The Ancient

Near East
An Encyclopedia
for Students
The Ancient
Near East
An Encyclopedia
for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief

JackM. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 1

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

An Imprint of The Gale Group
NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT
Copyright © 2000 Charles Scribner's Sons

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the
permission of Charles Scribner's Sons.

Developed for Charles Scribner's Sons by Visual Education Corporation, Princeton, N.J.

ForScribners
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Ancient Near East: an encyclopedia for students / Ronald Wallenfels,
editor in chief; Jack M. Sasson, consulting editor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-684-80597-9 (set: alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-80589-8 (vol. 1)
— ISBN 0-684-80594-4 (vol. 2) — ISBN 0-684-80595-2 (vol. 3) — ISBN
0-684-80596-0 (vol. 4)
1. Middle East—Civilization—To 622—Dictionaries, Juvenile.
[1. Middle East—Civilization—To 622—Encyclopedias.] I. Wallenfels,
Ronald. II. Sasson, Jack M.

DS57.A6772000
939'.4—dc21 00-056335
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
MAPS sc CHARTS
Volume 1 The Hittite Empire, ca. 1300-1200 B.C 169
The Akkadian Empire, ca. 2200 B.C 19 Principal Symbols of Mesopotamian
The Empire of Alexander the Great, 323 B.C 24 Deities 184-185
Ancient Near Eastern Scripts 29 Volume 3
Anatolia, ca. 1500-700 B.C 37 The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah in the
Arabia and Its Neighbors, ca. 1000 B.C 50 mid-800s B.C 14
The Neo-Assyrian Empire, 744-612 B.C 88 Language Families of the Ancient
The Neo-Babylonian Empire Under Near East 48
Nabonidus, 555-539 B.C 103 Price of Goods During the Old Babylonian
Central Asia, ca. 1000 B.C 153 Empire 73
Time Line of Ancient Near Eastern Mesopotamia 94
Civilizations 167 Staff of the Temple at Nippur 159
Volume 2 The Persian Empire 172
Development of the Cuneiform Script 20 Trading Empire of the Phoenicians, First
Principal Road Connections of the Uruk Millennium B.C 185
Period, ca. 3500-3000 B.C 48 Volume 4
Ancient Egypt 58 Sites of Pyramids in Ancient Egypt 21
Gems of the Ancient Near East 115 Ancient Sumer, ca. 3500-2800 B.C 101
Physical Map of the Ancient Near East, Ancient Syria, ca. 2000-1200 B.C 110
ca. 1500 B.C 119 Development of Writing 170

COLOR PLATES
Volume 1 Volume 3
Color plates for Religion Color plates for Architecture and Tombs
Volume 2 Volume 4
Color plates for Daily Life Color plates for Arts and Culture

VOLUME I
Preface Adad Ahura Mazda
The Near East in Prehistoric Times Aegean Sea Akhenaten
A Time Line of the Ancient Near East Afterlife Akhetaten
Agriculture Akkad and the Akkadians
A Ahab Alalakh
Abu Simbel Ahmose Alexander the Great
Abydos Ahriman Alphabets

V
Table of Contents

Amarna Aten Camels

Amorites Athaliah Canaan
Amulets and Charms Canals
Amun
Anat
B Capital Punishment
Caravans
Anatolia Baal Caria and the Carians
Animals Baal Cycle Carthage
Animals, Domestication of Babylon gatal Huyuk
Animals in Art Babylonia and the Babylonians Cats
Anu Bactria Cattle
Arabia and the Arabs Bahrain Caucasus
Aramaeans Bas-Reliefs Cavalry
Archaeology and Archaeologists Behistun Inscription Central Asia
Architecture Bible, Hebrew Cereal Grains
Ark of the Covenant Birds in Art Chaldea and the Chaldeans
Armies Book of the Dead Chariots
Art, Artisans, and Artists Books and Manuscripts Childbirth
Artaxerxes I, II, and III Bricks Children
Aryans Building Materials Chronicles
Ashur (city) Burial Sites and Tombs Chronology
Ashur (deity) Byblos Cities and City-States
Ashurbanipal
Ashurnasirpal II
Assyria and the Assyrians c Index

Astrology and Astrologers Calendars

Astronomy and Astronomers Cambyses II

VOLUME 2
A Time Line of the Ancient Near East Darius I and Darius III Education
Date Palms and Dates Egypt and the Egyptians
C (Continued) David El
Death and Burial Elam and the Elamites
Clay Tablets Decipherment Enlil
Cleopatra Demons Entertainment
Climate Disasters, Natural Environmental Change
Clothing Divorce Epic Literature
Communication Djoser Eridu
Cosmetics Dreams Esarhaddon
Creation Myths Drought Eshnunna
Crete Dynasties Ethnic and Language Groups
Cults Eunuchs
Cuneiform Euphrates River
Cyprus E
Cyrus the Great
Ea
F
D Earthquakes
Ebla Faience
Damascus Economy and Trade Family and Social Life
Dance Edicts Famine
vi
 Table of Contents

Feasts and Festivals Goats History and Historiography

Fertile Crescent Gods and Goddesses Hittites
Fishing Government Horses
Flax Greece and the Greeks Horus
Flood Legends Gudea Houses
Floods Human Form in Art
Food and Drink Humor
Fortifications H Hunting
Furnishings and Furniture Hair Hurrians
Hamitic Languages Hyksos
Hammurabi Hymns
G Hammurabi, Code of
Games
Gardens
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Harbors
I
Gates Hathor Iconography
Gems Hatshepsut Incense
Gender and Sex Health Indo-European Languages
Geography Hebrews and Israelites
Gilgamesh Hellenistic World Index
Giza Herodotus
Glass and Glassmaking Hieroglyphics

VOLUME 3
A Time Line of the Ancient Near East Karnak Lions
Kassites Lisht
Khatti Literature
I (Continued)
Khattusha Love
Inscriptions Khattushili I Lunar Theory
Iran Khattushili III Luwians
Irrigation Khepat Luxor
Isaiah Khufu Lycia and the Lycians
Ishtar King Lists Lydia and the Lydians
Isis Kings
Israel and Judah
Ivory
Kish
Knossos
M
j Kumarbi
Kush and Meroe
Macedonia
Magic
Maps
Jeremiah
Jericho
L Marduk
Mari
Jerusalem Labor and Laborers Markets
Jewelry Lagash Marriage
Judaism and Jews Land Use and Ownership Mathematics
Languages Measurement
K Lapis Lazuli
Law
Medes
Medicine
Kalkhu Libraries and Archives Mediterranean Sea, Trade on
Karkamish Libyans Megiddo

vii
Table of Contents

Melukkha Names, Personal Omens

Memphis Naram-Sin Oracles and Prophecy
Merchants Naval Power Osiris
Mesopotamia Nebuchadnezzar II
Messengers Necho II
Metals and Metalworking Nefertiti p
Migration and Deportation Neo-Hittites
Mining Nile River Palaces and Temples
Minoan Civilization Nineveh Papyrus
Money Nippur Parthia
Monotheism Nitokris Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel
Mosaic Law Nomads and Nomadism Peasants
Moses Nubia and the Nubians Perfumes
Mummies Numbers and Numerals Persepolis
Music and Musical Instruments Nuzi Persian Empire
Mycenae and the Mycenaeans Persian Wars
Mythology Pharaohs
o Philistines
Phoenicia and the Phoenicians
N Obsidian
Offerings
Nabonidus Olives Index
Nabopolassar Oman Peninsula

VOLUME 4
A Time Line of the Ancient Near East R
Satraps
Schools
Ramses II Science and Technology
P (Continued) Ramses III Scribes
Phrygia and the Phrygians Record Keeping Sculpture
Red Sea Scythia and the Scythians
Pigs
Religion Seals
Planets
Rhodes Sea Peoples
Poetry
Rituals and Sacrifice Seleucid Empire
Polygamy
Pottery Rivers Semiramis
Roads Semites
Prayer
Rosetta Stone Semitic Languages
Pregnancy
Sennacherib
Priests and Priestesses
Property and Property Rights
Proverbs
s Servants
Seth
Sahara Desert Setyl
Psalms
Samaria Shalmaneser III
Ptolemy I
Samaritans Shalmaneser V
Pyramids
Samsu-iluna Shamshi-Adad I
Sardinia Sheep
Q Sardis
Sargon I
Shipping Routes
Ships and Boats
Queens Sargon II Shulgi
viii
 Table of Contents

Shuppiluliuma I Tigris River Wars and Warfare

Sidon Tools Water
Sinai, Mount Torah Weapons and Armor
Sinai Peninsula Trade Routes Wine
Slaves and Slavery Transportation and Travel Witchcraft
Social Institutions Troy Women, Role of
Soldiers Tutankhamen Wood and Woodworking
Solomon Tyre Work
Sphinx Writing
Stars
u
Stone
Sudan x
Ugarit
Sumer and the Sumerians Umma Xerxes
Sumerian Language Ur
Sun
Susa and Susiana
Urartu
Urbanization
Y
Syria Ur-Nammu Yahweh
Uruk
T z
Taharqa V Ziggurats
Taxation Zimri-Lim
Valley of the Kings
Ten Commandments Zodiac
Teshub Valley of the Queens
Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism
Volcanoes
Textiles
Thebes Suggested Readings
Theology
Thera
w Photo Credits
Index
Thutmose III Walled Cities
Tiglath-pileser III Wall Paintings

ix
 PREFACE
The American public seems to have a keen interest work is a diverse collection of nearly 200 essays writ-
in worlds of long ago and far away. Television and ra- ten by scholars of international repute, including an-
dio programs, newspaper articles, magazines, and now thropologists, archaeologists, art historians,biblicists,
a burgeoning number of Internet sites present the historiographers, and philologists. CANE contains a
latest dramatic findings, such as newly discovered thorough treatment of the history and culture of the
tombs, shipwrecks, and inscriptions. Also available are core of the ancient Near East, including Syria, the Lev-
the latest interpretations of evidence as well as a con- ant, Iraq, and western Iran, and links those regions
stant stream of material on the ancient world, espe- with the Eastern Mediterranean world of Greece and
cially ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Bible. The Egypt to the west and Anatolia and Central Asia to
public's interest stems from a fascination with ancient the north and east. The essays span the period from
treasures and mysteries, and at a more personal and the time of the invention of writing toward the end
emotional level, from a desire to search for cultural of the fourth millennium B.C. through the invasion
and religious roots. of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great near the
Despite, or perhaps because of, the scope of the end of the fourth century B.C.
readily available material, the public seems to hold a The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students
rather parochial view of the ancient world, especially (ANE) is largely an alphabetized abstract of CANE, tai-
of the ancient Near East. Stereotyped ideas persist, in- lored especially for young readers. It is a companion vol-
cluding the notion that the roots of western culture lie ume to Ancient Greece and Rome (1998), which likewise
almost exclusively in ancient Greece and Rome, that was drawn in part from a more academic Scribner work,
Greek culture was largely indigenous, that pharaonic Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean: Greece and
Egypt is the oldest civilization, and that the Bible is Rome (1988). ANE is a tribute to the efforts of Scribners'
largely limited to its connections to these cultures. As Karen Day and Timothy J. DeWerff for producing
a result, nearly everyone has heard of Julius Caesar, a student encyclopedia that is readable and visually
King Tut (Tutankhamen), Queen Cleopatra, and King appealing, and at the same time, a reasonable reflec-
Solomon, but beyond name recognition, few have any tion of the current state of scholarly understanding.
real knowledge of who they were, when they lived, It fell to Visual Education Corporation of Princeton,
or their real significance in history. Fewer yet, beyond N.J., to take what began as a shopping list of subjects as-
those who attend Sunday school, will have much sembled by Jack Sasson and me and develop an entry
awareness of such peoples as the Amorites, Aramaeans, list addressing the significant aspects of ancient Near
Assyrians, Canaanites, Hittites, Medes, Phoenicians, or Eastern history and culture. The criteria for selection for
Phrygians, let alone individual figures. And virtually the final entry list included coverage in CANE; signifi-
none, beyond those with advanced education or deep cance and interest to young readers; tie-ins to the mid-
abiding interests in ancient history, will have even heard dle school and high school curricula; and importance
of the Carians, Edomites, Elamites, Hurrians, Luwians, to, and representation of, the region. The text itself had
Lycians, Lydians, Moabites, Scythians, or Urartians. to be reshaped for a younger audience and updated to
The publication by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1995 include new discoveries and interpretations, while pre-
of Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (CANE), edited serving the academic integrity of the parent work.
by Jack M. Sasson, presented for the first time to col- The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students has
lege and secondary school teachers, their students, several important features. The major column contains
and the educated layman a rich and balanced view of the text, while the minor column is filled with items that
the history and cultures of the ancient Near East. The explain and enhance the text: definitions of unfamiliar
X
 Preface
terms; time lines that place lengthy articles in historical No project of such scope is ever possible without
perspective; and sidebars that expand the main text. the help of many people. I would like to acknowledge
Many of the sidebarsfall underone of two special cate- the invaluable help and support ofstafftheat Visual
gories—AncientTexts, featuring extractsfrom ancient Education Corporation, including Darryl Kestler,
literary works, and Diggersand Decipherers, describing Meera Vaidyanathan, Dale Anderson, Caryn Radick,
archaeologicalefforts in the region. Each categoryis and Marcel Chouteau. I also wishto expressmy deep-
marked by a special icon: est appreciation to Jack Sasson, who, throughout this
project, lent his expertise at so many levels, from his
profound knowledge of the ancient Near East to his
experience as editorin chiefof
CANE.
I would also like to express my gratitude to those
scholars who so willingly obliged me with particulars
on topics that, in afield this large, were beyond my
Cross-references to related articles appear both own ability to evaluate. They include Prof.Tzvi Abush,
within the text and at the end of most entries. The set Prof. Gary Beckman,Prof. Linda Bregstein, Dr. L. Tim-
contains more than 150 black-and-white photographs othy Doty,Prof.Erica Ehrenberg, Prof. StephenA.
and 60full-color plates, providing students with images Geller, Prof. Ogden Goelet,Dr. Peter James,Dr. Oscar
of the people, places,artifacts, and events in the ancient White Muscarella,Dr.KarenR. Nemet-Nejat, Rabbi
Near East. The work also contains 27 maps and charts Sally Preisand,and Dr.KarenS. Rubinson.
to illustrate important topics, a comprehensive time Lastly, although always first in my heart, many
line to highlight important events in the history of the thanks to mywife, CatherineM. Herriges, and our
ancient NearEast, and a listof suggested readingsand two wonderful sons, Joshua Seanand Jesse Walter,for
Internet sites. Finally, the design at the top of the page permitting me to pursue my life's work through their
in each volumefeatures an ancient script: cuneiform love and support. I hope these volumes will finally
(Volume 1), hieroglyphics (Volume2), Phoenician (Vol- enable the boys to answer for themselves the ques-
ume 3), and Hebrew (Volume4). tion, "What does Daddy do for a living?"

Ronald Wallenfels
Fair Haven, NJ.

xi
 THE NEAR EAST IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

by Ronald Wallenfels

Historians—people who study events of the past—try to put events in

chronological order, from the past to the present, and try to explain the
causes of those events. Historians learn about the ancient world by read-
ing and studying inscriptions that have survived from those times and by
examining other physical remains, such as palaces, temples, houses, bur-
ial sites, and tombs, along with the pottery, tools, jewelry, sculpture, and
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or other artifacts* that these sites might contain. A historian's ability to un-
other object made by humans derstand the past is limited by the quality and quantity of objects avail-
able to study. Few ancient artifacts have survived the wear and tear of
thousands of years, and fewer still have been found.
This encyclopedia will help you learn about the history of the ancient
Near East, a time and place where most of the inventions needed for a
civilized life were first developed. As you use this encyclopedia, you
might read about the development of agriculture, irrigation, and metal-
* domestication adaptation for human working, and the domestication* of animals. You might turn to articles
use about the inventions of pottery, the wheel, and writing. You then might
read how these developments and inventions helped create new social
* city-state independent state consisting institutions that led to the growth of cities and city-states*, which in turn
of a city and its surrounding territory led to developments in government and law, the outbreak of wars, and
the need for RECORD KEEPING. These events brought growth in mathemat-
ics, science, and technology. You might also read about the people who
made this history, from kings, queens, priests, and priestesses to soldiers,
peasants, and slaves.
Of all the occurrences in the ancient Near East, historians often con-
sider the practice of agriculture the most important development. Begin-
ning about 10,000 years ago, agriculture led our hunter-gatherer ancestors
to settle so that they could care for their crops as they grew, protect what
they harvested and stored, and prepare the land for the next season of
planting. However, the beginning of agriculture was not the beginning of
human history. Our history goes much further back than that.
Anthropologists—scientists who study human origins—believe that
fossils found in east Africa show that there were small bands of ho-
minids—humanlike creatures—walking erect on their hind legs more
than 2.5 million years ago. Although the brains of these hominids were
less than half the size of the brains of modern humans, they were able to
make simple recognizable stone tools. During the next 2 million years, the
fossil record shows that as the brain size of the hominids increased, so did
their ability to make complex stone tools. The fossil record also indicates
xii
 The Near East in Prehistoric Times
that these creatures began to explore new environments, with some leav-
ing Africa by way of the Near East and moving into Asia and Europe.
During this long period when the hominids were developing, the
earth's climate became unstable. Beginning about 1 million years ago,
the earth began to experience the first of several Ice Ages. The reasons for
the climate changes are not well understood, but many astronomers be-
lieve that they resulted from slight variations in the earth's orbit around
the sun that made the earth warmer during some periods and cooler at
others. During an Ice Age, which usually lasted about 100,000 years, the
earth became much colder, drier, and dustier, causing dramatic environ-
mental changes across the planet. These Ice Ages ended as suddenly as they
began, allowing the earth to warm again. The interglacial periods—years
between Ice Ages—appear to have lasted between 10,000 and 20,000 years.
The first fully modern humans, identical to us in every way, appeared
in east Africa between about 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. The arrival
of the last Ice Age, about 120,000 years ago, did not stop these humans
from expanding out of Africa. They eventually replaced their older Asian
and European hominid cousins. They became the first people to enter the
Americas by way of a land bridge that connected Siberia and Alaska.
From the beginning, these modern humans possessed spoken language.
They developed and constantly improved new toolmaking technologies that
included instruments made of bone, antler, and probably wood as well as
stone. These people became expert hunters, gatherers, and fishermen. They
developed art and music and adorned themselves with beads and shells.
They buried their dead with grave goods, which suggests that they took part
in rituals and believed in an AFTERLIFE. Differences in grave goods may indi-
cate distinctions in social status, with more numerous and elaborate objects
being buried with members of society who were considered more important.
By about 14,000 years ago, the ice was melting at a steady yet rapid
pace, again causing widespread environmental changes. Still living by
hunting and gathering, the scattered bands of humans found it necessary
either to move and follow the herds they hunted or to adapt themselves,
where possible, to the new environments.
* archaeological referring to the study of The number of archaeological* sites for this period are rare and are often
past human cultures, usually by quite difficult to date. One group of people from this period stands out. Living
excavating material remains of human in the Levant* and SYRIA between about 10,000 and 8,000 B.C., these people—
activity
now known as the Natufians—gathered wild cereal grasses such as the barley
* Levant lands bordering the eastern and wheat that grew in the region. They cut these grasses with tools that used
shores of the Mediterranean Sea
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
tiny flint blades called microliths. These peoples took the edible seeds of these
the West Bank, and Jordan grasses and ground them into meal, which they probably mixed with water
* gruel thin porridge
to make gruel*. The Natufians also gathered nuts, berries, and snails for
food. They fished, fowled, and occasionally hunted and ate goat, gazelle,
deer, and bear. They also had dogs, which they possibly used for maintain-
ing their herds of wild goats. Living in small circular huts made of plant
materials, the Natufians established and maintained permanent villages.
Trade routes existed throughout the region where the Natufians lived.
One type of goods they exchanged, seashells, was traded across great dis-
tances from their sources along the shores of the Mediterranean and Red
Seas. Other luxury trade items included carved stone and bone objects and
engraved ostrich eggshells. As successful as these Natufian hunter-gatherers
xiii
The Near East in Prehistoric Times
appear to have been, however, they seem to have moved away or died out
after about 2,000 years in the region, perhaps as a result of changes in the
still-shifting climate.
* Neolithic period final phase of the Shortly before about 8000 B.C., the earliest Neolithic period* farmers
Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. appeared. Living in places across Syria and the Levant, they planted seeds
for cereal grasses that they would harvest later. Most of the harvested seed
was stored for consumption throughout the year and for planting the fol-
lowing year's crop.
One such group of farmers settled around a spring at JERICHO near the
Jordan River in the present-day West Bank. These people built rectangular
* mud brick brick made from mud, houses out of mud brick*. They also erected a thick circular stone tower,
straw, and water mixed together and more than 30 feet tall, behind a massive stone wall. Their success in all
baked in the sun these undertakings required new heights of imagination and long-term
planning. To accomplish tasks no individual could possibly manage
alone, it was necessary for the 2,000 or so members of this town to work
together, some giving and others taking direction.
Many further developments occurred during the centuries that fol-
lowed. Around 7600 B.C. the people who lived at the site of Mureybet,
Syria, were making baked-clay objects—vases and female figures. By
about 7000 B.C. the animal herders at Jericho had begun to mate their
goats to bring out desirable traits—long hair and greater milk production.
The breeding of cattle and other animals soon followed. Around the same
time at £ayonii in southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the earli-
est copper artifacts found to date were being produced.
At Bouqras in Syria, archaeologists have uncovered ceramic pottery
dating as far back as about 6500 B.C. Used for cooking and serving food,
this pottery, the oldest yet found, could also be closed with a clay plug to
store and ship grain or other products. Earlier, food products had been
stored in stone- and plaster-lined pits and had been transported in leather
* vermin small harmful animals that are bags or woven baskets that were susceptible to attack by vermin*.
difficult to control By the end of the seventh millennium B.C.*, craftspeople from north-
* seventh millennium B.C. years from ern Mesopotamia were decorating their handmade pottery by attaching
7000 to 6001 B.C. small clay pellets or by scratching designs onto the pot's surface. Shortly
thereafter, they began to paint the surface of the pottery with simple geo-
metric designs. Over time, the designs became more complex and began
to include animal and human figures.
The need to prevent others from tampering with the contents of storage
containers brought about a new use for stamp SEALS—small pieces of bone,
stone, wood, or clay with a flat surface on which a design was engraved—
which had until then been used for imprinting designs on plaster, cloth,
and bread. By about 6000 B.C. seals were being pressed into the soft clay
plugs used to close the mouths of jars. The seal impression on the plugs sig-
nified that the contents of the jar were untouched; a broken or missing seal
impression meant that the contents had been tampered with. Clay seals and
seal impressions found at the Syrian site of Sabi Abyad show that they were
applied to baskets, stone bowls, and leather bags as well as to ceramic vessels.
* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 Early in the sixth millennium B.C.*, farming communities began to ap-
to 5001 B.C. pear farther and farther south on the plains along the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers. Although the region had extremely fertile soil, its rainfall was not
sufficient to grow cereal crops. As a result, the farmers turned to the rivers
xiv
 The Near East in Prehistoric Times
for water. By digging channels and canals away from the rivers' banks, fann-
ers could divert water to their fields and irrigate them throughout the year.
Although irrigation had been used much earlier, these farmers in southern
Mesopotamia faced special problems. In the autumn, which was when the
newly planted crops required the most water, the rivers were at their lowest
levels. In the spring, when the crops needed to be dry while forming their
seeds, the rivers flooded, often violently. To better control the flow of water,
farmers dug longer, wider canals. The construction of these canals and their
constant maintenance—artificial river channels tended to become clogged
with silt very quickly—required new levels of decision-making and coop-
eration within the community. Among other consequences, the lack or
famine severe lack of food due to failed excess of water could lead to a famine*, which could destroy a community.
crops As societies grew, new social and religious institutions began to de-
velop, enabling people to lead closer and more interdependent lives. The
roles that people played within society changed as responsibilities for dif-
ferent tasks were divided among the people who were now becoming in-
creasingly specialized. Religion became more organized and centralized
as is evident at the site of ERIDU, which is situated at the edge of the
marshes near the Persian Gulf. Archaeologists have excavated buildings
at the site dating to about 5400 B.C. and have identified them as shrines or
temples. These are the oldest temple-like structures found to date. Priests
probably performed rituals in these locations and directed the members
of the community to bring offerings and make sacrifices.
* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 During the fifth millennium B.C.*, the people of southern Meso-
to 4001 B.C. potamia belonged to what is called the Ubaid culture, named for Tell al-
Ubaid, the site where their pottery was first found. The Ubaid culture
spread as no other culture before it had. Ubaid pottery from about 4000
B.C.—made on a slow wheel—has been found throughout ancient Meso-
potamia (present-day Iraq), as well as in neighboring Syria, IRAN, and the
Arabian peninsula. Some scholars believe that the Ubaid people were try-
ing to control the trade routes leading to such raw materials as stone and
alluvial composed of clay, silt, sand, wood. This was especially necessary for them because the flat alluvial*
gravel, or similar material deposited by plains of Mesopotamia lacked natural sources of these materials.
running water Around 4000 B.C. further social and economic developments began to
transform the landscape. The once numerous and evenly spread Ubaid vil-
lages of southern Mesopotamia were replaced by a few large settlements
that would, in less than 1,000 years, become the world's first true cities.
This marked the beginning of the Uruk period which was named after the
ancient city of URUK, where the changes were first apparent. New develop-
ments there include the mass production of simple wheel-made pottery, the
use of the wheel for transport, the creation of carved stone vessels and cylin-
der seals, the use of the ox-drawn plow, and increased production of copper
for tools. The need for complex record keeping to coordinate production
and consumption of food, clothing, and the wealth of new luxury goods
brought about the development of writing, which replaced the clay-token
counting system that had been in use since about 8000 B.C. At the center of
Uruk, an enormous temple complex developed and its chief priest appears
to have governed the city. By the end of the period, around 3200 B.C., history
had truly begun for the residents of southern Mesopotamia, whom we can
now truly identify as Sumerians after their own name for their land, Sumer.
xv
A TIME LINE OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Neolithic period X:Kalcolithic Period

ca. 9000-4000b.c ca, 4000-3000 B.C.

Mesopotamia Neofrthic culture in northern Mesopotamia m^uNWjperimi/:

Earliest permanent farming settlements, ca. 7000 B.C. Uwk andjarm^-f^sfpeitodl
Earliest evidence of pottery, ca, 6500 B.C. D^Jc^nftentof c%*stato
Ubaid settlements in southern Mesopotamia tavwtfoho

Anatolia Earliest permanent farming settlements, ca. 7000 &c P^vefopmeilt ofagricultural and
£atal HCyuk irtiabited tmrflng ccttniuftfbes
Eartiest evidence of pottery ca. 63W) B.C.

Agricy fture first piadiced, ca;8500B,c* De^JopmerStoif ^pricMltiiral #nd

Setttementofjertoho > trying corrtfpuntties
Wii!lii^^:l Domestication of animals, ca, 7300 ex.
Eartiest evidence of pottery, ca. 5600 B,C.

fllllP Earliest permanent farming settlements in northern Egypt,

ca,52wB,c
Ealflest Science <rf pottery in northern Egypt, ca. 5000 &.c,
Rradynastic period
invention©f hierdg^plifc^

iv«ten<:^ predynastlt gm^s in southern Egypt/

suggesting tne^ecistmice of permanent stftl^nents,
pi,4(Wsx.

Earliest evidence of pKstoralism and pottery in Permanent s^femepts isJafafeW ~

"t^^&s western Arabia, ca. 6000 B.C Contact between western Arabtt
Contact betvveen eastern Arabia and southern acid Syria and toe Levant
Mesopotamia Continued contact betv^^n e^ftfm
Aratta and sontierti Mesopatarrtli

larBatpefmanait farming settlements in f rotd-flamlfe^tur*

'^j^i southwestern frafvca* 7Qw s»Ci
tartiisst evidenteof pottery in southwestern
l^ca:6S(Wa.c
Susa founded

EarffetRfmianent farming segments on<rete, Developmentrftcjricu tair$tand

||p^^ji^j||j|Bi tf^lngcomflwriites ;
"j^j^^^^tj^ Earfeitl^mtanentfarming settlements on tfte mainland,
pii|||^^^^^
M^ fvktentt 6f pottay on t(^ mainbn^ ca. 6300 B.C
E^rfet evl^nce of pottery on Grfete, ca; 5900 «.c

xvi
 Early Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age
ca. 3000-2200 B.C. ca. 2200-1600 B.C.

Sumerian Early Dynastic period Gutian and Amorite invasions

Akkadian empire Second Dynasty of Lagash
Sargon l (ruled ca.2337-2278 B.c.) Gudea of Lagash (ruled ca. 214-2124 B.C.)
Unification of Sumer and Akkad Thrid Dynasty of Ur
Ziggurat of Ur
Dynasties of Isin and Larsa
Old Assyrian period
Old Babylonian period
Hammurabi (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C)
Hurrian immigrations

Development of city-states Old Assyrian trading colonies

Troy Old Hittite period
Alaca Huyuk Khattushili I (ruled ca.1650-1620 B.C.)
Hittites invade Babylon

Development of city-states Rise of Amorite city-states

Sumerian-style urban culture
Kingdom of Ebla
Akkadians conqure Ebla

Early Dynastic period First Interriediate period

Old kingdom period Civil war between dynasties at Thebes
Djoser (ruled ca.2630-2611 b.c) and Heraclepolis

First pyramids Middle Kingdoms period

Great Pyramids of Giza Second intermediate period
Hyksos conquest

Levantine,Mesopotamian, and Iranian influence in the northwest Mesopotamian and Iranian influences along
Magan and Dilmun trade with Mesopotamia coast of Arabian Gulf

Old Elamita period Sukkalmakh dynastry

Wars with Mesopotamia Susian allies with Elam
Susiana under Akkadian and Sumerian domination Babylonians control Elam

Early Cycladic culture Minoan culture on Crete

Mycenaeans invade Peloponnese
Volcanic eruption at Thera

xvii
 A TIME LINE OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
Late Bronze Age Iron Age
ca. 1600^1200 B.C. ca. 1200-500 B.C

IVIesc^otaiiiia Hittites invade Babylon Second Dynasty of Isin

Dark Age Neo-Babylonian period
Middle Babylonian (Kassite) peroid Neo-Assyrian empire
Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni Sargon II (ruled 721-705 B.C.)
Middle Assyrian period Late Babylonian period (Chaldean dynasty)
Nebuchadnezzar II (ruled 605-562 B.C)
Persians conquer Babylonia

Hittite empire Dark Age

Anatolia Shuppilurliuma I (ruled ca. 1371-1330 B.C.) Rise of Neo-Hittite states
Hittite wars with Egypt Κινγδοµσ οφ υραρτυ ανδ Πηρψγια
Destruction of Khattusha Χιµµεριαν ινϖασιον
Κινγδοµσ οφ Λψδια ανδ Λψχια
Μεδιαν εξπανσιον
Greek city-states in Western Anatolia
Persians conquer Lydia

Canaanites develop aleph-beth Aramaean migrations

•jj^0^:^l^ Egyptian domination Ισραελιτεσ σεττλε ιν Χανααν
thel^vaiit Hittite invasions Philistine and Phoenician city-states
Hurrian domination Kingdoms of Israel and Judah
Sea Peoples Assyrian conquests
Babylonian conquests
Expulsion of Hyksos Third intermediate period
:igyj»t New Kingdom period Libyan dynasty
Expansion into Syria,the Levant,and Nubia Nubian dynasties
Invasion of the Sea Peoples Taharqa (ruled 690-664 B.C.)
Assyrian conquest
Last period
Saite dynasty
Decline of Dilmun Qedar tribe dominates northern Arabia
Arabia Qurayya flourishes Syria dominates in the east
Arabia dominates aromatics trade Neo-Babylonians control trade routes
Sabaean rulers

Middle Elamite period Neo-Elmite period

Iran Aryans (Medes and Persians) enter Iran Median kingdom
Zoroaster (lived ca.600s B.C.)
Persians overthrow Medes
Cyrus the Great (ruled 559-529 B.C.)
Conquest of Babylonia
Persian empire established
Darius I (ruled 521-486 B.C.)

Decline of Minoan civilization Trojan War

Aegena and
Rise of Mycenaeans Dorian invasions
t^
^^j^^^^^^:(
Mycenaeans colonize Aegean Fall of Mycenae
MeiliteiTaiieaii Dark Age
Greek colonization
Competition with Phoenician trade

XV111
 Persian Period Hellenistic Period
ca. 500-324 n.c. 323 B.C:.-A.I>. 1

Persian domination Selecld empire

Alexander the Great (lived 356-323 B.C.) enters Babylon Parthian empire

Persian domination Roman rule

Macedonian conquest

Persian domiantion Ptolemaic kingdom and Sefeucid empire

Jews return from Babylon Maccabean Revolt
Second temple of Jerusalem Hasmonean dybasty
Macedonian conquest Roman rule

Persian domination Ptolemaic dynasty

Local dynasties of native Egypt Ptolemaic dynasty
Macedonian conquest Ptolemaic dynasty
Roman rule

Nabatean Kingdom in Jordan Trade with Hellenistic world

Persian domination Roman conquest

Persian empire domiantes the ancient Near East Seleucid empire

Greek invasions Parthian empire
Macedonian conquest
Alexander the Great

Persian wars Hellenistic dynasties

Classical period Roman conquest
Peloponnesian War
Macedonian conquest

xix
 Abydos

Abraham See PatriarchsandMatriarchs

ofIsrael.

ABU SlMBEL
A bu Simbel(A»boo

pharaoh*
sim«BEL)is the siteof two magnificent temples
cut into high sandstone cliffs during the rule of the Egyptian
RAMSES II. Today these temples are consideredto be the best-
preserved examplesof the grandart and architecture Ramses
of II.
The site is located on the west bank of the Nile River in southern
Egypt. Construction was completed and the temples were in use in the
1250sB.C.
The larger of the two templeswas builtfor Ramses.
Four huge statues
of the king seated on a throneflanked the entrance, two on each side.
Each statuewas about67 feet high—aboutas tallas a six-story building.
Inside the temple, three great halls extended into cliff. the
The halls
helV
eight more giant statuesof theBAS-RELIEFS
pharaoh,representing
with his
life and achievements coveringthe walls.
The smallerof the two templeswas builtfor Queen Nefertari,
wifethe
of Ramses. Infront of this temple weresix statues Nefertari
of and Ram-
ses, each about 33feet tall. Inside the temple was a large hall adorned
with decorations related tofertility.
An earthquake severely damagedthe templesin B.C.,
theand1230s
both temples eventually were buried under sand. They were not rediscov-
ered until
A.D. 1813, whenSwiss
a traveler found them. They werefirst en-
tered and exploredfour years later. In the mid-1960s, the Egyptian
government was building a dam that would have flooded the temple site.
The temples were cut into blocks, moved, and rebuilt on higher ground.
The tremendous project, which took four years, savedtwo magnificent
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt examples of Egyptian architecture.

ABYDOS
L ocated in the desert to the west of the southern Nile

believed to be the entrance to the underworld,

River, Abydos
(uh«BY«dus) was one of the mostsacred sitesin ancient Egypt. It was
that is, the place of de-
parted souls. It was also believedto be theOSIRIS,
burial
the
Egypt-
placeof
ian god of the dead. As a result, Abydos becamean important cemetery
site and the centerof the cult*ofOsiris.
* cult system of religious beliefs and During thefirst two dynasties*, between about 3000 B.C.,and 2650
rituals; group following these beliefs Abydos was primarily a burial place for royalty, and manyof the early
* dynasty succession of rulers from thekings of Egypt probablywere buried there. During Fifth
the Dynasty (ca.
same family or group 2500-2350 B.C.), kings built a templetoOsirisat Abydos. This structure
was enlarged and decorated by later rulers.
During the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630
B.C.), Abydos grewin im-
portance. People came to the city from throughout Egypt to take part in
an annual ceremony that brought the god Osiris
from the river to his
* stela stone slab or pillar that hastomb.beenBy this time, common people were being buried near Abydos,
carved or engraved and serves as a which had a growing number of cemeteries. Those who could affordnot
monument; pi. stelae to be buried there set upstelae*, which were carved with their names and
1
Achaeiiieiiid Dynasty
titles and prayers to Osiris. The cemeteries of Abydos eventually became
filled with thousands of these stelae.
While increasingly popular with the common people, Abydos con-
tinued to be favored by the rulers of Egypt. Many kings, though they
did not intend to be buried at Abydos, nevertheless built monuments
and temples there. The temple of SETY I, from the early 1200s B.C., was
bas-relief kind of sculpture in which one of the grandest and most beautiful. It is famous for a bas-relief*,
material is cut away to leave figures called the Abydos list of kings, that depicts 76 of the Egyptian kings
projecting slightly from the background who preceded Sety.
Eventually, even animals were buried at Abydos. Animal cemeteries
dating from the Late Period of Egyptian history (664-332 B.C.) have been
found there. Abydos continued to be used for burials into the period of
the Roman occupation of Egypt, which began in 30 B.C.
Abydos was first excavated in the late A.D. 1850s by Auguste Mariette,
who was searching for the tomb of Osiris. Many excavations have been
undertaken at the site since then, and new discoveries are still being
* archaeological referring to the study made. Recent archaeological* digs have found evidence of burials that
of past human cultures, usually by took place before the First Dynasty. Abydos is considered one of the most
excavating material remains of human important archaeological sites of ancient Egypt. (See also Egypt and the
activity
Egyptians.)

Achaemenid Dynasty See Persian Empire.

ADAD
M any cultures throughout the ancient Near East honored the
weather god Adad (A»dad). Like the natural force he represented,
Adad had a dark side and a bright side. He was thought to be responsible
for deadly, destructive storms but also for the rains that nourished crops
and supported life.
Adad was just one of many names that people used for this god of
weather and storms. To the Sumerians of MESOPOTAMIA, he was Ishkur. The
Akkadians called him Adad. The same name was used in EBLA; a list of
gods from that city dating from between 2450 and 2250 B.C. includes
Adad as the second most important god. The people of northern Syria
* deity god or goddess called the weather god, who was their main deity*, Addu or Hadad. He
also appeared in various local forms, such as Addu of Aleppo and Hadad
of Damascus. Other Near Eastern cultures called him Addu and Ramman.
He appears in the Hebrew Bible as Rimmon, "the Thunderer/' Adad was
also closely identified with the god BAAL. Indeed, at one time they were
the same god, and in UGARIT between about 1350 and 1200 B.C., Baal-
Haddu was the principal god.
Inscriptions and SEALS often depict Adad as a warrior holding forked
lightning. Sometimes he is shown standing on the back of a winged bull
or a creature that is part lion and part dragon. In one early myth, Adad
* drought long period of dry weather created the blinding storms that led to a great flood. In another, he pun-
during which crop yields are lower than ished the world with drought*. People hoped to ensure good rains by
usual worshiping him and building temples in his honor. As this positive force,
2
 Afterlife

he was called Lord of Abundance. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Flood Leg-
ends; Gods and Goddesses.)

Administrative Systems See Government.

and Organization

AEGEAN SEA
T he Aegean (ee«JEE»un) Sea separates Europe and the Near East, yet it
also connects them by providing sea-lanes dotted with islands and
harbors. To early civilizations on the shores and islands of the Aegean, the
sea provided opportunities for trade and contact with other cultures in
the region.
The Aegean is the northeastern arm of the Mediterranean Sea,
bounded by Greece on the north and west, by ANATOLIA (present-day
Turkey) on the east, and by the island of CRETE on the south. In the north-
eastern corner is a narrow waterway that links the Aegean Sea to the Black
* strait narrow channel that connects Sea. This waterway includes two straits*: the Dardanelles, also called the
two bodies of water Hellespont, on the west and the Bosporus on the east. Separating the two
straits is the Sea of Marmara.
Most of the Aegean islands had been settled for many centuries by
the beginning of the early Bronze Age (around 3000 B.C.). At about that
See map in Anatolia (vol. 1). time, trade between the islands and the surrounding mainlands began to
increase. Thanks to their location in the southern Aegean, the Cyclades
islands provided useful stopping-off points between Greece, Crete, and
Anatolia.
Around 1800 B.C., the MINOAN CIVILIZATION of Crete became the domi-
nant culture in the region. Minoan power declined around 1400 B.C.,
when the Mycenaeans of mainland Greece became more influential.
Within about 200 years, the Mycenaeans also fell.
For the next three centuries or so, the region experienced a period
that historians call the Dark Age. During this time, the ancestors of the
Greeks entered Greece and many of the islands in the Aegean. The period
was unsettled, however, and trade declined. In the 700s B.C., Greek cul-
ture entered the Archaic Age, the period in which Homer wrote the epics*
* epic long poem about a legendary or the Iliad and the Odyssey. During this age, the Greek city-states* were
historical hero, written in a grand style formed and trade flourished. The classical civilization of ancient Greece
* city-state independent state consisting followed as the main influence on the Aegean islands, which continued
of a city and its surrounding territory to play an important role in trade and cultural exchange. (See also
Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Rhodes;
Thera.)

AFTERLIFE
T he major cultures of the ancient Near East shared the idea that some
part of a human being continues to exist after death. They viewed
death as the end of earthly life and the beginning of an afterlife. Some
cultures believed the afterlife to be a place of judgment, where people
were rewarded for good deeds and punished for evil ones. For others, the
3
Afterlife

afterlife was merely a pale, sad reflection of earthly life, where all of the
dead received equally unpleasant treatment.
Letters to the Dead
The peoples of the ancient Near East believed that the worlds of the
The strong Egyptian belief in
a life after death is reflected
living and of the dead were in constant interaction. Individuals honored
through letters that the living their dead relatives and ancestors in the hope that the dead would per-
wrote to the dead. One, which ap- form favors for them, and they dreaded ghosts, the spirits of the unhappy
pears to be addressed to a dead dead. Some priests and magicians were thought to be able to communi-
spouse, shows the emotion that is cate with the spirits of the dead.
sometimes present in these letters
and reveals the belief that the dead
could affect the life of the living:
Egyptian Beliefs. The Egyptians made elaborate preparations for
death, believing that such preparations would allow them to go on liv-
How are you? Is the West taking
care of you according to your
ing after they died. They considered a person to be made of both physi-
desire? Now since I am your cal and spiritual parts, and they thought that both would continue to
beloved upon earth, fight on my exist after death. For this reason, they developed funeral practices aimed
behalf and intercede on behalf at preserving the bodies of the dead and providing them with supplies
of my name. I did not garble a for the afterlife. In many ways, the Egyptian afterlife was believed to be
spell in your presence when I
an improved version of earthly life. The dead needed food, clothing, and
perpetuated your name upon
earth. Remove the infirmity of household goods just as the living did.
my body! The Egyptians recorded their ideas about the afterlife in texts buried
with the dead or inscribed on coffins and on tomb walls. These texts were
supposed to give the dead all the knowledge they needed for the afterlife,
including the names of deities* and demons and of all the places and ob-
* deity god or goddess stacles that might be encountered on the way to the proper realm of the
afterlife. Some texts suggested ways of rising to that realm, which in-
* incense fragrant spice or resin burned cluded soaring on the wings of a bird or rising with incense* as it burned.
as an offering Other texts told how the dead would be judged. Those who behaved
generously and correctly in life might go to the Field of Offerings, a place

In ancient times, Egyptians portrayed the

soul, which they called the ba, as a bird
with a human head. The Egyptians be-
lieved that at death, the ba withdrew
from the body. The ba then protected
the mummy before eventually reuniting
with the body, as shown here.

4
 Afterlife

in the western sky where they would work in fertile fields and orchards to
produce food for the gods. Or, if they knew the right magical spells and
possessed the right guidebooks to the afterlife, they might sail through
See day and night with the god Amun in his boat. Those who performed evil
color plate 6, or dishonest deeds, on the other hand, would be punished even if they
vol. 1.
tried to hide their sins. They might even be destroyed by Amamet, "the
Devourer," a beast that was part lion, part crocodile, and part hippo-
potamus.

Mesopotamia!! Beliefs. For the people of ancient MESOPOTAMIA, the

dead body had no continued existence and the dead soul underwent no
judgment. They did believe that spirits continued to exist after death,
but those spirits would be peaceful only if their relatives performed the
proper burial and mourning rituals.
The spirits had to make a difficult journey to the netherworld, the un-
derground setting of the afterlife. They traveled through lands infested
with demons, crossed a river, and then entered the seven gates of the
netherworld city with the permission of the gatekeeper Bidu, whose
name meant "Open up!"
The netherworld was the realm of Ereshkigal, queen of the dead. It
was thought to lie beneath the world of the living, and every earthly
grave or hole was an entrance to it. Many myths and legends, including
* epic long poem about a legendary or the Epic* ofGilgamesh, told of contacts between earthly heroes and spirits
historical hero, written in a grand style in the netherworld. The spirits of the dead presumably stayed forever in
the netherworld, although some thought that the spirits could be reborn.
Because the netherworld was underground, it was sometimes de-
scribed as dim and gloomy, but in other accounts, the sun god Shamash
visited every day. Its inhabitants drank water and ate mud or, in some ac-
counts, bread. They lived in a state organized much like the human soci-
ety above, headed by a royal court.
The comfort of the dead in the netherworld depended on the amount
Getting Rid of a Ghost and quality of the offerings their living relatives made to them. If those
To the ancient Mesopotamians, a
offerings were inadequate, the ghosts became pitiful beggars who might
person who was not properly buried trouble or attack the living. The dead who were not properly buried also
could become an angry ghost, one made restless ghosts.
that might take possession of a liv-
ing person's body. That person then Hittite Beliefs. The HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA shared some ideas
needed an exorcism, a ritual aimed
about the afterlife with Mesopotamian people. Like the Mesopotamians,
at driving out the ghost. The exor-
cist made a figurine of dirt mixed they believed that the afterlife was set in a netherworld ruled by a queen.
with ox blood. For three days, the The Hittite term for this netherworld was Dark or Gloomy Earth. Springs,
exorcist set out a barley mash, wells, ponds, and caves were all entrances to this world, as were graves.
burned incense, and scattered flour Animals sacrificed to the netherworld were killed in pits, and priests dug
before the figurine. While doing pits to communicate with the powers of the netherworld. They placed
this, the exorcist recited an incanta-
tion that declared the ghost to be
bronze ladders in the pits so that the deities of the underworld could rise
gone. After the three days, the pos- and take part in the rituals.
sessed person spoke a prayer to the Although the journey to the netherworld was the unavoidable end of
sun god Shamash, and the exorcist human existence, the dead remained in constant contact with the living.
sealed the figurine in a clay pot and The link between dead grandparents and living grandchildren was
buried it.
thought to be especially strong, with grandfathers passing their strength
to their grandsons. The belief in communication with the dead led to
5
Agriculture
various forms of ancestor worship, particularly among the Hittite royalty.
This belief also led to the practice of necromancy, which to the Hittites
meant calling the spirits of the dead by name either to ask them ques-
tions or to drive them away.

Canaanite and Israelite Beliefs. Ideas about the afterlife underwent

profound changes over time in CANAAN. The early Canaanites, like other
* venerate to give deep respect and peoples of the Near East, worshiped multiple deities and venerated* de-
reverence to someone ceased kings. They lived alongside or over the tombs of ancestors and be-
lieved that every person's fate was to meet Mot, the god of death, and to
follow him into a dusty netherworld.
The Israelite culture that later emerged in the region kept many as-
pects of the Canaanite religion. Israelites continued to maintain family
tombs and to keep alive the memory of the dead. They believed that the
dead lived a dim and ghostly existence in a netherworld called Sheol.
They also shared the widespread belief that the dead possessed powers
and could respond to prayers and requests from the living.
As Yahwism—the ancestor of the Jewish faith—developed, it rejected
the idea of ancestor worship and communication with the dead. It fo-
cused on the living and declared that the dead were forever separated from
their god, YAHWEH. However, there is evidence in the Hebrew scriptures
that some people rebelled against this abandonment of the dead, and
gradually Yahwism recognized the idea of a resurrection from death. By
the 100s B.C., resurrection was recognized as an element of Yahwist faith.

Iranian Beliefs. Around 1000 B.C., the new religion of Zoroastrianism

* dualism philosophy that life is divided arose in Iran. This religion was marked by profound dualism* and saw
into two major forces life as a struggle between the good god AHURA MAZDA and the evil god
AHRIMAN. Beliefs in the afterlife reflected this split in the world.
Upon death, the soul was believed to be judged by the gods. Those
who had lived a just life were allowed to cross the "bridge of separation"
and enter heaven. Those judged to have lived evil lives also had to cross
the bridge, but as they did so, it narrowed, forcing them to fall off. They
then entered a hell full of burning torment. Zoroastrian beliefs recog-
nized a third possibility. People whose good and evil deeds were perfectly
balanced were sent to "the region of the mixed/' where they experienced
neither the joys of heaven nor the suffering of hell. (See also Book of the
Dead; Death and Burial; Demons; Mummies; Pyramids; Religion;
Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

AGRICULTURE
A griculture is the deliberate and purposeful planting of seeds to pro-
iuce plants for human consumption. In the ancient Near East,
farming and livestock raising played a major role in the regional
economies. The vast majority of the people in the ancient civilizations of
this region were farmers. The agricultural systems that developed in the
various areas of the Near East differed, however, depending on climate,
especially rainfall. Different climates called for the creation of different
methods to produce crops.
6
 Agriculture

ORIGINS
AND
DEVELOPMENT
AGRICULTURE
OF
Archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture first
waspracticedin
* Levant lands bordering the eastern the Levant*as earlyB.C. as 9000
Around that time, peoplein the region
shores of the MediterraneanSea began to domesticate* certain wild plants. Once established, the practice
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), of cultivating crops spread throughout MESOPOTAMIA
the Near
East,
from
the West Bank, andJordan
to theNILE
RIVER valley.It also spread westward to Greece
and eastwardto
* domesticate to adapt or tame for CENTRALASIAand India.By about
B.C., agriculture
4000 was firmly estab-
human use
lished in all these regions.

From Gathering to Farming. Before people in the NearEast began

to farm, they survived by hunting and gathering. They lived in small
groups that movedfrom placeto placein searchof food.The transition
to farming occurredin several steps,
first
theofwhichwasmarked byset-
tling in one place that had abundant wild food supplies and exploiting
those resources. People built permanent villages and began to harvest
wild crops, especially cereals. They stored part of the harvest
forlater use,
* drought long period of dry weather in the dry summeror in timesof drought*.Aspopulations grew, these
during which crop yields are lower than wild resources began to dwindle. However, people soon discovered that
usual they could plant some portion of the seeds they had stored and grow
their food supply—they did not need to rely on what grew in the wild.
This was the beginning of farming.
At about the same time that crops werefirst being cultivatedin the
Near East, people in the area began to domesticate animals.Thetransi-
tion to reliance on domesticated plants and animals took place over a
long period of time. Eventually, though, these food products becamethe
major portion of people's diets.

Main Crops. Remainsof barleyand wheat dating

B.C.from about 9000
have been found in the Levant. These grains eventually became the
7
Agriculture
principal crops throughout the Near East. Barley was more important in
the Levant and Mesopotamia because it can survive in drier climates than
can wheat. Emmer, a type of wheat, was the main cereal grain in Egypt.
* legumes vegetables, such as peas and Other early crops included various types of legumes*, such as lentils,
beans, that are rich in protein peas, and chickpeas. People also grew FLAX, using its fibers to produce
linen and its seeds as a source of oil. Sesame seeds were also grown to be
used for oil.
Between 5000 and 3500 B.C., the peoples of the ancient Near East be-
gan growing tree fruits, such as olives, dates, figs, pomegranates, and
grapes and, later, apples and pears. The fruits that were chosen for cultiva-
tion had certain traits in common. First, all could be grown by planting
cuttings from wild trees rather than seeds. Second, the first fruit crops
tended to be those that could be preserved after harvesting. Many could
be dried and stored. Among these were dates; grapes, which become
* brine salty water used for preserving raisins when dried; and olives, which can be stored in brine*. Other early
food fruit crops could be processed and turned into valuable commodities that
kept for long periods, such as olive oil or wine.
Over time, different areas specialized in different crops. By the period
from 1000 to 500 B.C., grapes for wines, olives for oil, and figs were grown
in the Levant for export. Dates were abundant in Egypt and Mesopo-
tamia. Date palms were valued not only for their fruit but also for their
wood, fiber, and leaves.
See Little is known about the cultivation of the earliest vegetables. How-
f color plate 12, ever, most experts believe that garlic, lettuce, melons, cucumbers, beets,
vol. 2.
and radishes were probably first domesticated betwen 2000 and 1000 B.C.
Many of these plants may originally have been weeds that grew among
grain crops, and they were later domesticated in their own right.
Vegetables tended to be grown in small gardens rather than in large
fields, as grain crops were. Sumerians were the first to use shade garden-
ing. They planted vegetables below tall stands of date palms, which shel-
tered the vegetables from the hot sun and strong winds. Gardens also
included plants grown as food flavorings. Onions and garlic were grown
throughout the region. Egyptian gardens included parsley, celery leaves,
coriander, cumin, mustard, and poppy seeds, and Mesopotamian gardens
included mustard, rosemary, marjoram, and mint.

FARMING METHODS
Three main farming methods were used in the ancient Near East. Because
rainfall in most years was adequate in the Levant, people there could prac-
* dry farming farming that relies on tice dry farming*. This system was also used in northern Mesopotamia,
natural moisture retained in the ground the area later occupied by the Assyrians. In southern Mesopotamia, which
after rainfall has a much drier climate, people needed to develop systems of IRRIGATION,
diverting water from rivers and streams to areas of cultivation. In Egypt,
where the Nile River flooded annually because of heavy rainfall in the up-
per Nile region, or Nubia, natural irrigation was used.

The Levant. The agricultural cycle in the Levant began with the arrival
of early autumn rains. The rains softened the ground for plowing and
the planting of seeds. Planting was typically done in November or
8
 Agriculture
December, depending on when the rain fell that year. Grains were
planted first, followed by vegetables. The success of harvests depended
entirely on the amount and timing of the winter rains, which usually
ended in April. The grain harvest occurred in April or May, followed by
the vegetable harvest. Fruit was harvested during the summer.
To help ensure that agricultural land remained productive, farmers
practiced field rotation. They used the land differently each year so that
the soil could retain a balance of nutrients. They also left some fields
* fallow plowed but not planted, so that fallow* each year for the same reason. By around 1000 B.C., people used
moisture and organic processes can new approaches to expand the amount of land that could be used for
replenish the soil's nutrients crops. In some hilly areas, they cut terraces into hillsides to prevent rain-
water from running off. Extensive farming, along with staggered field
preparation and planting, enabled farmers to survive poor crop yields or
failures because at least some crops could usually be harvested.
Most farmwork was done by hand. Farmers plowed their fields with a
simple plow, called an ard, that was pushed by hand or pulled by oxen.
* sickle short-handled tool with curved They used a hand sickle* for harvesting crops and their bare hands for
blade picking fruits and vegetables. Harvested stalks of grain were threshed* by
* thresh to crush grain plants so that the hand as well.
seeds or grains are separated from the
stalks and husks Southern Mesopotamia. Farming in ancient Mesopotamia was based
on large-scale artificial irrigation because the region received very little
rainfall. The two great rivers of the region—the Tigris and the Eu-
phrates—flooded each spring. Fed by storms and melting snow from dis-
tant mountains, the floods could destroy the crops growing in the fields.
The Mesopotamians devised ways to control the floods and harness the
water so that they could use it during the summer and fall, when rainfall
was scarce.
See map in Geography (vol. 2). Spring floodwaters generally came in March, when half the fields
were full of standing crops and half were lying fallow. The water was di-
rected onto the fallow fields to help prepare them for plowing in the fall.
The harvest season lasted from about mid-April to the early fall, when au-
tumn rains provided additional moisture to work the land. Fall plowing
was carried out by teams of men with oxen or donkeys pulling simple
plows. Planting usually took place in October, but it might be delayed to
take advantage of late autumn rains. After planting, the fields were
flooded to provide maximum moisture to the seeds. Additional watering
was done at intervals during the winter months.
* levee embankment or earthen wall Mesopotamians built an extensive network of canals and levees*
alongside a river that helps prevent throughout their agricultural lands. The levees prevented the rivers from
flooding overflowing their banks and damaging the young crops. The canals car-
ried water from the rivers to the fields.
Access to water was often an excuse for war in the ancient Near East.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 For instance, early in the third millennium B.C.*, the legendary Gil-
to 2001 B.C. gamesh of Uruk went to war with his northern neighbor Agga of Kish be-
cause Agga had diverted water from the Euphrates in an effort to bring
Uruk under his control.

Egypt. The earliest agricultural settlements in Egypt were in the Nile

Delta region. Farming spread gradually throughout the delta, and by
9
Agriculture
about 3000 B.C., the economy of the area was dominated by a mix of
agriculture and livestock raising. From the delta region, agriculture
spread upstream into the Nile River valley, with farming lands eventually
occupying a narrow strip on each side of the river.
Agriculture in Egypt relied primarily on natural irrigation from the
annual flooding of the Nile River. Each year from about mid-July to mid-
October, the river floods its banks. After reaching a peak in August to Sep-
tember, the water quickly recedes. Two factors made this flooding less
damaging to crops than the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
First, flooding in Egypt was more gradual. Second, the contours of the
land on either side of the Nile made it easier to divert the floodwaters
onto fields. The regularity of this seasonal flooding became the basis of
the agricultural cycle.
As the waters of the Nile rose, they slowly spread out onto floodplains
A Farmer's Almanac on either side of the river. Towns and villages sat on higher ground safely
above the flooded areas. Water control consisted of diverting the flood-
information about agriculture
water from the river along canals into natural flood basins. Dikes and
in the ancient Near East
comes from various sources.
channels were built to direct the flow of the water and to ensure that it
Clay tablets record such details as la- stayed long enough to soak the land. These channels were far less elabo-
bor assignments, seed distribution, rate than the system of canals in southern Mesopotamia, however. They
and laws related to agricultural dis- could be built by individual farmers and did not require the large re-
putes. Art and artifacts depict scenes sources needed in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys.
of farming and provide evidence of
the tools used. One of the most
Farmland in Egypt was categorized by its relation to the Nile River.
1 valuable sources of information is a Some land received ample water and had adequate drainage. Other land
Sumerian document known as the flooded erratically, and its value for cultivation was thus more limited.
Farmer's Almanac About 3,500 year Low-lying land tended not to drain properly and was unsuited for certain
old, this ancient clay tablet consists crops. Fields were small and uneven in shape because their boundaries
of farming instructions from a
were determined by natural flood and drainage patterns.
farmer to his son. It gives directions
for irrigating the land, preparing the
The Egyptian agricultural year began in late June as the Nile began to
soil, and sowing the seed. The rise. The growing season lasted through winter, and spring and early sum-
farmer even explains the need to mer were the time of harvest. Once floodwaters had drained from the
protect the growing crop from mice land, the plowing season was short because the land was in ideal condi-
and birds. The document provides a tion for a very limited period. As the land dried, it quickly formed a hard
detailed and very personal look at
farming practices from long ago.
crust that was very difficult to plow. Sometimes desert sand was added to
the soil to improve its structure. Plowing was usually done with a two-ox
team pulling a simple plow. After plowing, large pieces of soil often had to
be broken apart by hand with a type of hammer or ax. Seeds were planted
by hand.
Grain was harvested by hand with a sickle. It was then transported in
baskets, usually on the back of a donkey, to a place where it was threshed.
The threshing was done by cattle or donkeys that crushed the grain under
foot. The grain was then cleaned and stored. Grain yields in Egypt were
somewhat lower than those in southern Mesopotamia, typically at ten
bushels harvested for each bushel of seeds planted.

Farmworkers. Fully 80 to 90 percent of the population worked the

land. Farmworkers were generally not independent farmers working
their own land and growing enough food to feed themselves and their
families. In Egypt and Mesopotamia, they were peasants who worked the
land on behalf of landowners—typically the temple or the palace—and
10
 Ahab
were paid in grain. They used the grain to make bread and to exchange it
for meat, vegetables, and other foods.
A much smaller percentage—perhaps 5 to 10 percent of the population—
* nomad person who travels from place tended animals. These herders might be nomads*, who did not live in the
to place to find food and pasture growing agricultural villages and cities. Some herders, though, lived in the
villages along with the peasants. They grazed their animals on lands that
were not being cultivated. When needed by farmers, herders managed the
animals that pulled plows or helped in the harvest.

THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE

In the past, historians believed that the extensive irrigation systems used
Learning About in southern Mesopotamia led to the formation of the first urban civiliza-
tions. They argued that the amount of planning and organizing necessary
Ancient Farming to create and tend the complex network of canals generated a complex
Archaeologists can learn
political structure in which leaders dominated the great masses of people.
about ancient farming from
many sources. They look for Few scholars now agree with such a straightforward link of cause and ef-
ancient canals and field sys- fect. Nevertheless, the adoption of agriculture did have a significant im-
tems in land that is now too dry pact on human society.
to farm. They study ancient set- Agriculture produced a more secure supply of food, and that pro-
tlements to learn about housing moted population growth. People formed settlements, and those settle-
and storage facilities. A branch of
archaeology called archaeobotany
ments became larger, growing in some cases from villages to towns and
tries to discover what crops were even to cities. In addition, people spread to new areas as they sought new
planted and how ancient people sources of good farmland.
domesticated them. Some sites As farm output grew, some people were freed from the need to find or
yield tools and other equipment, produce food. They could take on other tasks, from making pottery and
and wall paintings or other art-
works reveal farming techniques.
jewelry to building structures and trading goods. Over time, cities and vil-
Texts such as letters, law codes, and lages were marked by specialization of labor. At the same time, women's
lists of work assignments or worker position changed. Their concerns were limited to those of family life, and
rations shed light on other aspects their status came increasingly to be determined by their families.
of farming. Despite all these sources The possession of land and goods became an important value, and
of information, however, great gaps people who owned more enjoyed higher status. Among the people with
in the record still remain.
higher status were priests, rulers, and soldiers. They directed the commu-
nal efforts of society and became the guardians of the community's re-
sources and its important rituals. The adoption of agriculture, then,
contributed in many ways to the growing complexity of human society.
(See also Animals, Domestication of; Cereal Grains; Climate; Date
Palms and Dates; Euphrates River; Famine; Food and Drink; Land Use
and Ownership; Nomads and Nomadism; Tigris River; Water.)

AHAB
I n 932 B.C., the unified kingdom of Israel split into two kingdoms: Israel
in the north and Judah in the south. Ahab (AY«hab) tried to expand
the power of the northern kingdom. Under his rule, some significant reli-
gious changes took place.
Ahab's father, Omri, an army commander, seized power to become
ruled ca. 875-854 B.C. ruler of the northern kingdom in 886 B.C. During Omri's rule, the Is-
King of Israel raelite kingdoms first appeared in securely dated historical documents
outside the Hebrew Bible. Biblical sources were antagonistic to his
11
Ahmose
dynasty and must be read cautiously. Omri allied his kingdom to the
powerful and wealthy Phoenicians to the north. He used Phoenician
workers and designs in building a new capital at SAMARIA, which was
close to Phoenicia. The connection became even stronger when Ahab
married Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, ruler of the Phoenician cities of
TYRE and SIDON.
When Omri died in 875 B.C., Ahab became king of Israel. His king-
dom was larger and wealthier than Judah to the south. Ahab's ambitions
as king, the growing wealth of the kingdom, and a rising population led
to a great deal of building activity that contributed to the growth of cities.
Conflict—both external and internal—marked Ahab's reign. Because
he tried to build Israel into a regional power, he was almost constantly at
* city-state independent state consisting war with the neighboring city-state* of DAMASCUS. Ahab and Damascus
of a city and its surrounding territory abandoned their quarrels and joined together to face a common threat
when Assyrians under SHALMANESER III invaded from the east. In about 853
B.C., Ahab sent a large force to the battle of Qarqar, which stopped the As-
syrian advance. Once that threat was removed, however, the alliance
broke up, and Israel and Damascus began fighting again. Ahab eventually
met his death in this fighting.
Ahab's marriage to Jezebel caused the internal conflict. Jezebel
brought the worship of the Phoenician god BAAL to Israel, and Ahab built
a temple to Baal in Samaria. Resentment against this worship simmered
among the followers of YAHWEH, the Hebrew god. Twelve years after
Ahab's death, this anger produced a bloody revolt against the Baalists that
included the murder of Ahab;s son—who was then king—and of Jezebel
herself. (See also Athaliah; Bible, Hebrew; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel
and Judah; Judaism and Jews; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

AHMOSE
A hmose (ah«MOH«se) was an Egyptian king who founded the Eigh-
teenth Dynasty. His rule launched the period called the New King-
dom, a stable and prosperous time in Egypt's history that lasted almost
500 years. Ahmose freed Egypt from the HYKSOS, a group of nomads* from
Asia who had conquered northern Egypt. He also brought much of the
ruled ca. 1539-1514 B.C. Levant* and the eastern Mediterranean coast under his rule and regained
Egyptian king control of Nubia in southern Egypt.
The Hyksos had taken control of northern Egypt in about 1630 B.C.
* nomad person who travels from place Earlier Egyptian kings had tried without success to expel them from
to place to find food and pasture Egypt. King Kamose, who preceded Ahmose, had battled the Hyksos re-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern peatedly. Kamose and his army had nearly reached the city of Avaris, the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Hyksos capital in northern Egypt, but had failed to conquer it.
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), Soon after Ahmose came to power around 1539 B.C., he resumed the
the West Bank, and Jordan
fight against the Hyksos. While his mother, Queen Ahhotep, ran the gov-
ernment from THEBES in central Egypt, Ahmose launched a sea attack and
* siege long and persistent effort to force then a siege* against Avaris. He finally captured the city around 1530 B.C.
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or and drove the Hyksos out of Egypt shortly thereafter.
city with armed troops, cutting it off After his victory at Avaris, Ahmose followed the retreating Hyksos
from supplies and aid
into the Levant, where they had a stronghold. Ahmose and his army
12
 Ahriiiian
surrounded the Hyksos forces. After several years of siege, the Hyksos fi-
nally surrendered. Ahmose went on to conquer most of the Levant and
the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. He also led his army on three
campaigns into Nubia and eventually conquered the Nubians, who had
been allies of the Hyksos.
In addition to regaining control of a great deal of Egyptian territory
and conquering new lands, Ahmose brought Egypt great wealth. He
put the rich gold mines of Nubia under Egyptian control and reopened
copper mines on the SINAI PENINSULA northeast of Egypt. Ahmose also
resumed trade with Phoenician cities along the coast of SYRIA. More-
over, he restored many neglected temples and built new chapels for his
family.
When Ahmose died around 1514 B.C., he was succeeded by his son,
Amenhotep I. Ahmose left behind a unified and economically strong
kingdom. He had turned Egypt into a dominant power in the ancient
Near East. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians.)

AHRIMAN
I n the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism, Ahriman (AH«ri«muhn) was
the spirit of evil and destruction and the enemy of his twin brother,
AHURA MAZDA, who represented goodness, wisdom, and creation. Images
connected with Ahriman later appeared in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic
descriptions of devils.
Zoroastrianism was founded by the prophet* Zoroaster around 600
* prophet one who claims to have B.C. In Zoroaster's early writings, Ahura Mazda was the one and only god
received divine messages or insights and the creator of the world. He gave birth to twins who were identified
with good and evil. Over time, Zoroastrianism changed. An ancient Per-
* deity god or goddess sian deity* named Zurvan (god of time and space) came to be seen as the
father of these twin gods. Ahura Mazda became the good deity and Ahri-
man the evil one.
* usurp to wrongfully occupy a position According to one myth about these brothers, Ahriman tried to usurp*
a kingship that belonged to his brother. Another myth is similar to the
story of Cain and Abel in the Hebrew Bible. In this account, Ahriman and
Ahura Mazda became rivals because their father accepted the sacrifice of-
fered by one of them but rejected the other's.
Whatever the source of their conflict, Ahriman lived in darkness and
Ahura Mazda in light. The earth between them was their battleground.
Ahriman's fight against Ahura Mazda and his fall to the underworld may
have been one source of the Christian story of the fall of Satan from
heaven. Ahriman was considered the creator of snakes and all evil things.
Some ancient depictions of the Garden of Eden show Eve and Adam be-
ing tempted not by a serpent but by Ahriman as an old man.
Though the two were twins and struggled for thousands of years,
Ahura Mazda was the more powerful god. In the end, Zoroastrianism
promised, Ahura Mazda would defeat Ahriman and drive evil out of the
* cult system of religious beliefs and world. Yet Ahriman also had worshipers and shrines. Some cults* hon-
rituals; group following these beliefs ored him as the source of magical powers. (See also Bible, Hebrew;
Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)
13
Ahura Mazda

AHURA MAZDA
A hura Mazda (uh»HOO«ruh MAZ»duh) was one of the great gods of
Zoroastrianism, a religion of ancient Persia. Ahura Mazda's role
changed over time, however. At first, he was the only deity* and was wor-
shiped as a sun god, the creator of all things. He was called Wise Lord.
Later he was seen as the chief god among others. His worship became the
official religion of the rulers of the PERSIAN EMPIRE in the 500s B.C.
* deity god or goddess According to the prophet* Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda was the only god.
* prophet one who claims to have He created twin brothers, one of whom followed the path of goodness
received divine messages or insights and truth, while the other pursued evil and lies. Over time, however,
Zoroastrian beliefs changed. Ahura Mazda himself came to be identified
as the good twin and became the rival of the evil twin, AHRIMAN. In this
later version of Zoroastrianism, their father was the ancient Persian god of
time and space, Zurvan.
Ahura Mazda represented goodness, truth, and creation, while Ahri-
man represented evil, lies, and chaos. Ahura Mazda dwelled in light and
Ahriman in darkness. Between the two lay the human world, over
which they were locked in battle. Zoroastrianism held that in the end,
Ahura Mazda would win this cosmic conflict, that good would triumph
over evil.
Persian kings adopted Zoroastrianism as the state religion and main-
tained a system of sacrifices to Ahura Mazda. They saw themselves as
earthly representatives of his spirit. Images of the kings and the fronts of
royal tombs were often decorated with a winged circle, a symbol repre-
senting Ahura Mazda. Some Persian kings adopted versions of his name,
such as Ormizd or Ormazd. (See also Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

AKHENATEN
A khenaten's (AH«ken«AH»tuhn) reign as pharaoh* of Egypt shook
the kingdom to its foundations. Akhenaten launched sweeping reli-
gious reforms, replacing Egypt's most powerful cult* with a new one of
his own. Some scholars have seen this as an early form of monotheism, or
belief in a single god. Instead of unifying Egypt, however, Akhenaten's
ruled ca. 1353-1336 B.C. revolutionary actions plunged it into turmoil.
King of Egypt
Amenhotep IV Turns to Aten. During the reign of the pharaoh
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt Amenhotep III, which began around 1390 B.C., Egypt reached a high
* cult system of religious beliefs and point of prosperity and power. When he died, one of his sons took the
rituals; group following these beliefs throne and adopted the name Amenhotep. Modern historians call him
Amenhotep IV to distinguish him from other kings of the same name.
The name Amenhotep refers to the god AMUN, reflecting the belief that
deity god or goddess the royal family had a special relationship with this deity*. Egyptian reli-
gion had many deities, but Amun was the chief god. Amun's high priest
was the official overseer of all the priests of the land.
For unknown reasons, Amenhotep turned against Amun and Egypt's
traditional religion. He devoted himself to the worship of Aten, the sun
god. Aten was not a new god, but his worship had been overshadowed
by the worship of Amun. However, the king created a new Aten cult,
built new temples, and appointed himself high priest. He displeased
14
 Akhenaten
the priests of other cults by taxing their templesto pay thecostsof the
Aten cult.

Pharaoh Akhenaten. Infifth theyearof hisreign,AmenhotepIV

changed his name to Akhenaten, "hewho effective
is for Aten/'and be-
gan buildinga new capitalin the middle AKHETATEN,
ofEgypt.
Hecalled
it
and today it is known
AMARNA.
as Itbecamethe royal residence for the
king; his chiefwife,
NEFERTITI;and the royal
family.
Akhenaten continued to promote theworshipofAtenandeventually
outlawed the worship of other gods. Heclosed their temples, ordered
their names chiseled out ofcarvings,and hadtheir statues destroyed. All
worship was supposed to focus on the king, thequeen, andAten, who
was depicted as a solar disk with rays thatendedinhuman hands giving
life and other powers.The Hymnto Aten,written during Akhenaten's
reign, depicts Aten as the "one god/'aloving, creative force.
Historians are divided on the question ofAkhenaten's motives. Some
claim that he was the first person in history toexpress beliefin asingle
god. Others suggest that Akhenaten's religious revolution mayhave been
an attempt to strengthen the ideaof theking's divine nature.He mayalso
have been seeking to limit the power ofAmun's prieststoprevent them
from becoming a threat to the throne.

The End of the Aten Cult. While facingthese changes athome,Egypt

suffered problems abroad during Akhenaten's reign. Conflict between
powerful states in theNear East spilled over intoEgyptian-controlled
parts of
SYRIA.As a result, Egypt lost someof the lands
it had conquered.
The empire did not collapse, but its size andmight were reduced. The
Egyptian military blamed the king's religious policiesforweakening
the core of the empire. Some said thatEgypt's godshadturned against
the country.
King Akhenaten died in about
B.C. Two
1336
rulers held the throne
brieflyafter his death. One ofthem, called Nefernefruaten,may inreal-
ity have been Queen Nefertiti. Theother, Smenkhkare,wasmarried to
one of Akhenaten's daughters. He may also beenabrotheror son of
Akhenaten, as intermarriagewascommon within Egyptian royal fami-
lies. Smenkhkare began restoring theworship ofEgypt's traditional gods.
In 1332
B.C., another of Akhenaten's sons-in-law, probably abrother
of Smenkhkare, cameto the throne. TUTANKHAMEN,
Hisnamewasand he
became pharaoh at the age ofnine. Orders issuedin hisname completed
the restoration of the cultsofAmunand other traditional deities. Tut-
ankhamen also ordered the people wholived inAkhetaten to abandon
the new city.
The next few pharaohs took pains towipe out all ofAkhenaten's
works. They tore down the temples ofAtenanddestroyed paintingsand
statues created to honor Akhenaten and hisgod. Priest-scribes even tried
to wipe Akhenaten out ofhistory byleaving hisname out ofchronicles
and lists of Egypt's kings. The religion Akhenatenhad forcedon his
people did not long outlive also him.
(See Egypt and the Egyptians;
Monotheism; Religion.)
15
Akhetaten

AKHETATEN P 3r about ten years in the mid-1300s B.C., Egypt's capital was a city
:alled Akhetaten (AH«ket»AH»tuhn). The city was built during a reli-
gious revolution led by the pharaoh* AKHENATEN and was dedicated
to the worship of the sun god Aten. After Akhenaten's death around 1336
B.C., Akhetaten was abandoned and largely destroyed by new rulers who
wanted to erase the king's religious changes.
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt Akhetaten, known today as AMARNA, stood on the NILE RIVER midway
between the northern Egyptian city of MEMPHIS and the southern city of
* archaeologist scientist who studies past THEBES. Archaeologists* and scholars have been studying the remains of
human cultures, usually by excavating Akhetaten for more than 150 years. They have established that the city's
material remains of human activity central portion contained the royal residence, called the Great Palace,
and the Great Temple of Aten. The temple had inner courts open to the
sky so that the sun god's rays could fall on processions and worshipers. In
these courts stood hundreds of altars at which worshipers could leave of-
See map in Egypt and the Egyptians ferings. A smaller royal structure called the North Palace stood some dis-
(vol.2).
tance away in a section of Akhetaten known as the North City.
Akhetaten held hundreds of works of art, many in a new and unusual
style that historians have labeled the "Amarna style." Some scholars sug-
gest that Akhenaten encouraged the new style as a way of breaking cultural
ties with the old religion. The Amarna style featured brilliant multicolored
effects created with glass and paint. Many images show the king, his wife—
* bust statue of a subject's head, neck, NEFERTITI—and their daughters interacting with one another. Portrait busts*
and shoulders of the royal family were uncovered in the ruins of a studio that belonged to
a sculptor named Thutmose. The most famous of these is a magnificent
bust of Nefertiti found in A.D. 1912.

AKKAD AND
D uring the second half of the third millennium B.C.*, the fertile
plain of MESOPOTAMIA was dotted with many independent but war-
ring city-states*—until a powerful king named SARGON I unified the entire
THE AKKADIANS region under a single rule. He created Mesopotamia's first large, organized
state: the Akkadian (uh»KAY»dee«uhn) empire. Although the empire
lasted for less than 200 years, it was a turning point in the history of the
Near East. Rulers and dynasties* of later generations tried to equal the po-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 litical and military achievements of the Akkadian empire.
to 2001 B.C.
* city-state independent state consisting
of a city and its surrounding territory WHO WERE THE AKKADIANS?
* dynasty succession of rulers from the The terms Akkad (AK«kad) and Akkadian can be confusing even to experts
same family or group in Near Eastern studies. Each has several meanings. Akkad was a region
along the EUPHRATES RIVER in central Mesopotamia, around the ancient
city-states of KISH and NIPPUR, in the vicinity of present-day Baghdad. Just
to the south of Akkad was the region called Sumer. This is why historians
sometimes use the term Sumer and Akkad, just as the ancients themselves
did, to refer to the southern half of Mesopotamia. Akkad was also the
name of a city in this region. Some scholars spell the city's name Agade or
Akkade to avoid confusion with the region.
The Akkadians were the people of Akkad. Their language, Akka-
dian, is the oldest known of the SEMITIC LANGUAGES, a language family that
16
 Akkad and the Akkadians
today includes HebrewandArabic.TheAkkadians borrowedthesystem
of CUNEIFORM writing thatthe Sumerianshad developed fortheir
own
language.
The rise to power of the Akkadians made theirs official
the language
of government and business throughout Mesopotamia.after Even
the
Akkadian empire disappeared, the Akkadian language remainedin use
and Sumerian died out. Gradually two versions, ordialects, ofAkkadian
emerged:Assyrian in northern Mesopotamia andBabylonian insouthern
Mesopotamia. Forthis reason,the term refer
Akkadiancan
tolanguageor
literaturefrom a large region overaperiodofseveral thousand years. The
term OldAkkadianis more specific.
refers
It to the language andliterature
of the period between about 2500 B.C.,and
including
2000 the era of the
Akkadian empireitself.

KINGSAND
CONQUESTS
We know little about the originsof theAkkadians,butthey were probably
related to Semitic-speaking peoples who lived throughout northern
Mesopotamia and inSyriain the thirdB.C. millennium
Forcenturies,it
seems, they lived sideby side withthe Sumerians. B.C.,
Byaround 2500
the city-state ofKishhad achieved some degreeofpower overthe 30 or so
Sumerian city-states. When conflicts brokeoutbetween these indepen-
dent cities, theensis,or rulers, sometimes turnedto the
lugal, thekingof
Kish, to settle their disputes.Intime,aremarkable leader would turn this
patchwork of independent kingdoms intoasingle, well-regulated state.

Sargon I. AroundB.C., 2350

Lugalzagesi,the kingof the city-state of
UMMA, seized control
LAGASH
URUK and
of declared himselflugalover
all the other rulersof Sumer. Around B.C., Lugalzagesi
2334 wasover-
thrown by SargonI.
Sargon's early
life is a mystery. Almostno documents written during
his lifetime survive.Our knowledgeof hiscareer comes fromtexts written
after his death—sometimeslong after. Some versions say thatSargon was
an official in the palaceof the kingKish.of He mayhave seized power
from his master and then, after survivinganassassination attempt, made
himself king ofAkkad. Whateverhis exact routetopower, defeat
his of
Lugalzagesi gave Sargon power over Sumer. Sargon tookthe title "kingof
Kish," identifying himself with the who hadpossessedthepowerto
lugals
settle conflicts among the Sumerian city-states.For firstthe
time, Sumer
and Akkad were united politically.
Not content with control ofSumerand Akkad,Sargon launchedan
ambitious campaign ofconquest to the north andwest. Hemarched up
the EuphratesRiver, winning controlofMARI the city-state
alongtheof
way, and made himself king SYRIA,
of eastern
includingthe city-state
of EBLA.
The Akkadian capital under Sargonwas the city Akkad.
of
Likethe
king's origins, it is surrounded bymystery. Accordingtosome accounts,
Sargon foundedAkkad as a new city somewhere nearthesiteofpresent-
day Baghdad. However, the earliest mentionof thecity occursin atext
from before Sargon's time.If thatsource isaccurate, Sargon may nothave
17
Akkad and the Akkadians
created the city but may have enlarged and improved it instead. The ex-
act location of the city of Akkad is unknown. Although it was inhabited
for hundreds of years after the fall of the Akkadian empire, the city even-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past tually disappeared. Modern archaeologists* have yet to find what may re-
human cultures, usually by excavating main of it buried within tells*.
material remains of human activity Though information about the city of Akkad is cloudy, it is clear that
* tell mound, especially in the ancient the city was prosperous and impressive. It had temples, palaces, and
Near East, that consists of the remains of broad avenues. Ships bearing trade goods from the Persian Gulf moored
successive settlements
at its docks along the river.
Sargon's reign ended with his death in about 2279 B.C., but Mesopo-
tamians long remembered him as a dazzlingly successful monarch. One
inscription from the period of his reign states: ''Sargon, the king of Kish,
was victorious in thirty-four battles and destroyed walls as far as the edges
of the sea. . . . Sargon, the king of Kish: Enlil has given him no equal.
5,400 men daily eat in his presence."
The reference to destroying walls has to do with Sargon's conquest of
walled cities. ENLIL was the patron god of Nippur and the supreme god of
The Curse of Akkad Mespotamian religion. The "5,400 men" probably refers to Sargon's army.
One of many literary accounts of He was the first Mesopotamian ruler to maintain a large permanent fight-
the Akkadian empire is an epic
ing force. Because this army depended directly on the king for food and
poem called The Curse of Akkad,
written in the Sumerian language rewards, it was extremely loyal to him.
several centuries after the fall of
the empire. It praises Sargon as a The Sons of Sargon. Rimush, one of Sargon's sons, inherited the
bringer of prosperity and peace, Akkadian throne after his father's death. The Sumerian city-states re-
beloved of the gods, but it por- belled against him, however, and most of his nine-year rule was spent
trays his grandson Naram-Sin as
a "misfortune-prone ruler." As
bringing the rebellious cities under control. The process was violent. IN-
Naram-Sin's empire fades, the SCRIPTIONS made during Rimush's reign mention the slaughter or enslave-
king recklessly angers the gods. ment of thousands of people. A plot within the palace led to Rimush's
They punish him by sending barbar murder, and his brother Manishtushu took the throne.
ian hordes to tear the city of Akkad The new king strengthened Akkadian control over a region of south-
apart. Although the poem dramati-
cally describes the dangers of defy-
western IRAN and also sent his navy into the Persian Gulf. Manishtushu
ing the gods, evidence shows that lasted longer on the throne than Rimush—15 years—but like his brother,
the city did, in fact, survive for some he died in a palace conspiracy. He was followed on the throne by his son
time after Naram-Sin's death. and Sargon's grandson NARAM-SIN, a key figure in the Sargonic dynasty.

Naram-Sin. During a reign that lasted from about 2254 B.C. until 2218
B.C., Naram-Sin turned the realm he had inherited into a true empire. He
claimed the right to conquer and rule without limits and took the title
"king of the four quarters" to show that his power extended to the ends
of the earth. Naram-Sin also took another step. Instead of declaring that
his power came from the gods, he claimed that he was a god. He was the
first Mesopotamian ruler to make such a claim.
Naram-Sin tried to enlarge his empire in all directions. He invaded
and conquered parts of Syria in the west, ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in
the north, and the region called Elam, in present-day Iran, in the east. His
success may have inspired his enemies at home to plot against him. The
Sumerian city-states, desperate to regain independence, won support
from foreign allies and rebelled against him several times. After Naram-
Sin put down these rebellions, he had himself named the patron god of
the city of Akkad.
18
 Akkad and the Akkadians
The Fall of Akkad. Thereign ofNaram-Sin was thehigh point of the
Akkadian empire.Hisson, Shar-kali-sharri,wasunableorunwillingto act
as ruler over such a vast area.Hegaveup thetitle "kingoffour thequar-
ters" and called himself "kingof Akkad."Shar-kali-sharri reigned for
about 25 years, during whichhelost series
a ofwars. Thesedefeatsnibbled
away at the territories that Naram-Sin hadconquered. Eventually, the
mighty empire shrank to include only theregion around thecapital city.
Among the enemies who were moving into formerAkkadian territo-
* nomad personwhotravelsfrom place ries werethe
AMORITES, Semitic-speaking nomads* whowere migrating
to place to find food andpasture into Mesopotamiafrom the northwest. Shar-kali-sharri fought them in
Syria. The Gutians, another nomadic people, entered Mesopotamia from
the Zagros Mountains to the east. TheMesopotamians regarded the
Gutians as crude barbarians. Although some ancient accountsandmod-
ern historians saythat the Gutian attacks caused final
the collapseof the
Akkadian empire, it ismore likely that theempire dwindled bit bybit.
The Gutians may simply have taken advantageofAkkad's increasing
weakness. Drought, famine, andother conditions mayhave contributed
to that weakness.
The Sargonic dynasty survivedforsome40years afterthedeath
of
Shar-kali-sharriin about
B.C.2193
Bythen, however, Akkad
was
just
a mi-
nor city-state. Mesopotamia'sfirst empirewasonlyamemory,but it was
one that would notfade.

19
Akkad and the Akkadians

LIFEIN THE
AKKADIAN
EMPIRE
Life in the Akkadian empirewas a blendof traditional elementsand new
forms of organization introducedby Sargonand his successors, especially
Naram-Sin. Onefeature ofAkkadian culturewas its interestin the new
and unusual. That quality appears in the many inscriptions Naram-Sin
ordered made during his reign. They stress accomplishments suchas
hunting indifficult terrain and discoveringnewroutes.

Political Organization. Sargon began the political reorganization of

* vassal individual or state thatswears Sumer andAkkad, and Naram-Sin carriedit out.Thekingslet vassal* the
loyalty and obedience to a greater city-states continue to have their own ensis,or rulers,but they
oftenap-
power pointed menfromAkkad filltothose
offices.In this way,the kings tried
to maintain tradition while at the same time strengthening their own
hold on conquered territory. They maintained ties with ensisthe
bymak-
ing frequent visits to their cities.In turn thewere requiredtorepre-
ensis
sent their cities before the king, which meant that they had tomak
frequent trips to the capital.
The kings built templesand fortressesfor the use ofAkkadian priests
and officials in conquered states. They also based loyal soldiers in the
southern citiesso that they could head off rebellions.
A carved pillar calledthe Obeliskof Manishtushtu records that that
king seized huge expansesof landin Sumer.Heprobablydid thisin or-
der to parcel it out to his nobles and other supporters, and it islikely that
the other kings did the same. Rewarding officials and soldiers with land
gave monarchs a way of paying for loyalty.It also beganthe processof
turning what was once enemy territory into land occupied by theruler's
own people.

Agriculture and Trade. One of the most significant achievements

of the Akkadian empirewas turning AGRICULTURE
Mesopotamian into
a
centralized, state-run operation. Agricultural productionwas the source
of Akkad's wealth, and the Akkadian kings ordered large numbers of
people to move to new areasso they could createa moreefficient
farm-
ing enterprise.
The Akkadian rulers and the
officials who carriedout their orders
moved the people of many smaller citiesand towns intothe larger cities.
Urban residents providedthe labor
forcefor the large estatesnow claimed
by the empire. Imperial* administrators determined what crops wouldbe
grown and collected part of the harvestas taxes. Taxes sometimes
amounted to as much as 70 percent of the food harvestedand were
shipped by riverboat to the capital. The Sargonic agricultural system in-
creased grain production in northern Mesopotamia.
The Akkadians also introduceda new unitofmeasurement calledthe
Akkad gur, equal to about one bushel or 30 liters.It replacedall other
units of measurement in the empire.The gurenabled officialsto accu-
rately measure, record, and control the production offarms
the and the
traffic of the markets.
Goods from all over westernAsia flowed into Akkad duringthe
Sargonic period. Some entered by trade; some were seizedas lootby
20
 Akkad and the Akkadians
* imperial pertaining to an emperor conquering
or armies. Both Sargon andNaram-Sin looked to theedges of
an empire their empire for goods not available in itsheartland. Sargon claimedto
have received a cedar
forest and asilver mountain
fromthe godDagan,
who granted him authority over eastern Syria.These items were valuable
resources of northern Mesopotamia, Syria,and Anatolia. Naram-Sin
made a similar claim.
A number of inscriptionsfromthe reignsof the Sargonic kings
mention places along importantoverland trade routes, such as those
linking Mesopotamia to Iran in the east and to themetal-rich Taurus
Mountains in the north. TheAkkadians also traded by seawith Dilmun
and Makkan, ports on the western coastof thePersian Gulf,andwith
Melukkha, which was located acrossthe ArabianSea on thecoastof
present-day Pakistan. Manishtushu seemstohave launchedanavalat-
tack on Makkan, whichwas asourceofcopperfor theancient world. He
returned not with copper, however,butwith blocksofdiorite. This hard,
dark stone quarriedfrom the mountains near Makkanwasprizedby
Akkadian sculptors.

Religion. Traditional Akkadian religious belief was undoubtedlyvery

similar to that of the Semitic peoplesofnorthern Mesopotamia. Among
* deity god or goddess the most important deities* were Shamash (godof thesun),Sin(godof
the moon),ISHTAR
and (goddessof the planet Venus).
AfterSumer and
Akkad were joined, the Sumerian godsand goddesses gained impor-
tance, especiallyEnlil, the principal god,andInanna, fertility
a goddess.
Over time Inanna and Ishtar merged intoasingle figure.
The Akkadians and those who came after themsometimes inter-
preted historic events as caused by the actionsofdeitieswhoeither
favored or disapproved ofparticular kings. Some chroniclesandinscrip-
tions, for example,say thatSargonhad special favorin theeyesofIshtar.
One of Naram-Sin's deedswasregarded lesskindly, however. Naram-Sin
decided to rebuild the old templeof EnlilinNippur. Lavishdecorations
of silver and gold were planned for this ambitious building project,
which Naram-Sin left to one of the later kings
Akkad
of to complete.
Later accountsof the fallof
Akkad claim that
Enlildestroyed theempire
because he was angry atNaram-Sin'schangesin histemple.

The Arts. One of the most striking figuresof theSargonicera was

Enkhe-
duanna, a daughter of Sargon.Theking madeherhigh priestessof the
moon god Sin atURin order to strengthen thelink between Sumer and
Akkad. She held this position intothe reignofNaram-Sin.Enkheduanna
is said to have written a number ofliterary works in theSumerian lan-
guage. One is a hymn ofpraiseto the goddess Inanna/Ishtar. Another tells
how the priestess, drivenout of Ur in arevolt, begs Inanna/Ishtartohelp
her. The goddess doesso, and Enkheduannaisrestoredto herposition.
Artworks created in the Akkadian empire havealively, individual
quality new to the era.Perfectly shaped andprecisely carved cylinder
SEALS, when rolledon damp clay, create scenes
ofbattles between animals
and heroes and demons or ofbanquets attended by thegods. These
scenesreflect a timeof uncertaintyaswellas asense
ofchangeand new
possibilities.
21
Alaca Hiiyiik
One of the most important surviving artworks from the Akkadian em-
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been pire is a carved limestone stela* called the Victory Stela of Naram-Sin. Dis-
carved or engraved and serves as a covered in A.D. 1898 at Susa, it was ordered by Naram-Sin around 2240 B.C.
monument; pi. stelae to honor his victory over eastern hill tribes. Centuries later an Elamite
king carried it off to Susa as a trophy. It depicts the boldly striding figure
of the king standing with one foot atop two fallen victims and gazing tri-
umphantly at a mountain crowned by suns or stars. No other image bet-
ter captures the aggressiveness, energy, and confidence of the Akkadian
empire at its height.

THE LEGACY OF AKKAD

The Akkadian empire was short lived, but its contributions to Near East-
ern culture and history were long lasting. The Akkadian empire gave
Mesopotamia the Akkadian language, which became the principal spo-
ken language of the region after about 1800 B.C.
The chief legacy of the original Akkadians, though, was the idea of
empire. Sargon and his dynasty showed that a unified state, larger than
the city-states, could be forged and could be used to amass wealth.
It would not be long before other kings would attempt to do the same.
One of them in Assyria would even take the name of Sargon, a ruler al-
ways remembered by Mesopotamians as the hero of a glorious era. (See
also Bible, Hebrew; Elam and the Elamites; Sargon II; Sumer and the
Sumerians.)

Alaca Hiiyiik See Anatolia.

ALALAKH
T he ancient Syrian city of Alalakh (A»la«lak) flourished as a trading
center in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (about 2200 to 1200 B.C.).
This important archaeological site has yielded significant information
about the Bronze Age cultures of SYRIA and neighboring areas.
The site—now called Tell Atchana—is located near the mouth of the
Orontes River in southern Turkey, just north of the Syrian border. From
* vassal individual or state that swears the 1700s to the 1300s B.C., the city was the capital of a vassal* state of the
loyalty and obedience to a greater kingdoms of Yamkhad, centered in the modern Syrian city of Aleppo, and
power then of Mitanni. During this period, the population of Alalakh had a mix
of ethnic groups, including West Semites and HURRIANS. With a strategic
location, the city was raided by several peoples, including the Egyptians
See map in Syria (vol. 4). and the Hurrians. It was destroyed sometime after 1200 B.C., perhaps by
the SEA PEOPLES.
Excavations at the site have revealed 17 settlement levels that may
reach as far back as 2400 B.C. The city was an administrative center and
also a religious one. Included in the ruins are a large two- or three-story
22
 Alexander the Great
palace and a three-room temple. In addition to showing changes in styles
of ARCHITECTURE, the excavations provide clues to the city's history and its
* fresco method of painting in which political and social development. Wall frescoes* found at two levels show
color is applied to moist plaster so that it the influence of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION of ancient Crete. Artifacts* in-
becomes chemically bonded to the clude seals that reveal the influence of many different cultures, colorful
plaster as it dries; also, a painting done
in this manner
glass beads that reflect a thriving local industry, and many elephant tusks.
Alalakh, it seems, was the center of a thriving ivory trade.
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or
other object made by humans
Perhaps the most significant artifacts discovered at Alalakh are more
than 500 texts and text fragments on CLAY TABLETS from two distinct periods
of Alalakh's history, most written in Akkadian CUNEIFORM. These written
texts, which include deeds, contracts, lists of people and their occupations,
and inventories of possessions, have provided detailed information about
the social and economic life of the city. (See also Archaeology and Archae-
ologists; Palaces and Temples; Wall Paintings.)

ALEXANDER A lexander III of Macedonia, known to history as Alexander the

Great, was the most successful military leader of the ancient world.
His influence on the Near East was immense. By conquering the Persian
THE GREAT empire, Alexander became ruler of the entire region. He then extended
his rule over lands in Central Asia and India. The Greek culture that he
brought to the Near East remained a strong force in the region for three
centuries after his death.
lived 356-323 B.C.
King of Macedonia and
world conqueror
ALEXANDER'S MILITARY CAREER
Alexander III came to the throne of Macedonia at the age of 20, after the
assassination of his father, King Philip II. Macedonia had gained control
over Greece after the Peloponessian Wars, when Philip successfully con-
* city-state independent state consisting quered the disunited and warring Greek city-states*. In fact, Alexander
of a city and its surrounding territory was instrumental in the final and decisive battle of the war. He inherited a
well-trained army and his father's plan to invade Persia. The Greeks and
Persians had fought a series of wars from 492 to 479 B.C., and the Greeks
were angry that their colonies in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) had re-
mained under Persian control.
Before Alexander could pursue this goal, he first had to spend two
years crushing revolts in Macedonia and Greece. Only when his control
was secure did he prepare to lead his army of about 40,000 Macedonian
and Greek soldiers into Persian territory.

First Conquests. In 334 B.C., Alexander began a remarkable period of

conquest by crossing the narrow waterway known as the Hellespont,
which separated Europe from Anatolia. One by one Alexander defeated
satrap provincial governor in Persian- the satraps*, freeing coastal Greek colonies from Persian rule. His fame
controlled territory grew after he defeated the much larger army of the Persian emperor
DARIUS III in the battle of Issus. When Darius fled, Alexander tightened
his grip on the western parts of the empire.
23
Alexander the Great
He next captured the portTYRE,city
the of
Persian naval baseon the
* siege long and persistent effort toforce Mediterranean Sea, after an eight-month siege*. Duringthesiege,he
a surrender by surroundingafortressor received anoffer of alliance
from Darius. Alexander
refused it,declaring
city with armed troops, cutting it off that in thefuture Darius must addresshim askingof Asia.
all
from supplies and aid
Alexander then marched to Egypt. TheEgyptians, who hadbeen
conquered years beforeby the Persiansandresented Persian rule,of-
fered no resistance. Alexander paid hisrespectsto thegodsof theEygp-
* oracle priest or priestess through whom tians and visited the oracle*of the Egyptian
AMUN.There
godhe was
a god is believed to speak; also, the declared to be the son ofAmunand thus therightful kingofEgypt.At
location (such as a shrine) where such the mouth of the NileRiver, Alexander founded a newcity called
utterances are made
Alexandria. During his conquests, hefounded many other cities with
this name, but the one in Egypt became thegrandest andmost impor-
tant. For many centuries, the city servedas acenteroflearning and
trade for a diversemix of peoples from acrossthe Mediterranean world
and the NearEast.

Pursuit of Darius. Alexander next turned MESOPOTAMIA

east toward
and Persia, the heart of the Persian empire.
B.C., hecrossed
In 331 the Eu-
phrates and TigrisRivers. AtGaugamelainMesopotamia,heonce again
achieved a brilliant victory overalarger Persian forcecommandedby
Darius. Once again, Darius escaped. Alexander'sarmy proceeded to oc-
cupy the PersianBABYLON,
cities
ofPERSEPOLIS.
SUSA,
and
Before burning
Persepolis to the ground, the army looted it. TheRoman historian
Plutarch later wrote that it took 10,000mules and5,000 camels tocarry
away the gold and silver
from the royal treasury.

24
 Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great, depicted in this mo-

saic from the first century A.D., was a lively
and fearless youth who was encouraged
from a very early age to pursue both his
intellectual and military goals. This detail
depicts him at the battle of Issus in 333 B.C.,
where he defeated the army of Persian
king Darius III. Alexander was also a great
admirer of Greek culture and aspired to
be like the Greek heroes he read about in
the works of such writers as Euripedes
and Homer.

In 330 B.C., Alexander pursued Darius into a region near the Caspian
Sea on the northern border of Persian territory. Before he could capture
his enemy, however, the satrap Bessus and other nobles murdered Darius.
When Alexander learned of this event, he took the title "great king of Per-
sia" for himself and ordered that Darius be buried with military honors.
The Voyage Bessus named himself king and led the remaining Persian forces east into
of Nearchus CENTRAL ASIA.
When Alexander returned to Persia
from India, he arranged for some Central Asia and India. Alexander pursued Bessus, and in 328 B.C.,
troops to make the journey by sea. he reached BACTRIA, where he met with fierce resistance from the local
He ordered a general named
Nearchus to use riverboats to scout I
people. It took almost three years for Alexander to gain control of this
the route between the mouth of area. He managed to do so partly by conquest and partly by making al-
the Indus River and the Persian liances with local leaders. One such alliance included his marriage to
Gulf, Alexander hoped to establish Roxane, a noblewoman from Sogdiana (in present-day Uzbekistan).
sea traffic between India and the Alexander's area of operations had now moved well beyond the Near
Near East, and he needed more in-
East. He had crossed the rugged and forbidding Hindu Kush mountains
formation about currents, winds,
and harbors. It was a perilous voy- and captured the town of Maracanda (also called Samarkand), an ancient
age, and the fleet had great diffi- stopping point for the CARAVANS that carried goods between China, India,
culty finding food and freshwater Persia, and the Near East. Along the way, he had captured Bessus and had
along the way, When Nearchus him executed for killing Darius. He had also been forced to put down sev-
eventually arrived at Alexander's eral rebellions among his own nobles.
camp, he was ragged, thin, and
barely recognizable. Still, he was
Alexander was determined to push his conquest eastward into new
able to announce that the ships and unknown lands. In 327 B.C., he marched his army across the Indus
and crew had arrived safely. Alexan- J River into India. He captured a series of towns in northwestern India but
der declared that the news of the began to have trouble with his own soldiers, who were exhausted by
fleet's survival gave him more joy seven years of fighting and wished to return to their homes. When
than the conquest of all Asia.
Alexander announced his plan to march still farther east, the army re-
fused. The disappointed conqueror agreed to go home.
25
Alexander the Great
Return and Death. The route back to familiar territory lay through
southern Persia, a region of inhospitable desert. The army suffered from
this march more than from any of its earlier campaigns. More than half
the troops died from thirst, starvation, and exhaustion.
Alexander reached Susa after an absence of five years to find that his
vast empire had not been well run in his absence. Some officials he had
The Gordian Knot left to govern the conquered lands had proven greedy and quarrelsome.
Alexander the Great is credited with Alexander dealt harshly with them. He married Darius's eldest daughter
untying, or perhaps just cutting, the
Gordian knot. This complex knot-
and had himself declared a god, steps that were meant to strengthen his
tied by Gordius or his son Midas, hold over his conquests.
king of Phrygia—attached a chariot In the spring of 323 B.C., Alexander was in Babylon, planning future
to a pole. Legend held that whoever campaigns, including an invasion of Arabia. He began to suffer from a ris-
loosened the knot would rule Asia, ing fever. A short time later, Alexander the Great was dead at the age of
Many tried and failed. Some myths
say that Alexander figured out how
32. He had never lost a battle, and he had conquered a huge empire. Al-
to untie it; others say that he cut though his wars were highly destructive, he had also founded many new
through it with his sword. The communities and had encouraged new forms of agriculture and trade in
phrase cutting the Cordian knot has the lands under his control.
come to mean finding an easy solu-
tion to a difficult problem.

ALEXANDER'S LEGACY
Alexander's one son with Roxane was born after the conqueror's death, but
the child did not live long enough to inherit his father's throne. Alexan-
der's legacy to the Near East and the rest of the ancient world lay in the
Hellenistic referring to the Greek- kings who came after him and, even more important, in the Hellenistic*
influenced culture of the Mediterranean period that resulted from his career. For 300 years after Alexander's death,
world and western Asia during the three the Greek influence that he had spread was a major cultural force in the
centuries after the death of Alexander the
Great in 323 B.C.
eastern Mediterranean and the Near East. There it blended with the in-
digenous cultures to produce entirely new sets of traditions.

The Successor Kingdoms. When Alexander died, the throne was de-
clared to be held jointly by Alexander's sickly half brother, Philip III, and
the son, Alexander IV, born to Roxane after Alexander's death. Soon,
however, Alexander's generals and nobles began fighting over the em-
pire he had built.
Two of the most successful generals were Seleucus I and PTOLEMY I. Se-
leucus gained control of Syria and Persia, where he established the SELEU-
* dynasty succession of rulers from the CID EMPIRE and a dynasty* that would include more than two dozen kings.
same family or group Ptolemy became king of Egypt in 304 B.C. He founded a dynasty that
would continue through 14 rulers, ending with CLEOPATRA.

The Hellenistic World. Alexander's ambition was grand; he wanted

to create a single empire that unified the entire known world. The politi-
cal state he forged did not endure, but indirectly he did create a kind of
unity. Wherever his army went, it set up military camps and colonies
that included women and children. Many of these colonies eventually
grew into towns and cities. Under Alexander, hundreds of thousands of
people from Greece and Macedonia settled in the Near East. They spoke
Greek, read Greek poems and plays, and built Greek structures such as
26
 Alphabets
theaters and gymnasiums. Those communities did not disappear after
Alexander died.
Trade and communication between Greece and the Near Eastern
world also grew. Using the gold and silver taken from treasuries such as
the one at Persepolis, Alexander increased the production of coins to pay
his soldiers. The increased flow of a single coinage system made the ex-
change of goods easier over a wide range of territory.
Economically and culturally, the Greek influence on the Near East
was strong. By the end of the Hellenistic period, a form of Greek known
as the koine (common) dialect had become the chief language of trade
throughout the region and was the universal second language of privi-
leged and educated people.
While Greek influence spread, the traditional ways of life and beliefs
of the peoples of the Near East endured. These people did not become
Greek, and the extent to which they were influenced by Greek culture
varied. Cities were more likely to show this influence than rural regions,
for instance. Greek culture, then, did not do away with earlier customs,
cultures, and languages, but it added to the region's rich cultural mix. (See
also Greece and the Greeks; Hellenistic World; Persian Wars.)

ALPHABETS
A n alphabet is a group of signs that express, in written form, the indi-
vidual sounds people make when they speak a language. Other
communication systems that used written symbols existed before the de-
velopment of the alphabet, but they were complex and difficult to learn.
Use of a simplified alphabet made it much easier for people to read and
write because they had fewer signs to learn.

ORIGINS OF ALPHABETIC WRITING

Scholars make a distinction between an alphabet and an "aleph-beth."
An alphabet has signs to represent consonants (b, c, d, f, and so on) and
vowels (a, e, i, o, and u). An aleph-beth is similar to an alphabet but has
signs to represent consonants only. The first true alphabet was developed
by the ancient Greeks, but they drew on earlier aleph-beths that had been
created in the ancient Near East.

