is called “cu off frequency”. so they behaves as high pass filtef” Types of waveguideQ)eylindrical waveguide (3)elliptical waveguide ()parallel waveguide RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE : IONE \ IHNEN Let us assume that the wave is travelling along z-axis and field variation along z-directio equal to e-Yz, where z=direction of propagation and Y= propagation constant Assume the waveguide is lossless (a=0) and walls are perfect conductor (0-0). According to. maxwell’s equation _—_ Expanding equation (1), —_ Ax Ay Az — 0/dx Ajay /dz|- Ju € [ExAx + EyAy + EzAz] Hx Hy HzBy one eee 2 2 fhe -ZHy a ai +2 Hx =Iw € By 2 Hy -2 Hx = Io € Ez- Ys, As the wave is travelling alor z-direction and variation is along -Yz direction Haag (= —Yywe will g From equation sets of (3) we will getSo either C1=0 or C3=0 otherwise C1C3=0 AT x=0 AND y=b | irequation ()) for y CUT-OFF FREQUENCY : Itis the minimum frequency after which propagation occurs inside the waveguide As we know that => Kx2 +ky“2+k2™2=k"2 Asweknow that = 2 So we will get that : => Kx“2 +ky* FAt foTe or w=we ,at cut off trequency propagation 1s about to start. Sowhere m=n=0,1,2,3, CUT - GFF WAVELENGTH: Thisis given by ‘DOMINANT MODE The mode having lowest cut-off frequency or highest cut-off wavelength is called DO! MODE The mode can be TM01,TM10,TM11,But for TM10 and TMO1 wave can’t exist. __ Hence TMI has lowest cut-off frequency and is the DOMINANT MODE in case of LIM modes only PHASE CONSTANT : As we know that This condition satisfies that onlyPHASE VELGCITY : Itis given by Vp= GUIDE WAVELENGTH : Itis given by Ag =VV(f? we — fe?pe) =/(A— fe*/f2) wu uw SOLUTIONS OF TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC MODE : Here Ez=0 and Hz40 Hz-(Blcos xx)(_B3cos *B4sin yy) — B1,B2,B3,B4KX,KY are found from boundary conditions, At x=0 and y-0— lou y [B1 + kx + (sin kxx) + B2 + kx « cosk xx)( B3 cos kyy +B Atx=0, / =0 0=[B2*Kx][(B3cosKyy+B4sinKyy) — From this B2=0 " py 2 = [SA (COS Kxx) +852 SINK xK)(— BS * KY * SIN EYY B1 (cos kx) + B2 sin kxx)(~ B3 + hy + sinkyy + B4* ky * coskyy)€usin =0=> = So the general TRANSVERSE ELECTRIC MODE solution is given by Where B=BIB3 CUT-OFF FREQUENCY : The cut-off frequency is given as DOMINANT MODE: The mode having lowest cut-off frequency or highest cut-off wavelength is called DOMINANT=. MODE here TEOO where wave can’t exist So fe(TEO1 fe(TE10) for rectangular waveguide we know that a>b 11 TE10 isthe dominant mode in all rectangular waveguide. DEGENERATE MODE :The modes having same cut-off frequency but different field equ: modes. WAVE IMPEDANCE : -— Impedance offered by waveguide either in TE mode or TM mode when wave travels through is called wave impedance For TE mode And Where? trinsic impedance=37 Tohm: CYLINDRICAL WAVEGUIDES Acircular waveguide is a tubular, circular conductor. A plane wave propagating throug circular waveguide results in transverse electric (TE) or transverse magnetic field(TM)-#ede —— Assume the medium is lossless(a~0) and the walls of the waveguide is perfect conducterto=-}— The field equations from MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS are:- -— Eso) -_—_ Taking the first equation,Himilarly expanding VxH=jocE, Ap pap Az Leasan asap ajar | =imelRpAp-+ FipAp + RrA7) Hp__plig Hz Let us assume that the wave is propagating along z direction. Hz= “Putting in equation 2 and 3=at (y2 )=h2=Ke2 For lossless medium a=0;7=jB. Now the final equation for Eg isTE MODE IN CYLINDRICAL WAVEGUIDE :- -_— For TE mode, Ez=0, Hz40. -_—_ As the wave travels along z-direction, e~yz is the solution along z-direction. -— As h : -B?+0? we =Ke?: —_ -B?+K? Ke? (as K*- wie) —_ According to maxwell’ equation, the laplacian of Hz -— Putting this value in the above equations, we get: | aHz 1 aHz, 1 a°HZ 02 oo | | | ee ja ame, ae ag, | ap "pb ap pF a 2 om The partial differential with respect to p and g in the above equation are equal only wherthe individuals are constant (Let it be Ko2) —Ne Hz= Blain (Kog)+B2cos(Koo) Now — This equation is similar Hz=CnJn(Ke p) ~ Hence, _ Hz-Hz(p)Hz(g)e So, the final solution is, 1o BESSEL’S EQUATION ,so the solution of this equation 1s {solution along -direction} - Jn(Kup) =0 => In(Kua) =O If the roots of above equation are defined as Pan’,then Ke= Panis CUT-OFF FREQUENCY ;~ Itis the minimum frequency after which the prop iccurs inside the cavity But we know thatExgSeen from this table, TETT mode has the Towest cut of Wequency, henc@TEN Fis the dominating mode CUTOFF WAVELENGTHMICROWAVE COMPONENTS -— MICROWAVE RESONATOR: — They are used in many amplifiers and the like + A microwave resonator is a metallic enclosure that confines electromagnetic-energy stores it inside a cavity that determines its equivalent capacitance and indi from the energy dissipated due to finite conductive walls we can determine thé equiva resistance + The resonator has finite number of resonating modes and each mode corresponds-te @— particular resonant frequene; — © When the frequency of input signal equals to the resonant fiequency,--maxi amplitude of standing wave occurs and the peak energy stored in the elecisic. dad magnetic field are calculated -— RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE CAVITY RESONATOR: —_ Resonator can be constructed from closed section of waveguide by shorting both ends” das forming a closed box or cavity which store the electromagnetic energy and the power cati-be— dissipated in the metallic walls as well as the dielectric medium DIAGRAM. — Hence the expression for cut-off frequeney will beThisis the expression for resonant frequency of cavity resonator The mode having lowest resonant frequency is called DOMINANT MODE and for TE-AND the dominant modes are TE-101 and TM-110 respectively — QUALITY FACTOR OF CAVITY RESONATOR: FACTORS AFFECTING THE QUALITY FACTOR: Quality factor depends upon 2 Lossy conducting walls (or of a cavity with lossy conducting walls but lossless dielectric medium i.e. =0 Then Qe = (200 We'Pe) Where w0-resonant frequency We-stored electrical energy Pe-power loss in conducting walls 2) LOSSY DIELECTRIC MEDIUM The Q-factor of a cavity with lossy dielectric medium but lossless conducting walls i.e. co=0 and #0Pd=pewer loss in dielectric medium When both the conducting walls and the dielectric medium are lossy in nature then Total power loss = Pe+Pd 1/Qtotal = LQe +1/Qd or Qtotal = 1/ (1/Qe +1/Q¢) MICROSTRIP track of copper or other conductor on an insulating substrate. There is a "backplane" side of the insulating substrate, formed from similar conductor. A picture (37kB). Loaked. at it~ on, there is a "hot" conductor which is the track on the top, and a *retum” conductor whieh is Tie backplane on the bottom, Microstrip is therefore variant of 2 solves the electromagnetic equations to find the field distributions, one finds vei néaily—a— completely TEM (transverse electromagnetic) pattern. This means that there are only a. fex— regions in which there is a component of electric or magnetic field in the direction of wave: ion, There is a picture of these field patterns (incomplete) in T C Edwards "Foundation ‘strip Circuit Design" edition 2 page 45. See the booklist for further bitttographic— Under some conditions one has to take account of the effects due to longitudinal fells: Aa example is geometrical dispersion, where different wave frequencies travel at different pinmse=_ velocities, and the group and phase velocities are different. The quasi TEM pattem aifsex— because of the interface between the dielectric substrate and the surrounding air. The electrie— field lines have a discontinuity in direction at the interface right angles to the surface) of the ‘electric eld times the dielectric constant is con the boundary; thus in the dielectric which may have dielectric constant 10, the electric fist suddenly érops to 1/10 ofits value in air. On the other hand the tangential componest paral to the interface) of the electric field is continuous across the boundary. In general then we observe a sudden change of direction of electric field lines at the interfat=— which gives rise to a longitudinal magnetic field component fiom the second-Maxwalls.