Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research

Vol. 33, December 2008, pp. 451-467

Review Article

Impact of different stages of spinning process on fibre orientation and

properties of ring, rotor and air-jet yarns: Part 1– Measurements of
fibre orientation parameters and effect of preparatory processes on
fibre orientation and properties
Akshay Kumar, S M Ishtiaquea & K R Salhotra
Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110 016, India
and
M S Senthil Kannan
Department of Textile Technology, PSG College of Technology, Peelamedu,
Coimbatore 641 004, India

Received 11 June 2007; revised received and accepted 25 March 2008

The economic situation of the textile industry and the extremely sharp worldwide competition have forced the textile
mills to use all possibilities of cutting costs. In this context, the question of higher production at each spinning sequence of
machine gains importance. This demands a detailed study on the effect of spinning process variables on fibre orientation and
properties of products produced out of these machines. This paper reports a glimpse on the different measurement
techniques of fibre orientation parameters and impact of various preparatory processes on fibre orientation and properties.
Keywords: Drafting wave, Fibre extent, Fibre orientation, Fibrogram, Lindsley technique
IPC Code: Int. Cl.8 D02G3/00

1 Introduction these methods are quite old and need a thorough

Since last 60 years, numerous concepts have been review or modifications. This paper reports different
introduced to characterize fibre orientation, namely measurement techniques of fibre orientation
straightness, fibre extent, helix angle, coefficient of parameters and impact of various preparatory
relative fibre parallelization, proportion of curved processes on fibre orientation and properties.
fibre ends, migration parameters, etc. Several methods
of investigating fibre orientation have been 2 Measurement of Fibre Orientation
developed, such as the direct method1 in which tracer The earliest method for the study of fibre
fibres are viewed through a projection microscope and orientation was direct method, which was based on
the indirect method2-4, such as Lindsley2 and modified the use of optical tracer fibre technique and ultraviolet
Lindsley3 method in which the orientation and rays for the study of hooks. In optical tracer fibre
parallelization in sliver and roving are quantified in technique1,5, 0.1–0.3% of tracer fibres are dyed with
terms of weight ratios. The orientation parameters any dark colour dye. These tracer fibres are further
measured with the direct method take into account the mixed with parent fibres preferably during fibre
behaviour of a single fibre and extrapolate the mixing just before blowroom opening. Further, in
characteristics of sliver or roving or yarn from it, optical tracer fibre technique the sliver, roving or yarn
which is, infact, not a realistic measure. This is due to is immersed in a solution, which is having same
the fact that the fibrous assembly contains a larger refractive index as of parent fibres. This makes the
number of fibres whose laying and overlapping each grey parent fibres to optically dissolve while profile
other is of greater significance. Furthermore, both of coloured tracer fibres can easily be seen under a
________________ microscope. The optical tracer fibre technique can be
a
To whom all the correspondence should be addressed. used for the measurement of fibre orientation
E-mail: [email protected] parameters, like fibre extent, type of hooks and hook
452 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2008

extent in sliver, roving and yarn. The schematic view the amplitude of the migration, termed as root mean
of a fibre seen under microscope for the extent study square deviation (RMSD). The schematic view of a
is shown in Fig. 1. But, this technique is very tedious fibre seen under microscope for fibre migration study
and time consuming. As the parameters like fibre in yarn is shown in Fig. 3. The following formulae as
extent and hook extent are dependent on the length of provided by Hearle et. al.7,8 were used for the
fibre used, these parameters cannot be compared in calculation of the migration parameters :
different samples prepared from different fibre Zn n
lengths. Mean fibre position (Y ) = 1 / Z n ∫ y.dz = ( ∑ yi ) / n
Further, the study of fibre overlap is a recent 0 1=1

approach to investigate the longitudinal behaviour of

where n observations of Y were made over a length
fibre in yarn. It was measured in terms of two newly
Zn.
proposed parameters, viz. fibre-overlap index (FOI)
and fibre-pair-overlap length (FPO). The objective of Mean migration intensity
measuring fibre-overlap indices was to get a direct Zn

interpretation of total contact length between the ( I ) = [1 / Z n ∫ (dY / dz ) 2 dz ]1/2

0
fibres which has earlier been interpreted from the n
fibre extent.6 = {[ ∑ ( yi − yi −1 ) 2 / ( zi − zi −1 ) 2 ] / n}1/2
i=2
However, in the UV tracer fibre technique the
fibres are dyed with any commercial fluorescent dye
and this technique can only be used to study the fibre
orientation in the web delivered by the card,
drawframe and intermediate frame after collecting the
web on the black boards. In both of the above
techniques, the dyeing of fibres changes the surface
characteristics of the fibres. These fibres are thus Fig. 1— Outline of a hooked tracer fibre seen under microscope
expected to behave differently during processing in
the spinning process. Further, both of them are quite
old. Recently, a new index named fibre straightness
index (FSI), which can give information about fibre
straightness and is comparable for different samples
made from different fibre types and lengths, is also
being used. FSI is a ratio of total axial projected
length of a fibre to the actual length of that fibre in a
section of length observed directly with the
microscope.6 The actual photograph of fibre used for
FSI study is shown in Fig. 2. The FSI can be obtained
using the following relationship:
Fig. 2—Section of sliver seen under stereomicroscope at ×20
magnification
FSI = n × P / (L1+L2+L3+…+Ln)
where n is the no. of fibres; and P and L1, L2 are the
fibre extent and actual length of the fibre in the
section observed.
Further, this tracer fibre technique in yarn is also
used to study the fibre migration in the yarn in terms
of few mathematical formulae. These formulae
specify overall tendency of a fibre to be near the
centre or surface of the yarn, termed as mean fibre
position (MFP); the rate of change of radial position,
termed as mean migration intensity (MMI); and the Fig. 3 — Schematic view of a tracer fibre seen under projection
magnitude of the deviations from the mean position or microscope
 AKSHAY KUMAR et al.: IMPACT OF SPINNING PROCESS ON FIBRE ORIENTATION & YARNS PROPERTIES: PART 1 453