Forerunners of the Alphabet. An alphabet is a phonetic writing sys-

tem— one in which individual units of sound, called phonemes, are rep-
resented by distinct signs. Examples are the sounds \a\ and \b\.
Another type of phonetic writing system uses signs to stand for sylla-
bles — speech units made up of more than one phoneme. These usually
involve a consonant and a vowel, such as \ab\ and \ba\. A third type of
writing system uses signs that stand for complete words, regardless of
how many syllables each word contains.
The earliest writing systems, which first came into use around 3200
B.C. in ancient Sumer and about 3000 B.C. in Egypt, were of these last two
27
Alphabets
types. The writing system of the ancient Sumerians is known as CUNEI-
Letters as Numbers FORM, while that of the Egyptians is called HIEROGLYPHICS. Other peoples of
ancient MESOPOTAMIA adopted the Sumerian form of writing.
In some societies, letters
were given numerical val-
At first, cuneiform contained only word signs. This required hun-
ues, a system known as al- dreds of different signs, making the writing system difficult to learn and
phabetic numeration. In use. The Sumerians eventually developed signs for syllables, which they
Hebrew, for instance, the first used in combination with word signs. When the Egyptians created hiero-
letter, aleph, was "one/' beth glyphs, probably using the Sumerian system as a model, they added signs
was "two," and so on. The sys-
representing a single consonant, making them almost like the signs that
tem was commonly used to show
when coins were minted—letters are part of an alphabet. The Egyptians did not have a true alphabet, how-
with the correct number value were ever, because their writing system was not made exclusively of signs of
placed on the coin to indicate the this type and because these single sounds did not include vowels.
year. Over time, some people used
alphabetic numeration as a way to An Early Alcph Beth. During the 2000s B.C., Egyptian and Mesopo-
find hidden meaning in a text. Be-
cause each letter stood for a num-
tamian culture spread to other parts of the Near East. The peoples of
ber, the letters in a word could be these areas adopted the idea of writing, but they created new ways of
"added up" to give a numerical writing to meet the needs of their own languages. Peoples who spoke SE-
value for the word. Jewish rabbis MITIC LANGUAGES made important contributions to the development of an
used the numerical values of the alphabet.
consonants in given words to
These developments took place in the area called the Levant*. The
search for hidden meanings in the
Hebrew Bible, for instance. earliest samples of this new form of writing, dating from between 1850
and 1500 B.C., are found in several short INSCRIPTIONS cut in stone in a tem-
ple on the SINAI PENINSULA. Some of the signs in the inscriptions closely re-
semble Egyptian hieroglyphics and were probably based on them. The
* Levant lands bordering the eastern inscriptions contain fewer than 30 signs, although the exact number is
shores of the Mediterranean Sea unknown because the signs are poorly preserved.
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), Other evidence of this form of writing comes from artifacts* found at
the West Bank, and Jordan
archaeological* sites in SYRIA. The signs in this writing are linear, meaning
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon or they were made of combinations of straight and curved lines. This form
other object made by humans
of writing had not yet developed into a standardized system. The shapes
* archeologkal referring to the study of letters vary greatly, and there is a wide variation in the direction of the
of past human cultures, usually by
excavating material remains of human
writing—from left to right, right to left, and up and down.
activity Experts believe that these different writing systems changed as people
looked for ways to better represent their language in writing. They were
probably created by people speaking Canaanite, a group of related Se-
mitic languages from the period. Experts thus refer to these writing sys-
tems as the proto-Canaanite, meaning the "earliest form of Canaanite/'
aleph-beth.

The Cuneiform Aleph-Beth. The cuneiform writing of ancient

Mesopotamia consisted of signs made up of wedge-shaped marks. By the
1300s B.C., some Semitic-speaking peoples of northern Syria had begun
using cuneiform-type signs for a new kind of writing based on phonemes.
Almost all evidence for this cuneiform aleph-beth comes from the an-
cient Syrian city of UGARIT, though some have been found in Lebanon
and Israel as well. Artifacts found in Ugarit include more than 1,400 CLAY
TABLETS written in a variety of languages and dating from the 1300s to the
1200s B.C.
The cuneiform aleph-beth of Ugarit at first contained about 30 signs.
The existence of a written sequence of these letters shows that they were
28
 Alphabets
arranged in a set order written
from
left to right. Thisrepresents, then,a
standardized systemof writing. Some experts believe thatthe cuneiform
aleph-beth of Ugarit was based, at least in part, on the proto-Canaanite
aleph-beths then in use throughout the rest of the Levant.

SPREAD
OF ALEPH-BETH
THE
Political and social upheavals troubled the Levant beginning in the
1100sB.C. During this time, the cuneiform writingof Ugarit died out,
while the linear aleph-beth used by other Semitic-speaking peoples re-
mained in use, perhaps becauseit was simpler.Our alphabetis basedon
this linear writing system.

The Phoenician Aleph-Beth. B.C., By

theabout
linear1000
Semitic
writing system had developed into a standardized aleph-beth of conso-
nants used by the Phoenicians. The aleph-beth of the Phoenicians con-
tained 22 consonants, fewer than in earlier Semitic systems. Thiswas
due to differences in the sounds between Phoenician and other Semitic
languages and to the use of one sign to representdifferent
two conso-
nants. Each letter in the aleph-beth had a name, firstthesound of
which corresponded to the sound that the sign represented. first The

29
Alphabets
letter was aleph, the Phoenician word for "ox," and the second was beth,
which meant "house." The direction of writing was standardized from
right to left.
The Phoenician aleph-beth spread throughout the Levant, where it
became modified to fit the needs of other languages. It also spread south
to Arabia, east to Mesopotamia, and northwest to Greece.
The Aramaeans adopted the aleph-beth to represent the sounds of
their own language. This was an important step in the spread of the
aleph-beth. In the 800s and 700s B.C., the Assyrian empire adopted the
Aramaic language as the official language of government and business.
Because Assyria was a major world power, Aramaic became an interna-
tional language. As a result, the Aramaic version of the aleph-beth spread
quickly throughout the ancient Near East and beyond. Inscriptions from
the 800s B.C. that use this system of writing have been found in ANATOLIA,
on the island of CYPRUS, throughout Syria and the Levant, on the Arabian
peninsula, and in Mesopotamia.

The South Semitic Aleph Beth. The Phoenician aleph-beth was not
the only writing system that grew out of the early proto-Canaanite
aleph-beth. By the 800s B.C. another form of writing had appeared on the
Arabian peninsula. Most archaeological evidence of this system comes
from inscriptions on pottery fragments, clay tablets, and rocks.
Known as the South Semitic aleph-beth, this writing system consisted
of 29 letters and was usually written from right to left. The forms of the
Decoding Ugaritic letters in this system were distinctive. Most consisted of simple geometric
Identifying the letters of an shapes—straight lines meeting at 45- or 90-degree angles, full circles, and
alphabet is like breaking a
code. Copies of the first clay half circles. The South Semitic letters eventually developed into the Ara-
tablets written in Ugaritic bic alphabet of today.
were published soon after
their discovery in A.D. 1929, The Greek Alphabet. By at least the early 700s B.C., people in Greece
Language experts immediately had adopted the Phoenician aleph-beth, probably as a result of commer-
began trying to understand the
new language, and three used de- cial contacts between Greeks and Phoenicians. This adoption had a ma-
ll tective skills to win success. Charles jor impact on the later development of European languages.
Virolfeaud identified consonants In the earliest Greek inscriptions, the form and position of letters
used in spelled out numbers in lists were not yet standardized. Neither was the direction in which words were
of inventory based on the words for written. Some inscriptions read from right to left; others read from left to
numbers in other Semitic lan- right. In some cases, the lines even run alternately from right to left and
guages. Hans Bauer used his under-
standing of Semitic grammar to then from left to right.
isolate other letters. A final puzzle The aleph-beth borrowed by the Greeks had 22 consonants. The
was solved in 1933, when Johannes Greeks adopted the consonants that represented sounds found in their
Friedrich explained why there were own language, but they also made two important contributions. They
three different forms of the conso- transformed consonants not useful to them into vowels (aleph became a
nant ctkph; the form depended on
the vowel that followed. and ayin became o), and they added letters, including vowels, to represent
sounds found in their own language. The addition of vowel sounds made
it easier to be precise in reading and understanding Greek.
From Greek colonies in Italy, the alphabet spread to the ancient Etr-
uscans, with whom they traded, and then to the Romans. The Romans
modified the alphabet into a form that became the basis for all western
European languages, including English. (See also Languages; Record
Keeping; Seals; Writing.)
30
 Amarna

AMARNA
A mama (uh«MAR«nuh), also known as Tell el-Amarna, is the present-
day name for a site in central Egypt that contains the ruins of the
ancient city of AKHETATEN and nearby tombs. Amarna is the largest of the
few ancient Egyptian cities that have been found and has been carefully
excavated. It has yielded important information on the politics of ancient
Egypt and striking examples of Egyptian art.

The Ancient City. The city of Akhetaten was built by King AKHENATEN
in the 1350s B.C. as the new capital of Egypt. He built the city to honor
the god ATEN, whom he hoped to make the chief god of the Egyptians.
The ruins of the city stretch about 15 miles on the east bank of the NILE
RIVER. East of the city lay the tomb of Akhenaten and his family and the
tombs of royal officials.
The largest building of the city was the Great Temple of the Aten. It
sanctuary most sacred part of a consisted of a series of walled courts that led to an open-air sanctuary*.
religious building Near the Great Temple was a palace, which was probably the main resi-
dence of the king. There were also a group of administrative buildings just
south of the palace and a smaller palace that housed at least two queens,
including one of Akhenaten's daughters.
Wealthy families lived in large houses that contained shrines and
stela stone slab or pillar that has been stelae* depicting scenes of the family life of King Akhenaten. Families of
carved or engraved and serves as a workers lived in simple row houses. Most of the buildings in Amarna
monument; pi. stelae were made of mud brick—bricks made from mud and straw and then wa-
ter mixed together and baked in the sun.
Akhetaten remained the capital of Egypt during the 17 years of
Akhenaten's reign and for several years after his death. After that, the cap-
ital was returned to the city of THEBES, and Akhetaten was largely aban-
doned. Much of the city was demolished, in part as a reaction against the
religious changes that King Akhenaten had tried to put in place.

Exploring the City. The site of the ancient city has been investigated
archaeologist scientist who studies past extensively by archaeologists*. As early as A.D. 1714, a French missionary
human cultures, usually by excavating published drawings of stelae from Amarna. In the 1820s, Sir John Gard-
material remains of human activity ner Wilkinson produced plans of the entire city, as well as drawings of
many of the buildings and tombs. The first modern archaeological work
at Amarna was an excavation led by Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie
in the early 1890s. Several other expeditions followed.
A major find was discovered inside the administrative buildings. In
1887, local residents found CLAY TABLETS inscribed with the CUNEIFORM
writing used in ancient MESOPOTAMIA. More were found later by archae-
ologists, and now about 380 of these tablets have been recovered. A few
See map in Egypt and the Egyptians of them are scholarly works, including literary texts and vocabulary
(vol. 2).
lists. Most of them, however, are letters sent to the Egyptian king from
rulers of other kingdoms in the Near East. For this reason, they are
known as the Amarna letters. The letters reveal a great deal about the
political and economic history of the Egyptian empire during Akhe-
naten's reign.
bas-relief kind of sculpture in which The ancient city has also provided many examples of Egyptian art.
material is cut away to leave figures The walls, floors, and ceilings in many of the houses were covered with
projecting slightly from the background paintings. Tombs were decorated with drawings and painted bas-reliefs*.
31
Amorites

These works provide a rich source of information aboutthe lifedaily

and
religion of Egyptin the time of Akhetaten.
The art foundat Amarna reflectsa revolutionary style
ofEgyptian art
that was inspired byKing Akhenaten duringhis reign.TheAmarna style
of art was characterizedby more movementand amore realisticand nat-
ural depiction of human figures thanwas trueof earlieror later Egyptian
* bust statue of a subject's head, neck, art. This styleis revealedin a famous
NEFERTITI,
bust*
Akhenaten's
of wife
and shoulders and the queen of Egypt, that wasfoundat the site.
In addition, sculptors of the Amarna period invented the composite
statue, that is, a statue madeof separate pieces that were thenassembled
to form the wholefigure. The statues were painted in brilliant colors and
decorated with glass.
While the Amarna style of art produced some impressive achieve-
ments, it died out soonafter the reignofAkhenaten ended. This develop-
ment may be related to the collapse of the king's plan to build a new
religion aroundthe worship
ATEN. also
of Bas-Reliefs; Egypt
(See and the
Egyptians.)

AMORITES A group of peoplewho LANGUAGE,

SEMITIC
spokea the Amorites
(A«muh«ryts) werea significantforcein the ancient Near
Eastfor a
few centuries. Although much about them isuncertain, it isclear that
they dominated
MESOPOTAMIA,
SYRIA,and the Levant*
from about 2000to
1600B.C.
32
 Amorites

* Levant lands bordering the eastern The Amorites did not have a written language, so there are no docu-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea ments written by the Amorites themselves, although many Amorite
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), words and expressions are embedded in Akkadian texts. There are also no
the West Bank, and Jordan
artifacts* known for certain to be of Amorite origin. As a result, it is diffi-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or cult for historians to piece together an accurate picture of who they were
other object made by humans
or where they came from. Much of what is known about the Amorites
comes from Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and biblical sources.
* nomadic referring to people who travel The Amorites lived in Syria, following a nomadic* life based on tend-
from place to place to find food and ing flocks of sheep and goats. They began entering Mesopotamia when
pasture the kingdom of UR was collapsing. Records from Mesopotamia put the
Amorites in the region at least as early as 2200 B.C. By around 2000 B.C.,
they were beginning to influence Mesopotamian political history. They
may have been looking for economic benefits of an association with the
settled cities there, or they may have been putting military pressure on
Ur. From about 2050 to 2035 B.C., the rulers of Ur tried to keep the Amor-
ites out by building a wall from the EUPHRATES RIVER to the TIGRIS RIVER just
north of present-day Baghdad.
As central power broke down, cities began to hire Amorites as mer-
* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, cenaries*. Soon individuals of Amorite descent became rulers in many
often for a foreign country of the small independent kingdoms that emerged. By about 1900 B.C.,
Amorites were in full control of a number of Mesopotamian cities, in-
* dynasty succession of rulers from the cluding BABYLON, KISH, Larsa, Sippar, and URUK. Amorite dynasties* arose
same family or group in these and other cities within a fairly short time. One of the most fa-
mous rulers of Amorite descent was HAMMURABI, the king of Babylon.
Another prominent Amorite king was SHAMSHI-ADAD I, who carved for
himself and his sons a state that eventually included almost all of upper
Mesopotamia.
Around 1800 B.C., the Amorites also established a kingdom in the city
of MARI in Syria. Its records provide historians with vital information on
the region during this period. Soon after, the city fell to Hammurabi, and
the kingdom of Khana was established along the Euphrates to the city of
Terqa, north of Mari.
In most areas where the Amorites took power, they adopted local cus-
toms, beliefs, and institutions. Some Amorites cemented their power by
marrying into ruling families. They began to use local forms of kingship
and took ancient Mesopotamian titles. Still, a number of Amorite rulers
used titles that reflected their own origins as well. The continued use of
such titles suggests that Amorite rulers remained well aware of their her-
itage generations after their ancestors had assumed power. Because of
their shared heritage, Amorite rulers counted on the support of Amorites
who ruled other cities.
By 1600 B.C., the Amorite tribes of Mesopotamia were being forced
westward by invasions of HURRIANS from the north and KASSITES from the
east. From this time forward, it becomes increasingly difficult to follow
the history of the Amorites. Ancient sources suggest that they established
small kingdoms in Syria, the southern Levant, and northern Arabia. The
Hebrew Bible refers to the Amorites as one of the groups that the Israelites
eventually pushed out of Canaan. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Chronology;
Cities and City-States; Ethnic and Language Groups; King Lists; Lan-
guages; Nomads and Nomadism.)
33
Amulets and Charms

AMULETS A n amulet is a small object that isthought tohave supernaturalor

magical powers. People in allparts of the ancient Near
amulets to protect themfrom harm,bring good fortune, or
Eastused
both.Amulets
ANDCHARMS intended to bring good luckaresometimes called talismansorcharms.It
is not always easyto distinguish JEWELRY
amulets
from
or ordinary
theSEALS commonly used throughouttheancient Near East. Many objects
undoubtedlyfilled more thanone purpose.Aseal wornas anecklaceor
ring, for example, might also have been regardedby itsowneras an
amulet or charm.
See Because amulets were socommon andbecause many were made out
color plate4, of hard materials that preserve well, many have been discovered. They
vol.4.
have added greatly to our understanding of theculturesof theancient
Near East.

Types of Amulets. Some amulets were natural objects such asstones,

herbs or other plants, shells, or animal bones, teeth, orclaws. These
amulets were thought to share themagical properties possessed by the
particular stone, plant, oranimal
from which they were taken.
* scarab representation of the dung Some amulets, such asscarabs*, were handcrafted. Other examples
beetle, held assacred to Egyptians of handcrafted amulets include carved stones, metal medallions, small
statues, and figurines. Thescarab, which originated inEgypt as asymbol
of the sun god, was found throughout theMediterraneanfirst by the
* first millennium B.C.
years from 1000 millennium B.C.*Lamellae, another type ofamulet, were thinsheets of in-
tO 1 B.C. scribed metal (tin, lead, bronze, silver,orgold) thatwere rolled intocylin-
* ankh cross with a loop at the top; ders, placed in small tubes, andworn around theneck. Craftworkers also
Egyptian symbol of life inscribed words, images, orsigns with magical meaningsonsemiprecious
* deity god orgoddess stones, such as agate, quartz, carnelian,orlapis lazuli.

Uses of Amulets. Egyptians wore amulets hung fromtheir necks, at-

tached to their wrists, or tied to their
fingerswith thread orgold wire.
Some amulets were clasps for necklacesor bracelets. Others were
brooches. The Egyptians would place protective amulets in thewrap-
pings of a corpse being mummifiedtohelpthedead personafter- in the
life. Along with the scarab, another popular symbolforamulets inEgypt
was the ankh*.
Some ancient Mesopotamian amulets feature imagesofdeities*
or demons. Lamashtu, a demon daughter of the sky godbelieved to
attack pregnant women andbabies, appeared onmany amulets. Ancient
Mesopotamians may have worn herimage out of abelief that doing so
would keepher away.
The ancient Israelites placed amulets intended towardoffevilin-
side their tombs. Most Israelites amulets consisted ofsacred texts.
Among the oldest known examples are twosmall silver scrolls from the
late 600sB.C. that were found near Jerusalem. They contain versions of a
biblical blessing.
Another form of Israelite amulet was the phylactery, asmall con-
tainer for a written prayer.TheIsraelitesand
Arabswore phylacteries
and
also fastened them to their doorpoststoserveasamuletsfortheir homes.
Jewish wall paintings also contained amuletsin theformofmagicaland
sacred symbols. Forexample, the image of a handwith down-pointing
34
 Anat
fingers, an ancient good-luck charm, was found on the wall of a Jewish
tomb. (See also Magic.)

AMUN
A mun (AH«mun), also spelled Amen or Amon, was an Egyptian god
who came to be considered the king of the gods. The name Amun
meant "the hidden one," and according to ancient Egyptian hymns, even
the other gods could not see Amun and did not know what he really
looked like. In statues and other works of art, Amun was represented as a
man with a beard and a crown of feathers. Often, he was shown sitting on
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt a throne like a pharaoh*.
Originally, Amun was the local god of the city of Hermopolis in cen-
tral Egypt. Gradually, he became identified with the ancient sun god Ra
* cult formal religious worship and was sometimes called Amun-Ra. Around 2000 B.C., the cult* of Amun
spread to THEBES, which had become the capital of Egypt, and a temple to
Amun was built at nearby KARNAK.
Amun's prestige became even greater during the fight against the
HYKSOS, a group of invaders who controlled parts of Egypt from the 1630s
to the 1520s B.C. The nobles of Thebes who succeeded in expelling the
Hyksos fought under the banner of Amun. Before long, Amun became
the chief god of the pharaohs and the most important god in all Egypt.
The high priest of Amun was considered overseer of all the other priests
* deity god or goddess of all the other deities*, and the wealth controlled by the cult of Amun
was great.
See In the 1300s B.C., the pharaoh AKHENATEN tried to suppress the wor-
color plate 6, ship of Amun in favor of another god, ATEN. The new cult dedicated to
vol. 3.
Aten never took hold, however, and Amun remained a powerful force in
Egyptian life. His appeal to the common people was based in part on the
belief that Amun would protect the poor and humble in the courts. The
cult of Amun remained popular for many centuries but was later dis-
placed by the cults of Isis and OSIRIS.

ANAT
A nat (A»nat) was a warrior goddess worshiped by various peoples of
ancient SYRIA and the Levant*. She was one of the chief deities* of
the Canaanites, who considered her to be sister and wife of the god BAAL.
Over time, Anat's popularity also spread to other regions of the ancient
world.
Although best known as a warrior goddess, Anat was also worshiped
Levant lands bordering the eastern as the queen of heaven, as the mother of all gods, and as a fertility god-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea dess. In ancient SCULPTURE, she is usually depicted as a beautiful young girl
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), armed with a shield, spear, and battle club.
the West Bank, and Jordan
Anat was a fierce and ruthless goddess. In one myth, she has a young
deity god or goddess hunter killed because she wants his magnificent bow. In other myths, she
wades through the blood and gore of the enemies she has killed. She
plays an important role in the Canaanite myths of the BAAL CYCLE. In one
part of the story, she kills all of Baal's enemies, and in another, she aids in
35
Anatolia
Baal's resurrection.Baal has been killedbyMot,theLordofDeath. When
Anat avengesBaalby killing Mot, Baalisrestored
life.to
Anat later appeared in Egypt, probably brought backby theEgyptians
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt when they conqueredSyria and Canaan. Egyptian pharaohs*, particularly
RAMSESII and
RAMSES III, worshiped Anat because she wassaid
toprotect
rulers in battle. Later the ancientGreeks transformed Anat intotheir god-
dess Athena. Jeremiah the prophet came fromatown called Anathoth that
once may have been a shrine alsotoGods
(See Anat.and Goddesses;
Mythology.)

ANATOLIA
A natolia (an«uh«TOH»lee«uh)is the westernmost part
makes up most of the present-day nationTurkey.
Asiaof that
of It was thesite
some of the earliest known permanent human settlements,
of
forthou-
and
sands of years, it has been the meeting placeofMediterranean, East-
Near
ern, and Central Asian cultures. Anatoliawas thehome of theHittite
empire, apowerfulforce in the ancient worldfromabout 1700toabout
1200B.C. Several other kingdoms also aroseinAnatolia.
Afterabout500
B.C., the regionfell under Persianand then Macedonian control.In the
100sB.C., it becamea provincein the empireof theRomans.

Geography. Anatolia is apeninsula bounded byBlack the Sea to the

north, the
AEGEAN
SEAto the west,and the Mediterranean Sea to thesouth.
It is separated from Europe by a waterway thatlinks Black the and
MediterraneanSeas. This waterway includestwonarrow straits*:the
Bosporus on the east and the Dardanelles, known to theancients as the
Hellespont, on the west. Betweenthe twostraits liesthe Sea ofMarmara.
In ancient times, migrants, traders, and invading armies frequently
crossed betweenAsia and Europe atthese straits.
Most of Anatoliais a high central plateau surroundedbymountains.
The plateau, which isbroken by lowmountain ridgesandmany valleys,
has very cold winters and hot, drysummers. Theclimate of thewestern
coast is milder and the soil morefertile.
Ruggedmountains with onlya
few easily crossed passes separatethe interior
fromthis western coast. As
a result, the people living in the west often hadcloser ties with the
Aegean islands and with Greece thanthey didwith therestofAnatolia.
In the southeast, mountains separateSYRIAand
Anatolia
from
northern
MESOPOTAMIA. In the south,theTaurusMountains formabarrier between
the interior and the coastal plains. TheMediterranean coasthas fewgood
harbors, unlike the Aegean coast. ThePontic Mountains, a highrange
along the coast of the
BlackSea, isolatethenorthern coastalfrom
strip
the
interior.
Rough terrain makes travel difficult almost everywhere inAnatolia,
and water is scarce in some parts of the region. Settlementhasalways
been concentrated in areas withadependable water supply.Theshapeof
the land—many distinct regions separated bygeographical barriers such
as mountains andvalleys—influenced Anatolia's history.Itencouraged
the growth of small, independent local states.
36
 Anatolia
* strait narrow channel that connects At the same time, Anatolia's location madeit acrossroads where lan-
two bodies of water guages, cultures, religions, and peoples met, clashed, and mingled. In
ancient times,the regionsaw the arrivalofafter
wavewaveofnewcomers
from both the west and the east. These peoples mixed over time, so that
* archaeologist scientist who studies Anatolia's languagesand cultures became extremely diverse.
human cultures, usually by excavating Geography shaped the history ofAnatolia in another way. ThePontic
material remains of human activity Mountains of the north werea rich sourceoflead, silver, copper,and iron.
* Neolithic period final phase of the The Taurus Mountains of the south also held lead, silver, and iron. The re-
Stone Age, from about 9000 B.C.to 4000 gion, then, was importantfor the availabilityofthese resources.
* ninth millennium B.C. years from 9000
to 8001 B.C. Prehistoric Anatolia. Archaeologists* have uncovered anumber of
* domesticated adapted or tamed for settlements datingfrom the Neolithic period* in Anatolia. These settle-
human use ments appear to have been occupied year-round bypeople who obtained
* Levant lands bordering the eastern a large portion of theirfoodby farmingand herding instead ofgathering
shores of the MediterraneanSea and hunting wildfood as their ancestorshad done.
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
the West Bank, andJordan
The oldest known of these permanent settlementsisHallanCemi,
which datesfrom the ninth millennium
B.C.* Research shows thatthe
food eaten here was gathered rather than grown. Still, evenin this early
period,
PIGS were domesticated*.The presence of copper
and shells
from
the Mediterranean seacoast suggest that settlers engaged in trade with
people farther away.
Another ancient community,
HUYUK,
£ATALthrived between about
6300 and 5200
B.C. This sitewas neara sourceof obsidian,ablack glass
formed by hardened lava from volcanic eruptions, which couldbeusedto
make sharp tools. Obsidian from this areahas been foundin sites
Syria
in
and the Levant*, showing that trade existed between the tworegions.

37
Anatolia

By about 5000
B.C., Anatoliawas divided intoa large numberofsmall
political units.Eachof thesewas centeredon a castlelike
fortified settle-
ment, and each controlled a small amount of surrounding territory.
People throughout thearea shareda farming culture. Thisway life of
lasted for more than 2,000 years. Peoplein the northwestern areaofAna-
tolia made contact with people living across the Hellespont inEurope.
By the third millennium
B.C. (3000to B.C.), 2001
however, Anatolia
be-
came more deeply connected with the civilizations that had arisen in
Mesopotamia.

The Rise of Independent States. By B.C.,

about
some3000
settle-
ments on the Anatolian plateau had begun to develop intolarger city-
* city-state independentstate consisting states*. Each had its own styles of architecture, pottery making, and
of a city and its surrounding territory metalworking, and its own social customs.The riseofwealthy elitesis in-
dicated by the presenceof goldand silver JEWELRY.
objects,
Oneincluding
of these city-statesTROY,
was locatedin the northwest, near theAegean
coast. Other settlements includethe EarlyBronzeAge sitesAlaca
of
Hiiyiik and Horostepe in northern Anatolia.
The growthof theseMETALWORKING
city-states
METALS
ANDwas tiedto
that made use of the resources foundinAnatolia's mountains. Popula-
tions included skilled metalworkers. Merchants from
Assyriain northern
Mesopotamia started to come to Anatolia to trade forthese metals. They
established trade routes that linked Anatolia with Syria and Mesopo-
tamia. They alsoset up a numberof colonies within Anatolia where As-
syrian merchantsand theirfamilies lived.By B.C.,
about
however,
1750
the trade routes and the waylife ofthey supportedhad collapsed, proba-
bly because of conflict among rival statesin Anatolia.
Trade brought the peoples of Anatolia into contact with theMeso-
potamians, and they responded in several ways to this contact. They
adopted some Mesopotamian practices.Forinstance, they beganto use
theSEALS that Mesopotamians had invented. They also used stamps,and
they decorated them with local images. The Hittites of 1500
B.C. to
adopted CUNEIFORM
the writingof the Mesopotamians and developed
their own system
HIEROGLYPHICS.
of
New patterns of political and social development emerged inAnato-
lia during the second millennium
B.C. (2000 to B.C.).1001
Unlike the
earlier period of mostlypeaceful cooperation,the new era was one of ag-
gression. City-states now struggled to dominate their neighbors and con-
trol resources.
The central plateau was dominated HITTITES
by for
the almost500
years, beginning in about B.C. They 1650 conquered manyof the city-
states and established powerful
a empire.For a while,the Hittites were
one of the three great powersof the ancient Near
East, along with
Assyria
and Egypt The empire started to crumble around B.C. At that 1200
time,
it is believed, the region was
suffering
from severe droughtsand fail-crop
ures. A large-scale movementof peoples whom historians group together
under the namePEOPLES
SEA may have advanced into Anatolia fromthe
north and the west. It wasperhaps these people whodestroyed the Hittite
capital at Khattusha around B.C. Anatolia
1180 became onceagaina re-
gion of many small political units.
38
 Animals
Starting in about 1000 B.C., the Phrygians were the next group to
dominate the central plateau. They ruled until the 700s B.C., when new
Skilled Metalworkers invasions broke their power. In the aftermath, powerful new states arose
During the Bronze Age (ca» in the west and south of Anatolia. The largest of these states was the
3000-1200 B.C), a town named
Alaca Huyuk in northern Anatolia kingdom of Lydia. Also beginning in about 1000 B.C., Greeks planted
became the center of a highly devel- colonies along the Aegean coast. This region, known as Ionia, was con-
oped metalworking industry* Durin sidered part of the Greek world. In the east were the ARAMAEAN kingdoms
excavations there, archaeologists and URARTU.
discovered royal tombs where rulers In 547 B.C., Anatolia became a part of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The Per-
were buried with swords, daggers, sians held the region for about 200 years, until ALEXANDER THE GREAT con-
goblets, animal figures, and jewelry
made from gold, silver, and bronze. quered Anatolia and the entire Persian empire. Alexander's own empire
The beauty and detail of these items did not last long, however, and Anatolia soon split once again into rival
reveal that the skills of the metal- states. Rome began its own conquest of the region in 190 B.C. When that
workers of Alaca Huyuk far sur- conquest was completed, Rome made Anatolia a province called Asia
passed that of workers from nearby Minor. The peninsula is still sometimes referred to by that name. (See
towns during the same period.
also Caria and the Carians; Greece and the Greeks; Lycia and the Ly-
cians; Lydia and the Lydians; Phrygia and the Phrygians; Scythia
and the Scythians.)

ANIMALS
W ith its mountains, forests, plains, deserts, seacoasts, and marshes,
the ancient Near East had a great variety of natural environ-
ments. These environments in turn supported a great variety of animals,
birds, fish, and insects. Artwork, texts, and the animal remains found at
archaeological* sites all give us an idea of the importance of animals in
ancient Near Eastern life.

* archaeological referring to the study Studying Ancient Animal Life. Scientists get most of their informa-
of past human cultures, usually by tion about the animals of the ancient Near East by studying animals of
excavating material remains of human the region today. Over thousands of years, however, climate change and
activity
human activities have altered habitats*, changing the animal population.
* habitat type of environment to which As a result, researchers must also study animal remains from the past.
an animal or plant is well adapted
Sometimes no amount of research can explain evidence about an
animal—as is the case with the Asian lion. Ancient texts and artworks
contain many references to LIONS, which seem to have had great symbolic
importance and to have been prized for their skins. Yet archaeologists
have found only a handful of lion bones from sites in the Near East, sug-
gesting that humans actually had very little contact with lions.
Two of the world's major zones of animal life meet in the Near East. To
the north is the Palearctic zone, which consists of Europe, north-central
Asia, northern Arabia, and Africa north of the Sahara. To the south lies
the Ethiopian region of Africa and Arabia. Research has shown that dur-
ing the late Pleistocene epoch, which lasted until about 10,000 years ago,
climate changes brought about changes in the animal population of the
glacier slow-moving ice sheet Near East. As the world cooled and glaciers* advanced, many Palearctic
animals migrated southward. When the earth warmed again, many trop-
ical Ethiopian animals moved northward. As a result, the region has a
mix of animals from these two zones.

39
Animals

Large Mammals. More than 130 species of mammals inhabited the

ancient Near East, although some lived only in small areas. GOATS and
SHEEP were among the first animals that people domesticated. The wild
aurochs, now extinct, was the ancestor of domestic CATTLE. Mesopotamia
may once have had wild water buffalo, but they seem to have disap-
peared. The domestic water buffalo later used in the region could have
second millennium B.C. years from come from southern Asia in the second millennium B.C.*
2000 to 1001 B.C. The partnership between humans and canines is very old. Dogs are
descended from wild wolves, and people probably started to domesti-
cate them as early as 10,000 B.C. Wild wolves continued to live in the
ancient Near East, as did jackals, foxes, and hyenas. Evidence suggests
that these animals became smaller over time, as temperatures in the re-
gion rose.
Wild CATS, the ancestors of domestic felines, lived throughout North
Africa and Eurasia (Europe and Asia as one continent). Leopards, tigers,
The War of and cheetahs still live in parts of the Near East, although all are now en-
Cats and Mice dangered species. Archaeological traces of wild CAMELS are rare, but they
The ancient Egyptians were keen may have lived in northeastern IRAN, Arabia, and the Syrian Desert, al-
observers of the animal world. Like
modern folk who laugh at the car-
though no wild populations remain. Brown bears, found in parts of the
toon antics of Itchy and Scratchy or ] region in ancient times, are still present today.
of Sylvester the Cat and Tweety The region had several members of the horse family: onagers (wild
Bird, they found humor in the eter- asses native to Iran and CENTRAL ASIA), African asses (ancestors of the do-
nal conflict between cats and mice. mestic donkey), and HORSES. The Near Eastern horse had died out long be-
Some ancient drawings show that
fore 4000 B.C., but after 3000 B.C., domestic horses were reintroduced to
the Egyptians were well aware of
this animal war. fn one drawing, a
the area from grasslands to the north.
group of mice ask a cat ruler for Hardy and adaptable, wild PIGS lived across the Near East wherever
peace. In others, a cat and a mouse dense thickets of shrubs or brush offered cover. Of all the wild hoofed an-
fight a duet and a cat fortress is imals of the region, pigs have been least disturbed by human activities.
about to fall to a mouse army Still, Other hoofed animals included horned oryx in Arabia and North Africa,
other drawings suggest that mice
might have won the war; they show
hartebeests in Israel and Syria (now only found in Africa), three kinds of
cat servants giving mice their meals deer, and five kinds of gazelles. Peoples of the ancient Near East com-
and looking after their young. monly hunted deer and gazelles for food.
The largest animal was the Asian elephant, which once lived in river
valleys and open forests from Syria to China. By about 1000 B.C. the Asian
elephant had disappeared from the Near East. After that date, ivory for
carving was either imported from farther east or from Africa or came from
the tusks of hippopotamuses, which once lived along the rivers and
coasts of Egypt, Syria, and Israel. Today there are no wild hippopotamuses
in those lands.

Smaller Species. Smaller mammals in the ancient Near East included

19 kinds of bats, 3 kinds of hedgehogs, and various squirrels, mice, ger-
bils, and hamsters. Beavers lived in the once extensive forests of south-
west Asia. Hyraxes—small, ground-dwelling creatures that look like
rodents but are related to elephants—still live in the Near East.
BIRDS appear often in ancient art and were surely numerous and var-
ied in most parts of the Near East, which lies along one of the world's ma-
* flyway route taken by migrating birds jor flyways*. Each year millions of birds belonging to hundreds of species
pass over the region as they travel between Eurasia and Africa. Many
make rest stops in ponds, lakes, fields, marshes, or coastal waters.
40
 Animals, Domestication of
Bird skeletons, which are light and fragile, can be easily destroyed. As
a result, they are not often found in Near Eastern archaeological sites.
Still, bones that have been recovered show that people ate wild chukar (a
type of partridge), mallard ducks, and quail. Near Eastern archaeological
sites also contain traces of ostriches. Ancient people used the large, tough
shells of ostrich eggs as containers.
Among the many economically important sea animals were two
species of mollusks from which the Phoenicians made a famous purple
dye. Also important—but in this case because of its destructive properties—
was the desert locust, a species of grasshopper. Locusts sometimes traveled
in great swarms and destroyed crops. These ruinous outbreaks could last
for several years, like the plague of locusts described in the biblical book of
Exodus. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Animals in Art; Environ-
mental Change; Hunting.)

f ood, labor, method of transportation, trade good, and sacrificial of-

T fering to the gods—domesticated* animals were all of these things
ANIMALS, * in the ancient Near East. The domestication of animals was part of a
DOMESTICATION OF great shift in the way people lived, a shift from the wandering life of
hunter-gatherers to settled life in villages, towns, and cities. Settled life in
permanent communities was possible only when people managed food
resources. They did so through AGRICULTURE and through animal hus-
bandry, the practice of maintaining livestock for future use. The domesti-
cation of animals changed human societies by introducing new values,
* domesticated adapted or tamed for such as an expanded sense of property, and by making possible new
human use forms of social organization and trade.

FROM WILD TO TAME

When, where, and why did people first domesticate animals? Scientists
and scholars still seek definite answers to these questions, but the broad
outlines of domestication are known. It began as early as 9000 B.C., during
the Stone Age, long before the rise of civilization and history. However,
the peoples of the ancient Near East continued to add new species to the
list of domesticated animals until about 1000 B.C., well into historical
times.

The Process of Domestication. People were hunters for tens of

thousands of years before they became pastoralists, or keepers of grazing
flocks and herds of livestock. The first domesticated animal—the dog—
may have been used as early as 10,000 B.C. to help hunters pursue their
prey. At some point, the hunters stopped killing game animals for imme-
diate use by the community and began capturing and tending them.
The most common reason given by scholars to explain this change
is that people wanted to ensure a reliable supply of meat for the future.
Some researchers suggest, however, that domestication did not imme-
diately replace hunting for game and that people did not use the first
41
Animals, Domestication of

In the ancient Near East, cattle were first

domesticated in Anatolia by about 6000
B.C. Thereafter they were used as sources
of meat and milk as well as to pull plows
in the agricultural fields. This Egyptian
wall painting depicts cattle being brought
in for inspection before Nebamun, chief
physician to Amenhotep II.

domesticated animals as meat. SHEEP, GOATS, and then CATTLE, which were
domesticated early, all store milk that humans can easily collect. Perhaps
the first domestic animals were sources of dairy food rather than of meat.
Other researchers suggest that the first animals may have been domesti-
cated for religious reasons. They point out that ritual sacrifice and grave
offerings of animals may date from prehistoric times.
Our main information about domestication comes from the scientific
* archaeological referring to the study study of animal remains from archaeological* sites. One method of inves-
of past human cultures, usually by tigation involves the study of proteins and DNA from preserved bone and
excavating material remains of human tissue. Such research may shed new light on when and where humans
activity
first began taming animals.
The change from hunting animals to domesticating them did not
happen quickly. It took hundreds of years for societies to complete the
transition. At first, they may have tended the flocks or herds of domesti-
cated animals and hunted wild creatures. Over time, though, the focus for
many peoples of the ancient Near East changed from hunting to manag-
ing groups of tame animals.
We know, however, that people in ANATOLIA, MESOPOTAMIA, and IRAN
had domesticated sheep, goats, and PIGS before 7000 B.C. The oldest sites
with evidence of more than one domestic species date from about 6000
B.C. By that time, Anatolians had domesticated cattle. They were the first
peoples of the Near East to do so. After Egyptians domesticated donkeys
* fourth millennium B.C. years from in the fourth millennium B.C.*, their use spread throughout the Near East.
4000 to 3001 B.C. In the same way, the domestication of HORSES began in the fourth millen-
nium in the grasslands north of the Black Sea and spread to Iran and
Mesopotamia, reaching Eygpt around 1600 B.C.

pastoral relating to shepherds or Animal Husbandry and Social Organization. Domesticated

herdsmen or devoted to raising livestock animals were wealth on the hoof, a sign of status. In pastoral* societies,
42
 Animals, Domestication of

divisions of social class appeared between those with many animals and
those with few. Animals also served as a medium of exchange between
both individuals and groups. People used animals to pay taxes and
* tribute payment made by a smaller or tribute*. Pastoralists established alliances with one another by ex-
weaker party to a more powerful one, changing animals, and hunter-gatherers may have been driven to take
often under the threat of force up animal husbandry in order to join in these exchanges.
As people first began to live in villages, almost everyone had a direct
connection with food production, including animal husbandry. Over
time, as population centers grew and governments emerged, food pro-
duction became a function of highly organized states. Government and
religious officials, craft workers and artists, soldiers, and laborers were no
longer directly involved in producing food. Their access to meat, milk,
and other animal products was primarily through rations from the tem-
ple or palace that they worked for.
By the time complex urban societies emerged in the Near East in the
fourth millennium B.C., three systems of animal husbandry existed. In
the first, wandering herders in lands not suitable for large-scale farming
* nomadic referring to people who travel and settlement followed a nomadic* life, perhaps the oldest form of ani-
from place to place to find food and mal husbandry. Sometimes the nomads passed through settled territories
pasture as they moved their livestock to new pastures. On those occasions, they
could trade some beasts from their herds for food that farmers grew.
The second system, a combination of farming and animal husbandry
at the village level, appeared in many parts of the Near East in the late
Stone Age. As states developed, rural villages produced surplus livestock
for the use of people living in cities and for the use of armies. Soon the
state began to control the production and distribution of meat, milk,
wool, and other animal products, giving rise to the third system—the
state-run enterprise. The system came into existence in Mesopotamia,
where irrigated fields surrounded large cities and livestock was raised in
remote pastures.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND THEIR USES

Domestication meant that herds of animals were kept together away
from other populations of the same animal. Breeding within domestic
herds emphasized certain features of the animals. Over time, for exam-
ple, many domesticated species became smaller than their wild rela-
tives. Variations also appeared in the color and texture of fur and in
body type. Some of these changes were the natural results of haphazard
breeding. Others were brought about by herders who mated specific an-
imals in the hope of increasing certain traits, such as silky wool, a docile
nature, a high milk yield, or—with animals wanted for sacrifice—white
coats or skins.

Animals as Food Sources. Evidence suggests that sheep were the first
domestic livestock and goats the second. Ancient people often herded
them together, although goats, which tolerate water shortages better
than sheep, were more numerous in hot, dry regions. Mutton and lamb
(the meat of sheep and their young) were generally considered more de-
sirable than the meat of goats and their young.
43
Animals, Domestication of
Large cattle were less numerous. Only about 10 to 15 percent of the
carcasses found at archaeological sites are those of cattle. However, cattle's
larger size means that they contributed more than 10 or 15 percent of the
meat supply. Pigs, domesticated before cattle, were important both as a
protein source and as scavengers of waste in early cities. By around 1500
B.C., however, people in Egypt and Canaan no longer used pigs as a major
food source. The record of the use of pigs in Mesopotamia is not clear. In
Syria, archaeological evidence regarding the distribution of pig bones sug-
gests that the elite enjoyed baby pigs, whereas the urban working classes
ate pigs of all ages.
At least some people in the ancient Near East may have eaten domes-
tic horses, donkeys, and CAMELS, but these animals were mainly used for
From Honey Hunters other purposes. Smaller animals were hunted for food and may occasion-
to Beekeepers ally have been domesticated. Ancient artworks suggest, for example, that
Prehistoric hunters and gatherers the early Egyptians tamed gazelles and kept captive geese, and the
knew that honey was both sweet Mesopotamians may have raised geese for food and sacrifice. Chickens,
tasting and high in energy. Cave
paintings show them taking honey
originally domesticated in China, appeared in the diet of Near East peo-
from wild beehives, At some point, ples around 500 B.C. However, they were probably more valued for their
settled societies learned to practice eggs than their meat.
apiculture, or beekeeping, to gather \
honey and wax from controlled Other Uses of Domestic Animals. In addition to supplying food,
beehives. Apiculture was established
domestic animals produced a host of useful products, including leather
in Egypt by 2400 B.C.—a stone carv
ing from that period shows a bee-
and skins, sinew for bows, wool, horn, and bone. One of the most im-
keeper removing a honeycomb portant contributions of livestock in ancient times, however, was as a
from a set of hives while another power source.
worker strains honey into a jar-^and \ Before people began using animals for work, they were limited by the
after 1 (WO B,C, the Neo-Hittites ha strength of human muscle: they could travel only as far and as fast as
laws against stealing hives. The bee
was the Near East's only domesti-
their legs could carry them and carry as much as their arms and backs
cated insect until the AJX 500s, could bear. Animal power gave rise to greater agricultural production, to
when the practice of keeping silk- faster and farther-ranging trade, to the ability to carry heavier burdens,
worms spread from China. and to new kinds of warfare.
By 3000 B.C., the Sumerians had invented the plow, a tool pulled by
animals that breaks up the soil for planting. They were using cattle for
pulling both plows and carts no later than about 2500 B.C. Some plows
required as many as eight animals. The Egyptians, too, used cattle for
plowing, but they did not begin using wheeled carts until after 2000
B.C., probably because water transport on the Nile River was so readily
available.
The Egyptians may have domesticated the donkey as a food source,
but they soon discovered its usefulness as a load carrier. The use of donkeys
as pack animals in many parts of the Near East was linked to the growth of
third millennium B.C. years from 3000 widespread trade routes. Mesopotamians of the third millennium B.C.*
to 2001 B.C. rode donkeys and harnessed them to CHARIOTS, although horses—first
used as pack animals—later proved to be better than donkeys for both
riding and pulling chariots. In fact, the horse transformed ancient warfare
with the chariot corps and the CAVALRY, or troops of soldiers mounted on
horseback.
Horses had another use as well. When bred with donkeys they pro-
duced mules, animals that combined the strength of the horse with the
manageability of the donkey. Mules were valued as pack animals. Camels,
44
 Animals in Art
however, were the strongest and hardiest pack animals, renowned for
their ability to go for long periods between waterings. Researchers do not
know for certain when camels were domesticated; it may have been as
early as 2000 or as late as 1100 B.C. Certainly the animals were in use in
parts of the Near East by 1000 B.C. Camel CARAVANS became a key form of
long-distance transport, especially in desert regions. (See also Animals;
Animals in Art; Environmental Change; Food and Drink; Rituals and
Sacrifice; Transportation and Travel.)

ANIMALS IN ART
A nimals served many purposes in the ancient world. Land animals,
fish, and birds were sources of food, whether eaten as meat or kept
for their milk and eggs. Animals supplied transportation and pulled
plows. Animals also provided valuable resources, such as wool and leather
for clothing and bones and horns for tools, weapons, and musical instru-
ments. Herding animals became an occupation and a livelihood. No less
important, animals were worshiped. All these human-animal relation-
ships were portrayed in the art of the ancient Near East. So, too, were
imaginary demonic creatures who combined human and animal parts—
or monstrous animals combining the parts of different animals—to create
powerful symbols.

ANIMALS IN SECULAR ART

See The depiction of animals in art dates back to prehistoric times. Examples
[color plate 13, ] include rock paintings from mountains in the Sahara dating from a time
vol. 4.
when the area was more fertile. Another painting shows a group of hu-
man hunters attacking a much larger wild bull. This image, from about
6000 B.C., was found in £ATAL HUYUK in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey).
These early scenes often depicted hunting. It is unclear whether these
depictions were painted after the hunt to celebrate its success or before-
hand to try, by means of magic, to ensure a good hunt. What is remark-
able about them is the realism and liveliness apparent in the animal
figures.

Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Iran. Because animals were domesti-

cated as early as 7000 B.C. in Mesopotamia—almost 2,000 years earlier
than in Egypt—they have appeared in art since early times. The earliest de-
* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 pictions of animals, dating from the latter half of the fifth millennium
to 4001 B.C. B.C.*, appear on stamp SEALS from Tepe Gawra in northern Mesopotamia.
Depictions dating from around 3300 to 3000 B.C. have also been found
in southern Mesopotamia (Uruk) and southern Iran (Susa). The illustra-
relief sculpture in which material is cut tions, found in relief* on vases and bowls, include large and small cattle,
away to show figures raised from the goats, ibex, lions, snakes, and birds. Some impressive artistic depictions
background of individual animals stand alone or are incorporated into other objects.
The royal cemetery of UR yielded two notable figures that date from
around 2500 B.C. One is a ram that stands on its hind legs leaning against
a tree. The other object is the head of a bull that was used to decorate a
lyre, a musical instrument. With its golden head, curved horns, glaring
45
Animals in Art
* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious eyes, furrowed brow, and lapis lazuli* beard, the bull is both fierce and
stone beautiful.
The hunt, a popular theme of prehistoric art, continued to appear in
ancient Mesopotamian art. Images of the royal lion hunt appeared as
stela stone slab or pillar that has been early as 3000 B.C. A rock stela* from Uruk from that time shows the king
carved or engraved and serves as a killing a lion with a spear in one scene and with a bow and arrow in an-
monument; pi. stelae other. Later versions of the royal lion hunt date from the Neo-Assyrian
empire of the 700s and 600s B.C. The palace of ASHURBANIPAL at Nineveh
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which contains a series of dramatic bas-reliefs* that show the king hunting lions.
material is cut away to leave figures Every element of the carvings conveys strength and movement. The As-
projecting slightly from the background syrian palaces contain other animal scenes showing wild asses and herds
of gazelles running in flight. The different-sized asses, pursued by hunt-
ing dogs, are shown running away, bending down, looking back at their
attackers, upside down with legs in the air in the throes of death.
The Neo-Assyrians were not the only rulers to decorate their palaces
with animal figures; the practice was common. At the Lion Gate and the
Sphinx Gate (around 1400 B.C.) in the Hittite capital of KHATTUSHA, stone li-
* tribute payment made by a smaller or ons flank the entrance and guard it. The Ishtar Gate of Babylon, from
weaker party to a more powerful one, about 575 B.C., has thousands of individually glazed bricks in vibrant blue
often under the threat of force that serve as background for a procession of bulls and dragons in yellow-
* papyrus writing material made by brown and red. The animals shown were linked to the gods—the bull with
pressing together thin strips of the inner the weather god ADAD and the snake-dragon with the chief god MARDUK.
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri
Lions, associated with ISHTAR, lined the walls that led to the great gate.
In PERSEPOLIS, the capital of the PERSIAN EMPIRE, animal reliefs were used
to demonstrate the power of the Persian kings. The walls that lined the
walk to the king's audience chamber are studded with reliefs of 20 differ-
ent peoples who lived in the empire. Many bring animals that represent
their homelands as tribute* to the king. A Bactrian leads a camel, a
Scythian brings a horse, and two Cilicians lead rams with curving horns
and abundant wool.

Egypt. Animals appear in Egyptian wall paintings and bas-reliefs and

in paintings made on papyrus*. Small carved animals might serve as
AMULETS AND CHARMS. The people who carried these objects hoped to be-
come associated with the spirit or power of the particular creature.
The paintings often show everyday activities: cows being milked,
calves suckling, cows and goats being fed or chewing on bushes, cows
calving, goats being herded, animals being counted by their herders, fish-
ermen catching fish by net or with a pole and hook, and even hunters us-
ing spears to hunt crocodiles and hippopotamuses. In works from the Old
Kingdom—dating from about 2675 to about 2130 B.C.—the animals are
frequently drawn in great detail. The cows have different colors and
markings. The fish are all varied. (A fisher probably could name several
species.) Later images, from around the 1500s B.C., show greater detail in
the human figures, but the animals are still very lifelike.

ANIMALS IN RELIGIOUS ART

In some regions, particular animals were associated with particular gods,
and animals in ancient art represented the god;s presence. In Egypt, some
46
 Animals in Art
* deity god or goddess deities* were human in form, but many were animal in form or had
combined aspects of animals and humans. Although Mesopotamian
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 deities, especially from the third millennium B.C.* onward, tended to be
to 2001 B.C. anthropomorphic—fully human in form—some deities were associated
with animals, both real and monstrous.
In Egypt, HORUS (the sky god) appeared as a hawk or falcon, Thoth
(the god of wisdom and learning) as a baboon or ibis, HATHOR (the god-
The Lighter dess of women) as a cow, AMUN (the god of air and light) as a ram or
Side of Animals goose, and Anubis (the god of the dead) as a jackal. In art, these deities
Animals sometimes appeared in were represented as the animal itself or as a human with the head of the
comic scenes, pursuing human pas
times or chores, A painting on
animal. Art of a pharaoh* that contained an animal showed that the
Egyptian papyrus from about 1200} pharaoh had that god's blessing and also that he manifested that god's
B.C. shows a lion and an antelope qualities. This legitimized the pharaoh's rule and power.
sitting on chairs and playing a Historian and archaeologist Henri Frankfort has tried to explain the
game that looks like chess. A fox Egyptian association of animals and gods. It is not a matter of the carry-
walking on two legs herds deer, over from animal worship in prehistoric times, he thought. Nor did
while a cat herds a flock of geese. l
other scenes, a monkey plays the
Frankfort believe that the animals revealed the essence of the god. He
flute, a crocodile plays a lute, and a thought that Egyptians saw the animals as being superhuman because
donkey is the harpist. As in Egypt, they, like the gods, were timeless. "The animals never change/' he
animal depictions in Mesopotamia writes, "and in this respect especially they would appear to share . . . the
art sometimes had more playful fundamental nature of creation."
purposes. An inlaid sound box for a
harp from Ur in 2600 B.C. shows a
As the discussion of the Ishtar Gate suggests, the ancient Mesopo-
dog and lion as servants at a feast tamians also linked certain gods to certain animals. Some Mesopotamian
while a goat plays a lyre for a danc- creatures were fabulous combinations of parts of different animals. A
ing bear. These images typically il- monster, part ram, fish, and goat, was the attribute animal of EA, the god
lustrated animal fables and satires. of water, wisdom, magic, and the arts and sciences. The snake-dragon,
with horns, snake body and neck, lion forelegs, and bird hind legs, was
associated with Marduk, creator of humankind.

* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt Imaginary Creatures. One of the most important animal symbols in
Mesopotamia was the human-headed bull. It appeared in about 2500 B.C.
and was, for many centuries, often shown fighting other creatures or a
curly haired hero figure. The human-headed bull remained a powerful
* dynasty succession of rulers from the symbol through the entire ancient period. During the Kassite dynasty*,
same family or group which ruled Babylonia from about 1595 to about 1158 B.C., it became a
positive symbol that offered protection. It survived in this form to later
times. The main doorway at the palace of the Neo-Assyrian king SARGON
II (from about 721 B.C.) is guarded by a pair of 14-foot-tall stone statues
of winged bulls with human heads. Human-headed lions, called sphin-
xes, were also popular, especially in Egypt and Anatolia.
Another figure is Imdugud, an eagle with a lion's head, which ap-
peared in the third millennium B.C. Although demonic in form, this fig-
ure may have been a deity of the fullest rank. It was seen as having such
great size that flapping its wings caused windstorms. The ancient
Mesopotamians had many more of these figures, some of which were
variations on similar themes.
See Other imaginary creatures include the centaur with a human torso,
color plate 11, arms, and head and the lower body and legs of a horse; the lion-centaur,
vol.4
which replaced the horse's body with a lion's; the scorpion-man; the mer-
man and mermaid, which had human upper bodies and fishlike lower
47
Aim
bodies; and the goat-fish, which replaced the human upper body with
the head and forelegs of a goat. The human-headed winged lion was sim-
ilar to Sargon's winged bull, but the lower body was a lion's. The griffin-
* fourth millennium B.C. years from demon, found in Susa dating from the fourth millennium B.C.* and in
4000 to 3001 B.C. Uruk and predynastic Egypt from the period shortly thereafter, combined
a human body with a bird's head and wings. The Egyptian deity Tawaret,
which combined a hippopotamus and a crocodile, protected women dur-
ing pregnancy and childbirth.
All these creatures were DEMONS, beings that had supernatural power
but were not of the rank of gods. During the course of Mesopotamian
history, the treatment and significance of the demons changed in sev-
eral ways. They first began to appear around 3500 B.C., when they ap-
peared on seals in Tepe Gawra. During the time of the Akkadian empire
(from about 2350 to 2193 B.C.), some were considered evil creatures and
were usually shown being captured or killed. Around the 1500s B.C.,
demons were more likely to be animal-headed than human-headed.
By Neo-Assyrian times (from about 911 to 609 B.C.), most had been
transformed—like the bull-man—into protective spirits. They were used
to decorate walls and gates to ward off evil spirits. Although evil crea-
tures were generally not shown in art during this period, a notable evil
demon in Neo-Assyrian art is Lamashtu, who caused miscarriages and
crib death. She was countered by the male demon Pazuzu. (See also Birds
in Art; Cats; Sphinx.)

ANU
A sky god of ancient MESOPOTAMIA, Anu (A»noo) was the head of a
trio of major deities* that also included ENLIL and EA. Although
he was creator of the heavens and father of all the gods, Anu played
only a secondary role in Mesopotamian myths and is rarely depicted in
Mesopotamian art.
Anu becomes known to us from around 3000 B.C. The Sumerians
* deity god or goddess called him An, and under the name Anu, he later became a major god in
* pantheon all the gods of a particular the Babylonian pantheon*. The HITTITES also adopted the god, calling
culture him Anus. He enjoyed popularity as chief god of the city of URUK after
500 B.C.
Anu appears in a number of ancient CREATION MYTHS. In the Babylon-
epic long poem about a legendary or ian epic* Enuma Elish, Anu is the son of Anshar, the "whole heaven/' and
historical hero, written in a grand style Kishar, the "whole earth/' The epic Atrakhasis tells of how Anu, Enlil, and
Ea divide control of the universe among themselves. Anu rules the heav-
ens, Ea controls the waters, and Enlil controls the space between the earth
and the heavens.
Anu also appears in the Babylonian epic of GILGAMESH. In this work,
Anu's daughter ISHTAR persuades her father to unleash the Bull of Heaven
against the hero Gilgamesh because she is insulted when Gilgamesh re-
fuses her offer of marriage. Gilgamesh slays the bull, however, denying
the goddess her revenge. According to a myth of the HURRIANS, Anu loses
control of the heavens to the god Kumarbi who, in turn, is overthrown by
the storm god Teshub. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Mythology.)
48
 Arabia and the Arabs

ARABIA AND
A rabia (uh»RAY«bee»uh) is a large peninsula in southwest Asia cov-
ered mostly by desert and inhabited by groups of people collec-
tively known as Arabs (AR«uhbz). In ancient times, it was important for
THE ARABS two reasons. Southern Arabia was the source of frankincense and
myrrh*—two highly valued substances—and Arabia formed an enormous
barrier between two great centers of civilization—Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA.

* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree Geography. Most of the Arabian peninsula consists of vast areas of in-
resins used to make incense and hospitable desert. Some parts receive small amounts of seasonal rainfall
perfumes that allow for the growth of short-lived pasture for SHEEP, GOATS, and
* oasis fertile area in a desert made CAMELS. There are also scattered oases*, which provided a more reliable
possible by the presence of a spring or source of water and which supported small settlements in ancient times.
well; pi. oases The most fertile region of the peninsula lies in the south and south-
west. Cut off from the dry interior by mountains, these coastal areas re-
ceive moderate amounts of rainfall each year. Today this area is occupied
by the countries of Yemen and Oman.
Small parcels of agricultural land were also found in other parts of the
Arabian peninsula. Most of them relied on IRRIGATION systems fed by sea-
sonal springs. Archaeological evidence shows that these areas were being
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 used for agriculture at least as early as the first millennium B.C.*
tO 1 B.C.

People. The Arabs were related to a variety of groups from the sur-
rounding areas, including Semitic tribes from northern Mesopotamia.
* nomad person who travels from place The majority lived as nomads*, a lifestyle that was well suited to survival
to place to find food and pasture in the desert. A key to their survival was the camel, which may have been
* domesticated adapted or tamed for domesticated* sometime in the second millennium B.C.* Camels could
human use go for long periods without water, allowing them to travel great dis-
* second millennium B.C. years from tances in the desert.
2000 to 1001 B.C. With their camels and their knowledge of the desert, the Arabs were
able to control the trade routes that ran through the peninsula. This gave
them commercial and strategic importance to the rulers of the large states
around them. The use of camels and a familiarity with desert life also pro-
tected the Arabs from conquest by other peoples.
Only a small minority of the Arabs became involved in trans-Arabian
trade. The majority lived in tents and moved from place to place with
their herds of camels, sheep, and goats. They also traded with the inhabi-
tants of oases and with the farmers who lived on the edge of the desert.
Many oasis settlements became religious centers for both the nomads
and the settled people. Religion played an important role in unifying dif-
ferent Arab groups.
The Arab peoples were divided into various tribes led by a ruler called
* sheikh chief or head of an Arab village a sheikh*. One of the most powerful tribes during the first millennium
or tribe B.C. was the Qedar, who controlled a number of oases in northern Arabia
and SYRIA and who may have spread as far as the SINAI PENINSULA. Another
important tribe, the Nebayot, had close trading links with Babylon and
became involved in Babylonian struggles for power in the 600s B.C.

Early History. Settlements existed in southern Arabia for thousands of

years. By 3000 B.C., many settlements had been established along the
coasts of Magan (present-day Oman), and permanent settlements based
49
Arabia and the Arabs
on agriculture also emerged in several oases in the interior of Arabia.
* archaeological referring to the study of Archaeological* evidence shows that many of these early settlementsre-
past human cultures, usually by lied on irrigation.
excavating material remainsof human The early settlements in southern Arabia flourished, in part, because
activity
of trade with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley regionof India. Trade
goods included copper, shells, pearls,and dates. Frankincenseand myrrh
were not yet important itemsof trade.
Between 3000 and B.C.,
2000 the Dilmun civilization arosein eastern
Arabia. Centeredon theBAHRAIN,
islandofancient Dilmun became an im-
portant trading center. The decline of Dilmun between the 1400s and
1200sB.C. may have been connected with a decreasein tradeor growing
pressurefromAMORITES
the or other nomadic groupswho beganto enter
the region.
During the second millennium
B.C.,the oasisofQurayyaand some
other settlements began to flourish in northwest Arabia. Some scholars
suggest that the Egyptians played an important role in the development
of this region. Certainly they were involved in trade withthe peopleof
Qurayya, including trade in frankincense and myrrh.

History of Northern Arabia. There is little archaeological or written

evidence about the people of northern Arabiain the early centuriesof
the first millennium
B.C.The earliest written
reference
to Arabs
the of the

so
 Aramaeans
north dates from 853 B.C., when records of the Assyrian king SHALMANESER
III mention that an Arab leader joined a group of kings in opposition to
the Assyrians. By the 700s B.C., Assyria's westward expansion brought it
into more prolonged contact with the Arabs.
* tribute payment made by a smaller or Assyrian rulers received tribute* from Arab leaders. Occasionally, the
weaker party to a more powerful one, Arabs joined groups such as the Babylonians against Assyria, but they al-
often under the threat of force ways met defeat. The Assyrians, meanwhile, realized that military con-
quest of the Arab nomads would be expensive. Moreover, it would disrupt
trade with southern Arabia, from which the Assyrians hoped to profit.
Therefore, despite occasional Arab opposition, the Assyrians tried to gain
the cooperation of the Arab tribes and integrate them within the empire.
The Babylonians adopted more aggressive policies toward northern
Arabia. When the Babylonians launched an invasion of Egypt in 601 B.C.,
they sent soldiers into the deserts of Syria to take animals and other pos-
sessions from the Arabs, perhaps to ensure that they would not rise in op-
position. NABONIDUS, the last native king of Babylon, conquered a number
of Arab oases and took control of several major trade routes.
Under the PERSIAN EMPIRE, Arabs in the north continued to play an im-
portant role in trade between southern Arabia and other parts of the Near
East. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, the Persians granted
Levant lands bordering the eastern Arabs in the Levant* and the Sinai peninsula a great deal of indepen-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea dence. The Arabs were allowed to control and tax the trade of aromatic
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), goods from southern Arabia. In turn, they had to pay the Persian king 30
the West Bank, and Jordan
tons of frankincense each year.
In the last centuries B.C., Greek and Roman geographers and histori-
ans began to provide a fuller picture of Arabia and its inhabitants. Among
the most notable Arab groups at this time were the Nabateans, who dom-
inated the northern end of Arab trade routes and established a remark-
able kingdom in present-day Jordan. In A.D. 106, the Romans annexed
the kingdom of the Nabateans, which became the Roman province of
Arabia. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Assyria and the Assyrians;
Babylonia and the Babylonians; Caravans; Egypt and the Egyptians;
Geography; Oman Peninsula; Trade Routes.)

ARAMAEANS
T he Aramaeans (ar«uh«MEE«uhnz) were a group of nomadic tribes
that spoke the Aramaic language and occupied areas of SYRIA be-
tween about 1200 and 700 B.C. While they gained widespread political
power, their language—through their system of writing—became an im-
portant influence throughout the ancient Near East.

HISTORY
Aramaean tribes lived on the fringes of early Syrian kingdoms. The earli-
est surviving evidence of the Aramaeans dates to about 1300 B.C., but they
no doubt were there long before that time.
Around 1200 B.C., the Egyptian empire of the New Kingdom was in
decline, and the empire of the HITTITES had collapsed. Small Neo-Hittite
51
Aramaeans
and Aramaean kingdoms took root in Syria, but they were weaker than
the empires they had replaced. Aramaean tribes took advantage of the sit-
r
city-state independent state consisting uation. At first, the Aramaeans captured or infiltrated city-states* in Syria
of a city and its surrounding territory along the west bank of the EUPHRATES RIVER. Gradually, they took over
more and more city-states throughout the region. The growth of Ara-
maean power brought conflict with the Assyrians. The Assyrian king
Tiglath-pileser I complained, around 1100 B.C., that he had to cross the
Euphrates 28 times to punish Aramaean raiders.
By 900 B.C., several sizable independent Aramaean kingdoms had
formed, including Bit-Adini with its capital at Til Barsip and stretching
The Importance
along both banks of the Euphrates north of the Khabur River; Bit-Agusi
of Aramaic to the west, with its capital at Arpad; Hamath to the southwest, with its
After the decline of the Aramaean
capital of the same name; and Aram, with its capital at Damascus. The
states as a political power, Aramaic,
the language of the Aramaeans,
Aramaeans also gradually expanded to the east. Their move east
continued to influence the world. It brought renewed conflict with the Assyrians. In the 850s B.C., King
was the common language of the Hadadezer of Damascus formed an alliance with the kings of other Ara-
region from about 600 B.C. to A.D. maean cities and with AHAB, the king of Israel. Called the alliance of the
700, When the Assyrians attacked twelve kings, it successfully defeated an Assyrian invasion at the battle
Jerusalem in 701 B.C., they an-
of Qarqar.
nounced themselves in Aramaic. It
became an official language of the In the 840s B.C., the alliance collapsed when Hazael seized power in
Persian empire. Aramaic played an Damascus. Hazael and his son and successor, Ben-Hadad, had to fight
important role in the spread of two alone, but they were still able to resist strong new Assyrian attacks. Along
of the world's major religions, Ju- with repelling the Assyrian invasions, these kings conquered parts of Is-
daism and Christianity. The Jewish rael to the south and areas along the Mediterranean coast.
Talmud and parts of the Hebrew
Bible were originally written in that
In 732 B.C., the Aramaeans finally were defeated by the Assyrian king
language. Aramaic was spoken by TIGLATH-PILESER III. After the defeat, the lands that Hazael and his son had
Jesus and his disciples, and portions conquered fell under Assyrian rule. However, Aramaic, the Aramaeans'
of the New Testament are thought language and writing system, had already spread throughout Syria and
to be translations from Aramaic Mesopotamia.
originals. Even today, dialects of
Aramaic are spoken in a smattering
of villages in Syria, Turkey, and Iraq.
ECONOMY AND SETTLEMENTS
Despite their nomadic roots, Aramaeans usually settled down on the land
they conquered. Once they did so, their economy was based on agricul-
ture and trade.

Economy. The majority of Aramaeans lived by farming. They did not

need to build irrigation canals because rainfall in Syria was sufficient to
dry farming farming that relies on allow dry farming* to raise their crops. The most important crops were
natural moisture retained in the ground barley and wheat, which is typical of the region. The most important do-
after rainfall mestic animals were sheep and oxen. Horses also were bred in some ar-
eas, but they were used only for warfare.
The Aramaeans wove wool and linen cloth, which were also typical
activities in the ancient Near East. Wine and beer, too, were made in large
quantities. All of these goods were used in trade, which was an important
part of the Aramaean economy. In fact, Aramaeans became the chief
traders over a *rery large area extending from the Persian Gulf in the
southeast to the Mediterranean Sea in the west. Through this extensive
trading, Aramaean kings accumulated gold, silver, bronze, fine furniture,
and other luxury goods.
52
 Aramaeans
Settlements. While most Aramaean people settled in small, unforti-
fied villages, Aramaean kings and their followers lived in large, fortified
cities. In the center of these fortified settlements and taking up most of
the walled-in area, was the royal compound. Crowded around the edge
of the royal compound were the living quarters and shops of merchants
and craftspeople.
The royal compound was where the king and his family and servants
lived and where the wealth of the state was stored. The compound in-
cluded a palace and one or more temples. These buildings usually were
very large and impressive. At their bases, they had large stones carved
with military and ceremonial scenes, and they were decorated with huge
* griffin imaginary creature with a lion's statues of lions and fantastic animals such as the griffin*.
body and an eagle's head and wings

CULTURE, LANGUAGE, AND RELIGION

In most areas where the Aramaeans gained a military or economic
foothold, they merged with local populations. Their own traditions be-
came blended with those of the local people. Their language—Aramaic—
became an important influence in the ancient world.

Culture. Like most western Asian cultures, Aramaean culture was dom-
inated by a strong sense of authority at all levels of society. The king had
complete authority over the people, fathers had complete authority over
their children, and masters had complete authority over their servants.
The Aramaean culture also was dominated by men. Although women
could own property, their position in society generally was inferior to
that of men.

Language. Originally, the Aramaic language was just one of several

SEMITIC LANGUAGES spoken in western Asia. The Aramaeans had developed
a system of writing for their language based on the Phoenician aleph-
beth (a forerunner of the alphabet), which was simpler than the ancient
CUNEIFORM system of writing because there were fewer symbols to learn.
When the Assyrians conquered the Aramaeans, they adopted this system
of writing for government and commerce. As a result, the Aramaic lan-
diplomacy practice of conducting guage became important in diplomacy* and trade. Peoples in northern
negotiations between kingdoms, states, Arabia even adopted Aramaic as their written language, although they
or nations continued to speak their own languages. When ALEXANDER THE GREAT of
Macedonia conquered Syria around 330 B.C., Greek replaced Aramaic as
the official language, but Aramaic continued to be used by many people
throughout the region for centuries.
Because of Aramaic's role as a common language, many literary works
originally written in other languages were translated into Aramaic. There
is, however, little surviving original Aramaic literature. The best known
surviving work is the Proverbs ofAhiqar. The author is believed to have
been a high-ranking Assyrian scholar named Aba-Enlil-dari who lived
during the late 700s and early 600s B.C. In the work, the author uses rid-
dles, proverbs and wise sayings, and even a few animal fables to convey
values important to the Aramaeans — and, in fact, to all peoples of the an-
cient Near East. These values include submission to the gods, the use of
53
Aramaic Language
harsh discipline, the superhuman quality of the king, and respect for su-
periors, especially of children for their parents.

* pantheon all the gods of a particular Religion. At first, each Aramaean city had its own pantheon*. Eventu-
culture ally, however, the same gods were shared throughout the region. Many
of these gods were probably borrowed by Aramaeans from the people
they conquered. Several other features of the Aramaean religion, includ-
ing ORACLES AND PROPHECY, were also common to other religions in west-
ern Asia.
The most important god in the Aramaean religion was Hadad, which
was their version of the Sumerian storm god ADAD. Hadad usually was
depicted standing astride a bull and armed with thunderbolts. Other im-
* deity god or goddess portant deities* in Aramaean religion included the agricultural god Dagan
and the moon god Sahr, both of whom had been worshiped by other peo-
ple in the region before the coming of the Aramaeans. There were god-
desses as well, including most prominently Astarte, the west Asian goddess
of fertility.
Kings built temples to honor the gods, and priests tended the temples
and carried out rituals. Most rituals involved offerings of bread, wine, or
sacrificial sheep to gain a god's favor. Another important ritual was the fu-
neral banquet, which was meant to nourish the dead person's soul in the
* divination art or practice of foretelling afterlife. In addition to priests, there were people skilled in divination*.
the future They advised Aramaean kings by relaying the wishes of the gods or pre-
dicting the future. (See also Alphabets; Assyria and the Assyrians; Egypt
and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites.)

Aramaic Language See Languages.

Ararat See Urartu.

ARCHAEOLOGY A rchaeology is the study of human cultures of the past. The people
who work in this field—archaeologists—study the writings, art-
works, tools, tombs, remains of buildings, and other objects and struc-
tures left by past civilizations. By examining this evidence, they try to
AND
piece together the history and culture of ancient societies and determine
ARCHAEOLOGISTS how people lived.

THE SCIENCE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

Archaeology is a broad subject that covers the whole of human history,
from the first humans to the recent past. Consequently, the subject is di-
vided into many specialties. Some archaeologists focus on one region or
people, such as ancient Egypt or the Sumerians. Others concentrate on a
certain time period or problem, such as when and how people began to
54
 Archaeology and Archaeologists

farm. No matter what their specialty,all archaeologistsusescientific

methods developed over the last 200 years. This involves
specific tech-
niques and proceduresfor studying archaeological evidenceand sitesand
for interpretingthe findings.

Archaeological Evidence and Sites. Even the smallest object might

provide clues about a past people or culture. Archaeologists thus study
almost everything they find,
from small plant seedsto the ruinsof an an-
cient city. This archaeological evidence can be divided intothree basic
categories:artifacts,features,and ecofacts.
Artifactsare any movableob-
ject made by people, suchas pottery, tools, jewelry,and written records.
Features are large immovable objects that people build, including roads
and bridges, gates
TEMPLES,
and
PALACES
ANDwalls,
and houses.
Ecofacts
are
natural objects, such asplant seeds, shells, and animal bones, which may
be found alongside other types of archaeological evidence. Studied to-
gether, these materials can tell archaeologists a great deal about an an-
cient culture.
Archaeological sites—the places where such evidence is found—can
range in sizefrom a small patch of groundto the ruinsof an entire city.
Sites may be aboveground, buried underground, or lying underwater.
Sunken ships and buildings that became submerged due to changes in
water levelsare examplesof underwater sites.
To gain an understandingof how past cultures functioned, archaeolo-
gists must study the evidence in relation to the site atwhich it isfound.
This provides a cultural context that helps them understand and explain
that evidence. Suppose an archaeologist findsa tool made
from stoneor
metal of a type that is not usually foundat or nearthe site. This suggests
that the tool was brought there by a visitoror cameas aresultoftrade.
Similarly, the position of an object at a site and its relationship tosur-
rounding objects are important clues to the meaning and function of the
55
Archaeology and Archaeologists
object. For example, broken bits of pottery lying near the remains of a
clay oven suggest that the site had a pottery workshop.

Locating Archaeological Sites. One of the first tasks of an archaeol-

ogist is to locate a site. Some sites are easy to find, especially if ruins are
visible above ground. Sometimes sites are discovered by accident, such as
when a farmer uncovers buried remains of a structure or artifacts while
plowing a field. Often, however, finding an archaeological site requires a
long, painstaking search.
Modern archaeologists use various methods to find sites. One tradi-
tional method is to walk systematically over an area looking for any evi-
dence that may be visible on the surface. This method is most useful in
areas where archaeologists are fairly certain that a site exists, such as
tell mound, especially in the ancient near a tell*.
Near East, that consists of the remains of Archaeologists rely on several methods to discover sites hidden un-
successive settlements derground. One method is to examine the vegetation of an area. Differ-
ences in plant growth may indicate that something is buried beneath the
surface. For example, plants growing taller than others in a field may re-
veal the presence of an ancient irrigation ditch or canal. Similarly, an area
of shorter plants may indicate a buried wall, road, or other structure that
drains away water from the soil beneath the plants.
Archaeologists often use aerial photography to locate sites. Aerial
photographs reveal many details that are difficult to see from the ground,
such as differences in soil color and plant density or the paths of ancient
riverbeds. Since the early A.D. 1900s, aerial photography has led to the dis-
covery of thousands of previously unknown sites.
Another modern tool used to find sites is a magnetometer, a device
that measures the intensity of the earth's magnetic field. Using a magne-
Serendipity tometer, archaeologists can detect changes in magnetism under the ground.
and Science These changes may indicate the presence of buried stone structures. Archae-
Serendipity—a discovery made by ologists also use metal detectors to locate metal artifacts buried under-
accident—-often plays a role in ar- ground.
chaeology. While investigating a
hole left by an uprooted tree in
1940; a group of French school- Working a Site. After finding a suitable site, archaeologists begin the
boys discovered a cave with paint- long and laborious task of uncovering evidence. Some sites are vast and
ings made by humans about cover many acres. Moreover, people often build their towns or villages
20,000 years ago. In 1947, an Arab on top of the ruins of earlier towns. As a result, sites often have many lev-
boy looking for a stray goat stum-
els of human habitation stretching over thousands of years. Excavations
bled on a cave containing the an-
cient texts that became known as at such sites may take several years of careful work during which archae-
the Dead Sea Scrolls. These acci- ologists separate and catalog the findings according to the different peri-
dental discoveries, which add a ods in which the site was inhabited.
sense of adventure and romance to Archaeologists first survey the site on foot, collect objects from the
archaeology, are as important to surface, and take detailed notes. They also carefully measure and photo-
the science as the methodical and
systematic searches.
graph the site and use that information to make detailed maps. These
maps are then used to note the exact locations where buildings, walls, or
objects are found.
After completing the survey, archaeologists begin to excavate the site.
This is sometimes referred to as the "dig." The purpose of an archaeologi-
cal dig is to uncover the various levels of human habitation and to dis-
cover and record the architecture, objects, and any other evidence found
56
 Archaeology and Archaeologists
at each level. However, archaeologists do not just dig haphazardly to see
what they can discover. The excavation is carefully planned and carried
out in order to understand the items and structures discovered and to de-
termine their age and relationship to one another. Today, sites often are
not completely excavated. Portions are left untouched so that future ar-
chaeologists—who may have improved techniques and equipment—can
return to the undisturbed area.
Archaeologists first try to determine the general layout of the site by
digging small test holes or trenches. They may also dig a deep trench to
Salvaging the Past see how many layers of human habitation can be found. Then, they di-
Archaeology is generally a slow, vide the site into small sections, called grids, each of which is worked
time-consuming process. But since
the mid-1900s archaeologists have separately.
often had to speed up their work Archaeologists dig very slowly and carefully using shovels, picks,
due to the increasing threat to an- brushes, even dental tools. Using wire screens, they strain the soil to sepa-
cient sites caused by growing pop- rate very small objects or pieces of broken artifacts. Large digging ma-
ulations, pollution, and other chines cannot be used because they would damage architectural features.
changes brought about by modern \ As the walls, wells, buildings, and artifacts are uncovered, they are
civilization. For example, the con-
struction of the Aswan High Dam in photographed and drawn to scale. The archaeologists map each object's
Egypt in the 1960s threatened to location on a grid and write detailed descriptions of them. After artifacts
destroy thousands of ancient sites. are removed from the site, they are cleaned, labeled, and stored. Archae-
Archaeologists raced to explore anc ologists also take photographs and make drawings of the building plans
record as many sites as possible be- and other features they uncover.
fore these locations disappeared
beneath the rising waters behind Keeping these precise records is a crucial role of archaeology. Once
the dam. Known as salvage archae- an item has been removed from a site, its original relationship to the site
ology, this type of quick work is be- and surrounding objects no longer exists except for these records. Special
coming increasingly important, care is taken to preserve this information so that future archaeologists
especially in rapidly developing re- can continue to study it. Digs performed in the early years of archaeol-
gions, such as Syria, ogy were not always this careful, and modern scholars have lost evidence
as a result.

Analyzing and Interpreting Discoveries. After gathering evi-

dence, archaeologists analyze and interpret their discoveries. This in-
volves three basic steps: classifying, dating, and evaluating.
Archaeologists classify evidence to discover similarities and patterns
that may help in interpreting what they have found. One way they clas-
sify their findings is to group them according to how they were appar-
ently used, how they were made, and what materials were used to make
them. Archaeologists also arrange their findings in groups according to
changes in style or appearance.
Dating the evidence is a crucial part of archaeology. Archaeologists
sometimes find written documents that help to date materials. Some ob-
jects, such as coins, may have dates or datable names marked on them.
Most archaeological evidence, however, must be dated using other meth-
ods. All methods of archaeological dating are grouped into one of two
categories: relative dating or absolute dating.
Relative dating allows archaeologists to arrange evidence in a chrono-
logical order, but it cannot be used to determine precise dates. In this
approach, archaeologists date their findings in relation to other evidence
or phenomena. They can do this in three ways. In the first method,
archaeologists apply their understanding of stratigraphy—the study

57
Archaeology and Archaeologists
of the sequence of habitation levels, orstrata—to the excavated material
Unless there is evidence to suggestotherwise, they assume that thelower
the level where an object or structure isfound, the older the object or
structure.
The second method involves the examination of the characteristics
of the objectsor structures.Bynoting different stylesor manufacturing
techniques of similar classesofobjectsor structures excavated
different
at
levels at a site, one can develop a picture of changes over time. Conse-
quently, the findings can be dated relative to one another. Forexample,
in comparing techniques of pottery making, an archaeologist might de-
termine that one is more advanced, or newer, than the other.
The third technique is called cross-dating and involves dating the
excavations based on evidence that has already been dated. Forexam-
ple, if an archaeologistfinds an undated object at a site whose date is
known, it may be possible to assume that the object wasmade during
the same period.
Absolute dating enables archaeologiststofairly get accurate approxi-
mations of the age—in actualyears—of sites, levels,or artifacts. Thereare
various methods of absolute dating. One of the most commonisradio-
carbon dating. This method isbased on fact the that allliving things ab-
sorb aform of radioactive carbon fromthe atmosphere. Whenaplantor
animal dies, the amount of this carbon in itsbody begins to decrease at a
set rate. By measuring the amount of radioactive carbon thatremainsin
an artifact, scientists can determineits approximate age. This methodof
dating can only be used on objects madeoforganic material.
A similar method, known as potassium-argon dating,can beusedto
determine the age of certain typesof rockin which archaeological evi-
dence is found. Other absolute dating methods involve counting tree
growth rings in wood samples or studying magnetic particles in clay.

58
 Archaeology and Archaeologists
These methods of dating are based on comparisons with known facts,
such as long-term changes in climate and weather and the earth's mag-
Understanding the netic field.
Past by Examining The last step in interpreting archaeological evidence is evaluating the
the Present materials and drawing conclusions. This often requires help from experts
Despite many advances in archaeo-1 in other sciences. Botanists study plant remains to determine what kind
logical methods and techniques, of plants people grew and what they ate. Zoologists examine animal
the material found at sites provides
only a sketchy picture of life in the bones to find out what animals lived in an area. Geologists identify the
past. Examining pottery and tools kinds of stones and metals the people used to make buildings, tools, and
can only tell so much about people ornaments, and they determine whether those materials came from the
who lived thousands of years ago. local area or were brought from somewhere else. In evaluating the evi-
Archaeologists began to realize that dence and the findings of various experts, archaeologists get a clearer pic-
the traditional cultures of the mod ture of a past culture and the lives of the people in it.
ern Near East resembled somewhat
the societies described in the Bible
and other ancient documents. This
led to the development of a special- HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE NEAR EAST
ized field called ethnoarchaeology, Scientific archaeology began in the middle A.D. 1700s and was focused
which attempts to look at tradi- primarily on the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome. Soon, however, ar-
tional cultures today and draw con
elusions about life in the past chaeologists set their sights on the cultures of the ancient Near East. Early
Ethnoarchaeology uses the exper- archaeology in the Near East emphasized learning about the history of
tise of anthropologists, who study the great civilizations and rulers there. By the mid-1900s, however, some
and compare cultures. This work archaeologists became increasingly interested in the prehistoric period of
has helped provide new under- the region. They hoped to uncover evidence for such things as the origins
standing about ancient societies. of agriculture and the emergence of settled communities. Others began to
look at findings for what they revealed about everyday life.

Egypt. As early as the late 1700s, Europeans came to Egypt to study the
ruins and artifacts of the ancient Egyptians. Between 1798 and 1802, the
French launched the Napoleonic Expedition, which made an extensive
record of many of Egypt's ancient monuments. During that expedition,
soldiers uncovered the ROSETTA STONE, a tablet that contained a single in-
scription written twice in the Egyptian language—in hieroglyphics and
another cursive script called demotic—and once in the script of the
Greek language. Using their knowledge of the Greek language, which
See map in Pyramids (vol. 4). they could read and understand, scholars deciphered the Egyptian
scripts on the Rosetta Stone. Once the hieroglyphics were deciphered, ar-
chaeologists were able to read other ancient Egyptian texts and shed
light on the history of the Egyptian civilization.
Throughout the 1800s, expeditions scoured the Nile Valley in search
of ancient INSCRIPTIONS. Unfortunately, scientific techniques of excavation
and dating were just developing, and archaeologists and collectors were
rarely careful about their digging techniques. As a result, vital links be-
tween sites and their artifacts were lost as ancient tombs were hastily
cleared and temples dismantled. In the 1830s, the Egyptian government
began enacting laws to protect ancient sites and artifacts.
In the early 1900s, several spectacular archaeological discoveries were
made in Egypt. The best-known find was the tomb of TUTANKHAMEN in the
VALLEY OF THE KINGS by British archaeologist Howard Carter in 1922. Other
important finds included the treasures at THEBES and ancient cemeteries
at Saqqara, GIZA, and Tanis. At this time, Egyptian archaeology focused
59
Archaeology and Archaeologists
primarily on discovering royal tombs and temples. Little work was done
to learn about the culture of the common people. At the same time, the
loss of many ancient sites to development, expansion of agriculture, and
plundering was beginning to cause concern among archaeologists.
In the mid-1900s, archaeologists began to work in areas that had pre-
viously been ignored. They also adopted more scientific methods of exca-
vation and analysis and increasingly turned their attention to such
evidence as tools, vegetation, and animal bones, which earlier archaeolo-
gists had considered of little value.

Mesopotamia. The origins of Mesopotamian archaeology date to

1807, when a scholar named Claudius Rich began studying the ruins of
the ancient cities of BABYLON, NINEVEH, and Nimrud. Rich's discoveries
aroused the interest of scholars in Europe. At the same time, other schol-
* cuneiform world's oldest form of ars began trying to decipher cuneiform* texts that had been found in
writing, which takes its name from the the region.
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed The first excavations in Mesopotamia began in the mid-1800s.
into clay tablets
French archaeologist Paul-Emile Botta and British archaeologist Austen
Henry Layard uncovered some of the most spectacular finds, including
bas-relief kind of sculpture in which Assyrian palaces containing magnificent bas-reliefs*. Another important
material is cut away to leave figures find was a massive collection of more than 24,000 inscribed cuneiform
projecting slightly from the background clay tablets that had been part of the royal library of the Assyrian ruler
ASHURBANIPAL. Decipherment of these texts dramatically increased knowl-
edge of the history of ancient Assyria.
The pace and intensity of excavation in Mesopotamia increased after
the mid-1800s. However, as in Egypt, this early work was not always care-
ful, and many sites were damaged or improperly documented. This was
especially true in southern Mesopotamia, where archaeologists were un-
familiar with the mud-brick architecture there.
Archaeology in the region became more scientific in the late 1800s.
The first major excavations of Sumerian sites were begun at that time,
and urban remains as well as many objects were uncovered, including
thousands of tablets. German archaeologists working on Babylonian sites
were the first to employ what are now recognized to be proper scientific
methods, including a careful study of stratigraphy and investigation of
the relationship of artifacts to their sites.
Excavations in the early 1900s revealed much of what is now
known about the history of Mesopotamia. Among the most important
excavations in the 1920s and 1930s were those of British archaeologist
C. Leonard Woolley. He excavated and uncovered the outline of the en-
tire city of UR, including several impressive royal tombs and an enor-
* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a mous ziggurat*.
multistory tower with steps leading to a Beginning in the 1970s, archaeologists began working to explore sites
temple on the top threatened by dam construction. A number of important discoveries were
made at this time, including spectacular Assyrian royal tombs. As a result
of political conflict between the United States and Iraq, American schol-
ars cannot participate in or conduct excavations there. Instead, they are
devoting time to studying materials discovered earlier in the century.
Modern archaeological methods and dating techniques have shed new
light on the meaning and importance of earlier finds.
60
 Archaeology and Archaeologists
Anatolia. As early as the mid-1700s, scholars and collectors became in-
terested in the Greek and Roman ruins of western ANATOLIA (present-day
Turkey). Expeditions to eastern Anatolia, begun in the early 1800s, un-
covered artifacts from other ancient cultures, including the Phrygians
and the HITTITES.
Most archaeological work in the 1800s focused on southeastern Ana-
tolia, near the ancient civilizations of Syria and northern Mesopotamia.
Yet one of the greatest finds of the period occurred in the northwestern
Anatolia. Beginning in 1870, German archaeologist Heinrich Schlie-
mann excavated the ruins of a city. Schliemann concluded that the site
was TROY, the scene of a legendary battle between the ancient Greeks
and the Trojans. His discovery of golden objects both at Troy and in
Greece, among much else, helped to popularize archaeology in Europe
and America.
By the late 1800s, archaeologists had begun to explore central Anato-
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 lia. Gordium, the Phrygian capital during the first millennium B.C.*, was
tO 1 B.C. excavated in the 1890s by the Korte Brothers, and again in the mid-1900s
by Rodney S. Young of the University of Pennsylvania. The site is
renowned for its large burial mounds called tumuli, including that of King
Midas, which contains inlaid wooden furniture.
Other excavations in this region over the next few decades led to con-
siderable knowledge about the history and culture of the Hittites, and ar-
chaeologists soon assembled the first list of Hittite kings. During the A.D.
1920s, archaeologists uncovered pre-Hittite cultures dating from as early
as the ninth millennium B.C. (the years from 9000 to 8001 B.C.).
Beginning in the 1930s, archaeologists began to reexamine earlier ex-
cavations in Anatolia, this time using more scientific methods. This was
followed, in the 1950s, by extensive surveys aimed at locating and dating
sites throughout the region. In the decades that followed, archaeologists
began to focus more on the prehistoric period of Anatolia. In 1963, for ex-
ample, excavations at the site £ayonii provided important clues to the
beginning of agriculture in the region.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern The Levant. Interest in the archaeology of the Levant* began in the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea mid-1800s, when scholars began searching for sites that are mentioned
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), in the Bible. Excavations in that period were made at BYBLOS, TYRE, SIDON,
the West Bank, and Jordan
and other coastal Phoenician city-states*.
* city-state independent state consisting The 1920s and 1930s were a period of intense archaeological activity
of a city and its surrounding territory
in Syria. Work at prehistoric sites revealed much about the beginnings of
permanent settlements and agriculture in the region. Excavations at the
site of ancient UGARIT yielded many texts written in the local dialect using
a form of CUNEIFORM that was similar to the aleph-beth, which is similar to
an alphabet but has signs to represent consonants only. Texts written in
* diplomatic relating to the practice of the Akkadian, Hittite, and Human languages were also found, attesting to
conducting peaceful negotiations widespread diplomatic* relations. Excavations of Assyrian-controlled
between kingdoms, states, or nations sites yielded provincial* palaces, SCULPTURES dating from the reign of king
* provincial having to do with the TIGLATH-PILESER III, and rare Assyrian wall paintings.
provinces, outlying districts, Excavations at the ancient city of EBLA, begun in 1964, revolution-
administrative divisions, or conquered
territories of a country or empire
ized knowledge about the history of ancient north Syria. Discoveries
showed that a major urban civilization existed in Syria during the third
61
Archaeology and Archaeologists
millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.), and that it had many in-
ternational contacts.
Archaeology in present-day Israel intensified in the late A.D. 1800s.
Much of the archaeological focus in the region has been on uncovering
evidence of biblical sites and the history of the ancient Israelites. Among
the most important finds in Israel was the discovery of the Dead Sea
Scrolls in the 1940s. These ancient texts reflect the thinking of a Jewish
* sect group of people with a common sect* in the two centuries before Christianity began and are among the
leadership who share a distinctive set of greatest archaeological discoveries of the 1900s.
religious views and opinions Archaeologists working in Israel in the 1950s and 1960s made impor-
tant finds concerning life in the area as far back as the ninth millennium
B.C. Meanwhile, work in JERUSALEM in the late 1960s greatly expanded
knowledge of that city's ancient history.
Archaeologists began working in parts of present-day Jordan in the
1800s. They explored the region extensively, recording information
about ruins and artifacts and mapping sites. Among the most important
early discoveries was the city of Petra, the capital of the Nabataeans, an
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- early Arab tribe during the late Hellenistic* and early imperial* Roman pe-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean riods. During the early 1900s, archaeologists in Jordan conducted many
world and western Asia during the three regional surveys in an attempt to locate, map, and photograph all the ma-
centuries after the death of Alexander the
Great in 323 B.C.
jor sites in the region. Work in recent decades has focused on learning
more about the ancient human environment, economy, and lifestyle of
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or
an empire
the early inhabitants of the region.

Arabia. Much of the Arabian peninsula remained quite inaccessible to

archaeologists for many years, due to both the harsh desert environment
and the hostility of Arabs toward westerners. The first expeditions to
Robbing the Past southern Arabia occurred in the early 1800s. But little large-scale work
Throughout the 1700s and 1800s, was done in the region until the next century.
archaeologists and collectors visit- During the 1900s, archaeologists discovered important sites in vari-
ing the Near East routinely took any ous regions of Arabia. In eastern Arabia, excavations near the Persian Gulf
movable objects—even huge stat- uncovered evidence linking BAHRAIN by trade with Mesopotamia and In-
ues and parts of buildings—and
shipped them to museums and pri-
dia. Other finds showed that people occupied this desert region several
vate collections in Europe and the thousand years ago. Work on the OMAN PENINSULA has provided extensive
United States. These artifacts en- information about the culture and settlements of that region during the
riched museums in the West, but fourth and third millennia B.C. (years from 4000 to 2001 B.C.).
their removal deprived the nations
of the Near £ast of much of their
Iran. Archaeologists have led expeditions to IRAN (ancient Persia) since
ancient heritage* By the early
1900s, most Near Eastern nations
the early 1800s. The earliest efforts focused on describing and illustrating
had passed laws restricting the re- all monuments in the region. As early as 1802, archaeologists began
moval of ancient artifacts and took working to decipher ancient texts found in Iran. The greatest advances
steps to ensure that such physical came after the discovery of the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION in the 1840s and its
remains would be preserved in na- decipherment by Edward Hincks and Henry Rawlinson.
tional museums in the region. To-
day, archaeologists are limited in
From the 1800s to the 1930s, work concentrated mainly on the sites
what they can take out of countries of the ancient Persian capitals. Excavations at Pasargadae, the capital of
and many nations are attempting CYRUS THE GREAT, began in 1828. Archaeologists began work at PERSEPOLIS
to regain possession of the artifacts in 1931, and uncovered palaces, imposing official buildings, and lavish
taken in earlier times that now rest rock-cut tombs, including that of Darius I. Excavations at the city of
in Western museums.
Susa, conducted between 1897 and 1979, revealed palaces that exempli-
fied the magnificence of the Persian royal court. Between 1850 and 1852,
62
 Archaeology and Archaeologists
archaeologists uncovered evidence of the earlier Elamites. During the
1950s and 1960s, they established the basic outlines of Elamite civiliza-
* fourth millennium B.C. years from tion in southwestern Iran, dating back to the fourth millennium B.C.*
4000 to 3001 B.C. Since the A.D. 1930s, archaeologists in Iran have studied many histor-
ical periods. Work on prehistoric sites resulted in a chronology covering
the period from about 7500 to 3000 B.C. Other work has uncovered evi-
dence of links between Iran and Mesopotamia and Central Asia as early as
the fourth millennium B.C.

IMPORTANT ARCHAEOLOGISTS
IN THE NEAR EAST
Many archaeologists have worked in the Near East during the past 200
years. Their remarkable discoveries resulted in the assembly of an exten-
Lost City of the sive body of knowledge about the ancient civilizations of that region.
Sands Some of these archaeologists are especially well known for their pioneer-
One of the most fabled cities ing methods or the magnitude of their discoveries. The work of a few has
of ancient Arabia was Ubar,
a source of frankincense. already been described. There are many others who made significant
Camel caravans came to Ubar contributions.
from all over the ancient Near British archaeologist William Matthew Flinders Petrie did pioneering
East to trade in that valuable resin. work in Egyptian archaeology in the late A.D. 1800s and early 1900s. He
I According to legend, God de- excavated more than 60 sites and wrote hundreds of reports and papers.
\ stroyed Ubar because of its wicked- He is best known, however, for his contributions to archaeological tech-
ness, and the city mysteriously
disappeared under the shifting niques and methods of excavation and dating, including the use of
sands of the Arabian Desert, In the stratigraphy. James Henry Breasted also did important work in Egypt. In
198Qs* while studying ancient man* addition to his archaeological work, he helped shape the study of Egypt
\ uscripts, amateur American archae- in the United States. Currently, Mannfred Bietak is conducting studies
ologist Nicholas Clapp discovered a that examine the relationship between Egypt and other ancient lands.
i slip of the pen that had misled gen-
[ eratbns of explorers searching for Many archaeologists have contributed to the study of ancient Meso-
the lost city. With the help of special potamia. Three early ones were very significant. Hormuzd Rassam was an
radar sensing images taken by the Iraqi who began as an assistant to Austen Layard but went on to have a bril-
U.S. space shuttle, which showed liant career of his own. He excavated in both Babylon and Nineveh, where
faint traces of ancient caravan he found the spectacular Assyrian lion hunt bas-reliefs. German archaeolo-
routes, Clapp and a team of scien- gist Robert Koldewey helped revolutionize the science of archaeology. His
tists were able to locate the site of
• the lost city in Oman, They discov- idea of using different soil colors as clues to the presence of ancient struc-
\ ered that Ubar had experienced a tures was a great step forward. He did major work in the city of Babylon in
great catastrophe, perhaps collaps- the early 1900s. Henri Frankfort, of the Netherlands, worked in both Egypt
ing into a gigantic underground and Mesopotamia. His excavation work was carefully carried out and re-
\ cavern beneath part of the city in ported in his publications. His studies of ancient Near Eastern art and of
around xa 1100,
cylinder SEALS defined the study of those subjects.
Seton Lloyd and Max Mallowan also did important work in Mesopotamia
in the mid-1900s. Mallowan was sometimes accompanied by his wife, the
mystery writer Agatha Christie. More recently, the Frenchman Roman
Ghirshman unearthed Chogha Zanbil, revealing much of what is known
of the Elamite culture during the Late Bronze Age.
John Garstang, of Great Britain, published an important work on Hit-
tite culture in the early 1900s. While the British held Palestine, he formu-
lated policy for the digging and preservation of ancient artifacts. British
scholar David George Hogarth led the first expedition at the city of
63
Architecture

Karkamish, in Syria, where he employed a former student named T. E.

Lawrence. This student—better known as Lawrence of Arabia—began his
interest in the Middle East while working on this dig.
In the 1920s and 1930s, American William E Albright uncovered a
fortress that may have served as the residence of King Saul of Israel; he
also made an extensive study of pottery found in the region. This study
produced a chronology of pottery that provides relative dates for sites in
the area. The French archaeologist Claude Schaeffer uncovered the city of
Ugarit and worked in Syria and Cyprus to establish the existence of trade
networks in the ancient world.
Before and after World War II, two Germans, Hugo Winckler and Kurt
Bittel, worked on the Hittite capital of KHATTUSHA. Kathleen Mary Kenyon
of Great Britain worked in JERICHO and Jerusalem. In doing so, she applied
a new technique of digging that carefully preserved stratigraphic layers.
Israeli Yigael Yadin led studies at the sites of ancient MEGIDDO and Hazor
and did important work interpreting the Dead Sea Scrolls. (See also Archi-
tecture; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians;
Burial Sites and Tombs; Clay Tablets; Egypt and the Egyptians; Elam
and the Elamites; Hebrews and Israelites; Houses; Libraries and
Archives; Mummies; Persian Empire; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians;
Phrygia and the Phrygians.)

ARCHITECTURE
A rchitecture in the ancient Near East was influenced by the underly-
ing beliefs of a region's culture, the building materials available, and
the purpose of the structure. Most information about ancient architecture
relates to important royal and religious structures that were built to last,
such as palaces, temples, and tombs. Still, archaeologists* have found a
great deal of information about ordinary domestic housing.

MESOPOTAMIA
* archaeologist scientist who studies The main feature of Mesopotamian architecture was the reliance on mud
past human cultures, usually by brick* as a building material because alternatives such as stone and wood
excavating material remains of human were generally scarce, especially near the southern plains. Mud that was
activity
dried in the sun or baked hard in an oven was used for walls, floors, and
* mud brick brick made from mud, roofs in homes, palaces, temples, and tombs.
straw, and water mixed together and
baked in the sun
Archaeologists have found temples from as early as 5000 B.C. as well
as other older structures. However, it is not known if these earlier struc-
tures were residential homes or storage facilities. Around 3500 B.C.,
palaces begin to appear, and by about 3000 B.C., there is evidence of the
ZIGGURAT— a stepped platform topped by a temple.

e Domestic Architecture. Foundations of homes from as long ago as

olor plate 8,J 6000 B.C. have been excavated at such sites as Tell al-Sawwan and Choga
ol.3.
Mami. These one-story houses contained square or rectangular rooms.
Around 5500 B.C., some Mesopotamians built round houses with rooms
on the outer edge of the circle opening onto a central area, such as those
excavated at Tepe Gawra. During the Ubaid period (ca. 4500 B.C.), houses
64
 Architecture
consisted of a three-part structure with a central room running the width
of the house and two sets of rooms on either side.
About 3500 B.C., Mesopotamians began constructing the courtyard
house. These structures contained a series of rooms surrounding a central
courtyard. This style became the standard model for houses during the
rest of ancient Mesopotamian history and remains in use. The courtyard
house also became the basic plan for temples and palaces.

See Temples. Mesopotamian temples typically used one of two layouts or

f color plate 14, plans—direct axis, in which the main entrance was in line with the altar;
vol. 3.
and bent axis, in which the entrance was at right angles to the altar. The
altar was located in a room called the cella, which also contained plat-
forms where offerings were made to the god. Some temples contained
smaller cellas for other gods, including the spouse of the temple's main
god. The earliest temples followed a style similar to the three-part struc-
ture of houses. Beginning around 2600 B.C., the courtyard temple became
a common design. In around 2100 B.C., the ziggurat first took the com-
plex form that became used throughout later Mesopotamian history.
Temples had several decorative features not found in other buildings.
* facade front of a building; also, any For instance, facades* were heavily decorated. The walls on either side of
side of a building that is given special entrances were scored with lines called rabbets, and many niches were cut
architectural treatment into the walls. Pottery cones, with their ends covered in paint or bronze,
might be sunk into the walls and columns, creating geometric patterns.
The White Temple at URUK earned its name because the outer walls were
covered with a white plaster that probably made the building gleam in
the sun.

Palaces. The Palace of Governors built in the city of ESHNUNNA around

2000 B.C. shows the typical layout of an ancient Near Eastern palace.
Palaces had two sections—public rooms for official business and private
rooms that formed the ruler's residence. Connecting the two was a
throne room. Palaces also held storerooms and workshops for the manu-
facture and storage of goods.
One of the most ambitious palaces was built around 710 B.C. for the
Assyrian king SARGON II. This enormous complex, surrounded by thick
stone walls, contained the palace and throne room, two temples, and the
ziggurat all on a platform. On the ground level were the residences of
high officials, another temple, and courtyards for public activities. In
Babylon, the Southern Citadel, which NEBUCHADNEZZAR II called "the mar-
vel of mankind, the center of the land, the shining residence, the
dwelling of majesty," was built over a period of several decades. It had five
courtyards, each with several reception rooms and several other rooms.
The throne room was large—about 140 feet long and 55 feet wide—with
a main entrance that was 20 feet wide. All the doorways were arched, and
vaulted having an arched ceiling or roof the ceilings were probably vaulted*.

EGYPT
* pharaonic relating to, or representative Egyptian belief in life after death was strong and deep. As a result, tombs
of, the kings of ancient Egypt were a focal point of Egyptian architecture from the earliest pharaonic*
65
Architecture
period—around 3100 B.C. Pharaohs as well as members of nobility built
elaborate stone tombs that imitated everyday structures built of perish-
able materials, such as wood, reeds, or mud brick. After about 1500 B.C.,
tombs became somewhat less elaborate, and rulers began to put more ef-
fort into constructing monumental temples.

Monumental Architecture. For the first 1500 years of Egyptian his-

tory, the tombs of pharaohs, high officials, and other wealthy individu-
als were the most impressive structures made. The first monumental
tombs, such as those at Saqqara from the Early Dynastic period (ca.
3000-2675 B.C.), were deep shafts dug into the ground that were covered
* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial by mastabas* made of mud brick. (The facades of the mastabas at
structure with long rectangular sides Saqqara greatly resembled the facades of older Sumerian temples, such as
and flat roof over a burial pit or chamber the White Temple at Uruk.) Later, the tombs were covered with stone.
These mastabas developed into the famous PYRAMIDS. The first pyra-
mids were step pyramids. They consisted of rising levels of stone walls,
with each level of stone set farther in from the level below, creating a
stepped look. The more familiar pyramid design developed from this
early form. First a stepped pyramid was built, then the four faces were
covered over with smaller stones and mortar and finally finished with a
coating of limestone. After the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.),
pharaohs stopped constructing pyramids, possibly because robbers
looted the contents of the pyramids or because of the high costs of labor.
Instead, they cut their tombs in rock faces. However, these rock-cut tombs
of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.) and later—including that of
Tutankhamen—were robbed as well.
Pyramids, palaces, and monumental temples all shared some design
characteristics. They were all separated from the outside world by enclos-
ing walls. In a pyramid complex, these walls held a mortuary temple as
well as the pyramid itself. In palaces, the walls enclosed the public build-
ings that contained administrative offices and the private rooms of the
royal family. In temple complexes, the walls might contain temples dedi-
cated to several different gods.
A characteristic of Egyptian palace architecture was the creation of a
series of niches—recessed panels in the wall. These niches were decorated
with images and texts that linked the ruler to the Egyptian sky god HORUS.
This method symbolized the idea that the palace was where the divine
and human realms met. In later periods, these niches appeared in other
structures, including tombs, where they symbolized movement from the
land of the living to the land of the dead.
See In the New Kingdom, temple architecture took on new significance.
color plate 4, Rulers built huge structures. A typical example, which was 250 by 700 feet,
vol. 3.
was built around 1500 B.C. by Queen HATSHEPSUT. The largest room was the
main entrance hall, reached by a long ramp. The pylon (entrance wall)
was decorated on the outside with relief carvings. Another ramp led to the
slightly smaller hypostyle, or columned hall. The 100 or so columns were
carved in relief, as were the walls and ceiling. A third ramp led to the sanc-
tuary. This was a small room, protected from the outside world, where reli-
gious rituals were performed. Reliefs on outside walls depicted the king or
queen's victories and military campaigns. The message was that the
66
 Architecture
pharaoh, by defeatingEgypt's enemies,waspreserving order.Inside,
columns and bottoms ofwalls showed marsh plants, which reflectedthe
origin oflife. The topsof the wallsand the ceilings depicted
thesky.