— equation, curl E = - dB/dt. Since some of the electric energy is stored in the air and some in-Hhe dielectric, the effective dielectric constant for the waves on the transmission liiie will ae somewhere between that of the air and that of the dielectric. Typically the effective diélecirié -——jelectrie constant crostrip the velocity of waves would be ¢ = 3 * 10°8 metres per second. We havetta— divide this figure by the square root of the effective dielectric constant to find the aetual wae velocity for the real microstrip line At 10 GHz the wavelength on notionally air spaced microstrip is therefore 3 ems; however, on substrate with effective dielectric constant of 7 the wavelength is 3/(sqrt{7}) = 1. 13ems— WAVEGUIDE CUTOFF FREQUENCY: ~waveg! Signals below this fraquoncy. Its easy to understand an eéleulate with our equations The cutoff frequency is the frequency below which the waveguide will not operate, -—— Accordingly it is essential that any signals required to pass through the waveguide do-morext close to or below the cutoff frequency The waveguide cutoff frequency is therefore one of the major specifications associated With amy— waveguide product. Waveguide cutoff frequency basics —_ Waveguides will only carry or propagate signals above a certain frequency, known asthe cut-aft— frequency. Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals. The cut-off frequency-of— the waveguide depends upon its dimensions. In view of the mechanical constraints this-eans— that waveguides are only used for microwave frequencies. Although itis theoretically-pessibl build waveguides for lower frequencies the size would not make them viable to contain-within— normal dimensions and their cost would be prohibitive -— Asa very rough guide to the dimensions required fora waveguide, the width of a waveguide’ —— needs to be of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the signal being carried As‘@=-—— .__ result, there is a number of standard sizes used for waveguides as detailed in another pageof band of fiequencies Whaat is waveguide cutoff frequency? - the concept _—_ Although the exact mechanics for the cutoff frequency of a waveguide vary according-te— whether it is rectangular, circular, etc, a good visualisation can be gained from the example of rectangular waveguide. This is also the most widely used form. -—t nals can progress along a waveguide using a peice mode is the one that has the lowest cutoff frequency. For a rectangular waveguide, this is the -— TE10 mode, =o The TE means transverse electric and indicates that the electric field is transverse to the — direction of propagation. —_ frequene waveguide that can be As seen by the diagram, it is possible for a number of modes to be active and thig can anse— -—- significant problems and issues. All the modes propagate in slightly different ways and therefirz— “— if'a number of modes are active, signal issues occur. == Itis therefore best to select the waveguide dimensions so that, for a given input signal-only-2ie- 7 energy of the dominant mode can be transmitted by the waveguide. For example: fore gi frequency, the width ofa rectangular guide may be too large: this would cause the TE2@-modete propagate — Asa result, for low aspect ratio rectangular waveguides the TE20 mode is the next higher orfae— -__- mode and it is harmonically related to the cutoff frequency of the TE10 mode. This Fétarvoasmip=— and attenuation and propagation characteristics that determine the normal operating Trequéney— range of rectangular waveguide —Rectangular waveguide cutoff frequency — Although waveguides can support many modes of transmission, the one that iSUS6d;“sitiually — exclusively is the TE10 mode. If this assumption is made, then the calculation forthe Tower-citaft point becomes very simple r waveguide cutoff frequency in Hz c= speed of light within the waveguide in metres per second a = the large internal dimension of the waveguide in metres, It is worth noting that the cutoff frequency is independent of the other dimension ofthe waveguide. This is because the major dimension govems the lowest frequency at which the-waves agate a signal — Circular waveguide cutoff frequency the equi ion for a circular waveguide is a little more complicated (but not a lot). whertt fe = circular waveguide cutoff frequency = speed of light within the waveguide in metres per second a = the internal radius for the circular waveguide in metres simple, easy to use and accommodate, by far the majority of calculations neededUNIT IL WAVEGUIDE COMPONENTS &APPLICATIONS SCATTERING PARAMETERS Linear two-port (and multi-port) networks are characterized by a number of é@uivaléim—Gicuit— parameters, such as their transfer matrix, impedance matrix, admittance matri: shows a typical two-port network The admittance matrix is simply the inverse of the impedance matrix, Y = Z- : relates the outgoing waves bl, b2 to the incoming waves al, a2 that are incident on the two-port— -— The matrix elements S11, $12, S21 ‘2 are referred to as the s« parameters. The parameters S11, $22 have the meaning of refle the meaning of transmission coe! THE SCATTERING MATRIX The scattering matrix is defined as the relationship between the forward and backward movin; For a two-port network, like any other set of two-port parameters, the scattering matrix is.a.2| aiatixPROPERTIES OF SMATRIX: In general the scattering parameters are complex quantities having the following Properties Property (1) -_— When any Z port is perfectly matched to the junction, then there are no reflections from that. ——- ‘Thus S=0. Ifall the ports are perfectly matched, then the leading diagonal Il elements-¥lt all exer Property (2) Iymmetric Property of S-matrix: Ifa microwave junction satisfies reciprocity conditioirand if=— there are no active devices, then S parameters are equal to their corresponding transpos@s— Property (3) —_ Unitary property for a lossless junction - This property states that for any lossless network, :h@-Sum OT the products of each term of anyone row or a nyone column of the [SI matrix with-its-complex conjugate is unity -—— _ Property (4) : — hase - Shift Property Complex S-parameters of a network are defined with respect to the positions of the forrof Teftence planes. For a two-port network with unprimed reference planes 1 and 2 as shown in Tigure 4D—the S-— parameters have definite values COUPLING MECHANISMS: PROBE, LOOP, APERTURE TYPES> The three devices used to inject or remove energy from waveguides are PROBES_LOQRS—atd— SLOTS. Slots may also be called APERTURES or WINDOWS, -_—_ microwave energy, it acts as a quarter-wave antenna such as the one shown in figure 1-39, view (A). The E lines detach themselves fromthe probe hen the probe is located at the point of highest efficiency, the E lines set up an E field-oF comstterable intensityide, Figure, Probe coupling ina rectangular waveguide, The most efficient place to locate the probe is in the center of the "a" wall, parallel tote“b* watl_and one quarter-wavelength from the shorted end of the waveguide, as shown in figure 1-39 WiewS(Ei.and (C). This is the point at which the E field is maximum in the dominant mode. Therefore, ser transfer (coupling) is maximum at this point. Note that the quarter-wavelength Spacing =a frequency required to propagate the dominant mode In many applications a lesser degree of energy transfer, called loose coupling, is desirable.’ of energy transfer can be reduced by decreasing the length of the probe, by moving it out of thexenter— of the E field, or by shielding it. Where the degree of coupling must be varied Frequently these iF made retractable so the length can be easily changed¢ and shape of the probe determines its frequency, bandwidih, and power-handling capayttity Asthe diameter of a probe increases, the bandwidth increases, A probe similar in shape to a door-knob— is capable of handling much higher power and a larger bandwidth than a conventional. prabe—The— greater power-handling capability is directly related to the increased surface area. Two exaipies 6f— broad-bandwidth probes are illustrated in figure 1-39, view (D). Removal of energy froma waveguide — is simply a reversal of the injection process using the same type of probe -_— Another way of injecting energy into a waveguide is by setting up an H field in the-wavegu can be accomplished by inserting a small loop which carries a high current into the-wavegwide, shown in figure 1-40, view (A). A magnetic field builds up around the loop and expands t7-fit the sweguide, as shown in view (B). Ifthe frequency of the current in the loop is within-the-bandyriath of the waveguide, energy will be transferred to the waveguide For the most efficient coupling to the waveguide, the loop is inserted at one of several points Whe#e-the— magnetic field will be of greatest strength, Four of those points are shown in figure 1-40, view{2}—- -— Nn number of H lines. When the diameter of the loop is increased, its power-handling, capabHigy-alse— increases. The bandwidth can be increased by increasing the size of the wire used to make the Lapp” “— When a loop is introduced into a waveguide in which an H field is present, a current-isindues-in the loop. When this condition exists, energy is removed from the waveguide. Hlots or apertures are sometimes used when very loose (inefficient) coupling is desired, as shown in— figure 1-41, In this method energy enters through a small slot in the waveguide and the E-field"sxpands— into the waveguide. The E lines expand first across the slot and then across the-interigimeF the waveguide, Minimum reflections occur when energy is injected or removed if the sizeof theSfot is properly proportioned to the frequency of the energ =MMMM MTT TTT UOT TIO TT CTU M TTT OTTT OTTO TTT T OTTO Teer TTT aT TT | | 1 i Et After learning how energy is coupled into and out of a waves leaving the end open is the most simple way of injecting or removing energy in a weveguidé—This 1 not the case, however, because when energy leaves a waveguide, fields form arourtd-the em=uf the waveguide. These fields cause an impedance mismatch which, in turn, causes thé’ developméat ef — landing waves and a drastic loss in efficiency, = Impedance m (ching using a waveguide iris Irises are effectively obstructions within the waveguide that provide a capacitive or india within the waveguide to provide the impedance matching The obstruction or waveguide iris is located in either the transverse pl = 7 field. A waveguide iris places a shunt capacitance or inductance across the waveguidé adit iSdizectly proportional to the size of the waveguide iris, An inductive waveguide iris is placed within the magnetic field, and a capacitive waveguide-iis placed within the electric field. These can be susceptible to breakdown under high powerconsiions = particularly the electric plane irises as they concentrate the electric field. Accordingty the Wst:of a. waveguide iris or screw / post can limit the power handling capacity. oSThe waveguide iris may either be on only one side of the waveguide, or there may be-a-wavegaide iris on both sides to balance the system. A single waveg waveguide iris or diaphragm and one where there are two, one either side is known as a ide iris is often referred to aan abjamiietric— waveguide iris A combination of both E and H plane waveguide irises can be used to provide both iaduciive-anid | capacitive reactance. This forms a tuned circuit, At resonance, the iris acts as a high #mpedanee-shunt Above or below resonance, the iris acts as a capacitive or inductive reactance Impedance matching using a waveguide post or screw In addition to using a waveguide iris, post or screw can also be used to give a similar effet aid | thereby provide waveguide impedance matching, -—The waveguide post or screw is made from a conductive material. To make the-post-orscrew inductive, it should extend through the waveguide completely making contact wittbottrzap_and bottom walls. For a capacitive reactance the post or screw should only extend part of ihe Way Tarstigh— When a screw is used, the level can be varied to adjust the waveguide to the right conditions. The diagram shows the electric field across the cross section of the waveguide. The towest-firguency that can be propagated by a mode equates to that were the wave can "fit into” the waveguide Asseen by the diagram, it is possible for a number of modes to be active and this can_cause signiftcant— problems and issues. All the modes propagate in slightly different ways and therefore ifa auimber OT modes are active, signal issues occur. -— Itis therefore best to select the waveguide dimensions so that, for a given input signal, Only the-siergy— of the dominant mode can be transmitted by the waveguide. For example: for a given Treqiiené width of a rectangular guide may be too large: this would cause the TE20 mode to propagate -—— -— Asa result, for low aspect ratio rectangular waveguides the TE20 mode is the next higher ordectmode— and it is harmonically related to the cutoff frequency of the TE10 mode. This-s2lationsiap- arid — attenuation and propagation characteristics that determine the normal operating frequency Tmge of rectangular waves Waveguide Bends = Details of RF waveguide bends allowing changes in the direction of the tansmigsiex—time— waveguide E bend and waveguide H bend — -— Waveguide is normally rigid, except for flexible waveguide, and therefore it is often necessary to— direct the waveguide in a particular direction. Using waveguide bends and twists itis possihfe to— arrange the waveguide into the positions required _—_ When using waveguide bends and waveguide twists, it is necessary to ensure the bending-andAwstiig— is accomplished in the correct manner otherwise the electric and magnetic fields-wit be-unduly distorted and the signal will not propagate in the manner required causing loss-amd- reflection: Accordingly waveguide bend and waveguide twist sections are manufactured specificatty to aitow the waveguide direction to be altered without unduly destroying the field patterns and introdiacimg-fass_ Types of waveguide bend —_ There are several ways in which waveguide bends can be accomplished. They may vowed ecediia to the applications and the requirements. + Waveguide E bend _—_2 Waveguide H bend _—_ Waveguide sharp E bend _—_ Waveguide sharp H bend Eachtype of bend is achieved in a way that enables the signal to propagate correctly aiid with The minimum of disruption to the fields and hence to the overall signal oS Ideally the waveguide should be bent very gradually, but this is normally not viable aiid theréfo specific waveguide bends are used - Most proprietary waveguide bends are common ang! by far Waveguide H bend —_ This form of waveguide bend is very similar to the E bend, except that it distorts the Hor magnetic field. It creates the bend around the thinner side of the waveguide -— aWaveguide sharp E bend In some circumstances a much shorter or sharper bend may be required. This can be accomplished in.a— hily different manner. The techniques is to use a 45° bend in the waveguide. Eff the-signal— reflected, and using @ 45° surface the reflections oceur in such a way that the Tields-are—lef— undisturbed, although the phase is inverted and in some applications this may need accounting correcting, Waveguide sharp H bend This for of waveguide bend is the same as the sharp E bend, except that the waves the H field rather than the E fieldWAVEGUIDE TWISTS -— There are also instances where the waveguide may require twisting. This too, can be weomiplishied. A gradual twist in the waveguide is used to tum the polarisation of the waveguidé and ‘Thencé-the — waveform, In order to prevent undue distortion on the waveform a 90° twist should be undertaken over adistance— greater than two wavelengths of the frequency in use. If a complete inversion is required =ex- for— Phasing requirements, the overall inversion or 180° twist should be undertaken over a four wasetsngth— distance, — Waveguide bends and waveguide twists are very useful items to have when building-a waveguide system. Using waveguide E bends and waveguide H bends and their srap bend counterparts-afiows the waveguide to be tumed through the required angle to meet the mechanical constraints-of the-overall waveguide system. Waveguide twists are also useful in many applications to ensure the polarisation is correct — ATTENUATORS: In order to control power levels in a microwave system by partially absorbing microwave signal, aftenuators are employed. Resistive films (dielectric