Root mean square deviation Lindsley apparatus was found to be a good absolute
Zn
measure of fibre parallelization.9 The various
n
(T ) = [1 / Z n ∫ ( y − Y )2 dz ]1/2 = {∑ ( yi − Y )2 / n}1/2 coefficients used by several previous researchers for
0 i =1 the study of indirect method of fibre orientation in
sliver and roving are given in Table 1.
where Ri & ri are the ith value of yarn radius and helix
Overall, the indirect method of measuring fibre
radius; zi, the corresponding values of length along the
2 orientation involves lot of manual operations on fibres
 r  which alter the actual state of fibres in tested sample
yarn; and yi =  i  .
 Ri  and give only an approximate measure of fibre
  orientation. The direct methods can be used for the
Later on, indirect methods, like Lindsley and study of fibre orientation in sliver, roving and yarn,
modified Lindsley, were used which gave an indirect whereas indirect methods are mainly used for the
measure of fibre orientation in terms of few study of fibre orientation in sliver and roving only.
coefficients in the sliver and roving. Initially, three Furthermore, few researchers have also tried to
indices were used to measure fibre orientation in measure fibre orientation in the sliver and roving by
sliver and roving. These were cutting ratio, combing classical fibrogram analysis with the use of specially
ratio and orientation index. But, these indices failed to designed clamp. The fibrogram measure of span
supply an explanation of the physical sense of these lengths and mean lengths are shown in Fig. 5. The
coefficients. Therefore, Lindsley’s coefficients were beards in majority and minority hooks directions were
replaced by Leon’teva by two new coefficients known scanned and measurements were taken for 66.7%,
as proportion of curved fibre ends ‘ρ’ and coefficient 50%, 5.5% and 2.5% span lengths. It was concluded
of relative fibre parallelization ‘Krp’. Here, ‘ρ’ that the fibrograph technique is faster than other
indicates curved fibre ends as well as their length and techniques and as it also gives measure of fibre
‘Krp’ represents degree of fibre parallelization and configuration comparable with the spinning process,
straightening in sliver/roving. Very recently, the this technique can be used to determine the fibre
equation of ‘Krp’ is being modified to ‘Krpm’ for better configuration in a sliver.4
measure of fibre parallelization and straightness in the Further, when 2.5%, 50%, and 66.7% span lengths
sliver and roving.6 The schematic view of the were measured in the direction of majority and
instrument used for the study of fibre orientation by minority hooks in the sliver, the span length readings
indirect method is shown in Fig. 4. Table 1–Coefficient used to measure fibre orientation in sliver
However, it has been stated that the above indices and roving indirectly
are relative measures of fibre hooks and dependent on Orientation parameter Formula
the width of the plate used for the measurement and
on the fibre length distributions of the material being Cutting ratio E/N
measured. The projected mean length measured with Combing ratio C/(E+N)
a special clamping technique similar to the modified Proportion of curved fibre E/ (E+N) × 100 %
ends (ρ)
Orientation index (1-E/N) × 100 %
Coefficient of relative fibre [1-C/(C+N+E)] × 100 %
parallelization (Krp)
Modified coefficient of {1-(C+E)/(C+N+E)}×100%
relative fibre parallelization
(Krpm)
Projected mean length 2× (Wf + Wr)/
(PML), inch (Cf+Cr+Nf+Nr+Ef+Er)+M

C= weight of the combed out portion under the side plates (1

and 3), E = weight of projected portion from the edge of the
side plate after combing, N = weight of the material after
combing and cutting under the side plates, M= weight of the
material under the middle plate, W = weight of the material
Fig. 4 — Schematic view of instrument for indirect method of clamped by the edge plate after initial combing, and t= width
study of fibre Orientation of the clamp in inch (2”).
454 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2008

The yarn cross-sectional study was also done by

several researchers.14-16 Hearle et al.8 derived a
formula to calculate yarn specific volume based on
the yarn twist and count which was further used to
calculate the packing density of the yarn. The formula
is given below:
Packing coefficient = Fibre specific volume(vf)/Yarn
specific volume(vy)
vf
= v f / (tan 2 α / 4π .C .T 2 × 105 )
vy
where α is the twist angle; T, the number of turns /cm;
and C, the yarn count in tex.
Fig. 5 — Fibrograph length measurement in terms of mean However, in similar context, Ishtiaque17 proposed a
lengths and span lengths formula to calculate packing density of the yarn,
which is more realistic and based on the helix angle,
from majority hook beards were greater than that actual number of fibres in yarn cross-section and helix
from minority hook beards. The excess span length twist. The formula is as given below:
from majority hook beards over span length from
minority hook beards was more clearly shown for the Packing density
50% and 66.7% span lengths than for the 2.5% span of yarn ( µ ) = 2π nFZ 2 / ( 1 + (π DZ )2 − 1)
length.10 For constant staple length material and for
fibres with low length variability the maximum span where D (2R) is the yarn diameter in mm; d (2r), the
length difference between the fibrograms in the two helix diameter in mm; θ, the helix angle in degree
directions becomes equal to the differential hook which is equal to tan-1 (π d Z / 25.4); F, the cross-
extent in the sliver. Also, the shape of the fibrogram is sectional area of fibre (mm 2); Z, the number of turns/
dependent upon the number and extent of hooks in inch in fibre helix [ Z (per mm) = Z (per inch)/25.4];
reverse and forward directions. When length and n, the actual number of fibres in the yarn cross-
variability is more, the maximum span length section obtained by multiplying theoretical number of
difference is found to be different but is still closely fibres by cosine of helix angle (θ). The theoretical
related to the differential hook extent.11 number of fibres in yarn cross-section was calculated
A study was conducted by Iyer et al.4 for by [5315/ (yarn count (Ne) × fibre denier)].
comparing different methods of measuring fibre One can conclude from the above discussion that
orientation during the processing of six selected although there are number of ways to measure fibre
varieties of cottons. The classical optical tracer fibre orientation in sliver, roving and yarn, the data
technique, UV tracer fibre technique, modified generated in each technique is unique. The selection
Lindsley technique, and digital fibrograph clamp of technique is entirely dependent on the objective of
technique were compared by using card and the study that needs to be carried out.
drawframe slivers and rovings both in forward and
reverse directions. These methods were found to be 3 Effect of Different Spinning Stages on Fibre
closely related with one another, inspite of differences Orientation and Quality of Sliver and Roving
in the concepts of measurement of fibre hooking and To understand the role of different spinning stages
orientation.4 A similar comparison revealed that the on fibre orientation and quality parameters, a
multiple correlation of %E, %C, %N with % hooks by significant research work has already been carried out
visual method is 0.9534 (ref.12). It was also proved by several researchers. In subsequent sections a brief
by the conclusion based on the evidence of combing account of those contributions has been discussed.
ratio’s that the quality of yarn is better when the
majority of hooks fed to ring frame are trailing as 3.1 Effect of Blowroom Process
brought out distinctly by the data on the hooks In cotton fibre, the purpose of the blowroom is to
measured by tracer fibre technique.13 open the hard pressed bales into small tufts which
 AKSHAY KUMAR et al.: IMPACT OF SPINNING PROCESS ON FIBRE ORIENTATION & YARNS PROPERTIES: PART 1 455