Homes. A typical homein ancient Egypt consisted fiverooms.

of One
room was for eatingand entertaining;theother rooms were forsleeping,
cooking, working,and storage.Thestorage areawasespecially important
because the Egyptian economy wasbased on thebarter system, where
workers were paid in grainand other provisionsforservices rendered.
There was alsoa courtyard.Becausethe warm climate allowed Egyptians
to perform many activities outdoors, houses tended to besmall.A
medium-sized housewasabout40 byfeet. 50
Single-storied homes belonging topeasantsandworkers were gener-
ally made of mud brick.Thewhitewashed walls reflected theheatof the
sun awayfrom the house, and small windows helped circulate the
Building techniques varied depending on thelocation. Forinstance, in
northern Egypt, wherethe climatewasdamp, walls were generally cov-
ered with thick plaster. Houseson thefloodplainof theRiver
Nileoften
had brick foundations to prevent damage ordestruction when theriver
flooded.
The Egyptian nobility and upper classeshadlarger, two-orthree-
story homes that were often located in thecities. They might also have
one or more country estates, orvillas. These larger homes had a reception
hall, a courtyard, several bedrooms,servants'quarters, kitchens,
offices,
workshops, and storage areas. These houses mightbe aslargeas 135 by
200 feet. The grounds could includeagarden withapool, shade trees,
and farm buildings.

Building Techniques. TheEgyptians were master builders, as

denced by their monuments, palaces,andother structures.
Skilledarchi-
tects carefully planned and built large structures.

67
Architecture
The earliest buildings in Egypt—even such important structures as
palaces, temples, and tombs—were made of sun-dried mud brick. After
the Third Dynasty (ca. 2600 B.C.) of the Old Kingdom, stone was used for
the most important structures—those meant to last for long periods.
Other buildings were made of brick. Limestone and sandstone were also
used by Egyptian builders. Sometimes stone of lesser quality was used to
create the core of a wall with better stones placed around this core, where
the stone was visible.
The foundations of Egyptian buildings were generally simple. They
consisted of a trench dug in the shape of a building's outer walls, which
was filled with sand and topped by a few layers of rough stone blocks.
Stone walls were built with great expertise. Ramps were built of small bits
of stone and earth. Laborers rolled large blocks of stone along logs and
pulled them into place. Once the blocks were positioned, stonemasons
used chisels to smooth the sides so that the neighboring stones could be
put in place. When all the stones for one layer were in place, the top was
covered with a thin coating of mortar. Then the next layer of stones was
placed on top. Stones were fitted so closely that a knife could not be in-
serted between two layers.

THE LEVANT
* Levant lands bordering the eastern The earliest known structure in the Levant* is an enormous stone tower
shores of the Mediterranean Sea attached to the inside of a stone wall that was built in the eighth millen-
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), nium B.C.* in the earliest known permanent town, Jericho. The tower is
the West Bank, and Jordan
about 33 feet in diameter and about 30 feet high. Stone and wood were
* eighth millennium B.C. years from available throughout the region, and people there used both materials in
8000 to 7001 B.C.
their buildings. Many archaeological sites in the region revealed multisto-
ried houses constructed using both materials, which may have been built
to accommodate a growing population.

ee Homes. In the Late Bronze Age at UGARIT, streets curved to follow the
color plate 13 terrain. Streets and alleys ended at courtyards surrounded by houses. The
M.
size of the house and number of rooms varied, but otherwise the houses
were the same. The ground floor was used for storage, shops, and work-
shops. A small central courtyard provided light for the upper-story living
area. Almost every home in Ugarit contained a family tomb in the base-
ment. Emar, on the west bank of the Euphrates, was laid out by city plan-
ners. They terraced the land and laid out the streets, creating small plots
for individual houses. Here, homes had a front room and two back
rooms that supported the upper story, which opened onto a terrace on
the roof of the lower front room.

Palaces and Temples. Royal cities were surrounded by a fortified wall

to provide protection and demonstrate power. These came in all shapes
and sizes. Some had sloping sides because they were thicker at the bot-
tom than at the top; others were double walls. The gates, often made of
stone, were topped by a tower.
The palace at Ugarit was reached through a paved court. It contained
many rooms in a mazelike configuration, including a throne room, offices,
68
 Architecture
tombs, six courtyards, and a garden. In the southern Levant, palaces
showed Egyptian influences, with rooms arrayed around a central court-
The Brilliance of yard. In northern Syria, during the first millennium (years from 1000 to
Rising Stars 1 B.C.), a new type of official building appeared called a bit hilani. The
In the foundations of building consisted of a roofed, short wide porch supported by one to
Mesopotamian royal build-
ings, the king placed an inscription
three columns. Behind this porch, accessed by a short flight of stairs, was
recording what was done, how, and the throne room. Behind the throne room and on either side of the porch
why, Here is one, by Assyrian king were other smaller rooms and a staircase leading to the upper story. This
Tiglath-pileser I (ca» 1114-1076 B.C.). colonnaded entrance porch became characteristic of palaces throughout
Of course, the king did not do the the region and elsewhere for centuries.
actual work; he just took all t
Temples in the Levant consisted of long, narrow buildings with an
credit.
entrance porch that led through a main room to the holy of holies (the
The gods Anu and Adad, the
innermost and most sacred chamber in a temple) at the back. A temple
great gods my lords who love
my priesthood, commanded me with this basic plan, dating from the Middle Bronze Age, was found at
to rebuild their shrine... .1 EBLA. A temple with a similar plan, but with a pair of columns supporting
planned and laboriously rebuilt the porch roof, was excavated at the Iron Age site of Kunulua in Syria.
and completed the pure temple, This temple may have resembled the Temple of Jerusalem, as described in
the holy shrinef their joyful the Hebrew Bible.
abode, their happy dwelling
which stands out like the stars
of heaven and which represents Persia. Just as other kings in the ancient Near East, the Achaemenid
the choicest skills of the building rulers of the PERSIAN EMPIRE (559-330 B.C.) built monumental architec-
trade. Its interior I decorated like ture—both religious and royal—to impress the world. However, the Per-
the interior of heaven. I deco- sians faced one problem—they were essentially a nomadic* people, and
rated its walls as splendidly as
as a result, had no traditions of monumental architecture. Consequently,
the brilliance of rising stars.
they adapted and adopted from other great powers, such as the Assyri-
ans, Elamites, Egyptians, as well as Greeks, and developed a new and
unique style.
Because the Zoroastrian faith is mostly practiced outdoors, the Per-
nomadic referring to people who travel sians, unlike other ancient Near Eastern cultures, did not construct elabo-
from place to place to find food and rate temples. Instead, they built square towers enclosing a single room
pasture (reached by a stairway) in which they tended to the sacred fire.
See The Persian kings built huge palaces at Pasargadae, Susa, and PERSEPOLIS.
if color plate 10,' The design and decoration of the palaces were aimed to reveal the power
vol. 3.
and majesty of the ruler. The audience hall that Darius I built at Susa was
800 feet square, with tall stone columns. However, the rest of the structure
used bricks. The hall was decorated with bricks glazed in blue, green,
cream, yellow, and black. These bricks were used to create images of
archers, lions, mythical beasts, and contests between animals. Also in-
cluded were images of members of the Persian elite who were no doubt
honored to be depicted in such a glorious setting.
Darius I also built a vast capital at Persepolis. The main palace, the
Apadana, was huge—almost 220 feet on each side. Leading to the
relief sculpture in which material is cut Apadana was a staircase decorated with reliefs* representing peoples from
away to show figures raised from the 23 lands that were subject to Darius. Each was depicted bringing a gift in a
background scene that probably illustrated an actual event that occurred. The overall
effect is to show the might of the Persian king.
A few miles away, Darius and three successors created huge stone
tombs cut into the rocky face of a towering cliff. The facade of the tombs
is cross shaped and begins 50 feet up the cliff face. The doorlike entrance
to the tomb is flanked on either side by reliefs and a pair of columns. The
69
Archives
columns support a horizontal section that contains a fire altar, symbols of
gods, and a richly decorated couch on which the king stands.

Anatolia. Archaeological excavations in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey)

have yielded the remains of the region's largest known settlement—
* Neolithic period final phase of the Stone £ATAL HUYUK. This settlement dates from the Neolithic period*, before
Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. the rise of advanced civilizations. At its height, £atal Hiiyiik contained
about 1,000 houses made of sun-dried and molded mud bricks laid on
wooden frameworks. The floors and walls were covered with white plas-
ter, and the roofs were constructed using light wooden beams. A typical
house consisted of a square living space with an attached storeroom. The
houses were built right next to one another, without streets or doorways,
and the inhabitants are believed to have entered their homes through
holes in the roofs, using ladders. Later, during the fifth millennium
(years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.), military architecture rose to prominence
in the region and is evidenced by the remains of carefully planned
fortresses, such as those found in Troy.
KHATTUSHA (present-day Bogazkoy), the capital city of the Hittite em-
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or pire, also contained several imperial* monuments. Constructed during
an empire the second millennium (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), the monuments
included temples, palaces, and fortifications. The temples consisted of
large buildings surrounded by storage chambers and a courtyard. The
temples also contained a small, freestanding shrine to the main deity—
a feature not found in Mesopotamian or Syrian architecture.
Archaeologists have also recovered town plans dating from around
the Iron Age (ca. 900s B.C.) near the Anatolian plateau. During this period,
the region was occupied by the Phrygians, whose capital was at Gordium.
Excavations in the region have revealed the remains of several well-
planned public buildings, ornamental city gates, and several rock-cut
monuments, including one to King Midas. (See also Burial Sites and
Tombs; Palaces and Temples.)

Archives See Libraries and Archives.

ARK OF THE
T he Ark of the Covenant was sacred to the ancient Israelites, because
they said it contained the tablets of the covenant, or solemn agree-
ment, between YAHWEH and Israel. The ark was thought to have miracu-
lous powers.
COVENANT About four feet long by two feet wide by two feet deep, the ark was
made of acacia wood covered with gold both inside and out. It was
topped by a golden seat flanked by golden cherubim*. At the bottom on
* cherubim winged lions; in later times, each side were two golden rings. The ark was carried by slipping gold-
angels portrayed as winged human coated poles through these rings.
figures The ark symbolized the covenant between God and the Israelites.
They agreed to keep God's laws; God, in turn, promised to protect them.
70
 Armies
According to the Hebrew Bible, the ark guided the Israelites across the Jor-
dan River on foot into Canaan, the land that God had promised them.
Sometimes the Israelites brought the ark into battle. In one narrative of
the Bible, the Philistines captured it and placed it in a temple dedicated to
one of their gods. The ark caused the god's statue to topple and break. Bib-
lical accounts say that no one could touch the ark. Even when a man sup-
ported the ark to prevent it from falling, he was instantly killed by
lightning.
King DAVID of Israel brought the ark to JERUSALEM. King SOLOMON, his
son, later placed it in the city's temple. The final fate of the Ark of the
Covenant is unknown, but it was probably lost or destroyed. Afterward,
the prophet JEREMIAH told the Israelites that God commanded them to
* cult system of religious beliefs and think about the ark no longer. Some scholars think that this command re-
rituals; group following these beliefs flects an attempt to end a cult* that had grown around the ark.

ARMIES
T he armies of the ancient Near East began as loose groups of foot sol-
diers who fought with stone weapons. This changed over a period of
several thousand years. By the first millennium B.C.*, the armies of em-
pires were large, organized forces that combined several different kinds of
fighting units. These latter-day soldiers were armed with a variety of
weapons and used animals to strike quickly and powerfully. Throughout
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 the ancient period, however, armies had three primary goals: to defend
tO 1 B.C. the homeland, to conquer other lands, and to put down rebellions to pre-
serve empires.

EARLY ARMIES
The first armies were relatively small forces formed by the early city-
* city-state independent state consisting states*. They might protect the people's crops from raids by nomads* or
of a city and its surrounding territory fight with soldiers from another city over control of precious water re-
* nomad person who travels from place sources. The impressions made by cylinder SEALS dating from about 3200
to place to find food and pasture B.C. show that soldiers used the same weapons as hunters—clubs, spears,
and bows and arrows. Most weapons were made of stone and wood, but
after about 3000 B.C., they began to be made of bronze.

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 Mesopotamia. By the middle of the third millennium B.C.*, armies
to 2001 B.C. were better organized and equipped. The Royal Standard of Ur, an inlaid
panel discovered in southern MESOPOTAMIA and dating from around
2500 B.C., has provided some clues to military advances. It shows an
army made of columns of infantry who wore helmets and cloaks and
relief sculpture in which material is cut carried spears. The standard also shows that this army included CHARI-
away to show figures raised from the OTS. Early chariots were four-wheeled vehicles pulled by wild asses.
background These chariots were heavy and slow because their WHEELS were made of
stela stone slab or pillar that has been solid wood.
carved or engraved and serves as a The stela of the Vulture, a relief* that dates from about 2450 B.C.,
monument; pi. stelae shows how these early armies fought. This stela* shows Eannatum I, king
71
Armies

of the city-state of Lagash, leadinghisarmyoffoot soldiers forward.

The
soldiers, who are helmeted and carry spearsandaxes,areformed intoa
phalanx. This formationwasused throughout theancient worldformore
than 2,000 years. In a phalanx, soldiers aregrouped into ablock and
march forward in a tight formation.
Most fighting took place at close range. Armies would formin the
open, and the attacking force would march forward with spears held low.
Archers, whose weapons had longer range, formed behind theline ofbat-
tle. Theyfired on enemy forcesto provide coverfortheirownadvancing
troops.
The early armies were recruited when needed. A new developmentin
military thinking came SARGON
under
I, who builttheAkkadian empire
around 2350B.C. Sargonhad a permanent army,asmall, well-trained
force that helped him win hisconquests. This armywascompletely de-
pendent on the king—even forfood. Inthis way, Sargon hoped toensure
the complete loyaltyof his soldiers.Healso changed military strategy,
fa-
voring the use of several groupsofsoldiers spreadoutacross
field
the
of
battle rather than large numbers in phalanxes.

Egypt. Egypt did not have anational, professional militaryforceduring

the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130
B.C.) or the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-
1630B.C.). The armiesof these periods consisted simply
oflocal residents
called to service when needed byindividual nobles. These temporary fight-
ingforces did not distinguishmen byrank. During these periods, armies con-
sisted primarilyof infantrymen armed with clubs, swords, daggers, spears,
and bows and arrows.

HITTITE POWER
Around the 1500s
B.C., a newforce arosein the ancient Near East. This
was theHITTITES
ANATOLIA
of (present-dayTurkey).
The Hittites were able
to build an empire largely becauseoftheir use of two innovationsintech-
nology. They began using iron weapons,CHARIOTS
and theyturned
intoa
more important fighting force.
72
 Armies
The Hittite Army. Like Sargon, the Hittites had a permanent army. A
Hittite king would call on this army in situations that did not require
large numbers of troops or that needed a quick response. If more troops
were needed, he drafted civilians into the army. He could also call on in-
dividuals who had been given land in exchange for the pledge to serve
when needed. Allies and conquered territories were also encouraged—or
required—to supply troops.
The Hittite army was highly organized, with officers of various ranks
commanding units of different sizes. As commander in chief, the Hittite
king took an active role in all military decisions. Discipline was strongly
enforced. Officers and soldiers alike were required to inform the king of
disloyalty or desertion. In fact, an officer who failed to hand over a de-
serter had to die with him.
The most important and prestigious branch of the Hittite army was
the chariotry Designed to provide a moving platform for archers, chariots
took an active part in combat. Hittite chariots were superior to those of
other peoples. They had light spoked wheels and were pulled by horses—
which were stronger and faster than asses. As a result, the Hittite chariotry
was faster than other chariot forces of the time.

Professional Armies in Egypt. Around the same time as the rise of

the Hittites, invaders from the east took control of northern Egypt. The
Egyptians called them the HYKSOS, which meant "rulers of foreign coun-
tries/' Like the Hittites, Hyksos armies used fast chariots that overpow-
ered Egyptian forces.
Egyptian rulers held the middle Nile region and tried to regain the
north. They began to form professional armies. This practice continued
after the defeat of the Hyksos and during the period of foreign conquest
called the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). These armies were made of
people from various ethnic groups; some were captured enemies, and
* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, others were mercenaries*. Troops were organized according to various
often for a foreign country ranks and divided into the infantry and the chariotry. There was no sepa-
rate naval branch, even though much warfare took place on water.

ARMIES OF EMPIRES
In the first millennium B.C., several large empires were formed in the an-
cient Near East. Well-armed and well-organized armies made the creation
of these empires possible.

The Assyrian Empire. The first of these mighty empires was that of
Assyria. By the 600s B.C., this empire of warriors held the area from the
Nile River in the west to Iran in the east and from Arabia in the south to
the Caucasus Mountains in the north. Like the Hittites, the Assyrians
had a highly organized military structure. The king was commander in
chief of the army, and below him were various ranks of officers. Every As-
syrian male had an obligation to perform military service when called
upon. Assyrian queens may have played a part in military affairs as well.

73
Armies
The size of the Assyrian army steadily grew over the centuries. By the
600s B.C., the army numbered in the hundreds of thousands, making it
perhaps the largest standing army of the ancient Near East. As Assyria
conquered new territories, it pulled males from these new lands into its
army. The Assyrians also employed large numbers of mercenaries.
The Assyrian army consisted of infantry, chariotry, and CAVALRY. The
foot soldiers were divided into heavy and light infantry. The heavy in-
fantrymen, who wore shields and chest armor, carried double-bladed pikes
and swords. The light infantry had no armor and only wicker shields. Be-
cause these soldiers carried lighter equipment, they could move more
quickly. Because they were armed with bows, they could strike from a
distance.
Under the Assyrians, the cavalry replaced the chariotry in impor-
tance. The cavalry, composed of soldiers on horseback, was cheaper to
maintain than a chariot force and provided a greater proportion of quick,
mobile fighters per horse. Horses could also be used in more uneven ter-
rain than could chariots. Changes in the design of bridles made it possi-
ble for cavalry troops to use weapons more effectively while riding. The
number of cavalrymen steadily increased until they largely replaced the
chariot force.
Another important part of the Assyrian army was its engineers. These
soldiers specialized in such tasks as building bridges and roads to ease the
army's advance into new territory. They also worked on the battering
rams and other machines used to break down the walls and gates of ene-
mies' cities.
Although they had strong armies and skilled engineers, Assyrian rulers
* siege long and persistent effort to force knew that sieges* and pitched battles required time, energy, and man-
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or power. Whenever possible, they preferred trying to persuade the inhabi-
city with armed troops, cutting it off tants of an area to surrender without a fight. First they tried diplomacy*. If
from supplies and aid
that failed, the Assyrians surrounded a city and shouted to the people in-
* diplomacy practice of conducting side, encouraging them to surrender. Refusals were followed by attacks, of-
negotiations between kingdoms,
states,or nations
ten against a few small cities at first. Once a city was captured, the
Assyrians committed extreme acts of cruelty and brutality. They looted
and burned buildings and raped, mutilated, and murdered their victims.
Ancient artworks show the severed heads of defeated soldiers hanging
from trees as a warning to others. News of this brutality was often effective
in persuading other areas to surrender rather than suffer the same fate.

The Persian Empire. The Assyrian empire fell in 612 B.C. to a com-
bined force of Babylonians and MEDES. Soon after that, a new power
arose in the region—the Persians.
Under CYRUS THE GREAT and his successors, the Persians rose from their
homeland in IRAN. The Persian army included tens of thousands of sol-
imperial pertaining to an emperor or diers. Like other imperial* armies of ancient times, the Persian army in-
an empire cluded men from many different regions. For instance, Scythians, who
were skilled horsemen, were a vital part of the Persian cavalry. As the As-
syrians had done, the Persians relied on the skilled seamen from Phoeni-
cia as the backbone of their navy.
The core of the army was the force called the Immortals, which num-
bered 10,000. These crack troops won their name from the practice of
74
 Art, Artisans, and Artists
keeping them always 10,000 strong; whenever a member of the Immor-
tals died in battle, he was replaced. The Persian army was also known for
the skill of its archers. Persian archers were so renowned that King DARIUS
I placed the image of an archer on the coins he issued.
The Persians also had mounted troops. Sharp, cutting edges were at-
tached to the hubs of the wheels of some chariots. The wheels became a
Historical Propaganda danger to enemy infantry, which the chariots charged aggressively. In
Historians often have difficulty
their wars, the Persians encountered other peoples who used animals
determining the size of ancient
armies. Written records are ques-
other than horses in their armies. They were quick to adopt these ideas.
tionable because they may reflect Thus, some Persian cavalrymen were mounted on camels, and the Per-
the views of either the victors or the sian army also included war elephants. They were used to rout enemy sol-
vanquished, and both sides had diers or as a way of reaching the tops of city walls.
reason to exaggerate. Victors migh
overstate the size of their enemy to
make their victory appear even
Alexander's Empire. In the 300s B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of Mace-
greater. The defeated would do the donia, an area north of Greece, defeated the Persians and conquered a
same, making a defeat seem more large empire of his own. Like that of the Persians, some of his success was
justified because of the overwhelm* due to his ability to quickly adopt ideas from other peoples. He relied on
ing odds. Thus, sources claiming the Greek phalanx as the core of his army. When he reached India and
that Hittite armies contained
saw elephants in action, he, too, brought these beasts into his army.
25,000 chariots are almost certainly
untrue. Feeding and maintaining s
Alexander also had a strong intelligence-gathering unit, which he re-
many horses during a military cam- lied on to provide information about the location and strength of enemy
paign would have been next to im- forces. His engineers were very skilled as well. They devised large towers
possible. What was the real size of and catapults (devices for hurling missiles) that were helpful in overcom-
these and other military forces? ing the defenses of cities.
Historians can only guess.
Alexander's greatest innovation, though, was to make his army mo-
bile and able to travel great distances. He did not want the army's ad-
vance to be hampered by long, slow supply trains consisting of heavy
wagons. He had his soldiers carry as many of their supplies and as much
as their equipment as possible. The rest he put on the backs of pack ani-
mals, which could move more quickly than heavy wagons. The ability
to strike quickly and hard helped Alexander build his very large empire
in a very few years. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Caria and the
Carians; Egypt and the Egyptians; Fortifications; Naval Power;
Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Soldiers; Wars and Warfare;
Weapons and Armor.)

Armor See Weapons and Armor.

ART, ARTISANS,
A rt encompasses painting, sculpture, and architecture—the major
arts—as well as metalwork, jewelry, ceramics, glass, and textiles—
the minor arts. When we speak about artists today, we refer to people who
sign their work and are known by name. In ancient times, the term gen-
AND ARTISTS erally referred to people who worked together, occasionally in large num-
bers, on artistic projects. They remained anonymous, and were called
artisans—people who practice a craft—rather than artists. The artisans
75
Art, Artisans, and Artists

usually worked under the direction of important organizations, such as

temples, royal palaces, or wealthy nobles.
In the ancient world, art served purposes beyond the decorative.
Art expressed wealth, might, and power. Large-scale artworks first
* fourth millennium B.C. years from appeared toward the end of the fourth millennium B.C.*, such as a 30-
4000 to 3001 B.C. inch-tall stone relief* of an unknown king of URUK attacking lions. In
* relief sculpture in which material is cut one section of the relief, the king is shown wielding a lance and in an-
away to show figures raised from the other, a bow and arrow. During the second millennium B.C.*, Egyptian
background king RAMSES II commissioned four large statues of himself—each
* second millennium B.C. years from measuring more than 65 feet high—seated in front of the temple at ABU
2000 to 1001 B.C. SIMBEL. The BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, ordered by Persian king Darius I, shows
the king standing with one foot on the body of the defeated rebel
leader, while his guards bring in other shackled captives. During the
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 first millennium B.C.*, 15-feet-tall statues of winged bulls with human
tO 1 B.C. heads guarded the gateways of Assyrian palaces. Inside, the palace walls
were lined with several reliefs showing battles, lion hunts, and royal
processions.
* deity god or goddess Art also served religious purposes. Statues of deities*, made nearly
everywhere in the ancient Near East, were placed in temples and wor-
shiped. Made of stone or wood, these statues were often painted and
third millennium B.C. years from 3000 dressed to appear lifelike. During the third millennium B.C.*, Mesopo-
to 2001 B.C. tamians placed small statues of themselves before the statue of the deity
in the temple. Called votive statues, they show the worshipers standing
or sitting reverently with their hands clasped at their chests. Egyptians
left votive statues in their temples as well. Called block statues, the wor-
shipers are usually seated with their hands crossed on their knees, which
are drawn up to their chests.
Art also served to demonstrate the close relationship between the
king and the gods. Therefore, images of the god and king were often
placed near each other to emphasize this connection. For instance, Egypt-
ian and Hittite kings showed themselves in an embrace with their gods.
In Mesopotamia, the king was considered the high priest of the gods,
chosen by them to rule. There, the kings were shown performing rituals
before the gods or before the animals or other symbols that represented
the gods. In Egypt, the king—while he was alive—was considered the fal-
con god HORUS. The winged disc symbolized the king's protective god
nearly everywhere in ancient Near Eastern art.
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or Artifacts* also served as gifts and items of trade in the ancient Near
other object made by humans East. Gifts included such items as the highly valued ivory carvings that
were used as furniture inlays. These carvings were made by the Syrians
in the 800s and 700s B.C. and by the Phoenicians in the 700s and 600s
* tribute payment made by a smaller or B.C. and served as items of tribute*. Examples of these items have been
weaker party to a more powerful one, found all over the ancient Near East, especially in the ruins of Assyrian
often under the threat of force palaces.
There are few texts in which ancient artists and artisans reveal their
* archaeologist scientist who studies past ideas about art or descriptions of their crafts. Still, archaeologists * have
human cultures, usually by excavating been able to draw some conclusions about artisans' lives and social posi-
material remains of human activity tion. By looking at tools and hoards of raw materials, they can examine
the technology used to create objects. Texts and images reveal how work
was organized and the value placed on artisans and their work.
76
 Art, Artisans, and Artists
Egypt. In Egypt, artists and artisans different
of specialties worked to-
gether in workshops.A relief in the tombof Ti, at Saqqara, shows metal-
workers, jewelers, stonemasons, woodworkers, cabinetmakers, leather
workers, and others. These workshops belonged to a temple, king, or of-
ficial. In some cases, Egyptian kings assigned royal artisansofficial
to an
for a specified duration. The large workshops were supportedby the in-
come the temple or official gainedfrom landholdings. The objects they
made were used in the temple or in the official's estate. Some were placed
in the official's tomb.
Workshops were organized by the type of material being worked.
Stone carvers were near those who made stone containers and those who
drilled holes in stone for use in jewelry. Most Egyptian artisans worked
closely together and many were highly specialized. They worked together
especially on large projects, such as carving and painting wall reliefs in
tombs or temples.
Egyptian artisans were not like modern artists or artisans. They did
not operate as independent workers who created pieces and hoped to
find a buyer. They depended on others, and the objects they created be-
longed to the owner of the workshop. However, there were some excep-
tions to this general rule. Records show that royal workers could use
some of theirfree time to produce objects on their own and sell them to
people who did not belong to the royal families. Sculptors and painters
tended to be hired out for particular projects rather than to belong to the
workshops.
Sculptors enjoyed a somewhat higher status than other artisans did.
One reason was that sculptors had an especially important task. The
statue they made of their patron—which was placed in that person's
tomb—was believed to be a vital part of the individual's chancesfor a

77
Art, Artisans, and Artists
satisfactory life after death. Painters, too, enjoyed special status, in part
because they painted the statues that sculptors created. Both sculptors
and painters were said to be ''provided with gifts/' meaning they had re-
* patron special guardian, protector, or ceived special favor from their patron*.
supporter Even these more highly valued artisans worked cooperatively,
though. Teams of sculptors created statues or complex reliefs that deco-
rated temples and palaces. Groups of painters worked together on wall
paintings. They coordinated their efforts by following established rules or
conventions on how to present the images they were creating. What
made individuals stand out as being especially talented was not their cre-
ativity but their ability to master the rules of their craft.

Mesopotamia. Artists and artisans in Mesopotamia maintained sepa-

rate workshops for different types of work. Some industries, such as pot-
tery or weaving, relied on materials available locally and in large
quantities. Artisans in these industries might work in their homes. For
others, larger scale workshops were required. Unlike in Egypt, however,
these workshops were divided, with metalworkers toiling in one location
and woodworkers in another. The most ambitious and sophisticated
work was typically produced in cities, especially the capitals of ancient
kingdoms. The temples and royal palaces in these cities were the main
market for the artisans' work. Certain locations became well known for
skilled work in certain fields. The southern Mesopotamian city of Isin,
for instance, was a center for leather work.
Less evidence of workshops has been found in Mesopotamia than in
Egypt. Cities sometimes contained craft quarters—areas where workers of
Complaint a particular type carried out their work. Texts mention sections of cities
Department devoted to goldsmiths and potters. Archaeologists have also found evi-
Wealth and status were no dence of concentrations of craft workers in villages outside city walls.
protection against unscrupu-
lous or inefficient workers. A priest-
These craft centers outside the cities were often used for work in raw ma-
ess from Mari in Mesopotamia was terials that were harder to transport, such as metals and the materials
\ at her wit's end over work she paid used to make glass. For instance, outside the city of UR during the Old
for and had not received; Babylonian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) there was a cluster of workers
/ had given to you grain with who made clay plaques and cylinder SEALS. The seal cutters often occupied
which to buy stones for a neck- respectable positions in ancient Near Eastern societies because they were
lace, but you have not done so. / employed to make seals for special contracts and were required to witness
had paid you four years ago the transactions that followed.
Now if you are truly my brother,
for the love of heaven, send me State workshops fell under control of the central government. Some
promptly that object and don't could be extremely large. During the Third Dynasty of Ur—from about
keep it from me. 2110 to 2000 B.C.—the Wool Office put thousands of women slaves to
'i No record exists of the artisan's work making woolen cloth. Sometimes, these state workshops contracted
f response. the work out to individuals who worked in their homes. One text from
the city of Uruk documents the release of a quantity of gold to a gold-
smith, who took the material home to work. The text specifies that the
finished product had to be returned in five days.
Young workers served a period as apprentices, during which they
learned their craft. Typically, they learned the profession from older
members of their own family. By the 400s B.C., there is evidence of some
groups of craft workers forming professional associations with their own
rules and officials.
78
 Artaxerxes I, II, and III
Skilled workers were in demand—in part because there was often a
shortage of them. Texts detail the efforts of different royal courts to secure
the best workers, which sometimes required going far from the local area.
Specialists were loaned from one ruler to another. During the New King-
dom of Egypt (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), Egyptian artisans were in great de-
mand. Rulers might send letters requesting that another king send
workers with a particular skill. To buttress their request, they often men-
tioned that they had allowed previously borrowed workers to return to
their homes. Artisans from Crete, especially those expert in painting re-
* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed liefs, traveled to Avaris in the Nile Delta* and worked in palaces in north-
of soil deposited by a river ern Syria. During the 400s B.C., Greek stonemasons traveled to work in
Persepolis.
In the first millennium B.C., this authorized borrowing was often re-
placed by seizure of artisans after conquest. The Babylonian king NEB-
UCHADNEZZAR II, when he captured the city of Jerusalem, took away all the
princes and "all the craftsmen and smiths/'
Among the ancient Mesopotamians, artistic ability was considered a
gift from the gods. From the earliest historical times in the fourth mil-
lennium B.C., texts credit the god EA as the source of the artisan's skill.
This view continued until the first millennium B.C. King ESARHADDON
of Assyria, who ruled from 680 to 669 B.C., called Ea the god who
"creates/shapes appearance, who fashions all things." (See also Architec-
ture; Glass and Glassmaking; Jewelry; Metals and Metalworking;
Palaces and Temples; Pottery; Sculpture; Wall Paintings.)

ARTAXERXES T hree powerful kings named Artaxerxes (ar»tuh«ZERK»seez) ruled

the PERSIAN EMPIRE between 465 and 338 B.C. They were members of
the Achaemenid dynasty*, a line of monarchs founded by CYRUS THE
GREAT in 538 B.C.
I, II, AND 111 Artaxerxes I, the younger son of XERXES I, took the throne after his fa-
ther was assassinated. He was made king by the commander of the guard
who had killed his father. His reign was relatively peaceful, although he
Artaxerxes I did face a number of revolts in the provinces. One uprising was led by a
ruled 464-424 B.C. brother who was satrap* of BACTRIA. Another rebellion erupted among the
Persian king Egyptians, who had support from the Greeks. Fighting continued for
Artaxerxes II some time before Persian rule was fully restored in Egypt.
ruled 404-359 B.C. During his reign, Artaxerxes I ordered the construction of magnifi-
Persian king cent new buildings in the cities of SUSA, BABYLON, and PERSEPOLIS. He also
Artaxerxes III established important cultural ties with Greece and adopted a policy of
ruled 358-338 B.C. tolerance toward Jews. Artaxerxes I died in 424 B.C. and was succeeded by
Persian king his son Xerxes II. His rule was brief, and his half brother Darius II became
king after him.
Artaxerxes II became the Persian king in 404 B.C. upon the death of
his father, Darius II. Early in his reign, Artaxerxes II overcame two chal-
lenges by a brother: an assassination attempt and a rebellion. His
brother's revolt had significant consequences, however. Some of the
rebels had been Greek soldiers. Their skilled fighting encouraged the
79
Aryans
* dynasty succession of rulers from the Greek city-state* of Sparta to challenge Persia. After defeating the Spartan
same family or group navy, the Persians made peace with Sparta by offering to side with the
* satrap provincial governor in Persian- Spartans in their struggle against a rival city-state, Athens. In 386 B.C., the
controlled territory Persians forced Athens to accept a peace settlement that gave Persia con-
* city-state independent state consisting trol over Greek city-states in ANATOLIA.
of a city and its surrounding territory Trouble continued during the rule of Artaxerxes II, however. Between
385 B.C. and the end of his reign, he tried to regain control of Egypt,
which had declared its independence in 405 B.C. Satraps throughout
Anatolia also revolted. Eventually, these uprisings were put down, but
the Persian state was now weaker.
Artaxerxes II died in 359 B.C. Artaxerxes III, a cruel and ruthless ruler,
secured his father's throne by killing many of his relatives. To lessen the
threat of rebellion in the provinces, he ordered all the satraps in the em-
* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, pire to dismiss their mercenaries*. This action helped strengthen the
often for a foreign country empire.
The new king was a skilled general. Artaxerxes III launched major
military expeditions against Egypt, which he hoped to reconquer. He suc-
ceeded in defeating the Egyptians in 343 B.C. After plundering and de-
stroying many Egyptian cities and temples, he placed a Persian satrap in
control of the region. A few years later Artaxerxes' reign came to an
abrupt end. Bagoas, a royal official, poisoned the king and his elder sons.
Soon after, the much-weakened Persian empire fell to ALEXANDER THE
GREAT. (See also Iran; Persian Wars.)

ARYANS
T he Aryans were a group of Indo-European peoples from CENTRAL ASIA
who migrated to IRAN and northern India during the second millen-
nium B.C.* Originally a nomadic* group, they eventually established
economies based on grazing and agriculture and laid the foundation for
both India's Hindu culture and the PERSIAN EMPIRE.
The name Aryan comes from the word arya, which means "man of
* second millennium B.C. years from clay" or "man of the land" in an ancient Aryan language. According to
2000 to 1001 B.C. Hindu mythology, the original ancestor of the Aryans was the god Arya-
* nomadic referring to people who travel man, one of the sons of the goddess Aditi. In Iran, this original god was
from place to place to find food and preserved in the name AHRIMAN, who was the evil god in the two-god sys-
pasture tem that formed the heart of the Persian religion.
Almost nothing is known about the Aryans before their arrival in Iran
and India. Most scholars believe, however, that they originated in the
grasslands north and east of the Caspian Sea. Sometime after 2000 B.C.,
the Aryans began moving out of this region. Some went as far as Europe,
while others moved southward in successive waves of migration. The rea-
sons for their movement are unknown.
The Aryans migrated first into the southern parts of Central Asia.
From there, they moved into Iran and into the Indus Valley region of In-
dia, where they may have contributed to the destruction of the early civi-
lization that was centered in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. By about 1700
B.C., the Aryans dominated the area. New waves of Aryans continued to
enter the area until about 1100 B.C.
80
 Ashur (city)
indigenous referring to the original In India, the Aryans absorbed most of the indigenous* cultures and
inhabitants of a region introduced their own language, customs, and beliefs. The result was the
formation of a new culture that contributed to the later development of
Hinduism in India. The oldest writings of the Hindu religion, known as
the Vedas, were written in the language of the Aryans and reflect their
beliefs.
The Aryans also migrated westward through Iran into MESOPOTAMIA.
Ancient documents suggest that Aryan groups probably began entering
the region after the collapse of the empire of SHAMSHI-ADAD I in the 1700s
B.C. From the 1400s to the 1200s B.C., the rulers of Mitanni, a kingdom in
upper Mesopotamia, had names reflecting an ancient Aryan language. In
addition, the names of some of the gods worshiped at the Mitannian
royal court were the same as those found in ancient Indian religious texts.
These names and beliefs suggest that Aryans played an important role in
founding the Mitanni empire.
Several centuries later, in 843 B.C., Assyrian records first mentioned a
new Aryan tribe in the area—the Persians. The Persians and another
Aryan group, the MEDES, settled in Iran. In this early period, both groups
were fragmented into several small kingdoms that had little power. Even-
tually, though, they amassed great power and laid the foundations for the
mighty Persian empire. The land came to be called Aryanam, or the ''land
of the Aryans/' It is from this name that the region has come to be called
Iran. (See also Ethnic and Language Groups; Hurrians; Indo-European
Languages; Nomads and Nomadism.)

ASHUR (CITY)
T he city of Ashur was the capital of ancient Assyria during its first
great period of expansion from the 1300s to the 1000s B.C. It was
named for ASHUR, the supreme deity of the Assyrians. The most promi-
nent building in the city was a temple to that god. It was from this city
that a succession of Assyrian kings set out to conquer new lands and build
their mighty empire.
Founded at least by 2450 B.C., Ashur was located on the west bank of
the TIGRIS RIVER on a triangular plot of ground jutting into the river. The
river water and high cliffs leading down to it provided a natural defense
for two sides of the city. Still, the city was conquered by the Akkadians,
the Babylonians, and the HURRIANS. The Babylonians built a massive wall
to protect the city from its third, landward, side. Later the Assyrians
strengthened this wall and added a wide moat.
See map in Assyria and the Assyrians The city had two sections. The Old City had palaces and temples,
(vol.1). while the New City held the homes of most people. The people of Ashur
were actively involved in trade. They imported tin from the east and tex-
tiles from the south, which they traded in ANATOLIA for gold and silver.
Ashur ceased to be the capital of Assyria after the early 800s B.C., when
the administrative center was moved to KALKHU and then later to NINEVEH.
It continued to flourish as a center for trade and religious activity, how-
ever. The city was destroyed by the MEDES in 614 B.C. Although people
continued to inhabit the city for several more centuries, it never regained
81
Ashur (deity)
its former glory and was abandoned in A.D. 200s. (See also Ashurbanipal;
Ashurnasirpal II; Assyria and the Assyrians.)

ASHUR (DEITY)
A shur was the supreme deity* of the Assyrians. He had been the god
t the city of ASHUR since its founding in the third millennium B.C.*
Later he became the god who was credited with the growth of the Neo-
Assyrian empire.
It was in Ashur's temple and at the hands of Ashur's chief priest that
* deity god or goddess the kings of Assyria received their crowns. While Ashur was the god of the
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 city, the king was his highest deputy.
to 2001 B.C. Assyrians believed that the king's actions represented the god's will.
Because Ashur had power over all other gods, it was natural that their ter-
ritories came under the control of his agent, the king of Assyria. Assyrian
kings were careful to explain the enlargement of their power as a response
to those who refused to submit to Ashur's will or those who provoked
Ashur's anger.
As the Assyrian empire expanded, all the conquered peoples were to
* homage anything done to show honor pay homage* to Ashur, although they could continue to worship their
or respect own gods. Each province* was required to send such items as barley,
* province region that forms part of a sesame, fruit, and honey to the temple of Ashur according to a carefully
larger state or empire worked out schedule hat ensured that the god had food every day. (See
also Assyria and the Assyrians.)

ASHURBANIPAL
T he last powerful king of Assyria, Ashurbanipal (A«shur»BA«ni»pal)
was an intelligent leader who took the throne in 668 B.C. at the
death of his father, ESARHADDON. During his 40-year reign, the longest in
Assyrian history, Ashurbanipal tried to maintain order while leading As-
syria to great achievements in the arts and literature. Frequent warfare
ruled 668-627 B.C. weakened the empire, however, contributing to its collapse under his
Assyrian king successors.
Ashurbanipal was named his father's heir in 672 B.C. even though he
was not the eldest son. He seems, though, to have been his father's fa-
vorite. The prince took an active role in the administration of the Assyr-
ian empire even before Esarhaddon died.
See Soon after Ashurbanipal became king, a revolt arose in Egypt, which
color plate 5, Esarhaddon had conquered. The Assyrian forces won some early victories,
vol. 4.
although it is not clear that the king himself led the army. He appointed lo-
cal princes to rule and gave them Assyrian soldiers for support. Soon his at-
tention shifted to the east, where he fought a brutal war against the Elamites
in southern MESOPOTAMIA.
While the Assyrians were tied up in the east, a new revolt arose in
Egypt. Finding the cost of maintaining his grip on Egypt too great, the

82
 Ashurnasirpal II
king abandoned Egypt in 653 B.C. and signed a treaty with the new ruler
to maintain trade. This loss was followed by renewed fighting in
Mesopotamia. Babylonia was ruled by Ashurbanipal's brother Shamash-
shum-ukin. This brother organized a revolt by many peoples who disliked
Assyrian rule. After a number of years of war, the Assyrians won, and
Shamash-shum-ukin killed himself. Ashurbanipal punished the other rebels
harshly, although he did not order any destruction of the city of BABYLON.
Little is known about the last years of Ashurbanipal's reign. After his
death, two of his sons fought each other for five years in a struggle for
power. In 612 B.C., a weakened Assyria was conquered by an alliance of
the MEDES and the Babylonians.
A patron of the arts, Ashurbanipal built and restored many PALACES
AND TEMPLES and commissioned magnificent works of art. His most impor-
tant contribution, however, was the creation of a library in the city of
* scribe person of a learned class who NINEVEH. Ashurbanipal had received the training of a scribe*, and he per-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher sonally chose the works to be collected in this library. Many ancient
works survived to later ages because they had been preserved there. (See
also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Egypt
and the Egyptians; Libraries and Archives.)

ASHURNASIRPAL II
A ruthless conqueror and skilled administrator, Ashurnasirpal II
(A«shur«NAT*sir»pal) helped expand the Assyrian empire. Known
for his brutality against enemies, he maintained control over Assyrian
provinces through force, fear, and new approaches to governing.
Assyria experienced a long decline that started in about 1050 B.C. In
ruled 883-859 B.C. the 930s B.C., Ashurnasirpal's grandfather and later his father, both kings,
Assyrian king began to reassert Assyrian power. Ashurnasirpal continued their efforts.
During the early years of his reign, he put down several rebellions. Then
he led his armies westward, where he conquered a kingdom of the ARA-
* tribute payment made by a smaller or MAEANS and collected tribute* from Phoenician city-states*.
weaker party to a more powerful one, To win these lands, Ashurnasirpal used a combination of strong
often under the threat of force armies and terror tactics. INSCRIPTIONS from his rule speak frankly of his
* city-state independent state consisting willingness to punish enemies. One inscription describes what happened
of a city and its surrounding territory when the Assyrians finally conquered a city that had refused to surrender.
Ashurnasirpal ordered thousands of people killed and thousands more
punished by having their arms, hands, noses, or ears cut off. He also
flayed his victims and draped their skins over the city's wall in full public
view. When news of this cruelty spread, other cities became more willing
to yield when the Assyrians arrived.
Once he gained new lands, Ashurnasirpal created a new system of cen-
tralized government to control them. He appointed Assyrian governors to
rule the conquered territories. The governors collected yearly tribute,
which flowed back to Assyria and brought the empire great wealth. The
king used some of this wealth to build a new capital at KALKHU (present-
day Nimrud). Among the city's notable features were a massive defensive
wall and a number of grand temples.
83
Asia Minor
As a result of his conquests and achievements, Ashurnasirpal is con-
sidered the first great king of the Neo-Assyrian empire. He was succeeded
on the throne by his son SHALMANESER III, who continued to rebuild the
Assyrian state. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians.)

Asia Minor See Anatolia.

ASSYRIA AND
O ne of the greatest empires of the ancient Near East, Assyria (uh«SIR«ee«uh)
was at the peak of its power from the mid-700s through the mid-
600s B.C. Known for their cruelty in war, the Assyrians (uh»SIR»ee«uhnz) as-
sembled mighty armies to conquer surrounding territories. Despite its size
ASSYRIANS and power, however, the Assyrian empire declined very quickly after reach-
ing its peak. Nevertheless, by establishing a system of imperial* govern-
ment, it became a model for other great empires in the region, including
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or the PERSIAN EMPIRE and the empire of ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Culturally, the
an empire Assyrians are best known for the magnificent sculptures they created.

GEOGRAPHY AND PEOPLE

At its height, the Assyrian empire stretched from the Persian Gulf in the
south and the Zagros Mountains of IRAN in the east to southeastern ANA-
TOLIA in the north and the Mediterranean Sea in the west. For a brief pe-
delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed riod, the Assyrians also controlled the Nile Valley and the Nile Delta* of
of soil deposited by a river Egypt. The core of ancient Assyria—the homeland of the Assyrians—was
in northern MESOPOTAMIA along the upper reaches of the TIGRIS RIVER, an
area that is part of present-day Iraq.
Assyria consisted of rolling hills, mountain-fed streams, and fertile
valleys. The region received more rain than other parts of Mesopotamia,
and the climate was well suited to agriculture and livestock grazing. Still,
the need for more farmland was a factor in Assyria's expansion.
The earliest settlements were small rural villages based on tribal orga-
* fourth millennium B.C. years from nization. Perhaps as early as the fourth millennium B.C.*, Akkadian-
4000 to 3001 B.C. speaking peoples migrated there. In about 2000 B.C., people known as
AMORITES moved into Assyria as well. ARAMAEANS began arriving in about
1200 B.C. These groups intermarried with the original population, pro-
ducing a people of mixed ancestry. During the later history of Assyria, the
population became even more mixed, largely because of the policy of re-
settling conquered peoples throughout the empire.
In Assyria itself, most of the people lived in small villages and were
engaged in agriculture. There were a few large cities, including ASHUR,
NINEVEH, and KALKHU. Ashur, associated with the Assyrian national god of
the same name, was for many centuries the capital of Assyria.
84
 Assyria and the Assyrians
The early Assyrians spoke
aLANGUAGE,
dialect*
SEMITIC
ofAkkadian,
a
and their writingwas based
CUNEIFORM,
on a systemof wedge-shaped sym-
dialect regional form of a spoken bols developed by the ancient Sumerians.By theB.C.,
Assyria
800s also
language with distinct pronunciation, adopted Aramaic and used it as the common language of government
vocabulary, and grammar and business, perhaps because its system of writing was easier to use than
cuneiform. Soon Assyrians used both cuneiform and the Aramaic aleph-
beth—a system of writing that had symbols to represent consonants
only—often sideby side.The Assyrianuse of Aramaicled to the spreadof
that system of writing to other peoples in the ancient Near
East; the Ara-
maeans themselves were never widely enough dispersed to achieve this
on their own.

HISTORY
The history ofAssyria extendsfrom about 2000to the B.C.
late
Al-600s
though the region did not take the nameAssyria until aboutB.C., it1400
city-state independent state consisting is convenient to use that namereferto to the region during its entire his-
of a city and its surrounding territory tory. Scholars roughly divide Assyrian history into three main periods:
Old Assyria (ca. 2000-1750
B.C.), Middle Assyria (ca. B.C.),1356-1076
and Neo-Assyria (911-609
B.C.). These periodsreflect the three greatest
phases in the development of Assyria
from a small kingdom to a mighty
empire.

Old Assyria. At the beginning of the Old Assyrian period, the region of
Assyria consisted of various small, independent city-states* that shared a
common language and culture. One of these city-stateswas Ashur,lo-
cated on the upper reachesof the TigrisRiver.
In the late 1800sB.C.,an Amorite ruler
SHAMSHI-ADAD
named I con-
quered Ashur and the surrounding area and founded a kingdom.
Shamshi-Adad unified much of the region, but his achievement was short
lived. Soonafter his death, the kingdom collapsed and the region entered
a "dark age" during whichAshur came under the influenceof the Babylo-
nians to the south.

Middle Assyria: First Expansion. During B.C., the

Ashur
1400swas
dominated by Mitanni, apowerful kingdom HURRIANS
formedin
by the
northwestern Mesopotamia. Mitanni
HITTITES
felltointhe
theB.C.,
1300s
and Ashur regained its independence under Ashur-uballit I (ca.1366-
1330B.C.), who called himself Great King and claimed equal status with
the rulers ofEgypt, Babylon,and of the Hittites.The city becamethe cap-
ital of a kingdom. It was at this time that the name "land of
Assyria,
Ashur/; wasfirst used.(Ashurwas the cheifAssyrian god.)
Ashur-uballit and his successors struggled to maintain Assyria's inde-
pendence from theKassite rulers of Babylonia to the south. They began
to expand their territory to the west and to organize the region
provinces. This period marks the beginning ofAssyria's rise to power.
Under a series ofpowerful kings during the 1200s and 1100s,
Assyria
conquered a number of foreign neighbors and began to createa true
85
Assyria and the Assyrians

empire. It soon became the dominant power in northern Mesopotamia,

and Assyrian kings ruled over a strongly unified state.
Among the earliest conquests of this period were those during the
reign of Adad-nirariI (ca. 1300-1270
B.C.).
After defeating Mitanni and
theKASSITES, Adad-nirari
fortifiedAshur, enlargedits templesand palaces,
and began construction projects in the provinces. Although he later lost
large parts of northernSyria to the Hittites, Adad-nirari had set an exam-
ple of conquest that inspired his successors.
Assyrian expansion continued under Shalmaneser I (ruled ca. 1269-
1241B.C.). Hedefeated the Urartians in the north, incorporated remnants
of the kingdom of Mitanni, and reconquered all of northern
Mesopotamia. During Shalmaneser's reign, Assyria gained controlof ma-
sacrilege violation of anything held jorTRADE ROUTES linking southern Mesopotamia
SYRIA
and Anatolia.
with
sacred This control alarmed the Hittites, whoforged a new alliance with the
Egyptians to counterAssyria's growing power.
The expansion ofAssyria in the Middle Assyrian period reached its
peak during the reign ofTukulti-NinurtaI (ca. B.C.), 1240-1205
who won
BloodthirstyAssyrians impressive victories over the Hittites in Anatolia. When Assyria was at-
The ancient Assyrians had a well* tacked by rebelliousKassites of Babylonia, Tukulti-Ninurta retaliated
earned reputation for being blood- \
thirsty and cruel. Shalmaneser I,
against Babylon and took its king captive. Within a few years,Baby- the
for example, claimed that he had lonians rebelled again. Tukulti-Ninurta led his army to Babylon and
blinded more than 14,000 enemies plundered and destroyed many of its temples. This action angered many
in one eye, and Ashurnasirpaf II \ left Assyrians.Assyria and Babylonia shared the same gods, and many peo-
detailed accounts of beheadings, ple considered the destruction of the temples to be a sacrilege*. Eventu-
mutilations, and other atrocities.
In reality, these actions may have
ally, his sons rebelled against him, and the king was murdered by his
been no worse ^ than thoseof other enemies. Following the death of Tukulti-Ninurta, the Assyrian empire
Near Eastern groups.TheAssyrians began to break up, and its power declined. The decline did not last long,
may ako have exaggerated ac- however.
counts of their actions to intimi-
date enemies and to keep
conquered peoples in line.
Middle Assyria: Renewal and Decline.
King Ashur-dan I (ruled c
1177-1133B.C.)andKingAshur-resha-ishiI (ruled
ca. B.C.)1132-1115
sta-
bilized Assyria and began rebuilding its strength. During the reign of
Tiglath-pileserI (ca. 1114-1076
B.C.),
Assyria regained its
former greatness.
The king defeated the invading Mushki (Phrygians) who had re-
placed the now-collapsed Hittite kingdom as the dominant power in
central Anatolia. He launched attacks far to the north and east; in the
86
 Assyria and the Assyrians
nomad person who travels from place west, he attacked Aramaean nomads* who were harassing Assyrian settle-
to place to find food and pasture ments. However, hefailed to contain them. The Aramaeans continued to
raid Assyrian communities. Tiglath-pileser also pushed westward, crossed
Syria, and reached the Mediterranean coast, but he held this region only
briefly.After aboutB.C.,1100
conflicts with Babylon increasedand led to
another Assyrian attack on Babylon.
* tribute payment made by a smaller or When Tiglath-pileser was not engaged in military conquests, he de-
weaker party to a more powerful one, voted attention to government and economics. He reorganized the ad-
often under the threat of force ministration of the empire, developed better SCRIBES,
methodsof training
and encouraged efforts to improve agriculture.
The successors of Tiglath-pileser did not have his talent or ability.
During the reign of AshurnasirpalI (ca. B.C.),
1050-1032
Assyriawas
barely able to defend itself against continued Aramaean attacks, and the
nation began about 100 years of decline.

Neo-Assyria: Assyria Rises Again.

B.C., Assyrian
By the late 900s
power was once again on the rise. Over the next 300 years, the Assyrian
empire reached its height, and theAssyrians became the masters of the an-
cient NearEast.Assyria gained great wealth at this time from the tribute*
and taxes it demanded of its many provinces and territories.
During the B.C.,
900sthe Assyrians faced continuing threats fromthe
Aramaeans, who launched attacks against bothAssyria and Babylonia.
King Ashur-danII (ruledca.B.C.)and
934-912
King Adad-nirari II (ruled
911-891B.C.) staged numerous campaigns against the Aramaeans and
managed to push them back and stabilize Assyria's borders. Adad-nirari II
also attacked the Babylonians, forcing them to surrender a number of
territories.
Adad-nirari's grandson,
ASHURNASIRPALII (ruled
B.C.)was one
883-859
of the most outstanding leaders in Assyrian history. A brilliant military
commander, he played major a role in expanding and consolidating the
Assyrian empire. Ashurnasirpal II conquered many territories and relo-
cated large numbers of conquered peoples from their homelands, scatter-
ing them throughout the empire. Dividing them in this way made it les
likely that they would rebel against Assyrian rule. At the time, the practice
of mass relocation had been in use for nearly 1,000 years; kingsof the em-
pire of Old Babylonia had also used it to control conquered peoples.
Ashurnasirpal II created a highly centralized stateby reorganizing
the provinces and appointing provincial governors loyal to the monar-
chy. He also reorganized and improved the Assyrian army, introducing
mounted cavalry troops, new weapons, and new methods warfare.
of
His military campaigns led to conquests of southern Armenia, western
Mesopotamia, and Syria. Ashurnasirpal did not conduct any campaigns
against Babylonia, perhaps because of their common cultural heritage.
Babylonia remained a rival, butAssyria did establish trade links with
that land.
Ashurnasirpal built the first of three new Assyrian capitals, Kalkhu
(near present-day Nimrud, in Iraq). It was a monumental work that in-
cluded a huge palace and several temples.
Ashurnasirpal's
SHALMANESER
son III (ruled
B.C.) continued
858-824his
father's policies. He expanded the empire in all directions, conquering
87
Assyria and the Assyrians
URARTU in the north and Cilicia in southeastern Anatolia. In 853, Shal-
maneser attackedSyria. In the ensuing indecisive battle, he fought a coali-
tion of 12 local princesled by theAramaeansand
AHABtroops sent
King
by
of Israel. Shalmaneser continued his attacks on northern and southern
Syria for another 20 years, forcing many, including Israel,to pay tribute.

Neo-Assyria: Turmoil. The long reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Shal-

maneser III were followedby a periodof turmoil.At the end of his reign,
Shalmaneserfaced a rebellion led by one of his sons that lasted several
years and weakened the empire. The situation did not stabilize until an-
other son, Shamshi-AdadV (ruled B.C.), 823-811
became king. Shamshi-
Adad gained the throne with the help of Babylonia. In return for t
help, Assyria was obliged to signed a treaty with Babylon that favored
Babylonia. Shamshi-Adad V later took his revengeby conducting several
military campaigns against Babylonia.
When Shamshi-AdadV died,he was succeededby his sonAdad-nirari
III
(ruled 810-783B.C.). During his rule,
Assyria sank into obscurity.
Adad-
nirari wasjust a boy when he took the throne. According to later legend,
his mother,
SEMIRAMIS, ruledas queen duringthe early yearsof his reign
and wielded considerable power.
Between about 782 andB.C.,744three kings withno real authority
occupied the throne ofAssyria. Among their most pressing concerns was

88
 Assyria and the Assyrians
* epidemic spread of a particular disease the defense of Assyria against Urartu, which was threatening its northern
within a population borders. Assyria also faced occasional rebellions and two terrible epi-
* plague contagious disease that quickly demics* of plague* during their reigns.
kills large numbers of people
Neo-Assyria: Renewal. Beginning in about 745 B.C., Assyria experi-
enced a rebirth, and before long the empire reached its greatest extent
yet. The first great king of the period was TIGLATH-PILESER III (ruled
745-727 B.C.), whose brilliant military plans resulted in a rapid expan-
sion of the empire. Among his achievements were a victory over Urartu
and the conquest of Syrian kingdoms, including Damascus, and Phoeni-
cian city-states. Tiglath-pileser III turned all conquered regions into
provinces. In the past, the Assyrians had simply made raids to conquered
territories from time to time to collect tribute. By turning these lands
into provinces, Tiglath-pileser created a more formal administration of
the lands. He made sure that the provinces were small so that they
would be easier to govern, and he revived Ashurnasirpal II's policy of
moving conquered peoples from one area to another. To weaken a rival
power, he cut off trade between the Phoenician cities and Egypt.
In 744 B.C., Tiglath-pileser III helped Babylonia defeat Aramaeans
who were threatening its borders. As had happened before, Babylonia re-
Hie Babylonia mained independent because of its close cultural and religious ties to As-
Dilemma syria. This situation soon changed, however. When King Nabu-nasir of
Assyria could not treat Babylonia Babylon died in 734 B.C., an Aramaean leader seized the throne. Tiglath-
like other kingdoms that it con- pileser went to war against Babylonia. The Assyrians emerged victorious
quered. The historical, ethnic, reli-
gious, and cultural ties between 1
in 729 B.C., and Tiglath-pileser named himself king of Babylonia, thus
two societies were much too breaking the established pattern and linking the two kingdoms under a
strong* Babylonia was an older civi- dual monarchy.
lization than Assyria, and the Baby- In 726 B.C., on the death of Tiglath-pileser III, his son SHALMANESER V
lonians would not accept an inferiori took the throne. Shalmaneser V ruled for only five years. Although little is
status. For their part, the Assyrians
respected Babylonian culture and
known of his reign, he began the siege of Samaria, which was successfully
traditions and felt uneasy about ex completed in 722 B.C. by his successor, SARGON II (ruled 721-705 B.C.). Sar-
ploitSng their southern neighbors. gon broke apart the state of Israel and deported its population to north
Throughout most of Assyrian his- Syria, replacing it with peoples from other parts of the empire. He also
tory, the Assyrians were content to launched a number of military campaigns to put down rebellions and
tet Babylonia go its own way as conquer new territory. He defeated a rebellion in Syria in 720 B.C., de-
long as it did not threaten Assyria
In one of the strange quirks of his-
fended territory in Anatolia against King Midas, of Phrygia, conquered
tory, however, after almost 1,000 new territories in Iran, and defeated the kingdom of Urartu in one of the
years of trying to resolve this most crucial wars of his reign.
dilemma, the Assyrian empire Sargon II also faced problems in Babylonia. After the death of
ended by falling into the hands Tiglath-pileser III, a Chaldean prince had seized the Babylonian kingship
of Babylonia.
from the Assyrians. For the next 30 years, the Assyrians vied with the
Chaldeans and their Elamite allies for control of the Babylonian throne.
Sargon II regained control of Babylonia in 707 B.C., but the matter was
settled only temporarily.
In the midst of these conflicts, Sargon began to build a new capital,
Dur-Sharrukin, at a site near present-day Khorsabad in Iraq. Despite ten
years of labor by thousands of workers and artisans, the capital was never
finished.
Killed in battle while campaigning in Anatolia, Sargon II was suc-
ceeded by his son SENNACHERIB (ruled 704-681 B.C.). A clever and talented
89
Assyria and the Assyrians
ruler, Sennacherib continued the traditional Assyrian policies of conquest
and putting down rebellions.
Sennacherib's main concern was Babylonia, which rebelled against
Assyria in 703 B.C. He defeated the Babylonians and put his oldest son on
the Babylonian throne in 699 B.C. Five years later, the Babylonians
handed their Assyrian king over to the Elamites, their allies and neigh-
bors to the east. Sennacherib launched a merciless war against the
Elamites, and he punished Babylonia by conquering and destroying the
city of Babylon in 689 B.C.
Like his father, Sennacherib celebrated his conquests by building a
new capital. He chose to expand the ancient city of Nineveh. His building
projects were immense. To bring water to the city, he had his engineers
dig 16 new canals and build an aqueduct using 2 million stone blocks.

Neo-Assyria: Peak of Power and Swift Decline. The Assyrian em-

pire reached its height in the mid-600s B.C. under King ESARHADDON and
King ASHURBANIPAL. This period of greatness was brief, however, and the
decline that followed was swift. By the late 600s B.C. Assyria had ceased
to exist.
Esarhaddon, the son of Sennacherib, ruled Assyria from 680 to 669 B.C.
For his first act as king, he reversed his father's policy toward the Babyloni-
Kingly Trickery ans and established friendly relations with them. Then he rebuilt the city
Esarhaddon had a problem when of Babylon.
he decided to rebuild Babylon.
When Sennacherib destroyed the Peace with Babylonia allowed Esarhaddon to concentrate Assyrian
city, he based his act on the wishes military efforts elsewhere. In the northwest, he defended Assyrian terri-
of the gods. He said that Marduk, tory against the Cimmerians and Scythians, invaders from regions be-
chief god of Babylon, had become yond the Black Sea. He put down rebellions in Syria, but Elamite attacks
angry with the Babylonians and continued in the east. The greatest event of his reign was the conquest of
planned to desert the city for 70 Egypt, which began in 679 B.C. and ended with the capture of Memphis,
years. Esarhaddon could hardly re-
build the city before the time was the Egyptian capital, in 671 B.C.
up because Marduk% vow was writ* In 669 B.C., Esarhaddon became ill and died. Several years earlier, he
ten on a clay tablet However, by had arranged that his older son, Shamash-shum-ukin, would take the
turning that tablet upside down, throne of Babylonia, while his younger son, Ashurbanipal, would inherit
the symbol for the number 70 re- Assyria. This decision led to problems between the two kingdoms.
sembled the symbol for the num-
ber 11. In this way, the god's curse During the reign of Ashurbanipal (668-627 B.C.), Assyria faced serious
was fulfilled and Esarhaddon was challenges in both Egypt and Babylonia. After putting down two rebel-
$•• able to rebuild the city. lions in Egypt in the 660s B.C., Ashurbanipal appointed a local prince,
Psamtik I, as its provincial ruler. Psamtik launched his own rebellion in
653 B.C. and forced the Assyrians out of Egypt, ending their control of
that land.
An even more serious rebellion occurred in Babylonia in 652 B.C. Led
by Ashurbanipal's half brother, Shamash-shum-ukin, the uprising in-
cluded Elamites, Arabs, Aramaeans, and other groups that had grown
weary of Assyrian rule. Assyria defeated Babylonia after several years of
warfare, and Ashurbanipal punished the groups that had sided with his
brother.
In the last years of Ashurbanipal's reign, civil war broke out as his two
sons struggled for power. This conflict seriously weakened Assyria and
left it vulnerable to its enemies. In 626 B.C., the Babylonians revolted and
under their new leader, Nabopolassar, forced out the Assyrians. The most
90
 Assyria and the Assyrians
serious threat to Assyria, however, came from the east. In 615 B.C., the
MEDES suddenly attacked Assyrian provinces in the east; the following
year, they captured the old capital of Ashur. There the Medes joined
forces with the Babylonians, and in 612 B.C., Nineveh fell to their com-
bined forces.
With the help of his Egyptian allies, Ashur-uballit II, a military
commander in north Syria who became king there in 611 B.C., tried to
defend the Assyrian stronghold at Harran. In 610 B.C., armies of the
Medes and Babylonians crushed the Assyrians and captured the last As-
syrian strongholds. Some army units continued to fight, but their de-
feat in 609 B.C. marked the end of Assyria. Its lands were divided among
the victors.

GOVERNMENT
Assyria had an absolute monarchy; that is, the king held supreme power.
In addition to their role as head of government, Assyrian kings served as
Assyrian Roads commander in chief of the army, chief lawmaker, and head priest of the
Roads played an important role in Assyrian religion. A unique feature of Assyria was its militarism. The army
the administration of the Assyrian
empire. In general, most roads
played a major role in the empire. By linking government so closely with
were little more than dirt trails. the military, the Assyrians ensured that government decisions were
There was, however, a system of backed by irresistible might.
royal roads that were kept in good Assyria did not have any type of representative assembly. The only
repair for use by royal messengers. check on the king's authority was the Assyrian nobility, and Assyrian
These roads had series of relay sta-
kings kept nobles content by granting them certain privileges and ap-
tions where messengers could get
fresh horses. Travel along the royal pointing them to high administrative offices. To help run the empire, the
roads could be difficult and danger- king relied on these appointed officials as well as on a large number of
ous since certain people had an scribes, tax collectors, and others. Because few Assyrian kings or nobles
interest in intercepting royal com* could read or write, scribes had a great deal of influence in the running of
munications. Nevertheless, the state affairs.
roads enabled Assyrian kings to
maintain steady and reliable con-
The Assyrian homeland was divided into various cities and rural dis-
tact with the far reaches of their tricts. The residents of some of the older cities, such as Ashur and Nin-
realm. The royal roads also pro- eveh, often had special privileges, including lower taxes, freedom from
vided relatively fast routes for military service, and a significant amount of self-government. The rural
Assyrian armies. areas were controlled by local lords, who had to pay taxes to the central
government and supply soldiers for the Assyrian armies.
Beyond the Assyrian homeland were the provinces and territories.
Ruled by governors and local rulers, these areas had to pay either tribute
or taxes to the government. Often the men of conquered territories were
incorporated into the Assyrian army and stationed in provinces far from
* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, their homes. The increasing number of foreigners and mercenaries* in
often for a foreign country the Assyrian army eventually contributed to the weakening and down-
fall of the empire, because these individuals were not as loyal as native
Assyrians.
Assyria preferred to control foreign territory through diplomatic
means, such as treaties and loyalty oaths. The policy of scattering con-
quered peoples throughout the empire helped maintain order as well.
When necessary, Assyrian kings used threats and force to keep provinces
and territories in line. In general, though, provincial governors were
91
Assyria and the Assyrians
given a great deal of freedom—another factor that contributed to the
empire's eventual collapse.

ECONOMY AND TRADE

The economy of the Assyrian empire was based on agriculture, livestock
raising, and trade. Assyrian agriculture, like that of other civilizations in
the ancient Near East, centered on the growing of grains, fruits, and veg-
etables. Livestock provided meat, cheese, milk, and butter. As the empire
grew, laborers from conquered populations were often brought to the As-
syrian homeland and provinces to work on farming estates, helping to
expand agricultural production.
In the early years of the kingdom, the Assyrians made treaties with
other peoples to ensure a steady flow of trade goods. They developed an
extensive trading network, exporting agricultural products and textiles.
In exchange, they imported lumber, stone, precious metals such as gold
and silver, other metals such as tin and copper (both used to make
bronze), and luxury items. One factor in the expansion of the Assyrian
empire was the desire to protect existing trade routes and gain control
of others.

SOCIETY AND RELIGION

Most city residents were merchants, craft workers, scribes, members of
the bureaucracy, or servants. Rural areas were inhabited by peasant farm-
Appealing ers and farm laborers. Assyrian society was organized into different social
to the Cod classes. Because of the importance of the military, social status was often
Archaeologists have discov- linked to military rank. The chief officers of the army generally came
ered many clay tablets record-
ing statements made by Assyrian
from noble Assyrian families, while the lower ranks were usually filled by
kings. One reveals Sargon II explain- peasants. Slaves occupied the lowest position in Assyrian society.
ing the connection between con- Assyria had a male-dominated society. Assyrian men made all impor-
quest and the god Ashur; tant decisions for their families, including arranging the marriages of
I, Sargon, king of the four quar- their children. Most women were married off as teenagers, usually to
tersf shepherd of Assyria,.. the older men. The basic role of married women was to care for their hus-
true king, who speaks only good bands, children, and homes. They had little power and few responsibili-
things.,. [prayed to Ashur] to ties outside the home. Widows with young children sometimes had the
bring about his [Ursa of Urartu]
overthrow in battle.... Ashur freedom to continue their husbands' businesses and rule the households.
my lord heard my words of They lost all such rights when they remarried or when their children
righteousness. They pleased reached adulthood.
him. He inclined to my just The Assyrians worshiped many gods, though the chief god was
prayer. He agreed to my Ashur. In addition to worshiping some gods publicly, Assyrian families
request.
usually adopted one god as a ''family god" whom they worshiped pri-
vately at home.
The religious beliefs of both the Assyrians and the Babylonians had
their origins in the religion of the earlier Sumerians. The differences that
developed reflected efforts by the Assyrians and Babylonians to reshape
religious ideas to their own heritage and needs. In Assyria, the king
served as the chief priest, and people believed that he was the god Ashur's
92
 Astrology and Astrologers
representative on earth. Conquests were made in Ashur's name, and their
success demonstrated the god's approval.
All Assyrian cities had temples to various gods, and each temple had
priests to carry out religious ceremonies. Many religious festivals were
tied to changes in seasons and to agricultural cycles of planting and har-
* divination art or practice of foretelling vesting. The Assyrians also believed in MAGIC, prophecies, divination*,
the future and OMENS based on such things as the movements of the stars.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The most important buildings in ancient Assyria were PALACES AND TEM-
PLES. Assyrian palaces were large and complex buildings with thick exte-
rior walls and a maze of interior rooms, corridors, and courtyards. Like
most buildings in Assyria, palaces were generally only one story high.
Official chambers of state, such as the throne room, occupied a central
position. Though much smaller than palaces, Assyrian temples also were
impressive. Many had interior courtyards surrounded by rooms and cor-
ridors, and some were built on several levels. Altars and shrines were
placed in both courtyards and rooms within the temple. Most Assyrian
cities had a temple that stood on a multistory tower called a ZIGGURAT.
Temples and palaces, as well as private buildings throughout Assyria,
were made of baked or sun-dried bricks.
Most art in Assyria was sponsored by the state, and its subject matter
usually concerned the activities of kings. Lining the interior and exterior
* fresco method of painting in which walls of palaces were painted frescoes*, scenes in colorful ceramic tiles,
color is applied to moist plaster so that and painted stone BAS-RELIEFS depicting religious ceremonies and kings
it becomes chemically bonded to the taking part in wars, hunting, feasting, and other activities.
plaster as it dries; also, a painting done
in this manner
The bas-reliefs created by the Assyrians were the most magnificent of
the ancient world. Lions, bulls, horses, winged beasts, and other animals
appeared in striking detail. People were depicted as powerful figures in re-
alistically rendered scenes.
The Assyrians also created magnificent JEWELRY of gold, silver, IVORY,
and precious stones. Stone stamp and cylinder SEALS also show a high
degree of artistic skill and craftsmanship. (See also Babylonia and the
Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans; Cities and City-States;
Economy and Trade; Egypt and the Egyptians; Elam and the
Elamites; Ethnic and Language Groups; Family and Social Life; King
Lists; Phrygia and the Phrygians; Social Institutions; Wall Paintings;
Women, Role of.)

ASTROLOGY AND
A strology is the interpretation of the movement and relationships of
the sun, moon, visible planets, and stars in order to predict human
affairs and events. Astrology originated in MESOPOTAMIA. The first clear
ASTROLOGERS records of the careful study of the heavens date from about 1700 B.C., but
the science probably began sometime in the third millennium B.C.*
From Mesopotamia, astrology spread to Egypt and throughout the Near
East. The Egyptians were probably responsible for the transmission of
93
Astrology and Astrologers
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 astrology to the Greeks, who in turn transmitted it to the West. How-
to 2001 B.C. ever, the Babylonians were considered the masters of this science. In-
deed, Babylonian priests continued their study of the skies until about
A.D. 100.

Omens From the Heavens. The earliest Babylonian astrologers were

concerned almost exclusively with solar and lunar eclipses. They saw
these as OMENS, or signs of significant events—a great flood, the death or
birth of a king, the destruction of an enemy. These beliefs were based on
experience. If a king had once died soon after an eclipse, other eclipses
were thought to foretell (or cause) the reigning king's death too. Under-
lying these findings were Babylonians' religious beliefs. The gods, they
thought, controlled the objects in the skies and thus controlled the lives
of the kings.
Eventually astrologers studied other patterns they saw in the sky.
They recorded the movements of the sun and moon, the planets, and the
The Solar System stars. They also charted the phases of the moon. After carefully writing
The Babylonians identified the five
planets that can be seen with the
down this data, they used mathematics to calculate relative distances, in-
eye alone—Mars, Venus, Mercury, cluding when certain bodies were in conjunction with, or looked to be
Saturn, and Jupiter. For many cen- near, other bodies.
turies, these people did not believe All of this information was stored on CLAY TABLETS. Among them is a
that Earth was also a planet. More- series of 70 tablets called Enuma Ann EnliL They explain omens in
over, they thought that the sun, terms of ''cosmic designs" or "plans of heaven and earth." The tablets
moon, stars, and planets all re-
volved around Earth. In about the
are divided into four sections, each devoted to one of the chief gods—
200s B.C, some Babylonian thinkers • Sin, the moon; Shamash, the sun; ADAD, the weather god; and ISHTAR,
wrote that the sun was the center linked to the planet Venus, who was in charge of the planets and the
of the solar system and that Earth stars. A solar eclipse was a sign of Shamash;s anger. Thunder, lightning,
was also a planet. This idea was re- and earthquakes were likewise signs of the appearance of Adad.
jected by the Greek philosopher
and scientist Aristotle as well as
Atrologers referred to their tables to inform the king of impending
other Greek thinkers. The idea of an events and favorable times for such things as military activities—going
Earth-centered solar system favored to war, for example—and spiritual ones, such as sacrificing animals to
by the Greeks was adopted by the gods.
other European thinkers. One rea- Omens were phrased in "if... then" form. For example: if a partial
son was that this view was ap- eclipse covers the right side of the sun or moon, then there will be a flood.
proved by the Roman Catholic
Church, which dominated Western
Eclipses in the lower part of the sun or moon predicted trouble for the
thinking for many centuries. Not people who lived to the south. Eclipses in the upper part meant problems
until the A.D. 1500s did Copernicus for those living to the north. Astrologers also prepared for omens that
propose that Earth, like the other they had never seen. The fact that something had not yet happened, they
planets, revolves around the sun. reasoned, did not mean that it may not happen sometime in the future.
One omen begins, "If the sun shines at midnight "
Though omens predicted dire events, determined rulers could find
ways around them. In the seventh year of the reign of King ESARHADDON
of Assyria, there was a total eclipse of the moon. The message was clear—
the king would die. Esarhaddon used a trick to allow the predicted event
to come true and save his own life at the same time. He made use of the
substitute-king ritual, in which he took the place of a farmer while a
substitute took his place as king. After ruling for a brief period, the sub-
stitute king was killed, fulfilling the omen, and Esarhaddon resumed his
throne. During Esarhaddon's reign, there were more than a dozen lunar
and solar eclipses. He may have used the substitute-king ritual as many
94
 Astronomy and Astronomers
as four times. All rulers were not as fortunate as Esarhaddon, however.
King Enlil-bani had tried it about 1,200 years before Esarhaddon, but he
actually died while living as a commoner, leaving the substitute to rule
in his place.

Horoscopes. Babylonian astrology changed with the advent of horo-

scopes and the ZODIAC after 600 B.C. The zodiac is an imaginary band
across the sky that shows the annual movements and locations of the
sun, moon, stars, and the five visible planets—Mars, Venus, Mercury,
Saturn, and Jupiter. This band is divided into 12 equal parts.
Referring to the zodiac, astrologers could determine exactly where
each planet and star was when a person was born. They used MATHEMATICS
to find the location of planets when they could not be seen, such as when
they were below the horizon. Astrologers constructed a horoscope, a map
of the heavens at the moment of the individual's birth. Then they inter-
preted what the map meant. The planets—and the gods associated with
them—that were in influential positions at that person's birth would in-
fluence his or her life.
The development of horoscopes and the zodiac signaled a shift in
astrology. Unlike earlier times, when omens were interpreted only for
the king, astrologers began to draw horoscopes for individuals. The
signs associated with each of the 12 parts of the zodiac were developed
in the city of Uruk in the 100s B.C. These signs became popular symbols
on rings.
It is not known how often astrologers' predictions were correct. Quite
possibly, when something astrologers had prophesied did not occur, they
took another look at a horoscope and reinterpreted the information to
match what had actually taken place. Nevertheless, in a time when life
was difficult and full of the unexpected, astrology and horoscopes pro-
vided a kind of road map to the future.
The use of horoscopes developed in Babylon during the time of the
PERSIAN EMPIRE. That empire spread throughout the ancient Near East and
brought knowledge of astronomy to Egypt, Greece, and India. Greeks liv-
ing in Egypt and Anatolia (present-day Turkey) refined the understanding
of the zodiac even further. It is this tradition that people in the Western
world now follow—but that tradition is based on a foundation built in
Mesopotamia more than 4,000 years ago. (See also Astronomy and As-
tronomers; Oracles and Prophecy.)

ASTRONOMY AND
A stronomy is the branch of science that studies the motion and na-
ture of the sun, moon, stars, and planets. It is the oldest science, be-
gun by the Babylonians sometime before 3000 B.C. Year after year, century
after century, they studied the night sky. They carefully recorded their ob-
ASTRONOMERS servations of the locations of the sun, moon, stars, and planets and their
relationships to one another. Working with no scientific instruments,
only their eyes, brains, and imaginations, the Babylonians created a large
body of information.
95
Astronomy and Astronomers
Today people make a distinction between astronomy and astrology.
Astronomy is the science that studies objects in the sky. Astrology is a
popular but unscientific pursuit that tries to link people's characters and
lives to the influence of the stars and planets. In ancient times, though,
this distinction did not exist. Ancient astronomers studied the heavens to
learn how the objects there shaped people's lives.

Mesopotamia. The Babylonians, who lived in southern Mesopotamia,

studied the heavens at first to record unusual events that took place.
They were particularly concerned with eclipses, when the sun or the
moon is partly or fully covered by shadow. These events were considered
OMENS, or signs, of bad fortune that would strike the land. A full eclipse,
for instance, meant that the king would die.
Over time, the Babylonians compiled records of the moon's and sun's
behavior. They tracked the changing shape, or phases, of the moon and
its changing position in the night sky. They recorded the different lengths
of daylight during the course of the year. These two sets of data are com-
bined in the text Enuma Ann Enlil, which is named for the opening words
of the first tablet: "When Anu and Enlil." (ANU and ENLIL were important
gods in ancient Mesopotamia.) One of the 70 clay tablets that form this
record book allows users to compute how much of the moon will be seen
at night on any day of any month.
All this astronomical research was performed and controlled by
Remember: Hfercfe m mat! capital priests of Babylonian temples. These priests are thought to have named a
fefe$ M^$m&®& mMe$, $m# tfe
it^Mm%®avfWz «wm* wlf number of constellations as early as 3000 B.C. Over the next 2,500 years,
^^^Wfm^mfo^m^n they systematically recorded this—and other—information. Another
•^#&y.topl&*- tablet, called Three Stars Each, lists three stars that rise above the horizon
each month of the year. The stars were thought to follow paths that were
controlled by the gods Anu, Enlil, and EA. Other similar tablets have also
been found. Some include charts showing three circles, one inside the
other, each of which are divided. The circles have number values that can
be used to calculate the length of daylight and darkness on any day.
Another ancient text dates from the 600s B.C. Titled Plow Star, it sum-
marizes Babylonian astronomical knowledge of the time. Tablet I lists
when and where to find about 100 stars, along with their risings and set-
tings. Tablet II describes the path of the sun, moon, and known planets.
The Babylonians had identified five planets—Mars, Venus, Mercury, Sat-
urn, and Jupiter—all of which can be seen with the naked eye. The sec-
ond tablet also gives the times of the moon's risings and settings and
miscellaneous information on winds and shadows. This tablet further in-
cludes listings of omens, the unusual events that had, perhaps, first led
the Babylonians to study the heavens.
The Babylonians had other kinds of astronomical records. Some,
called ephemerides, contain detailed information on the positions of plan-
ets and stars. The information is presented in tables, and calculations re-
veal Babylonian MATHEMATICS. Almanacs track the location of planets in
the ZODIAC, an imaginary 12-part division of the sky that came into use af-
ter 600 B.C. Astronomical diaries record observations made of the sun,
moon, stars, and planets over six- or seven-month periods. These may
have been the raw data for other records.
96
 Aten
Egypt. The Egyptians also studied the heavens, although far fewer
sources have survived from their work. As a result, it is difficult for schol-
ars to say exactly how much they knew.
Star maps have been found decorating coffins from the Middle King-
dom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.) and the ceilings of some royal tombs from the
New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). However, these charts do not seem to
match the appearance of any actual stars. Some scholars, as a result, dis-
miss them as fanciful. The fact that these maps do not reflect reality, oth
ers say, may not mean that Egyptians had no knowledge of the stars and
planets. These scholars point out that Egyptian art was often symbolic.
Ancient Greek writers commented on how much they learned of as-
tronomy by studying with Egyptians. Much of this knowledge, however,
was not Egyptian in origin but was adopted by the Egyptians from the
Babylonians. The full picture of Egyptian astronomy is not yet under-
stood. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Babylonia and the Babylo-
nians; Calendars.)

ATEN
A ten (AH»tuhn) was an ancient Egyptian god who was elevated
briefly to the status of supreme god by the pharaoh AKHENATEN, who
ruled from about 1353 to 1336 B.C. In his role as supreme god, Aten w
depicted as a disk that represented the sun. Rays ending in hands le
downward from the bottom half of the disk.
Aten had probably existed for centuries as one of many lesser Egypt-
ian gods. By about 1400 B.C., however, Aten had become one of
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt the more important Egyptian gods. At about that time, the pharaoh*
* monotheism belief in only one god Amenhotep III, Akhenaten's father, established a priesthood and temple
* cult formal religious worship for Aten.
Soon after Akhenaten became pharaoh, he promoted Aten to the sta-
tus of supreme god of Egypt. In fact, he attempted to make Aten the only
god, and some scholars argue that his worship was the earliest example of
monotheism* in the ancient Near East. It is still not clear why Akhenaten
took these steps. He may have wanted to break the power of the priests of
Hymn to Aten AMUN, another important god, or he may have tried to reduce the impor-
The Hymn to Aten begins with
tance of the priests who worshiped OSIRIS.
these stirring words of praise Whatever the cause, Akhenaten moved aggressively to discredit all
for the god: the other gods, to erase all traces of Egyptian mythology, and to exalt
Let your holy Light shine from Aten. He tried to destroy all images and writings of the name Amun. He
the height of heaven, built several temples to Aten, including one at the new city of AKHETATEN,
0 living Aten, present-day Amarna, which Akhenaten made the new religious and po-
source of all life! litical capital of Egypt. He required anyone who held high political office
From eastern horizon risen and
to follow the cult* of Aten, and many followers chose names associated
streaming,
you have flooded the with Aten.
world with your beauty. Much of what is known about the Aten cult comes from the Hymn to
You are majestic, awesome, be- Aten, which was inscribed in tombs at Amarna. The hymn describes Aten
dazzling, exalted, overlord over as the creator of all life and Akhenaten and his wife, NEFERTITI, as the only
all earth. people who could understand and communicate with the god. Appar-
ently, direct access to the god was prohibited to all except the two rulers.
97
Athaliah

In addition, Aten's wishes for the Egyptian people supposedly were

expressed only through the orders of Akhenaten and Nefertiti.
Despite Akhenaten's efforts, the worship of Aten never took hold.
Priests were appalled by the attacks against their gods and resented their
loss of power and prestige. The common people were unwilling to shake
their centuries-old beliefs in Amun, Osiris, and other gods. Once Akhen-
aten died, the cult of Aten was rejected, the temples to Aten were de-
* pantheon all the gods of a particular stroyed, and Aten once again became just a minor god in the Egyptian
culture pantheon*. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians.)

ATHALIAH
T he only woman ever to rule the kingdom of Judah, Athaliah
(a«thuh«LY«uh) was the sister of King AHAB of Israel. Most of what is
known about her comes from the Hebrew Bible. An ambitious woman,
she murdered her own grandchildren to gain control of the throne.
Athaliah was married to King Jehoram of Judah, probably to secure a
ruled ca. 841-835 B.C. political alliance between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. When Jeho-
Queen of Judah ram became ill and died at age 38, their son Ahaziah took the throne.
During the first year of his reign, Ahaziah was murdered while visiting Is-
rael. When Athaliah learned of her son's death, she acted quickly to seize
the throne for herself. She killed all the heirs to the throne—her own
grandchildren—except for one infant grandson, Joash, who was hidden
from her in the great Temple of JERUSALEM.
Athaliah ruled Judah for seven years, during which she encouraged
the worship of BAAL and other gods. Throughout that time, Joash re-
mained protected from her in the temple. In the seventh year of
Athaliah's reign, the high priest of Jerusalem, with the help of the mili-
tary, proclaimed Joash king and had him crowned. A celebration was held
at the temple, and when Athaliah came to see what was happening, sol-
diers seized and killed her.
The people of Jerusalem rejoiced at Athaliah's death. They destroyed
altars to Baal and returned to the worship of YAHWEH. (See also Bible, He-
brew; Israel and Judah.)

M Sfear
any gods named Baal (BAH»uhl) were worshiped in the ancient
East. Baal, which means "lord" or "owner/' was the storm
BAAL god and was also associated with agriculture and fertility. Other names,
such as Adad, Hadad, or Addu, were used for this god. The ancient
Canaanites considered Baal to be one of their chief deities* because of his
role in bringing rains to nourish the land and allow crops to grow.
* deity god or goddess Baal appears as a major character in the mythology of the Canaanites
and their neighbors. The BAAL CYCLE is a series of myths that tell the story
of Baal and other Canaanite gods. In this story, Baal is killed by Mot, the
god of death, and then resurrected by ANAT, his sister and wife. The story
reflects Canaanite beliefs about the cycle of death and life.
98
 Baal Cycle

The cult of Baal played an important role in the history of the Is-
raelites during the kingdoms of ISRAEL AND JUDAH. Temples to the god were
built in both kingdoms, and many localities added the word Baal to their
names to indicate their devotion to the god. At one time, Baal and the Is-
raelite god YAHWEH were worshiped in the same region. However, efforts
to introduce a stronger cult of Baal into Israel in the 800s B.C. led to in-
creasing opposition. Eventually, Baal worship was eliminated in the two
kingdoms.
During the time of the HYKSOS, worship of Baal was introduced into
Egypt. The god became very popular there and was often associated
with the Egyptian god SETH. Baal was also an important god to the
Phoenicians. The ARAMAEANS introduced Baal to the Greeks, who called
him Belos. Most ancient art that depicts Baal shows him with a pointed
beard and horned helmet. Images of a golden calf were often associated
* cult system of religious beliefs and with Baal cults*. (See also Adad; Ahab; Athaliah; Gods and Goddesses;
rituals; group following these beliefs Mythology.)

BAAL CYCLE
T he story of the Canaanite god BAAL and of other deities* is told in a
series of myths called the Baal Cycle. The main source of these
myths is a collection of six CLAY TABLETS, dating from the 1300s B.C. They
were uncovered just to the north of Canaan in the ancient city of UGARIT
(present-day Ras Shamra in northern Syria). The central story of the
myths tells of Baal's struggle with other gods, his death, and his resurrec-
* deity god or goddess tion. Baal was a storm god and a fertility god, and his death and resurrec-
tion represented the cycle of agricultural life.
In these myths, Baal is the son of EL. His sister, who is also his wife, is
ANAT. The story begins with El proclaiming that the sea god Yamm is king
of the gods. Baal battles Yamm for the kingship and defeats him. To show
his power, Baal rides the clouds and sends lightning, thunder, and rains
to the earth. He then builds a palace greater than those of the other gods.
Soon after Baal builds his palace, his kingship is threatened by Mot,
the god of death. When the two gods struggle, Baal is killed and sent to
* famine severe lack of food due to failed the underworld. While he is there, the earth suffers from famine* and
crops drought*. Anat begs Mot for Baal's release, and when Mot refuses, Anat
* drought long period of dry weather subdues him. El dreams that the heavens rain oil and the land flows with
during which crop yields are lower than honey, signs that Baal has returned to life. Baal reappears and rules again.
usual Seven years later, Mot himself returns to life, and he and Baal fight
once again. This time Mot fails to defeat Baal, and he is forced to ac-
knowledge Baal's kingship. Baal, however, cannot defeat Mot either be-
cause death, says the myth, cannot be overcome. Baal's rule is established,
but the myth clearly puts limits on the power of kingship.
The Baal Cycle presents a complex picture of the gods and reflects an-
cient ideas about kingship, power, life and death, human beings as well as
nature, and the struggles for power among the gods. A number of the
themes and images in the myths are similar to those found in other an-
cient works, including the Hebrew Bible. (See also Bible, Hebrew; Epic
Literature; Mythology.)
99
Babylon

BABYLON
B abylon (BA»bi»luhn) was a city in MESOPOTAMIA, located south of
the present-day city of Baghdad, Iraq. One of the most important
cities of the ancient world, Babylon gave its name to an entire region—
Babylonia in southern Mesopotamia—and to the great empires that
flourished there. Scholars have pieced together the city's history from
Near Eastern tablets and inscriptions, the Hebrew Bible, and the writings
of Greek historians. The remnants of impressive structures and magnifi-
cent artworks found in the ruins of Babylon have also provided valuable
insights.

Role in History. Babylon first became significant in the historical

record of Mesopotamia in the 2300s and 2200s B.C., long after other
cities had developed in the region. Its earliest residents were Akkadians,
* city-state independent state consisting whose civilization had flourished in Mesopotamian city-states* for hun-
of a city and its surrounding territory dreds of years. The Akkadians referred to the city as Bab-ilim, "gate of
* nomadic referring to people who travel god." The name Babylon comes from the Greek pronunciation of Babel,
from place to place to find food and as the city is called in the Hebrew Bible.
pasture In about 1894 B.C., King Sumu-abum came to power in Babylon. He
* dynasty succession of rulers from the may have been a tribal leader among the AMORITES, a nomadic* people
same family or group who had risen to power in many parts of Mesopotamia. Sumu-abum
* deity god or goddess founded a dynasty* that ruled Babylon as it rose to greatness. From his
reign onward, Babylon was recognized as a joining of two groups—the
Akkadians and the Amorites.
The first major expansion of Babylon came under King HAMMURABI. In
Piecing Together a series of conquests, he brought more cities and kingdoms under his
the Puzzle rule, until Babylon became the capital of a powerful empire (the Old
Babylonian empire) that extended from IRAN in the east to SYRIA in the
Archaeologists have been
unable to reach precise con-
west. Babylon was this empire's cultural and political center.
clusions about many features The Old Babylonian empire lost territory and power in the years after
of ancient Babylon. Their work : Hammurabi. In about 1595 B.C., HITTITES from central ANATOLIA (present-
has been hampered by four day Turkey) raided Babylon, and soon afterward another group, the KAS-
problems. First, ancient written SITES, conquered the land. The Kassites ruled for more than 400 years,
records are not always reliable. The
legendary Hanging Gardens, for in-
during which Babylon was the most important city. The city's god, MAR-
stance, may not have been from DUK, became Mesopotamia's supreme deity*. The Kassite dynasty ended
Babylon at all but may have been in about 1158 B.C., when invaders from Elam in the east raided the city
built in Nineveh. All references to and carried off many of its monuments to their capital, Susa, in present-
this structure date from after the col- day Iran.
lapse of the Neo-Babylonian empire.
For the next several centuries, Babylonians struggled with Assyrians,
Second, Nebuchadnezzar ll's re-
building destroyed much evidence
who ruled northern Mesopotamia, for control of the city and region. The
of the older city. High levels of Assyrians conquered the city in 729 B.C., and 30 years later, the Assyrian
groundwater were a third problem; king SENNACHERIB burned the city. Another Assyrian king later rebuilt it.
they prevented archaeologists from A new line of kings wrested control of Babylonia from the Assyrians
digging too deeply in some areas. in 626 B.C., and soon Babylon became the dazzling capital of the Neo-
Finally, there is the problem of loot-
ing. In the A.D. 1800$ and early
Babylonian empire. Later, during his 42-year reign, King NEBUCHADNEZZAR II
1900s, when excavations began, built fortifications, palaces, temples, and monuments in the city. Despite
digging yielded bricks and clay its splendors, though, Babylon fell quickly to the Persian army of CYRUS
tablets that local peoples—and THE GREAT, in 539 B.C. It remained in Persian hands until 331 B.C., when it
Western collectors—took for surrendered to the Macedonian ruler ALEXANDER THE GREAT, who died in
themselves.
Babylon. The city gradually declined in importance and was finally aban-
doned after the A.D. 600s.
100
 Babylon
Physical Features. For many centuries, Babylon stood on the fertile
banks of the EUPHRATES RIVER. When the great river shifted its course away
See map in Babylonia and the from the city Babylon still sat on a branch of the Euphrates. There is lit-
Babylonians (vol. 1). tle evidence of what the city looked like in the time of the Old Babylon-
ian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.), when it was Hammurabi's capital.
Researchers know quite a bit more about the Babylon of the Neo-
Babylonian empire (612-539 B.C.). At that time, the city was very large,
and about 11 miles of outer walls enclosed the city and outlying areas. At
the extreme north of the area included in these walls was a large summer
palace that Nebuchadnezzar II built.
A set of inner walls contained the center of the city, which sat on both
sides of the Euphrates. The eastern section was larger than the western
section, and a bridge connected the two parts. The inner walls were bro-
ken by eight gates. Most impressive was the huge gate dedicated to the
goddess ISHTAR. The Gate of Ishtar was built of brick and ornamented with
blue tiles and colored figures of bulls and dragons.
The Gate of Ishtar opened to a wide avenue called the Processional
Way, which was also decorated with colored figures of lions. This road led
* cult formal religious worship south from the gate to the temple of the cult* of Marduk. This temple,
which may have stood on a stepped pyramid tower called a ZIGGURAT, was
300 feet long on each side and rose to about 300 feet in height. Ham-
murabi built the original structure, and Nebuchadnezzar II restored it
more than 1,000 years later. This temple may have been the Tower of Ba-
bel described in the Hebrew Bible.
See Each spring, during the 12-day celebration of the Mesopotamian New
color plate 3, Year, a statue of Marduk was taken from the temple along the Proces-
vol.3.
sional Way to another temple north of the Gate of Ishtar. During the fes-
tival, the king dedicated himself to Marduk to ensure the continuing
success of the city and its people.
Another impressive structure was built west and south of the Proces-
sional Way, nearer to the Gate of Ishtar than Marduk's temple. This was
* archaeologist scientist who studies past the palace that archaeologists* call the Southern Citadel or the Southern
human cultures, usually by excavating Palace. It had five courtyards, a central throne room, and dozens of
material remains of human activity smaller rooms. King Nebuchadnezzar II called it "the marvel of mankind,
the center of the land, the shining residence, the dwelling of majesty/'

The Processional Way was a stone- and

brick-paved thoroughfare between Baby-
lon's Gate of Ishtar and the temple of
Marduk. It has been estimated that 120
enameled brick lions, such as the one
shown here, lined the walls of the avenue.
The walls were also lined with reliefs of
bulls and horned dragons in low relief.

101
Babylonia and the Babylonians

The ancient city was also famous for another structure—the beautiful
HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON. This series of tree-covered terraces is said to
have been built by a Babylonian king for a wife who missed the green
hills of her homeland. No ruins found in Babylon have been definitely
identified as the remains of these famed gardens, however. (See also Baby-
lonia and the Babylonians; Bible, Hebrew.)

BABYLONIA AND B abylonia (ba»buh«LOH«nee«uh) was one of the leading powers of

MESOPOTAMIA, and the Babylonian civilization produced some of the
ancient world's greatest achievements in LAW, LITERATURE, and MATHEMATICS.
THE BABYLONIANS Like other kingdoms of the ancient world, Babylonia was not a clearly de-
fined state with fixed borders. Moreover, the Babylonians were not a sin-
gle people but rather a mixture of several different ethnic groups.
Babylonia was the kingdom that surrounded the city of BABYLON. At
times, it was a small realm, one among many competing states. Outside
powers sometimes dominated Babylonia for long periods. During other
periods, Babylonia extended its power and became a great empire. What-
ever its political fortunes, Babylonia played a key role in the cultural life
of the ancient Near East for several thousand years.

GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES

Mesopotamia is a general term for the land between and around the TIGRIS
RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER, which flow from northwest to southeast
through present-day Iraq. Babylonia arose in the southern part of
Mesopotamia. Its northern border lay at about the point where the two
rivers approach each other most closely, around the city of Sippar. In the
south, it extended to the point near the Persian Gulf where the two rivers
meet to form one.
Through this flat landscape, the great rivers flowed slowly. Rainfall
was scarce and uncertain. The hard, dry ground was unsuitable for farm-
ing during most of the year. Yet the soil was very fertile when wet. Once
people had mastered the use of IRRIGATION to carry river water into their
fields, they could practice large-scale AGRICULTURE. Crop surpluses sup-
ported a growing population and led to the organization of society into
* city-state independent state consisting city-states* and eventually kingdoms.
of a city and its surrounding territory The region did lack certain useful resources, especially metals, stone, gems,
and timber. The people of Babylonia could obtain such items only through
trade with other regions or through conquest. Southern Mesopotamia did
possess plenty of clay, which became the basic material for building in
Babylonia. People built cities, temples, ZIGGURATS, and palaces from sun-
dried bricks.

HISTORY
Between 2900 and 2000 B.C., two civilizations flourished in the region
that would later be known as Babylonia: Sumer in the south and Akkad in
the north. The Akkadian king SARGON I unified them into a single empire
102
 Babylonia and the Babylonians
* dynasty succession of rulers from the around 2334 B.C. Beginningin about B.C.,2112
a Sumerian dynasty*
same family or group based in the city-stateUR
of governedthe empire for about
a century.
Al-
though Babylon existedas a city-stateat leastas earlyas the Akkadian era,
it was not a particularly important one.
nomadic referring to people who travel Around 2000 B.C., whenUr was
suffering internal troubles,
a nomadic*
from place to place to find food and people called
AMORITES
the moved
SYRIA
eastward
intofrom
Mesopotamia.
pasture These hardy newcomers rose to power in the crumbling empire and
adopted much of the Sumerian andAkkadian cultural heritage. Soon
Amorite leaders took the thrones of many city-states.Babylonia's long
history of triumphs anddefeats began with the riseof one Amorite
* fortification structure built to dynasty. Historians generally divide that long history into three main
strengthen or protect against attack periods: the Old Babylonian empire (ca. B.C.),
1900-1600
the Middle
Babylonian empire (ca. 1600-1150 B.C.), and the Neo-Babylonian empire
(612-539B.C.).

The Old Babylonian Empire. In about B.C., a1894

new leader
named Sumu-abum became king of Babylon.He set about rebuilding the
city's fortifications*—a task that would also keep his successors
busy—
and ruled for about a dozen years.His successors
Sumula-El, Sabium,and
Apil-Sin defeated some nearby towns, KISH,
including
and occasionally
raided Larsa, one of the more powerful nearby city-states in southern
Mesopotamia.

103
Babylonia and the Babylonians

Sin-muballit, the fifth king of the dynasty, came to thethrone in

about 1812B.C. He workedto strengthen Babylon against itsneighbors:
Elam to the east, on the border ofpresent-day Iran; Larsa to the south;
and Ekallatumto the north. Sin-muballit's
HAMMURABIbecame
son king
of
Babylon in about B.C.Like
1792 his ancestors, Hammurabi built or re-
stored temples throughout the kingdomas a way of reinforcinghisclaim
to the throne.
Hammurabi carriedout atwo-stage programofconquest andexpan-
sion. First, he raided a number oftowns andcities. Then—afteryears
spent building and repairing temples, fortifications, and irrigation
stela stone slab or pillar that hasbeen canals—he defeatedthe major powersto thenorth, east,andsouthof
carved or engravedandservesas a Babylon. Now Hammurabi could rightly taketheancient title "kingof
monument; pi. stelae Sumer andAkkad."By the timehisreign B.C.,he
ended
hadinalso
1750
conquered MARI,a rival city-stateon the northern Euphrates.
The Old Babylonian empire reachedits height,intermsofterritory
and power, under Hammurabi. Heturned Babylonia into the dominant
force in the region between Iranand Assyria.Themost important monu-
ment that survives from Hammurabi's reignis acarved stone stela*
erected to mark one of his most impressive achievements: theCodeof
Hammurabi. This proclamation of the king'scommitment tojustice
listed the lawsof the kingdom.
After Hammurabi's death arebellion swept through Babylonia.The
king's son Samsu-iluna succeeded him to thethrone andcrushedthe re-
bellion. The uprisingwas the first ofmany moretocome, however, asign
that the empire Hammurabihad forgedwasbeginning fallapart.
to
Both internal decay and the pressureofforeign invasions playeda
role in the decline of the Old Babylonian empire. FirstBabylon lost
control of the southern city-states, URUKand
including
Larsa.Thenit
lost closer cities,NIPPUR
suchas and Isin.AsBabylonian territory dwin-
dled, so did the state's income.In the reign King
of Samsu-ditana, last
of his dynasty, Babylonia fellon hard times.Anindividual named Apil-
Ada wrote a touching appeal to the "god of myfather" inwords that
might have summed up the plight of the once great empire: "Whyare
you so unconcerned about me? . . .Think also offamily, my of those
old and young, then for their sake have mercy on me. Mayyour help
reach me."
Babylonia receivedno help.InB.C., HITTITES
about
an army1595
of
from central
ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey)swept down onBabylon and
carriedoff its treasures.The OldBabylonian empire wasover.

The "Dark Age" and the Middle Babylonian Empire.Some

torians describe the 150yearsafter the Hittite invasionas a"dark age"
because of the lackof written sources fromthe period.
We doknow,
however, that a nomadic peopleKASSITES,
called
probably
the originally
from Iran, had begun to move intoBabyloniaasearlyas thereignof
Hammurabi. They wereon the scene aftertheHittite raid
onBabylon.In
the power vacuum left by the collapse of the oldempire,Kassites
the
made themselvesthe new mastersofBabylonandmuchofformer its ter-
ritory. The southernmost partofBabylonia, known as theSealand,
re-
mained independent for another century or so, butbetween 1490 and
104
 Babylonia and the Babylonians
1465B.C., it, too, came underKassite rule.The age of the independent
city-states was at an end.
The Kassites established a dynasty that ruledin Babylonfor almost
450 years,from about 1595 until about B.C., making
1158it the longest-
ruling dynasty in the history of ancient Mesopotamia. They adopted the
customs of the Babylonian culture and appear to have been accepted by
the native population. The Kassites did, however, introduce a few new
cultural elements to Babylonia. Chief among these were large-scale horse
breeding and improved technologyfor chariotsand harnesses.
Historiansrefer to theKassite periodas the Middle Babylonian empire.
* bureaucracy system consisting of This was a centralized, well-organized state in which alarge bureaucracy*
officials and clerks who perform developed to collect taxes and keep records. During the Middle Babylon
government functions empire's long period of political stability,Babylonia's economyand cul-
ture flourished.The empire played an important rolein the international
relationsof theNearEast.
The Kassite dynasty was linked to the ruling dynastiesofEgyptand
the Hittite empire by marriages among the royal families and bytreaties.
It enjoyed good trade relations with Egypt. After Assyria roseto power
along the TigrisRiverin northern Mesopotamia B.C.,
inBabylo-
the 1300s
nia entered into diplomatic marriages and treaties with Assyrians the too.
There were occasional clashes betweenthe two powers, however.
War broke out between Babyloniaand AssyriainB.C.the late 1200s
The Assyrians conquered Babylon and held it for a fewyears. In the
1150sB.C., the Elamites from Babylonia's eastern border struck another
severe blow, invading the empire and raiding Babylon,itscapital. The
Kassite dynasty collapsed, and the Middle Babylonian empire cameto an
inglorious end.
Just as theKassites had risen to power in the chaos thatfollowed the
collapse of the Old Babylonian empire, a new dynasty seized the throne
after the Elamite raid.King NebuchadnezzarI of this dynasty from ruled
about 1126 to aboutB.C.1105 He won an important victory over Elam
and recaptureda statue
MARDUK,
of god of Babylon, that the Elamiteshad
carried off to their capital,Susa. Perhapsthe Babylonians viewed the re-
turn of the statue as a sign that order and power were restored. Less than
100 years later, however, the dynasty to which Nebuchadnezzar I be-
longed would end, and Babylonia would plunge again into turmoil.