glass slab_coanedwith— aquadag) are used in the design of both fixed and variable attenuators _—_ A.co-axial fixed attenuator uses the dielectric lossy material inside the centre conductor £the-so-axiaT line to absorb some of the centre conductor microwave po wer propagating through-t-diclesiis 160 decides the amount of attenuation introduced. The microwave power absorbed by the-fessy materia dissipated as heatti In waveguides, the dielectric slab coated with aduadag is placed at the centre of the waveguide paralléT— to the maximum E-field for dominant TEIO mode. Inducedcurrent on the lossy-material-due i incoming microwave signal, results in power dissipation, leading to attenuation of she- sighal-The dielectric slab is tapered at both ends upto a length of more than half wavelength to reduce selleetionis as shown in figure 5.7. The dielectric slab may be made movable along the breadth efthe waveguide by supporting it with two dielectric rods separated by an odd multiple of quarter guidewavelength a perpendicular to electricfield - When the slab is at the centre, then the attenuation is maximum (since the electric field 75 ConCentéated — at the centre for TEIO mode) and when it is moved towards one side-wall, the atténuaticii-goés on — decreasing thereby controlling the microwave power corning outof the other port. HHAbove figure shows a flap attenuator which is also a variable attenuator. A semi-circular Tap Tmade-of — lossy dielectric is made to descend into the longitude in slot cut at the center of the top wall 6f=— rectangular waveguide. When the flap is completely outside the slot, then the attenuation is zer-aeid -— when it is completely inside, the attenuation is maximum, A maximum direction of 90 is possible with this attenuator with a VSWR of 1.05. The dielectric slab can be properly shaped— -—- according to convenience to get a linear variation of attenuation within the depth of insertion, A precision type variable attenuator consists of a rectangular to circular transition (Re), a pizce of — circular waveguide (CW) and a circular-to-rectangular transition (CRT) as shown in-below-Bguie” Resistive cards Ra, Rb and Rc are placed inside these sections as shown. The centre-cireula- section —-- containing the resistive card Rb can be precisely rotated by 3600 with respect to the twe-fxed-esistive cards, The induced current on the resistive card R due to the incident signal is dissipated-as-heat producing attenuation of the transmitted signal. TE mode in RCT is converted into-FE in-eixcular waveguide. The resistive cards R and Ra kept perpendicular to the electric field of TEtO-mady-xp that it does not absorb the energy. But any component parallel to its plane will be readily abs orbedHence pure TE mode is excited in circular waveguide section IL If the resistive card in the centre section is kept at an angle 8 relative to the E-field Tireciione Ell mode, the component Ecos(@) parallel to the card get absorbed while the componeni E-sir- Bis —- transmitted without attenuation, This component finally comes cut as E sin20 tr shown in figure belowPHASE SHIFTERS: A microwave phase shifter is a two port device which produces a variable shift"-phase—af the — incoming microwave signal. A lossless dielectric slab when placed inside the rectaiigular Waveguide — produces a phase shift ~ PRECISION PHASE SHIFTER The rotary type of precision phase shifter is shownin figure below which consists_of a=circular— waveguide containing a lossless dielectric plate of length 2lcalled "half-wave section" a séition of — rectangular-to-circular transition containing a lossless dielectric plate of length I, called “qua section", oriented at an angle of 45° to the broader wall of the rectangular waveguide and a citcularte-rediang transition again containing a lossless dielectric plate of same length 1 (quarter wave-seettonyorfented at an ai 45°, — The incident TE10 mode becomes TEI! mode in circular waveguide section. The fratf=wave Section. produces a phase shift equal to twice that produced by the quarter wave section. Thé dielectre-plates —- are tapered at both ends to reduce reflections due to discontinuity.and E a i nn i wa When TE10 mode is propagated through the input rectangular waveguide of the rectangular te:citeular— transition, then it is converted into TEIl in the circular waveguide section. Let E; be the niiximuit— elelectric field strength of this mode which is resolved into components, EI parallel to the plate-and EZ— perpenticulr to El as shown in figure 5.12 (b) After propagation through the plete thesecosiponénis— are given by The length I is adjusted such that these two components El and Ez have equal ampiitade but SET in phase by = 90 The quarter wave sections convert @ linearly polarized TEIl wave into a circularly potarized wave and vice-versa. Afier emerging out of the half-wave section,the electric field components parattel_and perpendicular — tothe half-wave plate After emerging out of the half-wave section, the field componéitSE3 and Ed as given in above equations, may again be resolved into two TEll modes, polarized paialfeland— perpendicular to the output quarter-wave plate. At the output end of this quarter-wave platé, 4Ré-Held — components parallel and perpendicular to the quarter wave plate, by referring to figuré abov ‘WAVEGUIDE MULTIPORT JUNCTIONS: T-JUNCTION POWER DIVIDER USING WAVEGUIDE: The T-junction power divider is a 3-port network that can be constructed either froma transmission — line or from the waveguide depending upon the frequency of operationFor very high frequency, power divider using waveguide is of 4 types » E-Plne Tee -— * H-Plane Tee + E-H Plane Tee/Magic Tee + Rat Race Tee E-PLANE TEE: Diagram Itcan be constructed by making a rectangular slot along the wide dimension of THe miain— waveguide and inserting another auxiliary waveguide along the direction so that it become a 3-port network Port-1 and Port-2 are called collinear ports and Port-3 is called the E-arm E-arm is parallel to the electric field of the ain waveguide If the wave is entering into the junction from E-arm it splits or gets divided Port-2 with equal magnitude but opposite in phase — = If the wave is entering through Port- and Port-2 then the resulting field through-Pon=-ix=— proportional to the difference between the instantaneous field from Port-1 and OTEH-PLANE TEE: Diagram E-H PLANE TEE/MAGIC TEE: Diagram: Mn AnH-plane tee is formed by making a rectangular slot along the width of the i and inserting an auxiliary waveguide along this direction Inthis case, the axis of the H-arm is parallel to the plane of the main waveguide = The wave entering through H-arm splits up through Port-1 and Port-2 with equatmagnitide. and same phase ~ If the wave enters through Port-1 and Port-2 then the power through Port-3 is the phasor-sem -—— of those at Port-1 and Port-2, _—_ E-Plane tee is called PHASE DELAY and H-Plane tee is called PHASE ADVANCE, sate.Iftwo waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into Port-I and Port-2 t zero at Port-3 and additive at Port-+ # Ifa wave is fed into Port-4 (H-arm) then it will be divided equally between Port-1 and Po collinear arms (same in phase) and will not appear at Port-3 or E-arm, __ # Ifa wave is fed in Port-3 then it will produce an output of equal magnitude and opposite phaseacPort--— and Port-2 and the output at Port-4 will be zero. -—_ -= # Iawaveis fed in any one of the collinear arm because the E-arm causes a phase delay and the H-arm causes phase advance — T-JUNCTION POWER DIVIDER USING TRANSMISSION LINE:-— Diagram | I > It is a junction of 3 transmission lines + Inthis case, if PI is the input port power then P2 and P3 are the power of output Ports and Port-3 respectively -— + To transfer maximum power from port-1 to port-2 and port-3 the impedance nist maich-at- -— the junction DIRECTIONAL COUPLER Diagram —_CIRCULATORS AND ISOLATORS: Both microwave circulators and microwave isolators are non-reciprocal transmission devives thause. Faraday rotation in the ferrite material = EE — - Itis a 4- port waveguide junction consisting of a primary waveguide 1-2 and a secondarg— waveguide 3-4 -— When all the ports are terminated in their characteristic impedance there is