provide new surface for cleaning the material. heavier lap is fed to the card. This is due to more
However in man-mades, the blowroom is mainly carding force generated on the heavy fibre layer
responsible for the efficient opening of compact fibre present on the cylinder. But, final yarn quality in
mass in the bale form so that it can be processed terms of evenness and hairiness deteriorates.6
smoothly on subsequent process stages. The efficient Overall the blowroom machine has influence on
opening at blowroom stage not only improves fibre the opening, blending, cleaning, parallelization and
cleaning but also improves yarn properties, like yarn distribution of the mass in the subsequent products,
tenacity and total imperfections. However, with like sliver, roving and yarn, which, in turn, influences
excessive fibre openness these parameters deteriorate the quality of the final yarn also.25,26
sharply. The increase in imperfections at higher
openness is due to over beating than that which is 3.2 Effect of Carding Process
necessary, the fibres are stressed and damaged which Carding is the most important process responsible
then buckle and tend to form neps. The changes in for fibre individualization and straightness, which, in
fibre openness at blowroom do not appreciably turn, affects the fibre orientation in sliver, roving and
influence the yarn irregularity. The yarn hairiness yarn. Several researchers have studied the effect of
remains almost unchanged initially with the increase carding process parameters on fibre orientation and
in openness at blowroom, but at higher level of quality of sliver, roving and yarn. Carding is the first
openness it increases sharply. This is attributed to the process where fibre hooks are formed. The type of
overstressing of fibres at high values of openness with hooks and their amount play a vital role in deciding
staple shortening and generation of short fibres. These the fibre orientation and properties of sliver, roving
short fibres could be the cause of increase in hairiness and yarn and their properties. The majority of fibres
in yarn.18- 20 However, in a normal range of blowroom are hooked at one or both ends in the card sliver, and
treatment the degree of opening in the blowroom fibres having their trailing end hooked are dominant.
greatly affects the cleaning and lint loss at carding. The leading hooks are not only fewer in number than
But it does not appear to have a significant effect on the trailing hooks, but also they are appreciably
yarn quality and, in particular, on yarn strength, smaller.5 Initially, the configurations of fibres are
evenness and performance.21 A high degree of classified in five groups, namely (i) fibres whose
opening out in the blowroom reduces shortening of leading ends are hooked, (ii) fibres whose trailing
staple at the cards.22 Furthermore, the opening of ends are hooked, (iii) fibres with both ends are
fibres in the blowroom is essential to properly carry hooked, (iv) fibres of which neither end is hooked but
out the subsequent process of carding for fibre are not necessarily straight, and (v) fibres which
individualization, which, in turn, is essential for assumed any other shape unclassifiable under the
smooth drafting at the drawframe, roving frame and groups (i)-(iv), i.e. knotted fibres, looped fibres, etc.1
ring frame. Thorough opening of fibres is also Further, the mechanism of these different types of
essential for achieving a homogenous blend at the hook formation was classified accordingly. Basically,
yarn stage.23 Also, the operation of blowroom needs the fibres on the cylinder remain in two positions,
to be controlled depending upon the quality charac- namely (a) those which are held in the position by
teristics desired in yarn. Further, the consistency in their leading end being hooked round the cylinder
yarn count depends on the degree of mixing or wires, and (b) those which are not hooked around the
uniformity of the lap or batt produced.20 cylinder wires but held in position with the contact
and entanglement with the hooked fibres. Further
The opening at blowroom is primarily dependent when type (a) reaches the doffer, transfer takes place
on linear density of the lap processed. The reduction with relatively straight trailing ends lashed into the
in throughput rate/or thickness of the feed material to doffer wire point more firmly than the hooked end is
any machines improves the opening capability of that held by the cylinder. Otherwise, the fibres would be
machine.20 The heavier lap causes excessive beating drawn past the doffer, merely having their tails
at the card causing lap-ups in the card cylinder and brushed once again. The probability of such effective
formation of too many neps. 23 However, a good lashing into the doffer wire, however, seems to be
quality of sliver can be produced from a heavy lap by very remote. The class (b) type of fibres on reaching
using high draft at card.24 Further, the fibre the doffer will be arrested at its projecting part most
parallelization is always high, initially when the probably by actual contact with a doffer wire. The rest
456 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2008

of its length will immediately swept downwards by buckling of the front end of a fibre. When the front
the rapidly rotating cylinder forming a trailing hook end of a fibre moving with the velocity of the cylinder
by carding its leading end. Thus, the above two types comes in contact with the relatively slower moving
of fibre transfer in carding lead to majority of hooks doffer surface, it buckles, and if the fibre is loosely
in carding sliver as a trailing hook. The third group of held by the cylinder, it gets transferred without
the hooks may be formed in card sliver possibly due reversal. When conditions for buckling of front ends
to three mechanisms. Firstly, the downward trailing are satisfied, the probability of a fibre transferring
ends of the fibre immediately below the doffer setting from the cylinder to the doffer without reversal of
point may have their extremities slipped in to the form ends would depend largely on the nature and extent of
of a hook by the rapid passage of the cylinder wires. positive control exercised by the cylinder on the rest
Second possibility is that the hooking of the leading of the fibre.27 Quantitatively, in card sliver 50% are
ends is accomplished at the doffer comb. The majority trailing hooks, about 15% are leading hooks, about
of the fibres on the doffer may approach the doffer 15% are double hooks, and less than 20% of fibres are
comb with relatively straightened ends projecting not hooked at all. 22
forward and with its downward stroke be bent Further, several researchers have studied the effect
forward to form hook. Thirdly, the leading hooked of carding process parameters on fibre orientation and
ends at cylinder immediately after leaving the flats, if quality of sliver, roving and yarn. There are various
they are held loosely on cylinder surface, may processing factors affecting the quality of carding
dislodge from the cylinder under the influence of air operation. The effects of these factors are described
current especially below the bottom edge of the front briefly in next few sections.
plate. These fibres after dislodging from the cylinder
approaches to the doffer with hooked ends leading 3.2.1 Influence of Card Sliver Weight
and lying close to the cylinder surface though The sliver weight is changed either by changing
detached from it. Such leading ends conceivably linear density of lap feed for constant card draft or by
passed intact through cylinder and doffer.1 Overall, it changing card draft for a constant linear density of
was observed that the majority of fibres change their lap. The nature of change in the orientation of fibres
configuration during transfer. Hooks are formed and in sliver shows that the increase in sliver weight,
previously formed hooks are removed. Transfer of either through lap hank or through card draft,
fibres takes place both with and without reversal of decreases the proportion of curved fibre ends and
ends. The fibres that are transferred without reversal increases relative coefficient of fibre parallelization
change their configurations more. Thus, the number and projected mean length. This was explained on the
or the percentage of leading and trailing hooks in the basis of deposition of operational layers over cylinder.
web depends on the balance of three factors, namely As coarse lap is fed or card draft is reduced, the
(a) number of fibres with hooks transferred from the operational layers on the cylinder increases, which
cylinder to the doffer with or without reversal; (b) results in increase in the carding force due to the
number of straight ends hooked during transfer and increased inter-fibre friction. This ultimately increases
then transferred with or without reversal; and (c) the fibre straightening and decreases the proportion of
number of hooked ends straightened out due to curved fibre ends.24
carding action between the cylinder and the doffer. Furthermore, the cylinder-to-doffer fibre transfer
Further, the magnitudes of (a), (b) and (c) factors and decreases and cylinder load increases as sliver weight
hence the number of hooks are likely to be influenced is decreased. At low carding rate, increased sliver
by fibre, process and machine factors. weight caused smaller increase in majority hooks
(trailing) but definite decrease in minority hooks
Further, an increase in load on the operational layer (leading). Overall projected mean length decreases
of the cylinder would decrease the magnitude of with the increase in sliver weight. Card web neps and
positive control that cylinder wires have over yarn imperfections increase with the increase in
individual fibres. In such a state, fibre transfer will carding rate. At lower carding rate, sliver weight has
take place more easily without reversal, leaving the little effect on card web neps. However, at higher
leading hooks as leading hooks on the doffer surface. carding rate the coarse sliver appears to have fewer
It was also postulated that the formation of a leading neps. Although the trend was not consistent, this
hook on the doffer during transference is caused by could indicate a direct relationship between neps and
 AKSHAY KUMAR et al.: IMPACT OF SPINNING PROCESS ON FIBRE ORIENTATION & YARNS PROPERTIES: PART 1 457