Aramaeans and Assyrians. Nebuchadnezzar's successors had todeal

with invasionsfrom two sources.ARAMAEANS,
One was athenomadic
people who—like the Amorites 1,000 yearsearlier—migrated into
Syria
and Mesopotamia, probably from the hilly lands to the west. Aramaeans
raided the cities of the weakand disorganized Babylonians,andAra-
maean tribes settled in Babylonia. There they mixed with the native pop-
ulation of Sumerians and Akkadians, Amorites,and a people called
Chaldeans, who had settled along the southern coast ofBabylonia.
Babylonia's other enemy at this time was
Assyria.AlthoughAssyri-
the
ans alsosufferedfrom Aramaean invasions, some of the stronger Assyrian
kings won victories against them. Occasionally Assyriaand Babylonia
were allies againstthe Aramaeans,but oftenthe two wereat war as As-
syria sought to expand southward.King Tiglath-pileserAssyria,
I of who
105
Babylonia and the Babylonians

ruled from about 1114 to 1076

B.C.,conquered northernBabylonia,and
looted Babylon.
For several centuries, Babyloniawas the sceneof apower struggle be-
tween the Assyrians, Aramaeans,and Chaldeans. By theB.C.,
mid-700s
Assyria had built a strong and united empire thatstretchedfromIranto
Egypt. TheAssyrian
TIGLATH-PILESER
ruler, III,
set his sights
onBabylonia.
He declared war and emerged victorious B.C.
in Tiglath-pileser
729 III
named himself king of Babylonia. However, Babylonia proved hardto
govern, largely becauseofoppositiontoAssyrian rule.B.C.,
In
the689
As-
syrian king
SENNACHERIB punished Babylon for itsrebelliousness
by de-
stroying the city.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire. NABOPOLAS-

B.C.,
In a626
leader named
SAR—perhaps a Chaldeanfrom southernBabylonia—becameking of
Babylon. He not only drove the Assyriansout ofBabylonia, but in 612
B.C., he joined with
MEDES
thefrom Iran
to attack
and
NINEVEH,
overcome
the capital ofAssyria. Nabopolassarand hissuccessors thengovernedan
independent andpowerful Neo-Babylonian empire that included much
of Assyria'sformer territory.
Nabopolassar'sson NEBUCHADNEZZAR
and heir, II,reigned
for 42years,
just as Hammurabi had done duringthe OldBabylonian empire. Justas it
had under Hammurabi, Babylonia experienced political expansion and
culturalflowering under NebuchadnezzarII. Theking conquered smaller
states along the Mediterranean coast, including Judah.TheHebrew Bible
contains accountsofNebuchadnezzar's
JERUSALEM and
attacks
ofonthe
Judeans' removal to Babylon.
An intense concern for the pastwas a key featureofBabylonian cul-
ture during the time of the Neo-Babylonian empire. Itseems thatpeople
hungered for a linkto the greatnessof thepast. Kingsrebuiltoldtemples,
renewed old customs,and honored SCRIBES
ancient
wrote
Akka-
in
gods.
dian, sometimes even in Sumerian,andthey reworkedfrom textsthe
Kassite period.
The last native king of Babylonia,
NABONIDUS,cameto the thronein
556B.C.after a power struggle among Nebuchadnezzar'sdescendants. He
deity god or goddess tried to promote the worshipof theMesopotamian deities* Sin, Shamash,
andISHTAR, who had beenfavoredby the last Assyrianrulers.Thepriests
106
 Babylonia and the Babylonians

and supporters of Marduk, long considered the supreme god of Babylo-

nia, regarded this as a challenge. Their hostility may be one reason
Nabonidus spent ten years living in northern Arabia, leaving his son Bels-
hazzar in charge in Babylon. Nabonidus returned to Babylon in 543 B.C.,
only to spark even more heated religious quarrels.

The Persian and Macedonian Conquests. While Nabonidus was

having these troubles, the Persians were overthrowing the Medes and
gathering their strength in Iran. Led by CYRUS THE GREAT, the Persian
army swept into Babylonia in 539 B.C. After defeating the Babylonians
soundly in a major battle, the Persians took several cities without resis-
* exile permanent departure from one's tance. Cyrus sent Nabonidus into exile* and made the region part of his
homeland, either by force or voluntarily realm. The Neo-Babylonian empire, the last independent state to grow
out of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization, had ended.
The Persian conquest did not bring the widespread confusion that
had followed the collapses of earlier Babylonian empires. Babylonia re-
mained prosperous and productive, and life there went on much as it had
before, but under governors appointed by the Persian ruler. Babylonia be-
came a source of food for the PERSIAN EMPIRE and also a source of archers,
chariots, and horses for the Persian army.
In the late 330s B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of Macedonia, a region to
the north of Greece, went to war with the Persians. In 331 B.C., he gained
control of Babylonia and made Babylon one of the capitals of his Asian
lands. Alexander's successors governed Babylonia for several hundred
years, but the region would never again play a major role in history.

GOVERNMENT
The basic principle of Babylonian government was that the state was re-
sponsible for protecting the people from enemies and providing temples
for worship. In return, the people were responsible for supporting the state
through taxes paid in the form of goods, money, and labor. The Code of
Hammurabi reflected the understanding that the king was expected to en-
force justice and fairness, not to rule by whim or personal favor.
The Babylonian state and government changed over time. At the be-
ginning of the Old Babylonian period, the state was not so much an em-
pire as a kingdom. However, Hammurabi's northern conquests created a
true empire that included a number of formerly independent states and
peoples. Government grew more complex as a bureaucracy emerged to
carry out royal commands and responsibilities. This bureaucracy grew
even while the empire was losing territory and running out of money.
In these times of trouble, the Old Babylonian government issued
misharu. These royal orders were meant to halt economic or social decline
by restoring earlier, more stable conditions. Such orders canceled or
erased debts between private parties and debts owed to the state. No
quantity of misharu, however, could hold the first Babylonian empire
together.
Under the Kassite kings, the empire was divided into administrative
districts. Officials in each district were responsible for collecting taxes
and for supervising public works, such as the building or repair of canals
107
Babylonia and the Babylonians

and roads. Rural settlements paid taxes on grain, straw, wood, livestock,
and more. They also had to provide donkeys, wagons, and workers for the
administrators.
An efficient administrative system also developed within the Neo-
* tribute payment made by a smaller or Babylonian empire. Taxes and tributes* were very high—they had to be,
weaker party to a more powerful one, to support the military campaigns and ambitious building projects of
often under the threat of force Nebuchadnezzar II. Babylonia became quite wealthy, but violent quarrels
* regency form of government in which over the succession to the throne, the regency* of Belshazzar, and dis-
a regent rules in place of the rightful putes between the priests and the king showed how unstable the govern-
ruler, who is absent, too young, or ment had become during the last years of this dynasty.
otherwise unable to rule

ECONOMY, AGRICULTURE, AND TRADE

Economy and culture were closely linked in ancient Babylonia, where
writing originated as a way to keep track of goods and people. A great
many surviving Babylonian texts are concerned with trade, commerce,
debts, and property records.
Most people worked to produce, store, or distribute food. Although
Kassite Kudurrus agriculture was the region's main economic activity, Babylonia was in-
volved in a trade network even before the region's history began to be
Occasionally the Kassite kings
of the Middle Babylonian em-
set in writing. Initially, people exchanged goods such as seashells and
pire bought tracts of land and obsidian. This black glass formed by volcanic eruptions could be used
gave them to favored individuals in to make extremely sharp blades and knives. As city-states, kingdoms,
exchange for loyalty and service, and empires developed, the trade network broadened and grew more
These grants were marked by in- complex.
scribed pillars or boundary stones Babylonia's first role in this trade network was to provide food, espe-
called kudurrus. The inscriptions of-
fer insight into Babylonian thought
cially wheat and barley, from its fertile, irrigated fields. The organization
One calls down a curse on anyone of land into large estates led to efficient, large-scale production of grain,
rash enough to move the kudurru vegetables, dates, meat, wool, leather, and textiles, which could be ex-
or tamper with the land: changed for other necessary goods, such as metals and stones.
Marduk, the great lord.., shall The earliest merchants traded goods on behalf of priests or kings. By
place upon him starvation as a the time of the Old Babylonian empire, however, merchants were also
severe punishment... Cula undertaking trade expeditions for their own profit. All such trade activi-
[the goddess of medicine]...
shall place upon him a large
ties were supervised by a royal bureau. In fact, large cities, especially those
and persistent wound, which located along major land or water routes, had special organizations simi-
will not heal. As long as he lives lar to modern "port authorities" to regulate commerce and trade. They
he shall bathe in pus and blood, collected taxes, settled disputes between merchants, and sometimes even
as if in water. maintained offices or stations in foreign cities.
By the time of the Middle Babylonian empire certain patterns of trade
were well established. Babylonians imported metals, wood, and precious
stones. The Kassites' intensive trade with Egypt brought a great deal of
gold into Babylonia. Along with food, Babylonia exported horses, chari-
ots, high-quality textiles, and manufactured goods such as jewelry.

SOCIETY AND FAMILY

How the ancient Babylonians organized their family and social struc-
tures depended on where and how they lived. The people of the Old
Babylonian empire, like the people of Sumer and Akkad, lived in towns
and cities along rivers and canals. Their political and social ties grew first
108
 Babylonia and the Babylonians
out of membership in a community and second out of blood and marriage
relationships.
Settled communities were usually governed by assemblies of leading
men. Larger cities might be divided into districts or wards, which were
like small communities within cities. Ward officials issued warnings and
held hearings on such matters as buildings in danger of collapse. Resi-
dents of the ward were expected to be watchful for strangers and to report
suspicious activities to ward officials.
In contrast to urban dwellers, people who lived outside the cities
* clan group of people descended from a placed far more importance on clans* and tribal relationships. Nomadic
common ancestor or united by a and seminomadic peoples entered Babylonia from time to time and lived
common interest in the nonirrigated lands outside the settled cities and their surrounding
farms. These groups were governed by individual chiefs.
Beginning around 1500 B.C., Babylon and a few other major cities re-
mained quite large, but many midsized Babylonian cities and towns de-
creased in size. It is possible that soil exhaustion and water shortages
made it hard to support so many large concentrations of people. For
whatever reason, the main form of settlement outside the major cities be-
came the village, not the city. At the same time, tribal and clan identifica-
tions grew more important. As urbanism declined, the nomadic or
nonurban parts of the population became increasingly powerful.
Babylonian society was patriarchal, which meant that identity and
status came from the father's side of the family. A Babylonian was identi-
fied by a personal name followed by the father's name.

LANGUAGE
The Babylonian language underwent many changes between the time of
the kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad in the middle of the third millen-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 nium B.C.* and the Neo-Babylonian empire of the 500s B.C. The original
to 2001 B.C. language of the region was Sumerian. By the 2500s B.C., however, the
Akkadian language began to appear in texts. It was written with the
CUNEIFORM symbols that had been invented to write Sumerian.
At first Akkadian was the language of royal documents, inscriptions,
and literary works, but by the time of the Amorite invasions it had be-
come the standard language of Mesopotamia. After that time Akkadian
dialect regional form of a spoken developed into Assyrian dialects* in northern Mesopotamia and Baby-
language with distinct pronunciation, lonian ones in the south. Scribes in both Assyria and Babylonia com-
vocabulary, and grammar monly wrote learned texts and literary works in a form of Babylonian
that no one actually spoke. This literary language was deliberately old-
fashioned and contained remnants of much earlier Akkadian and even
Sumerian forms.
The Aramaean tribes that invaded Mesopotamia around 1000 B.C.
brought with them their Aramaic language, which they wrote on parch-
* parchment writing material made from ment* or papyrus*. Aramaic spread rapidly in Assyria, but Babylonia was
the skin of sheep or goats slower to adopt the language. One feature of the Neo-Babylonian empire
* papyrus writing material made by was its attachment to the Akkadian language and the cuneiform script.
pressing together thin strips of the inner Gradually, though, Aramaic replaced Akkadian in Babylonia, and by the
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri time of the Macedonian invasion in the 330s B.C., it had completely re-
placed Akkadian as the spoken language.
109
Babylonia and the Babylonians

RELIGION
See Like the ancient Sumerians before them, the Babylonians believed that
color plate 11 the world was affected by the actions of the gods. Worshiping the gods
vol.1.
was an important public act. Kings regarded it as their duty to build tem-
ples. These structures, and the priests who guided religious observance,
were supported by public funds as well as private donations.
The Babylonian deities were a blend of Sumerian and Akkadian fig-
ures that had originally represented different elements of nature. They
What's in a Name? became personified as male and female deities, involved in relationships
The people of the Middle Babylon- among themselves. For example, Sin (also called Nanna), the moon god,
ian empire lived in a world in which j
the king seemed remote and unap-
was the father of Shamash the sun god and Ishtar, or Inanna, the morn-
proachable. Babylon no longer ing and evening star. Each of the dozen or so major gods and goddesses
offered security against political was associated with a particular city. Together they all formed the na-
upheaval, poverty, or oppressive tional pantheon, or assembly of gods, of Babylonia.
forces. The literature of this period Among the key figures of the pantheon were ANU or Anum, the god
reflects doubt, uncertainty, and a of heaven; ENLIL, who separated heaven and earth and was the god of
longing for stability. So do persona
names. In the Kassite period, Baby- the city of Nippur; Enki, or EA, the god of freshwaters and patron of the
lonians began to have names that arts, crafts, and sciences; ADAD, the storm god; and Ninkhursag, the sister
carried a plea, such as "How have I or wife of Enlil who, with Enki, produced human beings. Marduk, the
sinned against God?" or "My bur- city god of Babylon, gained great importance in the national pantheon
den is crushing," One of the most after Babylon became an imperial capital. Cyrus the Great gained accep-
common names simply asked for
help: "Save me, O Marduk!"
tance in Babylon because he paid honor to Marduk, whom Nabonidus
had rejected.
Each Babylonian family honored one particular god. This "family
god" was supposed to provide for the family's daily needs and to protect
its interests with the other gods. Men and women identified themselves
as the servants of their chosen deities. The spirits of ancestors had a semi-
godlike status and could become family gods. People honored these an-
cestral spirits with special meals.

MYTHOLOGY AND LITERATURE

Babylonian literature drew on the ancient mythology of the Sumerians.
Literature flourished in the Old Babylonian empire between 1900 and
1600 B.C., with works that were fresh, lively, and original. After 1600 B.C.,
there was less originality, and many literary works were revisions or stud-
ies of past writings. The foremost work of the later Babylonian period is
Enuma Elish, or the Epic of Creation, first written down around 900 B.C. It
used the same basic story elements as earlier Mesopotamian CREATION
MYTHS but altered them to make Marduk the supreme god. Enuma Elish
tells how the gods created the world and then made human beings from a
mixture of clay—the universal Mesopotamian building material—and di-
vine blood. An early Sumerian myth called Enki and Ninmakh and a Baby-
lonian poem called the Atrakhasis Myth epic give similar accounts of
human origins.
The Erra Myth dates from around 1000 B.C., when Aramaean invaders
were disrupting Mesopotamia. Its subject is Erra, or Nergal, the god of
the underworld. He unleashes destruction upon the earth because the
noise of humans has been keeping the gods awake. The myth ends with
110
 Bactria
Erra agreeing to end the chaos and with a promise that Babylon will
soon rise again.
Closely related to myth is another type of literature that flourished in
Sumer and early Babylonia, the epic, which took the form of a long
poem. Epic heroes were generally human, although they interacted with
gods and sometimes became gods. Often they used cleverness or wisdom
rather than force to succeed in their tasks. The best known of these heroes
was GILGAMESH, the subject of many poems, tales, and a long epic.

ARTS AND SCIENCES

The Old Babylonian empire inherited a rich artistic tradition from
Sumer and Akkad that included small, carved figures of people and an-
imals that represented these subjects realistically. Over time, Babylon-
* stylized referring to art style in which ian artists developed more stylized* ways of portraying figures. Among
figures are portrayed in simplified ways their art forms were religious statues of deities and praying figures,
that exaggerate certain features, not carved seals, and stone slabs decorated with images of victories in war
realistically
and celebrations.
* mud brick brick made from mud, Babylonian architects and builders were masters at using mud brick*
straw, and water mixed together and to construct massive city walls, temples, ziggurats, and palaces. Key quali-
baked in the sun ties of Babylonian architecture were bulkiness and solidity. The Babyloni-
ans also made use of color to enliven their public spaces. They plastered
walls and decorated them with patterns of colored pegs, and they covered
large structures, such as the Gate of Ishtar in Babylon, with enameled
bricks or tiles.
The Babylonians were skilled in both mathematics (including mea-
suring and surveying land) and astronomy. Babylonian astronomers were
renowned throughout the ancient Near East. Their observations of the
sun, moon, stars, and planets became the basis of a sophisticated CALEN-
DAR. They developed the method of dividing circles into 360 equal de-
grees, a method that remains the basis for the measuring of time and of
angles today. (See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Assyria and the Assyr-
ians; Astronomy and Astronomers; Bible, Hebrew; Chaldea and the
Chaldeans; Elam and the Elamites; Hammurabi, Code of; Sumer and
the Sumerians; Susa and Susiana.)

BACTRIA
B actria (BAK«tree«uh) was an ancient kingdom of CENTRAL ASIA, situ-
ated between the Amu Darya, a river to the north, and the Hindu
Kush, a mountain range to the south. This area is part of present-day
Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. Bactria was a fertile region and a
successful agricultural area. Its major importance, however, was as an en-
trepot, a meeting place for travelers and traders from China, India, and
the West.
* nomadic referring to people who travel Bactria was settled around 1500 B.C. by nomadic* ARYANS. The later
from place to place to find food and MEDES and the Persians were also Aryan peoples. Legend says that
pasture Zoroaster, the founder of the Persian religion called Zoroastrianism, was
born in Bactria in the 600s B.C.
Ill
Bahrain

Bactria's chief city, Bactra, lay on the main caravan route across Asia,
making the kingdom a crossroads for trade and the exchange of ideas.
This also made Bactria an attractive target for other groups. CYRUS THE
GREAT conquered Bactria in the 500s B.C., and it became part of the PERSIAN
EMPIRE. It furnished rich revenue in gold to Persia. Then, in 329 B.C.,
ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered the Persian empire, including Bactria. As
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- a result, Bactria incorporated Hellenistic* culture into its own culture.
influenced culture of the Mediterranean On Alexander's death in 323 B.C., Bactria came under the rule of the
world and western Asia during the three SELEUCID EMPIRE. Next, in about 250 B.C., the Seleucid governor declared
centuries after the death of Alexander the
Great in 323 B.C.
Bactria an independent kingdom. Bactria's power increased, and it flour-
ished for about 120 years, advancing Hellenistic culture into Central Asia
and northern India. This influence is evident in art, architecture, coinage,
and writing.
Bactria's independence ended about 130 B.C., when it was overrun by
tribes invading from the north. It became part of the Kushan empire and
See map in Central Asia (vol. 1). a center of Buddhism. In the A.D. 600s, Arab armies conquered the area.
Its capital city, renamed Balkh, became a major city of the Muslim world.
(See also Hellenistic World; Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.)

B ahrain (bah«RAYN), an independent nation in the Persian Gulf, is

an archipelago* of 33 islands north of Saudi Arabia and west of
BAHRAIN Qatar. In ancient times, Bahrain was an important center of agriculture
and trade.
Evidence exists that Bahrain was inhabited as long ago as 4000 B.C.,
when prehistoric peoples crossed a land bridge connecting Arabia to
archipelago area of water with a group Bahrain. This land bridge existed until rising sea levels in the Persian Gulf
of scattered islands caused Bahrain to become separated from the Arabian mainland. The
early settlers of Bahrain used stone tools, fished, raised sheep and goats,
and hunted land and sea animals such as rabbits and dugongs (sea cows).
Their oldest remains have been found in several hundred thousand
aboveground burial mounds dating from around 3000 B.C. The mounds
contain stone crypts, skeletons, and pottery.
A narrow coastal area in the north of the largest island contains many
See map in Arabia and the Arabs underground springs. These springs have supplied freshwater to the area
(vol.1). throughout its history. This water has been used to grow fruit and veg-
etable crops and has helped make Bahrain better able to produce food
than most of Arabia.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 By late in the third millennium B.C.*, Bahrain had become a vital part
to 2001 B.C. of the network of trade routes between MESOPOTAMIA, the Persian Gulf,
IRAN, BACTRIA, and the Indus Valley (present-day Pakistan and northwest
* second millennium B.C. years from India). By the early second millennium B.C.*, Bahrain was trading such
2000 to 1001 B.C. goods as copper, wood, ivory, silver, textiles, precious stones, stone beads,
and pearls. Foods such as sesame oil, dates, onions, other agricultural
products, and dairy products were all traded through Bahrain. The people
thrived, and the population increased dramatically.
Through this trade, objects and ideas from all over the world became
incorporated into Bahrain! culture. Excavations of a large residential
112
 Bas-Reliefs

complex uncovered CUNEIFORM tablets revealing a Sumerian influence.

Numerous stamp SEALS, quite different from Mesopotamian cylinder seals,
were also found there, as well as Kassite pottery and silver. The plan of the
complex contains architectural elements from the Assyrian and Babylon-
* scarab representation of the dung ian empires, and a scarab* seal ring shows that Egyptian ideas also found
beetle, held as sacred by Egyptians their way to Bahrain. The largest collection of cuneiform inscriptions
found in the region were located on Failaka Island in the northern part of
the Persian Gulf. Many of these inscriptions mention Mesopotamian
deities.
See Bahrain was independent for thousands of years. It became part of
(colorplate 14,' the Persian Sasanian empire in the A.D. 300s. In the 600s, the island came
vol. 2.
under Arab control.

Barley See Cereal Grains.

Barter See Economy and Trade.

B ' as-relief (BAH«rMeef) is a form of sculpture in which material is cut

> away to leave figures projecting from the background. Most bas-reliefs
BAS-RELIEFS are carved on stone walls, pillars, or plaques, though they can also be sculpted
on metal and wood.
Art historians distinguish between bas-relief — or low relief — and
high relief. (The word bus comes from French, meaning "low.") In bas-re-
lief, the design is raised only slightly above the surface. In high relief, the
figure stands out much more, and parts may even be completely cut away
from the background, just as in sculpture in the round. The sculpture and
inscription carved on the side of a mountain in Behistun depicting Per-
sian king Darius I's victory over rebels who tried to take control of the
throne of the PERSIAN EMPIRE is an example of high relief.
Bas-reliefs were a common form of artwork in ancient Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and other Near Eastern cultures. Many of the reliefs cele-
brate the life of a monarch. Some depict victories in battle. Others pay
homage to a deity. Still others provide glimpses into daily rituals. Because
they were made of durable materials, many bas-reliefs have survived to
the present day. They provide us with invaluable insights into life and
ideas in the ancient Near East.

Images From Egypt. Ancient Egyptian bas-reliefs were typically a

combination of images and HIEROGLYPHICS, the Egyptian system of writing
that used signs to stand for words. An early example of this combination
of word and image is the two-sided Narmer Palette, which dates from
113
Bas-Reliefs
about 3000B.C.(It is calledapalette because it wasoriginally usedtopre-
pare eye makeup.) Carvedon slate, this palettemaycelebratetheunifica-
tion of EgyptafterKing Narmer's defeatLower
of Egypt.
Oneside shows
the king, by far the largest figure on relief,
the holdinganenemyby the
hair, ready to kill him, while two other fallen enemieslie atfeet.
his
Above is a falcon, representingthe HORUS,
sky standing
god on top of an
image of papyrus plants, whichare asymbolofLower Egypt. On the
other side of the palette,the kingisshown wearingthecrownofLower
Egypt and looking at the bodiesofslain enemies.
As was customaryin Egyptian art,the figuresin theNarmer Palette
are shown with their heads in profile, their torsosfacingtheviewer,and
their legs andfeet inprofile.The relative importanceofpeople wasindi-
cated by the size in which they were depicted. This distinctive style was to
remain standardfor Egyptian art forthousands ofyears.
Many Egyptianreliefs were madefortombs. They commemoratethe
person who has diedby showing scenes fromlife.
daily
Onewoodenre-
lief datingfrom aboutB.C. 2660
and preparedfor a king'stomb shows one
of the king'sofficial scribes* holding writing materials. Alimestone relief
from about a century later shows Akhethotepin aninteresting combina-
tion of image and hieroglyphics. Inhieroglyphic writing,asymbolis of-
ten placed before aword orname totellthereader more aboutthename.
These symbols are called determinatives.In theAkhethotep relief,the
sculpted imageof the official himself takestheplaceof the determinative.
These earlyreliefs are rather simple.The men arebarefootandbare
chested, wearing loincloths. Only their hairiscarvedindetail. Over time,
Egyptianbas-reliefs became more detailedandsophisticated. Kingsand
other high-ranking individuals were shown wearing clothes suited to
their rank. Their hairstyles, jewels,and gesturesarecarvedingreater de-
tail. Servants and attendants aredepicted inless detail toemphasize the
differences in rankand importance.
Other common themesforEgyptian bas-reliefswere agricultureand
* scribe person of a learned
class who hunting. The tomb of an official calledTi,which dates fromabout 2400
served as a writer, editor, or teacher B.C., contains a paintedreliefof Tiwatchingahippopotamus hunt. Ti,
the largestfigure in the picture, watches as menwith spears try tokill a
group of hippopotamuses. The entire backgroundiscarvedinvertical
stripes to represent a stand ofpapyrus. Inanother relief in thesame
tomb, a cattle herder ridesone cowacrossariver (shownas apattern of
zigzags) as he herds two other animals aheadofhim.Infront, another
herder carries acalf on his back to savefrom it drowning. The calfs
mother looks on anxiously.
A later tomb, datingfrom about B.C.,has
1325areliefofseven work-
men carrying a wooden beam. Thisis alarge scene,and its contentis
more modern than that of the hippopotamus hunt.Itshowstwoworkers
standing next to large wheels, probablyfor achariotorcarriage. Another
is riding a horse.Facial expressions reveal thatthesevenmencarryingthe
beam are obviously struggling under theburden. This levelofattention
to human expressionis adeparture from earlier art.

Images From Mesopotamia. Bas-reliefs

fromMesopotamia were less
concerned with daily
life and more focusedonkingsandvictories.One
114
 Behistun Inscription

of the oldest reliefs from this region dates from about 3300 B.C. and was
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been found at URUK. It is a stone stela* showing a priest-king in two scenes. In
carved or engraved and serves as a one scene, he uses a long spear to kill a lion, and in the other, he uses a
monument; pi. stelae bow and arrow to kill a lion.
A victory stela of the Akkadian king NARAM-SIN was sculpted around
2200 B.C. It shows soldiers climbing a hill. Above them is the largest fig-
ure, Naram-Sin, standing victorious over the enemy. At the top of the
stela are three stars. This stela is important for two reasons. First, it shows
Naram-Sin wearing a helmet with two horns. This kind of helmet was
normally reserved for a god, so Naram-Sin is saying that he is a god as
well as a king. Second, the stela is different in style from earlier, simpler,
bas-reliefs from the region. This one shows the movement of the sol-
diers, and it includes background details that were generally absent from
earlier reliefs.
The most magnificent bas-reliefs of the ancient Near East were made
by the Assyrians, who built a great empire during the first half of the first
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 millennium B.C.* To celebrate and commemorate their military victories,
tO 1 B.C. the kings of Assyria had themselves depicted on stone stelae. They also
recorded their exploits in reliefs that decorated the walls of their palaces.
The palace built at Khorsabad (in present-day Iraq) in the 700s B.C. by
King SARGON II provides one example. It contains a long series of reliefs
portraying all of the king's successful military campaigns. These reliefs
show the grand sweep of history, one victory after another. The pictures
were inscribed with text to give further details of the events. Another set
of famous reliefs, from the palace of ASHURBANIPAL in NINEVEH, is famous
for the vivid scenes of lion hunts. These examples typify the magnificent
detail and beauty found in Assyrian reliefs. (See also Akkad and the
Akkadians; Animals in Art; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Assyria and the
Assyrians; Behistun Inscription; Egypt and the Egyptians; Human
Form in Art; Palaces and Temples.)

Beards See Hair.

Beer See Food and Drink.

BEHISTUN T he Behistun (be«HIS«tun) inscription is a large panel that contains

a sculpture and an INSCRIPTION. It was carved into a mountainside
near the village of Behistun in western IRAN between 520 and 519 B.C. by
INSCRIPTION order of the Persian king DARIUS I. Because the text is in three languages,
this panel became important to the modern understanding of ancient
languages.
Sitting about 300 feet above the plain at the foot of the mountain, the
panel measures 27 feet high by 69 feet wide. It commemorates Darius I's
victory over rebels who tried to take control of the throne of the PERSIAN
115
Behistun Inscription

EMPIREafterthe deathof his predecessor,

CAMBYSES.
The inscription, de-
scribing the battle and itsaftermath, iswrittenin thelanguagesof
Elamite, Akkadian,and OldPersian.Theuprisingand Darius'svictory
took place between522 After
B.C.andDarius
520hadsolidified hishold
on the throne, he ordered thememorial to becreated as written a and vi-
sual recordof his triumphfirst
andyear ofrule.
Laterhe had thestory ex-
tended to include military successesin thesecondandthird years of his
reign. This added materialisinscribedin OldPersian only.
* relief sculpture in which material is cut The sculptureisrelief*
a that showsthevictorious Darius, taller than
away to show figures raised from the the otherfigures, standing withhisfooton thebodyof therebel Gau-
background mata. Nine other rebels, with their arms bound behind their backsand
chained together at theneck, arelined upbehind Gaumata. The ninth
was added when Darius expandedtheinscription. Behind Darius are two
royal attendants. Centered above themis awinged figurethat
is thesym-
bol of the Persian
AHURA
MAZDA.
god This figure
iswearingacrown and
holds out the ringofkingship toward Darius.
The inscription detailshowDarius tookandkeptthethrone.Itlists all
the rebel leadersbyname. Darius links himselfto thePersian ruling fam-
ily, the Achaemenids, thereby strengthening hisclaim to the throne. The
writing also tells thathis successwasfacilitated by thedivine
favorof
Ahura Mazda.In asimilar vein,hisdefeated opponents lacked the"divine
blessing" of Ahura Mazda. Their"faithlessness"led totheir weaknessand
downfall. Dariusfurther makesitclear thathis ownpersonal qualities
and abilities wereat the rootof hissuccess.
Darius situated the monumentatBehistun because springs of
water
at the base of the mountain made Behistunafrequent stopping pointfor
caravans. The panel thus couldbeseenbymany travelers. Toensure that
this story reached throughout thePersian empire,heordered smaller
copies of the inscription to becirculated inseveral languages. Fragments
have been foundin Babylonia and as farawayasEgypt.
InA.D. 1835, SirHenry Rawlinson scaled clifftothe
copyand try to
decipher the OldPersian inscription. In1849, hepublished his transla-
tion. Other scholars helped himdecipher theAkkadian version, which
was writteninCUNEIFORM
the writing MESOPOTAMIA.
system
ofancient
116
 Bible, Hebrew
Their DECIPHERMENT of the Behistun inscription led to our current under-
standing of cuneiform. In the 1900s, scholars finally translated the
Elamite. (See also Elam and the Elamites; Inscriptions.)

BlBL!;, Hl-BRHW
T he Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament by Christians) contains
the sacred writings of the Jewish people. Believed to be writings in-
spired by God, the Bible is a collection of human testimonies to God's
revelations. It has served as the basis for both Judaism and Christianity
for more than 2,000 years. Although it is a religious text, the Bible is also
an important historical document that reveals much about life and
times in the ancient Near East.
The 24 books of the Hebrew Bible, derived from the oral and written
traditions of the Israelites, trace their history from the early second millen-
second millennium B.C. years from nium B.C.* to about 100 B.C. Traditionally, the Hebrew Bible is divided into
2000 to 1001 B.C. three sections—the TORAH (the Law) or Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the
Writings.
The five books of the Torah are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy. These books recount how the god YAHWEH created the
world and established a covenant (agreement) with the patriarch Abra-
ham and his descendants. In return for their obedience to his law, Yahweh
would settle them in a "promised land/' The Torah relates their early his-
tory from Abraham's arrival in CANAAN, his descendants' exile in Egypt,
and their return to Canaan under the leadership of MOSES and later Joshua.
The Torah also establishes the foundation for the Israelite religion; out-
lines religious, criminal, and civil laws; and defines the relationship be-
tween the Israelites and Yahweh. Included are the basic ethical principles
called the TEN COMMANDMENTS, believed to have been given by Yahweh to
Moses before the Israelites reached Canaan for the second time.
The second part of the Hebrew Bible contains the teachings of a
group of thinkers—the Prophets—who played an important role in the
religious and political life of the Israelites. The 8 books of the Prophets are
organized in two parts—the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel,
and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, as well
as the 12 short books called the Minor Prophets). These books continue
the history of the Israelites, including the establishment of a monarchy
under such kings as DAVID and SOLOMON and the events following the
breakup of Solomon's kingdom shortly after his death. They also present
the religious teachings of the Prophets, which are said to be messages
from Yahweh. The themes of these books, similar to others in the Bible,
include the blessings and punishments visited on the people when they
follow and stray from following Yahweh's law and the comfort they re-
ceive when they return to the fold.
The last part of the Hebrew Bible, the Writings, contains 11 books that
include assorted PRAYERS, HYMNS, poems, wisdom, literature, and historical
writings. Books in this part include Job, PSALMS, the Song of Solomon (also
known as Canticles), Lamentations, Proverbs, Ruth, Esther, Daniel, Ecclesi-
astes, and Ezra.
117
Birds in Art

Scholars believe that most of the books in the Hebrew Bible come
from a variety of sources. Many were probably compiled from oral litera-
ture passed down through generations. According to some traditions,
Moses wrote the five books of the Torah and King David wrote the five
books of Psalms.
Comparisons with creation myths from other cultures of the ancient
Near East suggest that some characters and stories of the Hebrew Bible
may parallel the religious traditions of other ancient peoples, such as the
Canaanites and Babylonians. The biblical story of the great flood that
once destroyed humankind resembles a story found in Mesopotamian lit-
erature. The story of the birth of Moses and his rescue from death echoes
an Assyrian tale about King SARGON I of Akkad. Imagery similar to that
* Levant lands bordering the eastern found in the BAAL CYCLE of Syria and the Levant* appears in the Hebrew
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Bible as well. However, what separates the Bible from other ancient reli-
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), gious literature is that it is more than just a collection of sacred writings.
the West Bank, and Jordan
Thoughout the Bible, the Israelites acknowledge their faith in Yahweh as
a single living god. As described in the Bible, they also witness how Yah-
weh controlled the history of Israel according to his righteous plan.
Therefore, the study of the Bible itself is considered among the highest of
religious acts. (See also Flood Legends; Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism
and Jews; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

BIRDS IN ART
A rt of the ancient Near East abounds with depictions of birds. Many
images of birds were associated with gods or with spirits. As with
other ANIMALS IN ART, many other bird images reflect everyday life.

Religious Images. One of the oldest images of a bird appears in wall

paintings found in QATAL HUYUK in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). The
remains found in this ancient city—which date from the seventh millen-
* seventh millennium B.C. years from nium B.C.*—include images of vultures. The birds have legs that look al-
7000 to 6001 B.C. most like human legs. Some scholars suggest that they may represent
priests dressed as vultures as part of a religious ceremony.
Because birds travel between the earth and the sky, they were thought
by ancient Egyptians to carry the soul, called the ba. In pit graves as well
as pyramids, a shaft was left open to allow the person's ba to fly out and
ascend to heaven. In art, the ba was often shown as a bird with a human
head. If the figure being shown had to perform a task, human arms might
be included as well.
The symbolism associated with birds also appeared when a king died
and a falcon was released. The falcon was the symbol of HORUS, god of the
sky and of kingship. Art often showed Horus helping a king or at least of-
fering his approval of the king's actions. A six-foot-tall stone statue of the
ruler Chephren (who ruled around 2550 B.C.) on his throne includes Ho-
rus perched atop the throne, his falcon wings encircling the king's head
in protection. In some depictions, Horus was not a bird but a large eye
with wings.
118
 Birds in Art
Other Egyptian gods and goddesses were associated with other birds.
Thoth (god of wisdom and learning) was represented by the ibis, Geb
(god of the earth's surface) by the goose, and Isis (nature goddess and
mother of Horus) by the swallow.
The art of MESOPOTAMIA also included birds that had religious signifi-
cance. In ancient Sumeria, Imdugud (called Anzu in Akkad) was a huge
bird monster that had giant wings and the head of a lion. The flapping of
its wings was thought to cause windstorms and sandstorms. Imdugud is
sometimes shown grasping stags or lions with its talons.
Another popular image was that of an eagle carrying a bearded man.
This picture represents an episode in the myth of Etana, the legendary
* city-state independent state consisting first king of the city-state* of KISH. According to the myth, Etana and his
of a city and its surrounding territory wife were childless. The king had a dream about a "plant of giving birth"
and went off to seek it. On his journey, he met an injured eagle, who had
been punished by a serpent for eating the serpent's young. Etana made
wings of copper for the eagle, which in gratitude agreed to carry the king
to heaven to find the plant he sought. Pictures of this story were espe-
cially popular from about 2300 to 2000 B.C., when they occasionally ap-
peared on cylinder SEALS.
A pottery vase from the city-state of Larsa and dating from about
2000 to 1700 B.C. shows the figures of several animals linked to the
gods. The birds on this vase are thought to represent Papsukkal, the
messenger god. Beginning in about 1600 B.C., birds appeared on stones
* kudurru in Mesopotamia, stone with called kudurrus*. The figure of a walking bird is linked to a goddess who
inscriptions used to mark the boundary served the more powerful goddess Inanna, or ISHTAR. The figure of a bird
of grants of land on a perch represents two gods of the KASSITES, during whose reign
kudurrus appeared.

Secular Images. Birds also appeared in art that was secular, or without
religious meaning. One of the oldest of these depictions is the stela of
* relief sculpture in which material is cut the Vultures, a relief* that dates from about 2450 B.C. This stela* shows
away to show figures raised from the Eannatum, the king of one Mesopotamian city-state, leading his victori-
background ous army in battle. The uppermost portion of the stela shows some en-
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been emy soldiers gripped in the beaks of vultures.
carved or engraved and serves as a Many nonreligious images of birds relate to domesticated* birds or to
monument; pi. stelae
hunting. An Egyptian relief from around 2400 B.C. shows workers feeding
* domesticated adapted or tamed for tamed geese. A wall painting from about 1400 B.C. shows two workers
human use
plucking the feathers of dead geese before cooking them. Another wall
painting from about the same period shows a hunting scene. In it, a no-
bleman uses a stick and a wild cat to flush birds from the reeds of a marsh.
The man is holding several birds he has already captured. The cat has the
body of one bird in its claws and the wing of another in its mouth.
Images of birds from daily life were familiar in Mesopotamia as well.
Cylinder seals from the time of the Neo-Assyrian empire, late 700s B.C.,
include scenes of people hunting ostriches. A more pleasant Assyrian
scene is a relief from the palace at NINEVEH. It shows king ASHURBANIPAL
and his queen having a relaxing meal in a garden where birds fly from
tree to tree.
Objects made of metal, pottery, or carved ivory were also made in the
shape of animals, sometimes birds, throughout the ancient Near East. In
119
Boats

The positioning of autonomous sequences

throughout the work is characteristic of
Egyptian painting. These sequences allow
one to view individual fragments as sepa-
rate works of art. Although this painting
of geese appears to be its own piece, it
is actually a detail from a much larger
composition.

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 the third millennium B.C.*, Mesopotamian peoples created a series of
to 2001 B.C. weights that were used in scales to weigh objects. These were often made
in the shape of ducks. A pottery vase from Anatolia from the 1400s B.C. is
in the form of a two-headed duck. An ivory cosmetics box found in
UGARIT and dating from the 1200s B.C. is in the shape of a duck with its
head turned back. A pottery piece from Canaan dating from between
1100 and 1000 B.C. is in the form of a building. Standing on one part is a
man holding birds in each hand. This object may have been used to hold
a bowl in which INCENSE was burned.

Boats See Ships and Boats.

Bogazkoy See Khattusha.

BOOK OF
T he Book of the Dead is the popular name of a collection of ancient
Egyptian writings composed for and buried with the dead. The writ-
ings include incantations*, hymns, and prayers that were meant to guide
THE DEAD and protect the deceased during their journey to the safety of the region
of OSIRIS, the Egyptian god of the dead.
Ancient Egyptians believed that the dead had to pass through gates
guarded by dangerous beings, including winged snakes and evil spirits.
120
 Books and Manuscripts
incantation written or recited formula The incantations, hymns, and prayers in the texts served to safeguard the
of words designed to produce a given dead and to teach them how to avoid these dangers. The writings pro-
effect vided, among other things, the correct procedures to follow and speeches
to recite at designated stops along the way. The writings also described a
rich and beautiful region where the blessed dead were given fields to sow,
tend, and harvest. Those who were judged unworthy of this lovely land
were condemned to torture by the evil spirits.
Writings from the Book of the Dead were often painted on or cut into
papyrus writing material made by the walls of PYRAMIDS and tombs. They were also written on papyrus* rolls,
pressing together thin strips of the inner although no single copy found to date contains all of the 200 or so
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri known chapters. Portions of the writings have been found in several
Egyptian tombs. The writings, which have numerous authors and
sources, come from different periods in the history of ancient Egypt.
scribe person of a learned class who Some date from as far back as 2400 B.C. Scribes* copied the writings on
served as a writer, editor, or teacher rolls of papyrus and often illustrated them in color. The copies were then
sold to individuals for use in burials.
The Book of the Dead got its popular name in the early A.D. 1800s.
Robbers who looted the ancient tombs referred to the papyrus rolls in
Arabic as Kitdb al-Mayyitun or al-Mayyit, meaning "book of the dead/' be-
cause so many of the rolls were found in coffins alongside the bodies of
the dead. The Book of the Dead was first published in A.D. 1842 by the
* Egyptologist person who studies German Egyptologist* Carl Richard Lepsius. Today a number of different
ancient Egypt translations are available. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Death and
Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Religion.)

BOOKS AND
W hat is a book? Is it the novel, history or collection of poems that
is created by a writer? Or is it the physical thing we hold in our
hands, stuff in our book bags, or take off the library shelf? In the first
MANUSCRIPTS sense, there have been books of one kind or another for thousands of
years. In the second sense, there were no books as we know them in the
ancient world. Printing with movable type on paper that would be sewn
or glued together to form a compact book is a fairly recent development
in the history of writing and communication. Although there have been
books in this sense for only 600 years, the processes that would lead to it
were underway in MESOPOTAMIA 5,000 years ago.

* manuscript document written by hand, Clay Tablets. The earliest manuscripts* were CLAY TABLETS. Clay was pat-
before the introduction of printing ted or rolled into a kind of tile that was usually rectangular but took
* scribe person of a learned class who other forms as well. When the clay was still soft, a scribe* used a reed
served as a writer, editor, or teacher with a wedge-shaped point, called a stylus, to make marks in it. These
wedge-shaped marks were the system of writing called CUNEIFORM. Once
the text was written, the tablet would be dried either in the sun or in a
kiln, an oven used for hardening pottery. Kilns were used for the most
important clay tablets, such as those that contained the records of kings.
See The Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia invented the process of writ-
1
color plate 5, ing on clay tablets. Babylonians, Assyrians, HITTITES, and others adopted it
vol. 2.
for their own languages.
121
Books and Manuscripts
* fourth millennium B.C. years from The first manuscripts from the late fourth millennium B.C.* were writ-
4000 to 3001 B.C. ten only for keeping accounts. Shortly thereafter, cuneiform tablets were
used to record lists of words to train new scribes, accomplishments of
kings, mythological stories of the gods, and epic stories of heroes. Some of
first millennium B.C. years from 1000 these manuscripts, such as the first millennium B.C.* version of the Epic of
tO 1 B.C. Gilgamesh, were quite long and had to be written on many tablets. This
version, which told the story of the adventurous Sumerian king of URUK,
was written on 12 tablets. Most cuneiform tablets, however, were archival
documents—records of business transactions such as sales and loans,
made by the temple, palace, and private businessmen.

Papyrus Rolls. The ancient Egyptians developed a different method

for recording their writing—they used PAPYRUS rolls. Papyrus was a reedy
plant that grew freely in the Nile Valley. Fibers from the stalks of this
plant were pounded together into sheets to make paperlike material that
is also called papyrus. Each sheet was about 6 to 18 inches in height and
between 6 and 18 inches in width. By pasting up to 20 sheets together,
scribes could make long rolls, which they wrote on using brushes dipped
in black or red ink. The papyrus rolls could then be rolled up, tied with a
string, and sealed.
These rolls were far more fragile than clay tablets. Consequently, in
* Levant lands bordering the eastern most places in the world, such as Greece or the Levant*, imported
shores of the Mediterranean Sea papyrus rotted and crumbled away long ago. However, in regions with an
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), extremely dry climate, such as Egypt, many rolls have survived. In fact, the
the West Bank, and Jordan
oldest rolls found to date from about 2500 B.C. were created in Egypt.
Many Egyptian manuscripts written on papyrus were mortuary
texts—writings placed in tombs to guide the dead in the afterlife, where
they believed they would live on to eternity. These writings, taken alto-
gether, are now called the BOOK OF THE DEAD. Egyptians also recorded their
myths and stories, many of which have been preserved and have become
part of world literature, on papyrus rolls. Like cuneiform tablets, papyrus
manuscripts were also used to record everyday business transactions.

The Replacement of Cuneiform. The cuneiform system of writing

on clay tablets remained in use in Mesopotamia and neighboring re-
gions for about 3,000 years. It had some disadvantages, however, includ-
ing the bulk and weight of the clay tablets and the difficulty of making
changes to the text once the clay had dried. In the first millennium B.C.,
the Assyrians began to write on wax-covered writing boards that could
be easily erased and written on again. But the scribes were still using the
difficult cuneiform writing system. However, a new method of writing—
introduced by the ARAMAEANS—that overcame the difficulties of both
writing on clay and the use of cuneiform became more widespread. The
Aramaeans, who lived in Syria, adapted the aleph-beth to record their
language. This system of writing was better suited to writing on prepared
animal skins, such as parchment, rather than on clay tablets. The Assyri-
ans conquered the Aramaeans in the 730s B.C., and they began to use both
the Aramaic language and its system of writing to communicate with the
many peoples who lived in their empire. Eventually, Aramaic writing on
parchment replaced cuneiform in Mesopotamia and nearby lands.
122
 Bricks
Writing on parchment also had advantages over using papyrus. The
material preserves better than papyrus outside of a dry climate, so it was
more versatile than papyrus. Also, scribes could write on both sides of the
sheet. Eventually, people cut parchment sheets into rectangles and bound
them together between boards. The product that resulted, called a codex,
was flat and could be stored more easily than papyrus rolls. The codex
represented another step toward the book. (See also Chronicles.)

Bread See Food and Drink.

BRICKS
T hroughout history, people have relied on materials that were close at
hand for building. The most readily available and commonly used
substance for building in the ancient Near East was mud. Except in re-
gions where there was suitable vegetation, such as trees (Lebanon) or
reeds (Nile and Tigris-Euphrates Deltas*), people used mud to make
bricks. They then used bricks to build houses, temples, defensive walls,
* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed and even drains.
of soil deposited by a river Mud was also the principal building material in regions where stone
* Levant lands bordering the eastern was available, such as Egypt, the Levant*, Anatolia, northern Syria, and
shores of the Mediterranean Sea northern Mesopotamia. This was largely because of the high cost of labor
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), involved in quarrying*, transporting, and working the stone.
the West Bank, and Jordan
* quarry to excavate pieces of stone by Making and Using Bricks. Bricks are known to have been used in
cutting, splitting, or (in modern times)
blasting
the Near East as long ago as 6000 B.C. The earliest bricks were shaped by
hand and placed in the sun to dry. To prevent the bricks from cracking
and crumbling when they dried, people mixed other substances with the
mud. The most common of these substances was cut straw; other materi-
als included plants, animal dung, animal hair, and sand.
By about 4000 B.C., people had learned to pour mud into wooden
molds to make bricks uniform in size and shape. With molded bricks,
they could build houses more easily and quickly. It also became possible
to build large, complex structures such as temples. Molds could also be
* fortification structure built to used to make larger bricks for building defensive fortifications*.
strengthen or protect against attack In MESOPOTAMIA, some mud bricks were fired in kilns to make them
harder and less likely to crumble when exposed to water. These baked
bricks were used for drains, paths, and other places where ordinary bricks
might turn back into mud if they came in contact with running water.
Baked bricks were costly to produce, however, because wood and other
sources of fuel were scarce. They were not commonly used in the ancient
Near East until the Hellenistic period (after 330 B.C.).
To prevent sun-dried brick walls from being destroyed by water,
builders made the foundations of stone and then used bricks for the
walls. These walls were then plastered inside and out with mud mixed
with limestone to further prevent destruction by water.
123
Bronze

The shapes and sizes of mud bricks varied over the centuries. Before
the widespread use of molds, they were long and thin. In the fourth and
third millennia B.C. (years from 4000 to 2001 B.C.), they were generally
rectangular—often twice as long as they were wide. From the Akkadian
period (beginning in 2350 B.C.) onward, bricks in Mesopotamia tended to
be square. Bricks used in royal buildings were often stamped with the ti-
tles of the royal builder and sometimes with the name of the building.

See Bricks and Art. Brick walls provided a kind of "canvas" on which
color plate 7, artists could create works of art. Some of these works survive today be-
vol. 4.
cause features were actually molded onto the bricks before the bricks
* second millennium B.C. years from were dried. Also, during the second millennium B.C.*, people learned to
2000 to 1001 B.C. glaze bricks with an enamel coating, giving them a much harder surface.
Glazing provided color, and artists used colored glazed bricks to repre-
sent animals and deities and to depict major historical events. (See also
Architecture; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Building Materials; Wood
and Woodworking.)

Bronze See Metals and Metalworking.

Bronze Age See Chronology.

BUILDING P eople usually constructed buildings in the ancient Near East from
materials that they could easily obtain. Climate and geography de-
termined the substances that were available for building. Mud and STONE
MATERIALS were by far the most common building materials, but timber and reeds
were also used. Building materials were also affected by the size of com-
munities and the level of political organization. As civilizations devel-
oped, people used new materials and techniques to build more ambitious
structures. Neighboring cultures often borrowed ideas and techniques
from each other.

Mesopotamia. The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers provided

a rich soil for growing food. They also contributed to people's shelter.
* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed The main building material in most of MESOPOTAMIA from the earliest
of soil deposited by a river times and for thousands of years was mud because there were no trees (as
* Levant lands bordering the eastern there were in Lebanon), reeds (as in the Nile River delta*), or stone (as in
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Egypt, the Levant*, Anatolia, and North Syria). In the southernmost part
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), of Mesopotamia, however, reeds grew in the Tigris-Euphrates Delta and
the West Bank, and Jordan
were used to make huts and other structures. Although stone was avail-
* quarry to excavate pieces of stone by able in some regions, such as northern Mesopotamia, it was rarely used
cutting, splitting, or (in modern times)
blasting because of the high cost of labor involved in quarrying*, transporting,
and working the stone.
124
 Building Materials
Perhaps the simplest way of using mud to make structures is to build
up walls in lumps, a technique called taufin Arabic. Sun-dried BRICKS were
used in Mesopotamia as early as 6000 B.C. and became the main construc-
tion material in the region. The people of ancient Mesopotamia also used
* mortar moist mixture placed between mud for mortar* to set the bricks and for plaster* to cover the walls.
bricks or stones when building a At first, bricks were formed by hand, but by 4000 B.C., standard-size
structure; when the mixture dries, the bricks were produced by placing the mud in wooden molds to dry. These
bricks or stones are held in place
uniform bricks allowed builders to make level walls. Shapes and sizes of
* plaster moist mixture applied to walls mud bricks changed over the centuries. They were rectangular at first, but
to provide a smooth surface and to
protect walls from weather damage
after about 2300 B.C., they tended to be square. Fired bricks were not used
often, because wood to bake them was scarce. They were used where
bricks might be exposed to water, in foundations and drain systems. They
were also used where extra strength was needed. Stone was also used for
foundations, but the scarcity of stone in Mesopotamia made it a rarely
used material.
With their mud bricks, Mesopotamians could build huge structures.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 By the third millennium B.C.*, they were creating huge ZIGGURATS that
to 2001 B.C. served as foundations for temples. As cities grew, defensive fortifica-
* fortification structure built to tions* became important. Walls had to be larger, stronger, and con-
strengthen or protect against attack structed quickly. Rubble stone and earth made up most walls. Walls
were supported by brick or stone columns at the corners and at key rein-
forcement points. Such constructions made for defensive walls of mas-
sive width.
Mud-brick buildings were topped with roofs made of several different
materials. Wooden beams supported the roofs, which were sometimes,
but only rarely, made entirely of wood. Most often, layers of brushwood
or matting covered with earth provided the ceiling. A layer of mud plaster
capped the roof. Date palm (whose fronds were sometimes tied together
with cords to make huts) and poplar were the most available types of
wood in Mesopotamia. Sometimes other woods, such as cedar, were im-
ported at great cost.
In southern Mesopotamia, a different building style was used. Marsh
dwellers wove the abundant reeds of the region into elaborate structures,
which often served as storage facilities, such as present-day barns. In fact,
in present-day Iraq, structures called mudhifs are still built by the Marsh
Arabs in the same style and with the same techniques employed by the
ancient Sumerians, and they are sometimes used as reception halls.

Egypt. Building in early Egypt was similar to that in Mesopotamia. The

Nile River supplied the mud, and the arid climate dried the brick. The
lack of rainfall made mud brick a durable choice, so there was little need
to bake the brick further. Fired brick, which appeared elsewhere as early
as 3000 B.C., did not arrive in Egypt until the period of Roman occupa-
tion, which began in about 30 B.C. Even the early monumental struc-
tures, such as royal tombs, used mud brick. These early tombs were
mastaba ancient Egyptian burial structures called mastabas* and covered a burial pit.
structure with long rectangular sides Almost suddenly, in about 2700 B.C., Egyptians began to use the stone
and a flat roof over a burial pit or that was plentiful around them. Quarrying and moving stone required
chamber
huge amounts of labor and large numbers of people because the WHEEL
was not yet in use in Egypt. As a result, stone was used mostly for palaces,
125
Building Materials
temples, and tombs. The pyramid among King DJOSER'S ceremonial build-
ings at Saqqara, built around 2717 B.C., was the first monumental stone
tomb in Egypt. The pyramid was basically several mastabas piled atop
each other. Its stones were small enough for one or two workers to han-
dle. Over time, though, new techniques were developed to quarry, trans-
port, and build with larger and larger stone blocks. Egyptian stoneworkers
eventually could quarry and move to distant sites stone blocks weighing a
few tons.
Egyptians used small blocks of poor-quality stone for the foundations
of these mighty buildings. In the early 700s B.C., they began to build un-
derground foundations with solid blocks of stone.
Timber was not plentiful in Egypt. Only a few royal buildings had
wood frames. Wood appeared most often as part of a roof, and even there,
How Did They Do That? it was mainly used for structural support. The plentiful supply of reeds
Not until the A,D. 1800s did hu- provided added roofing material. Structures for the afterlife were built in
mans build a structure taller than
the Great Pyramid of Gtea, This stone and were an imitation of everyday structures. For instance, archi-
tomb was built by a people who tects reproduced the reed bundles that supported everyday structures as
did not use wheels or pulleys for stone columns. The giant granite columns were used to support stone
lifting the massive stones. How, slabs that ran across them to create a roof.
then, could they have built this
structure, or the huge temples at
Luxor or Karnak? Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant. The peoples of Anatolia, Syria, and
Workers may have built the Levant, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, had their own building
earthen ramps up to each succes- traditions. The availability of a wider range of resources allowed for a
sive layer of stone. Using levers, I mix of building materials, and there was less dependence on mud brick
stones were pushed and dragged for massive construction. Building techniques that had evolved from
up the ramps by large numbers of prehistory did not change a great deal. Less powerful empires than those
people and animals. When the top
stones were In place, masons be- in Egypt and Mesopotamia did less monument building.
gan to apply finishing touches, Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant are rocky, unlike Mesopotamia and
working down to the bottom as Egypt. People could easily gather stone of various types. The most com-
the ramps were removed. mon type was limestone. Limestone could also be crushed and powdered
to produce mortar and plaster.
Fieldstone was also plentiful, and the earliest round stone huts were
built by a technique called corbeling. In this technique, each layer of
stone was moved slightly more inward from the one below so that the
walls eventually met in a dome. These corbeled huts are among the oldest
dwellings found around the Mediterranean. As early as 7000 B.C., a rec-
tangular plan had replaced rounded structures. Small rocks, mortar, and
mud filled gaps in irregular fieldstone walls.
With the availability of iron tools, builders increasingly used
"dressed" stones that were chipped or carved on the sides. Straight
sides provided greater strength and ease of construction. In some cases,
the whole block was dressed; in others, only the sides were done for an
even fit.
Timber was plentiful in these areas in ancient times. Oak, sycamore,
fig, and Aleppo pine supplied frames and beams for buildings. Pine,
sycamore, cypress, poplar, and date palm yielded wood for roofs. The ma-
jestic cedar trees of Lebanon offered the most valuable wood in the an-
cient Near East. Although moving them was costly and difficult, rulers
throughout the Near East prized the durable, aromatic wood for temples,
palaces, and other show buildings.
126
 Burial Sites and Tombs
Iran. The PERSIAN EMPIRE founded by CYRUS THE GREAT around 550 B.C. de-
veloped its own style of building. Mud brick was common, but other ma-
terials were used as well. Wood was often combined with mud brick for
structural support. Stone was dressed or cut into thin blocks. Tall
columns unlike anything in Mesopotamia formed the basis of temple
construction. These columns were comparable to those used by the
Greeks, who were involved in the construction of Persepolis during the
reign of Persian king Darius I. The Greeks may have learned the tech-
nique, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptians.
The Persians also used glazed bricks, which were decorated on the ex-
posed side. Individual bricks were combined to create complex and beau-
tiful decorations. The Persians adopted this technique from the
Neo-Babylonian empire that ruled Mesopotamia from 612 to 539 B.C. (See
also Architecture; Burial Sites and Tombs; Fortifications; Houses;
Palaces and Temples; Pyramids; Wood and Woodworking.)

BURIAL SITES
T he peoples of the ancient Near East laid their dead to rest in a vast va-
riety of burial sites and tombs. Some corpses ended up in natural
caves or in simple holes dug into the ground or carved into rock. Others—
AND TOMBS usually the bodies of nobles or the elite—were placed inside earthen
mounds, towering pyramids of stone, or magnificently decorated tomb
structures. Ironically, the graves of the dead have become a rich source of
information about how ancient peoples lived.

GRAVES, ROBBERS, AND ARCHAEOLOGISTS

Burial methods and structures in the ancient Near East served several
purposes. Burial was meant to protect and preserve the bodies, and often
the possessions, of those who had died. People believed that such protec-
tion ensured the survival and happiness of the dead person's spirit in the
AFTERLIFE. Tombs and burial monuments also served as memorials, re-
minders to the living that the dead person had once existed. In the case
of the royal and the rich, burial was the dead person's—or the family's—
last chance to display his or her status. The splendor of the tomb, people
hoped, would stand as a sign of the deceased's glory. Finally, burial or en-
tombment was part of a mourning process. It allowed the family and
community to express their grief and carry out the religious duties asso-
ciated with death.
Many cultures buried their dead with jewelry, clothing, food, utensils,
and weapons. The more elaborate royal burials even included furniture,
chariots, and boats. Items buried with the dead are called grave goods.
Sometimes they were the deceased's cherished possessions. Often rela-
tives gathered grave goods to honor the dead person with a lavish funeral
display or to serve his or her needs in the afterlife.
Grave goods attracted robbers. Magical protection in the form of
* amulet small object thought to have amulets* and spells did not protect ancient tombs. Robbers broke into,
supernatural or magical powers disturbed, or even destroyed graves and tombs in their search for loot,
sometimes shortly after the burial had taken place. Other tomb robberies
127
Burial Sites and Tombs
occurred centuries later as people discovered old graves and tombs and
plundered them for their riches. In Egypt especially, tomb robbery be-
came almost a profession. "We went to rob the tombs in accordance with
our regular habit/' confessed one ancient Egyptian thief.
Some tombs and graves, however, escaped looting. In modern times,
archaeologist scientist who studies past archaeologists* have opened long-sealed tombs and found them to be
human cultures, usually by excavating windows on the arts, beliefs, and customs of the distant past. Many of the
material remains of human activity best-known and most spectacular archaeological discoveries involve bur-
ial sites. The tomb of King TUTANKHAMEN of Egypt, opened by Howard
Carter in 1922, and the royal burials at UR, excavated by Leonard Wool-
nomadic referring to people who travel ley, are two such examples. In some cases, such as that of the nomadic*
from place to place to find food and Saka people of ancient CENTRAL ASIA, burial sites are all that remains of cul-
pasture tures lost to time.

BURIAL STRUCTURES AND SITES

The two principal burial structures used in the ancient Near East were
graves and tombs. The term grave usually refers to a fairly simple cavity
hollowed out of the earth. Some graves were little more than pits that
were filled in with earth after the burial. Others, called cist graves, con-
sisted of rectangular holes lined with stones or mud bricks. Some of the
oldest known burials were in pit and cist graves, and throughout the an-
cient Near East, ordinary people and the poor continued to bury their
dead in graves.
The word tomb generally refers to a structure built above ground or
carved underground to hold a corpse and the objects buried with it. Such
burial chambers represented wombs from which the dead would be re-
born or houses in which they would dwell after death, or perhaps both.
From very early times, people used natural caves as tombs. From there, it
was a short step to hollowing out new cave-tombs in rock. Other early
tombs were built to resemble houses. Some are barrows, mounds of earth
and stone that contain hollow chambers or even entire houses.
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been In some cases, people set up stelae* at burial sites. Like a modern
carved or engraved and serves as a gravestone, a stela both marked the burial site and served as a memorial
monument; pi. stelae or monument to the deceased person. A stela erected in a temple or other
special place could also serve as a substitute for an actual burial. For ex-
ample, Egyptians who could not afford burial in the sacred grounds of
ABYDOS set up stelae there.
Some peoples of the ancient Near East buried their dead under the
floors of their houses. In some cases, this practice continued, especially
for burials of infants, even after cemeteries, or burial grounds, appeared
in many communities. In addition to cemeteries within cities, the an-
cient Near East had necropolises, "cities of the dead." These areas, away
from where people lived, were set aside for tombs, temples, and funerary
rituals. Tombs might also be located in catacombs, or underground
cemeteries.

Egypt. Originally, the Egyptians buried their dead in shallow pits

marked by low mounds of sand. In time, it became customary to exca-
vate special burial chambers for the elite classes—the most wealthy and
128
 Burial Sites and Tombs
powerful membersof society.The tombof aprominent person consisted
of a deepshaft in which the body wasburied. The entrance toshaft the
* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial was covered by a large stone structure called a mastaba*. first
The
structure with long rectangularsides mastabas were solid and massive, but over time, people began carving
and a flat roof over a burial pit or niches, chapels, and rooms in them. Another form of burial was the
chamber
cave-tomb, cut intothe sidescliffs.
of Mostof these tombs consisted of
one large central room with painted wall decorations, but some had as
many as 30 chambers.
Kings planned their own tombs, including impressive mastabas, as
symbols of royal power.The combinationof ahidden burial chamberand
a monumental mound above it developed into what may be the most
easily recognized tombsof the ancientPYRAMIDS.
world:
the Egyptian
During the Early Dynastic period (ca. B.C.),
3000-2675
kings usually
had two tombs—one at Abydos in Upper Egypt and another atSaqqara
in Lower Egypt. However,it is not known which tomb,ifeither,was the
actual burial site of the king. Consequently, it is not known which tomb
is the cenotaph—emptygrave—serving as a memorial structure. The
See map in Pyramids (vol. 4). kings of the EgyptianOld Kingdom (from about 2675
B.C.)
to about 2130
built huge pyramids madeof limestone blocks. Smaller pyramids were of-
ten built beside the large ones, but their purpose isstill not clear. They
may have been built for the burialof queens,or theymay have jarsheld
containing the organs of the embalmed kings. More likely, however, they
held statues or other ritual objects buried to guarantee the kings'survival
in the afterlife.
The pyramid builders designed clever traps and blocks to keep tomb
robbers from reaching the burial chambers,butefforts their
failed.
Builders during the Middle Kingdom (ca. B.C.) 1980-1630
knew thatrob-
bers had already plundered the older pyramids. These builders built their
own pyramids less solidly, of stone casings laid over mud-brick interiors,
but they used a variety of entrancesin the hopeoffoolingthe thieves.

129
Burial Sites and Tombs
Tutankhamen and other royal personages of the New Kingdom (ca.
1539-1075 B.C.) were buried not in pyramids but in rock-cut tombs in the
VALLEY OF THE KINGS and the VALLEY OF THE QUEENS near THEBES. These
necropolises were isolated in a guarded valley. The individual tombs were
often cut very far into the rock and filled with lavish decorations and
grave goods.
The Egyptians did not bury only the human dead. After about 380 B.C.,
they also mummified animals for burial—just as they did humans—and
* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually buried them in jars or sarcophagi*. Archaeologists have found the mum-
made of stone; pi. sarcophagi mified remains of cats, dogs, bulls, baboons, and ibises. Sometimes these
mummified animals were buried in long underground catacombs. They
were offerings to the various gods and goddesses associated with particu-
lar animals.

Mesopotamia. The ancient Mesopotamians commonly buried family

members beneath the floors of houses, although there were also separate
cemeteries for burials. Many graves and underground tombs are well pre-
served, but archaeologists know little about the structures that might
have stood above them. Excavations at some sites suggest that tombs
may have been topped with vaulted roofs, benches, or platforms on
which offerings were placed.
In general, the tombs of royalty were not spectacular architectural
monuments. They did contain an extraordinary wealth of grave goods,
however. The royal cemetery of the city of Ur, excavated in the A.D. 1920s
by Sir Leonard Woolley, contained more than 1,800 graves. Achaeologists
believe that 17 of them were royal tombs. Some had been looted, but oth-
ers contained remarkable treasures and works of art: gold cups, daggers
lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious decorated with gems, ornaments made of gold and lapis lazuli*, musical
stone instruments, and golden headdresses and helmets. Some tombs con-
tained evidence of human sacrifice—an extremely rare practice in
Mesopotamia. One of them, dubbed by Woolley the "Great Death Pit,"
contained the bodies of 74 people, mostly women, in neat rows. Evidence
suggests that they were servants who had been drugged or poisoned.
Assyrian kings and queens were buried in tombs under their palaces.
The burial chambers were walled with brick and had stone doors. Al-
though the chambers were small and simple, they contained fabulous
wealth in gold vessels and jewelry, like the royal tombs of southern
Mesopotamia.

Central Asia. Cultures that arose around 2500 B.C. in the region
known as the CAUCASUS, north of ANATOLIA and IRAN, buried their dead in-
side large earth or stone mounds called kurgans. Grave goods generally
included gold and silver vessels and jewelry. Some kurgans are as large as
7.5 acres (3 hectares). They consist of burial chambers with stone floors
or buried wooden houses.
To the east, across the Caspian Sea, the nomadic Saka also built kur-
gans for their tombs, grouping them in cemeteries. Kurgans in the Aral
Sea area date from about 700 to 400 B.C. Beneath the mounds are either
square or rectangular pits. A third type of burial took place in an old set-
tlement site, with funerary structures instead of mounds above the
130
 Burial Sites and Tombs
graves. Grave goods included bronze and iron vessels, ceramic pots and
pitchers, jewelry, and mirrors. The Saka also buried their dead with
Do Not Disturb weapons—bronze arrowheads and bronze and iron knives and pick-
Efforts to deter grave robbers axes—and with pieces of horse harnesses.
and interlopers included writ-
ten warnings. A small stone
block was placed at the entrance to Iran. The people of ancient Iran commonly used cist graves for their
a tomb. On it was written a mes- dead. In the A.D. 1960s and 1970s, Iranian archaeologist Ezat Negahban
sage, often in theformof a curse. At excavated a ceremonial city built in the 1400s B.C. near Susa in what was
the grave site of an Assyrian princes once the kingdom of Elam. This site, known as Haft Tepe, contained a
for example, was found a marble
slab with the following message:
walled cluster of temples and tombs. Beneath stone slabs in the ruins of a
temple, Negahban found a brick-roofed tomb of three chambers. They
If anyone toys hands on my
tomb, let the ghost of insomnia
were filled with skeletons, possibly those of rulers and the servants sacri-
take hold of him for ever and ever, ficed to go into the afterlife with them.
It is not known if the archaeologist
who discovered the tomb in A.D. Anatolia. The HITTITES of central ANATOLIA used to cremate their dead
989 lost any sleep. and then place the remains in a grave. They viewed the grave as a kind of
transit station—a place to stay between this life and the next one. Grave
goods consisted of practical items, such as clothes, farming implements,
horses, and sheep, that could be used in the next life.
Se The Lycians, who lived in the southwest corner of the Anatolian
color plate 15 peninsula, left impressive tombs. They built many freestanding stone
ol.3
tombs throughout their realm, and they also carved honeycombs of hun-
dreds of tombs into cliff faces. The most interesting feature of these
tombs is that the stone from which they were made was carved to resem-
ble the Lycians' wooden houses, with windows, ornamental roofs, and
sliding doors.
Within the house-tombs the dead were placed on stone couches or in
niches cut into the walls. Carved images on the walls illustrate activities
from the lives of the deceased or scenes from Greek legend and history—
Lycia was strongly influenced by Greece, its neighbor across the AEGEAN
SEA. Many of Lycia's most impressive tombs were built in and around
Xanthus, its capital. The most magnificent and elaborate tomb that sur-
vives is called the Nereid monument. Built of marble in the 300s B.C., it
was probably the final resting-place of the last king of the Xanthian
* dynasty succession of rulers from the dynasty*.
same family or group The Phrygians and Lydians of Anatolia buried their dead in mounds
called tumuli. Those of the Phrygians contained wooden chambers in
which the dead lay on wooden beds, and those of the Lydians contained
chambers and passageways of stone. The Lydian tumuli were topped by
knoblike or cylinder-shaped stone markers. One Lydian tumulus, the
tomb of King Alyattes, is the largest known burial mound in all of Anato-
lia. Built around 560 B.C., it is 1,172 feet across and 198 feet high and con-
tains a large tomb chamber.

The Levant. The early Canaanites and other peoples who lived in the
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Levant* buried their dead with grave goods and offerings of food and
shores of the Mediterranean Sea drink. Even their most elaborate tombs were not as lavishly decorated
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), or richly supplied as the royal tombs of Egypt and Mesopotamia. In-
the West Bank, and Jordan
fants and children were buried with few offerings. Adult corpses might
be accompanied by wine, oil, water, meat, jewelry, weapons, tools,
131
Byblos
utensils for work and grooming, amulets and personal SEALS, and ani-
mals, usually donkeys.
Between 2000 and 1500 B.C., cist graves were introduced into Canaan
from Syria or Mesopotamia as a method of burial for the elite. This type of
A Tomb Fit for a King grave became common, but in the hill country, people often buried their
Mausolus, a king of Caria on the dead in caves, both natural caves and those cut by human effort.
southwest coast of Anatolia, died in j The people of this region often practiced secondary burial, gathering
353 B.C His sister-wife, Artemisia,
built a tomb for him in Halicarnas-
the bones from an earlier burial after the flesh had decayed and placing
sus, Caria's capital. Designed by them in a new location. Sometimes they placed the bones in a carved, lid-
Mausolus himself before his death, ded box, a chest, or a jar called an ossuary. This practice was especially
the tomb rose in layers like an enor- common among the Israelites who lived around JERUSALEM. Most ossuaries
mous cake, with statues around were made of stone, but some were of wood or clay. They were kept on
each layer. Its roof may have been shelves within family tombs. Some ossuaries held the remains of more
140 feet above the ground and was
crowned by a statue of four horses
than one person.
pulling a chariot. Known as the Most people were buried in family tombs, but in a few cases—in
Mausoleum, the tomb was consid- Jerusalem, for example—people made use of catacombs. In these under-
ered one of the wonders of the an- ground complexes, more people could be buried in less space than indi-
cient world. Sadly, we know it only vidual or family graves would require.
from old descriptions. An earth-
quake damaged it, and Christian
Although some of the dead were simply wrapped in cloth before be-
knights finished the job in the A.D. ing buried, archaeologists have found corpses buried inside sarcophagi in
1400s, when they took its stones to j Canaan and Israel. A sarcophagus was usually a single large block of lime-
build a castle. stone or some other stone hollowed into a box with a lid. Sometimes,
however, sarcophagi were made of clay and shaped roughly like human
forms. Such sarcophagi were used for burials south of present-day Gaza in
the 1300s B.C. The decorations on the outsides of sarcophagi ranged from
images of a dead king on a Phoenician sarcophagus from the 900s to geo-
See
metric and floral designs on later Jewish sarcophagi. The impulse to
color plate 5, adorn and honor the body's last earthly house, it seems, was present in all
vol. 3. times and places. (See also Death and Burial.)

BYBLOS
A n ancient seaport on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea,
Byblos (BIB«luhs) benefited by its location near the famous cedars
of Lebanon, which were valued in the ancient world as a building mater-
ial. The city became an important center of trade and commerce for thou-
sands of years. Inhabited from at least the sixth millennium B.C.*, it was
controlled by a succession of different groups. Byblos is the Greek name
* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 for the Phoenician city that was called Gubla in the Amarna letters and
to 5001 B.C. Gebal in the Hebrew Bible.
Located on the coast of present-day Lebanon, Byblos went through
many phases during its long history. By 5000 B.C., it had become a small
town with mud-brick houses. Extensive settlement took place in the
* fourth millennium B.C. years from fourth millennium B.C.*, and by about 2500 B.C., Byblos had become an
4000 to 3001 B.C. important coastal city-state*. A major shipbuilding and timber center, it
* city-state independent state consisting exported large amounts of cedar, primarily to Egypt.
of a city and its surrounding territory Byblos was destroyed by an invasion of AMORITES between 2300
and 2100 B.C. New immigrants soon rebuilt the city, however, and re-
stored its commercial and urban life. Between 1900 and 1600 B.C., Byblos
was an ally of Egypt and was once again a center of international trade,
132
 Calendars
with commercial links to Crete and other major centers of the eastern
Mediterranean.
By about 1200 B.C., Byblos had become an important Phoenician city-
state. Under the Phoenicians, its seaport developed into one of the most
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 active in the Mediterranean. In the first millennium B.C.*, Byblos was a
tO 1 B.C. major center for papyrus*, much of which it shipped to Greece. (The
* papyrus writing material made by name Byblos comes from a Greek word meaning "papyrus scroll/' The
pressing together thin stripes of the inner word bible also comes from this Greek word.) Excavations in Byblos have
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri given researchers most of the existing samples of the early Phoenician
written language.
Despite conquests by the Assyrians and Persians, Byblos continued as
a trade center, although it was surpassed by TYRE. By the time of its con-
See map in Syria (vol. 4). quest by the Romans in 64 B.C., the city had lost most of its commercial
importance. (See also Amarna; Economy and Trade; Mediterranean
Sea, Trade on; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Trade Routes.)

CALENDARS
A calendar is a system of tracking time. The realization that there are
cycles in nature was extremely important—especially for the agri-
cultural societies of the ancient Near East. They had three natural cycles
that were easy to observe. The regular change from light to dark became
the day, the cycle of the moon became the month, and the cycle of the
sun became the year.

Mesopotamia. The Babylonians of the ancient Near East did not be-
lieve that the earth revolved around the sun. They thought the sun—
along with the moon, other planets, and stars—moved around the
earth. They observed that the sun rose at the same spot on the horizon
every 365 days, and that period of days became the year.
The Babylonians noticed, too, that the effects of the sun changed dur-
ing that year. During part of the year, the sun was directly overhead and
the weather was warmer. At other times, the sun's rays were at an angle,
and the weather was colder. These became the seasons, and the Babyloni-
ans had two, each lasting six months.
The year was based on the behavior of the sun, but the month was de-
fined by the moon. The Mesopotamians were not unique in this regard.
Most peoples of the ancient world used the phases of the moon to define
a month. A month began when the first sliver of moon was visible in the
evening sky. The moon's cycle actually lasts 29.5 days. The Babylonians,
after careful observation, determined this cycle to have 29-day months
and 30-day months, which they alternated during the course of the year.
The sun-based year and moon-based month came into conflict, how-
ever. Twelve lunar months results in a year of only 354 days (6 x 29 plus
6 x 30 = 354), whereas the actual solar year is closer to 365 days. After
only three years, the calendar is more than a month off. The Babylonians
solved the problem by periodically adding a thirteenth month as they
felt necessary. In this way, months fell in the right season, and the activ-
ity associated with the month—planting, harvesting, shearing sheep—

133
Calendars
could continue to be followed. The king, acting on the suggestions of his
astronomers, decided when he wanted to add a month, and several royal
proclamations on this subject survive from ancient times. Around the
700s B.C., when the Babylonians recognized that 235 lunar months had
the exact number of days as 19 solar years, the calendar changed. They
reconciled the lunar and solar calendars by adding 7 extra lunar months
at specific times over the course of every 19-year period. This also helped
the calendar maintain the seasons. By the 300s B.C., the process had be-
come standardized.
Other peoples of ancient Mesopotamia followed slightly different sys-
tems. In Babylonia and most regions, the new year began in the spring, in
the month Nisannu, which fell in our March or April, during the spring
equinox. In EBLA and Assyria, the new year began in the fall—during the
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 fall equinox. In the first millennium B.C.*, however, the Assyrians adopted
tO 1 B.C. the Babylonian calendar.
The Babylonian calendar was strictly based on astronomical data. For
that reason, the Babylonians had no concept of the week, which has no
astronomical basis. The month was simply divided into 29 or 30 days.
The 7-day week can be traced to the Hebrew Bible. The Babylonian day
began at sunset and consisted of 12 "double-hours," each divided into 60
"double-minutes."

Egypt. The Egyptians constructed a different calendar. Their earliest

calendar was also a lunar one of 354 days. Like the Babylonians, they
added an extra month every two or three years to keep their calendar in
step with solar years. This soon became unwieldy for officials in the gov-
ernment. In about 2900 B.C., they decided to adopt a fixed calendar that
had 12 months of 30 days each. This gave them 360 days. Then they
What Time is It? added 5 days to the end of each year.
The Egyptians had a clock called a The actual solar cycle, of course, is 365lk days. Since the time of Julius
shadow clock. Similar to a sundial, it Caesar, an extra day has been added every four years—in a leap year—to
consisted of a base with a crossbar
positioned above one end. As the account for that fraction of a day. The Egyptians took no such step. Over
sun moved, the shadow shortened time, then, their 365-day calendar became inaccurate. Eventually, it came
and then lengthened, showing four to be used only by government officials. In about 2500 B.C., the govern-
morning and four afternoon time ment recognized the lunar calendar and used it alongside the previous
divisions. However, people wanted civil calendar. The lunar calendar was used to schedule religious events.
more precision in their timekeeping,
and they needed a clock that told An Egyptian year had three four-month seasons. The year began with
time at night and on cloudy days. the inundation season, when the Nile flooded (called akhef). It was fol-
The water clock, called a clepsydra, lowed by the season for planting and cultivating crops (pert) and the low-
solved this problem, An earthen- water or dry season of harvest (shemu). The year itself was not actually
ware vessel marked with intervals based on the sun, but on the appearance of the star the Egyptians called
was filled with water. A small hole inl
the bottom allowed water to drip Sothis and we call Sirius, or the Dog Star. This star disappears below the
out. As the water level dropped, the horizon for 70 days each year and reappears on the same day each year.
marks on the jar were exposed, That day comes as the Nile begins to rise. Because the rising Nile was so
showing how much time had important to Egyptian agriculture, the reappearance of Sothis was seen as
elapsed. The Babylonians em- the beginning of the new year.
ployed the water clock, a simple The Egyptian civil calendar was based on fixed values; months had
sundial, and the polos, a kind of
shadow clock. the same number of days. The Egyptians carried that principle to two
other concepts of measuring time that are used today. First, they divided
each month into weeks—though they had three weeks of ten days each.
134
 Calendars
Second, the Egyptians divided nights into 12 hours each. Twelve was cho-
sen because they saw 12 groups of stars rise above the horizon during the
course of a night. The day was also given 12 hours. However, because days
are longer in summer and shorter in winter, hours were of unequal length
during the year. In the 1100s, the Egyptians began to see days and nights
as having more or fewer than 12 hours, depending on the time of year.
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- Eventually, they settled on a fixed period of time for each hour.
influenced culture of the Mediterranean During the Hellenistic* period, the day was divided into 24 equal
world and western Asia during the three hours of 60 minutes each. The Egyptians did not, however, have any
centuries after the death of Alexander the name for a unit of time smaller than an hour. The idea of minutes came
Great in 323 B.C.
from the Mesopotamians. There are 60 minutes in an hour because their
system of counting was based on 60.

Counting Years. The practices of the ancient Near East differed from
the modern approach to the calendar in how years were counted as well.
As early as the Akkadian empire of the late 2000s B.C., years were named in
terms of important events that occurred in them. Texts speak of "the year
when Sargon went to Simurrum" or "the year when Naram-Sin conquered
[a missing place-name] and Abullat, and felled cedars in Mt. Lebanon/'
Babylonians ordered the years according to KING LISTS, which listed not
only rulers but also the span of time of their reigns. Assyrians named a year
after a king or a particular official — such as a provincial governor—who
ruled in that year. Gaps and inaccuracies make these records of only lim-
ited use to historians in identifying specific years in which events took
place. At any rate, the peoples of the ancient Near East did not count years
in a continuous sequence, as is the case today, until the beginning of the
Seleucid era, in which year 1 of that era was set in 311 B.C.

The Use of Calendars. The most important function of calendars was

to time the agricultural year. With the calendar, the farmers could know
when planting should begin, so they could have seeds ready and tools in
good repair in time. Most important, people knew the length of the non-
growing season. They could calculate how long their food had to last un-
til the next harvest, which lessened the possibility of running out of food
early. The calendar was a very important survival tool.
In addition to relying on calendars for planting and harvesting, peo-
ple used them to schedule religious and civil events. Egyptians and Baby-
lonians planned regular religious festivals and observances, and calendars
helped them determine when these events should occur and when they
needed to begin preparing for them. The Egyptians may have divided the
night into hours so that they could schedule religious rituals that took
place at night. The Babylonians used water clocks to time the movement
of stars and planets at night. Calendars could also be used to commemo-
rate past accomplishments: the building of a temple, the winning of a
war, the birth of a king, and the like.
Further, there were yearly civil events to schedule. Crops and other
goods were brought to market to be bought and sold, taxes were levied and
collected, laws were made and enforced, public buildings were built and
repaired. For a society to run smoothly, as many considerations as possible
had to be anticipated and planned. Calendars made life more orderly, more
135
Cambyses II
predictable, and more controllable. (See also Astrology and Astrologers;
Astronomy and Astronomers; Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

CAMBYSKS II
C ambyses II (kam»BY«seez), a son of CYRUS THE GREAT, became king of
the PERSIAN EMPIRE on his father's death in 530 B.C. Cambyses was
prepared for leadership. He had accompanied his father on the conquest
of Babylonia, been put in charge of Babylonian affairs, and briefly held
the title of king of Babylon.
ruled 530-522 B.C. Before his death, Cyrus had been planning to conquer Egypt. In car-
King of Persia rying on this plan, Cambyses was helped by Phoenicians, who provided a
fleet of ships; Arabs, who gave his troops water as they crossed the Sinai
desert; and Greeks in Egypt, who gave him military information. In 525,
Cambyses took the cities of Heliopolis (just south of Cairo) and Memphis.
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt Egyptian resistance evaporated, and Cambyses was crowned pharaoh*.
Cambyses apparently took on the traditional religious duties of the
Egyptian king, but there is some controversy over his rule in Egypt. The
Greek historian HERODOTUS later accused Cambyses of atrocities and
* sacrilege violation of anything held sacrilege* while he was pharaoh. These accusations, however, may be the
sacred result of criticisms made by Egyptian priests who opposed the rule of Cam-
byses, perhaps because he tried to reduce revenue paid to the temples.
After the conquest of Egypt, Cambyses planned to invade Ethiopia
and then CARTHAGE. His attack on Ethiopia failed, and no attempt to con-
quer Carthage was ever made.
There are conflicting accounts of the death of Cambyses, which took
place in 522 B.C. Some reports attribute his death to suicide, and others to
an accident. Darius I, who was the next king of Persia, had a different
story. He said Cambyses had killed his brother Bardiya. Later an impostor
claiming to be Bardiya started a rebellion that Darius was able to defeat. It
is probably the case that Bardiya did rebel against Cambyses, who died in
the fighting. Darius—whose claim to the Persian throne was not as strong
as Bardiya's—then rebelled against Bardiya and, after winning, may have
invented the story of the impostor.

CAMELS
A symbol of the desert regions of the Near East, camels have served as
pack and saddle animals since ancient times. Although domesticated*
much later than other animals such as cattle and sheep, camels eventu-
ally came to play a significant role in Near Eastern economies.
The single-humped dromedary camel is found throughout North
Africa and the Near East, from Morocco to western India. The two-humped
* domesticate to adapt or tame for Bactrian camel is predominant in the arid highland regions of CENTRAL
human use ASIA; its natural range stretches from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to
Mongolia.
Camels are noted for their adaptation to an arid climate and terrain.
They can survive by eating coarse, sparse desert vegetation and can go for
long periods without food or water. When camels eat, they store up re-
serves of fat in their humps. These fat reserves sustain the animals when
136
 Canaan
food is scarce. Camels can also manufacture water from these fat reserves.
As a result, they can go without drinking for several days. Camels have
been known to survive without water for more than two weeks. They can
drink as much as 25 gallons of water in just a few minutes.
Camels are adapted to desert environments in other ways as well.
They have wide, soft feet that enable them to walk easily on sand. They
also have double rows of eyelashes and the ability to close their nostrils,
adaptations that protect their eyes and noses from windblown sand.
Camels may have been domesticated before the third millennium
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 B.C.*, but most evidence comes from later periods. For example, camels
to 2001 B.C. appear on Syrian cylinder SEALS dating from about 1800 B.C., and they are
* second millennium B.C. years from mentioned in Mesopotamian texts from the second millennium B.C.*
2000 to 1001 B.C. Camels were probably first raised for their milk, wool, hides, and meat.
Eventually, however, they gained importance as beasts of burden. After
1000 B.C., these "ships of the desert" were widely used as pack animals in
many parts of the ancient Near East. As such, they played a major role in
trade, carrying goods along the caravan routes that snaked throughout the
region. They were especially important in opening up trade routes to
southern Arabia and carrying such luxury items as frankincense and
* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree myrrh*. For centuries camels provided the only means of transportation
resins used to make incense and through the forbidding Near Eastern deserts. Because of these animals,
perfumes traffic and communication between major centers of civilization became
possible. (See also Animals; Animals, Domestication of; Caravans;
Trade Routes.)

§ o r several thousand years, Canaan (KAY«nuhn) was a meeting place

I of cultures and a point of contact between the Near East and the
CANAAN * Mediterranean world. Canaan was home to several ancient Near
Eastern peoples, including the Phoenicians, the Philistines, and the Is-
raelites. Perhaps the most significant cultural contribution of Canaanite
civilization was the writing system that became the precursor of the ALPHA-
BETS used in most modern Western languages.

Geography and Resources. Canaan was part of the Levant, the lands
bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea,including present-
See map in Syria (vol. 4). day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the West Bank, and western Jordan. This area
was surrounded by four great centers of ancient cultural development and
civilization: MESOPOTAMIA to the east, ANATOLIA to the north, CYPRUS and
the Mediterranean Sea to the west, and Egypt to the southwest. Through
* migration movement of individuals or trade, migration*, and invasion, the peoples of Canaan absorbed influ-
peoples from one place to another ences from all sides and made them part of Canaanite culture.
Canaan's size and boundaries varied over time. In general, however,
the region was centered on a narrow plain with the Mediterranean to the
west, mountains to the north and south, and a higher, rugged inland
plateau to the east. The flat coastal strip was a highway for the armies of
conquest and the trade caravans that constantly passed through the area.
Another highway led to and from Canaan—the sea. Some of the peo-
ples who inhabited Canaan were noted seafarers. This was especially true
137
Canaan
of the Phoenicians, but even before their time, shipborne trade was car-
ried on with Cyprus and the islands of the AEGEAN SEA.
Canaan was not rich in valuable stones or metals. Its main economic
activity was agriculture. Normally around 80 percent of its people were
farmers. They generally had ample rainfall to water their crops of wheat,
* nomadic referring to people who travel barley, olives, and grapes. Another 5 to 10 percent were nomadic* herders
from place to place to find food and who raised sheep, goats, and cattle. The rest of the population lived in
pasture walled cities and towns. The cities were centers of craft production and
were the homes of merchants, sailors, soldiers, and administrators. The
merchants prospered by trading in local goods, especially carved ivory,
and by transferring goods between Egypt and Mesopotamia.

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 History. By the third millennium B.C.*, cities had begun to appear in
to 2001 B.C. Canaan. This urban culture consisted of small, walled settlements scat-
tered across the countryside. On the coast, BYBLOS and other cities were
involved in trade with Egypt. Around the end of the third millennium
B.C., Akkadian kings began to expand the borders of their empire into
Syria, ushering in a century of political, cultural, and economic decline
there. However, Byblos and other coastal cities survived. Later these
cities would become centers of the Phoenician civilization.
* second millennium B.C. years from At the beginning of the second millennium B.C.*, the AMORTTES moved
2000 to 1001 B.C. into the region and became an important element of the population.
They built fortified settlements that, over time, developed into city-
city-state independent state consisting states* ruled by kings who also controlled the surrounding countryside.
of a city and its surrounding territory Among these city-states were MEGIDDO and JERICHO. The city-state of
UGARIT, although situated to the north of Canaan, shared many cultural
connections with the Canaanites.
Around 1600 B.C., the HITTITES of Anatolia conquered northern Syria.
Their power soon faded, but a new people called the HURRIANS arose in the
Canaanite Literature region. The city-states of southern Canaan came under Egyptian influ-
and the Bible ence. After about 1500 B.C., the terms Canaan and Canaanite began to ap-
from texts found at Ugarft, it seems j pear in Mesopotamian, Egyptian, north Syrian, and Phoenician writings,
that the literature of the Canaanites although there is no evidence that the various city-states ever united into
was similar to much of what later
appeared in the Hebrew Bible. This
a single kingdom or nation.
is not too surprising because both In the late 1600s B.C., the HYKSOS invaded northern Egypt and set up
the Israelites and the Canaanite a kingdom that lasted about a century. Some scholars believe that the
lived in the same area. Two Ugaritic \ Hyksos may have been Amorites from Canaan who had moved to the
tales, EpicofAqhatmd EpicofKeret, area around the mouth of the Nile River and established settlements
are made up of shorter stories that
must have been widely told in the
there over the course of many years of trade. In the 1500s B.C., the Egyp-
region. They involve the childless tians succeeded in driving the Hyksos out of Egypt. They went on to in-
person's prayer for a son, a divine vade and conquer Canaan, which they ruled until about 1100 B.C.
visitor who leaves a reward for thos Although Canaan was a province of the Egyptian empire during this
who have been generous toward period, Egyptian rule was not always strict. The Canaanites lived in a
him, and the story of a long and cfif number of rival city-states where local rulers controlled local affairs. They
ficult quest for a wife. Similar stories
are echoed in the Hebrew Bible,
did recognize Egypt as their overlord and understood that Egypt had the
suggesting that such stories were power to settle disagreements among them.
part of a body of traditional tales. Between about 1200 and 1000 B.C. Canaan experienced a series of up-
heavals that disrupted organized urban life. Some cities, such as Ugarit, dis-
appeared. The Phoenician city-states of Byblos, TYRE, and SIDON, however,
remained occupied and under Phoenician control. One of the elements
138
 Canaan
that disrupted Canaan was the invasion of the Philistines,who established
a group of five coastal city-statesin Philistiain southern Canaan. Another
element was the rising influence
ARAMAEANS.
of the
Likethe Amorites
1,000 years earlier, the Aramaeans originated on the outskirtsSyria of but
spread acrossa much largerarea.
The most dynamicforceto enter Canaan B.C.
after
was the Is-
1200
raelites. They moved into the area from Egypt, regarding Canaan as the
land that theirYAHWEH,
god had promised them in return for obedienceto
his laws. During theB.C.,900s
they overcame both the Philistines and
most native Canaanites except the Phoenicians. The Israelites became the
dominant political power in Canaan, establishing a kingdom. That king-
dom split in two, however, and beginning
for-B.C., a in
series
theof700s
eign powers conquered and held the region. First came the Assyrians, then
the Babylonians, then the Persians, and finally the Macedonians under
ALEXANDER
THE
GREAT.

Religion and Language. Throughout its history, Canaan was divided

among manydifferent political and ethnic groups. In spite differences
of
of nationality and language, however, the Canaanite religion had ele-
ments of unity over long periods. Muchof what modern scholars know
about Canaanitebeliefs and religious practices comes from texts found
at nearby Ugarit.
The supreme god wasEL,"fatherof humanity"and "creatorof the
earth." His consort was Asherah,"creatorofcreatures"and "mother of
the gods." BAALwas the princeand "riderof the clouds."He was also
known as Hadad, ADAD, or Addu,the storm god,the bringerof rainand
fertility. Baal'swifewas ANAT,
his sister
goddessof war and love. Other im-
* deity god or goddess portant Canaanite deities* included the goddess Astarte, a warrior and
upholder ofjustice,and Daganor Dagon,the god of grain,who according
to the HebrewBible was worshiped by the Philistines.
Many gods were worshiped throughout Canaan, but each commu-
nity or city-state singled out one or two gods on whom focus. to Worship
of these particular godswas partof the identityof a tribe, ethnic group,
or city-state. Originally the Canaanites worshiped at open-air shrines,
holy places used for seasonal sacrifices and localfestivals.In the cities,
such shrines gave way to more elaborate temples designed as houses for
the gods.
Throughout its history, the majority of the people who lived in
Canaan spoke SEMITIC LANGUAGES. Beginning in about
B.C.,
a group
of 1500
dialects, which linguists call Canaanite, were spoken. Hebrew and
Phoenician are two examples of these dialects.
The Canaanites used several writing systems, including versions of
theCUNEIFORM system developedin Mesopotamia. Duringthe second mil-
lennium B.C., the Canaanites createda systemof writingin which sym-
bols represented consonant sounds. Later the Phoenicians developed this
system into an aleph-beth, the original alphabet. The seagoing Phoeni-
cians spread their system of writing throughout the Mediterranean. The
Greeks adopted theirown versionof it, adding symbolsfor vowel sounds.
The Greek alphabet becamethe foundationof the alphabets usedin Eu-
ropean languages, including English, also today.
(See Bible, Hebrew;
139
Canals
Egypt and the Egyptians; Israel and the Israelites; Israel andJudah;
Philistines; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

CANALS
C anals—artificial waterways—were vital sources of water for IRRIGA-
TION in the ancient Near East. Farming depends on water, and con-
trolling water to ensure a safe and dependable supply was essential. The
peoples of the ancient Near East—especially the Mesopotamians—began
building canals 5,000 years ago and eventually created extensive systems
of these waterways. Most of their canals were used for irrigation, but some
were used for transport and others to bring freshwater to the cities. Build-
ing and maintaining canals became important factors in supporting a so-
ciety based on growing food in an arid climate.

MESOPOTAMIA
Because average rainfall in the region is light, the fertility of
MESOPOTAMIA depended on rivers. Life along the Tigris and the Euphrates
Rivers was not easy for farmers, however. Fall was planting time, but wa-
ter levels were low then, putting young crops at risk of drying out. In
the spring, as harvest neared, flooding was severe, unpredictable, and
frequently disastrous. People needed some way to draw away high water
during the flood season and store water for dry periods. Canals were a
logical answer.

Beginnings of Canals. Few details of the earliest attempts to control

rivers are known. It is likely that early people in Mesopotamia dug chan-
nels from the river out into the plains, thus drawing water into a dry
area. Smaller ditches could then irrigate fields.
By about 2500 B.C., a larger network of canals had replaced simple irri-
gation ditches. Most of the earliest canals used the waters of the EUPHRATES
RIVER rather than those of the TIGRIS RIVER. The Euphrates is a slower river
and is thus easier to control. Also, silt deposited by the Euphrates is richer
in nutrients than that left by the Tigris. Finally, the Euphrates is at a
higher elevation than the Tigris where both enter the floodplain. Having
a river higher than the surrounding land offers the farmer some advan-
tages. First, the higher ground near the river receives larger clods of soil
when the river floods. These bigger pieces allow more water to seep
through them and stay in the ground. Second, because the land is sloped,
the water drains off better than on flat land. This prevents the buildup of
salt, which over a long period makes the soil unable to produce crops.
Eventually, a large network of canals were built to make use of the waters
* tributary river that flows into another of the Tigris River and its tributaries* as well.
river There is little evidence of any major canal projects before the reign of
SARGON I (ca. 2334-2278 B.C.), but the early techniques for building canals
continued to be used throughout Mesopotamian history. The continuing
importance of canals can be seen in the Code of Hammurabi, a set of laws
issued around 1750 B.C. In that code, several laws set penalties for careless
handling of irrigation channels.
140
 Canals
Political instability posed problems for Mesopotamian farmers be-
cause of its impact on the canal system. The breakdown of government
authority resulted in lapses in the important work of maintaining the
canals. When this occurred, areas could no longer be used to grow food
and might be abandoned.

Control of Canals. To manage water effectively, canals used two means

of control. The first was an outlet, to distribute water from the canal for ir-
rigation or to lower the water level at flood time. This outlet could be as
simple as a hole in the canal that was blocked when the water was to be
kept in the canal. Several farmers might have access to the same canal,
each with rights to some of its precious water. The outlets were opened ac-
cording to a strict schedule that brought water to each farmer's field every
ten days or two weeks. This was frequent enough to allow the chief
crops—cereal grains and flax—to grow. Laws carefully divided water rights
among farmers, and laws of inheritance dealt with these rights as well.
The second control device was a regulator, which allowed people to
hold the water in the canal for greatest efficiency. Early regulators may
have been mere piles of reeds. Over time, they became larger public
works. Large regulators made of BRICKS and dating from the middle of the
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 third millennium B.C.* have been found.
to 2001 B.C. Building and maintaining the canals required huge amounts of labor.
All the people of one or more villages might be needed to dig a canal
eight or ten feet wide. Larger projects might be directed by the govern-
ment, and canal building became an achievement in which rulers took
pride. King Rim-Sin I, who ruled LARSA around 1800 B.C., celebrated a
canal he built with typical kingly immodesty: ''I made [the people] work
by my great power. I fashioned the [canal's] two banks like awe-inspiring
mountains. I established abundance at its mouth, and its tail I extended. I
made the fresh grass thrive on its banks/'
Canals also needed constant maintenance. Silt built up quickly in the
slow-moving water in canals, slowing it further and increasing evapora-
tion. More evaporation led to higher levels of salt in the water and irri-
gated lands. Keeping the canals clear was a never-ending task, and an
official called a gugallum was given charge of canals. This canal inspector
controlled the release of water to the fields and also organized mainte-
nance work. That work typically was done in the summer, between the
harvest and planting seasons.

Other Uses for Canals. Some Mesopotamian canals were used for
purposes other than irrigation. They could be used for transport, and
some were built to provide freshwater to all areas of ancient cities. In the
600s B.C., Assyrian king SENNACHERIB had a canal built to bring water to
NINEVEH, newly named his capital. Fifty miles long and 66 feet wide, the
canal was built of stone.

EGYPT
The NILE RIVER, which watered the fields of Egypt, was less threatening to
farmers than were the rivers of Mesopotamia. The Nile reached flood
141
Capital Punishment
stage in late summer, long after crops had been harvested and before fall
plowing began. Because the Nile rose much more gradually than the
Tigris or Euphrates, floods were not as destructive to crops as they were in
Mesopotamia. As a result, there was less need to use canals to control
floods. Still, in the arid climate of Egypt, a way of storing water for use
throughout the growing season was needed. Canals, then, held water to
irrigate young crops after the Nile receded. They were also used to bring
water to marginal fields.
Lower Egypt eventually had an extensive network of canals. In Upper
Egypt, the Nile floods the eastern shore of the river. To bring some of the
floodwater to the western shore, Egyptians dug a large canal and some
smaller ones during the time of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.). The
large canal, the "Canal of the West,;/ was also used for transportation. Dur-
ing the period of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), Egypt's rulers
had canals dug from the Nile to the Faiyum Depression, an area of low
land to the west of the river. This extended the area that could be farmed.
After the Persians conquered Egypt, DARIUS I finished or redug a canal
that connected the Red Sea to the Nile River and stretched just over 50
miles. Construction on this canal had begun more than a century earlier,
during the reign of NECHO II (610-595 B.C.). (See also Agriculture; Cli-
mate; Water.)

CAPITAL C apital punishment is the lawful execution by a government of a

person convicted of a crime. All civilizations of the ancient Near
East used the death penalty to punish those found guilty of some of-
PUNISHMENT fenses, although the crimes varied.
SHULGI, a king of the city-state* of UR in MESOPOTAMIA in the late third
millennium B.C.*, put together the world's oldest known set of written
laws, known as the Shulgi Law Code. This code limited capital punish-
* city-state independent state consisting ment to a few offenses regarded as very serious: murder, robbery, and the
of a city and its surrounding territory rape of a virgin. The Babylonian king HAMMURABI, in his own law code is-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 sued around 1750 B.C., added the death penalty for such crimes as kid-
to 2001 B.C. napping, helping a slave escape, and giving false testimony in capital
cases. Additionally, the builder of a house that collapsed and killed its oc-
cupants or the owner of a tavern who did not arrest known criminals who
entered the tavern could also be executed.
The ancient Egyptians used capital punishment rarely and only for se-
rious crimes. Those tended to be crimes against the ruler or abuses of
power by government officials. Assassination attempts on the king and
tomb robbery were punishable by death. Corruption by those who served
on judicial tribunals (the citizens and officials who heard legal cases) was a
capital crime as well. The decision to execute a criminal was not decided
by the tribunal that found the person guilty. It was passed on to a higher
authority. A village court, for example, would send the decision of guilty
to a high royal official. That official would refer the death-penalty decision
to the king.
In the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), a new approach to punish-
ing high officials was introduced. Although Egyptian society generally
142
 Caravans
frowned on suicide, high-ranking individuals found guilty of serious
crimes were offered the chance to kill themselves instead of being
executed.
The HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) had a detailed
law code in which people found guilty of crimes were usually required to
pay fines rather than suffer physical punishment. Although the Hittites
used capital punishment in some cases, the government was not in-
volved in the decision to execute the criminal. For example, the relatives
of a murder victim could decline payment of a fine and request the death
* adultery sexual relations between a penalty. If a wife committed adultery*, her husband could privately kill
married person and someone other than both his wife and her lover.
his or her spouse In certain cases, most Near Eastern societies punished sorcery or black
magic—the use of magic to harm others—with death. Hittite law, for in-
stance, imposed that penalty if the person who carried out the black
magic was a slave. A free person had only to pay a fine. Governments also
imposed the death penalty on certain religious sins committed by tem-
ple personnel, such as stealing goods dedicated to the gods or neglecting
the gods.
Among the Israelites, lawbreakers or those who violated community
standards were driven out of the community. This removal from society
was considered harsh punishment. Execution was the final and most ex-
treme way of expelling a violator. It was meant not only to remove the vi-
olator from society but also to serve as a public warning to discourage
others from committing the same act. Murderers could be executed, usu-
ally by the victim's nearest male relative. A woman who willfully termi-
nated a pregnancy or who committed adultery was also subject to capital
punishment. The most common method of execution was probably
stoning, but the Hebrew Bible also mentions death by the sword and by
burning as proper forms of execution for certain kinds of crimes. (See also
Bible, Hebrew; Hammurabi, Code of; Law.)