free wansmtission of. power without reflection between port-1 and port-2 and no power transmission tikes place — between port-1 and por'-3 or port-2 and port-4 a sno coupling exists The characteristic ofa directional coupler is expressed in terms of its coupling-feter of directivity — The coupling factor is the measure of ratio of power levels in primary and secOaGary Times Directivity is the measure of how well the forward travelling wave in the primary wavemice couples only to a specific port of the secondary waveguide a eal case, directivity is perfectly matched Let wave propagates from port-1 to port-2 in primary line then finite ie. power at port-3 =O because port-2 and port at& Coupling factor (dB}=10 logi® (P1/P4) Directivity (dB) = 10 1ogi0 (P4/P3) Where P1=power input to port-1 P3=pewer output from port-3 and P4=power output from port-4CIRCULATOR: + A microwave circulator is a multiport w: one direction i.e, from the nth port to the (n#I)th port. _— + Ithas no restriction on the number of ports -— * 4-port microwave circulator is most common —_ One of its types is a combination of two 3-dB side hole directional couplers anda sect waveguide with two non reciprocal phase shifters _— Diagram . + Each of the two phase shifters produce a fixed phase change in a certain direction — + Wave incident to port-1 splits into 2 components by coupler-1 -— + The wave in primary guide arrives at port-2 with 180 degrees phase shift,“ » The second wave propagates through two couplers and secondary guide and arrives at with a relative phase shift of 180 degrees. _— But at port-4 the wave travelling through primary guide phase shifter and coupter=2 arrives with 270 degrees phase change SS Wave from coupler-1 and secondary guide arrives at port-4 with phase shift of 90 degreesPower transmission from port-1 to port-4 of phase by 180 degrees wl-w3 = Qm+l) a rad/s w2-w4 = 2na rad/s Power flow sequence: 1>2->3->4>1 MICROWAVE ISGLATOR: components in the transmi + Ideally complete absorption of power takes place in one direction and lossless iransniisa¥es-is-— provided in the opposite direction * Also called UNILINE, it is used to improve the frequency stability of microwave— -— generators like klystrons and magnetrons in which reflections from the load affects-the—==— generated frequency. — » Itcan be made by terminating ports 3 and 4 of a 4-port circulator with matched load: + Additionally it can be made by inserting a ferrite rod along the axis of a rectangular waveguide — DIRECTIONAL COUPLER (DC): -_—_ Directional coupler is a 4 port wave guide junction. It consists of a primary wave-guids=and “a secondary wave guide connects together through apertures. These are uni. directional—e Directional couplers are required to satisfy (1) reciprocity (2) conservation of energy matched terminated - ‘The characteristics of a DC can be expressed in terms of its: 1) Coupling facter: The ratio, in dB, of the power incident and the power coupled in auxiliar-arnrin — forward direction, Were Pi = Incident power; Pe = Coupled Power 2) Dinectivity. The ratio expressed in decibels, of the power coupled in the forward direction 7h power coupled in the backward direction of the auxiliary arm with unused terminals matched terminated. -—— D= 1(log10( Pe/Pr) dB _—_ Where Pr = Reverse Power — Pe = Coupled Power - 3) Insertion loss The Ratio, expressed in decibels, of the power incident to the power" the main line of the coupler when auxiliary arms are matched terminated —_ I= 10log 10 ( Pi/ Pil)Wiere Pil ceceived power at the transmitted port 4} Isolation; The ratio, expressed in decibels of the power incident in the main arm robe buck power coupled in the auxiliary arm, with other ports matched terminated = 10log10 ( Pi/Pr) Db — For an ideal coupler D & I are infinite while C& L are Zero Several types of directional couplers exist. such as 1. Twohole directional coupler, Schwinger — directional coupler and Bethi - hole directional coupler —_ Directional couplers are very good power samplers, _—_ Bethe-hole coupler _—_ Bethe-hole is a waveguide directional coupler, using a single hole, and it works over-e-aarréveband__ The Bethe-hole is a reverse coupler, as opposed to most waveguide couplers that use-multi-Fefe and are forward couplers. ‘The origin of the name comes from a paper published by H A Bethe, titled "Theory ‘of Diffraztion by Small Holes’, published in the Physical Review, back in 1942. If you google it you mightfinttitzeven though it is probably subject to copyright protection, This is a tough read, uniess you Tike to-painder_— ‘equations, _ Mt hole coupler i" In waveguide, a two-hole coupler, two waveguides share a broad wall. The holes ar¢_1/4 wase=apart— In the forward case the coupled signals add, in the reverse they subtract (180 apart) and disappeat— Coupling factor is controlled by hole size, The "holes" are often x-shaped, or perhaps other proprietaiy — shapes. It is possible to provide very flat coupling over an entire waveguide band if you kn you are doing (think "Chebychev"...) —A two hole directional coupler with traveling wave propa between the centers of two holes is cfraction of the wave energy entered info secondary guide as he holes act as slot antennas. The forward waves iiite Seon same phase , regardless of the hole space.and_afé-adde @ fort 4. the backward waves in secondary guide are out of phase and are cancelled in port 3Limitations and losses of conventional tubes: The Efficiency of Conventional Microwave Tube is largely independent of Frequency uptz=. certain limit, when frequency increases beyond a certain limit efficiency drastieally-deereases. Conventional low frequency tubes like triodes faiI3.6j at microwave frequencies (MF) because the electron transit time from cathode to grid becomes do large that it cannot-produce—"" microwave oscillations. In order for an amplifier to work efficiently-at-thé desired Fejuency the propagation times must be insignificant. And we se€“onvéntional tubes have a significant propagation times and hence cannot be used at microwave frequencies, The device parameters for this tubes starts taking a dominating -part-ii- circuit and hence successfal oscillations aren't met, There are also othertimtations attached to them: Interelectrode capacitance Dielectric losses Lead inductance effect Effects due to radiation losses and radio frequency(RF) losses Skin effect(which is is the tendency of an alternating current (AC) to-pecome— distributed within a conductor such that the currene-densifeis largest near the surface of the conductor, and decreases with greater depths in the conductor) —_ Gain-bandwidth limitations Interelectrode Capacitance The Interclectrode capacitance in vacuum tubes at low or Megium Freumncy:prexuce large Capacitive reactance with no serious effect. ‘The Capacitive reactance become so small when the frequency drastically increased.A good point to remember is that the higher the frequency, or the larger the interetectrode capacitance, the higher will be the current through this capacitance —The” Saeuit"im Tigure 2-IC, shows the interelectrode capacitance between the grid andthe cathode (Cek) in parallel with the signal source_ As the frequency of the input signal increases, the effective grid-to-cathode_impedanee 9f the tibe— decreases because of a decrease in the reactance of the interelectrodeCapacitarice. If the signal frequency is 100 megahertz or greater, the reactance oftre urid-to-cathode capacitance is so small that much of the signal is shor-cieuited within the tue. Since the interelectrode capacitances ar effectively in parallel with the tuned circuits, as shown in figures -__"==. Lead inductance Another frequency-limiting factor is the LEAD INDUCTANCE of the-fibe-alesients. Since the lead inductances within a tube are effectively in parattetwitir the interelectrode capacitance, theLead Inductance within the tube are effectively in parallel with the interelectrode eepeetianes, the net effect is to raise the frequency limit, However the inductance ‘oft positive cathode lead is common to both the Grid plate Circuit, ____-—— Transient Time oo —_ Transient time is the time required for electrons to travel time time is insignficant at lower frequency... signal cycle