minority hooks. Since the heavy weight sliver had of parallelization of fibres, was higher under bad
fewer minority hooks than the light weight sliver at carding condition at all the stages. The values of
high carding rate, the yarn imperfections increase PML with bad carding were much higher than those
with the increase in sliver weight. Also, the increased with good carding at card stage and subsequently as
draft necessary to process a heavy weight sliver the sliver was processed through drawing and roving.
relative to the light weight sliver into the same size This difference in PML at card stage due to carding
yarn caused yarn imperfections to increase. The condition gets narrowed down as the rate of
higher carding rates also improve fibre orientation, improvement of parallelization in the subsequent
which offset the increased short term variability of the process was high with good carding, possibly due
card sliver and improves drafting, resulting in a more to better fibre-to-fibre separation and degree of
uniform second drawing sliver. Sliver weight and parallelization obtained with good carding.
carding rate had little effect on the yarn uniformity. However, the difference in PML never vanishes
Overall, as the carding rate increases the strength and completely even up to roving.34 Furthermore, with
elongation decrease marginally. Also, yarn grade the bad carding conditions the effect of increased
deteriorates with the increase in sliver weight and relative speed of doffer causes reduction in majority
carding rate.24, 28-31 End breakage rates may increase hooks and increase in minority hooks at the card
with the increase in sliver weight. 31 stage. Majority hooks are more under good carding
Furthermore, it was also reported that both fibre at the card stage and this trend continues up to first
parallelization and fibre hooks decrease as card sliver and second drawing stages. Similarly, minority
weight increases, indicating that there are less total hooks are more under bad carding than with good
hooks in the heavy weight sliver than in the light carding condition at card stage and this trend
weight sliver, even though the fibres in the former are continues up to first and second drawing. This
less parallel than in the later.32 indicates that the rate of unhooking the hooked fibre
during drafting at drawing remains same, irrespective
3.2.2 Influence of Doffer Speed of the carding condition under which hooks are
A study conducted in Japan shows that at higher formed.34
card production rate the leading fibre hooks in the Further, the removal of neps at carding stage
sliver increase and the fibre arrangements in sliver significantly improves with the reduction in card
change. A distinct rise in the number of leading hooks production rate because of the intensive carding
at higher production rates can be seen, because of the action. At higher card production rate, neps level
reduced peripheral speed ratio of cylinder and doffer. tends to increase further at the drawing. Inferior
The number of reverse hooks decreases as the quality of carding at the higher card production rate
production rate increases, because of the higher may be responsible for the generation of neps at
tension drafts. Thus, high performance carding affects drawing. Better carding quality at lower card
not only the carding quality but also the yarn production rate improves the yarn tenacity.35
quality.33 However, an increase in card production rate
Similarly, bad carding, where cylinder speed is increases the neps in the sliver mainly due to inferior
reduced and doffer speed is increased from the carding quality at higher production rate. But, the
normal, gives better parallelization, but the rate of number of drawframe passage after carding does not
improvement in parallelization in the subsequent influence neps generation. Thick places and neps in
processes is better with good carding, probably due to ring yarn increase with the increase in card production
better fibre separation. Fibre separation seems to rate. The yarn unevenness (U %), however, increases
influence carding quality more than the fibre marginally with the increase in card production rate.36
parallelization. Open end spinning has been found to The above discussion reveals that the decrease in
be more sensitive to carding condition both for the card draft and production rate not necessarily
performance and yarn quality as compared to ring improves fibre orientation parameters in the sliver but
spinning. The measurement of hooks and fibre definitely improves the yarn properties. Apart from
parallelization in card, drawing slivers and roving deciding the quality parameters at various subsequent
showed that the projected mean length (PML) of stages the carding process also significantly affects
fibres in sliver and roving, which measure the degree the fibre orientation in sliver and roving.
458 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2008

3.2.3 Carding Force Further, the lack of fibre individualization and

In carding operation, the force required to drafting irregularities are two distinct causes of slubs,
individualize a tuft at cylinder-flat zone is called thick places and neps in yarns. Inadequate number of
carding force. Increase in the load on the operational doublings and/or unevenness of blending lead to
layer of the cylinder at a constant cylinder speed clustering of similar fibre and results in thick faults.23
linearly increases the carding force. Increase in the Further, an insufficient degree of orientation,
tuft size increases the carding force due to increase in entanglement of fibres, hairiness and presence of fibre
the pressure of the tuft during carding. When the fibre hooks facilitate the formation of neps. Breaking of
stock is not well opened, the increase in the fibre hooks may also cause the formation of neps
coefficient of inter-fibre friction increases the carding during drafting. Generally, the unopened fibrous neps
force. When the fibres are thoroughly opened and are progressively being reduced by blowroom and
disentangled, the carding force is influenced by the carding processes. But, after the blowroom and
coefficient of fibre-metal friction and not by the inter- carding processes the new neps are formed because
fibre friction. The changes in the carding parameters some unopened or entangled mass of fibres are still
leading to an increase in the load on the operational left in the material.19
layer of the cylinder are detrimental to the quality of Hence, it can be concluded from the above
carded sliver with regard to neps and regularity. The discussion that the process of carding drastically
ratio between the mean carding force and the load on changes the arrangement of fibres in sliver, roving
the operational layer of the cylinder or the mean and yarn. The effectiveness of carding operation is
carding force per unit load of fibre on the operational primarily dependent on the amount of material present
layer is a reliable index of carding quality. Increase in in operational layer on cylinder. Increasing the weight
carding force per unit load decreases both the neps of operation layer (either by feeding heavier lap or
content and the U % of the sliver.37-39 reducing card draft) sometimes improves the fibre
orientation by increasing the carding force but impairs
3.2.4 Influence of Carding Process on Yarn Characteristics the quality of sliver and final yarn. Further,
Overall, the carding process is expected to decreasing the weight of operational layer by
influence the characteristics of the preparatory increasing the doffer speed increases the neps in the
products and yarn quality to a considerable extent. sliver. Also, the process of carding generates lot of
Increase in openness by altering carding process hooks, majority of which are trailing followed by
parameters improves yarn regularity and tenacity up leading and double hooks. The magnitude of these
to a certain extent then deteriorate. Intensive opening hooks decides the amount of fibre parallelization that
generates short fibres, leading to uncontrolled drafting can be achieved in subsequent processes and, in turn,
and thus rendering the yarn uneven and weak. The the quality of sliver, roving and yarn produced. The
increase in openness of card web at lower level does amounts of hooks are also dependent on weight of
not affect the yarn hairiness but at higher level of operational layer on cylinder.
openness the hairiness increases with the increase in
openness. This can be attributed to generation of short 3.3 Effect of Drawing Process
fibres.40 Drafting arrangement, in particular, increases
Further, in case of man-made fibres, the finer and unevenness very considerably. In order to achieve
longer fibres tend to produce more neps in the yarn. usable yarn characteristics, the process must include
Excessive beating of fibres in the blowroom, loading operations which give an equalizing effect. This can
of licker-in or cylinder at the card, blunt wire points be doubling or leveling (drawing while simulta-
on various carding elements and excessive lap weight neously imparting twist). Doubling is still the most
are some of the major contributory factors. The widely used, but leveling is becoming gradually more
unopened fibrous neps are not only formed during significant in woolen spinning mill only. Doubling is
opening and carding but also at all subsequent infact a process of equalizing. Several products are
processes like drawing, roving and spinning with neps fed in together in sliver drafting arrangement, where
produced in blowroom and the card providing a the thick places generally tend to distribute and
nucleus. These neps are not only predominant but are compensate each other. In principle, every doubling is
largest among the different types of neps. These neps a transverse doubling also because the feeds are
show a large increase as the fibre length is increased. united side- by-side.41
 AKSHAY KUMAR et al.: IMPACT OF SPINNING PROCESS ON FIBRE ORIENTATION & YARNS PROPERTIES: PART 1 459