CARAVANS
T he word caravan comes from the Persian word karwan, which means
''company of travelers." Caravans consist of groups of merchants
and other individuals who come together for mutual aid and defense
while journeying through unsettled or inhospitable territory. Closely
linked to the history of the ancient Near East, caravans have provided an
important means of trade and communication between urban centers
and widely separated peoples. Today caravans still transport goods in
some parts of the Middle East and North Africa.
Caravans developed in the ancient Near East in response to the need
to transport goods safely over long distances across deserts, mountains,
and other harsh terrain. Until the growth of large-scale commerce by sea,
caravans provided the primary means of conducting trade in the region.
Although it is uncertain when the first caravans were organized, it is
* second millennium B.C. years from known that early in the second millennium B.C.*, Assyrian traders used
2000 to 1001 B.C. donkey caravans to transport goods to and from ANATOLIA (present-day
Turkey). In Arabia, camel caravans had become an important part of trade
by the 700s B.C. and possibly even earlier.
143
Caravans
Caravan routes connected cities and towns throughout the ancient
Near East, helping expand trading networks across the region. By travel-
ing together, merchants gained a degree of protection against thieves
who might prey on solitary travelers. This protection was necessary be-
cause local governments often could not guarantee the safety of travelers
passing through their lands. Sometimes merchants or travelers hired
guides and armed escorts to accompany them on a caravan.
Most caravans included pack animals to carry goods. Donkey cara-
vans were quite common in Anatolia, and they were useful in rugged
mountainous terrain. HORSES were sometimes used as pack animals in
forested areas or grasslands. Neither horses nor donkeys, however, could
carry as much as CAMELS. Camels could carry between 350 and 1,000
pounds of cargo, depending on the weather and the length of the jour-
ney. Camels were also valuable because of their ability to survive in a
harsh desert environment.
The size of caravans varied greatly, depending on several factors, in-
Remember: Words in small capital
cluding the number of pack animals available, the amount of goods to
letters have separate entries, and the
index at the end of this Volume will
be transported, and the dangers of a particular route. Some caravans
guide you to more information consisted of only a few merchants and pack animals. Very large cara-
on many topics. vans might contain hundreds of merchants and several thousand
camels and stretch for miles along a route. A caravan sometimes moved
single file, with groups of animals fastened together by ropes. At other
times, however, the animals might travel side by side in three or four
parallel lines.
A typical caravan could travel between 16 and 40 miles a day, de-
pending on the number of hours traveled, the weather conditions, and
the terrain. Caravans traveling in summer often moved at night and
stopped to rest during the day, when temperatures became extremely hot.
Trips were also scheduled to coincide with seasonal changes in water sup-
plies and the availability of pasture where camels or other pack animals
could graze. Caravan trips might last weeks, months, or even years. Be-
cause they were long, costly, and difficult enterprises, caravans usually
carried valuable goods, such as fine cloth (mainly silk), GEMS, IVORY, PER-
FUMES, dyes, rare metals and woods, and salt. The high value of these
products enabled merchants to offset the high costs of the caravan.
By about 500 B.C., rulers of the PERSIAN EMPIRE began to build way sta-
tions along main caravan routes to provide shelter and protection for
travelers. These caravansaries, as they were called, were usually spaced
about a day's journey apart. Some caravansaries were located in isolated,
desolate areas. Others were built just outside the walls of towns.
All caravansaries were built in a similar style. Rectangular in shape,
they had massive stone or brick walls with only a few small windows at
the top and a single gateway with a heavy wooden door. This heavy struc-
ture offered protection against robbers. Inside the walls was a large open
courtyard surrounded by storerooms on the ground level and sleeping ar-
eas above. The central courtyard was usually big enough to hold about
400 camels or donkeys.
Caravansaries provided the essentials that the people and animals in
a caravan needed—well water, a place for animals to rest, sleeping rooms
for travelers, kitchen facilities, and sheltered areas for storing goods.
144
 Caria and the Carians
While the caravansaries supplied water, travelers had to provide food for
themselves and their animals.
* maritime related to the sea or shipping With the expansion of maritime* trade in later centuries, caravans be-
came less important in many regions of the Near East. Yet they remained
a vital means of transporting goods across desert areas well into the mod-
ern age. (See also Economy and Trade; Fortifications; Roads; Trade
Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

CARIA AND
D uring the first millennium B.C.*, Caria (KAR»ee«uh) was the name
given to a region in southwestern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey).
According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS and other ancient writers,
the Carians (KAR«ee»uhnz) were a brave, warlike people. They fought gal-
THE CARIANS lantly against the troops of the PERSIAN EMPIRE and often hired themselves
out as mercenaries* in foreign lands, especially Egypt.
The exact origin of the Carians is unknown. Ancient Greek writers be-
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 lieved that the Carians had lived on islands in the AEGEAN SEA but had been
tO 1 B.C. driven into Anatolia by invading Greeks. The Carians themselves claimed
* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, to be of Anatolian origin and related to such neighboring groups as the Ly-
often for a foreign country dians and the Lycians. This claim is supported by the Carian language,
which belongs to the Anatolian group of INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
Caria consisted of two regions—the rugged coastal areas, which con-
tained many deep inlets and several islands, and the mountainous inte-
rior, which consisted of fertile, but isolated valleys. In this interior, the
* fortification structure built to Carians built several hilltop fortifications* and settlements. Some of these
strengthen or protect against attack structures served as ritual centers, especially those in Mylasa. The Carians
* deity god or goddess worshiped several deities*, many of whom were adopted by the Greeks
when they interacted with the Carians in eastern Anatolia. Hecate, the
Greek goddess of crossroads, who later became associated with witchcraft
and the supernatural, was probably adopted from the Carians.
Much of what is known about Carian culture comes from Greek writ-
ers, who portrayed the Carians as a militant people. These writers
recorded such details as the Carian customs of slashing their faces with
See map in Anatolia (vol. 1). knives at funerals, mixing blood into their wine, and not inviting women
to dinner. They also noted that Carian men generally left home to seek
their fortunes, often spending their entire lives away from their families.
Many fought as hired soldiers in Egypt, Persia, and other lands.
During most of the first millennium B.C., Carian soldiers were at-
tracted to Egypt because of its great wealth. Moreover, because Egypt was
unstable at the time and faced the threat of invasion, first from the Assyr-
ians and later from the Babylonians and Persians, the Egyptian kings
needed soldiers. Consequently, many Carian soldiers fought for pay on
behalf of Egypt. Later they settled in Egyptian cities, adopted Egyptian
names, took Egyptian wives, and followed Egyptian religion. So many
* archaeologist scientist who studies past Carians settled in Egypt during that period that archaeologists* have
human cultures, usually by excavating found far more Carian texts and artifacts there than in Anatolia. Some of
material remains of human activity these texts are bilingual, containing both Carian alphabetic and Egypt-
ian HIEROGLYPHIC writing. These texts have helped scholars decipher the
Carian language.
145
Carpets
In the mid-500s B.C., Caria—previously incorporated into the king-
dom of Lydia—came under Persian domination. In the early 400s B.C., the
Carians joined the lonians in a revolt against Persian rule but failed. By the
* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled early 300s B.C., Caria had become a satrapy* of the Persian empire and was
territory under the rule of a satrap, or placed under the rule of a Carian dynasty* appointed by Persia. The most
provincial governor notable member of that dynasty was Mausolus, who came to power in 377
* dynasty succession of rulers from the B.C. An effective ruler, he made Halicarnassus, the Carian capital, into a
same family or group splendid city. The city is best known for the large tomb that Mausolus de-
signed to hold his remains. It is considered one of the seven wonders of
the ancient world. The designer of this elaborately decorated structure in-
spired the term mausoleum, which refers to a large, ornate tomb.
In 334 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Caria, which became part
of his empire. By the late 100s B.C., the Romans had gained control of
Caria, which became a part of the Roman province of Asia Minor. (See also
Burial Sites and Tombs; Egypt and the Egyptians; Greece and the
Greeks; Lycia and the Lycians; Lydia and the Lydians.)

Carpets See Furnishings and Furniture.

f ounded by the Phoenicians in the early 700s B.C., the city of

I Carthage (KAHIMhij) became a prosperous trading center in the
CARTHAGE " western Mediterranean. At the peak of its power, Carthage controlled
a commercial empire that stretched along the coast of North Africa and
included colonies in Spain, the Balearic Islands, and the islands of Malta,
SARDINIA, Corsica, and Sicily.

Early History. The traditional date for the founding of Carthage is 814
* city-state independent state consisting B.C. In that year, legends say, traders from the Phoenician city-state* of
of a city and its surrounding territory TYRE, led by Dido, the king's daughter, established a settlement near a hill
along the coast of present-day Tunisia in North Africa. The settlement was
* archaeological referring to the study named Qart Hadasht, or "new town." However, archaeological* evidence
of past human cultures, usually by shows remains of a settlement that dates only from the early 700s B.C.
excavating material remains of human The site had many advantages. Located on a hilly peninsula that juts
activity
out into the Mediterranean Sea, it had a safe anchorage for ships, fertile
soil, and abundant supplies of fish. Most important, it occupied a strate-
gic position at the midpoint of Mediterranean sailing routes.
Carthage remained a Phoenician colony until the 600s, when Tyre
became part of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The city gained its independence at
See map in Phoenicia and the that time and began to build its own colonial empire. In addition to tak-
Phoenicians (vol. 4).
ing control of long-established Phoenician colonies throughout the west-
ern Mediterranean, the people of Carthage founded new settlements of
their own.
This expansion of power brought Carthage into conflict with the
Greeks. In the 500s B.C., the Carthaginians and Greeks vied for control of
146
 Carthage
Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, as well as territory along the coast of Spain.
In about 535 B.C., Carthage formed an alliance with the Etruscans of Italy
and drove the Greeks out of Corsica. Struggles for control of Sicily contin-
ued for centuries and eventually brought the Carthaginians into conflict
with a much more formidable rival, the Romans.

Society and Culture. By the 300s B.C., Carthage was a major power,
with colonies throughout the Mediterranean and extensive trading net-
works that brought the city enormous wealth. Although the city's con-
nection to its Phoenician heritage remained strong, it developed its own
political institutions.
While a Phoenician colony, Carthage was probably ruled by adminis-
trators appointed by the king of Tyre. The Carthaginians later established
a system of government headed by officials chosen by a council of elders
that included rich merchants and religious leaders. Although called kings
in ancient Greek sources, they were elected officials rather than heredi-
tary monarchs.
* tribute payment made by a smaller or Carthage demanded tribute* from its colonies and often required
weaker party to a more powerful one, them to provide troops for its armies. Carthage itself did not have enough
often under the threat of force people to create large armies to defend its empire. It thus relied heavily on
* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, colonial troops and mercenaries*.
often for a foreign country The Carthaginians followed traditional Phoenician religious beliefs,
* deity god or goddess including worship of the god BAAL and other deities*. One notable ele-
ment of their religion was the sacrifice of children. This practice persisted
in Carthage down to the 140s B.C., long after it had been stopped in
Phoenicia.
In their search for wealth, the Carthaginians sailed beyond the con-
fines of the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient sources suggest that they voyaged
as far as the Canary Islands and the northwest coast of present-day Spain.
In that voyage, they seem to have been searching for direct access to a
valuable supply of tin.

Later History. Among its Mediterranean rivals, the most dangerous

for Carthage proved to be the Romans. Between the 500s and early 200s
B.C. Carthage and Rome signed several peace treaties. Eventually, how-
ever, rivalry between the two powers increased and erupted into war.
Between 264 and 146 B.C., Carthage and Rome fought a series of three
wars known as the Punic Wars. During the first two wars, Carthage suf-
fered humiliating defeats and had to give up most of its territory. The
third Punic War ended in the Roman conquest of Carthage in 146 B.C.
The Romans plundered and then destroyed the city.
Resettled by Romans a few decades later, Carthage became the capi-
tal of the Roman province of Africa in the first century A.D. The city grew
rapidly under the Romans, reaching a population of more than 250,000.
It regained its commercial importance and became the center of trade
between Africa and Rome. By the A.D. 100s, Carthage rivaled Alexandria
in Egypt as the second most important city— after Rome — of the Roman
empire. Carthage also became an important center of learning and of
Christianity.
147
£atal Hiiyiik
Carthage remained a Roman city until 439 B.C., when it was con-
quered by the Vandals, a Germanic people who had invaded North Africa
from Spain. Recaptured by the Byzantine empire in 553 B.C., it fell to the
Arabs in 695 B.C. and was completely destroyed shortly thereafter. (See
also Cities and City-States; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

CATAL HUYUK
c: atal Hiiyiik (CHA«tuhl HOOyook) is an archaeological* site in
;outh central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). It is the region's largest
fa settlement dating from the Neolithic period*, before the rise
3 known
of advanced civilizations.
To date, archaeologists have excavated 14 levels of settlement at this
site, each built atop another, and believe that even deeper levels may ex-
* archaeological referring to the study ist. Although £atal Hiiyiik's dates are not known with complete cer-
of past human cultures, usually by tainty, the excavations suggest that the site was inhabited during the
excavating material remains of human period from around 6300 to 5200 B.C. Scholars believe that at its height,
activity
£atal Hiiyiik contained about 1,000 households with a population of
* Neolithic period final phase of the about 5,000.
Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C.
The houses at £atal Hiiyiik were made of mud bricks* laid on wooden
* mud brick brick made from mud, frameworks. The floors and walls were covered with white plaster, and
straw, and water mixed together and
baked in the sun
the roofs were constructed with light wooden beams. A typical house
consisted of a square living space with an attached storeroom. The people
of £atal Hiiyiik built their homes right next to one another, without
streets or doorways. Researchers believe the inhabitants used ladders to
enter their homes through holes in the roofs. Benches and platforms,
possibly for sleeping, protruded out from the walls. Some of these mud-
brick structures were designated as shrines and were decorated with
* relief sculpture in which material is cut paintings, reliefs*, and bulls' horns.
away to show figures raised from the The inhabitants of £atal Hiiyiik cultivated wheat and barley and
background gathered wild plants. Excavations from some of the levels of settlement
* domesticate to adapt or tame for suggest that they also kept domesticated* cattle and dogs and hunted
human use such animals as wild sheep, deer, bears, and lions for meat and skins. The
people of this region buried the bones of their dead under the floors of
their homes and shrines. Those buried under the shrines were generally
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or laid to rest with several precious objects. Among the artifacts* unearthed
other object made by humans at £atal Hiiytik, including those at burial sites, are pottery vessels, boxes
and vessels made of wood, objects made from animal bones, and tools
* obsidian black glass, formed from and jewelry of polished obsidian*. Archaeologists have also found pen-
hardened lava, useful for making sharp dants, rings, and beads made from naturally occurring copper and lead.
blades and tools Some of the copper objects appear to have been made from smelted ore,
while others were hammered into shape from the ore.
The excavations also revealed interesting aspects of the inhabitants'
See map on inside covers artistic and spiritual lives. Artworks include elaborate wall paintings of
geometric patterns or human and animal figures in hunting scenes. The
plaster reliefs of humans and animals found in some of the mud-brick
structures were generally preoccupied with the themes of hunting and
fertility. Several wall sculptures and small clay statues depict women in
seated birthing positions and may have represented mother goddesses
148
 Cats
and birth goddesses. Other figurines wereofanimals thatthepeople
hunted.
The decorations,artifacts, and religious artworks show thatthepeo-
ple of £atal Hiiyiikhad arich cultural heritage.
fact,
Insuch advancedart
forms have not been found elsewhere in theregion. Thus, theexcava-
tions at £atal Hiiyiik have helped archaeologists andhistorians shed new
light on Neolithic civilizations in theancient Near East.

CATS
T here is little evidence to support the idea that peoplein theareasof
the ancient NearEast kept domesticated* cats before
lennium B.C. (1000-1
firstthe
B.C.).The only exceptionis inEgypt, where there
mil-
is
evidence that cats were domesticatedasmanyas1,000 years earlierand
were highly valued.
* domesticated adapted ortamed for The early history of domesticated catsisunknown. They mayhave
human use become tamedas earlyas B.C.,
8000when people
firstbegan living
inset-
* cult system of religious beliefs and tled communities.It isimpossible, however,todistinguishtheremains of
rituals; group following these beliefs wild catsfrom those of domesticated cats. Evidence suggests that the do-
* archaeologist scientist whostudies mestic cat of the ancient Near Eastevolved
fromwild species nativeto
past human cultures, usually by Africa and Arabia.
excavating material remains of human Among the ancient Egyptians, wild cats were probably firstkept in
activity
captivity but not domesticated. Theearliest evidence ofcats being found
in Egyptian human burial sites dates fromthefourth B.C.,millennium
yearsfrom 4000 toB.C. 3001While nothingindicates thatthese cats were
domesticated, these burial sites maysuggest that theprocess oftaming
cats had begun. Wild cats, especially lions, were representedinEgyptian
religiousart as far backas the third millennium
B.C. B.C.).
(3000-2001
By the timeof the Middle Kingdom (ca. B.C.), 1980-1630
there
isevi-
dence in art and writing that cats were domesticated. They mayhave
been tamed originally to help control rats, mice, andother vermin that
ate grain supplies.By the timeof the NewKingdom, however, Egyp-
the
tians were worshiping domesticated catsassacred animalsandbreeding
them specificallyfor religious purposes.
Religious cults* rose around catworship,andcertain Egyptian gods
became associated with cats. Thegoddess Sekhmet,forexample,was in
early times represented with ahuman body and theheadof afemale lion.
The goddessBast (or Bastet)wasalso portrayedas alioness. Later these
goddesses were often depicted with the heads oftame cats. Their depic-
tion both as domesticated cats and aslions represented thecontrast be-
tween the gentle and dangerous aspectsoftheir personalities.
Domesticated cats also servedaspets, first among Egyptian royalty
and the elite and later amongallsocial classes. Whena catfuneral died,a
procession washeld, and the animalwasplacedin atomb along with food
and favorite toys.Becauseoftheir importance, cats were frequently mum-
mified. Large numbersof mummified cats found byarchaeologists* sug-
gest that the animalsmay have been sacrificedaspartofreligious rituals.
(See also Animals; Animals in Art; Burial Sites and Tombs;Egypt and
the Egyptians; Mummies; Rituals and Sacrifice.)
149
Cattle

CATTLE
S heep and goats were domesticated* before cattle, and there were
more of them than cattle in the ancient Near East. Still, cattle were
important to the peoples of the region, not only as a source of food but
also as work animals.
The ancestors of modern cattle—a wild species known as the aurochs—
once roamed the forests and grasslands of the ancient Near East. Aurochs
* domesticated adapted or tamed for were an important food source for prehistoric hunters in the region. It is
human use uncertain when the taming of wild cattle began, but evidence from £ATAL
* archaeological referring to the study of HUYUK and other archaeological* sites in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey)
past human culture, usually by excavating suggests that cattle may have been domesticated there during the sixth
material remains of human activity millennium B.C.* The earliest reliable evidence of dairying activities comes
* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 from sites in MESOPOTAMIA and Egypt dating from about 2,000 years later.
to 5001 B.C. Because herds lived in widely separated areas of the Near East, they
changed as the result of inbreeding. By about 1000 B.C., various types of
cattle could be seen in different regions.
Although less abundant than either sheep or goats, cattle made an
important contribution to the meat supply of ancient populations. In ad-
dition to the value of their meat, milk, and hides, cattle served a need that
sheep or goats could not—they were used as work animals. The Sumeri-
ans and Egyptians were using cattle to pull plows and carts by 2500 B.C.
* thresh to crush grain plants so that the Cattle were also used to sow fields and thresh* grain.
seeds or grains are separated from the The domestication of animals, including cattle, combined with the
stalks and husks growth of agriculture to promote the rise of urban societies. Because cattle
did work previously done by humans, people were freed to do other work
in the community. This helped in the development of more complex so-
cial and economic systems.
Temples, royal households, and wealthy individuals sometimes
owned large herds of cattle, perhaps numbering in the thousands. Such
large herds were usually tended by professional herders. Ordinary fami-
lies, on the other hand, rarely had more than a few cattle because the ani-
mals were too expensive to feed and maintain. They ate more than sheep
and goats and were often fed part of the barley crop that farmers grew.
Cattle were sometimes sacrificed as part of religious rituals. This was very
rare with cows, however, because of their value as milk producers.
Much of what is known about cattle in the ancient Near East comes
from written records and art. Letters from Mesopotamia show writers ask-
ing about the health of cattle just as they asked about members of the fam-
ily. Sculptures and wall paintings show how people cared for the animals,
milked them, and used them to plow fields and perform other agricultural
tasks. (See also Agriculture; Animals; Animals, Domestication of.)

CAUCASUS
T he northern limit of the ancient Near East is the Great Caucasus
(KAW-kuh-suhs), a mountain range that runs from northwest to
southeast between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The surrounding
land is called the Caucasus. Parts of this region were influenced by the
cultures of the ancient Near East.
The 720-mile-long Great Caucasus mountain range divides the Cau-
casus in two. North of the mountain range is Ciscaucasia, now part of
150
 Caucasus
Russia. South of the range is Transcaucasia, which includes the present-
day countries of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. In ancient times, Tran-
scaucasia was the northern neighbor of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey),
MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Syria and Iraq), and IRAN. This region was linked
culturally and historically to the ancient Near East. Ciscaucasia, on the
other hand, was more influenced by developments on the Eurasian
steppe large semiarid grassy plain with steppes*.
few trees Transcaucasia's geographic features include several smaller mountain
obsidian black glass, formed from ranges, known collectively as the Little Caucasus, and two major rivers,
hardened lava, useful for making sharp the Kura and the Araxes. The mountains contained sources of obsidian*,
blades and tools which prehistoric inhabitants of the area quarried* and traded. Evidence
quarry to excavate pieces of stone by of such trade has been found as far away as southwestern Iran. With its
cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) many copper-rich ores, the Caucasus was a major center in the develop-
blasting
ment of metalworking.
sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 The first well-documented farming culture to arise in Transcaucasia
to 5001 B.C.
was the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the sixth millennium* or fifth mil-
fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 lennium* B.C. There were other Neolithic period* cultures in southern
to 4001 B.C.
Transcaucasia as well. These cultures appear to have had some contact
Neolithic period final phase of the with the Near East, because archaeologists* have found pottery from
Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C.
Mesopotamia and SYRIA in the places where they lived.
archaeologist scientist who studies past Around 3500 B.C. the Kura-Araxes culture appeared in valleys along
human cultures, usually by excavating
material remains of human activity
the major rivers. Hundreds of sites have been discovered throughout
Transcaucasia. Kura-Araxes people made distinctive pottery and pro-
duced tools of copper and bronze. They also built IRRIGATION canals, agri-
cultural terraces, and massive stone constructions. Elements of
Kura-Araxes culture spread as far south as Iran and Syria, carried by trade
* migration movement of individuals or or possibly migration*. Sometime after about 2500 B.C., however, the
peoples from one place to another Kura-Araxes settlements were abandoned. Nomadic* sheep and goat
* nomadic referring to people who travel herders then settled in the area. They moved their large flocks from the
from place to place to find food and river valleys to highland summer pastures each year.
pasture Almost all of the archaeological record from about 2200 B.C. until
about 1500 B.C. comes from the excavation of large stone and earthen
burial mounds called kurgans. Although most kurgans had been robbed
in ancient times, many important objects have been recovered. Exca-
vated kurgans have contained gold, silver, and bronze jewelry, metal tools
and weapons, and wheeled carts.
By about 1500 B.C. people had once again begun to build permanent
settlements in the region. Heavily fortified sites appeared, which were of-
ten perched on hilltops and surrounded by thick stone walls. Kurgans
See map in Geography (vol. 2). continued to be constructed. Archaeological evidence suggests that the
population became a cohesive unit (or units) with state organization in
the southern Caucasus where the kingdom of URARTU later took shape.
Throughout the rest of the ancient period the Caucasus attracted in-
vaders from two directions. Nomadic tribes and horsemen sometimes
came from the north and east and moved into areas to the south. The
empires of Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and Iran sometimes expanded into
the region. As a result of the flow of peoples over many years, and the
difficult terrain, the northern Caucasus, or Ciscaucasia, became an eth-
nic patchwork. (See also Metals and Metalworking; Scythia and the
Scythians.)
151
Cavalry

CAVALRY
A cavalry is a specialized military

the 900s
force consisting

B.C. Thereafter,the major powersof the ancient Near

of troops
who
fight
while mounted on horseback. Cavalries did not appear until about
Eastall
maintained cavalriesasARMIES.
partof their
Horses werefirst used inwarfare in the ancient Near East to pull
CHARIOTS.Later mounted troops accompaniedthe chariotryto serve as
scouts and messengers, but they werenot a fighting force.The develop-
ment of new bridles, although not stirrups, eventually led to the emer-
gence of groupsof mounted soldiers separate fromthechariotry—atrue
cavalry. As mounted troops became more skilledin using bowsand ar-
rows, spears, and other weapons from horseback, the cavalry became an
effective fighting force and an increasingly important branch of the
military.
The cavalry had a number of advantages overthe chariotry.Asingle
mounted rider could travel faster,
farther, and over more varied terrain
than a chariot. The costof a single horsewasmuch lessthan thatof achar-
iot and a team of horses.The numberofcombat soldiersin the cavalry was
also greater than that in a chariotforceof the same size. Although chariots
usually carried two soldiers, one wascompletely occupied with driving the
chariot and could not fight. With the cavalry, each soldier could fight
from his own horse.
fortification structure built to As the cavalry developed into a fighting force, its responsibilities
strenghten or protect against attack broadened. Cavalrymen continued to scout and relay messages. However,
relief sculpture in which material is cut they also protected the army while on the march, attacked the enemy's
away to show figures raised from the lines of supply and communication, terrorized local populationsbycon-
background ductingswift and savage raids,fired on the enemy during battle,andpur-
sued retreating enemy troops. The cavalrywaseffective, not however,in
attacking fortifications*.
Egyptian texts of theB.C.
refer
1300sto the military title "commander
of horsemen/' but whether these horsemen actually fought on horseback
or merely rode their horses to the battle and then dismounted to fight on
foot is not clear. Egyptian reliefs*of theB.C.mid-1200s
show mounted
Hittite soldiers armed with bows and arrows. Such horsemen mayhave
functioned mainly as scouts and messengers,and thereislittle evidence
to suggest that they werean important fighting Reliefs
force.of the 900s
B.C. show armed horsemen SYRIA
in Tell
northern
atHalaf. Passages
from
the HebrewBible describing Egyptian military campaigns against Judah
suggest that Egypt had large cavalry forces at around the same time, but
these references may have been added to the original textseveral cen-
turies later and thus may be anachronistic, or out ofplace. By the 700s
B.C., however, trained cavalry units were certainly fightingfor boththe
Assyrian and Egyptian armies;by the following century, they largelyre-
placed chariotryas major
a battle
force.
TheMEDES and Persians also developed large, effective cavalries,
and
their mounted archers became famous throughout the ancient world.
The cavalry becamethe principal attack forcein the armies King
of Philip
II ofMACEDONIAand ALEXANDER
his
GREAT.
son
THEAlexander used his ex-
pert horsemen to win victories over every enemy hemet, helping him es-
tablish one of the greatest empiresof the ancient
also
(See Wars world.
and Warfare.)
152
 Central Asia

CENTRALASIA
T he vast expanse of mountains,deserts,steppes*,and valleys between
the Caspian Sea and the western border of China is called Central
Asia. The part of Central Asia that borderson the ancient Near Eastis di-
vided among the present-day nations of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kaza-
khstan, Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan, and Afghanistan. Major geographic
features of this region includeKara
the KumKyzyl
and Kum deserts in the
* steppe large, semiaridgrassy plain withnorth and theriversAmuDarya,Syr Darya,and Murghab.As earlyas pre-
few trees historic times, Central Asia experienced cultural interchange and trade
* archaeologist scientist who studies past with partsof the ancientNear East,
IRAN.
Later
particularly
it became part
human cultures, usually by excavating of thePERSIAN EMPIRE.Likethe rest
of the Persian empire, Central
fellAsia
material remains of human activity to ALEXANDER
GREAT
THEin the B.C.
late 300s
* fifth millennium
B.C. years between
5000 and 4001 B.C. Prehistoric Central Asia. Archaeologists* have excavated sites of vil-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, orlages and towns in Central
Asia dating backB.C.*
fifth
to themillennium
other object made by humans In the EarlyBronze Age, about B.C.,3000
central
to 2000
Asian
farmers
lived just below the foothills of the surrounding mountains. Duringthe
next 500 years, through about B.C.,
thethe
year
population
1500 moved
to the low-lying, arid plainsof Central Asia, which became denselyoc-
cupied by agricultural people. They lived in mud-brick houses and built
IRRIGATION canals that connectedto the streamsand riversof the region.
Two populous areasof prehistoric Central Asia were Margiana, along
the MurghabRiver,
BACTRIA,
and alongSEALS,
the POTTERY,
Amu Darya.
pins, weapons, stone columns, and other artifacts* found in these settle-
ments resemble those of ancient southwestern Iranand Pakistan. Some
historians believe that people
from Central
Asia migrated southward into
Iran. Others argue that Iranians migrated into CentralAsia. Either way,
by

153
Ceramics
about 1000
B.C. amajor part of the Central Asian population probably
spoke an Iranian language. The later ethnic and cultural history of the re-
gion rests on this Indo-Iranian foundation.

Central Asia in Ancient History. AfterB.C.,

aboutthe1000
people
nomad person who travels from place of CentralAsia,like those elsewherein the Near
East, beganto use iron
to place to find food and pasture instead of bronze to make tools and weapons.At the same time, orga-
nized states began to emerge. Their societies were divided into
different
social classes based on wealth and specialized technical skills, such as
working with metals. The main areasof population were again Margiana
and Bactria.
The region was becoming more urban, and some settlements grew
quite large.Bactra, capital ofBactria, playeda key rolein that country's
political, religious, economic, and cultural
life. It had an important tem-
ple of Zoroastrianism, the principal Iranian religion. Maracanda (now
called Samarkand), capital of a state called Sogdiana,was another major
city. The regions of Chorasmia, along the lower Amu Darya,and Parthia,
south of theKaraKum alsohad large settlements.
During the B.C.
500sthe rulers of Persia brought these regions into
their empire. The Central Asia provinces provided many soldiers who
took part in the Persianwars against ARCHITECTURE
Greece. Artofand
the
region show Persian influence.The Templeof the Oxus Bactria,
in for in-
stance, echoes designs of Persian buildings and held carved ivory and
jewelry pieces thatreflect Persian images.
Not all the people of Central Asia lived in towns and cities at this
time. The horse-riding nomads* who occupied the plains were a number
of distinct groups who were together called Saka or Scythiansby classical
writers. In language and culture they were related to the European Scythi-
ans who lived on the steppes of southwestern Russia.The nomads' econ-
omy was based primarily on herding sheep, goats, and horses. They
traded animal products for grain and luxury goods from their settled
neighbors. TheSaka sometimes conducted raids against Near Eastern
em-
pires. They were renowned for their skill in riding horses and shooting
with the bow.
(Seealso Scythia and the Scythians.)

Ceramics See Pottery.

CEREALGRAINS
C ereal grains were the principal food crops of the peoples of the an-
cient NearEast. They provided important nutrients, especially car-
bohydrates and protein, and were the chief ingredients in the most
popular food and beverage—bread and beer, respectively. Cereal grains
also servedas aformof currency. People traded grains
for other goods and
used them to pay their taxes and settle their debts. Therefore,it is not sur-
prising that an enormous amount of timeeffort
and was devoted to grow-
ing and processing cereal grains.
154
 Cereal Grains
* domesticate to adapt or tame for Cultivation. As early as 9000 B.C., people began to domesticate* cer-
human use tain wild plants. The practice is believed to have started in the southern
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Levant*. From there, it spread slowly through the Near East, and by
shores of the Mediterranean Sea about 4000 B.C., AGRICULTURE was firmly established as far away as India.
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), The two main crops cultivated in the ancient Near East were wheat
the West Bank, and Jordan
and barley. Wheat, which demands better soil and more water than barley,
was the main cereal grain in Egypt. Barley, which can survive in drier cli-
mates and poorer soils, was more important in the Levant and
Mesopotamia. The people cultivated four known types of wheat: emmer,
the most common type; einkorn; hard wheat; and bread wheat. There
were two varieties of barley: two-row and six-row barley. Of course, farmers
also grew fruits and vegetables, flax to make linen and produce linseed oil,
legumes vegetables, such as peas and and legumes*, but wheat and barley formed the staple of the people's diet.
beans, that are rich in protein Farming methods varied between and within regions and were
largely determined by rainfall and climate. In the Levant and northern
Mesopotamia, where rainfall was generally adequate to support agricul-
* dry farming farming that relies on ture, the people practiced dry farming*.
natural moisture retained in the ground In southern Mesopotamia, which had a much drier climate, elaborate
after rainfall IRRIGATION systems were needed. The farmers there built CANALS and levees*
* levee embankment or earthen wall to control the annual floods of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The levees
alongside a river that helps prevent prevented the floodwaters from rushing into fields full of standing crops,
flooding
and the canals served as reservoirs.
Farmers in Egypt, on the other hand, relied on the natural flood cycle
of the Nile River. Each summer the waters of the Nile rose slowly and
spread out onto the floodplains on either side of the river. People built
canals and dikes to direct the flow of water to the farms. The annual
floods left the land in good condition for planting.
Throughout the ancient Near East, farmers became expert at getting
the best possible yield from their seeds. Early texts indicate that they
planted the seeds in tidy rows to make weeding and irrigation easier. They
' archaeological referring to the study carefully calculated the amount of seed needed for a particular area on
of past human cultures, usually by the basis of the distance between the rows.
excavating material remains of human Archaeological* evidence reveals that some regions in the ancient
activity
Near East were under cultivation for only a short period. It is possible that
the people abandoned these areas because rainfall levels became too low
to support agriculture,
Drunk and
Disorderly Harvesting and Storage. At harvest time, people used flint-bladed
Egyptian beer was strong, hand sickles to cut the ripened plants just below the head. They then car-
and many ancient texts warn ried the grain heads in large baskets to the threshing floor. There teams
against drinking too much of it of cattle or donkeys were made to walk over the grain heads. This sepa-
One such text advises:
rated the grain—the seeds—from the chaff—the stalks and husks. The
Don't indulge in drinking beer, threshed grain was then sifted to remove impurities and stored in mud-
Lest you utter evil speech brick storage chambers or in underground pits lined with stone or plas-
Anddoniknowwhatyou'resaying,
If you fall and hurt your body, ter. The chaff was used to feed the animals and to make bricks. The
None holds out a hand to you; occasions when the storage chambers were opened—once in spring and
Your companions in the drinking once in autumn—were generally considered ceremonial events.
Stand up saying: ''Out with Harvest season was always the busiest time of the farming year be-
the drunk!" cause a great deal of work was required and the crops tended to ripen at
the same time. Consequently, labor shortages were often a problem. As a
155
Cereal Grains

general rule, lands owned by large institutions such as temples and

palaces were harvested
first. These institutions expected all the people
over whom they had power to help with the harvest. Once the palace and
temple harvests were completed, the people tended to their own crops.

Bread. Bread was the most importantof all cereal products. Most of the
bread eaten in the ancientNearEastwasunleavened,or made without
yeast. As a result,the loaves were
flat,
justlikethe pita bread that is con-
sumed in the region today. To make bread, the grain was pounded and
ground into flour. At each stage,it was
siftedto remove
fragmentsof husk.
Finally, the flour was mixed with water untilit becamesoft dough.Loaves
were shaped by hand and baked on a flat stone over a fire or in a clay oven.
Loaves varied in shape,size, and weight, as wellas in the ingredients
they contained. They could be triangular, rectangular, square,or spiral.
Some were even moldedin the shapeof humanor animal figures. Some
156
 Chaldea and the Chaldeans
were sprinkled with seeds or herbs; others were mixed with fruits. Archae-
'History From ologists found the remnants of breads made with fruit in King TU-
TANKHAMEN'S tomb. The ancient Egyptians had more than 30 terms to
Burnt Toast identify the breads, cakes, and biscuits they baked. Hittite texts also in-
Plants decay—so how can we clude several names for breads, most of which depended on the shape of
know what grains people
harvested several thousands the bread and the ingredients used.
of years ago? Overcooked The people of the ancient Near East established ''bakeries'' to bake
food seems to have provided large quantities of bread. Archaeologists working near the PYRAMIDS at GIZA
modern archaeologists with some found some of these bakeries, which were probably used to bake bread to
answers. Seeds of grains that were feed the pyramid builders.
charred but not burned to ash dur-
ing cooking or in a house fire, or
perhaps during a war, have sur- Beer. Beer was an important beverage in ancient Mesopotamia and
vived. From these seeds, archaeolo- Egypt and more common than wine. In both regions, the brewing
gists have identified their plant process began with the making of bread from sprouted wheat or barley.
source* Moreover, by using dating The bread was then crumbled and mixed with water and other ingredi-
techniques, they have been able to
ents. This created a mash, which was fermented* for a time and then fil-
determine the era during which the
seeds were used in cooking. tered to separate out the beer.
The people of the ancient Near East brewed several varieties of beer,
many with flavorings. In Mesopotamia, flavorings included herbs, spices,
honey, or dates. Dates were also a favorite in Egypt, which is evident from
* ferment to undergo gradual chemical ancient Egyptian texts that document the deliveries of large quantities of
change in which yeast and bacteria dates to brewers.
convert sugars into alcohol
Grain as Currency. In the societies of the ancient Near East, wealth
was often measured in grain. It was valuable to all and, when kept dry,
could be stored for several years. Some ancient Mesopotamian temples
accumulated large stores of grain from lands that were under their con-
trol. The temples used this grain to pay the people who cultivated the
land, the artisans who designed and decorated the temples, and the at-
tendants who waited on the gods and kings.
Grain was also used to pay taxes, to settle debts, and to measure the
price of commodities. In Elam, landowners "rented" grain; that is, they
gave the farmers a certain amount of seed grain that was to be paid back
* tribute payment made by a smaller or with extra grain as interest after the harvest. Conquered cities paid tribute*
weaker party to a more powerful one, to their conquerors in grain. In fact, the desire to accumulate grain wealth
often under the threat of force was one of the forces that contributed to the movements of peoples and to
the continuing pattern of wars and conquests throughout the ancient
Near East. (See also Food and Drink; Land Use and Ownership.)

CHALDEA AND
C haldea (kal»DEE«uh) was the southernmost region of ancient
MESOPOTAMIA. It became part of the Babylonian empire, and its
inhabitants occasionally joined in the power struggle between the Baby-
THE CHALDEANS lonians of central Mesopotamia and the Assyrians of northern Mesopo-
tamia. A few Chaldean (kal«DEE«uhn) leaders won the Babylonian
throne during the 700s B.C. Although the dynasty* that ruled Babylonia
* dynasty succession of rulers from the between 626 and 539 B.C. is often called "Chaldean," modern scholars
same family or group can find no evidence for this dynasty's origins.
157
Chaldea and the Chaldeans
Origins of the Chaldeans. The name Chaldeans comes from a Greek
word for the people who lived in a region of southern Babylonia known
as Kaldu in Akkadian. This region lay along the southern reaches of the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers where they flowed into the Persian Gulf in
present-day southern Iraq. Part of it was a swamp or marshland that the
people of northern Mesopotamia called the Sealand.
The Chaldeans settled in this area sometime before the 800s B.C.
Their origins are unknown, although some researchers have suggested
that they came from eastern Arabia. Their original language is also a mys-
tery. All that remains of it are some names that seem to belong to the
family of SEMITIC LANGUAGES. However, most Chaldeans whose names are
known to scholars had traditional Babylonian names. The Chaldeans
were probably related to the ARAMAEANS, another group that settled in
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 Babylonia at the beginning of the first millennium B.C.* Scholars cannot
tO 1 B.C. settle this question for certain, but Mesopotamian sources often mention
the Aramaeans and Chaldeans together.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past Way of Life. Archaeologists* have not found the ruins of any cities or
human cultures, usually by excavating structures definitely built by the Chaldeans. Most of what is known about
material remains of human activity the Chaldean culture and way of life comes from the texts and artworks
of other groups with whom the Chaldeans interacted. Carved Assyrian
images, for example, show Chaldeans tending horses and cattle. Accord-
ing to Assyrian texts, the Chaldeans gave gold, silver, elephant hides,
* tribute payment made by a smaller or ivory, precious stones, valuable woods, and fragrant plants as tribute* to
weaker party to a more powerful one, the Assyrian rulers. This suggests that the Chaldeans benefited from the
often under the threat of force TRADE ROUTES that passed through their region and linked the Persian Gulf
with the cities of the Near East.
Most Chaldeans probably lived by animal herding, hunting, and
farming small plots. Although many of them may have been entirely or
* nomadic referring to people who travel partly nomadic*, at least some lived in permanent settlements, including
from place to place to find food and cities. It seems that large numbers of Chaldeans adopted the Babylonian
pasture way of life, becoming involved in agriculture and Babylonian politics. Yet
even when they took new Babylonian names, they kept links to the tradi-
tional Chaldean pattern of family and society.
* clan group of people descended from a Chaldean society was organized into at least five clans* or tribes. The
common ancestor or united by a three major tribes were the Bit-Amukani, Bit-Dakuri, and Bit-Yakin. (Bit
common interest means "house of," so the Bit-Amukani were the house of Amukani, or
Amukani's descendants.) Each tribe had its own leader. The Chaldeans'
religious beliefs are unknown, except that they regarded the remains of
dead ancestors as precious and important. One Chaldean ruler of Babylo-
nia, driven off his throne by invading Assyrians and forced to flee into the
neighboring land of Elam, took his ancestors' bones with him. For the
most part, when Chaldean rulers came to power in Babylonia, they hon-
ored the traditional Babylonian gods.

Relations With Babylonia and Assyria. Because the Chaldeans had

their own leaders and were somewhat nomadic, they were hard for the
central Babylonian government to control. The Chaldeans frequently
came into conflict with the central government. They were especially dis-
ruptive to the Assyrians, who several times conquered Babylonia and
158
 Chaldea and the Chaldeans
held it for lengthy periods. The Chaldeans enter written history in an As-
syrian record of a military campaign into southern Mesopotamia under
King ASHURNASIRPAL II, who ruled between 883 and 859 B.C. According to
Assyrian records, Assyrian kings destroyed Chaldean communities and
forced large numbers of Chaldeans to move from their homeland to
other regions within the empire. Other Chaldeans were made part of the
Assyrian army.
Political turmoil soon erupted in Babylonia. Taking advantage of the
opportunity, some Chaldean tribal leaders extended their power beyond
Chaldea to become kings of Babylonia. The earliest was Marduk-apla-usur,
in the late 800s or early 700s B.C. However, little is known about him. The
most famous ruler was Marduk-apla-iddina II, better known as Merodach-
Baladan II, his name in the Hebrew Bible. An important tribal chieftain, he
seized the throne of Babylon in 722 B.C. For the next 13 years, Merodach-
Baladan held back Assyrian attacks until he was driven from the throne in
709 B.C. Although he returned briefly to Babylon in 703 B.C., he retired to
Elam after a nearly 60-year career resisting the Assyrians.

Misunderstandings and Myths. Over the years, many history books

have given the Chaldeans credit for something they probably never did,
that is, for creating a new empire in Babylonia in the late 600s B.C. In 626
B.C., the Assyrians lost their grip on Babylon, and by 612 B.C. NABOPOLASSAR
had created an independent Babylonian empire that also controlled
southern Mesopotamia. This empire flourished until 539 B.C., when in-
vaders from Persia conquered Mesopotamia.
The period from 626 (or 612) to 539 B.C. has often been called the pe-
riod of the Chaldean empire or the Chaldean dynasty. This is because
Chaldeans in the Bible some early accounts claimed that Nabopolassar was a Chaldean. No evi-
Chaldeans appear in several places dence supports this claim, however. Consequently, many historians pre-
in the Hebrew Bible In the book of fer to call the era of Nabopolassar and his descendants the period of the
Genesis, Abraham, the patriarch of
the Israelites, is said to come from Neo-Babylonian empire.
the Babylonian city called Ur of the Perhaps the Neo-Babylonian rulers were of Chaldean ancestry; perhaps
Chaldees. Here Chaldees probably they were not. Nonetheless, during the Neo-Babylonian period and after,
means simply "Babylonians/' The the word Chaldean came to be commonly used instead of the word
Book of Dantel describes events set Babylonian. Indeed, many Greek, Jewish, and Roman writers called all
in Babylonia, It contains many refer-
ences to "magicians and en- Babylonians Chaldeans. This misuse of the term Chaldean has caused prob-
chanters, sorcerers and Chaldeans/' l lems for modern historians trying to clarify the history of the Chaldean
The name of ttiese nomadic, people.
swamp-dwelling people had come The term Chaldean acquired another meaning as well. Many ancient
to represent mysterious and secret writers used it to refer to learned magicians, astronomers, and fortune-
sources of knowledge. tellers. These practitioners of magic, astronomy, and fortune-telling flour-
ished during the Neo-Babylonian era, which was mistakenly associated
with the Chaldeans. Anyone who pursued these traditional Babylonian
studies might be called a Chaldean even if that person had no connection
to the people of Chaldea.
The Chaldeans last appear in the historical record in the 400s B.C. Af-
ter that time, they probably blended into the general population of
southern Mesopotamia. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Astrology
and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers; Babylonia and the
Babylonians.)

159
Chariots

CHARIOTS
C hariots are light two- or four-wheeled vehicles pulled by HORSES.
They were first developed in the ancient Near East, where they were
used primarily for warfare, HUNTING, and processions.
Chariots were made in MESOPOTAMIA early in the third millennium B.C.*
Art and artifacts* from that period show two basic types of chariot: a four-
wheeled "battle car" and a two-wheeled vehicle. Because horses had not
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 yet been domesticated* in Mesopotamia, these chariots were probably
to 2001 B.C. pulled by onagers (wild asses). After horses appeared in the region—
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or sometime around the end of the third millennium B.C.—they were used
other object made by humans to pull chariots instead.
* domesticated adapted or tamed for The earliest Mesopotamian chariots were heavy vehicles with wheels
human use of solid wood. Neither very fast nor very maneuverable, they were proba-
bly used primarily in processions and perhaps to transport officers in bat-
tle. Evidence suggests that most such vehicles belonged to men of high
rank, and chariots remained a symbol of status throughout ancient times.
Chariots eventually spread to other parts of the ancient Near East.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern They appeared in the Levant* during the second millennium B.C.* and
shores of the Mediterranean Sea spread from there to ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and Egypt. Large
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), numbers of ancient Egyptian paintings and bas-reliefs* depict chariots,
the West Bank, and Jordan
and several actual chariots have been found in the tombs of Egyptian
* second millennium B.C. years from rulers, including that of TUTANKHAMEN.
2000 to 1001 B.C.
Egyptian chariots, like Canaanite models from the Levant, were light,
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which fast, and maneuverable. Constructed of wood, leather, and metal, they
material is cut away to leave figures
projecting slightly from the background
had a pair of spoked wheels and a low siding that extended around the
front and sides of the vehicle. Because the back of the chariot was open, it
was very easy for the individuals riding in it to get on and off the vehicle.
A number of other design innovations made Egyptian chariots strong
and stable.
See The use of horses to pull chariots led to the development of chariotry
(f color plate 10,' as an important branch of the military. The Egyptians, HITTITES, Assyrians,
vol. 4.
Persians, and other ancient peoples formed chariot divisions in their
ARMIES. Chariots gave armies greater mobility, and they served as fighting
platforms to support the infantry. Two-man battle chariots carried a char-
ioteer, or driver, and an archer. During battle, the chariots raced along the
sides of enemy formations, allowing the archers to fire upon the enemy
infantry. The chariots also pursued retreating troops.
Chariots were not well suited for direct attacks on enemy lines, how-
ever. Because the vehicles were open and exposed, they provided little
protection for the charioteers and archers riding in them, although these
soldiers did wear body armor. This armor usually consisted of small cop-
per or bronze plates attached to a leather garment. A suit of such body ar-
mor might weigh more than 50 pounds. Chariot horses might have
armor as well.
The importance of the chariotry in warfare led to many innovations
in chariot design. The Hittites developed three-man chariots, with space
for a driver, a shield carrier, and an archer or spearman. Hittite chariots
played a significant role against the Egyptians in the battle of Qadesh, one
of the best-documented battles of ancient times. The Hittite chariots
swooped down, dispersing one body of Egyptian troops and falling on the
Egyptian camp. The Egyptian king RAMSES II rallied his troops, however,
160
 Chariots
and reinforcements arrived. He wasthus able tomanage adrawin the
battle rather than the shattering defeat thatfirst
hadthreatened.
The Assyrians strengthened andimproved theharnessing equipment
of chariots and expanded thesize of thevehiclestoholdup fourto
men.
Such chariotsoften required three four
or horses insteadjust
oftwo.
The
Assyrians also added armored siding tochariots toprovide more protec-
tion for charioteersand archers.Yet as Assyrianchariots become larger
and heavier, they also became less mobile andmaneuverable.
The chariot did not become atrue offensiveweapon until very latein
its history. DuringthePERSIAN
EMPIRE—in
timeof the about
B.C.—the
400
Persiansfirst mounted sharp, curved bladeson thewheelsoftheir chari-
ots. When the chariots were driven into anenemy infantry formation,
these blades could cut down troops.
Though veryuseful in battle,the chariot alsohad anumberofdraw-
backs. It could operate effectively only
flat
onorlevel ground.Thevehi-
cle itself was easily damagedor overturned,and if thehorses pulling it
were killed or injured,the chariotwasuseless. Most important, perhaps,
was the fact that chariotsand horses were very expensive.As aresult,
the chariotryforces in ancient armies werenotparticularly large.By the
700sB.C.,
CAVALRY troopshad begunto replace the chariotryas theprin-
cipal mounted branch of the military.Thecavalryhadgreater mobility,
could travel over more rugged terrain,and wasmuch lessexpensiveto
maintain.
Charioteers were among the best-trained troops inancient armies,
and they often had high military status. Insome societies,thestatusand
expense associated with chariots led to theformationof achariot-owning
aristocracy. In Babylonia,forexample, charioteers oftenheld positionsas
judges or courtofficials.
In addition to their roleinwarfare, chariots also servedasplatforms
for hunting—usuallyby kingsand other royalty. Someart of theancient
Near East shows kings in chariots huntinglionsandother wild animals.
Chariots were also used in royal processions. Such chariots might have
Wars
sides decoratedin goldor other precious(Seeand
also War-
metals.
fare; Weapons and Armor; Wheel.)

161
Childbirth

CHILDBIRTH
T hough a natural and common event, childbirth in the ancient Near
East had its dangers. Many practices and traditions associated with
childbirth reflect this fact.
Ancient Mesopotamians believed that the woman, fetus, and new-
born were all endangered by the lion-faced demon Lamashtu. During the
pregnancy, the woman could use AMULETS AND CHARMS to protect herself
from this demon. For instance, an image of the dog-faced demon Pazuzu
was believed to protect both the woman and the child.
When it came time to give birth, women were assisted by midwives,
who represented the mother goddess. A midwife helped physically and
spiritually. If the mother was having difficulty, the midwife recited "The
Cow of Sin." Long ago, it was said, a cow had become pregnant by Sin,
the moon god. Sin helped the cow give birth easily, so it followed that Sin
could help women in the same way. In MESOPOTAMIA, women gave birth
in a crouching position (to let the force of gravity help), bracing their feet
on two stones.
A baby born with physical defects was considered a sign of doom. A
ritual was performed, and then the baby was thrown into the river. Other
babies were named right away. The name might express feelings or
prayers ("My god has had mercy on me"). Babies were also named after
dead relatives or a grandfather. Mesopotamian children were nursed for
two or three years.
In Egypt, pregnant women wore amulets to ensure a safe delivery and
a healthy child. Women gave birth in a separate structure. They squatted,
with their feet on two bricks. They were helped by other woman, who re-
cited spells to speed up and ease delivery. Pregnant women especially
asked for the assistance of Isis (the mother goddess) and HATHOR (goddess
of fertility and childbirth). The special birthing hut contained statues of
these goddesses and painted plaster scenes of the household god Bes and
goddess Taweret. Bes was a dwarf with a lion's ears and mane who eased
the pain of childbirth and scared away evil demons. Taweret, part hip-
popotamus, lion, and crocodile also frightened off evil forces.
See Mother and baby remained separate from the household for two
color plate 3, weeks. Then there was a purification ritual for the mother and a celebra-
vol. 1.
tion for the child. Egyptian children were nursed for three years, while
Bes continued his protective function. Wealthy women often used wet
nurses—poor women or servants who nursed the baby in the mother's
place.
The rates of miscarriages and stillbirths were probably high in Egypt,
as elsewhere in the ancient world. At least one queen—Mutnodjmet—ap-
parently died giving birth. Her mummy includes the body of a fully
formed fetus. The bodies of stillborn babies have been found buried un-
der houses. It is possible that Egyptians hoped that the spirit of the dead
baby would enter the mother and be reborn.
Little information remains about Hittite childbirth practices. In that
culture, too, the gods were responsible for good and bad outcomes. There
were rites to honor the gods during pregnancy and childbirth, and rites to
assure health and a good destiny for the child. After three months if the
baby was a boy or four months if it was a girl, a ceremony welcomed
mother and child into the community. (See also Pregnancy.)
162
 Children

CHILDREN
T he core social unit in the ancient Near East was the family, and the
purpose of having a family was to bear children. Children provided
the family with additional workers to help them survive. Later they
were expected to care for their mothers and fathers when the parents
reached old age. The Egyptians thought that to be childless was shame-
ful, as did the HITTITES. Childlessness was also sometimes grounds for DI-
VORCE and, in Babylonia, for a man to take a second wife (though he
stayed married to his first wife). Couples who were childless could adopt
children.

Mesopotamia. Ancient texts from MESOPOTAMIA divide life into differ-

ent periods or segments. One particular text, from about 2000 B.C., dis-
tinguishes among children up to age 5, children 5 to 10 years old, and
children 10 to 13 years old. The next category is adults. Dividing chil-
dren who were between 5 and 13 into two groups may have been related
to marriage practices. Girls were typically about 13 or 14 when they mar-
ried, but boys could be as young as 10.
Children learned the work they would perform as adults. Boys gener-
ally learned their fathers' professions, although some texts that have been
preserved are contracts in which parents agree that their boys will work
for another man to learn a new occupation. Records show that some chil-
dren were given to the temple to serve as laborers. Some of these temple
workers were orphans, while others seem to have been children whom
their families could not support. Many temple workers were the children
of enemy peoples who had been captured in war.
See The peoples of ancient Mesopotamia gave special privileges to the
[color plate 15,' firstborn son. In some cities in southern Mesopotamia, the oldest son re-
vol. 2.
ceived an extra 10 percent of any property inherited from parents. In
other areas or at other times, the oldest son received a double share. Fam-
ilies were not large—various estimates put the number of children be-
tween two and four.

Egypt. Some ancient cultures placed little value on female children, but
that was not the case in ancient Egypt. Girls were as welcome as boys be-
cause they held the promise of bringing property into the family once
they married. Children—both male and female—shared equally in their
parents' property.
In their first few years of life, children spent most of their time with
their mothers and little with their fathers. Farm women took babies with
them to work in the fields, carrying the infants in slings. As children grew
older, fathers had more influence. Fathers were expected to be strict with
their children, and the children had certain responsibilities. Sons were ex-
pected to look after younger brothers and sisters, support their parents
when old, and bury them properly when they died. Children who did
not act to their parents' satisfaction could be disinherited, meaning they
would not receive any property when their parents died.
There is little evidence that children in Egypt took part in social cere-
monies marking puberty. In passing through this change, which takes
place in adolescence, children develop sexual maturity. One ritual that
marked the transition to adulthood is known, however. Children in
163
Chronicles
Egypt wore a lock of hair on the side of their heads. This sidelock was cut
off when they reached adulthood.
Education apparently began around age ten. For most boys, this did
not involve formal schooling but training for their life's work. Girls learned
domestic tasks from their female relatives. An ancient drawing of a princess
holding a writing tablet suggests that at least some noble girls were taught
to read and write.
Daughters generally lived with their parents until they were married.
Sons usually did the same, although some left home to live with other
young men their age. Typically, a young man did not marry until he
could set up a household of his own. Marriages were often arranged by
the parents of the bride and groom, but love poetry from ancient Egypt
suggests that the young people of that land, just like those in the West to-
day, hoped to meet someone they could love and choose to marry.

Israel. In ancient Israel, children's lives were much like those of their
Egyptian, Syrian, and Mesopotamian neighbors. The Hebrew Bible, how-
ever, shows YAHWEH giving special gifts to certain children. For instance,
Yahweh gives Joseph the ability to understand the meanings of dreams,
David the strength to defeat Goliath, and Solomon wisdom. (See also
Childbirth; Family and Social Life; Pregnancy.)

CHRONICLES
C hronicles are histories—accounts of past events. It is easy to assume
that a historian's purpose is to tell the truth about the past. The fact
is, however, that people who record history have a variety of goals, and
truth is not always their top priority. In the ancient Near East, the role of
the historian was often to praise the king in royal INSCRIPTIONS, annals, or
other chronicles.

Mesopotamia. In MESOPOTAMIA, the most important historical records

* scribe person of a learned class who were royal inscriptions. Written by scribes* on CLAY TABLETS or on the
served as a writer, editor, or teacher walls of palaces, temples, or other buildings, they described the achieve-
ments of the king. The stated purpose of the inscriptions was to tell the
gods how well the king was ruling. They also served to teach later kings
to govern properly. However, the kings also expected these inscriptions
to become known to the people of the country, and so they served much
like modern press releases. Consequently, inscriptions are not objective
history but records of events as interpreted by the king.
Between about 2350 to 2193 B.C., when the Akkadians rule
Mesopotamia, the king was represented in historical tales as a bold war-
rior whose goal was military victory and domination of other lands. The
gods helped the king realize his great plans for the realm. Later royal in-
scriptions were dedicated to showing that the king followed the advice of
the gods. This reflects the idea of kingship throughout the ancient Near
East, where religion was always closely tied to the government. While fol-
lowing the gods' advice, the king encountered the most ferocious ene-
mies and the most difficult obstacles imaginable to make his actions seem
164
 Chronicles
more impressive. He also acted to restore the ancient and natural order of
things, and his goal was the welfare of the kingdom.
* dynasty succession of rulers from the During the years of the Kassite dynasty*, which ruled Babylonia from
same family or group about 1595 to 1158 B.C. the most important chronicles were the declara-
tions of war. In these records, the king gave a short history of the relations
between his kingdom and the enemy and listed his reasons for declaring
war, for the enemies' guilt, and why the gods should support him. Soon
inscriptions contained long descriptions of military campaigns and be-
gan to resemble histories.
The royal inscriptions of the Middle Assyrian kings of the late second
* second millennium B.C. years from millennium B.C.* became increasingly more like annals, giving brief year-
2000 to 1001 B.C. by-year descriptions of the king's activities. For the Neo-Assyrian kings—
who ruled from 911 to 609—annals, or yearly chronicles, were an ideal
means of recording the results of their annual military campaigns.
The Neo-Babylonians (612-539 B.C.) are notable for recording the
king's failures alongside his successes. Their chronicles served more as
Books of Chronicles scholarly records for the scribes than as propaganda aimed at the people.
The books of Chronicles are two
books of the Hebrew Bible. They
Although these chronicles were still biased, they were biased in a different
record the history of the Jewish peo- \ way. The scribes tended to interpret all of history in terms of religion.
pie from Adam to about 500 B.C. Their chronicles discuss the downfall of Babylonia not in terms of the
and were written during the time Persian conquest but as a result of the king's neglect of New Year celebra-
that they were forced by conquest tions and his failure to understand divine signs.
to five in Babylon. Derived from the
books of Genesis through Kings, the|
Chronicles praise Kings David and Egypt. In Egypt, annals were kept from a very early stage of history. At
Solomon. First Chronicles empha- first, they consisted of year names, listed for each king's reign. Later, dur-
sizes David, expressing the hope
that the people of Israel may once
ing the time of the Middle Kingdom (about 1980-1630 B.C.), the lists
again enjoy the glory they knew were supplemented by journals, which recorded the activities of the tem-
during his reign. Second Chronicles ple and the court. There were also royal inscriptions and tomb inscrip-
focuses on Solomon as the builder tions describing the accomplishments of high officials in the service of
of the Jerusalem Temple. the king, but few of them survive. During the period of the New King-
dom (about 1539-1075 B.C.), royal inscriptions became long, detailed de-
scriptions of the military exploits of the king. Other chronicles served to
prove that the king was the legitimate heir to the throne. One way to do
this was to show that the gods favored the king. The Annals ofThutmose III,
Levant lands bordering the eastern for example, retell the story of the king's conquest of the Levant* in 17
shores of the Mediterranean Sea campaigns over 21 years.
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
the West Bank, and Jordan
The Levant. Although far fewer inscriptions have been found in the
Levant, it is clear that here, too, the activities of the local kings were
recorded in royal inscriptions as well as annals. Aramaean and Phoenician
royal inscriptions of the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.)
often show similarities to older Mesopotamian examples. Many parts of
the Hebrew Bible can be viewed as chronicles, including the two biblical
books by that name. There are even references to annals of the kings of IS-
RAEL AND JUDAH, now lost, which must have provided later biblical editors
with historical information. (See also Akkad and the Akkandians; As-
syria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Bible, He-
brew; Egypt and the Egyptians; History and Historiography; Kassites;
King Lists.)

165
Chronology
Chronology is the study of time. More specifically, it is concerned with
measuring time and establishing the sequence of historical events. Thus,
CHRONOLOGY it plays a vital role in the interpretation of history by clarifying the rela-
tionship between events. This enables historians to explore causes and ef-
fects of historical events and to identify trends and movements.
Chronology is often displayed on timeline diagrams.
When studying modern history, most people assume that the
chronology is correctly researched. Readers take for granted that the dates
were checked against other written sources, especially against original
materials from the period that is being studied. This assumption may be
reasonable for modern histories, but it is far less secure for the history of
earlier periods.
Much of the history of the ancient Near East has to be deduced from
archaeological referring to the study of archaeological* evidence and is, consequently, more difficult to date ac-
past human cultures, usually by curately. The few surviving written sources are often unclear. Some are in-
excavating material remains of human complete; some are copies of copies. In such cases, archaeologists use a
activity
variety of dating techniques to corroborate the dates that appear in writ-
ten texts.

APPROACHES TO CHRONOLOGY
Establishing the chronology of events in an ancient culture presents
many challenges. Considerable detective work is involved in piecing to-
The Down Side gether the evidence. Once the detective work is done, historians look for
to Star Gazing additional facts to verify that their interpretation is correct.
Although astronomical evidence Today's historical timeline, sometimes called absolute chronology,
seems like a reliable way to date enables us to know when past events occurred in relation to our mod-
documents that mention events in
the sky, it is not without problems ern system of dating. Historians have confidence that they can extend
either. For instance, some Egyptian this timeline back accurately at least to Roman times, and through
texts do not mention the location that, to events in the world of ancient Greece. Archaeologists have var-
from which the astronomical phe- ious methods—described below—to establish absolute dates even far-
nomenon was observed. Without ther back.
knowing whether the observation However, when events in a culture's history cannot be accurately
was made from southern or north-
ern Egypt, a historian cannot pin- plotted on today's timeline, it may be possible to locate them in terms of
point the exact dates. Some their own relative chronology. This method shows the order in which
Babylonian chronicles record ob- events possibly occurred and perhaps the length of time that each event
servations that have been deemed lasted. It locates events with reference to an arbitrarily chosen fixed point
astronomically impossible by mod- j in the past, such as the founding of a dynasty, the foundation of a nation,
ern scientists,
or the accession of a ruler. Consequently, events do not occur in a specific
year, but simply before or after some other event.
One example of a relative chronology is the division of early cultural
histories into Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. These stages in cul-
tural development were based on the technological characteristics of the
civilization under study. They were named for the materials that people
used to make tools and weapons. While it is true that the different tech-
nologies followed each other in relative sequence, these ages cannot be
dated accurately. This is because they began at different times and devel-
oped for different lengths of time in different regions. In fact, even
within the same region, development differed. Thus, while Jerusalem
166
 Chronology
was in the Early Iron Age, some nearby region may have been in the Late
Bronze Age.
Another method to identify the chronological sequence of events is
floating chronology. In this method, it may be possible to determine the
relative sequence of events and the duration of each event. However, a
timeline derived using this method cannot be securely linked with our
absolute chronology.
Archaeologists and historians have developed the following archaeo-
logical and calendar-based methods of dating historical events. Some of
the methods outlined here yield absolute dates while the rest yield rela-
tive dates. For a more detailed discussion of the methods, see ARCHAEOLOGY
AND ARCHAEOLOGISTS.

* tell mound, especially in the ancient

Near East, that consists of the remains of
successive settlements Archaeological Chronology. Much of the information about the an-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or cient Near East comes from archaeological excavations at tells*, which
other object made by humans contain temples, palaces, and other buildings, and from artifacts* discov-
ered within these structures. Archaeologists have developed several ways
to analyze these finds chronologically. While stratigraphy and artifact
This table is an example of a relative
chronology. Cultural histories have been typology provide relative dates, thermoluminescent analysis, carbon-14
divided into different periods based on dating (radiocarbon dating), and dendochronology can provide fairly ac-
technological characteristics. curate absolute dates.

TlMEUNtatffcWfN^R^ EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS

ca. 3000-2200 B.C. ca. 2200-1600 B.C. ca. 1600-1200 B.C. ca. 1200-500 B.C. ca. 500 B.C.-A.D. 100
Early Dynastic period; Third Dynasty of Ur; Middle Babylonia!
antan Neo-Assyrian empire; Late Babylonian
^P^©iW0f|^;; Akkadian empire isin andI larsa; Old period (Kassites);
(Kassttes); Neo-Babylonian period: Persian,
Assyrian period; Old Middle Assyrian empire Seteuqd, Parthian
Baoylonian period period dynasties
Early Bronze Age Old Assyrian colony Hittite empire Neo-Hittites; Persian, Macedonian,
|Vwat9Ji# period; Old Hittite Phrygians; Urartians; Seleucid, Roman
period; Middle Hittite Lycians; Lydians dynasties
period

f|p%a0^.th^:::5
Early Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age Late Bronze Age Iron Age Persian, Seleucid,
SufJLe^tiitr";•;,":: Hasmonean dynasties;
Roman conquest

Early Dynastic period; First Intermediate New Kingdom period Third Intermediate Persian, Macedonian,
Old Kingdom period period; Middle period; Late period Ptolemaic dynasties;
iltti Kingdom period; Roman conquest
Second Intermediate
period

Levantine, Mesopotamian and Decline of Dilmun; Qedar tribes; Syrians; Nabatean kingdom in
fiteSl^;
Mesopotamian, Iranian influence Qurayya flourishes Neo-Babylonian Jordan; Roman
Iranian influences control conquest

Proto-Elamite culture Old Elamite kingdom Middle Elamite Neo-Elamites; Median Persian, Macedonian,
3fej^i kingdom kingdom Seleuci^ Parthian
dynasties
Early Cycladic culture Middle Minoan Late Minoan culture; Dark Age; Archaic Classical period;
BilliiiHl^iW culture Late Helladic period Hellenistic dynasties;
(Mycenaean) culture Roman conquest

167
Chronology

The classic method used for analyzing finds at a site is known as

stratigraphy. Stratigraphy pertains to the site's strata, which are the layers
of the remains of buildings or other architecture, one upon the next. Ar-
chaeologists carefully record finds within each building level of the exca-
vation on the assumption that artifacts found within more deeply buried
ruins are likely to come from an earlier time than those artifacts found
within building levels above them. (Artifacts not found sealed within
identifiable building levels are, in and of themselves, very difficult to
date. As a result of worms and other burrowing creatures in the soil over
long periods, objects not trapped within building levels may be moved
up or down within the soil, making them appear younger or older than
they really are.) They may also arrive at a relative chronology of events
by comparing the artifacts found in a specific strata with those found in
another site in the same strata. This method is called comparative stratig-
raphy.
Another technique, known as artifact typology, involves the exami-
A Question nation of objects made by people, such as pottery. Archaeologists study
of Characters the techniques used in making and decorating these objects and also look
for similarities with previously excavated objects. Objects that are clearly
One of the most exciting
artifacts for an archaeologist
more advanced in their technique are considered more recent; conse-
to find is an object with an quently, a site with more recent pottery is considered to come from a later
inscription. This type of find period.
may contribute to strengthen- Three methods produce absolute dates—they allow archaeologists to
ing the chronology of a region in estimate the age in years of an artifact. Bear in mind that with some of
; two ways. First, the content of the
document may provide historians
these techniques, the ages are not exact. They are simply estimates that
l
- with clues about events and dates. could overstate or understate the actual age by a certain number of years.
Second, the find itself may be Thermoluminescent analysis, which is often used to date ceramic ob-
scientifically dated. Experts in the jects, is based on the fact that from the time a ceramic object was last
field called palaeography study the heated, it absorbs excess electrons from the environment because of expo-
development of writing and try to sure to radiation. When the object is reheated, these excess electrons are
estimate the date of an inscription
: by the formations of the letters that
released in the form of light—the older the object, the greater the amount
rare used. of electrons released. Archaeologists can then determine the absolute age
of the object age of the object by measuring the light emitted by the object
and dividing by the estimated radiation dose per year.
Carbon-14 dating is a method of dating materials derived from living
matter, such as wood, bone, and grain. It monitors the radioactive decay
of carbon-14 accumulated by the material when alive and yields dates
that are considered accurate to within 100 years or less.
Dendrochronology dates the age of preserved wooden objects by
studying the pattern of annual growth rings in the grain of the wood.
This technique is highly accurate when it can be applied. However, little
data has yet been gathered for it to be applied in the ancient Near East.

Calendar-Based Chronology. When partial written records survive,

as they do in the ancient Near East, they need to be used carefully. Until
the Greeks, there were few writers who could be called historians. In the
* scribe person of a learned class who more advanced cultures before the Greeks, scribes* maintained annals
served as a writer, editor, or teacher (yearly records) of significant events.
However, such records pose several problems to modern historians
who are attempting to relate those events to the western calendar. One
168
 Chronology
problem relates to what the scribes meant by "years/' The modern west-
ern calendar is based on a 365-day year with a leap day every fourth year.
But ancient cultures used different measures for the year. Except for the
Seleucids, who evolved the first continuous calendar in which year 1 =
311 B.C., they identified the years with reference to some important event
of their time or by the years that different kings reigned. For instance,
Sumerian and Old Kingdom Egyptians named each year for an important
event that occurred in the previous year. This system also remained in
* second millennium B.C. years from Babylonia until the second half of the second millennium B.C.*, after
2000 to 1001 B.C. which Neo-Babylonians as well as Persians named their years for the rul-
ing kings.
Finally, few records maintained by the ancient scribes have survived
in their entirety to the present time, so the records that exist are incom-
plete. Despite these difficulties, ancient events can be linked to the
western calendar through two techniques. One relies on references in
ancient annals to unusual astronomical events. The scribes of the an-
cient Near East often noted astronomical observations in their texts. If
they mentioned a particular eclipse in their annals, the timing of that
eclipse can be precisely calculated, providing the necessary link to the
modern calendar.
Historians also look for references to important events, such as wars
and conquests that involve foreign powers. Then they look for the same
events in the records of that foreign power. If modern historians have al-
ready managed to relate the history of that nation to western chronology,
the events on the original document can also be linked.

CHRONOLOGY AND THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Despite the uncertainties that surround chronology, much of the history
of the ancient Near East can be effectively linked to the historical time-
line. The links are not precise, but are probably accurate within a few
years. This is especially true of events that occurred in the first millen-
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 nium B.C.*
tO 1 B.C.

Mesopotamia. The entry of ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S armies into Babylon-

known to have occurred in 331 B.C. —is recorded in annals known as the
Babylonian Chronicles. These annals also extend more than 400 years
before that time. That means that the Babylonian Chronicles began in
747 B.C. We can have confidence in the dates of events recorded during
that period. Before that year, the Babylonian record is less certain. Some
scholars maintain that the earlier chronology is fairly certain. Others,
however, distrust much of the earlier evidence and consider the time-
lines before 747 B.C. less certain.
The Babylonian Chronicles can be linked to various Assyrian annals.
By making careful comparisons, historians have been able to determine
accurate dates for events in Assyria back to about 912 or 911 B.C. The As-
syrian texts also contain references to lists of years, called Hmmu lists, in
which individual years are named after Hmmu — officials or kings. Portions
of these Hmmu lists stretch well back into the second millennium B.C.
169
Chronology

However, since the Babylonian chronology is uncertain for this period,

the links are not precise.

Egypt. The first formal Egyptian chronology was written in Greek by

an Egyptian priest during the 200s B.C. The author's work was based on
ancient Egyptian annals. These annals may also have been the source for
Egyptian KING LISTS. Today the original Greek history itself is lost, but
much of the work was paraphrased and copied, and it forms the basis of
present-day chronologies for ancient Egypt.
Modern historians have subdivided Egyptian history into the Early
Dynastic or Archaic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), the Old Kingdom
(ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), the New
Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), and the Late Period (664-332 B.C.), as well
as several intermediate periods. They have verified and adjusted these pe-
riods using astronomy and by linking events to the Old Testament of the
Bible. Still, the earliest accurate date of a historical event in Egypt remains
* sack to loot a captured city the sacking* of Thebes by the Assyrians in 664 B.C., during the twenty-
sixth year of the reign of the Egyptian king Taharqa.
The Egyptian Sothic year was the natural year. It began in the summer
with the reappearance of the bright star Sothis (Sirius), just before sunrise,
* heliacal first rising of a star after a after seventy days' invisibility. This rising of Sothis—called a heliacal*
period of invisibility rising—was also, coincidentally, the time of the onset of the annual Nile
flood that was so important for the agricultural cycle. The Egyptians also
maintained a civil calendar, consisting of 12 months of 30 days each,
with 5 extra days added at the year's end. Since the civil calendar of 365
days was slightly shorter than the natural Sothic year (365V4 days), every
4 years the first day of the civil calendar would slip back by a day from the
reappearance of Sothis. Consequently, the Egyptian New Year's Day coin-
cided with the rising of Sothis only four times in a cycle of 1,460 years.
There is a Roman reference to one of these coincidences occurring on the
* Egyptologist person who studies first day of the civil calendar in A.D. 139-140. Egyptologists* believe that
ancient Egypt knowing this date makes it possible, within certain limitations, to calcu-
late an absolute date in Egyptian history. This can be done by using a doc-
ument or inscription that states that a heliacal rising of Sothis took place
on such-and-such date in the civil calendar.
The biblical link with Egypt lies in the Hebrew Bible. There, an Egypt-
ian king named Shishak is said to have invaded the kingdom of Judah
during the reign of King Solomon's son Rehoboam. Other evidence has
linked Rehoboam to the year 924 B.C. There is a king named Shoshenq in
the Egyptian annals who raided coastal Israel. The similarity of the kings'
names suggests another possible link between the Egyptian record and
the Hebrew Bible.
Unfortunately, as with much ancient chronological evidence, noth-
ing is certain. Several scholars question the accepted chronology of an-
cient Egypt. Skeptics include some experts in carbon-14 dating, who
have found that Egyptian artifacts often fail to fit within these accepted
calendar chronologies. Until disagreements of this nature can be ex-
plained, uncertainty about the chronologies of the ancient Near East is
likely to continue. (See also Astronomy and Astronomers; Calendars;
Chronicles.)
170
 Cities and City-States

CITIES
AND
C ties played a vital rolein the developmentofhuman culture, espe-
ially inMESOPOTAMIA. Cities could vary greatly insize. What distin-
guished citiesfrom villageswas thatthey were more permanent, served as
centers of economic, governmental,and sacredlife,andincluded people
CITY-STATES who were givendifferent levelsofstatus,orrank,insociety. Over time,
cities maintained a close relationship with outlying townsandvillages,
obtaining theirfoodfrom the crops grownin andaroundthevillagesand
supplying the villages with needed goods inturn. People in thevillages
looked to the city for authority and, because those cities were often
walled,forsafety.

THEDEVELOPMENT
CITIES
OF
The development of cities did not occurquickly—it tookseveral thou-
sand years. Citiesin the ancient Near Eastwere distinguished
fromvil-
lages in several ways. The cities were largerand oftenhad public
buildings, such as temples. Cities also hadmore people.Many ofthese
people were government officials,
craftsworkers,ormerchants. This dif-
* domesticate to adapt ortame for fered greatlyfrom villages, where almost everyone was
farmer.
a Because
human use the evidence is scanty and often unclear, theexact process of how avil-
* deity god or goddess lage became a city cannot be determined. However,theoutlinesofthis
development can besuggested.
When the peoples of the ancient Near Eastbegan domesticating*
plants and animals, they ensured themselvesasteady foodsupply. When
this occurred, they began to settle near their agricultural landsornearwa-
ter sources, building villages. When the supplyofwatertotheir agricul-
tural plots was steady and the soil there remained fertile, thevillages
became permanent settlements.
JERICHO,
first settled around
B.C., 9000
and £ATAL
HUYUK, settled around B.C.,
are
6300examples
ofsuch settle-
ments. Eventually, villages grew largeror twovillages located closeto
each other grew together, leadingto theriseoflarger settlement systems.
The factors contributing to the emergenceofcitiesaremanyand di-
verse. Cities brought about three major changesinsociety. People began
to relate to one another through ties ofterritory andculture rather than
through kinship bonds, as was the caseinvillages. Society becamedi-
vided into groups organized byclass, andreligious and politicalleaders
directed the people's activities. Finally,asagriculture became more suc-
cessful, it resulted in a declinein the numberfarmworkers.
of Conse-
quently, people began to produce crafts anddevelop otherskills. Soon,
the goods they manufacturedin thecities stimulated trade, whichwas of-
ten conducted over long distances.

Mesopotamia. Cities first arose in the ancient Near

East insouthern
Mesopotamia duringthe sixth through fourth B.C.
millennia
(years
from
6000 to 3001B.C.). Religionmay have beenthe chief
factorin therise
of
cities in the region. Cities tended todevelop around sites built tohonor a
particular deity*.Each city had its own god orgoddess. These temple-
dominated cities, including
URUK,
ERIDU,
NIPPUR,
and
LAGASH,
UR,were
clearly establishedby about B.C.
3500
171
Cities and City-States

At first, the temple was the only feature of a city. Built on top of a ZIG-
GURAT (stepped platform) so it could be seen for miles, the temple symbol-
ized the power of the god to whom it was dedicated. The temple was also
the center of the city's economic system because the city god owned the
land and the animals. Therefore, all grain and animal products produced
on the god's land belonged to the temple. Religious officials accumulated
the goods and stored them until they were distributed to the city's people
as rations.
By about 2800 B.C., these cities had grown larger and began to struggle
with each other. Disputes over territory led to three changes. First, unrest
led many surrounding villagers to seek refuge in the cities. Second, city
dwellers built walls for defense. Walls defined a city's boundaries more
clearly. Third, warfare called for military leadership. Strong leaders arose,
and these political leaders became rivals to the power of the temple priests.
Cities now had two powers—the temple and the palace. This resulted in

Jericho is one of the oldest settlements in

the world, dating from about 9000 B.C. A
tower and a portion of the town wall are
shown here. Some scholars suggest that
these thick stone walls were built for de-
fense or protection from wild animals.
Others theorize that they were built to
keep debris from blowing or washing into
the town.

172
 Cities and City-States
conflicts between the two because the palaces wished to replace the tem-
ples as the center of the redistribution system.
Cities in northern Mesopotamia had a different character because of
the terrain there. The cities there tended to be smaller and split into dif-
ferent areas by elevation—some sections of the city were on higher
ground than others.
* fourth millennium B.C. years from The cities that arose in Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C.*
4000 to 3001 B.C. and early third millennium B.C.* were city-states. That is, each city was in-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 dependent of the others. Around 2350 B.C., SARGON I conquered numer-
to 2001 B.C. ous cities in Mesopotamia and North Syria, creating the Akkadian empire.
Over the next 2,000 years, other empires arose and declined in the region.
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or During these centuries of imperial* control, the cities changed. Although
an empire they remained centers for religion, economy, and politics, they were no
longer independent. They became part of a larger political unit—the
kingdom.

Egypt. Evidence for the early development of cities in Egypt is lacking.

One reason is that many ancient sites were dug up by the local inhabi-
tants early in the A.D. 1900s because the rubble provided a cheap source
of fertilizer. Nevertheless, it is clear that before the founding of the First
Dynasty, about 3000 B.C., Egypt had several cities. The cities were gener-
ally located in the southern stretches of the NILE RIVER, the area called
Upper Egypt.
The cities of Egypt began as centers of political power—not reli-
gious centers, as in Mesopotamia. This was largely because Egyptians
* incarnation physical form of a spirit or considered their king an incarnation* of the god Horus. Consequently,
god the Egyptian palace always served as the center of the redistributive
system.
Throughout the fourth millennium B.C., conflict broke out among
Egypt's growing cities as rival leaders struggled to win control of larger
areas. Eventually two kingdoms—Upper and Lower Egypt—emerged.
These two kingdoms were unified around 3100 B.C., when Upper Egypt
conquered Lower Egypt. MEMPHIS, the city where the kingdoms met, be-
came the new capital of Egypt. Over the next 3,000 years, several cities
emerged as important, but the two great cities of Egypt were Memphis
and THEBES.

Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant. The first villages in Anatolia arose
* seventh millennium B.C. years from as early as the seventh millennium B.C.* The sites of £atal Hiiyuk and
7000 to 6001 B.C. Ha^ilar, dating from this time, show walled towns and brick houses. By
* second millennium B.C. years from the early second millennium B.C.*, larger cities emerged, possibly be-
2000 to 1001 B.C. cause of the rich metal deposits in the nearby mountains. A lively trade
brought tin for making bronze to ANATOLIA and sent gold and silver to
Mesopotamia. The cities that participated in this trade grew in size and
became exposed to Mesopotamian, especially Assyrian, culture.
Around 1700 B.C., the region was united under the rule of the HITTITES,
who built a large empire. Their cities, like those in northern Meso-
potamia, had temples and palaces on the highest ground. Smaller reli-
gious sites, other public buildings, and residential areas were at lower
elevations.
173
Cities and City-States
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Cities in Syria and the Levant* tended to be smaller than the urban
shores of the Mediterranean Sea centers of Mesopotamia. Around 3000 B.C., several cities appeared in the
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), region, including MEGIDDO. However, many of these cities were aban-
the West Bank, and Jordan
doned around 2350 B.C., possibly due to changes in climate, warfare be-
tween city-states, or invasions. About 300 years later, the cities arose
again, both in the interior regions and along the coast.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT CITIES

What were the cities of the ancient Near East like? Although information
is scant and fragmented, excavations and ancient texts have provided his-
torians with several clues.

Location of Cities. The location of cities in the ancient Near East was
typically determined by geography, commerce, and religious associa-
tions. The main geographical factors of importance were the availability
of water and fertile land. In southern Mesopotamia, cities generally
* tributary river that flows into another emerged near the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers or their tributaries*. Simi-
river larly, in Egypt, the cities were located near the Nile River. Jericho arose at
* oasis fertile area in a desert made the site of a spring, and DAMASCUS was built on an oasis* near the edge of
possible by the presence of a spring or the desert. Access to water also provided a convenient means of trans-
well; pi. oases portation. Coastal cities, such as the Phoenician cities of TYRE and SIDON,
were built where good harbors offered safe anchorage for ships.
Population of Some cities flourished because they had advantages for long-distance
commerce. For instance, Damascus offered a haven to weary merchants
Ancient Cities who had brought their CARAVANS across the desert. That city also sat near
At the lonely, windblown
the easiest pass through the mountains of Lebanon to the Mediterranean
site of an ancient city, one
might wonder, "How many
coast. The availability of valuable resources led to the rise of some cities.
people lived here?" There are Meroe, the capital of the kingdom of Kush (south of Egypt), benefited
two ways to estimate ancient from its proximity to sources of granite (for building), ore (for iron), and
populations. Analyzing records clay (for pottery).
from the time is one, though texts Some cities developed because their site was considered sacred. ABYDOS
can be misleading. Another
method estimates population
was considered to be the home of the Egyptian god OSIRIS. In Mesopotamia,
based on the area covered by the the city was a community defined by loyalty to a particular god. The city—
city. Some scholars suggest that in and the farmland that supported it—was the god's land. The rulers of the
southern Mesopotamia, about 200 cities were said to be chosen by the god, which gave them the authority
people could live on each hectare to rule.
(an area 1,000 meters by 1,000
meters) within a city. Multiplying
the figure by the number of
Size of Cities. Ancient Near Eastern cities varied greatly depending on
hectares produces a population es- the era, culture, and physical environment. In the third and second mil-
timate. Such estimates are subject lennia B.C. (the years from 3000 to 1001 B.C.), cities in Mesopotamia had
to many errors, however. It is un- populations between 10,000 and 100,000 or more.
clear, for instance, if houses were Typically, the largest cities were political and administrative centers,
one story or two, but the answer to
that would clearly make a differ-
and the very largest were those that lay at the heart of major empires.
ence to population size. Also, using NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire in the 600s B.C., had a popula-
the size of the city might be mis- tion as high as 250,000. During Egypt's New Kingdom (about 1200 B.C.),
teading because some areas may Thebes may have held as many as 90,000 people. Both of these cities were
not have been settled. larger than JERUSALEM, the capital of the kingdom of Judah, which had a
population of no more than 18,000.
174
 Cities and City-States
The Appearance of Cities. Throughout the ancient Near East, cities
were enclosed by walls and GATES. The walls varied in height and thick-
ness as resources and building techniques varied, but were relied on by
all peoples as a source of protection. The walls were interrupted by tow-
ers, gates, or other structures, where soldiers could gather when the city
was under attack.
A city's walls and gates were a source of pride. The Epic ofGilgamesh
celebrates the walls of Uruk: "See if its wall is not (as straight) as the (ar-
chitect's) string,/Inspect its... wall, the likes of which no-one can equal."
Because the walls were often a symbol of the city, some invaders made a
point of destroying them when they conquered the city.
Gates served not only as the point of access to the cities but also as
centers of trade and commerce. Markets were located in or near the city
* scribe person of a learned class who gates as were scribes*, who helped the people record their letters, sales,
served as a writer, editor, or teacher and business transactions. In large cities, the gates were often of spectacu-
lar proportions and were heavily decorated.
Walls and gates could pose a problem when city populations grew.
Ancient peoples had two solutions. At some sites, they built suburbs out-
side the city walls. These were likely to be created only in times of politi-
cal stability. In other cities, such as the Mesopotamian site of ESHNUNNA,
they extended the walls and gates to enclose new areas of settlement.
In some cases, this expansion was due not to population growth but
to a change in political status. For instance, rulers who conquered a city
Ancient Waste might choose to build a new palace outside the old city walls because
Disposal space within the walls was limited. Some rulers even constructed new
How did the people of the ancient cities where none had existed before to serve as an impressive, new capi-
Near East dispose of their garbage? tal. Examples include the Egyptian city of AKHETATEN and the Assyrian city
The first thing to remember is that
they probably produced less
of KALKHU. Though he did not build new capitals, ALEXANDER THE GREAT es-
garbage than we do today. Life was tablished new cities—many of which he named for himself—throughout
difficult and all resources had to be = his empire.
marshaled. Still, there was garbage In addition to walls, some cities had moats—channels cut outside
which they had to dispose of to the walls to hold water and provide another barrier to conquest. Bridges
prevent health hazards. There is
constructed across the moats provided access to the outside world.
some evidence that it was thrown
into streets and empty lots. Since Mesopotamian cities were usually built near rivers or CANALS, and might
some of these deposits show ash, even have one or more navigable canals come directly into the city.
the trash may have been burned to
make it more compact and less The Layout of Cities. The walls often held more than just the resi-
hazardous to health. The other dential and public areas of the city. They may be extended to include
mechanisms of garbage control
were animals, Ancient peoples kept
other spaces, the uses of which are not always clear. The Epic of Gil-
pigs and dogs in all areas of the gamesh says that the walls of Uruk held areas planted with date palms
city, and these animals undoubt- and for the making of bricks. A map of Nippur from the second millen-
edly helped get rid of waste. nium suggests that a large space was used as fruit orchards and vegetable
gardens.
The dominant feature in most Mesopotamian cities was the temple.
Even if the complex did not include a ziggurat, the temple was always
located on the highest part of the city. However, temples did not oc-
cupy the center of a city. Most were to one side, a location that stressed
the difference between holy and common life. Walls were sometimes
built within cities as well to separate the religious area from the rest of
the city.
175
Cities and City-States
In early periods of Mesopotamian history, the temple and the palace
were separate and were two distinct sources of power. In the Assyrian age,
the two were built in the same area and temples were no longer the focus
of the city. Within the city, it is unclear whether specific parts were re-
stricted to people who practiced certain crafts although some evidence
suggests that industries were often localized in one section. There is also
evidence that neighborhoods of these ancient cities consisted of people
from mixed social classes. It is not clear that there were separate sections
of cities devoted to trade. Some scholars believe that commerce took
place in open spaces just inside the gates. (See also Palaces and Temples;
Walled Cities.)

176
 RELIGION

Plate I
Beginning around 2500 B.C., the culture and religion of the ancient Phoenicians
were greatly influenced by the Egyptians.This statue of a Phoenician goddess
wearing a sun disk closely resembles the way that the ancient Egyptians por-
trayed their goddesses Isis and Hathor. Not quite eight inches tall, this bronze
statue with a silver-plated headdress dates from around the 600s B.C.
Plate 2
Animal sacrifice played an important role in many religions of the ancient
Near East.The animals most commonly sacrificed included lambs,sheep, and
goats, although cattle, dogs, and otheranimals were sometimes offered as
sacrifices as well.The mother-of-pearl, ivory, red limestone, and slate mosaic
shown here, from the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900-2350 B.C.) temple of
the Mesopotamian sun godShamash at Mari, depicts thesacrifice of a ram.
Plate 4
Many people of the ancient NearEast be-
lieved that a king was given his power by the
gods. It was then the king's duty to ensure
that his people worshiped the gods properly,
by observing holidays and practicing rituals.
Dating from between1200 and1000B.C.,
this 72-inch-high stela comes from Baluaa in
Jordan (in the Levant). Carved from basalt, it
portrays a king standing between a god and
a goddess, who hold symbols of divinity.
Plate 7
As part of their religious practices,
the ancient Elamites made many
offerings, especially of animal blood,
to their gods.The two 3-inch-high
figures of worshipers shown here
date from1OOs
the
1 B.C.and were
found atSusa, which was then part
of Elam.The gold figure on the left
is holding a kid, and the silver figure
on the right is holding a small animal
that may be intended for sacrifice.
Plate11
Dating from the 800sB.C., this relief
from Sippar depicts the Babylonian sun
god Shamash viewing adisplay of respect
from the three smaller figures on the
left. Shamash represented justice to the
ancient Babylonians. Like other peoples
of the ancient Near East, the
Babylonians believed that theirlaws
came directly from the gods and that by
following them, they were worshiping
the gods properly. In return, they hoped
the gods would be favorable to them.
Plate 12
Dating from around 1400 B.C., this mural from
an official's tomb near Thebes depicts scenes
associated with a funeral.The top panel shows
female mourners following a funerary boat.
The lower panel depicts the ritual slaughter
and purification of a bull that will be served at
the funerary feast. Following Egyptian religious
practice, the butchers are pouring a liquid
over the bull and removing his right front leg
The Ancient
Near East
An Encyclopedia
for Students
The Ancient
Near East
An Encyclopedia
for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief

Jack M. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 2

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

An Imprint of The Gale Group
NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT
 Clay Tablets

Theof clay
earliest forms of writing were symbols scratched on tablets made
for recording quantities of goods. Soon people made impres-
CLAY TABLETS sions in damp clay to record business deals, keep accounts, recognize
treaties, or set down laws. The clay was then dried in the sun to harden it
and preserve the inscribed message. Only rarely were tablets baked in an
oven. This early form of WRITING, which was used in much of the ancient
Near East, was very durable. Almost half a million clay tablets have been
found throughout the region so far, and new discoveries are reported reg-
ularly. The tablets provide invaluable and detailed insights into life in the
ancient Near East.

Before Tablets. Before tablets, there were tokens. As far back as 8000 B.C.,
people were using clay to keep records. They pressed small lumps of clay be-
tween their fingers to make a token about one-half to one inch across. The
tokens came in many shapes, including spheres, discs, cones, and rods.
Some were plain; others had markings. Each token represented a commod-
ity, such as a bushel of grain, a sheep, or a jar of oil. People used tokens to
keep track of supplies, to make calculations, and to conclude transactions.
Although the tokens were small, they could be rather cumbersome
when large numbers of them were needed. People therefore started to
make clay "envelopes'' to contain them. The tokens were placed inside a
hollow clay ball, called a bulla, which was then sealed with a cylinder SEAL.
A drawback of the envelopes was that they concealed the contents.
Once they were sealed, nobody could see how many tokens were inside
until the envelope was broken open at its final destination. To overcome
this problem, people developed a system of markings. Tokens like those
inside were pressed onto the outside of the envelope while it was still soft
to indicate how many of each type of token the envelope held. By about
3500 B.C., solid clay tablets had replaced the envelopes. The token im-
pressions that had been placed on the envelopes were soon replaced
with drawings of the tokens on the tablets. Now instead of repeating the
information contained inside the envelope, the markings themselves
gave the message.

How the Tablets Were Made. People made clay tablets by patting
damp clay into the desired shape. The most common shape was that of a
rectangle with rounded comers, but tablets were also square, circular,
and oval. Some tablets were formed in the shape of barrels, others prisms
with as many as ten sides. The tablets varied greatly in size, depending
on the amount and importance of the information to be recorded. The
smallest tablets were just a few centimeters in length and width. The
larger tablets, which contained literary or historical records, may mea-
sure as much as 45 by 30 centimeters.
* scribe person of a learned class who The writing was done by scribes*, who in most societies were the only
served as a writer, editor, or teacher people who knew how to write. After the surface of the tablet was made
smooth, the scribe used a reed with a wedge-shaped tip called a stylus to
impress triangular-shaped marks in it. For long scholarly texts, several
tablets were used. For some long texts, scribes might also draw lines on
the tablets to divide them into sections. In most cases, scribes wrote on
both sides of a tablet, flipping it over from top to bottom.
1
Clay Tablets

The cuneiform clay tablets, shown here,

date from the third to the first millennium
B.C. Initially, the tablets were inscribed
from top to bottom and from right to left.
In later years, the direction of writing
changed, and the tablets were inscribed
from top to bottom and from left to right.
The sizes of the inscriptions also changed
over the years. When scribes ran out of
space on the tablet, they sometimes in-
scribed the edges or squeezed words be-
tween lines.

Once the marks were made, the tablets were placed in the sun to dry.
If the message was especially important, the tablet was baked in a kiln—
an oven used for hardening pottery. This ensured that the tablet hard-
ened properly and would then last a long time.

See What the Writing Was Like. The form of writing used on clay
color plate 5, tablets is called CUNEIFORM. The name comes from two Latin words—
vol. 2.
cuneus, meaning "wedge" and forma, meaning "shape"—and refers to
the kind of marks made by the scribe's stylus. Each mark was made by
pressing the stylus into the clay, not by drawing it across the surface. As a
result, the marks retained the basic shape of the part of the stylus that
was pressed in, either the wedge-shaped end or the straight edge. A re-
markable number of different symbols could be created by varying the
number of wedges and their orientation.
Cuneiform was developed by the Sumerians at URUK in about 3100 B.C.
Initially, the symbols were closely related to the objects they represented.
As time passed, however, cuneiform symbols became more and more styl-
* stylized referring to art style in which ized*. They began to "stand for" something rather than "be" a picture of it.
figures are portrayed in simplified ways Eventually, some symbols were used to represent sounds instead of ob-
that exaggerate certain features, not jects. These changes were significant developments; with them, written
realistically
language could now express many more ideas.

What the Tablets Were Used For. Initially, clay tablets were used
mainly for recording the movement of goods and people administered
by the central temple at Uruk. As the tablets' use widened, they were em-
ployed to keep track of inventories, to itemize expenditures, and to
record laws and treaties. Some kings had scribes write about their accom-
plishments to keep the gods and future rulers informed. These records
were called royal INSCRIPTIONS. In addition, people used clay tablets for
sending letters.
Clay tablets were also used to record numerous myths and legends,
even prayers to the gods. In most nonliterate societies, these stories and
2
 Cleopatra
prayers were passed down by word of mouth and thus are often no
longer available. The tablets were also used in schools, where students
practiced the equivalent of spelling and composition, as well as mathe-
matics, on them.

How Tablets Were Kept. Sometimes tablets were stored in large clay
containers. They might also be stored in wooden boxes or even stacked
on wooden shelves almost like modern books. Not all tablets were
stored, of course. Many were discarded once they were no longer needed.
Because they were usually rectangular and because of their hardness,
they might be used as building material and placed under new pave-
ments or within new walls. This made them that much easier to be
* archaeologist scientist who studies past found by archaeologists* many centuries later.
human cultures, usually by excavating Royal inscriptions received better treatment. Mesopotamian kings
material remains of human activity had these tablets buried under the foundations of buildings or stored in
special rooms. The tablets were, in a sense, the first time capsules, waiting
to reveal their contents to future generations.

Why Clay Tablets Were Replaced. Clearly, clay tablets had their
drawbacks as well as their advantages. They were time-consuming to
make, bulky to store, and heavy to carry (one tablet that has been found
weighs 11 pounds). Tablets were also difficult to change. If a scribe made
an error in recording information, the clay could be smoothed over and
new marks made. However, if a change needed to be made in the text af-
ter the tablet had dried, there was no way to do this. In some periods of
Mesopotamian history, scribes used wax spread on wooden boards, in-
stead of clay, to record information that was needed only briefly. After the
text was no longer required, they could smooth over the wax and reuse it.
Despite these difficulties, ancient cultures used clay tablets with satis-
faction for about 3,000 years. During all that time, however, written lan-
guage was evolving, and methods for recording language were being
refined. Eventually clay tablets and the cuneiform system of writing gave
* papyrus writing material made by way to alphabets inked on animal skins and papyrus*. The last known
pressing together thin stripes of the inner cuneiform tablets date from at least the first century A.D. and perhaps
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri even as late as the A.D. 200s. (See also Alphabets; Record Keeping;
Scribes.)

CLEOPATRA
C >opatra VII (klee»uh»PA*truh) was a queen of ancient Egypt and one
f the most fascinating women in history. She was born in 69 B.C.,
daughter of King Ptolemy XII, the Macedonian ruler of Egypt. In 51 B.C.,
when Cleopatra was just 17, her father died and she became queen. As was
the custom in ancient Egyptian royal families, Cleopatra married her
lived 69-30 B.C. brother, the new king, Ptolemy XIII, who was 15, and the two of them
Queen of Egypt ruled together.
Cleopatra and her brother shared an uneasy rule. In 48 B.C., Ptolemy
XIII and his supporters seized power and removed Cleopatra from the
throne. Cleopatra, however, was ambitious. She wanted not only to rule
3
Climate
Egypt but also to return it to its previous status as a world power. To this
end, when the Roman leader Julius Caesar visited Egypt in 48 B.C.,
Cleopatra set out to charm and influence him to gain his political back-
ing. Subsequently, civil war broke out in Egypt between Cleopatra and
her brother. With the help of Caesar's army, Cleopatra won the war, and
her brother died while trying to escape. Cleopatra then married her other
brother, Ptolemy XIV, and she again became cornier of Egypt. Shortly
thereafter, she gave birth to a boy, Caesarion, who she claimed was Cae-
sar's son.
Caesar and Cleopatra had fallen in love, so soon after Caesar left Egypt
for Rome in 47 B.C., Cleopatra joined him. She was still in Rome when he
was assassinated by his enemies in 44 B.C. Cleopatra returned to Egypt un-
til the Roman political crisis caused by Caesar's murder was resolved.
Three men—Gaius Octavian, Marcus Lepidus, and Marcus Antonius, or
Mark Antony—came to power in Rome in 43 B.C. as corulers. Antony,
however, wished to rule Rome alone. Cleopatra saw another chance to
achieve her own aims. Consequently, when Antony summoned her to
Tarsus, she set out with gift-filled ships to win Antony's heart and gain his
backing. She succeeded. The two fell in love, and in 40 B.C., Cleopatra
gave birth to twins. By 37 B.C., Antony and Cleopatra were married, and
the following year, she bore another son by him.
Their marriage was unpopular in Rome, and by Roman law, it was in-
valid—Antony already had a wife. The Roman government stripped
Cleopatra, shown here in the guise of the
Antony of his title, and Octavian sent an army to destroy Antony and
Egyptian goddess Isis, was a woman of keen Cleopatra. In 31 B.C., their navy was defeated by Octavian's at the battle at
intellect. Although she was descended from Actium, off the west coast of Greece.
the Macedonians, she learned the Egyptian Shortly thereafter, both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide to
language. In fact, Cleopatra was the only avoid being humiliated and probably executed during the anticipated cel-
member of the Ptolemaic dynasty to do so.
ebration of Octavian's triumph in the battle. Antony stabbed himself, and
Cleopatra took her own life by allowing an asp, a poisonous snake, to bite
her. She died in 30 B.C., in Alexandria, Egypt, at the age of 39. She was the
* dynasty succession of rulers from the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty*, which had ruled Egypt since 323 B.C.
same family or group After Cleopatra's death, Egypt fell under Roman domination. (See also
Egypt and the Egyptians; Ptolemy I.)

CLIMATE
C limate is the pattern of weather in an area over a long period. The
climate of a region is typically described in terms of the average
temperature and precipitation during the year. The climate of the Near
East in ancient times was generally similar to that of the area today. The
region was primarily arid or semiarid, with hot summers and mild win-
ters. Rainfall, usually light, occurred mostly in the winter months.
However, these general comments do not give a full picture of the cli-
mate of the ancient Near East. First, the period under consideration is
vast, and there were changes in climate during those thousands of years.
Second, because the Near East is a large region, climate varied locally. Ge-
ography, plant life, and nearness to the sea all affected the climate of a
particular locale—as did human activity.
4
 Climate
Studying Ancient Climates. Studying climate in the ancient Near
East is not an easy task. The best tools for studying climate are long-term
records of what weather occurred. However, such records are not available
for ancient times. Although people there created writing systems thou-
sands of years ago, they did not keep regular weather logs.
Scientists study ancient lake beds to determine the water levels in an-
cient times and measure the oxygen trapped in layers of polar ice to find
* sediment material deposited by water the global temperatures at that time. Geologists measure sediment* de-
or wind, usually in layers posited by rivers and streams to determine how heavy a river's flow was.
By analyzing pollen grains, botanists find what plant life existed in an-
cient times, which hints at the climate in those periods. Botanists also use
the width of a tree's growth rings to determine weather patterns. Wider
growth rings suggest better climatic conditions; narrower ones represent
poorer conditions. By comparing many trees, botanists can assemble a
picture of climate conditions of a period. Ancient records can also help in
See map in Geography (vol. 2). this search. Accounts of floods, crop yields, and activity such as hunting
or forestry give an idea of what weather was like. Comparing texts across
time and place produces a picture of climate.

Changes Over Time. In the Pleistocene epoch, which lasted until

about 9000 B.C., the overall climate of the earth cooled and warmed sev-
eral times. The periods of cooler climates are called ice ages because vast
amounts of water were trapped in sheets of ice called glaciers. Some glac-
iers formed in the high mountain ranges of ANATOLIA (present-day
Turkey), in the CAUCASUS Mountains, and in the mountains of IRAN. Lakes
and inland seas were larger then than they are now because the cold air
temperatures prevented lake water from evaporating. With little evapo-
ration and cold temperatures, there was little rainfall.
As the last Ice Age ended about 10,000 years ago, temperatures rose.
Until about 6000 B.C., temperatures were mild and rainfall was somewhat
higher than it is today. Vegetation thrived and forests expanded from the
foothills into mountain areas. Grasses spread on the plateaus, inviting
game animals. The large numbers of animals and the thriving grasses lured
people, who hunted the animals and gathered plants. People also began to
* domesticate to adapt or tame for domesticate* plants and animals to have a reliable food supply. The climate
human use changes brought about by the end of the ice ages created the circumstances
for this important change in human life. Gradually, climate changed again,
but at different times in different places. Even as late as 3000 B.C., the
deserts of the Near East were moister than they are today. Eventually, the
climate in the ancient Near East became much like it is today.

Climate Zones. Egypt lies in a desert zone, where little grows except
* oasis fertile area in a desert made near a river or an oasis*. The hot season is from May to September, and
possible by the presence of a spring or the cool season is from November to March with transitional periods in
well; pi. oases between. Near the coast, temperatures range from 99°F to 57°E Inland
desert areas vary from 114°F during the day to 42°F at night. In winter,
the temperature often drops below freezing. The wettest area of Egypt
lies along the coast, but even there, rainfall is only eight inches per year.
Rainfall is much less toward the south. Modern Cairo gets only an inch
per year, and it may not rain for years in the desert.
5
Clothing

Ancient MESOPOTAMIA consisted of three climate zones. The mountain-

ous north had cool summers and cold winters. The dry central region was
* steppe large semiarid grassy plain with in a steppe* climate zone. Its mild winters and hot summers supported the
few trees growth of large grasslands. Southern Mesopotamia was—and still is—an
arid region. Some of the world's highest temperatures have been recorded
in southern Iraq. Iran shared these three climate zones.
On the southern edge of Anatolia stand the Zagros Mountains, where
cold, wet winters and dry summers support the growth of thick stands of
trees. Near the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts, the summers are warm
and the winters mild and rainy. The central plateau is a steppe region
with a climate similar to that of central Mesopotamia. Southeastern Ana-
tolia is driest and hottest, with summer temperatures averaging more
than 85°E
* Levant lands bordering the eastern The climate of ancient SYRIA and the Levant* was similar to that of
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- Anatolia. Hot dry summers and mild winters were typical, with little vari-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West ation in temperature. Further inland, there were more extremes of tem-
Bank, and Jordan
perature. The plateau areas, though dry, were fertile. Rainfall, which
generally came in winter, was light, except near the coast.

The Impact of Human Society. The climate of the Near East has
changed little in the last 6,000 years. The long history of human activity
in the region, however, has added to the difficulty in farming caused by
the dryness of the region. Cutting trees and allowing domestic animals
to graze extensively have combined to remove valuable roots that hold
the soil in place. When rain does fall, then, it runs off quickly instead of
seeping into the earth and refilling underground reserves of water.
Changing the courses of rivers and building canal systems have con-
tributed to this effect as well. Heavy irrigation has raised the level of salt
in the soil, making it nonproductive. (See also Agriculture; Building Ma-
terials; Canals; Irrigation; Water.)

CLOTHING
M ost of our knowledge about the clothing of the peoples of the an-
cient Near East comes from sculptures, cylinder SEALS, and art-
works, as well as written descriptions. Because few fabrics have survived
the several thousands of years since they were made and worn, little is
known about clothing before the development of sculpture and writing.
These artworks tend to portray the costumes of the rich and royal, and
more men than women and children, except in religious works, where
women do appear.

* fourth millennium B.C. years from Mesopotamia. In the second half of the fourth millennium B.C.*,
4000 to 3001 B.C. priest-kings wore a kiltlike skirt woven with a crisscross pattern and a
fringe around the hem. Priestesses wore long pieces of fabric draped over
the left shoulder and around the body, leaving the right arm bare. From
about 3000 to 2300 B.C., men and women wore long sheepskin skirts
called kaunakes. The wraparound skirts were worn with the wool, which
was combed into decorative tufts, on the outside. They were pinned into
place and worn down to the knees or to the ankles. Men and women
6
 Clothing

wore headdresses of leather or felted wool (thick, tightly woven animal

hair), wigs, and elaborate JEWELRY. They went barefoot or wore simple
leather sandals.
See As evidenced by images on cylinder seals, fashions in Mesopotamia
color plate 1, changed around 2300 B.C., when men began to cover their chests with
vol. 2.
one-shoulder robes similar to those worn by women. Wool fabric with
elaborately knotted fringes replaced sheepskin garments. Artwork from
about the same time also depicts men wearing robes and kilts of finely
pleated material and shoes with upturned toes. They put their hair in a
distinctive bun. These new forms of dress were adopted by the Akkadians
under Sargon I.
During the Old Babylonian period (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.), with the in-
troduction of tailoring, people began to wear closely fitted garments.
Robes became short-sleeved dresses, held in place with belts. Mesopota-
mians also began to dye fabrics in vivid colors or embroidered geometric
patterns. They wore heavy and highly ornamented jewelry. For under-
wear, women wore a short skirt; men wore a loincloth. Men and women
wore sandals or boots made from soft leather or fabric.
Assyrians draped long fringed pieces of fabric around their bodies.
ftememfcer; Words in small capital Men also wore robes and horizontally patterned woolen kilts that were
letters have separate entries, and the
Index at the end of this volume will fastened with belts or sashes. Little is known about women's clothing in
guide you to more information Assyria because women were rarely shown in art and sculpture. Assyrian
on many topics. men and women sometimes wore a shawl over the right shoulder, fas-
tened with a fibula, a fancy safety pin, and slippers on their feet.