and begins to hinder effeciency CLASSIFICATION OF MICROWAVE TUBE! Microwave tubes can be broadly classifies into two categories 1.0-TYPE L inear Tubes (Travelling tube amplifiers-Ktestrons—~ In O-Type tube , a magnetic field whose axis coincides with the 10 hold the beam togetheras it travels the length of the tnbe 2.M-TYPE Tubes (Magnetrons and cross field devices)Basically there are only main two types of microwave tubes Tubes with electromagnetic cavity(kipstrons and magnetrons} — Tubes with slow wave circuits(traveling wave-nibes— KLYSTRON A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube (evacuated electron tube). The pseudo Greek word klystron comes from the stem form xive- (kis) of a Greek verb-referting-to the action of waves breaking against a shore, and the end of the word.eéciF@n.re a — the technology (for example to make small linear accelerators to generate photone-foreaerial beam radiation therapy). In their 1939 paper, they acknowledget™ahecontribution of A Arsenjewa-Heil and O, Heil (wife and husband) fortheif velocity modulation theory in 1935,[2] During the second World War, the Axis powers relied mostly on {then taw=powered) Klystron technology for their radar system microwave generation—whHethé Allies used the far more powerful but frequency-érifting technology of the-cavity magnetron for microwave generation— Klystron tube technologies for very high-power applications, such as synchrotrons.and-radar_ systems, have since been developed. The Klystron is a linear-beam device that overcomes the transit-time TimiRiOns OF a grid- controlled tube by accelerating an election stream.to“e-tivh-vetucity before it is modulated Modulation is accomplished by varying the velocity Of the beam, which causes the dri electron the operating frequency. The output cavity acts as a transformert3 capi e h-impedance beam to a low-impedance transmission line—The"fequeii¢y réponse of a klystron is limited by the impedance-bandwidth product of the cavities, but may be extended through stagger tuning or ‘The klystron is one of the primary means of generating high power at UHF and aboye. Output -— powers for multicavity devices range from a few thousand waits to 1OMW-or-moi@—The Elystron provides high gain and requires little external support. circuitry—Mechanically, the klystron is relatively simple. It offers long life and requires-niifamval i i INTRODUCTION radio frequencies to produce both low-power reference signals for supesticleredyne radar receivers and to produce high-power carrier waves for commilnicatioiiS aid the driving force for linear accelerators, oo couplings instead, In some cases a coupling probe is used to couple the Microwave energy from a klystron into a separate external waveguide.Klystrons amplity KF signals by extracting energy trom a DC electron beam. A beam of electrons— is produced by a thermionic cathode (a heated pellet of low work function=mmteriaty“and accelerated to high voltage (typically in the tens of kiloyolts)--Fhis heem-4s Then passed through an input cavity. RF energy is fed into the input cavity-at, OF Tez, its natural frequency to produce a voltage which acts on the electron beam, The electric field causes the electrons-te-bunch— electrons that pass through during an opposing electric field are accelerated aid laiéi eléctrons are slowed, causing the previously continuous electron beamJa-farmrbunches at the input frequency To reinforce the bunching, a klystron may Contaiii additional "buncher" cavities. The electron. bunches excite a voltage on the output cavity, and the RF energy developed flows-ant through a waveguide. The spent electron beam, which now contains less-energy-than it started with, is destroyed in a collector oS TWO-CAVITY KLYSTRON AMPLIFIER: -— im sm chamber klystron, the electron beam is injected into a resonantxavity—Fhe electron lerated by a positive potential, is constrained te-4raiveFhrOugh @ cylindrical drift tube In the two- beam, a beam is velocity modulated by the weak RF signal. In the moving frame of the electron beam; i velocity modulation is equivalent to a plasma oscillation, so. in_a {uarter"OT Gite period of the plasma frequency, the velocity modulation is converted-tortensity modulation, ie. bunches of electrons. As the bunched electrons enter the second chamber they induce standing waves-af Te— same frequency as the input signal. The signal induced in the second_channer is"mach stronger than that in the first, afeedback loop between the input and output cavities. Two-cavity oscillator klystrons have thee _-— advantage of being among the lowest-noise microwave sources available, and for ihaciedson hive ofien been used in the illuminator systems of missile targeting tastars. -— ‘The two-cavity oscillator klystron normally generates more power than. the reflex RIFSTOi—— typically watts of output rather than milliwatts. Since there is no reflector, onf-one high-voltage supply is to cause the tube to oscillate, the voltage must Beadjusted 16a particular value beam tot suitable level due tothe fixed -physical-sepa several "modes" of oscillation can be observed in a given klystron, REFLEX KLYSTRON : The reflex klystron is a single cavity variable frequency tis and load effiency. from it. The construction of a reflex ex hystron is shown in Figure-bnit Basie f tube consists of the following elements) __- =. * Acathode + Focusing electrode at cathode potential — Repeller or + reflector electrode, which is operated at a moderately nega Foren with respect to the cathode. —= APPLICATION: It is widely used as in radar rec Local oscillators in microwave receiver Portable microwave rings Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier———e—ee The cathode is so shaped thet, in relation to the focusing electrotteand anode, an electron beam is formed that passes through a gap in the resonator, asshown in the figure,and travels toward the_ repeller. Because the repeller has a negative potential with respect to the cathode,_if THF {fie OPERATION: The electron that are emitted from cathode with constant velocity-enter the vavity where the velocity of electrons is changed or modified-dépending upon the cavity voltage The oscillations is started by the device due to high quality factor and to mak we have to apply the feedback exit velocity or velocity of the electrons after the cavity is given as SIETK-ECE timspace existing between cavity and repelar oo Bunching is @ process by which the electrons take the energy from the cavity at a different — time and deliver to the cavity at the same time — Bunching continuously takes place for every negative going half cycle and the most apprepriaie— time for the electrons to return back to the cavity , when the cavity has positive-peak-S0'that it can give maximum retardation force to electron entrance velocity of electrons is -_—_ = When, = =Depth of velocity =TRANSIENT TIM. Transit time is defined as the time spent by the ele: the the electrons to leave the cavity and again retarrrto the cavity — If is the time at which electrons leave the cavity and 2 the cavity then, transit time s the time at which, During this time the net displacement by electrons is zero. That the potentia-oFiws potit A Bis VA and VB(plate) as known in figure,then, ihe Torce experienced on an clectiorg From equations a and b we get ana fmas Bx _-aWWas¥e) (-t.3+ ky ams kyis called constant Hates egy veer) Where,k2 is displacement constant at t=t neglig x=-in practice k2=the cavity width which is ble with respect to cavity space s. Here we can neglect k2 in the expression of x 7“We know, = — — = = — = _ —— = = === 4 _—a OUTPUT POWER: oo = The beam current of Reflex klystron is given as = ie to cavity voltage i given BFEhh Electronics admittance of reflex klystron Itis defined as the ratio of current induced ind the voltage across the cavity gap TRAVELING-WAVE TUBE : A traveling-wave tube (TWT) is an electronic device used to amplify radiectrequency signals to power, usually in an electronic assembly_known-es a-fraveling-wave tube amplifier (TWTA). The TWT was invented by Rudolf Kompfner in a British radaetab-dating World War Il, and refined by Kompfner and John Pierce at Bell Las-Rottrof them have written books on the device [1] [2] In 