3.3.1 Influence of Drawframe on Fibre Straightening and contacts from other fibres is the density of the
Hook Removal effective fibre fringe which brushes past a hook or
It is well known that the drafting process, in through which the hook brushes. This is more at any
general, improves the fibre parallelization, and instant for the trailing hook, which therefore is
straightens the hooks present in the card sliver. But removed easily. However, the leading hooks are acted
sometime due to excessive parallelization, fibres in on by the fast moving fibres in the region of drafting
subsequent drawing process start relaxing. This can zone (i.e. nearer the back nip) where fibre density,
be observed in Fig. 6. In the drafting arrangement the inter-fibre friction, and fibre entanglements are higher
fibre hooks may be embedded in the body of fibres as most of the fibres in this region are fast moving and
either as leading or as trailing hooks. A trailing hook cannot therefore exercise an effective hook-removing
for a certain period moves with remainder of the fibre action on the slow moving leading hooks. 13
strand at the speed of back roller towards the front Further, fibre parallelization decreases as sliver
roller. If the fibre tip passes into the nip region of the weight increases, regardless of the processing stage.
drawing roller, the fibre is accelerated. However, The improvement in fibre parallelization from card to
since the trailing end is moving with a relatively thick the first drawing sliver average more than from first to
body of slowly moving fibres, the fibre is straightened second drawing, about a 3:1 ratio. This indicates that
before the whole fibre can reach the drawing speed the first drawing process is more critical than second
and the hook is eliminated. The straightening of drawing, since most of the fibre parallelization and
trailing hooks at the drawframe is shown in Fig. 7. On reduction in hooks take place at this process. It was
the other hand, leading hooks are immediately caught shown that the maximum fibre parallelization and
bodily by the front roller and carried along hooks reduction could be obtained at first drawing by
unchanged.41,42 The process of straightening is drafting the majority hooks in the trailing direction.
improved and accelerated when the amount of draft is This may be accomplished through use of unit carding
increased. 43 system. 13 Also, at first drawing, the trailing (minority)
However, it was also postulated that the hooks can hooks were reduced more than the leading (majority)
be removed in the drafting process only through hooks. At second drawing, the trailing (majority)
frictional contact with other fibres moving at a speed hooks were reduced more than the leading (minority)
different from that of the hooked fibre. The hook hooks. Sliver weight had no effect on hook removal
removal is greater when (i) the number of such for either the majority or minority hooks in few
contacts is larger at any instant and (ii) the cases.32
entanglement and cohesion with neighbouring fibres Further, the proportion of curved fibre ends (ρ)
moving at different speeds are greater. It was assumed
decreases and relative fibre parallelization (Κrp) and
that a hook is removed only if the other end of the
PML increase as the number of drawframe passage
fibre is positively gripped by a nip and that the
increases. It is interesting to note that the decrease in
floating fibres do not take any part in removing
hooks. Finally, it was concluded that the probability the value of ‘ρ’ and the increase in the value of ‘Κrp’
of removal of leading or trailing hook is same. It is and PML are more up to the first drawframe passage
as compared to the second drawframe passage for
probably because the total number of effective
both the cases. But in values of degree of

Fig. 6 — Fibre configuration in finisher sliver Fig. 7 —Straightening of hooks in the draw frame sliver
460 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2008

straightening of curved fibre ends (Eρ and Eκ), it is Further, the rotor yarn strength increases with the
observed that the value of ‘Eρ’ is more between the increase in drawframe passages. This is mainly due to
first and the second drawframe passages. This may be better orientation of fibre and improvement in mean
due to the feeding majority of trailing hooks as fibre length at rotor groove with the increase in
trailing to the drafting system of second drawframe, drawframe passages, which is due to better fibre
which straightens out the trailing hooks during extent in the yarn. Yarn uniformity could be improved
drafting.6,24 with the increase in number of drawframe passages.
Further, with the constant carding conditions, the Neps and thin places do not show any trend, but thick
ratio of majority hooks to minority hooks is constant places increase with the introduction of drawframe
for a wide range of fibre mean length and a moderate passages. 46
range of fibre fineness. During processing when 3.3.2 Influence of Draft and Doublings
majority hooks trails in first and second drawing, the Apart from number of drawframes used, the
increase in fibre parallelization over the conventional amount of draft and doublings at drawframe also
drafting direction is independent of mean fibre plays a crucial role in deciding the quality of sliver,
length.44 Furthermore, the fibres in the sliver exhibit roving and yarn. Increase in draft and doublings
grouping behaviour during drafting. The grouping improve fibre parallelization, but decrease sliver
behaviour is directly related to the drafting uniformity. The increase in fibre parallelization over
performance with optimum roller setting leading to shadowed the decrease in sliver uniformity, resulting
lower grouping tendencies. Fibre orientation, fibre in a decrease in spinning end breakage. Total draft
type and the performance of earlier processes are and doublings had no measurable effect on percentage
expected to be the major factors influencing the of hook reduction. There was a slight increase in fibre
grouping. This grouping behaviour is responsible for parallelization and decrease in sliver uniformity with
the use of wider settings earlier in the process line. On increased draft and doublings, indicating that the fibre
comparing for breaker and finisher drawings, there parallelization and sliver uniformity were not directly
appears to be longer fibre groups in the finisher related. 32
drawing. The longer group sizes are attributed to the Furthermore, the sliver irregularity can be evened
drafting process orienting the fibre groups along the by doubling slivers together at the drawframe;
axis of the strand. Effects of fibre hooks and their however, this evening action becomes ineffective as
opening in the finisher drawing also play a part in the the wavelength of the irregularity increases. 47 An 8-
longer group lengths observed.45 fold doubling in comparison to the 6-fold doubling
Significant improvements in the regularity of the does not cause any improvement on drafted sliver and
roving and the yarn result from the incorporation of roving unevenness % and no significant difference in
two additional drawings. The extent of improvement the number of hooks in sliver. However, the reduction
varies with the type of material processed. It is in number of hooks at roving is more in case of 8-
interesting to note that the improvements in the doubling sliver. The increase in number of doublings
evenness are not reflected in the strength of the yarn, at drawframe does not cause any improvement in
which is nearly unaffected by the use of additional mass unevenness in the ring and rotor yarns. The
drawing. This is contrary to the earlier findings on tensile strength clearly increases in ring yarn with the
direct sliver-to-yarn spinning frame where improved increase in number of drawframe passage because of
parallelization leads to better yarn strength. The results better parallelization of the fibres, and the related
have clearly demonstrated that the improved paralleli- increase in fibre-fibre friction. The increase in
zation in the ingoing (feed) material contributes to doublings also increases the tensile strength. In rotor-
better drafting at both speed and ring frames. The use spun yarn, the tensile strength of the yarn produced
of additional drawings thus offers a convenient means directly from the card sliver is even higher than that
of upgrading the evenness of carded cotton and man- of the yarn produced from drafted sliver. This proves
made staple fibre yarns. When additional drawings are that the parallelization of the fibres deteriorates in
used with short staple material, it may be necessary to rotor spinning. The increase in number of doublings
maintain the sliver hank on coarser side in order to decreases the breaking elongation in ring yarn but the
minimize the incidence of stretch and sliver breaks at values are unaffected in the rotor yarn. An 8-fold
the creel of the speed frame. 43 doubling on the drawing frame leads, for both yarn
 AKSHAY KUMAR et al.: IMPACT OF SPINNING PROCESS ON FIBRE ORIENTATION & YARNS PROPERTIES: PART 1 461