Egypt. Most Egyptian clothing was made of natural-colored linen, a

fabric woven from the FLAX plant. Much of the Egyptians' clothing was
also made from wool. They sometimes used natural dyes to color their
garments, although this was more common during the time of the New
Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). From an examination of artwork from the
Old and Middle Kingdoms (ca. 2675-1630 B.C.), it is evident that men
wore a pleated kilt wrapped around the hips and tied at the waist.
Women were generally depicted wearing a plain sheath dress with shoul-
der straps that often left their breasts exposed. Both men and women
wore cloaks.
Around 1500 B.C., Egyptian women began wearing longer, looser gar-
ments, which covered one shoulder and fell to the ankles. The robes were
fastened beneath the breasts with a sash or belt. They decorated these gar-
ments with colorful embroidery, or by creating collar and apron areas.
With time, the kilt and draped tunic were decorated with fringes, and em-
broidered bands adorned hems, sides, and necklines.
Accessories were also quite common in ancient Egypt. Men and
women wore shawls, belts, scarves, caps, and gloves. Both sexes wore
headdresses, usually in the form of elaborate wigs. Most people went
barefoot, but important people wore sandals made from papyrus, palm
leaves, or leather.
Members of the royal family wore similar clothing, but the linen used
to make their clothes was finely spun and bleached. Their garments were
sewn with special care and decorated with beads and metalwork. The
wardrobes of the royal family and the wealthy generally included richly
7
Clothing

embroidered garments, several loincloths, and fringed tunics. In the

* archaeologist scientist who studies past tomb of the architect Kha,for instance, archaeologists* have found26
human cultures, usually by excavating knee-length kilts, 17 sleeveless tunics, and 50 loincloths.
material remains of human activity
Anatolia. Vases and drinkingvessels show that Hittites during the
1300sB.C. wore short, belted tunics (some with sleeves) withfringedor
dyed borders. They wore high boots or shoes with upturned toes. Men
and women decorated their robes and tunics with pleats,fringes, elabo-
rate embroidery,and knots.In
fact, HUYUK
woolen£ATAL
textiles found
at
reveal that several techniques of weavingand knotting existed in the re-
gion from very early times. Archaeologists have also excavated textiles at
* faience decorated object made of Acemhuyuk with bluefaience* beads sewn with golden threads.
quartz and other materials that includes
a glaze Syria and the Levant. In both Syria and theLevant*, clothing wa
* Levant lands bordering the eastern similar to that of their more powerful neighboring states,but it was also
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- often quite distinctive. Syrian cylinder B.C.
seals
from
show
the 1700s
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
Bank, and Jordan
kings wearing wraparound robes with thick edges, perhaps a fur trim.
Egyptian tomb paintings from about the same time show Canaanite
men and women in brightly colored, full-length woolen dresses with
bold geometric patterns. The dresses were draped over one shoulder and
pinned with a metal toggle (pin). Women wore high-top closed shoes
with laces, while men wore sandals.
Tombsfrom aboutB.C. 1500
show people wearing long, white, close-
fitting, long-sleeved garments, with seamsand edges trimmed with col-
ored, patterned braids and with small tassels at the hem. Later they wore
linen garments, perhaps dyed blue and trimmed with multicolored wool.
In Israel, priests wore linen underpants beneath robesor tunics with a
fringe or tassel on the bottom four corners. This style was stipulated in
the Hebrew BIBLE, along with the requirement thatthefringe includea
blue thread as a reminder to obey God. Laws in the
Bible specified thatIs-
raelites could not wear clothing made from a combination of linen and
wool. In most periods, working-class men wore the simple short skirt.

Iran. Between 3000 and B.C., 1000

people Susa
in in southwestern Iran
wore clothing resembling that of their Mesopotamian neighbors, with
some local variations. Unlike most peoples of the ancient Near East, who
draped lengthsoffabric,thePersiansof the middleof the first millennium
8
 Communication
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 B.C.* wore close-fitting garments. Scholars believe that fitted clothing was
tO 1 B.C. practical because the Persians hunted extensively, especially on horseback.
They wore animal skins and later made garments from woven cloth. Both
men and women wore trousers that were tight at the ankles and tunics or
coats with sleeves. They also wore leather shoes and boots. Women addi-
tionally wore long veils that covered their heads. (See also Textiles.)

Coins See Money.

Commerce See Economy and Trade.

COMMUNICATION
I n these days of e-mail and telephone, it is hard to imagine a time when
long-distance communication was a matter of sending a messenger
who might take months to deliver a message and just as long to return
with a reply. For most people of the ancient Near East, this kind of com-
munication was impossible—and unnecessary. For rulers and certain
businessmen, however, it was crucial.

The Function of Messengers. In the ancient Near East, the messen-

ger between kings played a vital role. The Akkadian word for messenger,
marshipri, can be translated as "envoy/' "ambassador," "agent," "diplo-
mat/' "deputy," and even "merchant," depending on the situation being
described. Some messengers simply brought information from one ruler
* tribute payment made by a smaller or to another. A messenger might be sent to deliver tribute* from a weaker
weaker party to a more powerful one, to a stronger power or to bring news of events at a faraway royal court.
often under the threat of force More important messengers were those who were given a certain
amount of authority to make judgments about the responses to the mes-
sage and to act on the ruler's behalf. These messengers, who were really
diplomats, were necessary because of the length of time any negotiation
and travel between two lands might take. Such messengers were used to
arrange marriages, funerals, and religious ceremonies or to negotiate
treaties or the sale of goods.
Messengers could be anyone, male or female, from slaves to members
of the royal family. They were valued for their loyalty, speed, and trust-
worthiness. Women typically carried messages between queens. In some
cases, one ruler requested a specific person—someone known and
trusted—to bring messages from another ruler.
The choice of messenger was dictated by the situation. If the message
was of a personal nature, a king might choose a family member or a
trusted member of the royal court. If someone was available who was re-
lated to the recipient of the message, that might be a good choice. If dan-
ger was foreseen, the messenger might be a soldier.
9
Communication

Travel. Messengers often CARAVANS,

traveled
sointhat they could carry
supplies and gain protectionfrom bandits.One inscription tells,for ex-
The Trialsof a ample, of a caravan that consisted of 2 messengers and 22 other people
Messenger that was attacked and robbed. The messengers and 12 others in cara- the
Around 1080B.C., an Egyptianmes- van were killed. As some protection against this kindof danger, messen-
senger named Wen-Amun was sent gers often carried "passports" writtenby theirrulerto all others.The text
to the Phoenician city of Byblos to
of one passport is typical:
buy timber to build a sacred boat.
His journey suggests the difficulties
of being a messenger. While travel- To the kingsofCanaan,servantsof my brother:
Thus
[says]
the
ing by sea, he was robbed in the king: "I herewithsend
Akiya,
my brother.
No one is to hold
him up.
port of Dor. Though without goods Provide him withsafe entry into
Egyptand handhimoverto the
to pay for the timber, he sailed on. fortress commander of
Egypt.
Let him go
immediately,
and as far as
Encountering a ship from Dor, he his presentsare concerned,he is to owe nothing/'
seized silver equal to what had
been stolen from him. When he
reached Byblos, the prince refused Notwithstanding these precautions, messengers were not always well
to see him at first. When the prince treated. Many letters containing complaints about the mistreatmentof
finally did grant an audience, Wen- royal messengers have been found in Egypt and elsewhere.
Amun did not have the rightpapers
from his master, and he did not
Presenting the Message. When a messenger finally arrived at the des-
have enough silver. The prince was
furious. Wen-Amun sent back to tination, the task had only begun. Some messages were admitted, and
Egypt for better gifts, and when some were turned away. Some messengers were
he forcedto waitfor a long
received them, the agreementwas time before they gained an audience with the king.
made. Just as Wen-Amun was read) At last, the messenger stood before theking—and the scribes* and
to start back, 11 ships from Dor ar- sometimes a translator. If the messagedid not require negotiation, the
rived in Byblos and demanded that
the prince arrest Wen-Amun for
messenger would deliver it verbally and then hand over a clay tablet
theft. The prince decided in the sealed inside a clay "envelope" that had another version of the message
Egyptian's favor, but on the way written on it. The scribe would read the tablet aloud, and the king would
home, a storm forced Wen-Amun compare the two messagesfor consistency. Whenthe messagewas more
to land in Cyprus. Threatened by complex, so was the presentation. A diplomat might present the king'sre-
the local people with death, he
quest for some good, suchas timber,and then negotiatea price,for exam-
pleaded for—and won—his life and
was allowed to leave. At this ple. This could require an extended visit, during which the messenger
point,
the account is broken off. How and any companions stayed at the palace.
much longer it took Wen-Amun to
qet homeis unknown. Returning Home. The trip to a distant palace was only half of the
messenger's job. In order to leave, messengers needed the permission of
the ruler of the land they had visited, and they did not always get it.
Some found themselves held hostage for years. Thosewho were allowed
10
 Cosmetics
* scribe person of a learned class who to return were often given escorts by the ruler who had received the mes-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher sage. These escorts might carry responses to the original message, and
they, in turn, would be escorted back to their own land when their mis-
sion was completed. Not sending an escort was seen as an insult.
The journey home was marked by the same difficulties that plagued
the messenger on the first leg of the trip. When the messenger did man-
age to return home, however, he was often richly rewarded by the king
for a difficult job well done.

Communication Within an Empire. As the empires of the ancient

Near East grew larger, their governmental organization became more
complex. Rulers named local governors to oversee government func-
tions in far-flung territories. Communication between the central gov-
ernment and these distant outposts took on growing importance. Rulers
* edict pronouncement of the used messengers to deliver edicts*, to order the assembling of an army, or
government that has the force of law to try to learn about developments in the governors' lands. To make it
easier for messengers to travel, rulers built systems of roads that were
dotted with inns where their messengers could rest along the way. The
PERSIAN EMPIRE included an elaborate system of imperial messengers for
these purposes. (See also Government.)

Contracts, Legal See Law.

Copper See Metals and Metalworking.

COSMETICS
I n the ancient Near East, cosmetics were initially used for religious pur-
poses. Over time, people employed them for two other functions: to
make themselves more attractive and to heal and protect the skin. The
first use of cosmetics, as long ago as the third millennium B.C.*, was cere-
monial. Egyptian priests applied cosmetics to the face, especially the eyes,
of their statues and other images of their gods. Oils and other prepara-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 tions were used in embalming to protect and preserve the body after
to 2001 B.C. death. Cosmetics were applied to the face of the deceased and were in-
cluded in the tomb for use in the AFTERLIFE. In coronation ceremonies in
Israel and Judah, new kings were anointed with oil.
The hot, dry, and sunny climate caused a great deal of wear and tear
on exposed skin, especially the face, hands, and arms. Oils and ointments
were used to protect the skin from sun and wind and to make the skin
smooth and soft. These ointments were made from plant (thyme,
* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree oregano, frankincense and myrrh*, saffron, rosewater) or animal (ground
resins used to make incense and ants' eggs) products. These substances were mixed with almond, saffron,
perfumes or olive oils or with cat, hippopotamus, or crocodile fat. Egyptians also in-
vented a wrinkle remover, made of oil, beeswax, incense, and cypress
11
Cosmetics

See berries. Cosmetics were expensive, but they were considered a necessity
[colorplate10, rather than a luxury reservedfor the rich.RAMSES
During
III the reignof
vol.2.
(from the 1180s to the B.C.),
1150stomb workers at Thebes went on strike
when their allotment of oils was reduced. Among the Egyptians, cosmet-
ics were worn by both men and women.
Egyptian women used makeup to enhance the beautyof their eyes.
They darkened their eyebrows, colored the upper lids, and outlined their
eyes with black or gray kohl.Kohlwas an eye makeup madeof sootand
two minerals—antimony and galena, a type of lead. They outlined the
lower lids with a green paste made from the mineral malachite. In addi-
tion to enhancing beauty, this makeup protected thefrom skin the sun
and repelledflies, which were annoying and carried diseases.
Egyptian women used red ocher to color their cheeks and lips. They
used reddish henna, a dye, to color their palms, fingernails, and the soles
of theirfeet. Hennawas also usedas a hair dye. Anotherdye (no longer in
use) was made of oil mixed with the boiled blood of a blackcat or black
bull. The Egyptians made abrasives—stones or minerals very finely
ground—to whiten their teeth.
Although evidence for the use of cosmeticsin Mesopotamiais limited,
women did use cosmeticsfor their eyesand complexion. Fromthe
Sumer-
ian royal burialsat
UR dating
fromthe middleof the third
B.C. millennium
come cockleshells containing pigments in assorted colors, including
* second millennium B.C.
years from yellow, red, green, blue, black,and white.A secondB.C.*
millennium
Mes-
2000 to 1001 B.C. opotamian text describes the goddess Inanna-Ishtar applying an eye oint-
ment called "Let him come, let him come," prior to her descending into
the underworld. Babylonians also used red pigments on their faces. Is-
raelite women useda whiteface powder madeof flour and red coloring on
12
 Creation Myths
their cheeks. According to religious teachings, a husband was required to
give his wife an allowance to buy cosmetics.
Because cosmetics were expensive, they were made a little at a time
and stored for long periods. An industry arose to manufacture small con-
tainers to store ointments and perfumes. Making these containers be-
came an art form, with containers made of precious stones and carefully
decorated. A wealthy woman might own more than half a dozen cosmet-
ics jars, all kept in a painted cedar box. Containers, some with a residue of
the contents, have frequently been discovered in tombs. Recipes, too,
have been found, explaining what ingredients, and in what combina-
tions, produce the best results.
Egypt became well known for its cosmetics and developed an export
industry. Not all cosmetics were purchased, however. Many women pre-
pared their own, assembling the ingredients, grinding them up, and mix-
ing them with oils and fats. A related industry was PERFUMES. Because of
the hot temperatures in the ancient Near East, body odor was common.
The Egyptians bathed for pleasure, and the Hebrews had ritual bathing re-
quirements, but this did not solve the problem. Perfume helped by cover-
ing over natural odors. Perfume manufacture was often kept secret, which
increased the cost of scents. Perfumes were a major industry in Mesopota-
mia, where they had cosmetic, medicinal, and religious uses. Women
were the major manufacturers of perfumes in Mesopotamia. Fortunately,
a little goes a long way, and if stored in a sealed container in a cool place,
perfume lasts. Open perfume bottles were buried in tombs to keep the air
fresh and sweet. Not all cultures approved of widespread use of perfume,
* incense fragrant spice or resin burned however. Israelite priests used it as incense* in the temple, but because it
as an offering had sacred purposes, they were forbidden to give away the secret of mak-
ing it. They were even forbidden to give any perfume to their wives. (See
also Hair.)

CREATION MYTHS
M yths are stories that give form to a culture's beliefs and values.
Among the most recurrent of any culture's myths are its creation
stories, which tell how the world came into being. These myths include
cosmogonies—accounts of the creation of the physical universe—and oc-
casionally, stories of human origins. Creation myths offer people a way of
imagining their place in the universe and their relationship to the gods,
other people, and nature. Creation stories in most of the ancient Near
East cultures recount that before the world was made, everything was
covered with water. This theme can be found in Egyptian, Babylonian,
and Hebrew creation myths.

Egypt. A basic Egyptian creation story centered on Atum, a creator god

* primeval related to the earliest times who existed at the beginning of all things, floating in primeval* waters
like "he who is in his egg." Just as the waters of Egypt's Nile River receded
every year at the end of the flooding season, exposing fertile new soil,
the primeval waters drew back from Atum, exposing a mound where he
began to create aspects of his own being. This brought about the gradual
unfolding of the world. First he sneezed, producing air and the male and
13
Creation Myths
* deity god or goddess female deities* Shu andTefnut. Then he created the earth god Geb and
the sky goddess Nut toform a permanent boundary between the newly
created world and the surrounding primeval waters.
Atum became the sun god Re, whose rising and setting brought time
into the world and mirrored the cycle lifeofand death. Geb and Nut gave
birth to two pairsofOSIRIS
deities:
and
Isis,who represent orderand
fertil-
ity (and whoseHORUS
son was associated with kingship), and Seth and
Nephthys, representing the necessary opposite qualities of confusion
(disorder) and barrenness.
Over time, the priests atdifferent religious centers developed varying
versions of the basicMEMPHIS,
story.for
In example,the primeval creative
force ofAtum-Re took theform of the god Ptah,the divine craftsman—
who was also the local god of Memphis. The version of the story that
came fromTHEBES singled
AMUN
outas the great creator.As
Amun-Re, he
became the chief god ofEgypt.

Mesopotamia. For the Sumerians and the Babylonians, creation began

with an act of separation in which a single body of primeval matter took
on different aspects.A Sumerian fragmentENLILsays sepa-
that
the god
rated heaven and earth and created the universe. Related myths describe
the origin of the sun, moon, cities, temples, and humans. One story de-
scribes the godEnki's creation of the pickaxand brick mold
giftsto
as the
human race to enable humanity to build its cities.
The best-known Mesopotamian cosmogony is the Babylonian poem
EnumaElish, in which an underlying Sumerian story becomes a celebra-
tion of the Babylonian
MARDUK,
god the cityof Babylon,and the
festival
of the NewYear. It begins with these words: "When above the heavens
were not named,Below, the earth was not called by name."
In this account of creation, the primeval water includes a male part
named Apsu and afemale part named Tiamat whose mingling produced
the gods. The Babylonian
Epic
Creation
of is mainly concerned withex-
plaining how Marduk became the supreme god when Tiamat and a host
of monsters threatened the gods. Marduk defeated Tiamat in a legendary
battle. He and the god
EA then organized the universe. There are two ver-
sions of the creation of the human race: that people grew out of the

14
 Crete
ground like plants and that the gods molded them from clay mixed with
divine blood.

Israelite Culture. The Israelite culture developed a cosmogony that

* Levant lands bordering the eastern shared elements of myths from Mesopotamia, CANAAN, and the Levant*.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- The Hebrew Bible contains several accounts of creation. In each case, the
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West universe and its contents are created by the all-powerful god YAHWEH, but
Bank, and Jordan
details differ in the different versions.
According to the first chapter of the book of Genesis, when Yahweh
began to give order to the universe, there were water, earth, wind, and
darkness, making this version very close to Greek accounts of creation.
The second chapter of Genesis describes the universe before creation as a
rainless desert. This may reflect conditions in the Levant, where people
depended on rainfall as a source of water. Other accounts say that Yah-
weh defeated a sea monster named Leviathan before creating an orderly
universe. These actions echo those of Marduk and of the Canaanite deity
Lotan, who was defeated by BAAL, another Canaanite god.
Mesopotamian elements may also underlie other myths that shaped
the main Israelite cosmogony in Genesis. One such Mesopotamian ele-
ment may be seen in the description of Yahweh molding the first person
from earth. Moreover, the paradise that Yahweh planted in Eden for the
first humans resembles ancient Sumerian accounts of Dilmun, a peaceful,
divine garden in which death and age did not exist. (See also Bible, He-
brew; Gods and Goddesses; Literature; Mythology; Poetry; Religion.)

Cremation See Death and Burial.

CRETE
T he largest of the Greek islands, Crete was a thriving trade center in
ancient times. Lying between Greece and the Near East, Crete took
advantage of its location to establish trade links with its neighbors. These
contacts led to the development of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION, which
reached its peak between about 1800 and 1400 B.C. At that time, Crete
was the chief trading power in the Aegean region.

Geography and Early Settlement. Crete is a long, narrow island in

the Mediterranean Sea. Mountains running east to west form the inte-
rior. These mountains fall to plains near the northern and southern
coasts, which have several good harbors. The climate is Mediterranean,
with hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters.
See map in Phoencia and the Crete was first inhabited around 6000 B.C. by Neolithic farmers who
Phoenicians (vol. 3). probably came from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). During the next
3,000 years, pottery making was introduced, and the people became
skilled in the use of copper tools. By about 3000 B.C., Cretan farming com-
munities were growing grapes and olives and raising sheep for trade.
15
Crete
Being able sailors, the Cretans traded wine, oil, and textiles for tin, cop-
per, gold, silver, precious stones, and timber. Trade gave them enough
wealth to construct public buildings and homes that comprised some of
the earliest towns in the Aegean region.

The Miiiouii Civilization. Crete's wealth from farming and trading

led to the rise of a rich and accomplished civilization around 2000 B.C.
Historians call it the Minoan civilization, after King Minos of Greek leg-
end. The development of new towns and villages gave rise to a class of
* artisan skilled craftsperson skilled artisans*, such as metalworkers, potters, and weavers. Metalwork-
ers used bronze, an alloy of tin and copper, to make jewelry, tools, and
weapons. They used gold, silver, and precious stones to make jewelry
worn by Crete's growing upper class. All the metals had to be imported
to Crete, but the finished products created by Minoan artisans were
traded throughout the Mediterranean. For a time, Crete controlled the
trade routes that crossed the eastern Mediterranean.
The Minoan civilization was centered on enormous palaces on the is-
land. The largest of these was at KNOSSOS near the northern coast. It served
as Crete's religious, social, and trading center. The palaces reveal the is-
land's prosperity and suggest that Minoan civilization had developed
into an ordered, hierarchical society run by a wealthy elite.
In about 1700 B.C., most palaces on the island were destroyed, proba-
bly by an earthquake. The Minoan culture continued to flourish, how-
ever, and the palaces were reconstructed on an even grander scale. The
architecture of the new palaces was sophisticated. There were grand stair-
ways and courtyards. Graceful columns, wide at the top and narrow at
the base, supported roofs. An elaborate plumbing and drainage system
used clay pipes to carry rainwater from the roof and set pipes and chan-
nels beneath the floor to carry water away from the palaces.
* archaeologist scientist who studies past In these palaces, archaeologists* have found CLAY TABLETS inscribed with
human cultures, usually by excavating writing. Around the time that the palaces were rebuilt, the style of writing
material remains of human activity changed from the use of picture symbols to a system using horizontal and
vertical lines. This system has been called Linear A, but it has never been
fully deciphered. A later form of Cretan writing—called Linear B—was
deciphered in the A.D. 1950s and was found to be an early dialect of
Greek. Most of these texts that have been translated are accounts—
records of the thriving Cretan trade.
The walls of the palaces on Crete were decorated with magnificent
* fresco method of painting in which frescoes* illustrating palace ceremonies. Among the first frescoes discov-
color is applied to moist plaster so that it ered was a procession of people carrying pottery and other goods. The
becomes chemically bonded to the hairstyles and clothing of these figures were remarkably like those seen in
plaster as it dries; also, a painting done
in this manner
tomb paintings in Egypt. Egyptian writing in these tombs said the people
came from Keftiu, "the isles in the midst of the sea." With the discovery
of the paintings on Crete, archaeologists concluded that Crete was the
origin of the figures in those Egyptian paintings.
The frescoes in Crete also reveal that women held an important posi-
* cult system of religious beliefs and tion in Minoan society. Their religion centered on a mother goddess, and
rituals; group following these beliefs priestesses played important roles in cults*. Some scholars have sug-
* matriarchal society in which women gested that Minoan society was matriarchal*, though that view is not
hold the dominant position widely held.
16
 Crete

Minoanfrescoes contain almost no scenesof battles or warriors. This,

'Findingthe coupled with thefact that the palaces had no defense systems, suggests
Minoans that the Minoans lived in peace. They were probably aided in this by the
fact that Crete was a sea power in an age when most Near
Eastern king-
Minoancivilization was
un- doms focused on building their power on land.
knownuntilaboutA.D.1900
and wasonlydiscovered by By about 1600
B.C., the Minoans had reached the height of their
accident.Britisharchaeologist wealth. Wealthy people built spacious homes around the palaces and in
ArthurEvanswas shown some the surrounding countryside. Smaller towns had clustersof housesfor
ancientobjectsthathe wastold farmers, fishermen, sailors of the Minoan merchant ships, and artisans.
werefoundinCrete. Recognizing Life for the Minoans appears to have beenpeaceful and pleasurable.
themasunusual, he
went to the is-
landtolook
further.
Searching the
at These pleasures came to a sudden end, however, aroundB.C., 1500
siteofKnossos,
found
helarge
a when the nearby volcanic island of Thera exploded. The eruption gener-
moundofearth, where began
he to ated powerful earthquakes and sent enormous tidal waves crashing into
dig.Evans'swork uncovered the Crete. The damage to towns and palaces was repaired; however, around
palaceatKnossos,whichpro-
he 1400B.C., a new catastrophe occurred, one in which many coastal towns
ceededtoexcavate for
several years. and palaces were burned, perhaps as a result of an invasion from the
Eventually,Evans
decidedonly
not
to excavatethepalace but
also
re-to mainland. Although the island remained an important center of trade,
store large parts
to original
its splen- power in the Aegean passed to the Mycenaean Greeks on the mainland.
dor. This decisionreconstruct
to was
highlycontroversial,
Evans
defended Greek and Roman Rule. Sometime after
B.C.,1200
a northern Greek
it bysaying that "without restora- tribe, the Dorians, took control of the island. During first
the millen-
tionthePalacewouldbemeaning-
a
lessheapofruins." niumB.C.*, numerous city-states* came into being on the mainland and
struggled with each other to gain power. Following the Macedonian con-
quest and the death of Alexander the Great, Crete became for many
years the base of operation for pirates throughout the Aegeanand east-
* first millennium B.C.years between ern MediterraneanSeas. Towardthe end offirst the millennium
B.C.,
1000 and 1 B.C. Rome became the dominant power in the Mediterranean. B.C., In
the67
* city-state independent state consisting Romans took over the island of Crete and made it a Roman province.
of a city and its surrounding territory (See also Aegean Sea; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Mycenae and the
Mycenaeans; Palaces and Temples; Shipping Routes.)
17
Croesus

Croesus See Lydia and the Lydians.

CULTS
T oday the term cult is commonly used in reference to an untraditional
religion or to a group that is committed to unusual teachings or prac-
tices. Modern cults are also associated with the extreme behaviors of their
members and are not viewed as legitimate religions. When discussing re-
ligion in the ancient Near East, this use of the word cult is not valid.
Rather, it refers to the links ancient peoples felt with their gods and how
they expressed their devotion and beliefs.
Religions of the ancient Near East included various cultic activities. In
terms of the ancient Near East, a cult refers to the act of worship by a group
of people united in its devotion to a particular god or belief. The term also
refers to the system that unites the people in their beliefs. This devotion
was demonstrated in routine acts of worship, which could include prayers,
processions, the adoration of images, gestures, and sacrifice. These rituals
sometimes took place in sacred places, such as temples or shrines.
* deity god or goddess Many ancient Near Eastern cults focused on deities*. The Mesopo-
tamians, for example, recognized many gods, but certain cults were de-
voted to individual gods such as ENLIL, god of the earth and air. Their cult
activities followed a regular pattern based on sacred calendars. Other cults
concentrated on a single aspect of general religious belief. An example is
the cult of the dead, which was widespread in Egypt and called for elabo-
rate burial practices to ensure peaceful life after death.
Some cults were official; that is, they were supported by the govern-
ment and were meant to solidify the connection among a god, a ruling
elite, and the people. For instance, the Mesopotamians believed that the
purpose of the government was to provide the gods with everything they
needed so that the gods, in turn, would help the people flourish. The
ruler, who represented his subjects before the gods, was responsible for
carrying out the important rituals. These rituals guaranteed the survival
of both the state and its inhabitants because a god might turn vengeful if
not worshiped properly.
Throughout the ancient Near East, all people attended public proces-
sions involving images of the gods. An important part of the cult festival
took place within the temple. Only priests were allowed in the sanctu-
* sanctuary most sacred part of a ary*. However, some people had opportunities to take part in these spe-
religious building cial acts. In Egypt, high-ranking people could temporarily serve as
assistants to the priests for periods of up to a month.
Rituals conducted by cult priests and priestesses in some societies,
such as those of the Babylonians and the Elamites of ancient IRAN in-
cluded animal blood sacrifices to the gods. Often these rituals took place
not in temples but in holy groves, fenced-in areas of sacred forest with al-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past tars at their centers. Elamite cult activities always included music. Music
human cultures, usually by excavating and dance were also involved in the cult festivals and processions of the
material remains of human activity Hittites of Anatolia (present-day Turkey).
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or Archaeologists* have unearthed many artifacts* related to cults. These
other object made by humans include bowls used to hold OFFERINGS to the gods and knives used to conduct
18
 Cuneiform
the ritual killing of sacrificial animals. Many of these objects are images rep-
resenting the gods themselves. Egyptian cult images, generally small and
made of wood, depicted the gods in human form, sometimes with animal
heads. They were kept in mysterious darkness in the sanctuary. The priest's
task was to worship, clean, clothe, and protect these images from evil.
Mesopotamian cult figures were also represented by wooden statues
in human form. Their faces and hands were plated with gold, and their
beards were made of precious stones. Such a statue was considered a man-
ifestation of the god. Priests fed it twice a day and supplied it with music,
fragrant incense, and clothing. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Religion;
Rituals and Sacrifice.)

CUNEIFORM
T he world's oldest form of writing, cuneiform (kyu«NEE«uh*fawrm)
takes its name from the distinctive marks used to create its signs.
Cuneiform originated around 3100 B.C. in Sumer in southern MESOPO-
TAMIA. Eventually, it was adopted throughout that region and remained in
use for more than 3,000 years. When cuneiform was deciphered* in the
A.D. 1800s, it was a major breakthrough in ancient Near Eastern studies.

* decipher to decode and interpret the The Beginnings. From as early as the ninth millennium B.C.*, people
meaning of had been using small variously shaped pieces of clay, called tokens, in a
* ninth millennium B.C. years from 9000 system of accounting where each token stood for units of goods. The use
to 8001 B.C. of tokens increased rapidly after 3500 B.C., when large-scale trade began,
especially in Sumer. During the next 400 years, accountants went from
placing the tokens inside hollow clay balls to drawing diagrams of the to-
kens on flat, palm-sized clay tablets. This change first occurred in the
southern city of URUK. The illustrations were scratched onto the tablets
and ranged from abstract to realistic drawings of the objects they repre-
sented. For example, the symbol for sheep was a circle with an X in it,
and the symbol for a bull resembled a bull's horned head.
* scribe person of a learned class who Soon scribes* began to use a stylus—a reed with a triangular-shaped
served as a writer, editor, or teacher tip—to press the shape of the symbol into the surface of the clay. It was
from the shape of the mark left by the stylus that the system gained its
name. In Latin, the term cuneus means "wedge" and forma means "shape."
This marked the beginning of cuneiform writing.
Each push of the stylus into the clay created a wedge-shaped impres-
sion with a tail, which was formed when the stylus was drawn across the
* stylized referring to art style in which surface. Over time, the signs became more stylized* and consisted of a
figures are portrayed in simplified ways specific number of wedges. Each wedge, with or without a tail, could be
that exaggerate certain features, not oriented vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. For example, the sign for
realistically
sheep became a square with a cross in it.
By 3100 B.C., about 1,200 signs were in use, but they did not represent
the sounds of any ancient Near Eastern language. Instead, they were ideo-
graphs that conveyed an idea to the viewer, much like a red eight-sided
sign at any street corner around the world today tells the driver to stop no
matter what language the driver actually speaks.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 According to Sumerian mythology, Enmerkar, the king of Uruk dur-
to 2001 B.C. ing the early third millennium B.C.*, was the first to use cuneiform signs
19
Cuneiform

to represent actual speech. Enmerkar might have used the signs torepre-
sent spoken sounds in the Sumerian language and not just objects or
ideas. TheAkkadians adopted cuneiform B.C.,
shortly
after
after
soon2400
they rose to power in Mesopotamia. They needed only half asmany signs,
most of which representedthe soundsof syllables, suchas/ab/, /ib/, /ba/,
and /bi/, to spell out the words of their language. Aroundthe same time,
the direction in which scribes wrote began to change. Thesigns on the
earliest tablets were written in columns from top to bottom from
and
right toleft. Towardthe end of B.C.,
the third
the signs
millennium
were
written fromleft to right in horizontal rows
from top to bottom.

Who Used Cuneiform? Cuneiform wasused bymany cultures in the

ancient Near East, especially in Mesopotamia. TheAkkadians used one-
syllable Sumerian words to stand for sounds in their own language,
added symbols for sounds that did not exist in Sumerian, and adopted

20
 Cuneiform
some Sumerian words. The royal inscriptions of SARGON I, who founded
the Akkadian empire, were written in cuneiform. The Babylonians of
central Mesopotamia and the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia also
* dialect regional form of a spoken used the system for writing their Akkadian dialects*. Akkadian cunei-
language with distinct pronunciation, form was used in other regions as well.
vocabulary, and grammar During the 1300s B.C., the Egyptians, the people of CANAAN, and oth-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ers in the Levant* used the Akkadian language and cuneiform to com-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- municate among themselves and with foreign rulers. The script was also
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West used to record the languages spoken by the Hittites and others of central
Bank, and Jordan
ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and by the Hurrians of northern Mesopo-
tamia. During the early first millennium B.C. (1000-1 B.C.), the script was
used by Urartian kings in Anatolia. Other cuneiform systems with unique
sign-forms were developed in the early 2000s B.C. in Elam in southern IRAN,
in the 1300s B.C. in Ugarit in north SYRIA, and in the mid-500s B.C. by
scribes in the PERSIAN EMPIRE.

How Many Characters? The number of symbols used in the ancient

Near East varied tremendously. Sumerians and Babylonians each used
about 600 cuneiform symbols, or characters. Some consisted of a single
See
wedge, or mark of the stylus, while others required up to 30 wedges.
color plate 5, Other cuneiform scripts had fewer characters. The Hittites used about
vol.2. 350 characters, the Elamites 163, the Persians 36, and just 30 at Ugarit.
Scribes did not always use all the signs available when writing a par-
ticular text. During the rule of the Babylonian king HAMMURABI in the
1700s B.C., scribes wrote messages using only 80 or so signs. Assyrian
traders who traveled from Mesopotamia to Anatolia maintained their ac-
counts using only 60 or 70 signs. Managing to communicate with fewer
signs enabled more people to learn to read and write.

Discovery and Decipherment. Clay tablets are durable, and almost

half a million of them have been found during the last two centuries. For
the longest time, though, nobody knew what they said because nobody
could decipher the script. In the A.D. 1760s, a Danish traveler returning
from PERSEPOLIS brought back to Europe the first accurate copies of the BE-
HISTUN INSCRIPTION, which was written in three styles of cuneiform—Old
Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. It took more than 40 years for scholars,
including the German Georg Grotefend and the Irishman Edward
Hincks, to decipher the Old Persian—the simplest of the three writings.
Almost simultaneously, the Englishman Henry Rawlinson, working with
copies he himself had made of the Behistun inscription, also deciphered
the Old Persian portions. The second type of cuneiform, Elamite, re-
mains only imperfectly understood to this day. The third and most com-
plex type of cuneiform—Akkadian—was deciphered only in the 1800s,
when large numbers of inscriptions were excavated at Assyrian capital
cities, enabling Hincks, Rawlinson, and others to decipher the script.
Scholars face many problems in deciphering cuneiform. One prob-
lem is that each symbol had many uses. To understand, consider an ex-
* pictograph graphic character used in a ample in English. Suppose a symbol is derived from a pictograph* for
picture writing system eye. This symbol could mean "eye" or the long i sound heard in bite and
fight or the word /. The principle was the same in cuneiform. A sign could
21
Cylinder Seals
represent one or more syllables or one or more words. The sign could
also be a "determinative/' which helped the reader identify the type of
the word with which it was written. A determinative tells the reader if
the word next to it is a god, a person's name, an occupation, the name of
a city, or the name of a country.
Moreover, cuneiform was used by many peoples over a long period of
time, resulting in regional differences both within and between regions.
Scribes had distinctive styles for particular kinds of texts. They followed
certain rules when writing government texts and other rules for writing
letters. For this reason, many scholars focus their study only on particular
kinds of texts. (See also Alphabets; Decipherment.)

Cylinder Seals See Seals.

CYPRUS
T he island of Cyprus (SY»pruhs) is located in the Mediterranean Sea to
the south of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and to the west of the
Levant*. The island is dominated by two mountain ranges separated by
fertile plains. Around its coastline, it has many natural harbors—safe
havens for trading vessels. In ancient times, Cyprus was a thriving trade
center because of its location. Moreover, the island had rich deposits of
* Levant lands bordering the eastern copper at a time when demand for copper was high. Trade brought
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- wealth to Cyprus, but this wealth attracted conquerors. As a result,
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Cyprus was ruled by many groups of people during its long history.
Bank, and Jordan
The first people to settle on Cyprus are believed to have come from
Anatolia, perhaps as long ago as 6000 B.C. However, little is known about
these early settlers. Over time, more settlers reached the island, including
HURRIANS, SEMITES, HITTITES, and Egyptians. Settlements increased in size
and number, and the island's economy grew. People raised cattle, sheep,
and goats and produced textiles, pottery, and other specialized goods.
From the abundant copper on the island, they made tools, weapons, and
jewelry. As demand for copper grew, trade with other areas increased. By
1400 B.C., Cyprus had developed a city-based complex society and was
the hub of a thriving trade network.
See map in Anatolia (vol. 1). Around 1200 B.C., Cyprus was colonized by Mycenaeans from Greece,
who left a pronounced Greek influence that remains to the present day.
Soon after, raids by the so-called SEA PEOPLES, not only on Cyprus but
throughout the eastern Mediterranean, interrupted trade. The invasions
had less of an effect on Cyprus than on many other areas, perhaps be-
cause the island had a stable political and economic system. Cyprus
opened new trade routes, began to work in iron (which replaced bronze
as the preferred metal for tools and weapons), and continued to prosper.
By 800 B.C., Phoenicians, and then Assyrians, began to settle on
Cyprus. Within 200 years, the island was divided into at least ten separate
kingdoms, all of which were very wealthy. Short-lived conquests by Egypt
and Persia followed, and in 330 B.C., Cyprus was conquered by ALEXANDER
22
 Cyrus the Great
THE GREAT. After the death of Alexander in 323 B.C., Egypt took control of
the island again. Then in 67 B.C., Cyprus was taken over by Rome. The Ro-
mans drained the island's great wealth by demanding high taxes from its
residents. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Mediterranean Sea, Trade
on; Metals and Metalworking; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Ship-
ping Routes.)

CYRUS THE GREAT

C yrus the Great (SY«ruhs) founded the PERSIAN EMPIRE, which ex-
tended from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), through the Levant*,
MESOPOTAMIA, and IRAN, to northern Arabia and present-day Pakistan and
Afghanistan. Cyrus was known as a benevolent king because he treated
conquered peoples kindly.
ruled 559-529 B.C. The details of Cyrus's early life are sketchy. He was born into a noble
King of Persia family and became king of the Persians in 559 B.C. At the time, the Per-
sians had a small kingdom in southern Iran. They were vassals* of the
* Levant lands bordering the eastern MEDES, whose kingdom stretched from Iran and the Persian Gulf to the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- border of Lydia, a kingdom in Anatolia.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West In support of the Babylonian king NABONIDUS, who wanted to retake a
Bank, and Jordan
city in Syria, Cyrus created a diversion by rebelling against the Median
* vassal individual or state that swears king Astyages, who was his grandfather. Cyrus succeeded in 550 B.C., in
loyalty and obedience to a greater
power
part because a portion of the Median army changed to his side. Hearing
of the Medes' defeat, King Croesus of Lydia tried to expand his own terri-
tory, but Cyrus moved his army west and defeated Croesus in 547 B.C.
Cyrus also conquered Greek settlements on the Aegean coast of Anatolia
and then turned his attention to Babylonia. Cyrus's conquest of that re-
gion was completed in 539 B.C., when he marched triumphantly into
BABYLON, then considered the greatest city in the world. In just over ten
years, Persia had gained a huge empire.
*
propaganda communication Cyrus used propaganda* to win the favor of the peoples he conquered.
deliberately shaped or slanted toward a For instance, he spread rumors that Astyages tried to kill him as an infant.
particular viewpoint He also said that Nabonidus abandoned the worship of the god MARDUK,
suggesting that he deserved to fall from power.
Cyrus shrewdly followed policies aimed at winning support. Rather
than putting his own people in charge of conquered territories, he kept
their local rulers in place. He won the favor of the Babylonians by follow-
ing the customs of the temple of Marduk. He allowed the many peoples
in his empire to keep their own religions and worship their own gods.
The Jews supported him because he allowed them to return home after
they had been forced from their homes in Judah by the Babylonian king
NEBUCHADNEZZER II and had lived in Babylonia for about 50 years.
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or Cyrus was open to borrowing ideas from other peoples. His imperial*
an empire government followed the model of the Median empire. The capital that
he built at Pasargadae shows the influence of many cultures, including
those of the Elamites, Assyrians, Greeks, and Egyptians.
* nomad person who travels from place Cyrus died in 529 B.C. while trying to defeat a tribe of nomads* in
to place to find food and pasture Central Asia, although the exact circumstances are in dispute. One ver-
sion of the story says Cyrus was killed by the nomads' queen after defeat
23
Damascus
in battle. At his death, the Persian empire passed to his son CAMBYSES. For
the peoples of the ancient world, Cyrus became a model of a wise ruler.
Persians considered him the founder of their greatness, but his reputation
extended beyond his own people.

DAMASCUS
S ituated in southwestern SYRIA, the city of Damascus (duh»MAS»kuhs)
has been inhabited since the middle of the second millennium B.C.*
However, evidence of its existence can only be found in texts because
Damascus has never been excavated. At the edge of a desert and near
an easy route to the Mediterranean Sea, Damascus was well positioned
to allow its inhabitants to control TRADE ROUTES. The city was also in a
* second millennium B.C. years from fertile region and could produce enough food to support a growing
2000 to 1001 B.C. community.
Between about 1400 and 1000 B.C., Damascus was influenced by
Egypt, but local rulers remained in power. By the 800s B.C., the city had
become the center of one of the kingdoms of the ARAMAEANS. The people
See map in Syria (vol. 4). of Damascus joined forces with other Aramaeans and repulsed several at-
tacks by the Assyrians. Still, in 732 B.C., the Assyrians seized the region
and incorporated Damascus into their empire. After the collapse of Assyr-
ian power in the 600s B.C., control of the city passed to the Babylonians,
and in the 500s B.C., to the Persians.
In 333 B.C., Damascus became part of the empire of ALEXANDER THE
' provincial having to do with the GREAT. Later the city became a provincial* capital of the SELEUCID EMPIRE.
provinces, outlying districts, In 85 B.C., the Nabateans took over and controlled Damascus until about
administrative divisions, or conquered 65 B.C., when it was incorporated into the Roman Empire. Damascus then
territories of a country or empire
flourished as a commercial center. It later became an important center of
Christianity until it was conquered by Muslims in the A.D. 600s. Today
Damascus is the capital and largest city of Syria.

DANCE
P ictures painted on the walls of tombs and on POTTERY, engravings on
SEALS, and descriptions in texts are the main sources of information
about dance in the ancient Near East. They show or describe the kinds of
dance steps, the occasions for dance, and the formations for dancing. An-
cient Near Eastern peoples danced for entertainment, recreation, and dur-
ing religious celebrations.

Mesopotamia. Images of dancing in ancient MESOPOTAMIA date back to

the times before writing, which began around 3000 B.C. Most dance im-
* second millennium B.C. years from ages are from the early second millennium B.C.*, but there are few pictor-
2000 to 1001 B.C. ial depictions of dance after 1000 B.C. Mesopotamian dance shaped
dance in ancient Egypt and Greece, and some dance forms performed in
ancient Mesopotamia can be seen today.
Dance was performed on many occasions, including religious and
other celebrations, such as weddings and harvest festivals. Sometimes
24
 Dance

dancers performed special dances to repel sicknessor to protect peoplein

mourningfrom demons. In thesecases,the dancers might formacircle
around the person as they danced.
See People danced alone, in pairs, and in groups. Both men and women
color plate2, danced, but instead of dancing together, they took turns dancing. While
vol.2.
one group danced, the other sang. Dancers also performedavarietyof
steps including jumping and leaping, kneeling andbending, and dancing
on pointed toes.Line dances and circle dances were performed mainlyby
women. Men only performed three dances. In the squat dance, they
danced with their knees bent, alternately thrusting one leg to the side
(similar to the famous folk danceof the
RussianCossacks).In foot-
the
clutch dance, a group of dancers danced on one legwhile holding the
other leg bent infront or back. In the ''whirl/' they spun around incir-
cles, like the whirling dervishesof one branchofIslam.
Some dancers were musicians too. Therearepicturesofwomen dancers
striking small, handheld drums while they danced. Other illustrations
show women dancers playing lyres and male dancers playing lutes.
Dancers also clapped their hands and snapped their fingers as they
danced.

Egypt. Thefirst evidenceof Egyptian dance dates fromthe King-

Old
dom (ca. 2675-2130B.C.).At the time, dances were partof the ceremony
that marked the rebirthofOSIRIS.
the god
They were also importantin
the worshipHATHOR,
of goddess of love.
Temples retained groupsofprofessional dancerswho dancedto honor
particular gods in regular observancesand at special festivals. Mostof the
dancers were women, although they dressed and wore their hair like
young men. Infact, the picture of a male dancerwas the hieroglyphic
sign for "to dance/'
The oldest dances in Egypt were formal and stately.The movements
followed a set pattern, with groupsof dancers performing the same move-
ments in formation. Forexample, in one danceto Hathor (whowasasso-
ciated with the cow), women dancers held their aloft,arms
likethe horns
of a cow. In another dance, female dancers held mirrorsand handheldin-
struments called clappers (both associated with Hathor)asthey danced.
Sometimes acrobatics formed partof thedance—indeed,the same word
was used for both danceand acrobatics.
25
Dance
During the time of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), many
dances were performed outdoors. Performers danced as the statue of a
tomb owner was brought in a procession to the tomb. They also danced
at the funeral rites. As in the earlier period, performances included both
stately formal dances and more vigorous acrobatic moves.
While these religious dances continued to be practiced, a new stage
for dancing appeared in Egypt during the period of the New Kingdom (ca.
1539-1075 B.C.). During this period of conquest and prosperity, some
wealthy people began to maintain their own permanent group of musi-
cians and dancers, who were considered valuable possessions. Others
hired dancers when they needed them for special occasions such as ban-
quets. Written records detail the fact that some dancers were brought in
from other regions of Africa, such as Nubia, or from as far away as India.
These dancers often wore few clothes, which emphasized the grace of
their movements.

Anatolia. Information on Hittite dance comes mainly from written

records; only a few pottery fragments have been found to give any visual
information. These texts relate only to sacred dance. Nothing is known
about the role of dance in people's daily lives. Some of the texts are not
completely clear. They speak of performers dancing "in the style of the
city of Lakhshan"—but scholars have no idea what that style was.
What is known is that there were many variations of dance steps and
movements. These included leaping, turning, running, bending the
knees, standing on the head or hands, and mime dancing ("in the man-
ner of a leopard/' for example).
Both men and women danced. There were professional dancers and
those who just danced occasionally. Many of the dances were performed
in groups in which all the participants made the same movements. In
some cases, though, a single dancer would separate from the group to per-
form acrobatic movements.
Occasions for dance included important religious festivals. At the
spring festival, for example, dancers surrounded the king and queen as
they led a parade of dignitaries to the temple. When the procession ar-
rived at the temple, a solo dancer performed a spinning dance to wel-
come them. At a procession initiating a hunt festival, special mime
dancers re-created hunting scenes, portraying animals and archers.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern The Levant. In the Levant*, celebrations such as weddings and royal
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- coronations gave people a chance to dance to the sounds of instruments
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West such as tambourines, lyres, and harps. In addition, processions of women
Bank, and Jordan
with hand drums often performed dances following military victories,
joining triumphant soldiers in their march to the sanctuary of Yahweh.
The use of dance for religious purposes can be seen, for example, in
the frenzied dancing of the Israelites in their worship of the golden calf.
In addition, several books of the Hebrew Bible describe prophets as danc-
ing ecstatically while prophesying. People also danced at times of sick-
ness, the idea being that singing and dancing would cure the ill by
driving away the demons that caused the malady. (See also Entertain-
ment; Music and Musical Instruments.)
26
 Date Palms and Dates

DARIUS I AND
D
PERSIAN
arius I(duh»RY»uhs), also known asDarius theGreat,
the greatest rulersof the Achaemenid dynasty.Heextendedthe
EMPIREand createdan enduring political structure. About
was one of

150
yearsafter the deathofDarius I, thelast king of thedynasty, Dariusin- III,
DARIUS III herited a weakened empire thatwaseventually conquered.
Although DariusI was not therightful successor,heseizedthe throne
after the death
CAMBYSES.
of Hestrengthened hisfrontiers toprevent no-
Darius I madic* tribesfrom overrunningtheborders. Heconquered theIndus Val-
ruled 521-486 B.C. ley to the east, and Thrace, Macedonia,andseveral Aegean islandsin the
King of Persia west. He hopedto conquer Greece B.C.,
aswell
when
failed
butthe in 490
Darius III Athenians defeatedhis forcesatMarathon. Darius recorded hisversion
of
ruled 336-330 B.C. his riseto powerBEHISTUN
inINSCRIPTION.
the
King of Persia Darius I was an able administrator.Heorganized theempire into 20
* nomadic referring to people whotravel satrapies*. Eachwasrequiredto paytaxes in form
the ofmoney, horses,
from place to place to find food and and other items,aswellas toprovide ships orsoldiers for thePersian mil-
pasture itary. Dariuswas also knownfor hisachievements as abuilder.
Heover-
* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled saw the constructionof anetworkofroads radiating fromhiscapitalat
territory under the rule of asatrap, or SUSA, includingtheRoyalRoad, which stretched SARDIS 1,500 from miles
provincial governor
on the AegeanSea to Susa.B.C., Around
hebegan
510hismost ambitious
* eunuch man who hasbeen castrated, project, a royal complex
PERSEPOLIS,
at which included theking'spalace,
or has had his testicles removed
smaller palaces,and meeting halls.
Darius I was succeededby XERXES.
his son
Several other rulers fol-
lowed, until DariusIIIcametoB.C. power
By that
in 336time,thePersian
empire was weak and vulnerable.Thesatrapshadbeen rebelling,and
there was general unrest. DariusIII hadbeen raisedto thethroneby the
powerful eunuch*Bagoas, who hadpoisonedthe twoprevious kings.
When Darius triedfree to himselfofBagoas's control, Bagoas tried topoi-
son him. Instead, Darius forcedBagoastodrinkthepoison.
In 337B.C., King PhilipofMacedoniaANATOLIA sent forces
his into
(present-dayTurkey)to liberatetheGreek cities there fromPersian rule.
Philip was murdered beforehecould accomplish B.C.,his sonthis.In 334
ALEXANDER GREAT
THE led an army intoAnatolia. Darius was notprepared
for this invasion,and despite havingamuch larger army, he was defeated
at the battle ofIssus.Hopingtoavoid furtherbattles, Darius sent Alexan-
der lettersoffering friendship. offers
His were rejected, andAlexander led
his armies intoMesopotamia. Darius fought B.C.buthimwas
again in 331
defeated andforcedto flee. Soon
after, DariusIII waskilled by hissatrap
Bessus. With hisdeath,theAchaemenid dynasty ended, enabling Alexan-
der to declare himself kingofPersia.

DATEPALMS D ate palms grow very wellin thearid, desert climate

Dates—thefruit of the datepalm—wereanimportant
of theNear
foodcrop
in
East.

the region in ancient times,astheyaretoday. Other partsof thedate palm,

ANDDATES including the trunkand leaves, were used
Cultivated sincethe fourth millennium
for avariety
ofpurposes.
B.C.*,date palms areamong
the earliest domesticated fruit crops.Thepeoplesof theLevant* and
MESOPOTAMIA probablyfirstbegantocultivate date palms,
from
andthose
27
David
* fourth millennium B.C. years from regions, their cultivation quickly spread throughout the river valleys of
4000 to 3001 B.C. the Near East and along the NILE RIVER of Egypt.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Date palms grow as tall as 100 feet and have clusters of long, feather-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- like leaves atop slender trunks. Dates are sweet and nutritious fruits that
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West grow in large clusters of up to 1,000 per bunch. A single date palm can
Bank, and Jordan
produce more than 100 pounds of fruit each year. Although date palms
grow best in an arid climate, their roots need a regular supply of water.
* oasis fertile area in a desert made Consequently, dates were grown along rivers, at oases*, or on irrigated
possible by the presence of a spring or sites. Date palms were also grown in orchards and vegetable gardens,
well; pi. oases where they provided shade for other plants.
The cultivation of date palms required time and money. It took 4 to 5
years before a tree would bear fruit, and about 20 years for the tree to
reach full productivity. However, they were valuable and every part of the
tree could be used. The trunks, leaves, and other parts of the palm were
used as building material or fuel and for making rope and baskets. Dates
were also used to make an alcoholic beverage. (See also Agriculture; Food
and Drink; Irrigation.)

^L s king of Israel, David united the 12 tribes of Israel and founded a

/iLstrong kingdom for his people. David, whose story is told in the He-
DAVID brew BIBLE, holds an important place in JUDAISM as an ideal king who
achieved great things and who founded an enduring dynasty*.
David was the son of Jesse, a wealthy landowner of the tribe of Ju-
ruled ca. 1000-970 B.C. dah in the land of Judah. The youngest of eight sons, he grew up tend-
King of Israel ing his father's sheep and learning to play the harp. A prophet* named
Samuel told the young David that he would one day be king over all of
Israel.
Searching for David While still a youth, David won a place as a harpist at the court of King
Most of what is known about King Saul of Israel. He was a favorite of Saul, became a good friend of Saul's son
David comes from the Bible, which Jonathan, and later married the king's daughter Michal. At this time, Is-
some would argue is not an accurate rael was struggling with the PHILISTINES, a neighboring people. David
historical record, There is very little
archaeological evidence to prove joined one of Saul's armies and distinguished himself by killing a giant
that David, or other early kings of an* named Goliath with a single stone from a slingshot. This feat made David
cient Israel, really existed or to reveal famous, but his growing popularity aroused the jealousy of King Saul,
much of their real lives. One impor- who plotted to kill him.
tant piece of evidence comes from Learning of the plot, David fled. While in exile, he assembled a pow-
an ancient site known as Tel Dan erful fighting force. Returning to the land of Judah, David became popu-
(present-day Tell al-Qadi), located in
the northernmost part of present- lar by protecting the local population against bandits and restoring
day Israel, The Tel Dan site contains possessions stolen by raiders. He also won the support of the leaders of Ju-
ruins of an early religious complex, dah by paying them respect. In time, the people of Judah chose David to
including a two-room temple. be their king.
Among the finds at the site was a Meanwhile, King Saul and his son Jonathan were killed in battle
fragment of a large inscribed stone
slab with the words House of David against the Philistines. David then returned to Israel to claim that throne,
The temple complex dates from a but he had to fight the forces of another of Saul's sons Eshbaal (Ish-
later period than that of David's rule. bosheth), who also claimed the throne. Ultimately, Eshbaal was assassi-
Nevertheless, the artifact does refer nated by his followers, and the war ended. David conquered the city of
to King David and his descendants. JERUSALEM and made it the capital of his kingdom. He brought to it the ARK
OF THE COVENANT, a sacred relic and symbol of the Israelites' religion.
28
 Death and Burial
* dynasty succesion of rulers from the Jerusalem's central location, nearly midway between Israel and Judah,
same family or group helped unite the two regions.
* prophet one who claims to have Early in his reign, David reorganized the army and launched a series
received divine messages or insights of wars. Decisive victories over the Philistines ended their threat, and
David extended Israelite rule over many small neighboring kingdoms. He
also reorganized the administration of his kingdom. In later years, he
worked on plans to build a great temple in Jerusalem.
David was a successful warrior and effective ruler, but his achievements
were marred by family problems and political rebellions. Like many kings
who used marriage to forge political alliances, he took several foreign wives
to cement relationships with other kingdoms. However, competition and
rivalries among these women and the sons they bore to David led to insta-
bility. One of the most serious revolts was led by David's son Absalom, who
held power for a time before his forces were eventually defeated. SOLOMON,
David's son by his wife Bathsheba, eventually succeeded his father on the
throne. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah.)

DEATH AND BURIAL

T he peoples of the ancient Near East observed a variety of customs
and rituals when someone died. Many of these customs were de-
signed to prepare the body of the dead person, as well as his or her spirit,
for the AFTERLIFE. People generally believed that some part of each individ-
ual continued to exist after death, although in a different world from that
of the living. They also believed that the dead had the power to help or
* funerary having to do with funerals or harm the living. For this reason, many funerary* practices dealt less with
with the handling of the dead soothing the grief of the living than with the proper carrying out of du-
ties toward the dead.

Mesopotamia. In ancient Mesopotamia, the afterlife was not particu-

larly joyous, but it was better than ceasing to exist after death. One who
had not been buried and mourned according to the rites could not enter
the afterlife. Ideally, death occurred at home, in the presence of family
and friends. After death, a spell freed the soul from the body. The soul
then rested on a chair that was placed to the left of the funerary bed,
waiting for offerings from the family.
Before burial, the body was washed and the mouth tied shut. Then
the body was oiled or perfumed and dressed in clean clothing. The body
was then displayed for public view alongside many grave goods, such as
weapons, jewelry, and provisions for the journey to the underworld, or
world of the dead. Royal families spent large amounts on their funeral
displays. Excavations of the burial sites of Assyrian queens at Nimrud
have yielded several extravagant offerings to the dead, such as gold cuffs
inlaid with many semiprecious stones. Some burials even included chari-
ots to carry the deceased to the underworld. The dead from more humble
classes might get a pair of sandals. Grave goods also included gifts for the
gods of the underworld so that they would welcome the deceased.
Those who could afford to do these things buried their dead in
* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually wooden or metal coffins or stone sarcophagi*. The sarcophagi of kings
made of stone; pi. sarcophagi could be quite impressive; that of ASHURNASIRPAL II was made of dolerite
29
Death and Burial

(basalt) and measured about 12.5 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 6 feet high.
Commoners wrapped the dead in cloth or reed mats and buried them
with simple grave goods. Kings and some commoners were buried in
chambers beneath their palace or house. Others were laid to rest in public
cemeteries, but the accompanying ceremonies were often costly. Reform-
ing kings, such as Uru-inimgina of Lagash, who ruled around the 2400s
B.C., did their best to ensure that the amounts charged for such services
were not excessive.
The Mesopotamians believed that the well-being of the deceased in
Servants of the Dead the afterlife depended on the performance of special mourning rites. If
the deceased was an important person, these rituals could last a week.
The ancient Egyptians often in-
cluded small statues of servants Close friends and relatives were expected to display their grief publicly, by
among the grave goods they wearing old clothes, tearing their garments, fasting, and going about un-
buried with their dead. These mod- washed and ungroomed. The family might hire professional mourners to
els, along with painted scenes of add to the crowd or lead the laments in which people expressed their
daily life, represented things that grief and praised the deceased. A fine example of what the ancient Meso-
the deceased might need. The
Egyptians believed that these repre-
potamians called "exalting" the dead is the Epic of Gilgamesh, in which
sentations could magically become the hero mourns the death of his friend Enkidu.
real. After about 1550 B.C., a new Once the dead person was safely buried, the mourners purified them-
type of figurine appeared—the selves in a special ceremony and returned to their normal clothes and
ushabtl, or "answerer/' These small grooming habits. Mesopotamians believed that to speak of death was to
statues were supposed to answer, "I
summon it. As a result, they avoided the words death or dying and instead
am present" and to do any work
that the deceased was asked to do spoke of ''going to one's fate/' "being invited by one's gods," or "going on
in the afterlife. Some burials in- the road of one's forefathers."
cluded boxes containing more than
400 ushabtis—one for every day of Egypt. The Egyptians loved life and considered 110 years to be an ideal
the year—plus foremen to super- lifetime. Death was not the fate they feared most, however. They were
vise them.
more afraid of nonexistence. The goal of Egyptians was to ensure that
their bodies existed for as long as possible after death. They provided their
dead with supplies for the afterlife and took precautions to protect the
dead and their treasures. They also went to much trouble to recover the
bodies of Egyptians who died abroad. Drowning and being eaten by a
crocodile was an Egyptian's nightmare because it destroyed all traces of
the body. This fate was said to lay in store for people who offended the
gods or swore false oaths.
See The Egyptians developed a way of preserving dead bodies by turning
color plate 9, them into MUMMIES. This process duplicated the drying process that was
vol. 3.
natural when a body was placed in dry sand, but not when a body is
placed in a relatively damp tomb. There were different levels of mummifi-
cation. At its most complete, the process required many months. The
mummifiers removed the body's organs and fluids and stored them in
special containers called canopic jars. They wrapped the heart in linen
and set it in the body. They then removed the brain, applied drying
chemicals to the body, and wrapped it in hundreds of yards of linen.
* amulet small object thought to have Amulets* and guidebooks to the afterlife, such as the BOOK OF THE DEAD,
supernatural or magical powers were also placed in the wrappings. These procedures were too costly for
the poor, who simply wrapped their dead in cloth and buried them. The
burial involved many complex rituals, such as the Opening of the Mouth.
This ritual involved touching the mummy's eyes, ears, nostrils, and
mouth to symbolize their reopening and the deceased's return to life.
30
 Death and Burial

In the earliest known Egyptian burials, people were buriedfetalin the

position, curled up asthey are in a mother'swomb. Later,thebodies were
straightened, and the arms were crossed over thechest. Written texts,
which might include lists offoods and other items, were buried with
prominent people. Written on the walls oftombs and on theinsidesof
coffins, the lists were believed magicallytotaketheplaceof theitems. Ide-
alized biographies of the dead personandpainted scenes fromthe person's
life, work,and evenher funeral were also included.
The elite were buried in wooden coffins, often decorated with gold
leaf or paint, inside stone sarcophagi. Itbecame customarytoplacethe
bodies of kingsand high-ranking noblesin aseries coffins.
of Theinner-
most of thesecoffins was moldedto the shapeof thebody. coffins
The
were elaborately painted, sometimes with imagesofgodswhomight pro-
tect the dead, and some were overlaid with gold. TheEgyptians buried
their elite with itemsfor theafterlife, suchasfood, furniture, clothing,
weapons, tools, utensils, musical instruments,andtoys. Muchofwhatis
known about ancient Egyptian culturehasbeen learned fromtheexcava-
tion of tombs and the studyofgrave goodsandburial texts.

Anatolia. The HITTITESofANATOLIA

ancient (present-day Turkey)prac-
* cremation burning of the body ofticed
a cremation*, after which they buriedtheremains. Funerary rituals
dead person were meant to easethe dead person'spassage fromthesocietyof theliv-
ing to the underworld of the dead. Without proper burial,thedead per-
son might roam the worldof the livingas adangerous ghost.
Knowledge of Hittitefunerary practicesisbased largely on royal
deaths. A textKHATTUSHA,
from the Hittite capital, describesindetail
the
14-day ritual that followedthe deathof aking'sbrother.Theparticipants
included the king, high officialsand their wives, religious
officials,people
* cult system of religious beliefs and connected to the royalfamily's cult* ofancestor worship, andwomen
rituals; group following these beliefs whose job was to wailand lament.Theritual began fastwith
andathesac-
rifice of an ox as an
offeringto the deceased's soul.On thesecond day,the
corpse was taken to the siteof the cremation.Thecorpsewasprobably cre-
mated on the third day. Thefollowing day, thebones were wrapped in
linen and brought to ameal attended byeveryone who hadtaken part in
the ritual. The meal takers offered drinksto thesoulof thedead.On the
fifth day, priestesses madean imageof the dead person out oftasty
foods
and performed a ritual to attract thesoul to theimage.
31
Death and Burial
The remaining days involved more ceremonial meals, more animal
sacrifices, offerings to the deceased and ancestral spirits, and rituals such
as cutting a grapevine with a silver hatchet. Finally, live seagulls and im-
ages of gulls were cremated in the burial chamber along with the bones.
Later, at a feast, the mourners addressed the deceased: "Don't be angry
any more. Be good to your children.... It shall come about that your
'god's house' will receive honor, and offerings will be set for you."
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 During the first millennium B.C.*, Phrygians laid their royal dead on
tO 1 B.C. beds in wooden chambers and buried them in enormous tumuli, or bur-
ial mounds. Excavations in Phrygia have yielded tombs containing grave
goods, such as wood spoons, plates, bowls, and boxes, as well as many
pieces of fine furniture. The largest mound in the region, called the Midas
Mound, is thought to have belonged to King Midas. The king had been
buried in a massive log coffin with at least 14 pieces of furniture, includ-
ing 9 tables, 2 serving stands, 2 stools, and a chair.

The Levant. In ancient times, the region that comprises present-day

Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the West Bank, and Jordan was home to many
peoples, most of whom had their own practices. Many of these peoples
believed that death was not the end of the deceased person's existence.
Their funeral practices reflected this belief.
During the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), the people of UGARTT
expected children to properly bury and mourn their parents. They believed
A Funeral Lament that it was vitally important to leave behind descendants who could attend
In this funeral lament from an- to these responsibilities. Mourners demonstrated their grief by sprinkling
cient Assyria, a man has an
imaained conversation with ashes or dirt on their heads, rolling in the dirt on the ground, wearing spe-
his wife, who has died in childbirth. cial garments, and sometimes even injuring themselves. Wailing was a very
He asks her: important part of the funerary process. The wallers called out the name of
Why ore you cast adrift like a the deceased and complained of their loss. Sometimes professional mourn-
boot in the midst of the stream, ers carried out these duties. Ugartic society believed that the dead, properly
your plants broken, your rope mourned and honored, could play a positive role in the survival of the liv-
cut? Why, your face veiled, do ing. There is evidence that some of the dead were worshiped as gods.
you cross the river ofAshur?
The Phoenicians, a Canaanite people who lived along the Mediter-
She replies: ranean coast, practiced both cremation and burial and made offerings to
On the day of my labor pains their dead. Some of the dead were buried in anthropoid sarcophagi (sar-
my face became dark; on the cophagi made with clay and in the shape of a human) or stone. The final
day I gave birth, my eyes grew
resting place of a corpse was a permanent reminder of the dead's exis-
cloudy,,.. Death crept stealth-
ily into my bedroom, It made me tence. Anyone who disturbed a burial site was cursed with a dreadful fate:
leave my house; it separated me to be without descendants and forgotten by all.
from my husband [and] set my The Israelites believed that the existence of the soul depended on the
feet to the land from which I will correct treatment of the body, especially the bones. The early Israelites
never return. buried clothed corpses with personal possessions and offerings. They pro-
hibited cremation and preferred burial in a cave or tomb dug out of rock.
The tomb was a resting place for the corpse, the place where deceased in-
dividuals met their ancestors and "gathered unto their kin." The Israelites
believed that the dead resided in Sheol, a pale copy of their existence on
See earth. Sheol was conceived as a subterranean, gloomy, and dusty afterlife,
color plate 5, in stark contrast to the world of the living.
vol. 3.
Those who had lost relatives or friends displayed their grief during a
mourning period that usually lasted for seven days. Like the Canaanites,
32
 Decipherment
Israelite mourners tore their clothes and sprinkled themselves with ashes
or dust. Funerals featured lamenting, weeping, and sometimes singing and
dancing. Fasting followed by a funeral banquet seems to have been part of
the mourning. Eventually, the practices were codified, leading to modern
Jewish practices of mourning the dead for a month ("sitting shiva") and
immediate kin refraining from pleasurable activities for long periods.

Other Regions. The people of BACTRIA, a kingdom in CENTRAL ASIA,

buried their dead in shallow graves with grave goods. No splendid "royal
tombs" have been found. This suggests either that there were no great
differences in social class or that burial goods were not used as an indica-
tor of status.
* nomadic referring to people who travel The Saka, a nomadic* people of Central Asia, buried their dead in kur-
from place to place to find food and gans, graves under mounds of earth or stones grouped in cemeteries.
pasture Some of the deceased lay on their backs in pits, resting on beds of reeds
and grasses, and others were cremated. In at least one kurgan, the body of
the deceased was burned in a huge bonfire of brushwood.
Some cultures in the CAUCASUS, east of Anatolia, also buried their dead
in kurgans. Since most kurgans contain few skeletal remains, it is possible
that the deceased were cremated and that the cremated remains were
buried. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Religion.)

B ecause so much is now known about the civilizations of the ancient

> Near East, it is difficult to grasp the fact that less than 250 years ago
DECIPHERMENT they were a great mystery. Scholars interested in the ancient world found
tablets, scrolls, and wall paintings with ancient writings, but for many
decades they could not read or understand these texts.
Beginning in the A.D. 1700s, scholars began to decipher ancient Near
Eastern texts. First, they determined how to read the script by identifying
the phonetic values assigned to each sign. Then they tried to identify the
language encoded in the script. The second step was essential to the deci-
pherment of these texts because, for example, the same set of cuneiform
signs was used to render such diverse languages as Sumerian, Akkadian,
Hittite, Luwian, Human, Urartian, and Canaanite. Once the process was
complete, many mysteries were solved.

Palmyrene. The first ancient language to be deciphered in modern

* city-state independent state consisting times was used in the city-state* of Palmyra in SYRIA. Texts written in
of a city and its surrounding territory Palmyrene were known to Europeans as early as 1616, but the key to deci-
phering them was not developed until the 1750s. Palmyrene was deci-
phered on the basis of drawings of bilingual INSCRIPTIONS that contained
the Palmyrene and Greek scripts. The Greek script could be read at that
time. With the help of the Greek and some assumptions, a French scholar
named Jean-Jacques Barthelemy deciphered Palmyrene. He assumed that
the script was related to the Hebrew and Aramaic aleph-beth—a system of
* dialect regional form of a spoken writing that contains symbols for consonants but not vowels—and that
language with distinct pronunciation, the language encoded in the script was a dialect* of Syriac, itself a late di-
vocabulary, and grammar alect of Aramaic. Barthelemy published his results in 1754.
33
Decipherment
* scribe person of a learned
class who Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian.
MESOPOTAMIA
Scribes*andin
served as a writer, editor,or teacher neighboring lands wrote incuneiform*, usingastylus,areed withatri-
* cuneiform world's oldest form of angular tip. The
first language writtenin cuneiformto bedecipheredwas
writing, which takes its name from the Old Persian. The key to understanding Old Persian depended on the
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed availability of accurate copiesof ancient texts.In the late 1700s,aDan-
into clay
ish explorer brought back copiesof texts
PERSEPOLIS,
he hadthemadein
capital of PERSIAN
the EMPIRE.
The copies showed threedifferentof
sets
characters: a simple set that used only40 or sosigns,amore complicated
one that employed about 100 signs, and a third set that used several
hundred signs. Scholars assumed that the three texts conveyed thesame
message; what variedwas the language used.
It took more than 40 yearsfor the German Georg Grotefendand the
Irishman Edward Hincks to decipher the simplest of the three writings,
the Old Persian. Grotefend noticed thatone set of symbolswasrepeated
often in these texts. He thought that this setmight represent theword
* stela stone slab or pillar that hasbeen king. He guessed that the other characters king
nearmightbe the names of
carved or engravedand
servesas a kings. Since he knewthe namesof Persian kingsfrom histories writtenin
monument; pi.stelae other languages, he compared the names to the characters. Bymatching
them, he cracked the code. He published his findings in the early 1800s.
Almost simultaneously,the Englishman Henry Rawlinson, working with
copies he himselfhad made BEHISTUN
of theINSCRIPTION, carved
on a
mountainside in western Iran, also deciphered the OldPersian portions.
The second type of cuneiform, Elamite, remains only imperfectlyun-
derstood to this day. The third and most complex type ofcuneiform,
Akkadian, was deciphered only in the late 1800s, when large numbersof
inscriptions were excavated at Assyrian capital cities, enabling Hincks,
Rawlinson, and others to decipher the script.

Egyptian Hieroglyphics. Formany centuries, travelers to Egypt had

seen on monuments the picturesand HIEROGLYPHICS.
symbols that
form
The meaning of these symbols was unknown, however.The break-
through took place in 1799, when during the Egyptian campaign of the
conqueror Napoleon, French engineers unearthed an inscribed stela*
in the Nile Delta. ThisROSETTA
stela—the
STONE—contained inscriptions
in three scripts, one in the ancient
Greek language and script and two in
the Egyptian language—the hieroglyphic script and a cursive script
called demotic.
When Englishman ThomasYoung compared the Greekand hiero-
glyphic texts, he identified the namePtolemy written in hieroglyphics.
Ptolemy V was the Macedonian-descendedB.C., kingof Egyptin 196
when the stela had been carved. However, Youngcould not take the deci-
pherment of hieroglyphics farther.Thefell task
to a French linguist
named Jean-Francois Champollion, who had determined as a schoolboy
that he would learn to read hieroglyphics.At age 16,he had writtena pa-
per arguing that Coptic—the language usedin the Egyptian church—was
derivedfrom ancient Egyptian. Champollion used Copticforhints when
deciphering ancient Egyptian writing.
Champollion began by taking advantage of the way the king's name
had been written. The name Ptolemywasenclosedin an oval calledacar-
touche. The presence of a cartouche always signaled that the person
34
 Decipherment
* pictograph graphic character used in a named within was a ruler. (The suggestion of this link had originally been
picture writing system made by the Palmyrene decipherer Barthelemy.) Champollion found
* linguist person who studies languages some of the symbols used in the name Ptolemy in another Egyptian mon-
* Egyptologist person who studies ument that mentioned CLEOPATRA. This confirmed that he had correctly
ancient Egypt identified the sounds represented by these symbols. He went on to iden-
* archaeological referring to the study tify many other names from the times that the Macedonians and Romans
of past human cultures, usually by held Egypt, beginning around 330 B.C. Champollion published his find-
excavating material remains of human ings in 1822. Two years later, he published another, larger book that re-
activity vealed the key to Egyptian hieroglyphics. He explained that some
symbols were meant to represent the consonant sounds of the words they
showed, while others were pictographs* representing the objects shown.
By the mid-1800s, two other linguists* had added to the understand-
The Envelope, ing of hieroglyphics. German Egyptologist* Carl Richard Lepsius revealed
Please that some symbols stand for more than one consonant sound. Edward
Hincks—who helped in the decipherment of Old Persian—pointed out
In 1857, scholar W.H.Fox-
Talbot suggested what has
that hieroglyphics only record consonant sounds, not vowels.
been called a translation
competition to check on the Mesopotamia!! Cuneiform. Many more texts still remained to be de-
accuracy of the newly develop- coded, however. The largest body of cuneiform texts was created in Mes-
ing understanding of cuneiform opotamia and began to surface in archaeological* digs in Assyria—a
writing and the Akkadian language. region of northern Mesopotamia—in the A.D. 1800s. The language of
He and four other scholars exam-
ined a text that had never been
many of these texts, Akkadian, had two dialects: Assyrian and Babylon-
made public. Each submitted his ian. Although the two dialects have almost the same symbols, there are
translation, sealed, to the Royal Asi- significant differences between them. In addition, several other lan-
atic Society of Great Britain, where guages were written in cuneiform symbols. These complications made
they would be compared. The idea the work of deciphering cuneiform much more difficult.
was that if different scholars came
Edward Hincks studied the texts in the hope of finding clues to un-
up with the same results, that
would be evidence that the transla- derstanding cuneiform. By the late 1840s, he had identified the values of
tion was correct. When the sealed about 236 Akkadian symbols. He established that some symbols were
translations were opened, one of logograms, which meant that they derived meaning from abstract or real-
the judges declared that "agree- istic pictorial representations of the words. Other symbols were phono-
ment does appear to me to be satis- grams, which stood for sounds. Hincks also determined that scribes
factory/' Continued work on the
ancient languages and scripts has
spelled the same words differently in different texts, often depending on
extended scholars' understanding. the space available. He learned that some symbols represented vowels
Yet the 1857 test showed that the alone but most were consonants paired with vowels. He determined that
pioneers were on the right track. the encoded language belonged to the family of SEMITIC LANGUAGES, which
includes ancient Hebrew. Finally, Hincks realized that the signs some-
times had more than one pronunciation because the script was originally
created for a non-Semitic language. Today scholars know that this lan-
guage was Sumerian, the first language written in cuneiform.

Later Achievements. The decipherment of ancient languages contin-

ued in the 1900s. The first Hittite cuneiform inscriptions were found in
the A.D. 1890s. They were easily deciphered because they used cuneiform
signs with values known from Akkadian-language texts of the same pe-
riod. One linguist, seeing the word wa-a-tar in a clear reference to water,
identified this ancient language as Indo-European. His decipherment of
Hittite was published in 1915.
Tablets written in Ugaritic—the language used in the Syrian port city
of UGARIT—were first discovered in the 1930s. Ugaritic was written in a
35
Demons
peculiar form of cuneiform that used only 29 different signs, suggesting
that the script was like an aleph-beth. The script also suggested that the
Semitic of or relating to a language language was probably a West Semitic* dialect.
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Another more recent decipherment was that of Linear B. This script
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician recorded the language spoken by the Mycenaeans during the Late Bronze
Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.) on Crete and the Greek mainland. In the 1950s,
this language was recognized as a form of ancient Greek and deciphered.

Remaining Mysteries. Despite many successes, linguists have not

been able to decipher every known ancient language. Some—such as
Luwian and Elamite—have been deciphered to an extent but are imper-
fectly understood. With others, the initial breakthrough has yet to be
made. Examples are Linear A—a precursor of Linear B on Crete—and the
script found in the SINAI PENINSULA that many scholars think underlies the
alphabets of the Semitic languages. Texts from the ancient Phoenician
city of BYBLOS include an unusual system of writing that seems to com-
bine Egyptian hieroglyphics with the alphabet of Canaanite languages.
This, too, has yet to be understood. There are several more of these
known but not understood languages—and perhaps new languages yet
to be discovered as archaeologists continue to unearth new texts. It is
possible that these texts will also contain writing that at first seems
strange but later becomes clear through the flashes of insight and close
attention to detail that make up decipherment. (See also Akkad and the
Akkadians; Alphabets; Egypt and the Egyptians; Elam and the
Elamites; Indo-European Languages; Languages; Scribes.)

DEMONS
A ncient Near Eastern peoples believed that in addition to the gods,
there were other supernatural beings or forces that could affect the
world. Scholars refer to many of them as demons. These beings could do
good or evil, although generally demons were associated with evil. Many
aspects of ancient MAGIC were meant to protect people from demons.
In ancient Mesopotamia, people recognized at least two types of de-
monic forces: supernatural spirits and ghosts of the unhappy dead.
Demons often appeared in groups of seven, but there were also individual
demons. The best-known demon was Lamashtu, daughter of the sky god
ANU. She was said to attack pregnant women, young mothers, and babies.
* amulet small object thought to have People wore amulets* bearing her likeness or in the form of the head of
supernatural or magical powers the demon god Pazuzu or recited incantations* to ward her off.
* incantation written or recited formula Demons were represented as half human and half animal, a four-
of words designed to produce a given legged animal, a two-legged bird, or a fish. Examples include a figure with
effect a lion's body and a man's head; the merman and mermaid, who had hu-
man heads on fish bodies; and the griffin demon, which combined a hu-
man body and an eagle's head and wings.
Deceased people who were improperly buried or mourned were
thought to return as restless ghosts that roamed the world of the living.
Those who had died sudden or violent deaths or whose bones had been
scattered by animals were believed to be especially angry. Texts listed
36
 Disasters, Natural
other restless ghosts, such as those of people who were killedby a
weapon, died of thirst while in prison, or as aresultof a sinagainsta god
or an offense againstthe king.
The ghosts of unmarried people joined aspecial classofdemons.
These restless demons slipped through windows intohouses, searching
for men and women to become thehusbands andwives they hadnever
had. Such a demon could bevery persuasive, tempting thevictim with
such words as, ''I am the son of aprince, Iwillfillyourlapwith silverand
gold." Victims of these demons could becarried into theunderworld,
where they, too, became spouse-seeking ghosts.
Babylonian ideas about demons were similartosome ancient Jewish
beliefs. Bowls and talismans usedinJewish healing rituals contain words
similar to those found onartifacts*related todemons fromBabylonia.
One bowl describes a demon as alion with flashing eyes thatbreathes
fire, similarto someof the combined creatures ofBabylonia.
Egyptians also believed that demons caused illnessesandother mis-
fortunes.SETH, murdererofOSIRIS,
the was
godworshiped as the god of
confusion for many centuries until beliefschangedand he wasseen as a
demon.Alsofeared werethe demon servantsofSekhmet,thelioness god-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or dess. Called murderers, they were thought to beespecially dangerous dur-
other object made by humans ing the lastfive daysof each year.
As did Mesopotamians, Egyptians also believedin theevil-roaming
dead andfeared them. They could lurkin anyout-of-the-way placeand
harm the living. The Egyptians believed that "anyloss is due to[the
roaming dead]: the game seizedin—the field
itis[they]who[do]athing
like that/' To protect themselves from harm, people conducted cere-
(SeeDeathdead.
monies dedicated to appeasethe roaming
also andBur-
ial; Gods and Goddesses; Mythology; Religion.)

Deportations SeeMigration and Deportation.

Diet SeeFood and Drink.

DISASTERS,
A natural disaster is a devastating event orseriesofevents causedby
the forces of nature. These catastrophes cause
life,loss
large
of num-
bers ofinjuries, andmajor damageto property. Natural disasters may be
NATURAL sudden events,EARTHQUAKES,
such
as VOLCANOES,
FLOODS,
eruptions
andof
storms orfires. Theymay also occur overalong periodoftime. Changesin
environmental conditions, suchasdesertification*or thebuildupofsalt
in soil are also disasters with serious socialandeconomic consequences.
* desertification change of useful land DROUGHT, disease,and insect plagues* could also bring disastertosocieties.
into desert through natural
processes or Throughout history, the Near Easthasexperienced natural disasters
human activity that caused direct damage to people andproperty anddisrupted societies
37
Disasters, Natural
* plague contagious disease that quickly by destroying farming, travel, and trade patterns. Disasters weakened
kills large numbers of people once-strong societies, leaving them open to invasion and conquest or
forcing their people to migrate elsewhere in search of better land.

Sudden Disasters. The fall of some ancient Near Eastern civilizations

can be attributed to sudden disasters. The geologically unstable areas in
and around the Mediterranean Sea have been frequent sites of earth-
quakes and volcanic activity. On the island of CRETE, in about 1700 B.C., an
earthquake destroyed the early palaces. Around 1500 B.C., the nearby is-
land of THERA in the AEGEAN SEA was completely destroyed by a volcanic
eruption. Not only did the eruption cause destruction to Thera, but it also
caused volcanic ash to fall on Crete, destroying parts of that island. Schol-
ars believe that the eruption on Thera may have caused earthquakes as
well as tsunamis (large, high-speed waves created by underwater earth-
quakes or volcanic eruptions) that also damaged Crete and disrupted ship-
ping activity on the Aegean Sea. The eruption of Thera has been suggested
as a possible source for the story of Atlantis, a legendary island continent
that sank into the sea. In the 700s B.C., a particularly strong earthquake
struck ancient Israel. The event had such as powerful impact on those who
survived it that it was remembered for many generations.
Floods occurred frequently in the ancient Near East, especially in the
regions near the TIGRIS RIVER. Faster flowing than the EUPHRATES RIVER and
greatly affected by local, often violent, storms, the Tigris frequently de-
stroyed lives, property, and crops as they neared harvest. In Egypt, floods
caused by the NILE RIVER were more predictable and less damaging. How-
ever, in the years of high flood, the river could still submerge towns and
villages. A greater problem in ancient Egypt was a low flood. Without the
life-giving waters of the great annual flood, Egyptian AGRICULTURE suffered
* famine severe lack of food due to failed greatly. If a period of years of consistently low floods occurred, famine*
crops could be the result. In fact, some scholars believe that the period of de-
cline at the end of the Old Kingdom in Egypt (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.) was the
result of internal weaknesses caused by low-flood-induced crop failure
and famine.
Sometimes ancient peoples were faced with the problem of hordes of
insects destroying the food supply. Plagues of locusts seriously threatened
food supplies, for people could do little to combat them. The Hebrew
BIBLE describes plagues of locusts that struck Egypt in the 1200s B.C. Crop
failures brought on by other insects or by plant diseases caused by fungus
or viruses could also threaten society, as could human disease itself.
These disasters were unpredictable and unavoidable to peoples of the
ancient Near East. As a consequence, they depended greatly on the gods'
ability to prevent natural disasters. They believed that a disaster could be
the result of not worshiping a god properly. For example, Egyptians
thought that an unworshiped god would leave Egypt and that disasters
would then ensue.

Gradual Disasters. Regions in the ancient Near East also experienced

gradual disasters, which occurred because of ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES. Large
tracts of land became useless in Mesopotamia because of the buildup
of salt in the soil from heavy irrigation. Ineffective LAND USE hastened
38
 Divorce
erosion and the loss of good soil. Ongoing deforestation all around the
Mediterranean turned once-green areas into deserts unable to sustain
much life.
Adequate rainfall was critical, and even a little less rain could tip the
* dry farming farming that relies on balance in areas relying on dry farming*. Many rivers and streams dried
natural moisture retained in the ground up as a result of lack of adequate rainfall.
after rainfall These gradual disasters desolated the land and caused changes to soci-
eties just as sudden disasters did. Some societies weakened, enabling con-
querors to invade and destroy them. Constant warfare over resources in
Mesopotamia grew with the population. Drought and famine in Syria
*
Levant lands bordering the eastern and the Levant* both drew groups together and broke them apart. Other
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- civilizations simply disappeared. Societies that no longer functioned well
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West dissolved again into small groups. This gradual process, called retribaliza-
Bank, and Jordan
tion, occurred repeatedly in areas that saw breakdowns of the societies'
ability to maintain themselves. (See also Climate; Economy and Trade;
Irrigation; Medicine; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Water.)

Disease See Medicine.

Divination See Oracles and Prophecy.

DIVORCE
A ll the major cultures of the ancient Near East recognized that mar-
riage is sometimes imperfect and impermanent. Married couples
could divorce, or formally end their unions, although generally it was eas-
ier for husbands to divorce wives than for wives to divorce husbands.
Laws, customs, and marriage contracts spelled out the conditions un-
der which divorce was permitted and what the rights of each party were.
A husband in MESOPOTAMIA, for example, could divorce his wife for any
reason. However, he had to give up all claim to her property and might
have to pay an additional penalty in silver. According to a law of about
1801 B.C., from the city of ESHNUNNA, a husband who divorced a wife who
had borne him sons was driven away from his house and property.
A wife's right to divorce had severe restrictions, though. Many mar-
riage contracts from Babylonia in the 1700s B.C. forbade the wife to di-
vorce the husband on pain of death. Other contracts allowed the wife to
* dowry money or property that a divorce the husband but specified that she would sacrifice her dowry*. A
woman brings to the man she marries few marriage contracts granted the wife the same rights as the husband.
In those cases, the women were most likely daughters of rich families or
independent widows. While these contracts permitted divorce, it seems
that divorce was not often practiced. Marriages were the union of two
families, both of whom had interests in the marriage continuing.
* adultery sexual relations between a Divorce was more common in Egypt, where both husbands and wives
married person and someone other than had the right to dissolve their marriages and to marry other partners. Rea-
his or her spouse sons for divorce included a partner's adultery*, the failure of the marriage
39
Djoser

to produce children, or simple dislike. A letter from around 1200 B.C. also
suggests that men wishing to advance their careers divorced wives to marry
women with better positions in society.
When divorce in Egypt occurred, the wife received the household
goods she had brought to the marriage, or their value. Some marriage
contracts required a husband to support his wife financially throughout
her life, even if he divorced her. If the reason for the divorce was her adul-
tery, however, she forfeited this payment. In general, the husband re-
ceived custody of the children.
See The divorce laws of the HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA (present-day
color plate 5, Turkey) dealt with marriages in which one partner was free and the other
vol. 2,
was a slave or in which both were slaves. If such marriages produced chil-
dren and ended in divorce, the wife took one child and the husband
gained custody of the rest. Hittite laws concerning divorces involving two
free people have not been found, but marriage contracts probably regu-
lated the termination of such unions.
Among the ancient Israelites, men could divorce their wives, but
women had no such right. A husband probably did not have to get per-
mission from any ruling body in order to divorce his wife, but he was re-
quired to take certain measures once he had made his decision. Later
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- divorce laws dating from the Hellenistic* period showed the influence of
influenced culture of the Mediterranean other legal systems. According to marriage contracts from that period, a
world and western Asia during the three Jewish husband could begin divorce proceedings by saying a phrase that
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
had been employed for divorces in Babylonia as well. (See also Family
and Social Life; Marriage.)

DjOSER
D joser (ZHOH»suhr) was king of Egypt early in the Third Dynasty.
He founded the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), the first long
period of peace and prosperity in ancient Egypt. Djoser is best known for
his funerary* complex at Saqqara in northern Egypt, which contains the
first PYRAMID.
ruled ca. 263O-2611 B.C. The original plan for the burial site was less elaborate than the final
Egyptian king product. Construction took more than two decades, during which time,
the plans of Djoser and the royal architect Imhotep changed. In its final
* funerary having to do with funerals or form, the tomb became a six-stepped pyramid made of STONE that rose
with the handling of the dead more than 200 feet high and dominated the complex. The pyramid was
the first stone building in Egypt and the first example of monumental ar-
chitecture in the world.
The other structures in the complex were models of important tem-
ples and palaces, showing all the settings in which the ruler had acted as
the link between the gods and the people. These models, like the king's
* mud brick brick made from mud, tomb, were made of stone instead of the reeds and mud brick* used for
straw, and water mixed together and the originals they imitated. Stone made them durable.
baked in the sun Djoser's project required a complex government administration to
* artisan skilled craftsperson coordinate the artisans* and laborers involved. This building project be-
gan an era of stone monument building in Egypt and set a precedent for
Egypt's later pyramids. (See also Architecture; Building Materials; Burial
Sites and Tombs; Egypt and the Egyptians.)
40
 Dreams

Doctors See Medicine.

DREAMS
T oday dreams are regarded as the mind's way of dealing with experi-
ences from one's life. This view, however, is part of modern psychol-
ogy and is little more than 100 years old. Throughout history, people
regarded dreams as signs or warnings about the future. Dreams were also
thought to be important messages from the gods.
Many cultures in the ancient Near East took dreams seriously. They
devoted much effort, study, and ritual to understanding dreams. Various
societies recorded them, interpreted them, and classified them. Dream in-
divination art or practice of foretelling terpretation was one kind of divination*.
the future Although important dreams most often came to kings, priests, or
other officials, they could also come to ordinary people. Sometimes
* ecstatic person who communicates dreams came through an ecstatic*, who was often associated with a tem-
directly with gods through an altered ple. Another practice, called incubation*, involved sleeping in a holy place
mental state such as a trance, dream, or in the hope of receiving a divine dream. Priests or other seers interpreted
rapture
such dreams.
* incubation practice of inviting or Leaders often chose a certain course of action because of dreams they
stimulating dreams by sleeping in a
temple, shrine, or other holy place
had. For example, GUDEA (ca. 2100s B.C.), governor of LAGASH, followed a
dream that instructed him to rebuild a temple. The Assyrian king ASHUR-
BANIPAL (ruled 668-627 B.C.) reported that he saw a goddess in a dream
who foretold a military victory. A temple priest reported the same dream.
* epic long poem about a legendary or In several versions of an epic* about GILGAMESH, dreams play an im-
historial hero, written in a grand style portant role in the hero's life. Dreams foretell both the arrival and death
of Enkidu, and predict several struggles that Gilgamesh undertakes. A Hrr-
TITE version of the epic includes a dream of an assembly of gods.
In Egypt, letters from the time of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-
1630 B.C.) show family members writing to deceased relatives, expecting
to receive their replies in the form of dreams. The Egyptians also kept
handbooks of dream interpretations from the time of the New Kingdom
(ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). One such interpretation reads: "If a man sees him-
self looking through a window: good. It means being called by his god. If
a man sees himself shod with white sandals: bad. It means roaming the
earth." More elaborate dream manuals date from the Ptolemaic dynasty
(305-30 B.C.).
The Hebrew BIBLE records many examples of dreams influencing life.
The god Yahweh commands Jacob to return to the land of his birth in a
dream. He also promises the land to his people in the famous dream of Ja-
cob's ladder. In the book of Genesis, Joseph interprets two of the pharaoh's
dreams to be a warning that famine was coming to Egypt. SOLOMON asks
for wisdom in a dream, a wish that is granted.
Dreams were an important link to the supernatural world for ancient
* prophecy message from a deity; also, peoples. The close ties of dreams and prophecy* to religion and leader-
the prediction of future events ship made belief in the power of dreams a part of culture for thousands of
years. (See also Oracles and Prophecy; Priests and Priestesses; Religion;
Rituals and Sacrifice.)
41
Drought

DROUGHT
A drought is an abnormally long period of insufficient rainfall in a re-
gion that causes a significant drop in water levels in the ground,
lakes, and rivers and hinders the growth of crops. Droughts can be short
and last only a few weeks, or they can continue for years. They are caused
by variations in normal CLIMATE and weather patterns, such as annual
flooding or rainfall, and their impact may be worsened by human activi-
ties, such as the misuse of water and land resources. Some droughts in the
* deforestation removal of a forest as a ancient Near East were made worse by deforestation* and poor irrigation
result of human activities techniques.
Since ancient times, droughts have had far-reaching effects on hu-
man societies, causing crop failures, loss of natural vegetation, and deple-
tion of water supplies. Livestock and wildlife, as well as humans, may die
* famine severe lack of food due to failed of thirst and famine* brought on by drought. Drought can also cause de-
crops terioration of the land as fertile topsoils dry out and blow away, leaving
land that is not useful for growing crops. When water does fall on de-
forested land, the ground cannot hold it, so it fails to replenish under-
ground reservoirs. Deforested land becomes dried out and useless for
growing crops.
Much of the Near East has a dry climate with sparse rainfall. Drought
is an ever present threat, and some ancient societies in the region, such as
* Levant lands bordering the eastern those in Syria and the Levant*, relied heavily on the small amount of
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- rain, which they collected in cisterns. Other societies, such as those of
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Egypt and Mesopotamia, relied on rivers fed by rains and snowmelt in
Bank, and Jordan
sources far away. A drought due to little or no precipitation at the head-
waters of a river could result in lack of water in those areas.
Throughout ancient times, droughts periodically ravaged the ancient
Near East, causing great hardship to the people and sometimes contribut-
ing to the collapse of societies. On occasion, droughts also caused serious
political and economic upheaval. Historians believe, for example, that
the fall of the empire of the HITTITES in the 1200s B.C. may have been
partly caused by a prolonged drought that weakened the Hittites and left
them vulnerable to their enemies. When crops failed to grow, it became
necessary to import them from somewhere else, thus placing an eco-
nomic strain on a society. For example, some historians believe that a de-
cline in the levels of flooding of the NILE RIVER may have resulted in a
strain on the Egyptian economy of the Old Kingdom.
Droughts also caused the migration of ancient Near Eastern peoples
as they sought refuge in places less affected by dry conditions. For exam-
ple, the migrations of the SEA PEOPLES from the Aegean toward Egypt may
have been caused by a combination of drought and famine. Evidence of
dried up wells in Greece has suggested that a drought may have caused
the Greeks to move elsewhere and colonize in the 700s B.C.
Droughts could destroy or completely change people's lives. As a re-
sult, drought became associated with ancient religious beliefs and
MYTHOLOGY. The Israelites, for example, believed that their god YAHWEH
sometimes caused drought as a punishment for the sins of the people. A
* prophet one who claims to have story from the Hebrew BIBLE tells of the prophet* Elijah's declaration that
received divine messages or insights a drought was occurring because Yahweh was punishing the cult* that
* cult system of religious beliefs and was promoting the worship of the god BAAL in Israel. In the story, Elijah
rituals; group following these beliefs and the Baal worshipers hold a contest to determine the true god. When
42
 Dynasties
Yahweh emerges as the true god, the Israelites slay the Baal worshipers,
and Yahweh ends the drought with rain.
A number of other ancient myths tell of battles between gods, the re-
sults of which were varied. In some Canaanite myths, for example, the
gods Baal and Mot struggle for supremacy. A victory for Baal, the god of
* fertility ability to become pregnant and life and fertility*, resulted in seven years of abundance. A triumph for
bear children or to father children Mot, the god of death and sterility, led to seven years of drought and
famine. For ancient peoples, such myths helped account for periods of
drought and abundance. (See also Disasters, Natural; Environmental
Change; Famine.)

Dumuzi See Ishtar.

DYNASTIES
A dynasty is a line of rulers who belong to the same family or group or
who trace their descent to a common ancestor. Dynasties exist in
kingdoms or empires in which rulership is inherited or passed on from
one ruler to the next. Individual dynasties sometimes end because of a
lack of heirs. At other times, a ruling family may be overthrown during
civil strife. Historically, however, a new dynasty generally rises to replace
the old one.
The power of kingship was very strong in the ancient Near East, and
many successors came to the throne with little difficulty. Sometimes,
however, an appointed successor might meet with opposition from high
government officials or other members of the royal family. Such situa-
tions could lead to political struggles and even to civil wars. For this rea-
* succession transmission of authority son, succession* and the choice of successors were major concerns of
from one ruler to the next kings and royal officials.
In most Near Eastern societies, kingship was normally passed from fa-
ther to son. However, brothers, nephews, grandsons, and even brothers-
in-law or sons-in-law sometimes assumed the throne after the death of a
king. In some cases, women, such as HATSHEPSUT in Egypt, also became
rulers. This generally occurred when there were no suitable male heirs or
when the successor was too young to assume the throne.
Ancient Near Eastern dynasties ensured their continuity by establish-
ing formal plans for an orderly succession. For example, in the 1500s B.C.,
King Telipinu of the HITTITES issued an edict, or official order, that estab-
lished rules and standards concerning succession to the throne. Sons gen-
erally had the strongest claims to a throne because of the normal rules of
inheritance. However, kings could strengthen the claims of others they
chose, such as a nephew or son-in-law, by formally adopting that individ-
ual as a son.
In many parts of the ancient Near East, marriage within the family
played an important role in the continuation of dynasties. Kings often
arranged marriages between royal families to gain loyalty and support, as
well as to ensure an adequate supply of potential successors. Within one
43
Dynasties
family, relatives might marry to maintain the purity of the royal blood-
line. For example, CLEOPATRA VII coruled Egypt first as the wife of her
brother Ptolemy XIII and later as the wife of her brother Ptolemy XIV.
Much of the history of the Near East focuses on the rule of its many
kings. KING LISTS—documents listing the succession of rulers—and an-
cient texts documenting the achievements of rulers have been used to es-
tablish chronologies and reconstruct the history of these ancient
societies. Historians also use dynasties to divide the history of the ancient
Near East into units of time, evaluating each individual dynasty as well as
comparing it with other dynastic periods.

Mesopotamia!! Dynasties. Mesopotamia contained many different

* city-state independent state consisting city-states*, kingdoms, and empires at various periods in the region's his-
of a city and its surrounding territory tory. Sometimes dynasties ruled individual city-states, while at other
times they headed larger territorial states.
Among the most notable early dynasties in Mesopotamia was that es-
tablished by King SARGON I of Akkad in the 2300s B.C. This dynasty ush-
ered in a new phase of Mesopotamian history where, for the first time,
Akkad and Sumer were politically united. NARAM-SIN, Sargon's grandson,
expanded his kingdom's boundaries and created the first true empire in
the region. Naram-Sin was also the first ruler in the Mesopotamian region
to have himself declared a god.
During the period between around 2000 and 1595 B.C., much of Mes-
opotamia was again divided into separate, independent city-states. The
thrones of many of these cities were occupied by dynasties headed by
* nomadic referring to people who travel AMORITES, nomadic* peoples who had invaded the region.
from place to place to find food and One of the most notable dynasties in Mesopotamia was that of the
pasture KASSITES, who ruled Babylon from about 1595 to 1158 B.C. The longest-ruling
dynasty in all of ancient Near Eastern history, the Kassites played a major
role in expanding the power of Babylon and bringing about a lasting po-
litical unification of Babylonia.

Dynasties in Egypt. The history of Egypt is traditionally divided into

30 dynasties that span a period of nearly 3,000 years, from about 3100 to
the year 332 B.C., when Egypt was conquered by ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
Historians further organize Egyptian history by dividing these dynasties
into several major groups: those of the Early Dynastic period, Old King-
dom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, and Late Period. Three "interme-
diate periods'' containing dynasties fall between these groups. Historians
refer to the time after 332 B.C. as the Hellenistic period, during which
Egypt was ruled by the Macedonian and Ptolemaic dynasties.
Some Egyptian dynasties are historically more important than others
because of the achievements of their kings or the role of Egypt in their pe-
riods. The First Dynasty (ca. 3000-2800 B.C.) is best remembered as the
time when the city of MEMPHIS was founded. During the New Kingdom
(ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), Egypt reached the height of its power and prosperity.
The dynasties of this period included the most famous rulers of ancient
Egypt, among them Hatshepsut, THUTMOSE III, AKHENATEN, TUTANKHAMEN,
RAMSES II, and RAMSES III.
44
 Ea

Not all dynasties were ruled by Egyptians, however. At different peri-

ods, Egypt was ruled by the HYKSOS—who were invaders from the Lev-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ant*—the LIBYANS, the Nubians, and the Persians.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
Bank, and Jordan Dynasties in the Levant. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, Saul, the
first king of Israel, was deemed unfit to rule by the Israelite god YAHWEH.
Thus, the kingship passed to David (ruled ca. 1000-970 B.C.). Following
the death of David's son and successor, Solomon, the kingdom was split
into the states of ISRAEL AND JUDAH. However, descendants of David con-
tinued to rule Judah until its capture by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.
Christians believe that Jesus was a member of the Davidic family.

Dynasties in Iran. The most important early dynasties in IRAN were

those of Elam. Between about 2350 and 1500 B.C., three dynasties ruled
Elam, including the Sukkalmakh dynasty, which ruled for about 400
years. During this dynastic period, Elam became an independent power
and had one of the largest territories in the Near East. Perhaps the most
famous Iranian dynasty, however, was the Achaemenid dynasty, whose
kings founded the PERSIAN EMPIRE, one of the greatest empires of the an-
cient Near East. (See also Chronicles; Chronology; Government; Mar-
riage; Queens.)

EA
A water god and protector of humanity, Ea (AY«uh) was revered by
the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, as well as the Sumeri-
ans, among whom he was known as Enki, which means "lord of the
earth." The son of the sky god ANU and Sumerian mother goddess
Namma, Ea was the father of MARDUK, the principal deity* of Babylon.
Worshiped as part of a trio of gods that included Anu and the earth god
* deity god or goddess ENLIL, Ea played a major role in creation and was associated with wisdom,
crafts, music, and MAGIC.
Ancient myths say that Ea helped separate the universe into heaven
and earth and then used clay to create humans as helpers to the gods. Ac-
* epic long poem about a legendary or cording to the epics* of Atrakhasis and GILGAMESH, Ea helps humanity es-
historical hero, written in a grand style cape the great floods sent by an angry Enlil. Aware of Enlil's plan to flood
the land, Ea secretly warns a man and instructs him to build a boat and
load it with animals, precious metals, "the seed of life of all kinds/' his
* artisan skilled craftsperson kith and kin, and artisans*, helping humankind survive.
Ea's concern for humans made him beloved by the people of ancient
Mesopotamia. Many considered him responsible for bringing culture to
humanity. In art, Ea was portrayed as a bearded god wearing a tall head-
dress studded with several pairs of horns. During the Hellenistic period,
this image of Ea became the symbol for the zodiacal sign of Aquarius.
Creatures that could represent Ea were the merman (with the upper body
and head of a human and the lower body of a fish) and the goat fish (with
the fore parts of a goat and the hind parts of a fish). The goat fish became
the zodiacal sign of Capricorn. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Cre-
ation Myths; Flood Legends; Religion; Zodiac.)
45
Earthquakes

EARTHQUAKES
A n earthquake is a vibration or shaking of the earth's crust. Earth-
quakes range in severity from barely noticeable to extremely de-
structive. The region from Anatolia (present-day Turkey) southward to
Mesopotamia and through Iran is part of a highly active earthquake belt,
as are the islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas.
Throughout history, earthquakes have devastated property and peo-
* mud brick brick made from mud, ple, especially those living in structures made of stone and mud brick*.
straw, and water mixed together and Although few records exist to document ancient earthquakes, evidence
baked in the sun suggests that they occasionally occurred in the ancient Near East.
* tectonic relating to the structure of the There are two common causes of earthquakes. Tectonic* earthquakes
earth's crust are the result of movements of the plates that make up the earth's crust.
The most destructive tectonic earthquakes occur in regions where plates
meet near the earth's faults, or fractures. Volcanic earthquakes are associ-
ated with eruptions of VOLCANOES. Both are the result of the same under-
ground forces.
Earthquakes appear to be the causes or contributing factors of decline
and destruction in the ancient Near East. The island of CRETE suffered
from a series of earthquakes in around 1700 B.C. These earthquakes de-
stroyed Crete's first palaces, forcing the Minoans to rebuild. Later earth-
quakes weakened the Minoan civilization on Crete, and power passed
from the Minoans to the Mycenaeans who had come from the Greek
mainland.
A volcanic eruption and a resulting earthquake occurred on the is-
land of THERA in about 1500 B.C. The eruption literally blew the island
apart. The explosion, quake, and ash fallout ended all life in the Theran
city of Akrotiri. The eruption may also have caused some of the later
earthquakes on Crete. Some scholars suggest that the destruction of
Thera might be one source of the story of Atlantis—a Greek legend of an
island continent that sank beneath the sea.
It is probable that the eruption and subsequent earthquake on Thera
also caused tsunamis—giant waves of water that can reach 50 feet high
and travel 500 miles per hour—in the Aegean Sea. These waves would
have caused damage to surrounding lands. As a consequence, shipping
and trading on the Aegean were probably disrupted.
Other civilizations may have come to an end or had their progress
halted by earthquakes. In Syria, the city of UGARIT was probably destroyed
by one severe earthquake or by a series of devastating shocks followed by
a fire in the early 1100s B.C. One of the levels excavated in the city of TROY
in Anatolia appears to have been destroyed by an earthquake around
1300 B.C. The survivors leveled the ruins and built a new city on top of the
old one.
Some societies tried to fix or avert the damage from earthquakes
rather than rebuild. For instance, Egyptians built a bracing wall around
the pyramid of King Neferkare Pepy II of the Sixth Dynasty (ca.
2350-2170 B.C.) because it had been structurally weakened by an earth-
quake. Historians also suggest that people in ancient Crete may have at-
tached religious symbols to pillars of their houses so that the gods would
protect them from earthquakes or fires.
Earthquakes are mentioned several times in the Hebrew BIBLE. The
books of Amos and Zechariah both speak about an earthquake occurring
46
 Economy and Trade
in Israel as a punishment from YAHWEH. Another biblical episode from
prophet one who claims to have I Kings tells of the prophet* Elijah waiting on a mountaintop—possibly
received divine messages or insights on the SINAI PENINSULA—for Yahweh to speak to him. As he waits, there is a
strong wind, followed by an earthquake and a fire.

eknown
bla (EB»luh) was a city-state* in northwestern SYRIA. The city was
only from references in ancient Akkadian and Sumerian
EBI A texts until A.D. 1968, when a group of Italian archaeologists* led by Paolo
Matthiae identified it with the site called Tell Mardikh.
Among the most important discoveries at Ebla was a collection of
more than 17,000 CLAY TABLETS inscribed in cuneiform*. The texts provide
* city-state independent state consisting much information on the administration of palace affairs. They also con-
of a city and its surrounding territory tain literary, economic, judicial, and political subject matter.
* archaeologist scientist who studies Ebla experienced several periods of prosperity and importance from
past human cultures, usually by around 3500 B.C. until about 1600 B.C. During that time, Ebla became a re-
excavating material remains of human gional power, with control over several smaller communities. Trade and
activity
diplomacy* linked Ebla with Egypt and kingdoms in Mesopotamia. Ebla's
* cuneiform world's oldest form of fine woolen cloth was a prized trade product.
writing, which takes its name from the
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
Around 2350 B.C., the city was destroyed in a fire, probably during an
into clay tablets attack by the Akkadians. A rebuilt Ebla flourished again between about
* diplomacy practice of conducting
1800 and 1600 B.C., only to fall to another military raid, this one by HIT-
negotiations among or between TITES from ANATOLIA. After about 1600 B.C., Ebla survived as a minor village
kingdoms, states, or nations with no political power. Research into Ebla's ruins and texts is providing
information on the economic and political life of ancient Syria at a time
when city-states were beginning to emerge.
* Semitic of or relating to people of the The Eblaites were a Semitic* people whose culture and language were
Near East or northern Africa, including related to those of other West Semitic groups, such as the AMORITES and
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, the ARAMAEANS. Elements of their writing system and literature were bor-
Jews, and Arabs
rowed from Sumer. (See also Semitic Languages; Urbanization.)