1994, A.S. Gilmour wrote a modern TWT book[3] which is widely used-by U-S— a jbistiéd by the TWT engineers today, and research publications about TW IEEEEe OO EIS beam, which then passes down the RF output, the electron beam finally striking a collector le of a wire helix that stretches from the REiapiitveshé— the other et low-powered radio signal that is to be amplified, is positioned near. the entitter. amtiniduces a current into the helix, ~ The helix acts as a delay line, in which the RF signal travels at-neat The-saiiie speed along the tube as the electron beam. The electromagnetic figttdueto the current in the helix interacts with the electron beam, causing bunching of the electrons (an effect called velocity mochettoi and the electromagnetic field due to the beam current then induces-mose CUFFEat BACK into the helix (ie. the current builds up and thus is amplified as it-passesdown). A second directional coupler, positioned near the collector, receives an aiiplified version of the input signal from the— far end of the helix. An attenuator placed on the helix, usually between the inputand-output helicies, prevents reflected wave from travelling back to the cathede” — ‘The bandwidth of a broadband TWT can be as high as three octaves, although-tmed— (narrowband) versions exist, and operating frequencies range from-390.MF=ia:30 GHz. The voltage gain of the tube can be of the order of 70 decibet A TWT has sometimes been referred to aS a traveling-wave amplifier tube (TWAT).4]ES}—. although this term was never really adopted. "TWT" is sometimes pronounced by-engineers "TWiT" [6] - MULTICAVITY KLYSTRON Inall modern klystrons, the number of cavities exceeds two. A larger number of cavities sey ”=— be used to increase the gain of the klystron, orto increase the bandwidth UNITIV — M-TYPE TUBESmagnetrons have been developed that cover frequency ranges from the low UHF band_to t6g—_-— GHz. Peak power from a few kilowatts to several megawatts has been obtained- Typical overall efficiencies of 30 to 40 percent may be realized, depending ofthe. ower level and operating -—~ frequency. CW magnetrons also have been developed-with power levels of a few hundred watts _._ ina tunable tube, and up to 25kW or more in a fixed-frequency device. Efliciencies raiigeTroifi — 30 percent to as much as 70 percent. The magnetron operates electricaliy-asa'simple diode Pulsed modulation is obtained by applying a negative -Feetesgular’ voltage waveform to the cathode with the anode at ground potential, Operating voltages are less critical than far beaitT—. al tubes line-type modulators often are used to supply pulsed elegtic_ power. Fhe~phy structure of a conventional magnetron is shown in Figure— ~=— High-power pulsed magnetrons are used primarily in radar systems. Low-power patsed devices find applications as beacons. Tunable CW magnetrons -ase_iised~in” ECM (electronic countermeasures) applications. Fixed-frequency devices aresed as microwave heating sources Drift spoce to alow — debunching of reentering \ spoce charge sot x Spatranges of 10 to 12 percent of bandwidth are possible for percent for CW tubes, oS Operating Principles Most magnetrons are built around a cavity” structure of the type shown in Figure. Th es in the_anode-that_oper“int feraction space as showa_POWEE-ciit BE Coupled out of the cavities consists of cylindrical cathode and anode, with ca cathode-anode space—thi by means ofa loop or a tapered waveguide. Cavities, together with the spaces at the enés-of ih anode block, form the resonant system that determines the féquenicy OT the generated oscillations, The actual shape of the cavity is-nef particularly important, and various types are used, as illustrated in Figure, The oscillations associated with the ca that alternating magnetic flux lines pass through the cavities. parallel.{6 the cathode axis, while the alternating electric fields are confined lafgely to the region where the ca! interaction space. The most important factors determining the resonant frequemty. ‘OT The system are the dimensions and shape of the cavities in a plane perpendicula to the axis of the cathode. Frequency also is affected by other factors such as the end space and the axial length-of the— anode block, but to a lesser degree.i Figure: type. The magnetron requires an extemal magnetic fi cathode. This field usually is provided by a perm commonly constructed as a cylindrical disk Cavity magnetron oscillator anode: (a) hole-and-slot type. (bya 1ypes (ovane ield with flux lines parallel to the axis-oEthe——~" anent-magnet or clectremiignet-The cithode is REFLEX KLYSTRON Itis a linear tube in which the magnetic field applied to focus the electron and electric field is applied to drift the electron In klystron the bunching takes places only inside the cavity which is very small ,hence generate low power and low frequency. In magnetron the interacting or_baighing space is extended ‘SOThe “WMiiciency can be APPLICATION: » Used as oscillator. » Used in radar communication. » Used in missiles. TYPES OF MAGNETRON: — Magnetron is of 3 types Negative resistance type Cyclotron frequency type Cavity type. Used in microwave oven (in the range of frequency-0f 25h}FIGURE: uu Im FMlagneiron consists of a cathode which is used to emit electrons-and a-mumbér of anode cavitiee rermanent magnet is placed on the backside of tathade: “Fire space between anode cavity and cathode is called interacting space. The electron which are emitted from cathode i in different path in the interacting space depending upon the strength of electron amt-iiagnetic field applied to the magnetron. — ip— OPERATION: EFFECT OF ELECTRIC FIELD ONLY: a S. ® Inthe absence of magnetic field(B=0)-the éfectron travel straight from the cathode to the anode due to the radial eleciric field force acting on it(indicated by path A). -—— » If the magnetic field strength increases slightly it will exert Tiferal free Which bends the path of the as indicated in path B.__| where v=velocity of electron B=magnetic field strength - + If fromrreaching the anode current become zéro(indicated by path D).the strength of_-—— ctrom magnetic field is made sufficiently high enough, so to prevent the ele * The magnetic field required to return the electron back T97HS iiTOde just touching the surface of anode is called critical magnetic freld-or cut off magnetic field(Be) + If B>Be the electron experiences a grater rotational force and may return bacicto the cathode quite faster this results is heating of cathode_ -——"=— Eflect of magnetic field: And hence the electron which are emitted, moved in-arright angle with respect to force. If the magnetic field strength is sufficiently large enough, then the electron return back to the cathode with high velocity which called Back heating of cathode oeThe shape consisting of oscillation can maintain it the phase dillerence between anode — _ cavity is /4 where n is the mode of operation and the best result can be obtained for => /4= (for n=4 hence it is called mode operatio =— It is assume that each anode cavity is of 4 Tengih, TienCé a voltage antinodes will exist at the opening of anode cavity and the lines of forces present due to the oscillation-staried— by high quality factor device In the above figure the electron followed by path “Bis So eriitted that is not influenced by the electric lines of forces hencé it will spend very less time inside the cavity amd— doesn’t contribute to the oscillation so itis called unfavourable electron— ~ The electron followed by path a is so emitted that-is indluence by the electric lines of forces at position 1,283 respectively-where-the Velocity increases or decreases, henge more time spend inside the cavity therefore it is called favourable electron. Any favourable electron which are emitted earlier or_latei” with Féspect to reference electron (let a) may be bunch together due-to-change-im Velocity by the effect of electric lines of forces. This type of bunching is called phase focusing effect = Electrons emitted from the cathode may rotate around itself in ¢-coiftaed-aféa Tia shape of spoke (spiral) at a angular velocity and_beforecisliveriny’ the energy to the anode cavity. They will rotate until they 96H the andde and completely absorbed by