types, no detectable reduction in number of thick and count shows that the effect of fibre arrangements
places.48 However, the increased number of doublings in the input sliver on drafting irregularities is not
not only improves the irregularity but also the mixing sensitive to the count spun.43
in the sliver. The best strength was achieved with a Two passages of drawing followed by can-fed
draft of eight and eight doublings, which gave only speed frame are a standard processing sequence for
slight changes in yarn evenness and imperfections.31 It carded counts in a modern spinning layout. This is
was also found that on drawing frame, the best overall because of the favourable drafting direction at the ring
results are obtained by using light weight slivers and a frame and the minimum processing costs associated
draft of eight and eight doublings.49 with this system.43 In general, the trailing hook must
In general, it can be said from the above discussion be presented to the ring spinning machine. Thus, there
that the increase in number of draw frame passages or should be an odd number of passages between the
number of doublings improves the properties of yarn. card and the ring spinning machine.41
Apart from the above two factors there are other
drawing parameters, which decide the fibre orient- 3.3.4 Influence of Drafting Force
tation in sliver and hence affect the quality of yarn. The resistance met by the drafting roller when
These factors are discussed briefly in subsequent drawing a sliver is called the drafting force.50
sections. Basically, drafting takes place in three operating
stages, namely straightening of the fibre, elongation
3.3.3 Influence of Direction of Hooks in Sliver of the fibres and sliding of the fibres out of the
In general, feeding majority hooks in the leading surrounding fibre strand. So, the force acting on the
direction contributed to more irregularities and the fibre called drafting force, which enables to move the
size of the effect was not dependent upon the draft or fibre by pulling it from the restraining force due to
the count spun. Direction of feed of the hooks had no relatively slow moving fibres in the back roller grip,
significant effect on irregularities at the can-fed speed first increases sharply. This causes straightening and
frame under normal conditions. extending of the fibres. Once the fibres start sliding,
Feeding the leading hooks contributes to more yarn drafting force drops down drastically. Overall drafting
irregularity and poorer strength, but the magnitude of force decreases as the draft increases, since a higher
the effect was nearly of the same order, with the degree of draft implies fewer fibres in the cross-
second and third passage slivers as regards section. Besides this, drafting force is also dependent
irregularity and slightly more marked with second on the arrangement of the fibre in the strand (parallel
passage sliver as regards strength. Apart from or crossed), cohesion between the fibres (surface
improving the fibre parallelization, the use of structure, crimp and finish), fibre length and nip
additional drawing also introduces a reversal in the spacing.41
direction of drafting of the hooked ends at the Further, for a constant weight of sliver entering the
subsequent stage, and to evaluate the effect of drafting zone, the drafting force in one zone is
parallelization alone, the spinning with the same feed inversely proportional to the draft and thus directly
directions must be compared. When this is done, proportional to the number of fibres being withdrawn
parallelization found to contribute towards better by the front rollers of the zone. When this number is
drafting, as indicated by lesser number of changed by feeding a heavier sliver, the force
irregularities and higher strengths and the increases more than in proportion to the weight. This
improvement obtained seems to be of the same order is because heavier slivers are more compact. But,
for both the feed directions of the majority hooks at considering the forces in the different zones of
the ring frame. Favourable feed direction (obtained by drawframe, it is proportional to the number of fibres
reversal) has, in general, greater effects on drafting under the front rollers of a zone.51 However, for very
quality than parallelization (achieved through low drafts, the drafting force increases first to a peak
additional drawing). The difference in drafting as the draft increases and then decreases.52
irregularities due to fibre disorder and feed direction Furthermore, particularly for short fibres, a high ratio
does not vary much with the draft. Further, the draft of the number of fibres in front roller nip to the
ratio has no effect on irregularity, a lower draft at the number of fibres being delivered by the back roller at
front zone leads to slightly better yarn strength for all any instant will cause an increase in pulling force
input slivers. The relation between relative variance exerted by the faster fibres. But for apron drafting
462 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2008