FA ONOMY
T he term economy refers to a system in which people obtain and use
commodities (articles of trade) they need and want. AGRICULTURE was
the foundation of economies in the ancient Near East. The production
\NP TRAPI and distribution of food dominated the economy from earliest times. Al-
though commerce eventually branched out into the management of
many goods and services, farming remained the basis of wealth in the an-
cient Near East. As civilizations in the region grew, their economic sys-
tems evolved from small, local economies to large, complex systems in
which empires traded and transported resources, finished goods, and la-
bor around the region. Ancient Near Eastern peoples also developed mea-
sures of weight and volume to calculate quantities and devised rates of
exchange to compare the values of things.
As economies in the ancient Near East developed, they increasingly de-
pended on trade, both within a society and with other groups. TRADE ROUTES
47
Economy and Trade
increased communication and awarenessof the world.Associeties evolved
from small communities to great empires, the changes in economies both
caused and demonstrated the advance of civilization.

SOURCES
INFORMATION
OF
* archaeologist scientist who studies Archaeologists* and historians have ample material to draw from, even
past human cultures, usually by from the periodbefore writing, to learn about economies and trade. They
excavating material remains of human also examine written materials that were kept to record business transac-
activity
tions in ancient times.
For archaeologists, remains such as stone tools, dwellings, luxury
goods buried with thePOTTERY
dead, and
are related to economic activities
and give clues to economic life in times when no recordswerekept.An-
cient environments, plants, and animals also yield clues to economic ac-
tivity, as do studies on disease and nutrition.These indicate what sort of
goods were readily available to people and what resources might have
been acquired through trade.
Archaeologists study trade patterns byexamining the materials found
at a site and comparing them to materials usually occurring in that re-
gion. By examining trade goods, suchaspotteryand metals, archaeolo-
gists can determine which societies were in touch with each other and
the routes they followed to move goods from one place to another. By

48
 Economy and Trade
studying the distribution of goods within a society, they can draw conclu-
sions about how the society was structured and what its people valued.
Around 3100 B.C., when WRITING originated in Mesopotamia, people
began to maintain records of economic and business transactions. By that
time, cities had been established, societies became organized, and newly
* bureaucracy system consisting of formed bureaucracies* began to maintain detailed records of exchanges.
officials and clerks who perform These records provide a wealth of information about economy and trade
government functions in the ancient Near East.

ECONOMY
An economy is based on the process by which wealth is created, distrib-
uted, managed, and used. As civilizations developed in the ancient Near
East, new economies emerged and evolved over time. A major change oc-
* Neolithic period final phase of the curred during the Neolithic period*, as people shifted from a nomadic*
Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. lifestyle and began to settle in villages and rely on resources found locally.
* nomadic referring to people who travel When they began to manage their resources of water, animals, and land,
from place to place to find food and doing so required organization and a greater degree of sharing. Conse-
pasture quently, new economic relationships started to develop among people,
and more and different kinds of goods and services became more valu-
able. Societies that had been based on kinship developed into societies
based on rank, privilege, and power based on control of the economy.
Soon, when a society produced a surplus of any commodity, that society
traded it with other societies and developed relations with them.
Economic historians classify economies into three basic types: recip-
Who Pays the Price? rocal, redistributive, and commercial. In most economies of the ancient
Near East, some mixture of these three methods of exchange may have
Merchants from Babylon trav-
eling the far reaches of em-
occurred, at least in some periods.
pires also acted as diplomats. In a reciprocal economy, goods are transferred between parties who
Sometimes they paid ransom for are both consumers and producers. For example, one farmer might sup-
those who had been taken captive ply grain to a craftsperson who makes pottery. In turn, the craftsperson
by other peoples, The merchants supplies pottery to the grain farmer. Such an exchange of commodities is
were repaid by the captives, but n<
called barter. Typically, the bartering parties know each other and have
if it meant that the captives would
lose their properly. Babylonian cap some type of social relationship. This relationship develops further be-
tives were protected by the Code c cause not all transactions happen at the same time and one person may
Hammurabi, which states that if a have to wait to receive goods from the other. This leads people to owe and
captive could not pay, the village expect things from each other and to trust the other party to fulfill his
temple would. The code continues part of the exchange.
[I]f there is not enough in his vil- The earliest economies were reciprocal economies. Evidence of barter
lage temple to ransom himf the in the ancient Near East is scarce, however, probably because it existed on
palace shall ransom him. His
field, orchard or house shall not
a small scale, primarily between individuals or small groups.
be sold for his ransom money. In a redistributive economy, commodities are deposited at a common
institution that then distributes the wealth to people according to their
position in society. This system requires a strong central authority to re-
ceive supplies and distribute them. People trust the central authority and
depend on it to support, provide for, and defend them. When that trust
fails, the system collapses.
Temples often played an important role in redistributive economies
* second millennium B.C. years between of the ancient Near East. An early second millennium B.C.* archive from a
2000 and 1001 B.C. temple in the Babylonian city of NIPPUR contains details of goods coming
49
Economy and Trade
into and being distributed from the temple. Redistribution also appears to
have been used during the Old, Middle, and New Kingdom periods in
Egypt, periods that were characterized by their stability. In Egypt, the re-
sponsibility of distributing goods fell to the state treasury.
A third type of economy, one familiar today, is a commercial econ-
omy, or one in which goods and services command a price in the market.
People accumulate wealth by selling these goods and services at the best
possible price. The role of commercial economies in the ancient Near East
is unclear, but historians know that they existed in such cities as BABYLON
* edict pronouncement of the and ASHUR. For example, an edict* published by Babylonian king Ammi-
government that has the force of law saduqa in the 1600s B.C. discusses how to deal with debts resulting from
commercial transactions.
Although ancient economies were run and controlled by central in-
stitutions, it is not safe to assume that all economic exchanges were di-
rected by them. For example, although merchants in Mesopotamia
during the third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.) were
partly employed by the temple or the palace, they were probably able to
engage in independent trade. In fact, it was often helpful to a merchant
in a foreign land if he was not seen as an agent of a governmental insti-
tution. A potential trading partner would be less likely to trade with
* city-state independent state consisting someone who represented a city or city-state* he was in conflict with.
of a city and its surrounding territory Eventually, a more independent business sector did develop. For exam-
ple, during the Achaemenid period (538-331 B.C.), many citizens of
Babylon were involved in private commerce and banking. Maintaining
wealth often became a family business, and many of these families left
archives that recorded their transactions and dealings.

TRADE
In economic terms, trade is the regular movement of goods from one
area to another. As economies grew and trade became more complex,
new materials, methods, and ways of living spread throughout the an-
cient Near East.

Beginnings of Trade. Trade is based on acquiring materials or re-

sources not found locally. Extensive trade for desirable goods existed
long before states with a powerful central authority came into being. For
* obsidian black glass, formed from example, obsidian* from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) circulated widely
hardened lava, useful for making sharp among Neolithic communities in the Levant*. Likewise, lapis lazuli*
blades and tools from Afghanistan was already being transported to southern Mesopo-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern tamia before 3000 B.C.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- In Mesopotamia, the unequal distribution of resources between the
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
Bank, and Jordan
north and south led to the establishment of trade. Southern Mesopotamia
lacked wood, stone, metals, and in early times, animals and plants for agri-
* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious
stone
culture. These items were abundant in the north, but thin soil and fast rivers
there made agriculture more difficult than in the south, where soil enriched
by the rivers yielded bountiful grain harvests. Consequently, commodities
began to flow between the two regions as each supplied the other's needs.
As economies grew, early trade networks were established between so-
cieties that demanded raw materials, useful goods, and luxury items. The
50
 Economy and Trade

necessities of
life were probably availableinregions where strong econo-
mies developed. However,rawmaterialsforother products and
projects
were sought beyond the regional boundaries. For example, theMesopo-
tamian and Egyptian governments could meet the foodneeds oftheir
population, but they had to import many goods, such asmetals, semi-
precious'stones, wood, and spices,from
afar.Tomeet their needs,the
people of the Mesopotamian URUK
city-state
set up of
anactive trade net-
work during the Uruk period (ca. B.C.). 3500-3000
ThepeopleofUruk
es-
tablished colonies in Mesopotamia, Syria, andIran thatprobably served
as places where goods producedin Urukwere tradedforthose itemsnot
locally available.An extensive networkofroads wasused
astrade routes
during this period.

Trade Goods. Archaeological evidence fromtheancientEast

Near re-
veals three groups of trade goods: essentials, staples,andluxuries. Not
every type of good wasusedby allmembersof asociety, however.
Essentials are items necessaryforeveryday
life,suchasgrainandsalt,
or for their production, suchasgrindstones (heavy stone disksused
for
grinding grain and sharpening tools). Recordstoprove that ancient Near
Eastern peoples traded these goodsarescant, although archaeologicalev-
idence does exist. Forinstance, asite innorthern Iraq yielded aroom
filled with more than 300 grindstones that were clearly intendedfor
trade. Vital trade goods suchasthese were usedbyeveryoneandproba-
bly account for moreof ancient Near Eastern trade thanwritten records
reveal.
Staples are items that areused toproduce other things, either for di-
rect use or for trade. Most tradein staples involved processed rawmateri-
als rather than finished goods.Forinstance, timberforconstructionand
51
Economy and Trade
shipbuilding was plentiful only in the Levant, and most peoples im-
ported what they needed from that region. TEXTILES were commonly
traded. Metals such as copper and tin, which were luxuries at first, be-
came essential materials for craft work and military use. For example, dur-
ing the time of Old Assyrian period (ca. 2000-1750 B.C.), merchants from
Ashur established colonies in Anatolia to trade textiles and tin for silver
and gold.
Luxury items were important to the government and temple because
they reflected the power and prestige of the ruler and his society. In addi-
tion, these items were used to adorn, make offerings to, and honor the
* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree gods. Shells, lapis lazuli, gold, silver, spices, frankincense and myrrh*, ex-
resins used to make incense and otic woods such as ebony, or rare materials such as ivory showed the peo-
perfumes ple's and ruler's devotion to the gods who protected them. Consequently,
the risk and expense of obtaining luxury goods became the business of
rulers and wealthy temples.

Trade Routes and Centers of Trade. In the ancient Near East, goods
were traded overland, sometimes by donkeys and camels, and by water.
Geographic barriers, such as mountains and deserts, determined land
routes, as did shifting politics and alliances.
The most efficient method of moving large cargoes was by water. Sea
Underwater traders successfully undertook lengthy voyages on the Red Sea, the In-
dian Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Arabian Sea, and the Persian
Discoveries Gulf. Traders sailed to many foreign, sometimes distant lands. Dilmun,
Advances in underwater ar-
present-day Bahrain, was the closest and perhaps most important Meso-
chaeology have made it
possible to discover and an- potamian trading partner in the Persian Gulf. Merchants in Dilmun acted
atee cargoes of lost ships as brokers because goods such as copper and timber from faraway places,
from the ancient Near East, giv- such as Magan in present-day Oman, flowed through there. Magan was
intj a clearer pattern of the quan- the source for a decorative black stone that the Sumerian governor GUDEA
tity and kind of goods traded. No sought for statues. Mesopotamian city-states also engaged in trade with
ftonger forted to rely on only writ-
ten records and artworks, for exam- faraway lands, such as MELUKKHA, probably in India. Whether Melukkha
ple, scholars are now able to get was the source of the wood and ivory used in Mesopotamian boats and
their hands on the actual material temples or was a temporary stopping place for these goods, there was fre-
:remains of trading vessels, For ex- quent contact between Mesopotamian and Indian societies.
ample, a ship from the 1300s B.C The only distant region to which Egyptians traveled was the land of
that was excavated near Uluburun,
off the coast of southern Turkey, has
Punt. Punt, which may have been in present-day Sudan or Ethiopia or in
yielded an inventory of such trade southern Arabia, was a source of exotic animals, spices, gold, and slaves.
goods m silver, tin, and ivory. Even A number of expeditions, including one sent by Queen HATSHEPSUT, went
edibles such as olives, figs, grapes, to Punt.
and almonds have been found, pro- Kings of Israel also sought riches from afar. The Hebrew BIBLE recounts
viding information on the diet of a trip to Ophir, perhaps in present-day Saudi Arabia, to restock Solomon's
the ship's crew
treasury with gold from that land. The Phoenicians are well known as
both explorers and sea traders, who traded with lands as far away as pre-
sent-day England and the Atlantic coast of Africa. Such trips indicate the
willingness of ancient Near Eastern peoples to explore new sources of
wealth for their economies.

Methods of Exchange. For trade to succeed, the merchants involved

must be able to exchange items of comparable value. From the Neolithic
period, when barter was the chief mode of exchange, ancient Near Eastern
52
 Edicts
peoples had developed methods to determine the value of goods. Over
See time, other methods came into use, eventually resulting in specific objects
color plate 3, of exchange, such as coins.
vol. 2.
Metals such as copper, bronze, silver, and gold represented values and
were items of exchange. Silver, which was more available than gold, was
favored. Goods came to be valued in terms of weights of silver. For exam-
* third millenium B.C. years from 3000 to ple, during the late third millenium B.C.*, in the city of LAGASH in south-
2001 B.C. ern Mesopotamia, 8.5 bushels of barley were worth 0.3 ounces of silver.
Such systems of equivalence allowed for ease of accounting and standard-
ization of values. In Egypt and elsewhere, gold, silver, copper, and grain
were used as currency.
Eventually, some metal moneylike objects appeared. Texts from the
Old Akkadian period (ca. 2500-2000 B.C.) through the Old Babylonian
period (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) refer to precious metals being cast into rings
that may have been used as currency. Silver broken into pieces may also
have been used to value goods.
The earliest coins came from Lydia, in Anatolia, in about 650 B.C.
Coins were marked to identify the issuing authority and to certify the pu-
rity of the metal and perhaps their weight. Nevertheless, people always
Hellenistic referring to the Greek- weighed coins to gauge their values. It took hundreds of years for coins to
influenced culture of the Mediterranean become established in the Near East, and then only under the rule of for-
world and western Asia during the three eign powers. ALEXANDER THE GREAT increased the production of coins, and
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
their use spread throughout the Hellenistic* world. (See also Cereal
Grains; Government; Labor and Laborers; Metals and Metalworking;
Transportation and Travel.)

EDICTS
A n edict is an official decree or proclamation issued by a ruler, ruling
council, or some other governing body. In the ancient Near East,
edicts enacted policy, determined succession, or created rules and regula-
tions. They had the force of law and were intended to establish order in
society. They reflected the ideas about justice held by the people that is-
sued them. Consequently, edicts were often powerful and dramatic docu-
ments, written in simple language and a forceful and energetic style and
read aloud before an assembly.
Texts from the ancient Near East frequently refer to edicts, suggesting
that such decrees were probably quite common. However, only a few frag-
ments of such edicts have ever been found. One of the best-preserved ex-
amples is the Edict of Ammi-saduqa, a royal decree issued in about 1646 B.C.
by Ammi-saduqa, then king of Babylon. In this edict, the king de-
clared certain types of loans illegal, and he suspended the tax pay-
ments owed by some classes in society for a period of several years.
Ammi-saduqa probably issued this edict in response to hard economic
times in Babylon.
Two edicts survive from the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey).
The Edict ofKhattushili was issued sometime around 1620 B.C. by king
KHATTUSHILI I and dealt with succession to the throne. In this decree,
Khattushili disinherited his nephew Labarna and named Murshili, his
own grandson, his successor. Probably issued while the king lay on his
53
Education
deathbed, the edict was sent out to important officials and nobles of the
kingdom.
The Edict ofTelipinu, issued by King Telipinu between about 1525 and
1500 B.C., dealt with royal succession as well, but Telipinu went further
than Khattushili. His edict established the basic principles for organizing
the state and methods for dealing with criminals accused of high crimes,
designating an assembly to act as high court. In doing so, Telipinu was
probably trying to break age-old patterns of revenge in which entire fam-
ilies were held responsible for the actions of individual family members.
The Hebrew BIBLE tells of an edict issued by CYRUS THE GREAT after he
conquered Babylonia and marched into Babylon. In this decree, Cyrus
told the Jews, who had been exiled to Babylon, that they should return to
Judah and rebuild their temple in Jerusalem. This edict was cause for cele-
bration among the Jews, and it brought Cyrus their support. (See also
Government; Law; Rosetta Stone.)

E goal of education was to develop literacy* and cultural awareness

education played a vital rile in the ancient Near East. The principal

EDUCATION and to train individuals in the skills needed for the administration of gov-
ernment, the economy, and other aspects of society. However, education
was not available to all. Children from the upper classes generally had
greater access to formal education than those from the poorer segments
* literacy ability to read and write of society. Moreover, although there are records of educated females, few
* apprenticeship system of training in girls received any formal education. Nevertheless, all children could learn
which an individual learns skills or a through apprenticeship* training or by observing their parents and elders
profession from an experienced person at work.
in that field Because many ancient Near Eastern societies relied greatly on record
* cuneiform world's oldest form of keeping and bookkeeping, people who could read and write were needed.
writing, which takes its name from the Prior to the spread of the alphabet, the complexities of writing in the
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
into clay tablets
cuneiform* and hieroglyphic* scripts and the level of mastery required
meant that few people could function as scribes*. As a result, reading and
* hieroglyphics system of writing that
uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs,
WRITING were important skills and became the focus of education.
to represent words or ideas
* scribe person of a learned class who
Mesopotamia. Formal scribal* education existed in Mesopotamia
served as a writer, editor, or teacher from at least the late fourth millennium B.C.* Scribal training may have
* fourth millennium B.C. years from
taken place in private schools that were separate from temples and
4000 to 3001 B.C. palaces. Often located in the homes of individuals, these schools primar-
ily taught reading and writing. Some families hired private tutors who
taught the sons of the house in their residence.
With the growth of Mesopotamian civilization, the need for literate
people to serve in government led to the development of state-sponsored
schools run by experienced scribes. Known as tablet houses, these scribal
schools offered an education that was based on producing highly literate
students who could function as administrators. The primary focus was on
* diplomacy practice of conducting teaching how to read and write Sumerian because it was the language of
negotiations among or between commerce and diplomacy*. Students also learned other languages, in-
kingdoms, states, or nations cluding Akkadian and local dialects.
54
 Education
Students learned languages by copying and studying standard texts as
well as various lists, such as sign lists, vocabularies, and grammatical lists.
Education Beginning students also TABLETS
learned
used
CLAY
howforto prepare
the
and Religion writing. Discipline was strict, and students could be punished severely for
Thestrong linkbetween edu- disobedience, tardiness, and other types of improper behavior. Along
cationandreligion among the with languages, Mesopotamian MATHEMATICS,
LITERATURE,
schools taught
ancient Israelites developed,
part,
in
fromtheword of Godrevealed
as in andMUSIC. Musicwas especially importantfor individualswho were train-
theTorah(partof
th£
Hebrew Bible). ing for a career in the temples and needed to learn religious songs. Meso-
In thebookofDeuteronomy, ex-
for potamians also trained ASTROLOGY,
specialists
MEDICINE,in divination*,
and
ample,Godsays; "And these
words other fields. Most of these specialists found employment in temples or
whichcommand
I you
day
shall
this the government.
be upon your heart; andshall
you Some youngsters learned theirfather's trade at home, and specialized
teach them diligently your
chil-
to
dren"(DeuteronomyElse- 6:7). knowledge was handed down from one generation to the next by arti-
wherein theBible,
King
David
of sans*, priests, scribes, and other professionals. Children in Mesopotamia
Israelpreached that "Wisdom gives could also learn a profession through apprenticeship training. Surviving
strengthto the wisemanmore than contracts show that boys were apprenticed to learn cooking, carpentry,
the rulersthat
are incity"
(Ecclesi-
a singing, and other skills.
astes7:19).
Theseandother religious texts
encouragedthe ancientIsraelites
to Egypt. Throughout ancient times, literacy was essential to success
makeeducation an
everyday experi- Egypt, and scribes were among the most important people in society.
encethatwould enrich mind
the During the third millenniumB.C., usually only the sons of royalty and
andbring them closer toword
the high officials received a scribal education, and there was little opportu
of God.
nity for the nonelite population to become literate. A student
learn to become a scribe if hisfather taught him or official
if an was hired
to teach him. Princes and sons of high-ranking officials might have also
received an education at palace schools.
* divination art or practice of foretelling During the Middle Kingdom period, the government established
the future many state-run scribal schools. This led to an expansion of education
* artisan skilled craftsperson among children of diverse backgrounds and also to a more uniform edu-
cation system. By about the B.C., 1500seducation had become quite
widespread, and even boys of modest background could attend scribal
schools such as those attached to temples, palaces, and other state-run
institutions.
Scribal training in Egypt involved a long period of education. Stu-
dents entered school as early as age 6, and they might continue their edu-
cation until age 20 or older. Elementary training lasted aboutfour years,
after which students began advanced work. The scribal schools aimed at
producing competent administrators to serve in the government in a civil
or military capacity or to serve at temples. Young men training for the
priesthood learned practical matters such as managing temple property
and personnel in addition to their normal studies.
Students also studied suchsubjects as grammar, mathematics, sci-
ence, and other languages. They generally learned by copying standard
texts, writing down materials recited by teachers, and writing lists of
words that they had memorized. Students were expected to memorize an-
cient literature and to be able to recite it. As in Mesopotamia, discipline at
schools in Egypt was strict, and students could be severely punished for
disobedience or laziness.
Boys could also learn theirfather's profession by working with him
from an early age. Similarly, girls were taught domestic skills by their
55
Egypt and the Egyptians

mothers or other female relatives. Some children learned skills in archi-

tecture, engineering, and sculpture from other adults through a system of
apprenticeship. Apprentices were expected to give their teachers the same
respect they would give their parents.

Other Parts of the Near East. The need for literate individuals led to
the tradition of scribal education being adopted by other cultures in the
ancient Near East. However, the simple alphabetic writing system devel-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern oped in the Levant* at the end of the second millennium B.C.* permitted
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- the gradual spread of literacy across the entire ancient Near East, from
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Egypt to Persia.
Bank, and Jordan
Education was especially important to the ancient Israelites, and it
* second millenium B.C. years from 2000 was strongly tied to their religion. It was the scribe's duty to copy the sa-
to 1001 B.C.
cred laws of the god YAHWEH and to read them to the people. In this man-
ner, more people—literate and illiterate—could learn and uphold the
religious principles the Israelites believed in.
Early education in Persia was based on teaching the Zoroastrian reli-
gion and ethics. Later these religious principles were taught along with dis-
ciplines such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and fine arts. (See also Books
and Manuscripts; Family and Social Life; Libraries and Archives;
Schools.)

EGYPT AND
T he ancient Egyptians are known for having had one of the oldest
and greatest civilizations, marked by such achievements as its mas-
sive stone PYRAMIDS. Ancient Egyptian civilization continued for almost
THE EGYPTIANS 3,000 years, making it one of the longest-lasting civilizations in history.
Ancient Egypt's long history was due in part to several strong and stable
central governments. Moreover, the Egyptians were able to retain and
preserve their identity because their conquerors assimilated* their ways
* assimilate to adopt the customs of a rather than forcing the Egyptians to assimilate.
society

GEOGRAPHY
Egypt is located along the NILE RIVER in northeastern Africa. It is bordered
on the south by Sudan; on the west by Libya; on the east by the SINAI
PENINSULA, eastern desert, and the Red Sea; and on the north by the
Mediterranean Sea. The borders of ancient Egypt changed through time
as it grew more or less powerful and expanded or lost territory. Nonethe-
less, the populated areas of ancient Egypt generally consisted of three re-
* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed gions: the large Nile River delta*, known as Lower Egypt; the Nile River
of soil deposited by a river valley south of the delta, known as Upper Egypt; and the low-lying
Faiyum Depression, fed by the Bahr Yusef branch of the Nile River, to the
west of the Nile near the delta. The population was concentrated in these
three regions because they were the only places where the hot, dry condi-
tions of Egypt's desert were relieved by the floodwaters of the Nile.

The Nile River and Delta. The Nile River flows from the central
African highlands in the south to the Mediterranean Sea in the north. It
56
 Egypt and the Egyptians
was amajor transportation route in ancient Egypt, and many individuals
made a living transporting goods and people up and down river. the The
Nile also providedfoodfor the Egyptians. It was a source
fish,
an
of im-
portant component of the ancient Egyptian diet. More significantly,the
Nile's annual flooding madethe surrounding AGRICUL-
lands suitablefor
TURE. As a result,the lands could sustaina large population.
The extent of the Nile's annual flooding depended on the amount of
rain in centralAfrica. Some yearshad much lower floods than usual, caus-
* famine severe lack of food due to failed ing cropfailure, highfood prices, and famine*. Other yearshad much
crops higher floods than usual, causing equally disastrous effects.
Yearsof un-
usually high or lowfloods were often markedby socialand political insta-
bility. This was because Egyptians believed that their rulers were directly
responsible for agricultural success and blamed the government when
famine occurred.
The many branches of the Nile Delta overflowed their banks each
summer, allowingfarming in the surroundingfloodplain. fact,Inthe
delta had even greater agricultural potential than the Valley, Nile and by
3100B.C., it had several well-established
B.C.,the
towns.
delta
By
re-1400
gion dominated Egyptian economy and politics because of its agricultural
* oasis fertilearea in a desert made wealth and closeness to the other civilizations in the Near East.
possible by the presence of a spring or
well; pi.oases
Faiyum Depression and Other Populated Areas. The
Faiyum
* arable suitable for growing crops pression is a lakeand anoasis* westof the Nile
River.It was settled
by
* dynasty succession of rulers from the farmers as earlyas
B.C.7000
and, likethe Nile
River valleyand delta,
be-
same family or group came more intensivelyfarmed and heavily populated over time. Around
1800B.C., the water level of the lake was brought under control, and
CANALS were builtto increasethe amountof arable* After
land.
this,
the
Faiyum became one of the most prosperousand heavily populated areas
of ancient Egypt.
The Egyptian people also settled in several places in the desert west
and east of the Nile. To the west, the settlements were centered on oases,
many of which were onmajor trade routes. Sitesin the desert eastof the
Nile were heavily populated because they were important sourcesof
minerals, such as gold and copper,and building materials, suchas sand-
stone and quartzite. Someof these sitesmay have been workedby local
populations under Egyptian control rather than settled by Egyptian peo-
ple. The eastern desert also was the route to the Red Sea, an important
trade destination.

HISTORY
Most modern historians divide ancient Egyptian history into several
kingdoms and periods on the basis of the work of the Egyptian priest
Manetho, who lived in B.C.theManetho
200s listed all the kings of an-
cient Egypt known to him and grouped them into dynasties*. Although
historians know that Manetho's list is not completely accurate, much of
the information contained on this list does correspond with what they
know about the rulersof ancient Egypt.The succession of dynasties
re-
flects thefact that ancientEgypt's historywas markedby periodsof stabil-
ity, invasion, and instability.
57
Egypt and the Egyptians
Each of the more than 30 dynasties that ruled ancient Egypt con-
sisted of a succession of related kings.At several pointsinEgypt's long his-
tory, two, or perhaps even three, dynasties ruled different
in partsof the
country at the same time. The position of king was inherited, and it usu-
ally passed to the oldest son of the king's chief
wife, although other sons
or daughters occasionally took the throne. One dynasty ended and a new
one began when a king died without leaving a suitable heir or when out-
siders seized power and started their own dynasty. During after
andthe
Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. 1529-1292
B.C.), kingsin Egypt were giventhe ti-
tle pharaoh, a term that had been used earlier refertoto the palace.
The king was considered the embodiment HORUS.
of theIngod
this
divine role, the king was the high priest of the Egyptian religion and the
sole mediator between the gods and the EgyptianAfter people.
death,
many kings were declared gods and worshiped along with the other
Egyptian gods.

Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods.B.C.,

Until about 5500
* nomadic referring to people who travel Egypt's population consisted of small nomadic* groupswho livedby
from place to place to find food and hunting, gathering, and fishing. Around that time, new immigrants
from
pasture westAsia appear to have moved into Egypt, bringing knowledge
farm-
of
* domesticatedadaptedortamed
for ing and domesticated* crops. The immigrants settled in villages and es-
humanuse tablished more complex societies. Their settlements grew, an eventually,

58
 Egypt and the Egyptians
small, local kingdoms emerged in the Nile Valley. Historians refer to this
* predynastic referring to the period period as the Predynastic* period. Toward the end of this period, the peo-
before 3000 B.C., when Egypt's First ples of the Nile Valley came in contact, either directly or indirectly
Dynasty began through trade, with the literate* Sumerians of southern Mesopotamia
* literate able to read and write and their neighbors, the Proto-Elamites of southern Iran.
By about 3100 B.C., a few strong kings had come to dominate Upper
Egypt. According to Manetho, one of them, King Menes, conquered
Lower Egypt and unified the country in about 3000 B.C., founding the first
Egyptian dynasty. Menes strategically located the capital of the newly uni-
fied Egypt at MEMPHIS, on the border between Lower and Upper Egypt.
Menes' successors, the kings of the first two dynasties, reinforced their
hold on the country and strengthened the kingdom's central government.

Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. By the time of the

Stumbling Third Dynasty, Egypt entered the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.),
Into History which was characterized by an era of stability, prosperity, and strong cen-
tral government. During the Old Kingdom, many of the distinguishing
In the A.D. 1990s, an impor- characteristics of Egyptian civilization were established. By then, Egyp-
tant discovery was made
when the leg of a stumbling tians had already invented a paperlike material from PAPYRUS, and their
donkey went into what system of writing, called HIEROGLYPHICS. These inventions enabled them to
turned out to be an opening to keep the many records needed by the large central government, which
a 2,000-year-old tomb. Archaeol- had also become very wealthy by this time. The government's wealth and
ogists investigating this site at the strength are apparent from the massive stone pyramid constructed dur-
Bahariya Oasis, 230 miles south- ing the reign of King DJOSER of the Third Dynasty. In fact, the Old King-
west of Cairo, found a large, appar-
ently undisturbed tomb complex dom period is often called the pyramid age because later kings of the
that extends for several square period commissioned more and larger pyramids.
miles and may contain thousands By around 2200 B.C., the Old Kingdom had become severely weak-
of mummies. The first 105 mum- ened. Several factors may have contributed to this, including the increas-
mies to be examined date back to ing inability of the king to control local leaders and unusually low floods
the A.D. 1 OOs, when Egypt was
ruled by the Roman Empire, The of the Nile that may have led to crop failure and famine. The resulting so-
mummies—men, women, and chil- cial unrest was followed by the collapse of the central government
dren—range from being plainly around 2130 B.C. Local kings asserted their independence, and Egypt be-
wrapped to wearing elaborate, came fragmented. This marked the beginning of the First Intermediate
painted masks. period (ca. 2130-1980 B.C.). During this period, a civil war existed be-
tween two rival dynasties, one from Heracleopolis whose members made
up the rulers of the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties (ca. 2130-1980 B.C.). The
other dynasty was from THEBES, and its members became the Eleventh Dy-
nasty (ca. 2081-1938 B.C.). Whereas Heracleopolis was the capital at the
beginning of the First Intermediate period, Thebes became the capital af-
ter the victory of the Theban dynasty.

Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period. Around

1980 B.C., King Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II of the Theban Eleventh Dy-
nasty gained control of Lower Egypt and reunited it with Upper Egypt,
marking the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. During this period of
strong, stable central government and prosperity Egyptian kings built
brick pyramids, conquered much of Nubia, and engaged in trade with
* city-state independent state consisting the Canaanite city-states* in western Asia. Many Canaanites, attracted
of a city and its surrounding territory by Egypt's new prosperity, settled in the eastern Nile Delta. The Middle
Kingdom period was also a golden age for Egyptian literature and art.
59
Egypt and the Egyptians
AmenemhetI, the founderof the Twelfth Dynasty (ca. B.C.),1938-1759
reinforced Egypt's unity by moving the capitalLISHT, near
north
Mem-
to
phis. Kings of this dynasty also expandedEgypt'sbordersand divided Egypt
intofour regions.The final rulerof the
Twelfth Dynastywas a queen,
Nefru-
sobek, whose reign ended around B.C.Two
1759dynasties then ruled Egypt.
The Thirteenth Dynasty, with some 50minor kings, ruled from Memphis,
while at the same time, the Fourteenth Dynasty held the eastern Nile Delta.
By around 1630 B.C., invaders
from western
HYKSOS,
Asia, called
took
control of the Nile Delta. They then moved south, taking over much of
the Nile Valley. This launched the Second Intermediate period (ca.
1630-1523 B.C.), during which several native kingsofUpper Egypt ruling
from Thebes tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the Hyksos.

New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period.

B.C., Around 1
AHMOSE, the first kingof the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. B.C.), 1539-1292
suc-
ceeded in defeating the Hyksos and reunited Egypt. Ahmose's rule ush-
ered in the New Kingdom period, the third and longest period of strong,
stable central government in Egyptian history. During this period, Egypt
achieved its greatest riches and power, controlling lands as farawayas
Nubia to the south and northernSyria to the east. Theenormous temples
and tombs constructed at the capital ofThebes during the times of the
New Kingdomreflect Egypt's great wealth at that time.
The New Kingdom lasted almost 500yearsand included the reignsof
some of the best-known rulers of Egypt, many from the EighteenthDy-
nasty, suchHATSHEPSUT,
as one of thefewwomento rulein her own right.
THUTMOSE III,who succeeded Hatshepsut, securedEgypt'sempire inwest-
ern Asia which extended to the Euphrates River in northernSyria. Amen-
hotep III, who is known for hispeaceful reign, built great monuments,
such as a temple to LUXOR.
AmunatAKHENATEN was the leader of a short-
lived but dramatic culturaland religious TUTANKHAMEN
revolution.
is fa-
mous today for the incredible treasures found buried in his tomb.
Another well-known RAMSES
king,II of the Nineteenth Dynasty (ca.
1292-1190 B.C.), ruled for 67 yearsand built more monuments—suchas
the templeABU
atSIMBEL—thanany other Egyptian king.
Ramses IPs successors were weak.In about B.C.,the
1200
Twentieth
Dynasty came to power under circumstances that are not entirely clear.
The Twentieth Dynasty's best-known RAMSES III,
king,
did repela massive
invasion of the NilePEOPLES.
Delta
SEA
by However,
the his successors were
also weak, and by aroundB.C., 1075Egyptwas again split among minor
local kings. This was the beginning of athird period ofdivided rule, called
the Third Intermediate period.
This time, no local Egyptian kingwasableto reunite Egyptand estab-
lish another period of strong central government. Egypt's neighbors were
stronger than they had been in the past, and trying to resist their inva-
sions drained Egypt economically. Libyans from the west moved into the
delta and took over Lower Egypt, ruling there as the Twenty-second
through the Twenty-fourth Dynasties (ca. B.C.). 945-712
Nubians
from
the south took control of Upper Egypt.ByB.C., around
the 760
Nubians
had conquered Lower Egypt as well and reunited Egypt under the
Twenty-fifth Dynasty (ca. 760-656 B.C.).
60
 Egypt and the Egyptians
Late and Greco-Roman Periods. TheNubian conquest marked
beginning of theLatePeriod,a long period with intervals foreign
of and
native rule in ancientEgypt that lasted until the end of the ancient Egypt-
ian civilization. BeginningB.C.,
around
the Assyrians
671 launcheda se-
ries of attacks directly against Egypt.The last
TAHARQA,
Nubian
fled, king,
and in his place the Assyrian
ASHURBANIPAL,
king rather thanbecoming the
pharaoh himself, established local rulers throughout the country. When
the Assyrians withdrew, the local rulers Sais
at in the Nile Delta were able
to reunify the country under the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. This last greatna-
tive dynasty of Egypt lastedfor abouta century.The Persians held Egypt
twice,firstfrom 525 B.C.,
untilwhen
404 local Egyptian rulers were able
to free themselves temporarily,and again between B.C. 343 and 332
In 332B.C., ALEXANDER
GREAT
THE
of Macedonia seized Egypt from
the
Persians and began the Macedonian B.C., dynasty.
Alexander
In 331
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- founded the city of Alexandria, which went on to become one of the
influenced culture of the Mediterranean most important cities of the eastern Mediterranean. Alexander ruled
world and westernAsia during the three
centuries after the death of Alexander
Egypt until his death B.C.,
after
in 323which his empire, which extended
the Great in B.C.
323 from Macedonia and Greece to the Persian empire and beyond, was di-
* sluice human-made channel or
passage
vided by his generals.One of PTOLEMY
his generals,
I, ruled Egypt asgover-
to direct water flow nor. In 305
B.C., Ptolemy foundedthe Ptolemaic dynastyB.C.), (305-30
* silt soil or other sediment carried and
under which Egypt achieved a new splendoraspartof the Hellenistic*
deposited by moving water world. The Ptolemaic dynasty was the last dynastyto rule ancient Egypt.
* levee embankment or earthen wall
It ended whenCLEOPATRA, last rulerof the dynasty, committed suicidein
alongside a river that helps prevent 30B.C. after Rome's captureof Egypt. Egypt became aRoman province.It
flooding enjoyed prosperity, but most of its wealth wastransferredtoRome.

ECONOMY
Throughout all these periods, the economy ofancient Egyptwasprimar-
ily based on agriculture. Most of the land wasdivided intolarge estates
owned by the government or major temples.A fewlarge estates were
owned by wealthy individuals, including membersof the royal family,
high-ranking priests,and government
officials.
Regardlessof who owned
the land, it was actually workedby hired laborers,whowere paid withra-
tions, including a shareof the crops. Other sourcesofwealth included
stones for building, precious stones, and minerals, all of which were
owned and exploited by the government.

Agriculture. The wealth of ancient Egypt always depended first and

foremost on agriculture. Egyptians depended on the floodwatersof the
Nile River to provide them with the water necessaryto grow crops.
Between July and October each year,the Nile floods becauseofheavy
rains in centralAfrica.
A.D.Since
1830, these floods have been controlled
by a series of dams and sluices*. In ancient times, the floodwaters covered
most of the land in the Nile Valley. Silt* carriedby the
floodwaterswas de-
posited on the land, enriching the soil in the surrounding valley and
building up natural levees* along the river banks. When thefloodwaters
subsided, water was trapped in the valley behind the levees. Once the
water soaked into the ground,farmers plowed the fields with wooden

61
 plows pulled by oxen and then scattered seeds on the
Enough moisture was held by the soil to allow crops to
Eating and The food crops the Egyptians grew provided them with a rela
EntertaininginEgypt healthy diet. The main crops were wheat and barley, which were u
In ancient Egypt people of all make bread, porridge, and beer, all staples of the diet. Legume
classes washed their hands before
meals and ate with the fingers of
peas, beans, and lentils, provided sources of protein. A variety
the right hand. During feasts or and vegetables added vitamins and minerals to the diet.
banquets, people often sat on the Papyrus and
FLAX crops were also very important in ancient Egypt. Pa-
ground next to a small table hold-pyrus, which was used to make a paperlike material, could
ing their food. Good table manners swampy areas that were not suited for other kinds of crop
were very important, and ancient many uses—sails, ropes, and linen for clothing—and was
texts on etiquette warn against ap-
pearing greedy or gluttonous. The land areas.
presentation of food was also im-
portant Meals were often carefully Trade. Most Egyptians worked as farm laborers, and in exchan
arranged on mats and decorated their labor, they received enough grain and other crops tofeed t
with flowers. Garlands of flowers ily and to barter for the other goods they needed. The Egyptian eco
were used to adornjars of wine anc
beer. Among the upperclasses, din
worked on a system that economists call redistribution. In
ner guests were treated lavishly, system, goods are collected by a central authority, such as the
with servants towash and dry their ment, and are allocated to the people according to their posi
hands,serve their food and drink, work in society.
and anoint them with scented oils. The redistribution system worked well as long as the authority
central government was strong. When the central governmen
lapsed, the system was undermined. The redistribution system prob
fell apart after an economic crisis during the Twentieth Dynasty (
1190-1075B.C.).After this time, the government had less
the trading system.
62
 Egypt and the Egyptians
Trade, in one form or another, was basic to the ancient Egyptian
economy. Almost everything that was grown or made was bartered, or ex-
How Does It End? changed directly for other goods or services. The direct exchange of goods
Ancient Egyptian literature has sev- and services occurred at all levels of ancient Egyptian society. There was
eral examples of fairy tales and folk- private barter between individuals, gifts and tribute from Egyptian citi-
tales. Perhaps one of the more
mysterious tales is the one known zens to the king and temples, and trade and gift exchanges between the
as The Prince and His Fate or The king and the leaders of city-states.
Doomed Prince. It tells of a prince
who is fated at birth to die as the
result of a dog, snake, or crocodile
attack. The prince goes to seek his
fortune in western Asia and marries
CULTURAL HISTORY
a princess while trying to avoid his Many aspects of ancient Egyptian life reflected the Egyptians' religious
destiny. Although one of the story's beliefs. These beliefs were not only seen in Egyptian religious practices
themes is the inevitability of meet- but in their art, architecture, and literature. The ancient Egyptians used
ing one's fate, no one is sure of the hieroglyphics* to record their view of the world and transmit it to future
ending of the prince's story. Only generations.
one copy of the story exists, and its
final pages are missing. As a result,
the doomed prince has managed Religion. Egyptian religion was based on the belief in a large number
to evade his destiny for thousands of deities*. Some of the most important deities included AMUN, creator
of years. god of Thebes, who eventually was merged with Ra to become the great
state god of the New Kingdom; Isis, goddess of nature; SETH, god of
storms; and OSIRIS, god of the dead.
Although religion was a part of every level of ancient Egyptian soci-
* hieroglyphics system of writing that ety, historians know most about the official state cult*. They also know
uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, about the burial practices of ancient Egypt, because these are preserved in
to represent words or ideas monuments, tombs, and artworks. Far less is known about the everyday
* deity god or goddess religious practices of the ordinary people.
* cult system of religious beliefs and Ancient Egyptians believed that if the gods were not served, they
rituals; group following these beliefs would desert Egypt and great misfortunes would result. It was the king's
duty to serve the gods by building and maintaining magnificent temples
and by observing the daily rituals of the state cult. In return, the gods as-
sured the Egyptian people peace and prosperity.
The Egyptian religion was the first major religion to adopt the belief
in an AFTERLIFE. This belief was reflected in many religious practices, in-
* mummification process of embalming cluding preserving dead bodies by mummification*, building tombs to
and drying a dead body and wrapping it house the dead, and worshiping dead ancestors. Egyptians also buried the
as a mummy dead with objects that would be needed in the afterlife, such as the BOOK
OF THE DEAD, which contained writings guiding the deceased to Osiris;s re-
gion of the dead, as well as clothing, furniture, cooking and eating uten-
sils, and food. Painted pictures of these items could be substituted for the
actual objects.
See In later periods of Egypt's history, animal worship became very popu-
color plate 1, lar. Bulls, cats, rams, and many other animals were believed by some peo-
vol.3.
ple to be sacred, and they were buried in ceremonies along with deceased
people.

Art and Architecture. The ancient Egyptians are perhaps best known
for their pyramids, the oldest and largest stone structures in the world.
Most were built during the Old Kingdom period as tombs or monuments
for Egyptian kings.
63
Egypt and the Egyptians
Although the pyramids were built more than 4,000 years ago, it is
easy to see why they are considered marvels of architecture and engineer-
See map in Pyramids (vol.4). ing. Building them required knowledge of mathematics, as well as precise
measuring and surveying skills. Organizing and overseeing the huge la-
bor force and all the materials needed to build the pyramids was an amaz-
ing feat, and it reflected the strength of Egypt's central government.
Remains of many stone temples and other religious buildings from
ancient Egypt also exist. The temples built during the New Kingdom were
especially magnificent. Many had features that were designed to resemble
plants and other natural objects. For example, some temples had columns
carved to look like palm trees.
Painting and sculpture were the major forms of official art in ancient
Egypt, and both reached a high level of skill and artistry. Most artworks
were created to decorate tombs or temples. For example, artists covered
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which the walls of tombs with paintings and bas-reliefs* showing family scenes
material is cut away to leave figures for the deceased to enjoy in the afterlife.
projecting slightly from the background The best-known sculpture from ancient Egyptian times is the Great
Sphinx, a huge statue of a man's head on a lion's body. It is located close
to the Great Pyramid at GIZA and probably represents King Khufu of the
Fourth Dynasty (ca. 2625-2500 B.C.). The statue is massive, rising 66 feet
in height and covering 240 feet in length.
The style of art in ancient Egypt was very distinctive. Figures and ob-
jects were not represented as they would appear to an observer. Instead,
they were drawn or sculpted following a set of rules that, because of their
consistency, were meant to make them easy to recognize. For example,
* relief sculpture in which material is cut representations of people in reliefs* almost always showed the head, legs,
away to show figures raised from the and feet in profile and the rest of the body facing the viewer. Also, art-
background works showing both the king and ordinary people always showed the
king much taller than the others to reflect the king's importance.

Language and Literature. The Egyptian language is a branch of the

Afro-Asiatic language family. The language, which was spoken in Egypt
* Semitic of or relating to a language since predynastic times, probably started out as a Semitic* language spo-
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, ken by immigrants to Egypt from western Asia. Then, as the original Se-
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician mitic language spread throughout Egypt, it picked up features of the
* indigenous referring to the original North African languages spoken by the indigenous* people.
inhabitants of a region Around 3000 B.C., Egyptians invented hieroglyphics—picture sym-
bols that represented different ideas as well as sounds—to record their
* scribe person of a learned class who language. Scribes* used hieroglyphics to inscribe monuments and tem-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher ples. They also used a cursive form of hieroglyphics to keep records and
write letters on papyrus scrolls.
During the Old Kingdom period, Egyptians used writing chiefly for
record keeping. By the time of the Middle Kingdom, written literature
had developed. Literature blossomed in the New Kingdom and flourished
even more during the period of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Scribes produced huge numbers of papyrus scrolls written in cursive hi-
eroglyphics, many of them simply as penmanship exercises. The scrolls in-
cluded autobiographies, scientific works on subjects such as mathematics
and astronomy, religious writings, hymns, poetry, letters, fairy tales, fa-
bles, short stories, and essays. A common theme was how to behave well
64
 Egypt and the Egyptians
and ensure a happylife
after death. Thousandsofscrolls accumulated in
ancient Egypt's many libraries.ThelibraryatAlexandria was thelargest,
with almosthalf a million scrolls.
Ancient Egypt alsohad avery strong oral literature tradition.
fact,In
much of Egypt's recorded literature came originally
fromtheoral tradi-
tion. In addition, many piecesofwriting were meantto beread aloud,in-
cluding letters and texts.As aresult, bothoratorsandstorytellers were
greatly admired and respectedin Egyptian society.

FAMILY
AND
SOCIETY
Ancient Egyptians viewed and portrayed themselves not asindividuals
but as part of a largerunit—a familyor asociety.Aspartofthese units,
Egyptians lived in communities ranging infrom
size villages tocities.

Family. The basic social unit in ancient Egyptwas thenuclear family,

which included afather, amother,andtheir children.Thefatherwas the
head of thefamily, a reflectionof the general male dominanceinancient
Egyptian society. When the father died,hisoldestsonbecame headof
* apprentice Individual who learns
skills the family.
or a profession from an experienced The main purpose of marriagewas toproduce childrenwhowould
person in that field provide labor and support their parents when they grew old. Children
usually started helping their parents aroundthehouseor in fields
theas
soon as they were old enough to dosimple chores. fact,
In thisis how
most children learned their adult occupations. Girls would learn domes-
tic skillsfrom their mothers and boys would learn theirfathers'occupa-
tions. A few children served as apprentices*to carpenters, pottery
makers, or other skilled workers. Some girlsmayalso have been appren-
ticed in professions such asdancing orweaving. Only boysfromwealthy
families couldafford to go to school, andmost schoolchildren studied to
be scribes.

Social Classes. Thepeople ofancient Egypt belonged tothree main so-

cial classes, oftenreferredto asupper, middle,andlower classes. Social
class was inherited but not necessarily
fixedpermanently. Through mar-
riage or hard work,a person could riseto ahigher social class.
The tiny upper class included members of theroyal
family,
offi- army
cers, doctors, wealthy landowners,and high-ranking government offi-
cials and priests. The somewhat larger middle class included merchants,
skilled craftspeople,and manufacturers.Thelargest class,thelower class,
consisted of unskilled workers, mostofthem farmlaborers. Prisoners of
war formeda separate classofslaves.
Egyptian society gave women many of the same rightsasmen, such
as the right to own and inheritproperty, filelawsuits, and obtain a di-
vorce. In addition, women served aspriestesses in thetemples.

Ethnic Diversity. Despite marked class differences,ancient Egyptian

society was remarkably uniformin beliefs
its andvalues, especially
considering the ethnic diversityof itspopulation. first
Egypt
settled
was
65
El

by people moving into the Nile Valley from virtually every direction,
including Libyans from the west, Nubians from the south, and Semitic
peoples from the east. People from other cultures who were attracted by
Egypt's rich farmland and wealth continued to move into Egypt
throughout its history. The ability of ancient Egyptian society to assimi-
late people of many different ethnic backgrounds without prejudice was
one of its characteristic features. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Ed-
ucation; Ethnic and Language Groups; Government; Law; Mum-
mies; Nubia and the Nubians; Persian Empire.)

EL
O riginally a Semitic* word meaning god, El (AYL) later became asso-
ciated with a specific deity*. El was worshiped in some form by
various ancient Semitic peoples, including the Phoenicians and other
Canaanites. The god YAHWEH is sometimes called El in the Hebrew BIBLE.
El was the head of the Canaanite pantheon*. He was king of the gods,
the creator of the earth, and the father of humanity. Much of what we
* Semitic of or relating to a language know about early Canaanite religious beliefs comes from texts found at
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, UGARIT, a Syrian city that flourished in the second half of the second mil-
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician lennium B.C.* Ugaritic texts show that El played an important role in
* deity god or goddess Canaanite mythology. Although El was the chief god, he did not play an
* pantheon all the gods of a particular active role in the everyday lives of gods or humans. Instead, he was
culture thought of as an aging god, respected but somewhat withdrawn from the
* second millennium B.C. years from forefront of religious activity. In fact, a small stone statue of El found in
2000 to 1001 B.C. the ruins of Ugarit portrays him wearing a beard and crown, slouching on
his throne in a way that suggests weariness, perhaps even sadness from
being overwhelmed by the cares of the world.
Some scholars believe that the early Israelite pantheon included some
deities familiar to their Phoenician and other Canaanite neighbors, in-
cluding BAAL. Over time, the Israelites associated El with Yahweh, a god
worshiped only by the Israelites. For this reason and because the word el
sometimes meant god in Semitic languages, writers of the Hebrew Bible
used El as an alternative name for Yahweh. They also created names based
on the word el, including Elohim (a plural form of El), El-Bethel (god of
Bethel), and El-Olam (Eternal god).

ELAM -\NP i\
e ablished as early as the fourth millennium B.C.*, Elam (EE*luhm)
as an ancient kingdom in southwestern IRAN. One of the major
powers in the ancient Near East, Elam maintained its independence
throughout much of its history despite many invasions.
EL AMI ITS
Geography and Culture. Elam consisted of both highland and low-
land regions, and the political balance between these areas fluctuated. The
* fourth millennium B.C. years from lowland region (present-day Khuzestan) was periodically involved in the
4000 to 3001 B.C. affairs of MESOPOTAMIA because of its proximity to that region. The high-
lands in the Zagros Mountains generally remained more independent.
66
 Elani and the Elamites
Differences in geography contributed to economic diversity within
Elam. The lowland areas developed a strong agricultural base dependent
See map in Persian Empire (vol. on irrigation, and settlements there grew quite large. Susa, the capital of
Elam, was located on the edge of a fertile plain. However, the lowland ar-
eas were dependent on the highlands for metals, stone, and wood. In the
highlands, agriculture was limited to small mountain valleys. River val-
leys were the main access into the highland regions, and the rugged,
mountainous terrain limited the size of settlements.
Geographic diversity also contributed to the development of regional
The Most cultures within Elam. Although no single artistic style emerged in the
kingdom, the Elamites shared a language that appears to be unrelated to
Legitimate Heir any other regional language. The Elamites eventually adopted the
An important and unique title in
cuneiform* script from the Sumerians and Akkadians.
Efamite civilization was "the son of
the sister/' which applied to a The Elamites also worshiped many deities*, the most important of
member of the royal family. Early whom was Inshushinak, the city god of Susa. They also worshiped many
historians assumed that this meant Sumerian and Akkadian gods. Religious activities included rituals, regular
the king's nephew. In reality, it public feasts, and OFFERINGS to the gods. The king functioned as the high-
meant the son whom the king had est priest in the land and was sometimes regarded as divine.
with his own sister and signified the
legitimate heir to the throne. Any
A special feature of Elamite religion was a phenomenon known as the
children born to women married to kiden, a magical protection associated with a specific god. According to
the king were considered legitimate the Elamites, the kiden was expressed in talismans (magical objects) sym-
heirs, When the king married his bolizing and linked to particular gods. These talismans had many uses.
own sister, however, the oldest son For example, witnesses often had to take an oath in a room where a talis-
of their union had a stronger claim
man was kept, and fear of the talisman's power ensured that the witnesses
to the throne than any of the king's
other children—even older ones. would tell the truth.
Another unique aspect of Elamite civilization was the importance it
accorded to women. Elamite women enjoyed great prestige, and many
cities had goddesses instead of gods as patrons*. Priestesses had the same
rights and powers as priests. In addition, claims to the throne sometimes
* cuneiform world's oldest form of passed through the female rather than the male line.
writing, which takes its name from the
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed Old Elamite Period. The ancestors of the Elamites who lived in Elam
into clay tablets
as early as the fourth millennium B.C. are known as the Proto-Elamites.
* deity god or goddess Archaeological* sites have yielded SEALS, tablets, and other artifacts* that
* patron special guardian, protector, or have shed some light on their culture. The Proto-Elamites, contempo-
supporter raries of the Sumerians, were an important part of the period during
* archaeological referring to the study which literate urban culture first developed and expanded. Because little
of past human cultures, usually by else is known about the Proto-Elamites, historians date the beginnings of
excavating material remains of human
activity
Elamite history at about 2500 B.C., the period when early Elamite rulers
adapted Mesopotamian cuneiform to the Elamite language. The first
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or
other object made by humans
main phase of Elamite history, the years from around 2500 to 1500 B.C.,
is known as the Old Elamite period.
By the Old Elamite period, conflict already existed between Elam and
Mesopotamia. Texts indicate that the Elamites defeated the army of the
* city-state independent state consisting Sumerian city-state* of UR at least once before this period. During this pe-
of a city and its surrounding territory riod, Elam was ruled by the kings of the Awan dynasty*. During much of
* dynasty succession of rulers from the this dynasty, Elam periodically went to war with Akkad and the Akkadian
same family or group empire. Around 2300 B.C., Elam was conquered by SARGON I of Akkad. A
later Elamite king made a treaty with NARAM-SIN of Akkad, in which he
promised to provide the Akkadians with troops. Although the Akkadians
67
Elam and the Elamites

dominated Elam and incorporated much of its territory into

Akka-
the
* vassal individual or state thatswears dian state, they allowed the Elamite kings to rule asvassals*. The Awan
loyalty and obedience to a greater dynasty collapsed around B.C., destroyed
2150 perhaps by the Gutians,a
power people who lived in what is present-day Kurdistan.The Gutians also de-
feated the Akkadians, ending their empire. Then the Shimashki dynasty
came to power in Elam, but little isknown about them.
Elam faced a new enemy in the 2000s B.C.—the Neo-Sumerian city-
state of Ur.King
SHULGIof Ur (ruledca.B.C.)2094-2047
conquered almost
all of Elam. Only the highland regionsElam of kept some degreeofinde-
pendence. Eventually, in about B.C., the 1900s
Elamites rosein rebel-
lion and destroyed Ur,looting the city and carrying awaythe statues of its
gods. The Elamites occupied Urwitha military forcefor 21yearsbut later
made peace with the dynasties that came to power.
The years between 1900 B.C.and
are1600
the best-documented pe-
riod in Elamite history. This era was dominated by the Sukkalmakh dy-
nasty, also known as the Ebartids. Elam became major
a independent
power during this period, with one of the largest territories in theNear
East. Its influence, though not political control, extended over city-states
* diplomatic concerning relations with in eastern Mesopotamia, and it had diplomatic* and economic contacts
foreign powers with kingdomsas farSYRIA.
as away
At that
as time, the Elamite kingdom
may have had a political systemin which various membersof the royal
family—both maleandfemale—shared power.
During the 1700s
B.C., Elamite kings became activein militaryal-
liances against the Babylonians, whose powerwasincreasingin southern
Mesopotamia. Around HAMMURABI
B.C.,King
1764of Babylon crushed the
Elamites. About50 years later, however, KingKutir-Nakkhunte Elam
of
attacked Babyloniaand conquered manyof its cities. This campaign
marked the high pointof Elamite military historyforcenturies.
Over the next few hundred yearsthe Elamites faceda number
of new
rising powers, including
HURRIANS
thein the northwest
KASSITES
to and the
the north. When theKassites conquered Babylon B.C., theyin the 1500s
seem to have brought the powerof the EbartidsElam
in to an end aswell,
marking the end of the Old Elamite period.TheElamite kingdom entered
a period of decline that lastedfor aboutthe next300years.
68
 Elani and the Elamites
The Middle Elamite Period. Elam arose again inB.C., the late 1300s
when Elamitesfrom the highlands beganto reconquerthe lowlandsaf-
ter the Kassites withdrew from Susa.By theB.C.,1200s
Elamhad
reemerged as amajor power, witha territory comparableto thatofearlier
centuries. During this period, Elamite kings undertook major building
programs, constructing new cities, temples, and other public works.
Elamite literature, art, architecture,crafts
and also flourished,and this
period became a golden age of Elamite civilization.
In the 1200sB.C.,Elam founditselffacinga new power—Assyria.
Around 1224 B.C.,the Assyrians took controlof the throne ofBabylon.
The Elamites invaded Babylonia soon after, destroyingand conquering
many cities and driving out the Assyrian king. However, about twoyears
later, King Tukulti-Ninurta I Assyria
of forcedthe Elamites
out ofBabylon
and placed aKassite vassalon the throne. Conflict between Elamand As-
syria continued for several years.In the early B.C., 1100s
internal conflict
in Assyria and struggles between Assyriaand Babylonia weakened the As-
syrians and provided a periodof quietfor the Elamites. During thispe-
riod, the Elamites reorganized their kingdom. Led by the Shutrukid
dynasty, Elam extended its control in southern and eastern Iran and
launched new campaigns against Mesopotamia, including successful
a
and devastating invasionof Babylonin aboutB.C.1165
Despite repeated military victories and destruction of Babylonian
cities, the Elamitesfaced continual threats
fromthe Babylonians.The ef-
forts to subdue Babylonia may have weakened the Elamites, and in the
late 1100sB.C., Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar Ilaunched several at-
tacks against Elam. Around B.C., 1100
the Babylonians attackedand de-
stroyed Susa and overran much of the Elamite kingdom. After this
devastatingdefeat, littleis known about Elam duringthe next300years.

The Neo-Elamite Period. Elam reemerged inB.C., latewhen

800s it
became arefugefor Babylonian opponents Assyria.
of The kingdom was
much weaker than in earlier centuries,and faced
it increasing pressures
on almost all sidesfromthe MEDES,
Assyrians,
and Persians.
From 750 to 650 B.C.,Elam again became involvedin Mesopotamian
affairs, often supporting Babyloniain its struggle againstthe Assyrians. In
720B.C.,the Elamites allied withthe Babylonians
SARGON II of
to defeat
Assyria. They joinedthe Babylonians again B.C.
inand
705defeated the
Assyriansat the KISH.
cityof
In spiteof these victories,
the
Assyrianswere
a formidable enemy.SENNACHERIB,
UnderKing the
Assyrians invaded Elam
and occupied much of the southern part of the kingdom. They also
launched assaults into the highland regionsElam of but were less success-
ful there. Whilethe Elamites struggled againstthe Assyrians,thePersians
began occupying parts of eastern Elam, including Anshan, an ancient
Elamite royal city.
Elam experienced a slow decline throughout this period,due inpart
to the conflicts withAssyria and the threats
from the MedesandPersians.
Elam also faced internal troubles, as rivals competed for the Elamite
throne. Because of these problems, the Elamites were unableto counter
the Assyrians.In 647
ASHURBANIPAL
B.C.,
King renewed
the Assyrian attacks
on Elam and the following year conquered and destroyed Susa. Manyof
69
Electrum
its leading citizens were sent away to SAMARIA, the former capital of the
kingdom of Israel. The Elamite king, Khumban-khaltash III, fled into the
mountains, but the people there turned him over to the Assyrians, who
soon extended their control over much of Elamite territory.
With the Assyrian victory, the history of Elam as a state ended. For a
short time, parts of the highland regions in the north remained under
Elamite control, but they soon fell into the hands of the Medes. Mean-
while, the Persians gained control of the eastern portions of Elam. Al-
though references to the Elamites persisted until the 200s B.C., little is
known about them after their defeat by the Assyrians.(See also Assyria
and the Assyrians; Babylon and the Babylonians, Susa and Susiana.)

Electrum See Metals and Metalworking.

ENLIL
S umerians worshiped Enlil (EN»lil), god of the earth and air, who
brought both gentle breezes and the winds sweeping storms. Also
known as Ellil or Bel (the Lord), Enlil (translated as "Lord Wind") was one
of a trio of gods that included ANU—the sky god—and EA—the water god.
Although Anu occupied a higher position in the ancient Near Eastern
pantheon*, Enlil played a more significant role. According to Sumerian
* pantheon all the gods of a particular MYTHOLOGY, he played an important role in creation, separating heaven
culture from earth. Representing energy and force, he was responsible for bring-
ing order and harmony to the universe. Enlil was also the keeper of the
Tablet of Destiny, which held the fate of both the gods and humans.
According to tradition, local gods received authority from Enlil. In
turn, they passed this authority on to the king, who claimed kingship
through Enlil. Enlil could be very hostile and cruel to humans and was of-
ten prepared to punish them even for minor offenses. As a god of storms,
* famine severe lack of food due to failed winds, and war, he could send various calamities—including famine*,
crops fire, hurricane, plague*, drought, and flood—to punish sins and protect
* plague contagious disease that quickly Mesopotamia against its enemies.
kills large numbers of people The most important center of worship to Enlil during the Early Dynas-
tic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.) was at a temple called Ekur (Mountain
* second millennium B.C. years from House) in the Sumerian city of NIPPUR. By the late second millennium B.C.*,
2000 to 1001 B.C. however, the Babylonian deity MARDUK inherited Enlil's role in the pan-
theon of the gods.(See also Creation Myths; Gods and Goddesses.)

ENTERTAINMENT
I n the ancient Near East, people entertained themselves with a variety of
formal and informal activities. Most individuals worked many hours
each day just to survive. Once demands for food, shelter, and safety had
been met, people developed pastimes, such as music, dance, banquets,
sports, games, storytelling, and performances, to amuse themselves.
70
 Entertainment
Music and Dance. Music anddancing were among themostimpor-
tant and earliestforms of entertainment.InMesopotamia, Sumerians,
Akkadians, and Babylonians developed several musical instruments,in-
cluding flutes, lutes, harps,and drums, which were played feasts,
festi-
at
bas-relief kind of sculpture in which vals and celebrations. Evidence frombas-reliefs*andpaintings suggests
material is cut away to leave figures that both men and women might bemusicians, singers, anddancers.
projecting slightly from the background Egyptians also enjoyed musical entertainment. Duringtheperiod of
the Old Kingdom (ca. 2675-2130B.C.),musicwasorganized andincluded
choirs and chamber groups playing pipesand theharp. Female dancers
performed at religious celebrations. In thetime of theMiddle Kingdom
(ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), dances were performed atpublic
andprivate events.
Dancers and singers entertained guestsatelaborate banquets.In the New
Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.),foreigners arrivinginEgypt brought
new forms of musical instrumentsand newtypes ofdance.
HITTITESANATOLIA
in (present-day Turkey)developed many forms
of
music and dance. Most ofwhat isknown about their musicanddance
concerns religiousor state rituals. Littleisknown about specific
the role of
Levant lands bordering the eastern music and dance in the private lives of theHittites. However, many docu-
shores of the MediterraneanSea(present- ments makereferences to singers, musicians, dancers, mimes,andactors,
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), theWest who probably depended on the palacefortheir living.
Bank, andJordan
In ancient Syria and theLevant*,people entertained themselves by
singing, dancing,and playing musical instruments.
BIBLE TheHebrew

71
Entertainment
mentions a variety of instruments, including rattles and cymbals, bells
and gongs, large and small drums, pipes and horns, and harps and lyres.
Jesters, acrobats, and singers were palace servants in UGARIT, an ancient
city in present-day north Syria. When King Hezekiah of Judah was forced
* tribute payment made by a smaller or to pay tribute* to King SENNACHERIB of Assyria, among the prizes he deliv-
weaker party to a more powerful one, ered were professional singers and dancers.
often under the threat of force
Banquets. Giving or attending banquets was a form of entertainment
in the ancient Near East, as well as the setting for much of the music and
dance. Although little is known about such events, it is likely that the
guests participated in feasts, music, dance, processions, and other forms
of public and private entertainment. Sumerian bas-reliefs from the early
2000s B.C. depict banquets following a battle, a hunt, and the laying of
the first brick of a new temple. The Royal Standard of Ur (an inlaid mo-
saic panel) depicts a victorious battle scene and the ensuing banquet
held by the king. In a bas-relief from the Assyrian palace at NINEVEH, King
ASHURBANIPAL celebrates with his wife his victory over the Elamites. In a
garden, the king reclines on a couch while his wife sits on a throne. They
are surrounded by servants who fan them, offer platters of food, and play
the harp.
Egyptians held banquets to celebrate many events of a person's life-
time, including birth, marriage, and death. Hosting a banquet could be
costly, but for those who could afford them, lavish banquets were impor-
See tant. Guests were draped in flowers and served exotic dishes of poultry or
color plate 2, beef seasoned with a wide variety of spices. Music and dancing accompa-
vol. 2.
nied the feasts. At higher levels of society, men and women dined sepa-
rately, but this was not the case at all banquets.
Although there are records of feasts in Hittite Anatolia, it is not
known whether banqueting for entertainment occurred there. Most of
the feasts were seasonal and religious and had a festive atmosphere. The
Hittite verb dusk, meaning "to rejoice" or "to enjoy," appears often in de-
scriptions of these festivals. It is likely that people did enjoy purely social
banquets, especially persons of high social rank.
Banquets were also part of life in Syria and the Levant. In fact, some
religious leaders thought ancient Israelites enjoyed feasts too much. The
book of Isaiah warns those who "have lyre and harp, timbrel and flute
and wine at their feasts" against neglecting their religion.

Sports. Sports and athletic contests provided recreation and entertain-

ment for many peoples in the ancient Near East. However, it is not clear
when sports became an organized form of public entertainment. Dis-
plays of strength were connected to religious belief because they re-
flected the might of the society and its gods. Such displays of power in
Mesopotamia may have been linked to festivals.
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt In Egypt, sports were a common form of entertainment. Pharaohs*
showed their skill in archery and hunting, but they never competed with
See ordinary people. Other than hunting, sports were not considered an ac-
[color plate 15,' ceptable pastime for elite men or women. Commoners participated in
vol. 2.
sports such as wrestling, boxing, and jousting in boats. Some ancient ball
games and stick fights were similar to those played today in Egypt.
72
 Environmental Change
In Anatolia, Hittite festivals included sports such as juggling, gymnas-
tics, and athletic contests. Mock battles emphasized military power. As
with other forms of entertainment, the focus on state and religious cere-
monies makes it hard to determine how much sport was a part of daily
life. Sports in ancient Syria and the Levant were linked to skills that soci-
ety valued. Hunting, archery, running, fencing, wrestling, and horseback
riding are all mentioned in the Bible.

Storytelling and Performance. Perhaps the oldest form of enter-

tainment is storytelling. All ancient Near Eastern cultures entertained
* papyrus writing material made by themselves in this way. Egyptians wrote on papyrus* and told stories, po-
pressing together thin strips of the inner ems, hymns, love lyrics, and epics*. Folktales and history passed from
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri generation to generation by word of mouth.
* epic long poem about a legendary or When enacted as performances, these stories were often accompa-
historical hero, written in a grand style nied by music. Performances of some literary works were part of the cult*.
* cult system of religious beliefs and During the Babylonian New Year's festival, the CREATION MYTH (Enuma El-
rituals; group following these beliefs ish) was recited, and its battle scenes were reenacted. (See also Dance;
Family and Social Life; Feasts and Festivals; Humor; Literature; Music
and Musical Instruments; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

Enuma Elish See Creation Myths.

ENVIRONMENTAL
C hanges in CLIMATE and landscape affect plants, animals, and hu-
mans. This principle is the basis of environmental archaeology. Ex-
perts in this field study changes in climate and landscape to understand
CHANGE the relationships between ancient peoples and their environment. They
also examine how human activities cause changes in the environment.
Environmental archaeologists believe that changes in the environ-
ment create a chain of events that have an impact on economies and so-
ciety. For example, if a region becomes too dry to support grasses, grazing
animals will migrate to other areas. People who depend on these animals
have to move or find other ways to live.

Studying Environmental Change. Environmental archaeology in-

cludes the work of many specialists. Bioarchaeologists examine the bio-
logical remains of ancient plants and animals and analyze the
substances found in bone and tissues. Paleobotanists study ancient plant
life, often by examining seed grains and other plant remains found at ar-
chaeological sites. Paleogeologists study the layers of rock and soil that
have built up over the ages. Traditional archaeologists analyze the ruins
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or of ancient dwellings, pottery, and other artifacts*. By comparing their
other object made by humans findings with current plants, animals, and climatic conditions, these sci-
entists reconstruct the environment as it was in ancient times.

Environment of the Prehistoric Period. For most of the early A.D.

1900s, many scientists believed that civilizations emerged in the ancient
73
Environmental Change
Near East because of significant changes in the climate there. They sug-
gested that a wet period during the last Ice Age was followed by an
increasingly drier climate. This changing climate forced people through-
* oasis fertile area in a desert made out the Near East to move together into river valleys and oases*, where
possible by the presence of a spring or they began to develop AGRICULTURE and domesticate* animals.
well; pi. oases Today some archaeologists do not believe that a major drying period
* domesticate to adapt or tame for caused the rise of civilization in the Near East. Instead, they believe that it
human use was caused by the melting ice near the earth's polar regions, which raised
sea levels, changed coastlines, and brought more rainfall. Between about
9000 and 5000 B.C., the climate of the Near East may have been wetter
See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). than it is today, although the general climate of the region is about the
same as it was 10,000 years ago.
Small variations in rainfall can make a great difference to agriculture,
especially where rainfall and water supplies are scarce. Such variations ac-
count for the movements of some early peoples. In much of the region,
however, the greatest agent of environmental change was human activ-
ity. Peoples' need for farmland, pastureland, and fuel brought about sig-
nificant changes in the environment, especially in ANATOLIA (present-day
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Turkey), MESOPOTAMIA, the Levant*, and Egypt.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Changes in Rivers. Ancient Near Eastern civilizations were almost di-
Bank, and Jordan
rectly affected by the changes in the region's major rivers. In Mesopota-
mia, periodic flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers made life
unpredictable. Ancient farmers did what they could to control the often
violent floodwaters. They constructed CANALS and other earthworks for
IRRIGATION, making agriculture possible in regions where rainfall alone
would not suffice to support human life and crops.
People in ancient Mesopotamia were also affected by the changing
course of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, which often forced them to re-
locate. Moreover, misuse of land and a buildup of salt in the soil as a re-
sult of irrigation caused areas to become unusable for farming. The
marshlands in southern Mesopotamia, with their surprising diversity of
wildlife, changed boundaries as well.
In Egypt, the annual flooding of the Nile River was more predictable
and less violent than that of the Tigris and the Euphrates. These floods
helped agriculture and contributed to an increase in settlements in the
Nile Valley and to the political growth of ancient Egypt. The Nile Valley
changed as the human population there increased. As late as the fifth mil-
* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 lenium B.C.*, elephants, giraffes, lions, ostriches, hippopotamuses, and
to 4001 B.C. antelopes lived in Egypt. However, these animals were later displaced by
human settlement. Fields and groves of palm trees also replaced wood-
lands and various forms of plant life. By about 2650 B.C., the Nile Valley
had been dramatically altered by human activities.

Changes in Land. Human activity changed the land in the ancient

Near East more than did climate. For example, southern Mesopotamia,
* millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. initially a grassland, became a desert after several millennia* of irrigation
millennia and farming. Many societies in the ancient Near East experienced social
and political upheaval around 2200 B.C. Some experts believe that changes
in climate further contributed to the strife by weakening agriculture.
74
 Epic Literature
However, evidence for such climatic change is inconclusive. What is cer-
tain is that humans have had a powerful impact on the environment of
the Near East over the last 2,000 years.
Forests throughout the Mediterranean, from Anatolia to Egypt, were
once far numerous than they are today. As people cleared forests for agri-
culture, firewood, and building materials, the tree cover was dramati-
cally reduced and the forests disappeared. For example, Phoenicia
(present-day Lebanon) was once home to cedar forests that attracted
kings from throughout the ancient Near East for building materials for
their palaces and temples. Large-scale tree loss changed wind and mois-
ture patterns, contributing to drier, more desertlike conditions. As trees
disappeared, root systems and ground cover were destroyed, allowing
rainwater to run off rapidly. As the water rushed downstream in floods, it
eroded the land and carried away fertile soil. Consequently, under-
ground water supplies were not replenished, and natural springs dried
up. Some streams that had once flowed all the time flowed only occa-
sionally after heavy rainfalls.
* desertification change of useful land Other human activities quickened the process of desertification*.
into desert through natural processes or Farmers replaced wooded lands with fields and pastures, eliminating the
human activity natural habitats* of wild plants and animals in the process. Subsequent
* habitat type of environment to which overgrazing by domesticated animals, especially goats, also contributed
an animal or plant is well adapted to desertification. In addition, people drained marshes, destroying the
natural resources and filtering action of these wetlands. When people
moved or abandoned areas where the environment was damaged, these
areas seldom recovered. The result was a drier, bleaker landscape through-
out much of the ancient Near East. (See also Drought; Geography; Land
Use and Ownership; Migration and Deportation; Rivers; Urbaniza-
tion; Water.)

EPIC LITERATURE
A n epic is a long poem about a legendary or historical hero, written
in a grand style. Such tales of great leaders, warriors, and kings can
be found in almost every culture, including those in the ancient Near
East. Epics were created as early as 2500 B.C. in Mesopotamia to glorify in-
dividual heroes and to honor the values of a warlike class of nobles.
Ancient Mesopotamian epics about the rulers of early city-states* fo-
* city-state independent state consisting cus on the leadership and cunning of these rulers, as well as their con-
of a city and its surrounding territory quests. In the epics, the heroes face national or international threats,
which they must turn back with wisdom as well as might. The epics also
deal with the relationships between the leaders and their gods. The earliest
epics may have been recited aloud by storytellers long before they were
written down. Later works were written down to be recited or chanted.
In ancient Sumer, the major epics that have been recovered tell the
stories of such legendary rulers as Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and GILGAMESH.
In the epic Enmerkar and the Lord ofAratta, Enmerkar of URUK challenges
the Lord of Aratta and demands that he recognize Enmerkar as his supe-
rior. The Lord of Aratta agrees on the condition that Enmerkar perform
many apparently impossible tasks. Enmerkar succeeds and peaceful rela-
tions prevail. The plot, albeit very typical, emphasizes cunning over
75
Eridu
strength and glorifies the wise ruler. Epics such as this one end in praise of
* deity god or goddess the city's main deity*.
In the epic Lugalbanda in Khurrumkurra, the hero is not a ruler but
labors in the service of Enmerkar. The youngest of eight brothers, Lugal-
banda sets off with his brothers to help Enmerkar fight against the Lord of
Aratta. He falls ill along the way, and his brothers leave him to die in a
cave. After he recovers, Lugalbanda wisely and skillfully prays to the gods,
who help him overcome many dangers. The tale of Lugalbanda continues
in Lugalbanda and Enmerkar, in which the young man uses his wits to de-
liver an important message for Enmerkar and helps him conquer the Lord
of Aratta.
The most outstanding Sumerian epic hero is Gilgamesh, the king of
Uruk, who is featured in five poems, along with his good friend Enkidu.
The Babylonians later adopted the legend of Gilgamesh, and he is fea-
tured in a very long Babylonian work that is considered one of the world's
great literary masterpieces. The Akkadian kings SARGON I and NARAM-SIN,
who, to subsequent dynasties, represented ideal kings, were also the sub-
jects of numerous epic works written in both the Sumerian and Akkadian
languages.
The themes featured in many Mesopotamian epics appear there for
the first time in world literature. One of these themes is that of the half di-
vine hero who has a special connection to the gods. Another is the ac-
complishment of impossible tasks, especially in contests between rulers.
A third common theme is that of the cunning hero who achieves his vic-
tories against mightier opponents through the use of wit. Related to this
is the idea that wisdom or cunning is better than force in achieving goals.
These themes were used later in several great epics, including the Iliad
and the Odyssey by the Greek poet Homer. The themes have also been
adopted in many works in modern literature. (See also Creation Myths;
Literature; Poetry.)

e isidered one of the oldest cities in MESOPOTAMIA, Eridu (ER»i»doo)

as a center of Sumerian civilization and of a cult* dedicated to the
ERIDU god EA (Enki). The city contained various temples, a large ziggurat*, and
several other religious buildings.
Sumerian KING LISTS cite Eridu as the site of the oldest dynasty in Mes-
opotamia. The myth titled the Eridu Genesis also refers to Eridu as the first
* cult system of religious beliefs and city created by the gods. Archaeological* evidence supports the city's
rituals; group following these beliefs great antiquity—dating portions of it to about 5000 B.C.—as well as its im-
* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a portance as an administrative, spritual, and economic center. Originally
multistory tower with steps leading to a located on the seashore or on an inland lake in southern Mesopotamia
temple on the top near the city of UR, Eridu was inhabited until the 600s B.C.
* archaeological referring to the study Today the site of ancient Eridu is a series of seven mounds, the largest
of past human cultures, usually by of which is Abu Shahrain. The most extensive excavations at the site took
excavating material remains of human
activity
place between A.D. 1946 and 1949. They revealed a remarkable series of
temples, religious buildings, palaces, and artifacts* (including a type of
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or
other object made by humans
dark painted pottery called Eridu ware) spanning a period of several thou-
sand years.
76
 Eshnunna
The oldest building found at Eridu was a small, rectangular mud-brick
shrine built on sand. This temple was rebuilt several times, and each time,
the new temple was larger and more elaborate than the preceding struc-
See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). tures. Later temples were constructed on platforms and were structurally
more complex. Archaeologists also found large quantities of fish bones in
some of the temples and believe that they may be the remains of offerings
to the god Ea. They also unearthed a large cemetery containing an esti-
mated 1,000 burial sites. (See also Creation Myths; Cults.)

ESARHADDON
€ sarhaddon (ee»sahr*HAD»uhn) was the youngest son of King SEN-
NACHERIB of Assyria and the only son of Queen Naqiya, the king's fa-
vorite wife. When Esarhaddon was named his father's heir, his older
brothers murdered their father. Esarhaddon then led an army that put
down his brothers' revolt. His brothers fled the region, and Esarhaddon
ruled 680-669 B.C. marched to NINEVEH—the Assyrian capital—where he was crowned king.
King of Assyria During his reign, Esarhaddon consolidated his power and enlarged
the kingdom. His most important act as king was to rebuild the city of
Babylon, which was destroyed by Sennacherib in 689 B.C.
To protect himself from death during the lunar eclipses that occurred
during his reign, Esarhaddon used the substitute-king ritual at least four
times. At these times, he took the place of a farmer while a substitute took
his place as king. After ruling for a brief period, the substitute-king was
killed, fulfilling the omen, and Esarhaddon resumed his throne.
In 675 B.C., Esarhaddon began the military campaign for which he is
most famous—the conquest of Egypt. Four years later, he seized the capi-
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt tal city of MEMPHIS, forcing the pharaoh* TAHARQA to flee. In 669 B.C.,
Taharqa rebuilt his army and attempted to regain power. Esarhaddon
died on his way to Egypt to stop Taharqa.
Because of Esarhaddon's experience with his own succession, he
chose his heirs before his death. In 672 B.C., he picked his son Shamash-
shum-ukin to rule as governor of Babylonia and gave his son ASHURBANI-
* vassal individual or state that swears PAL the throne of Assyria. He made the rulers of his vassal* states pledge
loyalty and obedience to a greater their allegiance to these heirs. Consequently, when Esarhaddon died, his
power sons rose to their thrones without trouble. (See also Assyria and the As-
syrians; Astrology and Astrologers.)

ESHNUNNA
T he ancient city of Eshnunna (esh»NUN»nuh) was located near the
Diyala River, a tributary* of the Tigris River, which flows southward
out of the Zagros Mountains of Iran down onto the Babylonian plain.
The city was first occupied sometime before 3000 B.C. It became an inde-
pendent kingdom after the collapse of the city-state* of UR at the begin-
ning of the second millennium B.C.* Over the course of the next 200
* tributary river that flows into another years, Eshnunna's military conquered the city of ASHUR and expanded its
river rule over a large region that extended from the source of the Khabur River
* city-state independent state consisting to the vicinity of the city-state of MARI in central MESOPOTAMIA. In the
of a city and its surrounding territory 1700s B.C., Eshnunna, which had only recently been captured by the
77
Ethiopia
* second millennium B.C. years from Elamites, fell to the Babylonian king HAMMURABI, and in the following
2000 to 1001 B.C. century, it entered a decline.
* archaeological referring to the study Archaeological* excavations at the site of ancient Eshnunna, a mound
of past human cultures, usually by of the remains of successive settlements known as Tell Asmar, began in
excavating material remains of human the A.D. 1930s. The excavations and discoveries at Eshnunna enabled ar-
activity
chaeologists to better identify the sequence of events in Mesopotamia in
the third and second millennia B.C. Among the most spectacular discover-
ies were a series of votive statues—figures used as OFFERINGS or dedications
See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). to the gods—that had been buried together in a temple beneath the floor
near the altar in about 2700 B.C. These statues are among the earliest ones
of their type from ancient Mesopotamia that have been found.
A series of public buildings—including several temples and a large
palace complex—were also uncovered at Tell Asmar. These buildings,
dated to about 2000 B.C., reflect the great wealth and power of Eshnunna
and are classic examples of Mesopotamian architecture of that period.
See They contain the typical Mesopotamian feature of a divided courtyard
color plate 8, with inner and outer sections bridged by the throne room, which was
vol. 1.
used as an audience hall by the ruler. Another building excavated at the
site appears to have been a workshop for dyeing cloth, suggesting the
presence of a textile industry in Eshnunna.
Also associated with Eshnunna, although not found there, are a series
of tablets inscribed with the so-called Laws of Eshnunna. These laws,
some of which are based on earlier legal codes, are thought to be decades
older than the famous Code of Hammurabi and were possibly written by
the Eshnunnan king Dadusha around 1800 B.C. (See also Architecture;
Cities and City-States; Palaces and Temples.)

Ethiopia See Nubia and the Nubians.

T^eoples of the ancient Near East belonged to several ethnic and lan-
I guage groups. These groups intermingled with one another, and
ETHNIC -\NI> over time, some merged with others while some disappeared. Although
the greatest variety of groups was found in MESOPOTAMIA, even Egypt,
L..ANGUAGF which appeared to have a uniform culture, contained several ethnic and
GROUPS language groups during ancient times.

MESOPOTAMIA
Over the centuries, a number of ethnic and language groups lived,
fought, and worked together in the various regions of Mesopotamia. Al-
though the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians are probably the best
known of these groups, Mesopotamia was also home to the Akkadians,
AMORITES, ARAMAEANS, Chaldeans, HURRIANS, and KASSITES.

Sumerians. The earliest evidence of Sumerian inhabitation of the Meso-

potamian Tigris-Euphrates Valley dates to the 4500s B.C. The Sumerians
78
 Ethnic and Language Groups

probably included people who migrated to Mesopotamia from various

places and had different origins. Their language, which consists of at least
* dialect regional form of a spoken two known dialects*, is unrelated to any other known language. The written
language with distinct pronunciation, form of the main dialect may have been an upper-class one rather than a lan-
vocabulary, and grammar guage used by the people as a whole.

Akkadians. Around 2400 B.C., the Akkadians took control of northern

Mesopotamia. Soon their influence spread through the region that later
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 became known as Babylonia. By the first millennium B.C.*, the terms
tO 1 B.C. Akkad and Babylonia had become interchangeable in the region's litera-
ture. Scholars refer to the specific dialect spoken by the Akkadians as Old
Akkadian to distinguish it from other dialects of the Akkadian language
spoken in Assyria and Babylonia during the second and first millennia
B.C. (the years from 2000 to 1 B.C.).

Babylonians. The Babylonians were a mixture of peoples. Sumerian-

speaking groups inhabited Babylonia from as early as 4500 B.C. through
Semitic of or relating to a language 2500 B.C. Thereafter, Akkadians, who spoke a Semitic* language, entered
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, the region. Between 2000 and 800 B.C., other groups arrived in Babylo-
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician nia. For example, the Amorites had begun arriving from north Syria
around 2100s B.C., the Aramaeans from Syria in the 1200s B.C., and the
Chaldeans, perhaps from Arabia, in the 800s B.C. These later groups all
spoke West Semitic languages.

Assyrians. The Assyrian culture closely resembled that of Babylonia,

and the people of Assyria spoke a dialect of the Akkadian language.
Shortly before 2000 B.C., the Amorites began to take over parts of Assyria,
and the population of the region soon included a large percentage of
Amorites. Later migrations into the region by the Aramaeans added an-
other group to the population. Consequently, the Assyrian population
included a great mix of groups, most of whom spoke Aramaean by the
later period of Assyrian history.

Hurrians. The earliest reference to the Hurrians in northern Mesopota-

mia dates to about 2000 B.C. From there, they worked their way west-
ward into SYRIA, establishing a number of kingdoms, including the
kingdom of Mitanni, which grew into a major power in the ancient Near
East during the 1400s and 1300s B.C. The Hurrians spoke a Caucasian
language and may have introduced that language into the region known
as the CAUCASUS. Human culture was also a major influence on the litera-
ture and religion of the HITTITES, people who inhabited north Syria and
ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey).

Kassites. A tribal people of unknown origin, the Kassites invaded Baby-

lonia in the 1600s B.C. From about 1595 to 1158 B.C., they ruled over a
united Sumer and Babylonia. During this period of political stability and
economic prosperity, the Kassites adopted the Babylonian language and
culture. Consequently, scholars know very little about the Kassites' own
language. However, they do know that it is not related to any of the
known languages of the region.
79
Ethnic and Language Groups

EGYPT
Ancient Egyptians believed that humanitywascomposed fourofraces:
Egyptians, Asiatics, Nubians,
LIBYANS.and
Apainting
fromthe tomb
of
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt pharaoh*
SETYI showshow the Egyptians saw these so-called
differ-
races,
entiating each representativeby the colorof his skin, hairstyle,anddress.
Although thesefigures arejust symbolic representations, they reflect
Egyptian views on ethnicity.
The three "foreign"groups—Asiatics, Libyans,andNubians—conquered
and ruled portions of Egyptat one timeor another. During these periods,
Egyptian culturewas influencedby the other cultures.Theforeign groups
also had a significant impact on the diversity of the Egyptian population.

Asiatics. Several Asiatic peoples, including Canaanites, inhabited Egypt,

delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed especially the
eastern delta* regions, duringTwelfth
the and Thirteenth
of soil deposited by a river Dynasties (ca. 1938-1630
B.C.). Another
HYKSOS,
group,
entered
the Egypt
between 1720 and B.C.
1710and ruled that kingdomfrom about 1630 to
1523B.C. Althoughthe ethnicityof the Hyksos
isdebated,
it isknown that
they retained much of their own culture in Egypt. Still, they presented
themselves as traditional Egyptian pharaohs.leftThey
an extendedem-
pire and important influenceson music, religion,andlanguage.

Libyans. Libya is the landto the westof Egypt.Asearlyas the eighth

millenniumB.C.(years
from 8000B.C.),
to 7001
an agricultural culture
had
* nomad person who travels from place been established on its coastal plain, while nomads* flourished ongrass-
to place to find food and pasture lands in the interior to the south. Forcenturies,the population
Libya
of
remained scattered in various tribal groups throughout the region.

80
 Ethnic and Language Groups
Libyan tribes began to migrate into Egypt in the 1200s B.C. Some were
captured and placed in fortified camps by the pharaohs. Others were able
to settle where they chose. By the early 1100s B.C., Libyans occupied
much of the western Nile River delta, and in the centuries that followed,
many towns in the delta became power bases for Egyptian rulers of
Libyan ancestry. Libyan settlement eventually extended into the north-
ern Nile Valley, and from time to time, Libyans raided farther south. Their
numbers remained smaller in the south, however, and they were easily
* indigenous referring to the original absorbed into the indigenous* populations there.
inhabitants of a region Most Libyan settlements in Egypt were permanent. They assimilated*
* assimilate to adopt the customs of a Egyptian culture, and rulers of Libyan ancestry considered themselves
society Egyptian. Between about 945 and 712 B.C., many individuals of Libyan
ancestry became members of the Egyptian ruling elite. Their cultural
background had a significant impact on the political structure of the pe-
riod, which reflected the tribal culture of the Libyan homeland.

Nubians. The region of Nubia, which lies south of Egypt, had a settled
culture by about 6000 B.C. Still, the first Nubian civilization did not ap-
pear until around 3100 B.C. Three Nubian groups appeared between then
and about 750 B.C., each with its own distinctive culture.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 From at least the early third millenium B.C.*, Egypt had regular con-
to 2001 B.C. tacts with Nubia and controlled much of the region at various times after
that. In the mid-700s B.C., Nubian kings conquered Egypt and ruled for
about 100 years. They saw themselves as guardians of Egyptian culture
and encouraged a revival in art and architecture inspired by Egypt's his-
tory. The Nubians lost control of Egypt in 663 B.C. and returned to Nubia.
By the end of the first millennium B.C., Nubian culture reflected Egyptian,
Greek, Roman, and central African ideas.

IRAN
* fourth millennium B.C. years from As early as the fourth millenium B.C.*, the Proto-Elamites had established
4000 to 3000 B.C. themselves in southwestern IRAN. Beginning in the 1500s B.C., Iran began to
be settled by the ARYANS, who migrated from Central Asia. The most impor-
tant of these Aryan tribes were the MEDES and the Persians. Together, the
Elamites, Medes, and Persians influenced the history and culture of Iran.

Elamites. The Elamites inhabited the region north of the Persian Gulf
and east of the Tigris River. Their language was unrelated to any other
known ancient language. Under the influence of the Sumerians, the
* cuneiform world's oldest form of Elamites developed a cuneiform* writing system around 3000 B.C. None-
writing, which takes its name from the theless, the Elamites developed unique regional cultures specific to the
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed areas they inhabited.
into clay tablets
From time to time, they became involved in the politics of Mesopo-
tamia, often exerting considerable influence on the rulers of Babylonia.
The Assyrians conquered much of Elam in the 600s B.C., and other por-
tions of Elamite territory fell to the Medes and Persians in the centuries
that followed. The written language of the Elamites remained in use until
about the 300s B.C., and the spoken language persisted for several cen-
turies after that.
81
Ethnic and Language Groups
Medes. Originally village dwellers, the Medes had settled in northwest-
ern Iran by the 800s B.C. Early written records mention the existence of
many Median tribes and kings, and evidence suggests that the Medes
were a very diverse people culturally, socially, and politically. Neverthe-
less, by the 600s B.C., the different Median tribes had united into a single
state, becoming a major regional power. As allies of the Babylonians, they
aided in the conquest of Assyria in 612 B.C. However, the power of the
Medes was short-lived. In the 500s B.C., Persian ruler CYRUS THE GREAT
overthrew the Medes and went on to establish the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The
Medes remained a privileged group within the Persian empire, and many
aspects of their language and culture were integrated with Persian culture.

Persians. Evidence suggests that the early Persians may have been
tribal nomads. After migrating to the Iranian plateau from lands east of
the Caspian Sea, they settled in southern Iran. The Persians were domi-
nated by the Medes until 550 B.C., when Cyrus the Great came to the Per-
sian throne and overthrew the Median rulers. He later conquered
Babylonia and parts of Anatolia, making Persia the most powerful em-
pire in the region. Later the Persians conquered Egypt and extended
their rule as far as India in the east and Greece in the west. In the late
300s B.C., the Persian empire was conquered by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, but
the Persians left a cultural legacy that lasted for centuries.

ANATOLIA
The most important ethnic group in Anatolia during the Bronze Age (ca.
3000-1200 B.C.) was the Hittites. Of unknown origin, the Hittites invaded
Anatolia in about 1900 B.C. and imposed their culture and INDO-EUROPEAN
LANGUAGE on the indigenous peoples. They challenged the Egyptians,
Babylonians, and Assyrians for power throughout the region. During the
1200s B.C., invaders, perhaps the SEA PEOPLES, conquered the Hittites. Nev-
ertheless, Hittite cultural practices continued for many centuries in many
* city-state independent state consisting of the city-states* in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria.
of a city and its surrounding territory The dominant groups in Anatolia during the Iron Age (ca. 1200-
500 B.C.) included the Phrygians and the Urartians. The Phrygians were a
people of southeast European background. Their language, written with
the Greek alphabet, was a member of the Indo-European family and is
documented in inscriptions on stone and pottery.
The Urartians dominated eastern Anatolia in the 700s and 600s B.C.
They had a distinctive regional culture and spoke a language, written in
cuneiform, that was neither Semitic nor Indo-European in origin. Mod-
ern linguists believe that the Urartian language is closely related to the
language spoken by the Hurrians of northern Mesopotamia.

CANAAN
* second millennium B.C. years from Ancient CANAAN consisted of the present-day countries of Lebanon and Is-
2000 to 1001 B.C. rael, southern Syria, the West Bank, and western Jordan. Evidence suggests
* pastoralist person who herds livestock the presence of West Semitic-speaking peoples in Syria early in the second
to make a living millinnium B.C.* Originally rural pastoralists*, they later began to settle in
82
 Ethnic and Language Groups
fortified urban centers. Traces of their language are first seen in the Akka-
dian-language cuneiform documents written by local Syrian kings of the
See 1700s B.C. Around 1300 B.C., the dominant language in the region was a
color plate 1, Canaanite dialect of Akkadian. During that period, the two most impor-
vol. 2.
tant Canaanite-speaking groups were the Phoenicians and the Israelites.
Also present in the region were the Philistines, who spoke an Indo-Euro-
pean language.

Phoenicia. Occupying a narrow strip of land along the Mediterranean

coast, Phoenicia consisted of several city-states that shared a single lan-
guage and culture. Although the Phoenicians called themselves Canaan-
ites, scholars know little about their origin. Their culture developed
under the influence of the Akkadians, Amorites, and Egyptians. They
Phoenicians became the greatest seafaring people of the ancient world,
and they established trading centers throughout much of the Mediter-
ranean region, even venturing out into the Atlantic Ocean.

Israelites. The Israelites were another West Semitic group. According

to the Hebrew Bible, patriarchs of the Israelites migrated from Mesopota-
mia to Canaan during the second millennium B.C. However, some schol-
ars believe that they originally came from the Sinai peninsula. Enslaved
in Egypt for generations, they were released from bondage in about 1270
B.C. They returned to Canaan, conquered a large portion of the region,
and eventually established the state of Israel with its distinctive religious
views.

Philistines. One of the ancient SEA PEOPLES, perhaps of Aegean origin,

the Philistines settled along the southern coast of Canaan in the 1100s B.C.
Their early history is documented in ancient Egyptian texts and in the
Hebrew BIBLE. Very little is known about their native language; only a few
words are known, some from inscriptions on SEALS, others preserved in
the Bible. A recently discovered inscription from a temple in the Philis-
tine city of Ekron was written in a Canaanite dialect and script, indicating
that by 700 B.C., the Philistines had adapted to their Israelite and Phoeni-
cian neighbors.

ARABIA
The Arabs were related to several groups from the areas surrounding the
Arabian peninsula, including Semitic tribes from northern Mesopotamia.
Linguistically, they can be divided into two language groups: North Ara-
bic and South Arabic, both subdivisions of West Semitic languages.
Northern Arabian languages consist of several dialects from which grew
modern Arabic. These languages were not spoken throughout the penin-
sula, but scholars do not yet know the extent of their geographical distri-
bution. Southern Arabian languages were spoken for a period spanning
* archaeologist scientist who studies about 1,000 years, beginning in the 500s B.C. Archaeologists* have found
past human cultures, usually by several inscriptions written in these languages. (See also Akkad and the
excavating material remains of human Akkadians; Arabia and the Arabs; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylo-
activity
nia and the Babylonians; Caria and the Carians; Chaldea and the
83
Eunuchs

Chaldeans; Egypt and the Egyptians; Elam and the Elamites; Greece
and the Greeks; Hebrews and Israelites; Languages; Lycia and the Ly-
cians; Lydia and the Lydians; Nubia and the Nubians; Philistines;
Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Scythia and the Scythians; Semitic
Languages; Sumer and the Sumerians.)

EUNUCHS
€ unuchs (YOOnuhks) were men who had been castrated, or had
had their testicles removed. In the ancient Near East, eunuchs were
often employed as guards for women in the royal household or as gov-
ernment officials. Because eunuchs could not father children, a king
could safely employ them to guard and serve his wives and concubines*.
Many moved beyond their role as guardians of the royal women to be-
* concubine mistress to a married man come bodyguards of or advisers to the kings. Among the Assyrians in the
* second millennium B.C. years from second millennium B.C.* and after, eunuchs were highly trusted officials
2000 to 1001 B.C. in the government.
Some eunuchs played key roles in government and helped shape the
course of history. The eunuch Bagoas commanded the Persian army in
Egypt and was an important power in the PERSIAN EMPIRE under ARTAXERXES
III. In 338 B.C., Bagoas had Artaxerxes poisoned and placed one of the
dead king's sons on the throne. Two years later, he murdered the new
king and helped another heir take the throne as King DARIUS III. When
Darius resisted the eunuch's control, Bagoas planned to have him poi-
soned as well. The king learned of the plot and made Bagoas himself
drink the poison, ending the manipulative career of one of the most pow-
erful eunuchs of the ancient world.
Nehemiah, governor of Judah in the 400s B.C., was another famous eu-
nuch in the Persian empire. Nehemiah oversaw the rebuilding of
Jerusalem's walls, enabling the city's weakening population to flourish. His
memoirs are recorded in the Hebrew BIBLE in the book bearing his name.

|Tjunning from eastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to the Persian

fX^Gulf, the Euphrates (yoo»FRAY»teez) River played an important role
EUPHRATES RIVER in the history of the ancient Near East. Many of the cities of the ancient
Near East—such as BABYLON and UR—were built near the banks of the Eu-
phrates, and these cities depended on both the Euphrates River and the
TIGRIS RIVER for their existence and survival. The Euphrates provided water
for people, ANIMALS, and AGRICULTURE, as well as a means of transportation.
The Euphrates River, the longest river in western Asia, extends for
about 1,700 miles. The character of the river changes dramatically during
its long journey to the sea. In its upper reaches, the Euphrates runs through
See map In Mesopotamia (vol. 3). deep gorges and narrow valleys. During most of its middle courses, it
flows through broad plains. As the river nears the Persian Gulf, it divides
into many channels and travels through a maze of marshes and lakes be-
fore making its final journey to the sea.
Throughout history, the Euphrates served as Mesopotamia's main
source of IRRIGATION. This was largely because its annual flooding was less
84
 Faience
severe and more controllable than thatof thenearby Tigrisandbecauseit
was a more reliable water supply.The use of theEuphrates forirrigation
helped moisten the soil and provided waterforagricultural purposes,
thus allowing people to settle along theriver.
The Euphrates floods between March and June,when spring rains
and melting snows in the mountains ofAnatolia feed theriver. In the an-
cient NearEast, a networkofirrigation canals downstream directedthe
floodwaters onto farmlands. Since flooding could also cause great dam-
age to buildings, communities such asSippar built walls around their
cities to protect themfrom rising waters.
Over time, the annual floodingof the river also deposited salton the
land in southern Mesopotamia, which decreased itsfertility. This meant
that it could not be used forfarming, and thepeople who hadsettled
there had to goelsewhere.
The EuphratesRiver has also changed itscourse many times overthe
* millennium period of 1,000years; pi millennia* becauseof changing landformations— bothhuman-made
millennia and natural. As a result, some ancient sites thatwere once nextto the Eu-
phrates are now far from
(Seeit. Floods; Geography;Rivers; Water.)
also

/faience(fay^AHNS) is the name usedforobjects madeofshaped

I quartz that is covered with aglaze. Faience requires the use of high
FAIENCE * temperatures to harden the object andchemically
the surface. This processis thoughtto have IRAN
fuse theglaze to
been
or inventedin
northernMESOPOTAMIA around B.C.4500
Egyptians began usingitshortly
* amulet small object thought tohave thereafter. Atfirst, craftspeople made small faience objects such asbeads,
supernatural or magical powers cylinder
SEALS, amulets*,and containersforcosmetics. Laterthey made
* Levant lands bordering theeastern faience vases, small statues, architectural decorations,andbricks.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea(present- To make faience, artisans first mixed
finelyground quartz with water,
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), theWest shaping the material by hand or inmolds. Thenaglazewasadded, either
Bank, andJordan
by applying it on thesurface of the objector byplacingtheobjectin a
containerfilled with the glaze material.Theobjectwas thenheatedto a
very high temperature (1,440°Forhigher) so thatthematerial hardened
and the glaze formedachemical bondwithsurface. the
Faience makers used opaque glazes, meaning that the material
underneath could not be seen. Such glazes could beused toproduce rich
colors—and could hide imperfections underneath. Faience produced in
Mesopotamia and Egyptwastypically blueorgreen, colors achievedby
the use of copper in the glaze material.
During the timeof the Middle Kingdom ofEgypt (ca. B.C.),1980-1630
faience began to be produced in the Levant*andSyria. Artisans often
imitated Egyptian styles and subjects. Duringthe LateBronze Age
(ca. 1600-1200 B.C.) in the Levantand the NewKingdom period (ca.
1539-1075 B.C.)in Egypt, workshops were producing faience objects in
great quantities and distinctive shapes.Onepopular style Syria
in was a
goblet in the shape of awoman's head. Artisans used yellow, blue, green,
and black glazes, usuallyin combination. These faience objects were pop-
ular in the palacesoflocal kingsandnobles. They were also valuable trade
goods and were takentoAssyria, Iran,and Cyprus.
Afterabout
B.C., 1100
85
Failaka Island
the popularity of faience declinedas improvementsin glassmaking
in-
creased the demandfor Glass
glass.
(See
also and Glassmaking.)

FailakaIsland See Bahrain.

FAMILY
AND
T he family and household werethe basic building blocksofeachan-
cient Near Eastern society. The family
ties of blood, marriage,or adoption.
term
refersto peoplelinkedby
Householdis a broader term that in-
SOCIAL
LIFE cludes everyone living underone roof, usually underasingle authority.
A
household might include slaves, live-in servants,and other employeesas
well asfamily members.
Family had an additional meaning in ancient times. People viewed
their families as extending backwardand forward in time,and the dead
were seen as playing vital rolesin the livesof the living. Having children
ensured that a person wouldbe properly treated
after death.