them — Hence the magnetron are also called travelling wave magnetron, ___ CUT OFF MAGNETIC FIELD (BC): Assume a cylindrical magnetron whose inner radius-is “a= aadd-Guter radius is *b’ and the magnetic field is as shown in the figure. Under the effect of magnetic field the. electrons will rotate in a circular path at any point the force electron will be-balance By the centrifugal force. <=Due tctelectric field only, the electrons move radually fon choke ———— GUNN DIODE BASICS: It has negative resistance property by which gunn diode @ or. To capacitance and shunt load resistance need to be tuned but not greater-than negative resistance The figure describes GUNN diode equivalent circuit. HereactiseTegion is about 6-18 um long It has negative resistance of about 100 Ohnr with’ parallel capacitance of about 0.6 PF. Gunn diode will have efficiency of only few percentage — Commercial GUNN didoe need supply of about OV. witoperatitig current of 950mA and available from 4GHz to 100GHz frequency band. Itis préferably placed in a resonar The GUNN diode is basically a TED ie. Transferred Electron Device-capabte'of oscillating based on different modes. In a unresonant transit tims” Mode, FAIS frequencies of upto 1-18 GHz with power of upto 2 watt can be achiéved. In’a resonant limited space charge mode, radie— frequencies of upto 100 Ghz with about 100watts of pulsed power can be —— Gunn Effee! - = Gun effect was first observed by GUNN in n_type GaAs bulk diode. According to-GUNN;—"— abovesome critical voltage corresponding to an eleciric field of 2000-4000v'em-ihe current inESTE AE ARNOT Tene nes RAO Oy THEORY Differential Negative Resistance The fundamental concept of the Ridley-Watkins-Hitsum (RWH) theory is the differentialnegative resistance developed in a bulk solid-state II-Y compound when-eithe 3— voltage (oreleciric field) or a current is applied to the terminals of the sampte— There are two modes of negative-resistance devices — i) Voltage-comrolled and a Low field (8) Highfield tomain yor effect of the appeal density- field curve is to render the sample electrical unable. As a result, the initially homogeneous sample becomes electrically heterogeneous in an attempt to reach stabilitythus they are in planes perpendicular to the current direction as showTm-Fig@ (ay. Tn the current- controlled negative-resistance mode splitting thesample results in high- current filaments running along the field direction as shown in Fig. (b). Expressed -——"=— Ifan electric field Zo (or voltage Vo) is applied to the sample; for-example, the current density is generated. As the applied field (or voltage) is iiicreased'T0 7:2 (or V2), the current density is decreased to /2. When the field (or voltage) is decreased to E1 (or WL), tne euireiit deisity is increased to J1 These phenomena of the voltage controlled negative resistance are shown in Fig, (a).Similarly;— for the current controlled mode, the negative-resistance profile is as shown in Fig: (}— i iwo-valey Moda Theory: y band theory of then-type GaAs, a high-mobility lower valley-is~ of 0.36 eV from a low-mobility upper valley~——..-— separated by an energyWhen the applied electric field is lower than the electric field otseower Vallley (¢ | line on the SMITH chart and set your dividers so that they are-onthe centre of the chart at one end, and on the measured VSWR at the other along the r > 1 lirié(Thatas-ie VSWR = 1.7, find the value r = 1.7). Fifth, locate the short circuit point on the SMITH chareat which r = 0, and x = 0, and count round towards the generator or load the fraction of a. gute wavelength determined by the position of the minimum, Well done. If you plot the poist-out- om the centre of the SMITH chart a distance "VSWR" and round as indicated you will be-abte toad. off the normalised load impedance in terms of the line or guide characteristic impedance —The- fraction of distance out from centre to rim of the SMITH chart represents the modulus ofthe reflection coefficient [mod(gamma)] and the angle round from the r>1 line in degrees represemrs the phase angle of the reflection coefficient [arg(gamma)] — IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT: -_—_ The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written in the form Rjx. For comparison SWR can be calculated as where reflection coefficient ‘R given as Zo = characteristics impedance of wave guide at operating frequency Z is the load impedance - ‘The measurement is performed in the following way.The unknown device is connected to the slotted line and the position of one minima is-determined. The unknown device is replaced by movable short to the slotted line, Two successive: minim: portions are noted. The twice of the difference between minima posi rth One of the minima is used as reference for impedance measurement. Find the “differei@=ol reference minima and minima position obiained from unknown load. Let it be “d’. Take a Sith, chart, taking ‘I’ as centre, draw a circle of radius equal to S, Mark a point on circtmmferciiveat smith chart towards load side at a distance equal to d/Ag. Join the center with this point, Fide point where it cut the drawn circle. The co-ordinates of this point will show the nomialiaéd- impedance of load = j Freavenay | Hoge Ieolatir eter tne ae ae Steps: 1 Calculate ast of Vinin value fr short or movable shor as load Calculate a set of Vmin values for S-S Tuner + Matched termination as aload, Note: Move more steps on S-S Tuner -— From the above 2 steps calculate d = d1~d2 With the same setup as in step 2 but with few numbers of tums (2 or 3). Calculate low _ VSWR. Note: High VSWR can also be calculated but it results in a complex procedure__ Draw a VSWR circle on a smith chart -_—_ 1 Draw a line from center of circle to impedance value (d/ig) from which calculate achnrittance——_ and —_ Reactance (Z = R+jx)nce MEASUREMENT OF POWE ‘To measure power at high frequencies from 500 MHz to 40 GHz two special type of somtio— meters are popularly used. These meters areCalorimeter power meter Bolometer power meter Introducti \n to Bolometer power meter: "The Bolomerer power meter arms of this bridge consists of a temperature sensitive resistor. The basic bridge used jn Bolomersr power meter is shown in the Fig 8.14. The high frequency power input is applied tthe temperature sensitive resistor RT. The power is absorbed by the resistor and gets heated due :o-07e™ high frequency power input signal. This heat generated causes change in the resistance RT “Tis change in resistance is measured with the help of bridge circuit which is proportional-to-the-power to be measured. — The most common type of temperature sensitive resistors are the thermistor and barretter—Fhe thermistor is a resistor that has large but negative temperature coefficient. It is madeup=aia. semiconductor material. Thus its resistance decreases as the temperature increases, “The bavTEIee consists of short length of fine wire or thin film having positive temperature coefficient Thasiis. resistance increases as the temperature increases. The barretters ate very deli 5)Vmax is measured directly. This difficulty can be avoided, by using the “double minimum method’ in which measurements are take on the standing wave pattem nearthe voltage minimum, The procedure consists of first finding the value of voltage minima_Nextine positions about the position of Vmax are found at which the output voltage is twice the miniaammT value, If the detector response is square where 2 g is the guide wavelength and d is the distance between the two points where-tre voltage is 2 Vin —Crystal -_—_ detector -_—_ on = Senora owe tenuate =H : Moduton 3 — = rasurement of igh Locate the position of Vmin and take it as a reference (If VSWR meter is used in experiment, set the output so that meter reads 34B) Move the slider (probe of slotied line) along the slotted line on either side of Vmiri SO That Tae reading is 3 db below the reference i.e. 0 db. Record the probe positions and obtain the disiamee— between the two. Determine the VSWR using equation (2), -_—_ he simulated value for VSWR can be seen by clicking the buttons “Technique usede— calculate VSWR 1 & 2” hen match the calculated value with the value displayed in the simulated VSWR “——