systems, this ratio can be kept low enough to prevent of the fibres to go forward in clumps. Secondly, in
the bunching of the fibres dragged into the front roller drafting, the fibres move in subgroup and the
nip.53 independent drafting of the length-wise strips of the
However, there is no relationship between the sliver is more marked when the fibres are more nearly
inter-fibre friction as a measure of drafting force and parallel. The number of sub-slivers is therefore
drafting irregularity. This is because the overall greater, and the coefficient of variation of the drafting
change in the inter-fibre friction would not affect the wave is less. For the same cotton the irregularity of
motion of the floating fibre; to do this it would be the yarn is greater with the higher count; for the same
necessary to increase considerably the difference count the irregularity is less when the fibres are
between static and kinetic frictions.54 finer.56 Overall increase in amplitude of drafting wave
impairs the quality of sliver and thus yarns.59
3.3.5 Drafting Wave
During the roller drafting of cotton, the rollers 3.3.6 Sliver Strength
cannot set much closer than the length of the longest The force required to slide past the fibres in a sliver
fibre and consequently most of the fibres are, for a is termed as sliver strength. The sliver strength can
time, out of the control of the rollers. These fibres are also be used as a measure of fibre alignment in top-
called floating fibres. The undue movement of these making. The fibre alignment and sliver strength
floating fibres is responsible for the generation of a increase during the first and second gillings, but only
periodic irregularity called drafting wave in the a small increase during the third gilling. The principal
material.55 factors determining sliver strength are: (i) fibre length
The drafting wave is basically caused by the and its variability, (ii) intrinsic fibre strength, (iii)
position of the change point depending on the number fibre-alignment, (iv) fibre-straightness and (v) sliver
of fibres held by the front rollers. The thickness of tension during testing. But in gilling, the major
drafted sliver then tends to vary periodically. The changes are those of fibre alignment along the axis of
drafting waves in different length-wise strips of the the sliver and a reduction of fibre hooks.60
sliver are formed more or less independently. Further, However, in cotton sliver, the fibre configuration
according to theory of drafting wave all the floating mainly affects the sliver strength. As the fibre
fibres in the part of the drafting zone just behind the parallelization improves with the successive passages
front rollers are dragged rapidly forward by the fibres of drawing, the sliver strength drops. In the card
held by front rollers, so that a gap free of floating sliver, the inter-fibre friction and sliver strength show
fibres is left in the sub-sliver. The fibres that are held a positive correlation. But, as the fibre parallelization
by the back rollers and then move forward with back improves with the successive passages of drawing, the
roller speed until the gap has passed into the drafted sliver strength drops and the difference in the strength
sliver. The snatching process is then repeated and of the sliver having different frictional values
caused a periodic irregularity, called drafting wave in narrows. Thus, fibre orientation affects sliver strength
the material.56-59 However, in apron drafting, it is much more than the values of inter-fibre friction. 61
considered that the irregularity due to the drafting Further, the cotton slivers possess very lower
wave is at a low level because of the control affected strength and are liable to unexpected drafting and
by the apron. However, the drafting wave is mainly breakages during processing. If the sliver strength is
caused by the varying acceleration of floating fibres.57 not appropriately controlled, sliver and roving become
Further, when high drafts are used without the uneven and frequent end breaks may occur. The
employment of a special drafting system the resulting carded sliver tenacity is halved after the two drawing
yarn is usually more irregular due to increase of passages. This is attributed to fibre-straightening and
drafting wave amplitude.55 Overall, relative variance fibre parallelization activity in the card slivers.
of the sliver or roving also increases steadily as the Further, the fibres became more straightened and
draft is increased. Further, there are two reasons why parallelized, and more intimately packed in the sliver,
the straightness and parallelism of the fibres affect the leading to higher sliver density or lower sliver bulk.
amplitude of the drafting wave. In the first place, the This means that the sliver bulkiness reflects the fibre
greater entanglement, which occurs when the fibres straightening and fibre parallelization in the sliver.
are not parallel, prevents the smooth sliding of the Increase in number of drawing process leads to
fibres past one another and so increases the tendency decrease in sliver bulk and further reduction in sliver
 AKSHAY KUMAR et al.: IMPACT OF SPINNING PROCESS ON FIBRE ORIENTATION & YARNS PROPERTIES: PART 1 463

strength along with an increase in fibre straightening

and fibre parallelization. The number of drawing
passages has more influence on the sliver strength
than the total draft and doublings experienced by the
slivers. This was probably due to the reversal of the
sliver processing direction at each drawing passage
that played an important role in the straightening and
parallelization of the fibres. Increase in draft/
doublings at the I drawframe passage increases the
strength of the sliver. This effect is diminished at the
II drawframe passage. The increase in number of Fig. 8 —Fibre configuration in roving
doublings at constant drawframe draft increases the
However, for the best results from apron drafting,
tenacity and evenness. The increase in tenacity is due
adequate parallelization of fibres must be obtained in
to reduced improvement in terms of fibre
the ingoing (feed) sliver. This is the reason why
straightening and fibre parallelization. It can be
concepts of apron drafting failed in the case of
deduced from the above discussion that the sliver
drawframe. The fibres become more parallel and
strength is affected by drafting conditions and fibre
straighten in comparison to the drawframe sliver and
orientation in sliver.62 Further, in viscose fibre, the
do not get much chance to relax after drafting system
tenacity of I drawframe sliver is higher than card
due to the presence of twist.6 The state of fibres in the
sliver, whereas II drawframe sliver is having the
drafted roving is shown in Fig. 8. Further, in general
lowest value of tenacity.6 The increase in value of
the irregularities added at the speed frame are not
‘Krpm’ increases the tenacity of carding and I stage of
influenced by the feed direction of the hooks in the
drawframe sliver, whereas trend reverses in finisher
feed sliver especially for coarse roving. But it
sliver due to fibre relaxation as shown in Fig. 7.
acquires significant importance as the roving is made
Overall, the literature on drawing process reveals finer. Feeding the hooks as leading results in more
that the process of drafting adds to irregularity by irregularities in the case of finer roving.43
generation of drafting wave in the drafted material. Furthermore, the products drafted on apron drafting
However, the number of doublings given on systems also exhibit drafting waves like roller
drawframe reduces the amplitude of irregularity by drafting. This suggests that the drafting wave is a
equalizing effect. Further, fibre straightness and feature of drafting process and could originate from
parallelization improve with the amount of draft but factors other than uncontrolled acceleration of short
deteriorate with the increase in number of doublings fibres. With cut staple fibre in particular the drafting
given at draw frame. The fibre parallelization and wave could result from acceleration of leading hooked
straightness and added irregularity in the sliver are portion of the fibre which results in too early a feed
also dependent on feed direction of the sliver to the for some of the fibres or from elastic movement of
drawframe. Thus, the properties of sliver are governed fibre assembly in the drafting zone. Finally, it appears
by counteracting effect of drafting and doublings, that the drafting waves introduced at the speed frame
which, in turn, affects the quality of final yarn. are of low amplitude compared to other irregularities,
and reversal and drafting at the ring frame reduce the
3.4 Effect of Roving Process amplitude further so that they are not seen in the yarn.
It is well known that the drafting of cotton sliver Further, the yarn produced from the roller drafting is
and roving is accompanied by the increase in more irregular and weaker than that from apron
irregularity. Though in the drawframe this increase is drafting, the difference in uniformity is more
not apparent as it is compensated by doubling, in the pronounced than that in strength.63
speed and spinning frames the irregularity increases at 3.4.1 Effect of Speed Frame Draft
each machine until the yarn is many times more Draft given at the speed frame is a crucial factor
irregular than the sliver from which it was made. affecting quality of roving and yarn. The increase in
Further, the relation between the variance and the the irregularity of a fibrous product during drafting is
draft is linear and the slope of the line increases the result of irregular fibre movements arising from
sharply as the hank feed is finer.56 the following principal factors: (i) the irregularity of
464 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2008

the product entering the drafting system, (ii) an as a basis for evaluating the effects on yarn properties
unsatisfactory technical condition of elements of the and spinning end breakage. While converting sliver
drafting system, (iii) faults in its design and (iv) into roving, the draft (approximately 8) should reduce
structural unevenness i.e. uneven distribution of fibres the amount of hooks. However, while measuring
of different lengths in cross-section of the product. hooks by the Lindsley technique, the twist in the
The irregular movement increases with the draft and roving is not removed, and this hides or masks the
with the difference in the lengths of the fibres in the true reduction in the amount of hooks caused by the
roving. It follows that the irregular movements occur roving draft.44
at any draft and in any drafting field and that their
magnitude increases with the draft.64 3.4.4 Roving Strength
However, on speed frame drafting, the irregularity Apart from the parameters, which decide sliver
added is relatively low and nearly independent of strength, the roving strength is additionally dependent
draft.63 Contrary to the above, greater the draft at on the amount of twist inserted in the roving. The
speed frame, the higher will be the level of inter-dependence of twist and strength in roving may
parallelism in the roving.6,65 The higher roving draft be explained by two effects. Either the fibres slip or
required for the heavy sliver influences parallelization they hold until the tension becomes too high and then
more effectively than roving evenness.49 In turn, the break. The amount of twist determines which of these
increase in draft at speed frame improves the effects will occur. For small twist, parting is by fibre
properties of relatively poor carded material in ring slippage at a low tension. As the twist increases, the
and rotor yarns.6 strength also increases, but parting is still by slippage
Apart from the amount of draft given at speed up to the point where the strength is equal to the
frame, there are some other factors, which decide the combined breaking strength of all the fibres in the
quality of roving produced. These factors are cross-section. This is the maximum strength; further
described in forthcoming sections. increase in twist beyond this value means that the
parting is by fibre breakage, but the strength does not
3.4.2 Drafting Force
increase and ultimately diminishes because of the
In a double apron drafting system, the drafting
increased angle at which fibres are inclined to the
force increased with the size of the front beard, i.e.
axis.67 Further, stronger finisher sliver produces
with total draft, fibre length and speed of drafting.
stronger roving.6
The drafting force is decreased as break draft and
apron-to-apron spacing increased. There was a 3.4.5 Effect of Roving Twist and Ring Frame Break Draft
difference in the force when the roving was fed in the The main objective of break draft is to straighten
normal direction and then in the reverse, thus showing and redistribute the roving twist to a greater length
that the effect of fibre hooking originated at the card before the main draft. Further, the higher twist in the
still persists at the spinning frame. For good spin, a roving may exert some control over the short fibres
certain amount of fibre tension is necessary at the and so reduces the amplitude of the drafting wave.68
front draft zone. But an excessive tension of the front Also, on evaluation of the irregularity of drafting
beard will not always lead to optimum conditions. roving by its performance on the ring frame, it was
Further by measuring the drafting force at the front revealed that as the break draft is too low, the twisted
draft zone, it was possible to detect the effect of fibre roving cannot be properly drafted, resulting in
hooking originated at the card. The force was higher increase in thick places in yarn. But as the draft ratio
when the majority of hooks were trailing. Further a increases the drafting force increases and the fibre
certain amount of fibre tension is necessary in apron crimps and hooks are straightened, which is beneficial
zone for optimum yarn properties. Generally, high to improve uniformity of the drafted roving. Later,
values of drafting force are associated with the best fibres slip partially but the static friction has not yet
properties of the spun yarn, but too high a fibre been overcome. In this zone, the drafting force
tension may lead to deterioration in yarn properties.66 reaches a maximum value with increasing
3.4.3 Behaviour of Hooks in Roving Process fluctuations, which results in unsteady draft behaviour
The relationship between the total amount of hooks and thus worsens the uniformity of the drafted roving.
in sliver and roving for cotton is linear. Therefore, it When passing over the peak region, the fibres begin
is sufficient to analyze hooks in sliver prior to roving to slip before the roving is completely drafted. In this
 AKSHAY KUMAR et al.: IMPACT OF SPINNING PROCESS ON FIBRE ORIENTATION & YARNS PROPERTIES: PART 1 465

dynamic friction behaviour, both the force and its yarn due to less spreading of fibres in the drafting
fluctuation decrease. But it frequently causes a zone. However, higher drafting force is required to
drafting wave in the drafted roving because of the draft the high strength roving which may add to the
higher draft ratio. This drafting wave remains in the irregularity in the yarn. The increase in draft at the
yarn and tends to cause serious thick and thin places speed frame increases fibre parallelization and
in the spun yarn. Higher break draft ratios increase the reduces number of hooks due to increased drafting
U % of drafted roving and lower the yarn quality.69 force acting on the fibre.
Further, the migration of the fibres in the cross- Thus, draft given at every stage of spinning
section of the roving impairs the mixing uniformity preparatory plays an important role in deciding
achieved in the proceeding operations of the spinning quality of the product produced on subsequent
section. This migration generally increases with the machines and ultimately the properties of the yarn.
increase in twist in the roving.70
Also, as the break draft increases there is an 4 Conclusions
increase in the drafting tenacity (force required to The method of measuring fibre orientation
slide past the fibres in dynamic condition) up to a parameters at various stages in the spinning was
maximum. This is followed by a decrease in the started in 1950s and still persisting. The modifications
tenacity for further increase in break draft. This is in various measuring techniques were done but
because at lower break draft in the neighborhood of 1, principally the concept was almost similar. The
the fibre density in the cross-section of roving, i.e. the orientation parameters have a very good correlation
fibre-to-fibre contact has not reached its maximum with the properties of sliver, roving and yarns and are
value. But as the break draft increases so does fibre useful in explaining the effect of spinning process
density at back roller, until a maximum is reached, parameters on properties.
after which fibre slippage begins. On reaching this It has been revealed that the carding is the most
point, further increase in break draft entails a decrease important process stage, which affects the properties
in fibre contact and drafting tenacity starts to decay.71 of sliver, roving and ring, rotor and air-jet yarns. The
effect of drawing and doublings at subsequent stages
Furthermore, tenacity increases with the increase in
also plays a significant role in deciding the quality of
roving twist multiplier. However, this characteristic of
intermediate products and yarn quality. Speed frame
roving does not always lead to the expected increase
is also crucial process which decides the final quality
in yarn strength.72 Infact, the yarn tenacity increases
of yarn. The negative effect of preceding spinning
to a maximum value then decreases as the roving
machine can be overcome by proper selection of
twist multiplier (TM) increases. However, the yarn
parameters at the speed frame. Finally, the draft
uniformity first increases and then decreases with the
distribution and roving twist affect the quality of yarn
increase in roving TM in majority of the cases. This is
and should be decided judicially by proper
because the increase in roving TM increases the inter-
optimization.
fibre friction due to more contact area, which creates
problem during drafting and ultimately deteriorates
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(about 2s Ne hank roving). Hence, the optimum draft 21(1951)39-46.
distribution is observed which exists between speed 3 Leont’eva I S, Problem of fibre straightening during sliver
preparation, Tech Text Ind USSR, (2) (1964)57-63.
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4 Iyer I K P, Parathasarthy M S & Sundram V, Study on
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5 Morton W E & Yen K C, The arrangement of fibres in fibro
drafting. Further, an increase in draft at speed frame
yarns, J Text Inst, 43(1952) T463-T472.
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produced with higher twist, produces higher tenacity Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India, 2004.
466 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2008

7 Hearle J W S & Gupta B S, Migration of fibres in yarns: Part 27 Sengupta A K & Chatopadhyay R, Change in configuration
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