Mesopotamia. The culturesMESOPOTAMIA

of ancient were patriarchal,
which means that men dominated privateand public life.A person'ssta-
tus depended on that of his or herfather's
family.Men headed family
the
unit, made all decisions, and exercised great authority over their wives,
children, and grandchildren.The law codeof theHAM- Babylonian king
MURABI states,"If a son strikeshis father, they shallcut off his hand/'
While there is no evidence that thislaw wasever carried out,the punish-
ment illustrates the respect due to fathers, whose relationship to their
families was likea king's relationshipto his people. These patriarchs could
even give awayafamily memberin paymentof a debt. They also had the
right—though not theduty—to laterbuy backthe family member.
What we call the nuclearfamilytoday—father, mother, and their
children—was calleda house.A man was supposed to "builda house."
If
his wife did not providehim with children,he could takeasecond
wife.
A
couple could also adopt a child, either a newborn who had been aban-
doned or an older child adoptedin return
fora sum ofmoney. People also
freed slavesand adopted them.
The typical Mesopotamianfamily had two children. Usually more
children than that were born into the family, but many died ininfancy.
The extendedfamily, called "the houseof the father," includedall the de-
scendants of the patriarch. These extended families sometimes livedin
the same home or in neighboring homes.

Egypt. The basic social unitin ancient

Egyptwas the nuclear
family.Al-
though a young married couple might live with either spouse's parents,
ideally a man did not marry until he could
afford to establish his own
home. One Egyptian text warns that living with in-laws leadstotrouble.
Men could marry more than one woman at a time,but this practiceap-
parently wasrare outsidethe royal
family.
86
 Family and Social Life
Daughters normally lived with their parents until they married or left
home to become servants in another house. Sons, on the other hand,
might go off to live with other young men of the same age. Women who
had no children sometimes raised children fathered by their husbands
and born to female slaves or servants. Childless couples or individuals
could adopt children or young men to inherit their property and perform
funeral rituals for them.
Egyptian households sometimes included more than the nuclear
family, but this was not common. Sometimes two related men and their
families shared the same household. Widowed, divorced, or unmarried
women sometimes lived with their closest male relatives. When several
generations or families lived together, the house was often partitioned so
that each nuclear group had a private space of its own.

Anatolia. The HITTITES, whose empire covered much of ANATOLIA (pre-

* second millennium B.C. years from sent-day Turkey) in the second millennium B.C.*, kept administrative
2000 to 1001 B.C. records in which the symbol for "house" referred to a household. The
household was a term of economic measurement in which men, women,
and children were identified as labor units. If a household's workforce
was too small to perform the labor expected of it, the government as-
signed prisoners of war to the household to make up the shortfall. A
"normal working unit" consisted of ten people, suggesting that the aver-
age size of a household was about ten: parents, three or four children,
and a few servants.
Marriage was expected to result in children. Wives who did not bear
children might provide their husbands with slave women for the pur-
pose. Adoption was also practiced, as in other ancient Near Eastern cul-
tures, but details of Hittite adoptions are scanty.
In most cases, a wife went to live in the house of her husband. Occa-
sionally, however, a husband moved into the house of his wife's father.
* indentured servant someone bound Slaves and indentured servants* were allowed to enter into marriage with
into service for a set time in repayment free people. In such marriages, the wives and children took on the social
of a debt status of the husbands and fathers.
Hittite society was also patriarchal, with men generally having un-
questioned power over their wives and children. In some cases, though,
women had control. Because widows had the right to determine whether
their sons would inherit their fathers' estates, sons were encouraged to
treat widowed mothers well. On occasion, a husband or father would
grant his wife or daughter the right to exercise power equal to his own
over the other children. This probably occurred when the man was dying
or expecting to be away from home.
Lycia, in southwestern Anatolia, had a matrilineal society, one where
the family name was taken from the mother's name. According to a first-
century B.C. writer, Lycian women were respected more then men; Ly-
cians made their daughters their heirs, not their sons.

Israel. The people of ancient Israel identified themselves as members of

kinship units called tribes. The Hebrew BIBLE usually divides the people
of Israel into 12 tribes. Although tribal identification was important in
military and territorial organization, the everyday lives of individuals
87
Family and Social Life
were more closely governed by subdivisions of the tribe. The unit of kin-
clan group of people descended from a ship below the tribe was the clan*. Men within a clan held different
common ancestor or united by a ranks, with the older ones probably being the most honored.
common interest Below the clan was the basic unit of Israelite kinship, the house,
sometimes defined as an extended family consisting of a patriarch and up
See to three generations of his descendants. As in other societies of the an-
V
[color plate 13. cient Near East, the father was the highest-ranking member of a family.
vol. 2. '
His wife had the next highest rank. The oldest son held the highest status
among children. Younger unmarried sons might perform various tasks for
their older siblings.
If a wife did not bear children for her husband, she might provide a
servant to do so. That servant, however, would not gain any social stand-
ing or wifely rights. The father could also adopt a child. When a man
without a male heir died, it hindered the inheritance of property. In such
cases, it was the duty of the dead man's brother to marry his widowed
sister-in-law and to produce an heir with the dead man's widow. In this
manner, the property would remain within the family.

Iran. Like the Israelites, the Persians in Iran divided themselves into
tribes. The tribes, in turn, were divided into groups called phratries,
which were much like the Israelite clans. Within the phratries were patri-
archal families, in which men had total control over their children and
all the members of their household. Children, in turn, were expected to
show respect and obedience to their fathers. So closely were families
identified with husbands and fathers that when a man committed a seri-
ous crime, his entire family was punished. A father's power was limited
by the government, however. Persian boys as young as five years of age
were taken from the home and placed in a training program—run by the
government—to turn them into soldiers.
Royal men and nobles practiced polygamy, having more than one
wife at a time. They sometimes also practiced endogamy, which means
marrying female relatives. These practices seem to have occurred among
ordinary Persians as well. In Mesopotamia, endogamy kept money within
the family. It was also practiced in ancient Israel—for example, when the
patriarch Jacob was sent to marry someone from his mother's tribe.
Another Iranian group, the Elamites, may have had a matriarchal so-
ciety. Kingship may have been based on marrying the king's daughter.
Moreover, the fact that Elamite goddesses held places of importance
within their societies suggests that women were also regarded more
highly than in other societies.

Inheritance. The customs and laws that gave shape to family life in
the ancient Near East were concerned largely with transferring owner-
ship of land and other property from one generations to the next. For ex-
ample, Persian men practiced polygamy to ensure that they would have
several descendants and endogamy to ensure that family wealth re-
mained within the family.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 In the early third millennium B.C.*, land in Mesopotamia was jointly
to 2001 B.C. owned by all the sons of a father. Documents show that when land was
sold, brothers were present not because of the need for witnesses but
88
 Family and Social Life
because they received part of the payment. In cities, property was typi-
cally divided among sons or grandsons after a man's death. This divi-
sion included all property, from land and house to furniture and slaves.
A daughter was usually given some property during her father's life. If
such a gift had not already been awarded, the sons were obliged to set
aside a share as a gift to her when their father died. In some areas, the
oldest brother received a double share.
There was also a law in Mesopotamia stating that people could will
Married or Not? their goods to anyone of their choice. However, many people died with-
out making a will. In those cases, the law stated that the child who took
If a man took the daughter responsibility for the deceased's burial would inherit his or her property.
of a man without asking her Scholars do not know much about inheritance laws among the Hit-
father and her mother, and
has not held a feast and made a
tites, but it appears that women could not inherit property directly from
contract for her father and her their fathers. There, as in most ancient Near Eastern cultures, sons inher-
mother—even if she lives in his house ited the family property.
for a full year, she is not a wife. If he Among the ancient Israelites, a father's land was divided among his
did hold a feast and make a con- sons, but the oldest son received a double portion. If a man had no male
tract for her father and mother, and heirs, a daughter could receive an inheritance. However, she was obliged
took herf she is a wife: the day she is
caught in the embrace of [another] to marry within her tribe so that property belonging to that tribe would
man, she shall die, not pass into the ownership of another.
—from a Mesopotamian law code
Social Life. Life in the ancient Near East was not all work and no play.
Important family events such as weddings and funerals provided occa-
sions for families to get together and socialize. Families in the ancient
Near East also attended community events, such as temple festivals and
harvest feasts.
Egyptian art clearly shows that people were viewed not as isolated be-
ings but as members of a community. Even when a person is shown per-
forming a task alone, without the help of an assistant, he or she is typically
shown working among other people doing similar tasks. Elite families ban-
quet together. Common folk bake bread, brew beer, and tend fields to-
gether. Communal life is a central theme of Egyptian art as well. Sculptures
and paintings portray men surrounded by their women folk and children.
The majority of the Hittite population probably lived in the country
and engaged in farming. Consequently, many Hittite festivals related to
agricultural life. The festivities included banquets, sports competitions,
music, and dance. Historians also believe that participants in religious fes-
tivals ate, slept, and perhaps performed in taverns.
In Mesopotamia, the temple represented a city's identity as a commu-
nity. Ancient people in Mesopotamia had several religious holidays a
month. During these times, there were games and entertainment events
that people could participate in or watch. Music was also a part of temple
festivities.
In ancient Israel, poetry had a place in the social lives of the people.
Ancient Israelites would attend performances of poets reciting long narra-
tive poems. These events may have taken place during holidays. Such
performances were a way of transmitting cultural stories and values to an
audience whose members might not be able to read. (See also Children;
Divorce; Entertainment; Feasts and Festivals; Houses; Marriage; Prop-
erty and Property Rights; Women, Role of.)
89
Famine

FAMINE
A famine is an extreme and long-lasting shortage of food that causes
widespread hunger and starvation and an increase in the death rate.
Famines may affect an entire society or region. Sometimes, however, they
affect only certain groups of people, generally the poorer classes of soci-
ety, who cannot afford to buy foodstuffs that become more expensive
during shortages.
Famines are caused by both natural phenomena and human activi-
ties. The most common natural causes of food shortages due to famine
are DROUGHT, flooding, unseasonably cold weather, plant diseases, and in-
festations by insects or rodents. All of these natural events can lead to
crop failures and food shortages. Among the human factors that con-
tribute to famine are overpopulation, war, and lack of transportation to
move food to where it is needed. Overpopulation usually contributes to
famine when it is combined with a natural phenomenon, such as
drought, that causes crop failures and food shortages. War and lack of
transportation contribute to famine when they cause the disruption of
the normal production and distribution of foodstuffs, either intention-
ally or by accident.
Famine posed a periodic threat to societies in the ancient Near East.
The earliest recorded famines in this region date to the fourth millen-
* fourth millennium B.C. years from nium B.C.* These early famines were primarily the result of natural causes.
4000 to 3001 B.C. In Egypt, for instance, decline in water levels of the NILE RIVER caused crop
failures as well as a reduction in the area of land that could be farmed.
Famine followed relatively quickly under such conditions. A series of dis-
astrous famines may have also caused a period of decline in Egypt be-
tween the 2100s and 1900s B.C.
The devastation of famine in ancient Egypt is reflected in ancient Egypt-
ian texts and art. Art in Egyptian king Unas's (ruled ca. 2371-2350 B.C.)
burial chamber shows a scene of starving people. It most likely depicts Unas
aiding famine-stricken people.
In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, famine was often the result of political dis-
ruptions rather than of unfavorable climate conditions. Frequent war-
* siege long and persistent effort to force fare disrupted AGRICULTURE. For example, cities under siege* by enemies
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or eventually ran out of food supplies, and the people behind the walls
city with armed troops, cutting it off would starve. Failure to maintain irrigation systems in times of turmoil
from supplies and aid
contributed to flood damage, which destroyed crops and damaged the
land, causing famine. Political conflict also disrupted trade, preventing
food from being transported from one place to another. A catastrophic
famine in southern Mesopotamia in the 1100s B.C. contributed to a pe-
riod of decline for the Babylonian empire. Sensing the Babylonians' vul-
nerability an advantage, Aramaean tribes invaded the already weakened
Babylonia.
Some societies tried to protect themselves from famine by stockpiling
grains to be used in times of shortages. Other societies imported food
from other lands. For example, the Hittites imported food from Egypt
and the city of Ugarit during periods of famine. Sometimes famine relief
was offered in return for ruling privileges. For example, in the First Inter-
mediate period of ancient Egypt (ca. 2130-1980 B.C.), an official called
Ankhtyfy apparently came to the aid of neighboring lands during a
famine in exchange for authority over them.
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 Feasts and Festivals
Famine played a role in the MYTHOLOGY of the ancient Near East. Some
myths explained famine, as well as other natural events such as drought,
as the work of the gods. Sometimes famine was a form of punishment,
and at other times, it was the result of struggles among the gods.
According to the Hebrew Bible, a famine caused the patriarchs to mi-
grate to Egypt at an early point in their history. The Bible also mentions
famines in Egypt and Canaan. The story of Joseph tells of how he enables
the Egyptians to withstand a famine by stockpiling grains. As a result,
Joseph becomes highly honored even though he is a slave. Later Joseph
aids his brothers who have come from Canaan seeking relief from the
same famine. (See also Disasters, Natural; Floods.)

Farming See Agriculture; Animals, Domestication of.

FEASTS AND F s t s and festivals were vitally important to cultures in the ancient
Near East. A typical feast involved a shared meal accompanied by
entertainment. Festivals varied greatly, but many of them included
FESTIVALS music, processions of worshipers carrying images of gods and goddesses,
and offerings of food and sacrifices at temples.
People have long celebrated feasts to mark the changing of the sea-
sons. The survival of the peoples of the ancient Near East depended on
the cycle of planting and harvesting that accompanied each season.
See Some festivals were dedicated to worshiping the gods, and others cele-
'k color plate 8; brated cultural pride or state occasions. These ceremonies helped unify
vol. 2.
societies and empires. Finally, feasts or festivals marked a rite of passage in
a person's life, such as marriage or death. It is not always easy to distin-
guish between these four types of ceremonies. However, each feast and
festival had its own meaning and characteristics.

Seasonal Celebrations. In prehistoric times, people probably ob-

served that seasonal changes affected the animals they hunted and the
wild plants they gathered for food. They believed that various gods con-
trolled the forces of nature. Such observations and beliefs led them to de-
velop feasts and festivals, which they thought would please the gods and
ensure a continuing food supply. As agriculture developed in the ancient
Near East (ca. 9000 B.C.), the most important feasts and festivals were
held during planting time and harvest time.
* city-state independent state consisting In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, each city-state* or kingdom had its own cal-
of a city and its surrounding territory endar to guide people toward the proper time for feasts and festivals. Fes-
tivals marked the agricultural cycle and celebrated events such as the
hitching and unhitching of plows. During certain times of the year, rulers
traveled throughout the land to present offerings of crops and meat to
the gods. These festivals reflected the Mesopotamian belief that humans
were created to serve the gods.
91
Feasts and Festivals
A similar connection between feasts and festivals and seasonal
changes existed in ancient Egypt. The annual flooding of the NILE RIVER
An Intimate provided a regular seasonal mark for the month-long festival of Opet, a
Banquet for 47,000 celebration of the close relationship between the king of Egypt and AMUN,
When Assyrian king Ashur- the king of the gods. Because work in the fields was not possible during
nasirpal II founded his capital
at the city of Kalkhu in the 800s B.C, the flooding, rich and poor alike took part in the festival.
he celebrated the inauguration of During the festival of Opet, priests bathed, dressed, and adorned the
his palace with a grand banquet for image of Amun with jewelry and brightly colored linen and then placed
47,000 people. The feast, a descrip- it in a boat. Led by the king himself, they carried Amun out into the noisy
tion of which was recorded in the street and then on to the temple of LUXOR at the south end of the city.
Assyrian royal archives, lasted for ten Along the way, ordinary citizens struggled to catch a glimpse of the god as
days, Ashurnasirpal's banquet in-
cluded "10,000 fattened head of drums beat and men danced.
cattle, 1,000 calves, 10,000 stable In later times, the boat was placed on the Nile and towed to the tem-
sheep, 15,000 lambs,... 1,000 ple by high officials who vied for the honor. After a ritual at the temple,
spring lambs,... 500 gazelles, people asked questions of the god. The questions were phrased so that
1,000 ducks, 500 geese,... 10,000 they could be answered yes or no. If the boat moved forward, the answer
doves,... 10,000 [jars of] beer,
10,000 skins with wine/' and vari- was yes; if the boat moved backward, the answer was no. The temple of-
ous other meats, vegetables, drinks, ficials also distributed food and drink. During an Opet festival in the
and oil. 1100s B.C., temple officials handed out 11,341 loaves of bread and 385
jars of beer.
In ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the Hittite king and queen
participated in a procession on the sixteenth day of the spring festival.
The procession went from the palace to the temple and included singers
and musicians. Their presence at the temple emphasized the belief that
rulers needed the honor of the gods.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern In ancient SYRIA and the Levant*, people also worshiped many gods
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- and maintained images of them in temples. Although a wide variety of
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West information about religious practices has been gathered from early sites,
Bank, and Jordan
such as UGARIT, much of it is unclear. Historians believe that feasts and fes-
tivals took place in October and December to mark the plowing and sow-
ing and in the spring to celebrate the harvest.
The ancient Hebrew calendar told the Israelites when to hold their
feast and festival days. Several celebrations for particular harvests are men-
tioned in the Hebrew BIBLE, such as the Pesach and Matsot festivals. The
Pesach (Passover) festival involved a pilgrimage in which a yearling sheep
or goat was sacrificed and consumed. The Matsot festival (Festival of Un-
leavened Bread), perhaps originally a holiday associated with the barley
harvest, came to be celebrated together with the Pesach festival in remem-
* exodus migration by a large group of brance of the Exodus* from Egypt. During these celebrations, families
people, usually to escape something would gather together and eat a special meal of sheep or goat, vegetable
unpleasant (bitter herb), and grain (unleavened bread); drink wine; and instruct chil-
dren on the meaning of the event. These celebrations demonstrate the im-
portance of seasonal feasts and festivals to the ancient Near Easterners.

Acts of Worship. Some feasts and festivals were acts of religious wor-
ship. Although many began as seasonal rites and took place at regular in-
tervals, the intent of these celebrations was to honor the gods rather
than mark a particular season.
In Elamite society, in southwestern IRAN, a festival called the Feast of
the Pouring Offerings honored Kiririsha, the goddess known as the
92
 Feasts and Festivals

State occasions, such as a military victory,

were often celebrated with a feast as seen
here on the Royal Standard of Ur, a two-
sided mosaic panel. Often called the
"peace" side, this side of the mosaic shows
a feast in progress. In the top panel, the
king and his court are seen feasting and
enjoying a musical performance. In the
panels beneath, attendants bring in cap-
tured goods, cattle, goats, and sheep.

mother of the gods by the Elamites. Fattened rams were ritually slaugh-
tered so that their blood flowed down from the altars. Then all the partic-
ipants received meat from the sacrificed animals.
In Egypt, feasts and festivals honoring the gods were a central part of
life. These celebrations of the gods occurred throughout ancient Egyptian
history. People were allowed to take time off from work to celebrate festi-
vals of favorite deities. These festivals included processions and sacred
dramas, during which performers reenacted the battle between the gods
HORUS and SETH. As elsewhere, the number of such festivities increased
over time. A temple calendar created during Ptolemaic times (305-30 B.C.)
notes more than 40 festivals.
In Anatolia, Hittites and others also held festivals of worship. It was
the king's duty to keep the gods content by making annual visits to their
shrines during the appropriate festivals. A typical festival involved a pu-
rification ritual in which the king dressed in special garments and ate a sa-
cred meal in the temple. Following this, the king made an offering of
meat, bread, beer, and wine to the gods. The festival was accompanied by
the performance of sacred songs and dances and often included other en-
tertainment, such as juggling, gymnastics, and mock battles. The Hittites
believed that if the gods were pleased, they would provide protection
* famine severe lack of food due to failed from sickness, famine*, and enemies.
crops In Syria and the Levant, as elsewhere, some acts of worship included
feasts and festivals. Thanksgiving for a divine favor or a feast held in pay-
ment of a vow to a god were common. Historians believe that monarchs
played leading roles in the feasts and festivals as they did elsewhere. An
ancient artwork from this region shows a king being presented to a god
during a festival ritual.

State Occasions. Because the head of state was often the head of reli-
gion, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish a feast of worship from one
* civic matters relating to citizens or a for state purposes. Some ceremonies, however, were clearly civic* cele-
city brations. Feasts or festivals to commemorate historical events or the visit
of an important official from another region served political and social
purposes. Several documents have been found at UR in Mesopotamia
that list rations of bread, beer, oil, fish, and spices given out to foreign
rulers and their servants.
93
Fertile Crescent
In Egypt, feasts and festivals for state occasions were common. The
* diplomatic concerning relations with New Year's festival became the time for giving and receiving diplomatic*
foreign powers gifts. Another state occasion, dating from the beginning of Egyptian his-
tory, was the Sed festival. This festival featured a symbolic renewal of the
king's powers and rule and took place decades after he first came to the
throne. The Sed festival lasted over an extended period of time, during
which the king participated in rites that symbolized his taking control of
the land anew.
Like the Egyptians, the Hittites held state ceremonies that provided
music, dance, and entertainment. One festival included a mock battle be-
The King of Babylon tween Hittite dancers armed with bronze and their opponents armed
and theAkTtu Festival with reeds. This dance may have commemorated a specific battle or sym-
The ancient Babylonians celebrate bolized Hittite strength.
their New Year's festival—the Aklti
festiva^-on the first day of spring.
Rites of Passage. Feasts and festivals also occurred to mark changes in
During this 12-day festival, the
Babylonians paraded the statue of a person's life. In Egypt, feasts and festivals celebrated several rites of pas-
Marduk, the city god of Babylon. sage, especially death. Wealthy Egyptians held a feast every year in
They also recited the Babylonian memory of their deceased loved ones. At these feasts, guests sat on floor
Epic of Creation to explain and as* mats and used their fingers to eat their food, which consisted of butter,
sert Marduk's supremacy. The cheese, fowl, and beef seasoned with cinnamon, parsley, and rosemary
king's role in the cult of Marduk
was also renewed at this time Be-
and sweetened with honey. Professional dancers whirled and jumped to
cause the king was central to this the music of harps, lutes, flutes, and tambourines as the guests snapped
festival, it could not be celebrated their fingers or clapped along. Guests were encouraged to drink wine
without him; During the time of until they reached a state of intoxication that made them feel closer to
the Neo-Babytonian empire, King the dead.
Nabonidus was absent from the
Throughout the ancient Near East, feasts and festivals reinforced val-
capital for several years, and the
AkJtu festival was not celebrated.
ues and strengthened religious beliefs, the recognition of shared history,
and the idea of unity under the power of one ruler. These common bonds
forged social and national identities that were important as civilizations
developed. (See also Agriculture; Cults; Death and Burial; Family and
Social Life; Religion.)

FERTILE CRESCENT
T he Fertile Crescent is a historic, roughly horn-shaped region where
the civilizations of the ancient Near East began. The Fertile Crescent
starts at the head of the Persian Gulf between Iran and the Arabian penin-
sula. It stretches up from the valley of the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER
in lower Mesopotamia, through Syria, and down along the Mediter-
ranean coast of Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt, where it continues down the
NILE RIVER valley.
Although the region is bordered by harsh deserts and rugged moun-
tains, the Fertile Crescent itself is watered by a number of rivers and
streams fed by seasonal rains. In the past, the climate in this region was
probably better suited to productive agriculture than it is today. These
* arable suitable for growing crops conditions made the Fertile Crescent arable* in ancient times, allowing
people to settle there. These people were able to establish communities
and build towns. As populations grew, they developed systems of govern-
ment and trade and eventually built cities. As a result, the regions within
94
 Fishing
the Fertile Crescent were home to the earliest civilizations of the ancient
Near East. Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia, and Egypt were all lo-
cated within the Fertile Crescent, and most settlement was concentrated
within the area throughout ancient times.

FISHING
A long with hunting and gathering, fishing was a basic source of food
for the earliest inhabitants of the ancient Near East. Artifacts* from
the NILE RIVER valley of Egypt, for example, indicate that people engaged
in fishing as early as 9000 B.C. Even after AGRICULTURE was well established
in the ancient Near East, by about 4000 B.C., fishing continued to provide
people with a nutritious (fish is an excellent source of protein) and tasty
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or addition to their diets, which were based primarily on grains, vegetables,
other object made by humans and fruits.
Fishing was a major economic activity in coastal areas as well as along
rivers and streams. In other areas, it played a less important role in the
economy. Even in those areas, however, people sometimes created artifi-
cial fishponds and stocked them with fish. Evidence suggests that people
practiced fishing along the banks of waterways and that they also used
boats or rafts to fish in the main channels of rivers or offshore in lakes
and seas.
Fishing and hunting probably developed at about the same time. The
character of these activities, however, differed significantly. Hunting be-
came associated with people from the upper classes, while fishing was
linked primarily with the lower classes of society. This is evident in an-
cient art, where huntsmen generally belonged to royalty and fishermen
were usually common folk.
Artifacts, texts, and art have revealed a great deal about the fishing
techniques used in the ancient Near East. These techniques were similar
throughout much of the region, due largely to cultural exchanges and
similarities in CLIMATE. Fishing methods used in the world today are based
on techniques that originated in the ancient Near East. Fishermen used
spears, fishing poles, lines with hooks, and nets to catch fish. Fishing ac-
cessories included stone and lead sinkers and stone net anchors to keep
fishing lines and nets submerged.
The earliest fishing nets were made of plant fibers, while later nets
consisted of cotton or linen yarn. Nets could be repaired using yarn and
netting needles made of bone, metal, or wood. The oldest and most im-
portant type of net was the seine, or dragnet. This wall of netting, some-
times as much as 980 feet long, was spread out parallel to the shore. A
rope weighted with sinkers at the bottom of the seine kept the net sub-
merged, while wooden floats along its top edge helped keep the wall of
netting upright. Fish were surrounded and ensnared when the net was
dragged to shore. Seine nets could catch large numbers of fish, and they
required the work of several fishermen.
Individual fishermen used cast nets. These circular nets—up to 26
feet in diameter and weighted with sinkers—were thrown into the water
by a fisherman standing on the shore, in shallow water, or in a boat. The
95
Flax
net landed like a parachute, sank into the water, and was then hauled
back with the catch of fish inside. Because of cast nets' smaller size and
the method of handling them, they could not catch as many fish as
seines.
Fish became an important article of trade in several regions of the an-
cient Near East. Although they were sometimes transported alive, fish
were usually preserved by drying, salting, or pickling. This enabled them
to be moved greater distances and remain edible for longer periods. They
were also used to pay taxes.
In some areas, such as ancient Sumer, fishermen had to purchase the
right to fish in rivers, lakes, and canals from temples, local rulers, and other
landholders. Competition for fishing rights sometimes led to conflicts.
Fish and fishing played an important role in the religion and MYTHOL-
OGY of the ancient Near East. OFFERINGS of fish were often made in tem-
ples, and fish and fishing became associated with certain gods such as EA,
the Sumerian water god. Fish and fishing also appeared in ancient art. For
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which instance, many ancient Egyptian WALL PAINTINGS and bas-reliefs* show
material is cut away to leave figures scenes of people fishing. Some of these scenes portray the Egyptian upper
projecting slightly from the background classes, who took up fishing for pleasure and relaxation. Fishing also fig-
ured prominently in the wall paintings produced by the MINOAN CIVILIZA-
TION on the island of CRETE. (See also Animals; Animals in Art; Food and
Drink; Hunting.)

f lax is a plant that was grown throughout much of the ancient Near
I East. The people of the region used the fibers of the flax plant to
FLAX " make linen yarn and fabric, and they used its seeds to make oil for
cooking. The linen produced from flax was one of the most important
TEXTILES of the Near East. In fact, the ancient Egyptians believed that their
gods were clothed in linen.
Flax was probably first cultivated in the ancient Near East during the
* Neolithic period final phase of the Neolithic period*. It became a commonly grown crop in the region, espe-
Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. cially in Egypt, where it was used to make linen as early as about 5000 B.C.
Linen remained the predominant fabric in Egypt throughout ancient
times.
Flax can be grown in a variety of soils and climates, so it came to be
widely cultivated throughout the ancient Near East. After harvesting, the
flax stalks were tied in bundles and left to dry. Once dry, the seeds were re-
moved for making oil. The dried stalks were then soaked in water, taken
out, and pounded with various tools. The fibers were then removed from
the outer bark, divided according to quality and color, and prepared for
spinning into yarn.
Flax fibers range in color from golden brown to creamy white, and
yarn from flax varies in texture from coarse to very fine and smooth. De-
pending on the color and quality of the fibers, the people of the ancient
Near East could make linen of various colors and textures, from a coarse,
canvaslike cloth to fine, smooth fabric. Bleaching the yarn produced pure
white cloth, but dyeing it was more difficult because flax fibers are not
96
 Floods
easily penetrated by dyes. As a result, most linen cloth produced and
worn by people in the ancient Near East ranged in color from white to
golden brown. (See also Agriculture; Clothing.)

FLOOD LEGENDS
L egends of a Great Flood can be found in several cultures of the world,
including many in the ancient Near East. In many Near Eastern sto-
ries, the gods send a great flood to punish the human beings because they
have become too numerous, too proud, or too sinful. Typically, a sympa-
thetic god warns one man of the impending disaster. The god instructs
him to build a boat and take representatives of all types of animals to en-
sure continuity of life.
The Old Babylonian Epic ofAtrakhasis and the Standard Version Epic of
Gilgamesh (especially the eleventh tablet), contain tales of the Great Flood.
The Sumerian Flood Story, written down around 1600 B.C., contains another
version of the legend. Some Mesopotamian KING LISTS also mention a Great
Flood, which often serves as the dividing line between periods in the past.
Another flood legend is the story of Noah and his ark. Found in the book
of Genesis in the Hebrew BIBLE, this legend was written down between
1000 and 600 B.C. The Greeks also had their own legends, such as the one
found in the Bibliotheca, the oldest preserved written account of a tale that
was retold orally for centuries. Here the god Zeus sends a flood to destroy
humankind. However, the god Prometheus instructs his human son Deu-
calion to build a boat, helping humanity survive.
Flood legends were probably created to explain natural disasters.
They also served to impress the power of the gods and expressed the reli-
gious ideas of survival and rebirth in a world created anew. (See also Cre-
ation Myths; Disasters, Natural; Floods; Mythology.)

FLOODS F oding—the rising and overflowing of a body of water beyond its

normal boundaries—may be the most studied and recorded natural
phenomenon in human history. The earliest records of the rise and
fall of water levels came from the ancient Egyptians who observed the
NILE RIVER. As societies established themselves and developed along rivers,
the timing and severity of floods became of great importance. Floods
could destroy life, property, and agriculture. They could weaken societies
by disrupting farming and trade to the point where the society no longer
functioned well as a unit. Such societies might then be open to attack or
might decide to dissolve and move elsewhere. Floods could also be bene-
ficial; farming in areas of the ancient Near East without sufficient rainfall
depended on the water the rivers provided. As a result, one of the great
concerns of these early societies was controlling water, and dealing with
floods was an important part of social organization. Public works for water
and flood control grew with societies, and law and commerce both ex-
panded as a result of such projects.
97
Floods
Beneficial Flooding. People today usually regard floods as disasters.
Floods in the ancient Near East could be disastrous as well, but they
were also the basis of life. Not only did seasonal flooding water the land;
silt soil or other sediment carried and it also enriched it. Silt* deposited by a flooding river provided essential
deposited by moving water nutrients to the soil, which promoted crop growth. The lands beside the
rivers, called floodplains, were the first and most readily used areas for
agriculture.
In Mesopotamia, most civilizations developed close to the TIGRIS RIVER
Archaeology and EUPHRATES RIVER. The "land between the rivers" provided reasonable
and Floods sites for agriculture. Southern Mesopotamia was more dependent on the
seasonal flooding of the rivers for agriculture, while the north relied pri-
A flood leaves behind a layer
of mud. Archaeologists look marily on rainfall. The Euphrates River was especially useful to early soci-
for this layer as they exca- eties, and it was the principal water supply for Sumer, Akkad, and later for
vate through successive layers Babylonia. The Tigris River was less controllable and therefore not uti-
of earth* When they find a layer lized to the same extent as the Euphrates.
of sediment, they measure its ex- In order to use the Euphrates River for agriculture, settlers expanded
tent and thickness to determine the the floodplain by using channels and CANALS for IRRIGATION. These water
intensity of the ancient flood. In the
1920$, Sir Charles Leonard Wooliey management systems were crucial to life in Mesopotamia. In fact, Meso-
thought that he had proof of potamian kings often listed the canal systems they constructed as great
Noah's flood when he discovered achievements of their reigns.
sediment while excavating the site Throughout Mesopotamia, planting took place in autumn, when the
of the ancient Sumerian city of Ur water levels in the rivers were at their lowest. At this time of year, the canals
(in present-day Iraq). The sediment were used to bring enough moisture to the land so the plants would grow.
was about ten feet thick, dating
from around 4000 B.C. However, Flooding, the result of melting snow and storms in Anatolia (present-day
the layer did not cover the entire Turkey), occurred in Mesopotamia in April, May, and June—the harvest
city as it should have if there had season. The spring floodwaters would be used to water fields that were ly-
been such a large flood. Other evi- ing fallow* in order to prepare them for the next planting season. How-
dence showed that society had not ever, the floodwaters had to be controlled very carefully; otherwise, too
been disrupted. Wooliey, who con-
tributed greatly to knowledge of much water could spell disaster by ruining crops about to be harvested. To
early Mesopotamia, had found evi- control floodwaters, levees* were used to keep the water from overflowing.
dence of a flood, but he had not The ancient Egyptians also depended on a river's water. The Nile River
found Noah's flood. made life easier for farmers in Egypt because the great annual flood oc-
curred at exactly the right time. Beginning in June, the waters rose
steadily, fed by the torrents of rain that fell in central Africa. The flood
crested in September, leaving the soil moist for fall planting. Egyptian
* fallow plowed but not planted, so that farmers learned how to save water from the flood to nourish the young
moisture and organic processes can plants. Harvesting took place before the worst of the drought*, which
replenish the soil's nutrients usually began in March. The cycle then repeated itself in June. The silt de-
* levee embankment or earthen wall posited by the Nile was especially rich, and it refreshed the soil com-
alongside a river that helps prevent pletely each year. As a result, farming did not exhaust the land, and it
flooding could be used again each season.
* drought long period of dry weather Egyptians developed a practical calendar of three seasons based on
during which crop yields are lower than the behavior of the Nile: Inundation, or flood; Emergence of the fields
usual
from the water; and Drought. Egyptian society developed according to re-
sponses to the Nile's condition. During Inundation, when the fields were
underwater, the Egyptians worked on building projects. During Emer-
gence, they reserved water for the growing season. During Drought, they
harvested and threshed their grain.
The intensity of the Nile's annual flood usually determined the pros-
perity of Egypt. For example, a large flood sent water farther across the
98
 Floods
land and meant that more land could be tilled and more food could be
grown. When Egyptians were able to grow more grain, which was Egypt's
main product, they could export it and increase their wealth.
The Greek historian HERODOTUS, writing in the 400s B.C., called Egypt-
ian civilization "the gift of the [Nile]/' The Nile's water gave life to the dry
land, and the annual flooding of the Nile determined property values.
Consequently, real estate values depended on how regularly land re-
ceived the benefits of the flood. "Black land" was valuable. "Red land"
was almost worthless. Taxes on land varied accordingly and were higher
after the annual flood than before it.
The Nile's annual flooding also contributed to the political develop-
ment of Egyptian society because organization was needed to build and
* dike embankment used to confine or maintain dikes*, catch basins, and canals. The central government could
control the flow of water direct the large labor forces necessary for such works, and by the time of
* dynasty succession of rulers from the the First Dynasty* (ca. 3000-2800 B.C.), water-control projects had been
same family or group built along the length of the river.

Harmful Flooding. As important as seasonal flooding was, it could

not be counted on to be just the right amount of flooding. There was no
way of predicting the intensity of a seasonal flood, so if it were too high
or too low, it could bring catastrophe to people living near the rivers.
Floods also occurred outside of flood season, especially in Anatolia and
Mesopotamia, where the rivers are much more affected by local condi-
tions such as heavy winter rainfall.
The water levels and flow of the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers vary
considerably from year to year. They also vary within seasons and with lo-
cal conditions, such as winter rainfall or the rate and amount of melting
snow in eastern Anatolia. The Tigris especially is subject to destructive
* sluice human-made channel or passage flooding. In ancient Mesopotamia, the development of sluices* and regu-
to direct water flow lators* helped protect the grain supply from flood. These water-control
* regulator gate or valve to control the devices required constant watching and repair, so law codes such as the
amount of water passing through a Code of Hammurabi set penalties for people who ruined crops as a result
channel of the neglect or misuse of water management systems.
Although flooding made life possible in Mesopotamia, it also created
risks, the greatest of which was destruction of crops. Annual floods that
were too high ruined standing crops in the field. This occurred frequently
enough that there are many references to crop loss from flooding in law
codes and legal documents. Another problem created by floods was that
they could bring too much sediment into the canals and clog them.
Clearing them required constant, labor-intensive cleaning.
Seasonal flooding brought yet another problem to the nearly flat land
near the Tigris and Euphrates. The land needed water, but it also needed
to be drained of water after the floods because the water standing in the
fields could draw salt up from the ground below. The salt remained when
the water eventually dried, and this buildup of salt, called salinization,
was a serious problem. Salinity made soil useless to the farmer, and large
tracts of land sometimes had to be abandoned. To slow the salinization
process, Mesopotamian farmers tried not to use the same fields over and
over again and protected fields from flooding with dikes and levees when
they could. Occasionally, the flooding could be so severe, especially if a
99
Food and Drink
protective levee broke, that cities near the rivers could be buried under
many feet of silt.
In Egypt, even the relatively gentle flood of the Nile could bring
havoc because there was no way to stop the river's spreading. Although a
large flood yielded more grain, whole towns could be ruined if the flood
were too high. In fact, Herodotus claimed that during these times, towns
looked like islands and ships could sail straight across the country with-
out following the path of the stream. He also said that boats sailed past
the pyramids at these times.
A low annual flood could also cause trouble. Less land tilled meant
* famine severe lack of food due to failed less food, and a famine* could result. To prevent this, Egyptians built
crops dikes and catch basins to trap water. They sank wells and built canals to
extend the reach of the river. They invented devices called nilometers to
measure the rise of the river. As the boundaries of Egypt grew, the Egyp-
tians set nilometers farther and farther up the river. The earlier they knew
what the Nile was likely to do, the better they could prepare for whatever
it brought.
The grave consequences of floods or lack of floods made them the
subject of intense interest for residents of the ancient Near East. Floods
were important cultural and religious events as well. Many of Egypt's reli-
gious practices related to the motions of the Nile. Several civilizations had
FLOOD LEGENDS that told of great floods, interpreting the tales through the
* archaeologist scientist who studies eyes of their religion and philosophy. Archaeologists* have discovered
past human cultures, usually by Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Human, Khatti, Israelite, and Sumerian
excavating material remains of human versions of flood myths. (See also Agriculture; Calendars; Cereal Grains;
activity
Law; Religion.)

FOOD AND DRINK

T he diet of the people in the ancient Near East was simpler than that
of people today. Their diet consisted primarily of CEREAL GRAINS and a
variety of vegetables and fruits. In addition to water and milk, people of
the ancient Near East drank both beer and WINE.
Trade in food products took place throughout the ancient Near East,
but this type of commerce was rather limited. Instead, each area relied
primarily on local products, and many families produced only enough
food for their own needs. People also preserved and stored food for later
use to ensure that they could feed themselves.

KINDS OF FOOD AND DRINK

Compared to the varied foods and drinks available in many places in the
world today, the diet of the people of the ancient Near East was very lim-
ited. Breads and cereal grains were the most common food, and these
were supplemented with vegetables, fruits, some dairy products, beer,
and wine. Meat and fish were rare dishes, eaten usually by the wealthier
classes, although other people might eat them on an occasional basis.

Breads and Cereal Grains. Breads and cereal grains were important
staples throughout the ancient Near East. Bread was considered the " staff
100
 Food and Drink
of life" and comprised the most important component of many ancient
Near Eastern diets. Bread could be made from the flour of barley, wheat,
or other grains, and it was baked in a variety of sizes and shapes. Much of
the bread in the ancient Near East was unleavened, or made without
yeast. Ingredients such fruit, spices, or herbs might be added to breads
before they were baked to provide flavor.
Flour from grains was often enriched with fat, milk, or eggs and
mixed with honey or fruits to make sweet cakes and biscuits. Whole
Food Rations grains with the husks removed were mixed with water, milk, or other liq-
Food and drink also made up part uids and eaten like the cereals of today. In Babylon, for example, a com-
of the "pay" for workers in the an- mon breakfast consisted of a type of porridge made from the grains of
cient Near East, The food was ra-
tioned and distributed on a daily or emmer wheat mixed with water.
monthly basis. Some ancient texts
from Babylon, dating from about Vegetables and Fruits. The second most important component of
2000 s.cv list the typical rations dis- the ancient Near Eastern diet consisted of various vegetables and fruits.
tributed to individuals* Children up Consumption of these foods helped balance people's diets by providing
to 5 years old received 2.5 gallons important vitamins and other nutrients not found in bread and grains.
of barley per month; those aged 5
to 10 received about 4 gallons; and The inhabitants of the ancient Near East grew a variety of vegetables.
children aged 10 to 13 were given Lentils and peas were widely cultivated in the Levant*, Anatolia, and the
5 gallons. Adult men received be- Zagros Mountains region by 6000 B.C. Other vegetables included garlic,
tween 10.5 and 15,5 gallons, while onions, lettuce, cucumbers, turnips, radishes, and various beans. Com-
women received about half that mon fruits included grapes, figs, dates, and pomegranates. Apples and
amount. Elderly adults generally
were given about 5 gallons. Work* pears were grown in some areas, such as Mesopotamia.
ers also received small amounts of Fruits and vegetables were often eaten raw, but people also cooked
vegetables, fruits, and other foods. them and used them in soups, stews, and other dishes. Fruits were gener-
Experts believe that most people ally eaten fresh and uncooked, although some—particularly grapes, figs,
ate a diet that contained adequate and dates—were dried for eating out of season. Some fruits were used as
calories to keep them fairly healthy.
the ingredient of more exotic foodstuffs and beverages.

Beer and Wine. Beer was an important drink in ancient Mesopotamia,

Egypt, and other areas of the Near East, and it generally was more com-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern mon than wine. Made from various grains, beer provided a nutritious ad-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- dition to the daily diet. There were many varieties of beer. The quantity
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West of the grain used in brewing could determine its strength. The cheapest
Bank, and Jordan
beer was diluted with water. Spices, honey, and dates were added to beer
to produce different flavors.
Found primarily in grape-growing regions, such as Egypt, wine was a
less common drink in many areas of the ancient Near East. Moreover,
wine was generally enjoyed by only the wealthier members of society.
Wine was not only made from grapes but also from the juice of other
fruits, including dates, figs, and pomegranates. It was generally diluted
with water to reduce its strength and increase its volume.
In addition to their consumption as household drinks, both beer and
wine played a role in religious rites and ceremonies. They were often
served as OFFERINGS to the dead or to the gods.

Dairy Products. The dairy products consumed in the ancient Near East
* ferment to undergo gradual chemical included milk, butter, and cheese. These products came primarily from
change in which yeast and bacteria GOATS and SHEEP, although CATTLE and CAMELS also provided dairy products
convert sugars into alcohol in Anatolia and Arabia. Milk was usually left to ferment* before it was

101
Food and Drink

consumed. A common typeof butter usedin the Near Eastwas ghee,a

liquid butterpurified by melting, boiling, and straining. Babylonians also
VintageWines used a round, chalky, very hard cheese that when grated and mixed with
Just as wines today are bottted at water, turned backto sour milkfor drinkingor other purposes.
specific wineries and labeledac-
cording to year, some wines in the
ancient NearEast were labeled in
Meat and Fish. Meat played a limited role in the diet of most people in
the same way. Certainareas were the ancient NearEast. Domesticated* sheep, goats,and cattle were raised
known as especially good wine- chiefly for their wool and milk, and they were too valuable to slaughter
producing regions, and wineries in on a regular basis. Moreover, fertile land was too precious to devote to
those areas produced the best- raising livestock primarilyfor meat. Hunting wild animalswas reserved
known wines, |ars of wine found in
mainly to the upperclasses.As a result, meat generally formeda regular
the tomb of King Tutankhamen in
Egypt had labels gMng the place, part of the diet for only the wealthier members of society, while the
date, and year (vintage) of the wine poorer classesate it onrareorfestive occasions.
and sometimes information about Fish was a more commonfood amongthe lower classes,butformed it
the wineries. Experts think that a part of the diet only in areas near rivers, lakes,or seas.Fowl—including
some of these wines represent the pigeons, geese, ducks, and other wild and domesticatedbirds—were
best virtage years. Wine labels
found in other places in Egypt de-
eaten in many areas, but generally only by the rich.
scribe the wine in various ways,
suchas "good/' "very good/' Oils, Condiments, and Sweeteners. Oils were used throughout th
"genuine/* and "sweet/' ancient NearEast for both cookingand seasoning. Oliveoil was among
the most common types of oil, and it was an important trade product in
many parts of the NearEast. Ancient peoples also producedfrom oil a
number of other plants, including
FLAX,and
thesesame.
seeds
of
* domesticated adapted or tamed for Ancient peoples used a number of food products as condiments and
human use sweeteners. One of the most common seasonings was salt, but people
also seasonedfood with spicesand herbs suchas coriander, cumin, mus-
tard seed, marjoram, and rosemary. The chief natural sweetener was
honey, but people also usedthe juice
from various
fruitsas sweeteners.
102
 Food and Drink

FOOD PREPARATION AND STORAGE

People in the ancient Near East prepared and stored foods in many ways.
Food preparation included the different ways in which foods were cooked
Bulgur With Vegetables and eaten, as well as the processes that made food products suitable for
Bulgur wheat which is rich in nutri-
ents, was a staple food throughout
consumption and long-term storage. Food storage was important because
tie ancient Near East. For an authen- it allowed food products to be saved and stored for later use.
tic bulgur dish, add 2 tablespoons
of butter and \ teaspoon of salt Food Preparation. Foods generally were prepared in various ways.
to 3 cups of boiling water. Next, Meat, fish, and fowl were roasted, fried, baked, or boiled alone or as part
slowly pour 1 cup of bulgur
wheat into the mix and cover the of a stew. Certain foods, however, such as bread and beer, required a spe-
pot, allowing it to simmer for about cific process for preparation.
20 minute or until almost all the wa- The initial step in making bread was to prepare a soft dough by mix-
ter is absorbed. Then place a skillet ing flour with water and a little salt. This dough was shaped by hand and
over low heat on a separate burner. then baked inside a clay oven or cooked on a flat stone placed over a fire.
Add V4 cup of oil and 1 egg
plant peeled and cut Into 1-
Sometimes yeast was added to the dough, which was then left to rise be-
Inch squares to the skillet stirring fore it was cooked. Some loaves of bread were baked in molds; others were
frequently. Add 1 chopped onion made in fancy shapes of animal and human figures. Breads were also
and cook until it becomes transpar- sometimes topped with seeds or mixed with fruits.
ent but not brown* Next, add V2 The first stage in preparing beer was to soak grain in water, allowing it to
head of chopped cabbage, 3
sprout, and then to bake it. It was then dried out, crushed, and mixed with
sliced carrots, and 6 sliced stalkj
of celery and cook until they are ingredients such as herbs, spices, honey, and dates. The resulting mixture
soft. Finally, add Va cup of was then combined with fresh grain and warmed in a slow oven. At a cer-
chopped parsley, stir in the bulgur tain point, this heated mixture was placed on a large mat to cool. A sweet
and serve. substance, such as honey or dates, was added to assist fermentation. The
last step of the process was to mix the fermented, souplike mash with water
in a vat and then to strain, or filter, the finished beer into other containers.
Recipes were probably handed down by word of mouth from genera-
tion to generation. Most children undoubtedly learned to cook by simply
* cuneiform world's oldest form of watching and helping their elders. However, three cuneiform* tablets
writing, which takes its name from the found in southern Babylonia and written in about 1700 B.C. contain a total
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed of 35 recipes for making soups and meat dishes. These early "cookbooks"
into clay tablets
could not have been intended for use by the average family because most
people could not read. Perhaps these tablets are records of meals prepared
for a banquet in the palace or served to the gods in the temple.

Food Preservation and Storage. Unless preserved in some way, all

foods last for only a short time before spoiling. Food processing and stor-
age were thus very important to ancient peoples, allowing them to save
See foods for later use or times of special need. The main techniques for pre-
color plate 6, serving food were drying, salting, and smoking. Meat, fish, and fowl
vol. 2.
could all be preserved this way, allowing them to be stored for significant
periods. Most vegetables were not processed and preserved, so people
only ate these foods while they were in season. Certain fruits—including
figs, dates, and grapes—could be preserved by drying. The dried fruits
were then pressed into cakes or stored in pottery containers.
Certain grains could be preserved by heating, which killed the seeds
and prevented them from sprouting. To protect the seeds from spoilage
and rodents, the grain was sometimes treated with smoke and fumes and
stored in large sealed containers.
103
Fortifications

In individual households, people generally stored foods in clay jars of

various sizes and shapes. These might be placed in a certain room, in an
area of a courtyard, or in storage areas sunk into the floor. Most commu-
nities also set aside special areas for the storage of food. Public storehouses
generally were located in areas that were both accessible and easy to
guard and defend, such as near a city's main gates or administration
buildings. (See also Agriculture; Animals, Domestication of; Feasts and
Festivals; Fishing; Hunting.)

fortifications—structures built to protect against attack—played an

• important role in the city-states*, kingdoms, and empires of the
FORTIFICATIONS * ancient Near East. This was especially true for cities built on flat
plains that had no natural barriers, in regions such as southern Mesopo-
tamia. Most early fortifications consisted of walls built around a city.
These walls not only provided protection from enemy attack, but they
* city-state independent state consisting also marked the limits of the city. Their size and strength symbolized the
of a city and its surrounding territory power and prestige of the state or ruler. In some places, walls also served
as barriers against flooding. In addition to city walls, ancient peoples also
built fortresses at strategic points within their territory and along its bor-
ders to help defend against invaders.
The nature of fortifications varied greatly, depending on a combina-
tion of military, political, economic, and geographic factors. These factors
influenced the size, shape, and structure of fortifications as well as the
materials used to build them. Wealthy, powerful cities could afford to
build large and elaborate fortifications. Communities that lacked ade-
quate resources might devise a simple defensive system by arranging an
outer ring of houses around the settlement. The rear walls of these houses
provided a simple barrier against intruders. As the political and economic
fortunes of a city or town changed over time, its fortifications often
changed as well.

Basic Elements of Fortifications. The fortification systems of the

ancient Near East consisted of several basic elements: a barrier wall or
* rampart protective barrier earthen rampart*, GATES, towers, and surrounding ditches and slopes.
The earliest and simplest type of barrier was a solid wall of stone or brick.
Built to various heights and widths, such walls generally provided an ef-
fective barrier against attackers. Sometimes other solid walls were built
against the outside of the original wall to make the wall thicker and to
provide added defense.
Another type of barrier was the casemate wall, which consisted of two
parallel walls with a space between. The space might be filled with soil or
stones to provide added strength or left open and used as a storage space.
Sometimes the casemate walls were integrated into dwellings and func-
tioned as the rear part of a house. Solid and casemate walls generally had
* archaeologist scientist who studies walkways and overhanging balcony-like structures along their tops from
past human cultures, usually by which defenders could attack an enemy.
excavating material remains of human Some ancient cities had large earthen ramparts, or mounds, rising as high
activity
as 295 feet. However, archaeologists* have found no evidence that city walls
104
 Fortifications

were built on these ramparts. This suggests that they served to mark city
limits or to give inhabitants a feeling of security.
People in the ancient Near East entered and left their WALLED CITIES
through gates. There were generally only a few main gates because they rep-
resented the weakest line of defense in a wall, the place where the city was
most easily accessible to foes. Projecting towers were usually built on each
side of a gate, providing a platform from which armed troops could defend
it and the city. Rooms within the towers housed guards or served as stor-
age areas. Often towers were spaced apart along other sections of a wall to
serve as platforms for defenders. Walls also contained bastions, reinforced
corners that enabled defenders to fire at attackers from various angles.
Urban fortifications often included deep ditches called moats, which
surrounded the city walls. Constructed at the foot of walls or ramparts to
increase their height, moats were especially important on level terrain,
where there were no natural slopes or hills to help protect the site. Some-
times moats were filled with water, providing an added level of defense.
Protecting the outer slopes of some walls were inclined layers of soil,
bricks, or stone known as a glacis. A retaining wall of brick or stone at the
foot of the glacis helped to hold it in place, and the face of the glacis was
sometimes covered with paving stone. The glacis served two purposes: it
helped protect the foundation of a wall from damage due to erosion, and
it created a smooth, slippery slope that was difficult for attackers to climb.

History of Fortifications. Fortifications started to appear in the Near

* eighth millennium B.C. period from East as early as the eighth millennium B.C.*, when rivalries between
8000 to 7001 B.C. neighboring settlements created a need for defensive structures. Among
the earliest known examples of a wall and tower are those of the town of
* Levant lands bordering the eastern
JERICHO in the Levant*, which date back to the eighth millennium B.C. In
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- the centuries that followed, fortifications sprang up throughout the Near
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West East, becoming increasingly large and sophisticated.
Bank, and Jordan
By the third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.), the rise of
large territorial states—often at war with each other—had created a need
for extensive fortifications. The most outstanding example of city fortifica-
tions in Mesopotamia during this period protected the Sumerian city of
URUK. Surrounding Uruk was an enormous wall nearly 6 miles long with
about 900 semicircular towers. The best-known fortifications in Anatolia
(present-day Turkey) are those of TROY, which consisted of massive city
walls, bastions, and towers. Though no remains of fortifications from this
period have been found in Egypt, evidence from paintings and other
sources reveals that the Egyptians also built impressive urban fortifications.
During the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.),
many cities had begun to incorporate earthen ramparts, glacis, and moats
into their fortifications. The most impressive use of these elements was in
the Levant, where some cities had massive earthen ramparts up to 130
feet thick at the base and nearly 50 feet high. The steep slopes created by
* siege long and persistent effort to force such ramparts and glacis provided better protection against the siege*
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or weapons and techniques of warfare that were used during this time.
city with armed troops, cutting it off The expansion of rival empires in the first millennium B.C. (years
from supplies and aid
from 1000 to 1 B.C.) led to the development of new methods of warfare
and more extensive fortifications. NINEVEH and BABYLON had immense
105
Fruit

fortifications that fit their status as capitals of mighty empires.

fortifi-
The
cations of Babylon, included two enormous walls, one inside the other
many towers; and a large moat nearly 330 feet wide. Many large cities
built separate defensive systems within such fortifications to provide
added protection to palaces and government buildings. Because this was a
period of intense rivalry between kingdoms and empires, almost all cities
of the ancient NearEast constructed strongfortifications for defense.
Toward the end of thefirst millennium
B.C., a new dynamic began to
unfold. Fortified cities in conquered territories posed a threat to the co
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or quering imperial* power. This was because the conquered inhabitants
an empire might feel that the walls made them secure and that they could therefor
revolt. For instance, when the city of Babylon tried to revolt against Per-
sian rule in the 400s
B.C., the Persians destroyed the city's walls to deprive
the city of defenses. The Persians did the same to other cities in
quered areas to make them defenseless against their imperial forces. At
the same time, they established military forts throughout their empire to
station troops and secure conquered territories. Such forts had existed
throughout the centuries, but they became a standardfeature of imperial
rule.(See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Building Materi
Cities and City-States; Wars and Warfare; Weapons and Arm

Fruit See Agriculture;Food and Drink.

FURNISHINGS
P eople in modern Western cultures regard furniture as a necessity.
Their homes are furnished with pieces used for sitting, sleeping, eat-
ing from, and so on. The people of the ancient NearEast, however, were
AND FURNITURE accustomed to sitting, lying, or squatting on the ground. For many, item
such as chairs and tables were not necessities but extras, perhaps even
luxuries.
Most ancient furniture was made of wood, leather, reeds, and cloth—
materials that decay over time. The survival of complete or nearly complete
106
 Furnishings and Furniture
pieces of furniture depends on both local custom and climate. Furniture
placed in tombs in an extremely dry climate, such as in Egypt, was most
likely to be preserved. Furniture from other areas is known from the parts
that have been found, such as bronze hardware or IVORY decorations that
were once fastened to furniture pieces. Images and descriptions of furniture
in artwork and texts reveal how ancient furniture was used.

ANATOLIA TO MESOPOTAMIA
* archaeological referring to the study of The archaeological* site £ATAL HUYUK in ancient ANATOLIA (present-day
past human cultures, usually by Turkey) contains some of the oldest known furniture in the ancient Near
excavating material remains of human East. Buildings dating from the late seventh millennium B.C.* have plat-
activity
forms made of plaster extending out from the walls. These probably
* seventh millennium B.C. years from served as benches, tables, and beds. Recesses in the walls probably served
7000 to 6001 B.C.
as cupboards. The people of £atal Hiiyuk may have had movable furni-
ture as well. A small statue found there shows a goddess sitting on a stool
supported on both sides by standing cats. This is the earliest known ex-
ample of a seat with animal supports—a style that was used for the seats
of gods, kings, and nobles for the next 6,000 years. While the discoveries
at £atal Hiiyiik provide valuable glimpses of early furniture, most evi-
dence of furniture from the ancient Near East dates from around 3000 B.C.
or later.

Household Furnishings. From very early times, people appear to

have kept their clothing and personal possessions in bags, baskets, and
boxes rather than in large pieces of furniture designed for storage. A Mes-
opotamian household would have had many reed chests for storing
goods, including inscribed CLAY TABLETS that detailed business or other
records. Kitchenware included kettles for boiling water and small jars for
oil, liquid butter, and beer, as well as sets of millstones used for grinding
grain, spices, and sesame seeds. Household textiles included rugs, car-
pets, and blankets, made of wool, goat hair, or linen.
Among the HITTITES of Anatolia, household furnishings included bas-
kets and chests to hold blankets, clothing, and other objects. POTTERY
pitchers, bowls, cups, jars, and plates were plentiful and were often shaped
like animals such as bulls, lions, or birds. These were used in religious ritu-
als and for everyday use.
Household and personal objects of the people who lived in the Lev-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ant* included reed mats, which served as rugs. Many people kept their
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- personal possessions in wooden chests, some of which had sliding lids.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West When these chests were not available, people used reed baskets to store
Bank, and Jordan
goods. Daylight was supplemented by pottery lamps that held olive oil
and wicks made of FLAX.

Furniture. Most people slept and sat on the floor or on platforms or

simple benches, with mats, rugs, and cushions for comfort. The wealthy
and powerful, however, cherished fine items of furniture.
Tables were in use by 3000 B.C. Some were simply stands to support
bowls or pitchers; others appear to have had removable tops that served as
trays. Later tables were made with tray tops or tops that had depressions in
107
Furnishings and Furniture

the center to hold food. Some large tables may have been used asserving
See stands or sideboards.Beds and couches were less common and consisted
colorplate1, of woodenframes with resting surfacesof woven rope.
vol. 4.
The most common kind MESOPOTAMIA
of seatin was the stool. There
were many types—boxlike stoolsof woodor reeds, folding stools with
crossed legs, and tall cylinders. Some were elaborately decorated.For in-
stance, stools shown in the Royal Standard of Ur,which dates from
around 2500 B.C., include carved bull's legs.
The earliest chairs were simply stools with backs. Chairs were madeof
many kinds of wood, sometimes painted or covered with copper, bronze,
silver, or gold.Seats were sometimes upholstered with leather. fanci-
The
est chairs of all were royal thrones, which were often extensively deco-
* stela stone slab or pillar that hasbeen rated with ivory, gold,GEMS.
and
A stela*
from about
B.C. shows
2100a
carved or engravedand
servesas a god seated on a stool that isdecorated with panels thatlook like the deco-
monument; pi.stelae rations on the outer walls of temples.
In the second millennium B.C. (years
from 2000to B.C.),
furni-1001
ture became more elaborate. Pieces decorated with ivory carvings have
* sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's been found in sites from Anatolia, Mesopotamia,and the Levant. These
body and a human head items includefinely carved sphinxes* and plaques thatdecorated wooden
* booty riches or property gained boxes. FromUGARIT, a cityon the Syrian coast, archaeologists have found
through conquest a round table with a rose design in the center. That rosette, as thedesign is
* tribute payment made by a smaller or called, was carvedfrom elephant ivory to show animals and mythologi-
weaker party to a more powerful one, cal creatures. Thousandsof ivory objects, including attachments
fur- for
often under the threat of force niture, have been found atAssyrian sites datingfrom the 800sto the 600s
* artisan skilled craftsperson B.C. Assyrian kings often commissioned workshops to build piecesfor
them. They also collected furnitureasbooty* from their conquests and re-
ceived it as part of tribute*.
Excavators have found examples of magnificent wooden furniture,
together with iron, bronze, and clay objects, in tombs dating from the
700sB.C.at the Phrygian siteof Gordionin Anatolia. Some ofthese pieces
have ornate inlays, showing that artisans*had masteredthe art form-
of
ing patterns by joining together tiny pieces different
of colored woods.
One table consisted of a walnut top on three curved legs. Thelegs and
framework supporting the top were designed in an intricate geometric
pattern made of thousands of piecesof juniper inlaidin boxwood. Even
in antiquity, Phrygianfurniturewas famous.In B.C.,
the
the400s
Greek
historian Herodotus recommended to his readers that awooden throne
given by the Phrygian king Midas to the Greek temple at Delphi some
three centuries earlier waswell worth seeing.
The typical house in the Levant had chairs or stools and tables. Most
people slept on reed mats. Beds, which were found only in the homes of
the wealthy, were of two types: mud brick with mud-brick pillowsor
wooden frames that supported leather or rope webbing. Tables were
more common. Many had three legs, making them well suited tobal-
ance on the uneven dirt floors of most houses. Often the legs were
carved in theform of animal legs, paws, or heads. Hollows in the table
surfaces may have served as food containers. A typical household
owned between three and eight stools or chairsforeach table. Seats usu-
ally consisted of wooden side railsto which leather fiber
orwebbing was
attached.
108
 Furnishings and Furniture

EGYPT
Egyptian furniture and home furnishings varied according to wealth and
* ebony dark, heavy, and highly prized class. The royal family sat on chairs of ebony* or wood with ivory inlays.
wood from certain tropical trees They stored their clothes in chests decorated with gold paint. The lower
classes probably sat and slept on reed mats spread on the floor and kept
their belongings in baskets. Examples of furniture and household goods
from all classes of society have survived, thanks to the practice of burying
goods with the dead and the dry desert air. These grave goods sometimes
included furniture used during the person's lifetime. Other pieces were es-
pecially made for burial, often in the form of a model or miniature.

Household Furnishings. The interiors of Egyptian houses gained

both color and comfort from mats and textiles, including cushions, wo-
ven wall hangings, and chair covers. Most houses had lamps, usually
small pottery bowls with oil-soaked fiber wicks. Occasionally people
placed lamps on tall wooden stands to create a light similar to a modern
floor lamp. One such lamp was found among the household goods in
the tomb of Kha, an architect who lived sometime around 1400 B.C. It
consisted of a stone slab, a tall column carved to resemble a papyrus
stem, and a bowl at the top to hold the fuel. Kha's burial goods included
a commode — a wooden stool with a hole in the seat, under which a
chamber pot was placed.
Marriage documents listing the items a bride brought to her new
home are a good source of information about the furnishings of Egyptian
households. These items included clothes, textiles, jewelry, metal vessels
for washing and cooking, a mirror, and a bed.
The Egyptians used chests and baskets of all shapes and sizes for
countless purposes. They stored their clothes in boxes. Rectangular boxes
with flat lids, sometimes with four short legs, held linens and household
* scribe person of a learned class who effects. Scribes* kept their writing materials in boxes shaped like shrines;
served as a writer, editor, or teacher similar boxes also held jewelry and other valuables. Small sturdy wooden
* amulet small object thought to have chests with legs or boxes made of reeds often held amulets*, strings of
supernatural or magical powers beads, metal razors and tweezers for removing facial and body hair, braids
of false hair, and cosmetics. Numerous storage containers might be
needed, as households often stored large quantities of textiles to provide
* dowry money or property that a part of a bride's dowry* or to use as barter for other goods.
woman brings to the man she marries
Furniture. Stools and small tables were the most common items of
household furniture. Wealthy individuals owned chairs and beds. Furni-
ture styles changed over time. Those of the Old Kingdom (from about
2675 to 2130 B.C.) tended to be heavier and more massive. During the
times of the Middle Kingdom (from about 1980 to 1630 B.C.) and the
See New Kingdom (from about 1539 to 1075 B.C.), pieces were lighter. Lion
color plate 2, legs were the dominant decoration on furniture. Decorations sometimes
vol. 1.
reflected the symbols of HIEROGLYPHICS, the Egyptian system of writing.
For instance, the posts on a queen's bed from the Old Kingdom were in
the form of the hieroglyphic symbol meaning "great/' The curved neck-
piece on which Egyptians rested their heads when they slept resembled
the hieroglyph for horizon.
109
Games
The stool was by far the most common piece of furniture. Peasants
and workers might use rough, three-legged stools, but nobles and kings
sat on finely inlaid pieces. Work stools tended to have wooden or leather
seats; seats of woven reeds were more likely to be used within the home.
There were folding stools, stools made of wicker, and for the poor, stools
that were simply small slabs of stone or wood.
Chairs indicated a higher status than stools. A basic type was simply
an animal-leg stool with a slanted back added. Some chairs had seats close
Furniture Fit to the ground and wide enough to hold someone sitting cross-legged.
for the Gods Stools, chairs, and beds sometimes stood on cone-shaped limestone sup-
The Egyptians and the Mesopota- ports, which raised the furniture off the packed-mud floors and helped
mians regarded the temples they
built as their deities' houses, Uke { keep them clean and away from crawling insects. Lavishly decorated
any fine house, a temple needed } chairs served as royal thrones. A spectacular example was found in the
furniture—and only the finest ma- tomb of TUTANKHAMEN. The throne is made of wood covered with gold
terials and most exquisite work* sheeting and decorated with semiprecious stones and colored glass. The
manship would do for the gods and legs are carved to resemble lion's paws, and the backrest features a painted
goddesses* So important and well i scene of the king and his wife.
known were the beds made for
Mesopotamian temples that they j Those who could afford tables used them for dining. Each diner had
were used in the naming of years. his or her own small table—large communal tables are unknown. Those
For example, a year during the too poor to own tables simply kept their plates beside them on the floor.
reign of King Shulgi of Ur was ''the Like tables, beds were rarely found in humble households. The early
year in which the bed of Ninlil was beds slanted downward from head to foot, although later beds were paral-
constructed." The goddess Ninlil
was the wife of Enlil, an important lel to the ground. Instead of pillows, the Egyptians rested their heads on
Sumerian god. small wooden or stone headrests or neck rests, sometimes softening these
with cushions. Egyptians prized their beds as a mark of elegance and civi-
lization. The hero of The Story ofSinuhe, returning to Egypt after long
years of travel in less refined lands, rejoices at once more being able to
* deity god or goddess sleep in a bed. Some beds had footboards carved with images of deities*
traditionally thought to protect women during pregnancy, childbirth,
and nursing. (See also Houses; Wood and Woodworking.)

GAMES
J ust as people play games to amuse themselves today, people of the an-
cient Near East played games to entertain themselves. They played
with toys, enjoyed board games and games of chance, and also partici-
pated in outdoor games. No one knows exactly how some of these games
were played. However, others are familiar to people today.
Much physical evidence of ancient games and toys has not been pre-
served because most playthings were made of perishable materials such as
wood, leather, or unbaked clay. Objects clearly identifiable as things for
play appeared in the ancient Near East beginning in the Neolithic pe-
* Neolithic period final phase of the riod*. It is possible to gain a sense of games and toys and their uses from
Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. this time on. Written references, artwork, inscriptions on buildings and
* archaeological referring to the study of pottery, and other archaeological* evidence help create a picture of the
past human cultures, usually by games played and enjoyed in the ancient Near East.
excavating material remains of human In all likelihood, children's outdoor activities were the earliest form of
activity
games. Running races, skipping rope, wrestling, and other forms of active
play have always been a part of childhood. An Egyptian tomb scene from
about 2300 B.C. shows boys engaged in a tug-of-war. Children also played
110
 Games
leapfrog and a game in which one child balanced on another'sback. They
also liked whirling games that made them dizzy, arm wrestling, and
See swimming. In addition, they probably used swings and seesaws.
Boys un-
colorplate9, doubtedly played war and hunting games with weapons they made
vol. 2.
themselves.Girls played house with dolls.
Surviving records show that several ball games were playedinEgypt,
with balls made of leather,
fabric, or reeds that might
stuffed
be with rags.
Sometimes balls were madeof wood. Scrapsofwool servedthe same pur-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern pose in Mesopotamia and the Levant*. These balls rolled but did not
shores of the Mediterranean Sea bounce. Children used them to play catch andjuggle.
(present- to
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Although almost anyobject couldbe usedas atoy, ancient Near
East-
Bank, and Jordan
ern peoples had some objects that were clearly intended only forplay.
Among the earliest play objects were baby rattles, foundat numerous
sites in the NearEast. Other toys, suchas miniature dishes,
furniture,
and animals made of wood and clay, are mentioned in texts that were
found at archaeological sites. Archaeologists also believe thatmany of
the small humanfigures found throughout the ancient Near East may
have been dolls.
Tops were also usedfor play.A topliketoy made of a small disk
through which holes were bored for leather straps existed inMesopo-
tamia and the Levant. When the straps were stretched and relaxed in

Ill
Gardens
turn, the disk began to spin, jump, and hum. This toy is still in use
throughout the world. Other toys with moving parts, often activated by
strings, have also been found.
Not all games were children's games. Adults also played several games,
some of which were taken quite seriously, such as games of chance.
See Moves on board games were made by throwing dice or animal knuckle-
color plate 4, bones. These knucklebones, called astrigali, were among the most widely
vol. 2.
used gaming pieces in ancient times. With four long sides, they were used
as four-sided dice. Astrigali were made of stone, metal, and glass, as were
other types of dice, including six-sided and pyramid-shaped dice. Astrigali
were also used in several dice games.
Perhaps the most popular board game was the game the Egyptians
called senet This game was known throughout the Near East. It was
played on a board of thirty squares, some of them beautifully crafted of
rare materials. Dice throws determined the moves. Although the rules of
the game are unclear, the object may have been to reenact a quest for eter-
nal life.
Babylonian clay tablets with square fields inscribed with signs of the
ZODIAC comprised the board for the "game of princes/' Some of the boards
were made with precious and semiprecious stones. This game was proba-
bly played by throwing astrigali. Guessing games, referred to in the He-
brew Bible, and similar games of language or pantomime also amused
people in the ancient Near East. (See also Entertainment; Family and So-
cial Life.)

GARDENS
T hroughout the ancient Near East, gardens were kept as places for
growing fruits and vegetables, as places of refuge from the hot and
dusty climate, as sanctuaries for rare animals and plants, and as symbols
of status and wealth. The ways in which they were planted and cared for
depended on the region, the wealth of the owner, and the availability of
water.
* fourth millennium B.C. years from As early as the fourth millennium B.C.*, the Egyptians began growing
4000 to 3001 B.C. gardens in the Nile Valley. Here gardens were cultivated in palaces,
houses, and temples, and IRRIGATION was dependent upon the waters of
the NILE RIVER. In palaces and houses, the magnificence of a garden de-
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt pended on the wealth of its owner. Gardens of pharaohs* and wealthy of-
ficials sometimes contained zoos, pools, lakes, pavilions, shade trees, and
shrines. Conversely, the gardens of less wealthy people usually consisted
of only a few trees planted in pots next to their homes. Small gardens
were often watered by hand, while large gardens depended on irrigation
canals, which brought water from pools and wells.
The rulers of ancient Egypt also collected rare species of plants for their
gardens. Queen HATSHEPSUT (ruled ca. 1472-1458 B.C.) sent a plant-collecting
expedition to a region south of Egypt known as the land of Punt, while
THUTMOSE III (ruled ca. 1479-1425 B.C.) sent an expedition to SYRIA to
gather new plants for his garden. RAMSES II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.)
created a garden with fruit trees and flowers from many regions and far-
away lands. The walls of some pharaohs' tombs were painted with scenes
112
 Gates
of garden landscapes because it was believed these paintings gave pleasure
and nourishment to the dead.
Egyptian gardens contained a wide variety of fruit trees such as fig,
date, and pomegranate, which provided both food and shade. Vegetables
and legumes were grown here as well and included such items as lettuce,
onions, peas, broad beans, lentils, cucumbers, and radishes.
* cuneiform world's oldest form of Cuneiform* texts dating from the third millennium B.C.* provide infor-
writing, which takes its name from the mation about the gardens, parks, and orchards in the cities of MESOPOTAMIA.
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed Here gardens were planted at palaces, estates, and temples. Like the Egypt-
into clay tablets
ian rulers, Mesopotamian kings viewed gardens as status symbols and col-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 lected rare species of plants and animals to keep in them. Among the
to 2001 B.C.
Mesopotamian kings who created elaborate gardens were TIGLATH-PILESER I
(ruled ca. 1114-1076 B.C.) and NEBUCHADNEZZAR II (ruled 605-562 B.C.). The
most famous of the Mesopotamian gardens were the HANGING GARDENS OF
BABYLON.
Sumerians developed the technique of shade gardening, in which
date palms were planted around the garden to provide protection for the
other plants from wind, sun, and sand. Among the crops grown in these
gardens were peas, beans, lentils, garlic, leeks, cucumbers, lettuce, mel-
ons, cumin, coriander, mustard, watercress, grapes, figs, and apples. These
gardens usually were located near rivers and canals.
In Persia, the garden was called paradeisos, a name meaning "beauti-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ful garden/' which is related to the word paradise. The earliest example of
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- a paradeisos was the garden in the city of Pasargadae in Persia, where king
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West CYRUS THE GREAT (ca. 559-529 B.C.) planted many trees in even rows along-
Bank, and Jordan
side his palace. Gardens similar to Cyrus's were created in ANATOLIA, Syria,
* satrap provincial governor in Persian- and the Levant*, and were cultivated by satraps* during the time of the
controlled territory
PERSIAN EMPIRE.

GATES
Q aates played an important role in the FORTIFICATIONS, or defensive
fstructures, of urban settlements in the ancient Near East. They
served? as entrances and exits to WALLED CITIES, allowing inhabitants to
move between their homes in the city and the surrounding countryside.
Gates often had a symbolic function as well. Large decorated gates served
as symbols of the power and prestige of a city and its rulers.
The earliest gates were probably simple openings in a wall, defended
by guards or fitted with wooden doors. Gates needed to be defended be-
See cause they were openings to the city that could potentially be penetrated
[color plate 12, ] by attackers. As such, gates were the weakest points in a wall's defenses. As
vol. 3.
a result, the peoples of the ancient Near East soon devised ways to protect
gates and make a city less vulnerable.
One technique people used to strengthen their defense was to limit
the number of gates in a wall, thus providing fewer weak points for an en-
emy to attack. Large walled cities might have only a few main gates and
several smaller ones. To protect the gates themselves, people built towers
that projected outward from the wall on either side of a gate. These tow-
ers helped protect the approaches to a gate, and their roofs served as plat-
forms from which defenders could fire their weapons at an approaching
113
Gems
enemy. The towers flanking a city gate were often very large. Many con-
tained from two to six rooms, which were used to house guards, store
supplies, or serve other military or civilian purposes.
The approaches to gates and their towers were sometimes perpendic-
ular to the walls, generally up a sloping ramp or a series of steps. However,
sometimes the approach to a gate was angled so that it was parallel to the
city walls. This made attackers an easier target for the defenders on the
walls above.
In addition to large fortified gates, many cities' walls—such as those
in KHATTUSHA in Anatolia (present-day Turkey)—had small, narrow gates
with passageways leading through the city walls or under them. Called
posterns, these gates provided shortcuts to farmers going to fields in the
surrounding countryside. Without them, residents might have had to
walk great distances to reach the main gates of the city. Because the
posterns were small and narrow, they could be blocked quickly and de-
fended easily from the walls above.
Most large city gates had heavy wooden doors—often clad in bronze
or reinforced with metal—that could be locked from the inside by heavy
horizontal beams. Sometimes these doors were richly decorated with bas-
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which relief* scenes or designs on the bronze. The scenes on some ancient gates
material is cut away to leave figures uncovered by archaeologists* depict events from the lives of rulers. For in-
projecting slightly from the background stance, bronze gates erected by Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II show a bat-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past tle between Aramaeans and Assyrians.
human cultures, usually by excavating Some main gates were also decorated with stone bas-relief carvings or
material remains of human activity
colored tiles. Many of the subjects were real or imaginary animals, such as
* sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's lions, bulls, and sphinxes*, that served as guardian figures to protect the
body and a human head
gate. The most highly decorated gates often served a ceremonial function
during processions and other important events. One of the most famous
See of such gates is the Ishtar Gate built by Nebuchadnezzar at BABYLON, a
color plate 3, blue-tiled gate with golden images of bulls and dragons. This gate was sit-
vol. 2.
uated along the approach to the temple of MARDUK, the principle god of
the Babylonians. (See also Animals in Art; Architecture; Sculpture.)

GEMS
Q ems are precious or semiprecious stones, which people value for
their color and brilliance as well as for their magical properties. JEW-
ELRY was common in the ancient Near East, but only the richest and most
important people—both women and men—could afford jewelry studded
with gems. Gemstones added color, protection, and interest—and cost-
to the items. Gems were also used as tribute*.
* tribute payment made by a smaller or Gemstones are hard enough to last but soft enough to be carved. Most
weaker party to a more powerful one, were carved into beads of varying sizes and colors. In some cases, flat
often under the threat of force pieces of stone were cut into different shapes and set in metal to create
* mosaic art form in which objects are mosaics* that depicted, for instance, the feathers of a bird. Gem carvers at
decorated with small pieces of stone or first used local stones. However, land and sea trade made gemstones from
glass that form an image
distant regions available. Consequently, it was possible for artisans* in
* artisan skilled craftsperson Egypt or Mesopotamia to work with lapis lazuli* from Afghanistan.
* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious The earliest known use of gems in the area was in ANATOLIA (present-
stone day Turkey), where thousands of malachite beads with holes drilled in
114
 Gems
them and dating from around 7000 B.C. have been found. In Mesopota-
mia, the body in a tomb dating from around 3000 B.C. was covered with
25,000 semiprecious stone beads, along with gold jewelry adorned with
turquoise and lapis lazuli. At a royal tomb in UR, from around the same
time, a queen's body was covered with gold and silver jewelry that con-
tained lapis lazuli, carnelian, and agate.
The living wore gems as a symbol of their wealth and power as well as
for protection from evil and illness. Sumerian royalty and the elite wore
pins, diadems (headbands), earrings, beaded necklaces, rings, bracelets,
and armlets. These pieces of jewelry might contain lapis, carnelian, agate,
turquoise, malachite, and other colored gems. Gemstones, in addition to
being purely decorative, could also be engraved with a wide variety of im-
ages and inscriptions and used as SEALS.
Gems were an important part of Egyptian jewelry making. Although
See the most prized stones were lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan), turquoise
[ color plate 4, (from the Sinai), and carnelian (from Alexandria and Nubia), Egyptian
vol. 4.
jewelry makers used many more stones. The colors chosen conveyed
symbolic meaning. Red symbolized strength and death. Green referred to
the rebirth of life and was thus linked to good harvests.
Egyptians used gems in necklaces, pendants, bracelets and armlets,
earrings, diadems, and beltlike girdles. Gems were often used in complex
designs and to portray people, animals, and vegetation. One piece from

Gems were a symbol of wealth and power GEMS OF THE ANO&fT NEAR EAST
in the ancient Near East, especially those
studded with the most valued stones—
Common Gems Colors
lapis lazuli, turquoise, and carnelian. In agate multicolored bands or stripes
addition to their use as a decoration, some
gems were thought to have magical prop- amethyst violet
erties that could protect the wearer from
evil and sickness—red stones symbolized calcite white
strength and vigor as well as death and
carnelian bright red
sadness; green stones symbolized life.
chalcedony white, gray, blue, brown

emerald green

feldspar colorless; also pink to red

hematite steel gray

jasper red; also yellow, green, grayish-blue

lapis lazuli deep blue or violet

malachite green

obsidian black
quartz white; also colorless

steatite (soapstone) gray, green

turquoise bright blue

115
Gender and Sex
2000 B.C. shows two birds, two snakes, a scarab beetle, and other religious
symbols and is inlaid with amethyst, turquoise, feldspar, lapis lazuli, car-
nelian, and garnet. The stone inlays are cut into varying shapes and sizes
to represent the birds' different feathers. The colors alternate, so each
feather is obvious.
A unique use of gems in Egypt was the carved scarab, an image of the
* amulet small object thought to have dung beetle, which was a popular amulet*. Scarabs were first used in the
supernatural or magical powers Old Kingdom (beginning around 2675 B.C.), but their popularity grew
during the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), when they began
to be used as seals. They were worn on pendants, tied to bracelets, or tied
with thread or wire to a finger. (See also Amulets and Charms; Economy
and Trade; Lapis Lazuli.)

GI-NDK Si x
W hen archaeologists* and scholars study past human cultures, they
focus not only on buildings and artworks but also on the ideas
and social structures that determined how people lived. One area of study
concerns gender, focusing on the beliefs and customs that determine
how a particular culture views men and women. To ancient Near Eastern
societies, each gender was believed to have its own rights and responsibil-
* archaeologist scientist who studies ities. Those rights and responsibilities varied considerably.
past human cultures, usually by
excavating material remains of human Social Status. Almost all ancient Near Eastern cultures were patriar-
activity
chal. That is, men occupied most political positions and dominated deci-
sion making. There were exceptions to this principle, however. Some
evidence suggests that the Lycians in ANATOLIA and the Elamites in IRAN
had matriarchal societies. Moreover, some queens, such as HATSHEPSUT of
Egypt, ruled some states, and Assyrian wives acted as the heads of house-
holds and businesses when their husbands were away. The very fact that
these powerful women stand out in the historical record, however, sug-
gests that they were exceptions to the norm, and society could respond
harshly to those who defied gender expectations. The man who followed
Hatshepsut on the Egyptian throne took pains to wipe out public mem-
ory of her by erasing references to her from monuments.
Images in art and literature offer some clues about a society's attitudes
toward gender. However, these images often represent the stereotypical
views held by a society. For instance, art of everyday life in the ancient
Near East reflects the patriarchal society in which women's roles were
seen as distinctly different from and less important than those of men.
Mesopotamian art, for example, contains many representations of god-
desses but few of earthly women or of everyday activities. When women
do appear, they are generally shown as barefoot prisoners, suffering fig-
ures in war scenes, or mothers nurturing children.
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or Reading artifacts* for clues to ancient social attitudes can be a difficult
other object made by humans practice, however. For years, archaeologists suspected that men had active
lives outdoors while women did not. There is evidence to support this
view. For example, objects of personal adornment found at Hasanlu, a site
in northwestern Iran dating from around 800 B.C., include metal belts
116
 Gender and Sex
and armbands for men and hair adornments and dangling earrings for
women. Belts, often used to hold weapons, suggest action, and armbands
draw attention to the biceps. The men's ornaments, then, are related to
action and strength. The women's emphasize the face and beauty and
hint at a less active life spent indoors.
On the other hand, further studies suggest that gender distinctions
were not so clear-cut. Some of the women whose remains were found at
Color Codes Hasanlu were wearing large, heavy pins in the shape of lions. These sym-
A clue to the belief that women
bols of high status and power were normally associated with male pur-
were occupied indoors while men
worked outdoors is offered by
suits such as hunting. These women apparently wore the decorations
Egyptian art. Typically, women are because they had high-status positions. Thus, gender may not have been
shown witJUight, yellowish-brown the only factor that determined women's social position. Scholars at-
skin. Men's skin is a darker reddish- tempting to interpret the past, then, need to bear these distinctions in
brown, The lighter color for women mind, as well as to think about gender-related roles.
may indicate that they were less ex-
posed to sunlight Mate high offi-
Evidence from artworks and artifacts does not tell the entire story of
cials are also shown with light skin, status either. In Egyptian art, wives might be shown as smaller figures
This suggests that they may have than their husbands, perhaps reflecting the male-dominated social struc-
reached a point in their careers ture. On the other hand, this might simply reflect the fact that women
where they could spend most of are generally physically smaller than men. Egyptian law indicates that
their time working indoors.
women were given equal rights to men. Women could own, inherit, and
dispose of property and enter into business deals. Unlike women of other
cultures, who needed male guardians to speak for them in court, Egyptian
women could go to court on an equal footing with men. This equality
could work both ways. In one court record, a woman who committed a
crime with three men was given the same punishment as the men. Schol-
ars must therefore balance the information gained from artworks and ar-
tifacts with what they know from other sources in drawing conclusions
about gender roles.

Sexual Behavior. Where sexual behavior was concerned, some men

and women lived under what today would be called a double standard.
Society and the law had different expectations for men and women—
and different punishments when they broke the rules. For example, the
* adultery sexual relationship between a ancient Israelites defined the crime of adultery* according to gender
married person and someone other than and class. A married man who had sexual relations with an unmarried
his or her spouse woman was not committing adultery. A married woman who had such
relations with anyone but her husband was committing adultery and
risked execution. Under Hittite law, adultery could be punished by
death, but if the act took place in an isolated area, the married woman's
life was spared. The assumption under that circumstance was that she
could not cry out for help. Egyptian attitudes toward adultery were more
lenient. There was no death penalty attached to the act, although partic-
ipants were open to the disapproval of their neighbors.
Attitudes toward sexual behavior stemmed from the belief that the
family was the organizing unit of society. In Mesopotamia, for exam-
ple, prostitution was considered part of society, yet prostitutes were
outsiders, women who had ''lost their way." Homosexuals were
viewed in the same way by Babylonians, and Assyrians severely pun-
ished men for homosexual acts. The Israelites banned homosexuality
entirely. Other Near Eastern cultures, such as the Egyptian, may have
117
Geography
tolerated homosexuality but regarded anyone who did not marry and
have children as abnormal. (See also Family and Social Life; Marriage;
Women, Role of.)

GEOGRAPHY
T he geography, or the physical and biological features, of a region de-
termines many aspects of life for the people who live there. A re-
gion's geographical features can isolate it or can attract people from other
lands. The geographical features of the Near East range from coastal
plains to barren deserts, from rugged mountains to fertile plateaus.

Mesopotamia. The Greeks gave MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Iraq and

eastern Syria) its name, which means ''land between the rivers'' to mark
its geographical location. Mesopotamia, a plain bordered by the EU-
PHRATES RIVER on the west and the TIGRIS RIVER on the east, lies in the east-
ern third of the horn-shaped region of the Near East known as the FERTILE
CRESCENT.
The Tigris and Euphrates are 250 miles apart as they flow out of ANA-
TOLIA (present-day Turkey). The Euphrates takes an 800-mile southeasterly
course, the Tigris a more southerly course for about 550 miles before the
two rivers join to form the Shatt al Arab River in southern Mesopotamia.
In northern Mesopotamia, the Euphrates and Tigris flow through plains,
but the Tigris cuts so deeply into the plains that it is surrounded by cliffs
and hills.
South of the great eastward bend in the Euphrates, in the central part
* alluvial composed of clay, silt, sand, of Mesopotamia, the rivers enter the southern alluvial* plain. There, after
gravel, or similar material deposited by centuries of carrying and depositing silt, the rivers have created a fairly
running water flat plain. This flat landscape makes it easy for the floodwaters to reach
the land in spring and makes it possible for the rivers to change their
courses. One advantage of the flat land is that it facilitates IRRIGATION, so
early peoples did not have to rely on the irregular and sparse rainfall to
provide water to the land. When adequately watered, the soil yields
abundant crops. The Tigris, however, is not as suitable for irrigation as the
Euphrates because it tends to flood destructively.
Mesopotamia's climate varies according to region. The southern part
is an arid region, where some of the world's highest temperatures have
been recorded. Winters in the south are generally mild. The northern part
of Mesopotamia is cool, and it is subject to cold winters. Summers in the
north are hot and dry, but they are cooler than in the south. Mesopo-
tamia receives very little rainfall in the summer, but the northern part re-
ceives a fair amount of rain in the winter.

Egypt. Located along the northeastern edge of the African continent,

Egypt is bordered on the south by Sudan; on the west by Libya; on the
east by the SINAI PENINSULA, eastern desert, and the Red Sea; and on the
north by the Mediterranean Sea. Huge, sandy deserts lie south of Egypt as
well as to the west and east of the NILE RIVER valley, isolating the region.
Settlements in ancient Egypt were established along the Nile River,
which provided the water necessary to sustain life. The Nile flows northward,
118
 Geography
out of Sudan.The river floodsannually,between JuneandOctober,when
the flow of its tributariesis increasedby melting snowsandrainsin
Ethiopia. However,A.D.since
1830, the floodshave been controlled by a
* sluice human-made channel or
passage series of damsandsluices*.
to direct water flow Egypt's climate consists of a hot seasonand acool season. Thereis
some rainfall in the coastal area,but itrarer
is in thesouth.Fewplacesin
Egypt receive more than one inch ofrainperyear. Temperaturescan
rangefromfreezing to hot, depending on the location.

Anatolia. Situated in the westernmost partAsia, of Anatolia (present-

day Turkey) is dominated by mountains surroundingacentral plain
known as the central Anatolian plateau.Anatolia'shighest peak, Mount
Ararat, rising to 16,854
feet abovesealevel, liesin fareastern Anatolia,
the most rugged and mountainous part of the region. Out ofthese
mountains, both theTigris and Euphrates Riversflowsouth.In the ex-
treme southeastern partofAnatolia isrolling,
fertileland. This area
is the
northern extent of theFertileCrescent.
The Taurus Mountains, which lie to the southof thecentral plateau,
run the length of the Mediterranean coast.Inwestern Anatolia, alternat-
ing mountain peaks and valleys serve as abarrier between thenarrow
coastline along theAegean and MediterraneanSeasand thecentral Ana-
tolian plateau.

119
Geography
The Anatolian climate varies widely, depending on geographic factors
such as altitude and nearness to the coast. In general, coastal areas are hu-
mid and experience warm summers and mild, rainy winters. Interior ar-
eas are semiarid, with greater seasonal variation in temperature.
Anatolia's rivers are fed by irregular rainfall in most areas and by sea-
sonal snowmelt. The irregularity of the water level and the shallowness of
Oases: Islands of Life the riverbeds make navigation nearly impossible on almost all of the re-
West of the Nile River lies the gion's rivers. In spite of its irregularity, rainfall is generally plentiful
Libyan Desert, also known as the enough to sustain grasslands in valleys and on plateaus as well as decidu-
Western Desert, its sandy expanse is
broken only occasionally by slight
ous forests (forests in which trees shed their leaves annually) on the
depressions, or hollows. In some of mountain slopes.
these hollows, natural springs pro*
vide enough water for both domes- Iran. The majority of IRAN is made up of the huge central plateau and
tic and agricultural use. These its surrounding rugged mountain ranges. In the west, the Zagros Moun-
oases, with their striking fertility tains run southeast all the way to the Persian Gulf. These mountains
amid the vast desert, have served as
resting places for trade caravans, form a barrier between Mesopotamia and Iran. In the north, the Elburz
They also sustain small communi- Mountains lie along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. East of the
ties and have done so since ancient central plateau are smaller mountain ranges. The central plateau also
times. Signs of very early agricul- contains two large deserts. To the north is Dasht-i-Kavir, a harsh, salt-
ture have been found at many covered land in which neither plants nor animals live. To the east lies
oases, although oases were valued
more for their location and water
Dasht-i-Lut, a barren, rocky desert that is equally uninviting.
than for their agricultural uses. The Iran consists of three main climatic regions. The Elburz Mountains in
oases range in size from 2 acres to the north are extremely cold. The northern slopes of the mountains,
more than 896,000 acres. however, benefit from warmer, moist air from the Caspian Sea. The cen-
tral plateau is temperate, experiencing moderate temperatures and dis-
tinct seasons. Along the southern shores of Iran, the climate is quite hot.
It is rare for the temperature to go below freezing, even in January, the
coolest month.
Most of Iran receives very little rain. Average annual rainfall ranges
from about eight to ten inches. The rivers run dry in the summer, and the
water in many lakes evaporates significantly, leaving behind water with a
high salt content.

The Levant. The lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediter-
ranean Sea, including present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the West Bank,
and Jordan, are known as the Levant. The climate in this region is af-
fected by its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Near the coast, the
summers are hot and dry and the winters are mild. Further inland, the
weather varies more depending on the geographical features.
Syria has a narrow, flat coastal plain—only about 20 miles wide—
along the Mediterranean Sea. Beyond the coast, a narrow mountain
range, called the Jebel an-Nusayririyah runs north and south. To the
south of this range, along the Syria-Lebanon border, lie the Anti-Lebanon
Mountains. Syria's highest peak, Mount Hermon, at more than 9,000 feet
above sea level, is located in this range. To the east, stretching from the
coastline and mountains is a plain that extends all the way to the Eu-
phrates River. Known as the Syrian Desert, the plain extends through sev-
* steppe large semiarid grassy plain with eral countries. The land is not shifting sand but a rock and gravel steppe*.
few trees The treeless steppe supports only sparse, bushy growth, except along
rivers, where trees grow naturally or can be cultivated.
120
 Gilgamesh
Away from the Mediterranean coast the seasons are more marked.
Temperature extremes are more distinct in the arid climate of the Syrian
Desert. The summers are hot and winters are cold and snowy on the
steppe. Moving eastward from the coast, the average annual rainfall de-
creases from a maximum of 40 inches to approximately 5 inches in the
far reaches of the steppe.
Variety marks Israel's landscape, which shares features with the Pales-
tinian Gaza Strip and the West Bank. The region contains several moun-
tain ranges, including the mountains of Galilee in the north and the
Mount Carmel range in the northwest. At the southern end of Israel lies
the harsh Negev Desert. Bordered by Israel, the West Bank and Jordan and
fed by the Jordan River is the Dead Sea, which, at 1,300 feet below sea
level, is the lowest point on the earth's surface.
The Jordan River in the east forms a boundary between Israel and Jor-
dan. In ancient times, the Jordan River was the largest and most depend-
able source of freshwater for this part of the Levant, but it was not
* navigable deep and wide enough to navigable*. Because its riverbed was deep, it was impossible to use the river's
provide passage for ships waters for irrigation.
Israel receives only modest rainfall, and most of that falls during the
winter months. Rainfall is significantly lower in the south than in the
north. The modest rainfall and mountainous terrain limit Israel's fertility.
Lebanon lies on the Mediterranean coast, to the north of Israel and
east of Syria. The Lebanon Mountains are Lebanon's most distinctive land
feature at approximately 100 miles long and 6 to 35 miles wide. Fertile
lands for agriculture are found on the coastal plain and in the northern
mountains. Rivers in Lebanon tend to run only in the winter as they
drain the slopes of the Lebanon Mountains. The climate in Lebanon is
hot and dry in the summer and mild and humid in the winter.

The Arabian Peninsula. The vast peninsula of Arabia is bordered on

the west and in the extreme southwest, along the RED SEA, by mountains.
The rest of the peninsula is a plateau that slopes somewhat to the east,
toward the Persian Gulf. On the plateau are several large, sandy deserts,
some of them the largest in the world. Arabia's extreme dryness causes
the region's rivers to run dry during the hot, dry summer months. (See
also Agriculture; Building Materials; Environmental Change; Water.)

Gtant
ilgamesh (GIL*guh»mesh) was one of the earliest and most impor-
heroes in ancient Near Eastern LITERATURE. Many scholars be-
GILGAMESH lieve'that Gilgamesh, who is listed in Sumerian KING LISTS, was the ruler of
1• ^_1_

the city of URUK around 2700 B.C. Others believe that the character of Gil-
gamesh is based on a Sumerian god called Gilgames (or Bilgames). All
scholars agree that the fantastic adventures of this legendary character are
purely fictional.

Tales About Gilgamesh. Among the earliest tales known about Gil-
gamesh are several Sumerian poems that were probably composed
around 2100 B.C. The surviving fragments are of copies made around
121
Gilgamesh

1700B.C. These works include GilgameshandKhuwawa; Gilgamesh

and
theBullofHeaven;Gilgamesh and
King
Agga
ofKish;
Gilgamesh,
Enkidu,
and
the NetherWorld;and TheDeath Gilgamesh.
of They relate
the incidents
and adventuresin the life of the hero.
The most famous and complete record of the adventures of Gil-
* epic long poem about a legendary or gamesh appearsinEpic the
Gilgamesh,a long epic* poem,
of a version
of
historical hero, written in a grand style which was composedin theAkkadian language first
in the
halfof thesec-
* second millennium
B.C. years from ond millennium B.C.* This workwas later rewritten,and copiesof that
2000 to 1001 B.C. version were made duringthe B.C.
600s
Several
of these copies have sur-
* archaeologist scientist who studies vived, but the most complete one wasfound byarchaeologists*at thesite
past human cultures, usually by of the ancient city
NINEVEH.
of This surviving version, known as the Stan-
excavating material remains of human dard Versionof Epic
the
Gilgamesh, marks
of an important stepin the de-
activity
velopment of Mesopotamian literature. In it, many of the storiesof
Gilgamesh are woven intoa single narrative. major
A theme of the epic
is
Gilgamesh's acceptanceof his mortality.He seeks
fameand glory through
heroic deeds but finally realizes that he cannot achieve the impossible,
and he accepts the fact that he, likeallhumans, must die.

The Epic. The version of the story found at Nineveh wasinscribed on

12 tablets in the 600s
B.C.The
first tablet containsa prologuein which
Gilgamesh is described as part human and part divine,the sonKing of
Lugalbanda ofUrukand the goddess Ninsun. Gilgamesh ispraised
as a
wise man and mighty warrior,and his great achievementofbuildingthe
walls ofUruk is noted. However,he is also describedas atyrantwhomis-
treats the young peopleof his city.The
ANUhad
god the mother goddess
Arum create a man named Enkidufight to Gilgamesh in the hope that
this will cure the king of his harshness toward the people.
The second tablet narrates the confrontations between Gilgamesh
and Enkidu atUruk. Gilgamesh winsthe struggle,but he is soimpressed
by his opponent's skill and courage that the twobecome friends. (In the
122
 Giza
earlier Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh, Enkidu was his slave.) The
third, fourth, and fifth tablets describe Gilgamesh;s quest for eternal
fame. They relate the story of how he travels with Enkidu to a distant
cedar forest to battle the monster Khumbaba (or Khuwawa), the guardian
of the forest. Gilgamesh kills the monster, believing that that heroic deed
will help him win the favor of the gods.
In the sixth tablet, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, where ISHTAR, the god-
dess of love, proposes marriage. However, Gilgamesh refuses the offer, in-
sulting the goddess. Enraged, Ishtar sends the divine Bull of Heaven to
destroy Gilgamesh. Enkidu and Gilgamesh kill the bull in another heroic
adventure.
In the next two tablets, Gilgamesh's views on life, death, and immortal-
ity change. Enkidu has a dream in which the gods Anu, EA, and Shamash
A Hero Reduced decide that he must die for killing the Bull of Heaven. Shortly thereafter,
The following passage reflects Enkidu falls ill and dies. Gilgamesh grieves over the death of his friend. He
Gilgamesh's grief at the loss of
his friend and fellow traveler, then becomes determined to gain immortality and possibly become a god.
Enkidu; The ninth, tenth, and eleventh tablets describe Gilgamesh's travels to
£nkidu, whom I still love very find Ut-napishtim, the survivor of the Great Flood who had gained im-
much,/Who journeyed through mortality. He journeys through strange lands and meets creatures who try
aII hardships with me,/Didjour< to talk him out of his pursuit. Finally, he finds Ut-napishtim, who offers a
ney to the fate of all mankind, challenge: if Gilgamesh can stay awake for seven days, he will get the im-
for days and nights did I weep mortality he desires. Gilgamesh accepts the challenge but falls asleep.
over him,/And would not let Pitying him, Ut-napishtim tells him the location of the Plant of Life,
them bury himf/As if my friend which can restore youth. Gilgamesh finds the plant and proceeds on his
might rise at my cries,...
way home, where he plans to test it on an old man first. On the way, Gil-
And since he's gone, I have not gamesh puts the plant down when he stops to bathe in a spring, only to
found Iife,/Though roaming,
trapper-like, about the steppe. find that a snake had taken the plant and shed its skin (rejuvenated itself)
as it slithered away. Betrayed by his humanity, its frailty and its limita-
tions, Gilgamesh returns home, disappointed and tired but wiser and at
peace. Weeping, he says simply, "I should have turned back." He sees that
he should not have attempted to escape death or cheat it. Then Gil-
gamesh repeats the words from the epic's prologue about building the
walls of Uruk, indicating that he has come full circle, giving the reader a
sense of finality and completeness.
The twelfth tablet of the epic, which some scholars consider a later
addition to the poem, relates how the spirit of Enkidu returns from the
* underworld world of the dead dead and describes the underworld* and AFTERLIFE to Gilgamesh. The com-
plete work remains one of the world's greatest epics. Rich in timeless
themes, it provides a unique look into the hearts and minds of the people
of the ancient Near East. (See also Epic Literature; Flood Legends.)

GI/A
G iza (GEE»zuh) is a modern-day city in northern Egypt located in
f
the desert west of the NILE RIVER. It is famous as the site of Egypt's
largest and best-known PYRAMIDS and of the statue known as the Great
Sphinx. These monuments date from the Old Kingdom period (ca.
267-2130 B.C.). The site was ignored for several centuries but became
a popular religious destination during the time of the New Kingdom (ca.
1539-1075 B.C.).
123
Glass and Glassmaking
Three kings of the Fourth Dynasty had huge pyramids built at Giza as
their tombs. The largest, called the Great Pyramid, was built by king
See map in Pyramids (vol. 4). KHUFU (ruled ca. 2585-2560 B.C.). More than 480 feet high, it is the largest
stone structure in the world. Two other large pyramids were built by Khufu's
son and grandson. Together these three pyramids were considered one of
the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. There were also a number of
* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial smaller pyramids built to house the remains of royal wives and mastabas*
structure with long rectangular sides for top government officials and others of the royal family.
and a flat roof over a burial pit or In the quarry near the pyramids that provided much of the stone for
chamber
their construction, there remained a large outcropping of rock that arti-
sans sculpted into the Great Sphinx, a seated lion with a human head
* Egyptologist person who studies wearing a king's headcloth. Most Egyptologists* believe the face of the
ancient Egypt sphinx* is that of Chephren, Khufu's son, although it has been suggested
* sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's that the face is that of Khufu himself.
body and a human head At the end of the Old Kingdom, Giza was abandoned. The pyramids
suffered in the chaos that followed the collapse of the Old Kingdom,
when the tombs were probably robbed of their contents. During the New
Kingdom period, however, Giza regained prominence. Thutmose IV
(ruled ca. 1400-1390 B.C.) employed workers to remove the sand that had
* pilgrimage journey to a sacred place as covered the Great Sphinx. People began making pilgrimages* to Giza to
an act of religious devotion worship the sphinx, which was then thought to represent a form of the
god HORUS. People also came to Giza to worship the goddess Isis, who had
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 a temple in the complex. During the first millennium B.C.*, the area was
tO 1 B.C. once again favored as a burial site. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians;
Sphinx.)

GLASS AND
Qi* lass is made by mixing fine sand or ground sandstone and an alkali
fsuch as potash, made from the ashes of burned plants, and ground
limestone. The mixture is heated to a very high temperature in an oven
so that the ingredients completely melt and fuse together. Then the liq-
GLASSMAKING uid is poured into molds, blown, or rolled into sheets and allowed to cool.
The shaping must be done quickly because the glass cools to a solid in
only a few minutes. Glass can be colored by adding minerals to the mix-
ture. This method of glassmaking, invented almost 4,000 years ago, is
fundamentally the same method used today.
Some glasslike objects that have been found were made as early as
4000 B.C., but these are thought to be accidents that were created when
* artisan skilled craftsperson artisans* were making FAIENCE, which is similar to glass. The Mesopota-
mians are credited with the invention of glass in about 1600 B.C. Glass-
making quickly spread to Egypt.
CUNEIFORM texts from around 1500 B.C. indicate that the principal use
for colored glass was to imitate rare and precious GEMS used for JEWELRY
See and SEALS. Glass, often of brilliant colors, could also be made into hollow
[colorplate 15, ] vessels. Glass vessels were shaped in several ways. Molten glass was gently
vol. 4.
sloshed around the inside of a clay bowl (or other shape) to form an even
layer. After the glass hardened, the clay was carefully chipped away. Simi-
larly, a layer of softened glass could be formed around a solid clay shape
with an opening. After the glass hardened, the clay inside was removed to
124
 Glass and Glassmaking
leave the formed glass. Finally, a snakelike ribbon of molten glass could
be wound around and around the same sort of core shape, resulting in
textured glass.
The first glass vessels were small, used as containers for perfume and
cosmetics. The colors of the glass included red, green, yellow, white, and
blue. Egyptian glassmakers favored red and blue. Early glass was not
transparent.
Glass was decorated in several ways. Designs could be gently carved
into it, or glass threads of different colors could be applied to the surface.
* mosaic art form in which objects are There was a special technique for making mosaic* glass vessels. Pieces of
decorated with small pieces of stone or colored glass were cut into the desired shapes and sizes, then fitted to-
glass that form an image gether over a solid clay or packed sand core. Over this was placed a mold.
The mold was heated just enough to fuse together the glass pieces under-
neath. Then the mold and core were removed.
Amassing the materials for glassmaking was labor-intensive. In the
600s B.C., Egyptians discovered that they could slightly vary the formula
for glass to make use of plentiful and easily quarried local materials. At
that point, glassmaking became an industry, including an export trade.
* Glassmaking became an important industry in the Levant*, eventu-
Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- ally replacing faience as a luxury good produced for trade. Syrian
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West glassmakers showed great skill. In the 700s B.C., they began producing
Bank, and Jordan
cut glass—glass that is scored to produce interesting shapes. After the
100s B.C., they were producing objects by glassblowing. In this process, a
lump of molten glass is put on one end of a hollow tube. The glass-
blower blows through the tube, as if blowing up a balloon. This pro-
duces thin-walled objects in round, oval, and any other desired shapes.
The process may have been adopted from IRAN, another leading center
of glassmaking.
Glassmakers in Iran produced cut and polished glass vessels and com-
bined glass and gold to make bowls fit for—and used by—kings. They also
perfected the manufacture of almost colorless glass.

These beaded head pendants, made of

sand-core glass, date from the 300s B.C.
They were excavated at Carthage, in
present-day Tunisia, on the coast of North
Africa. At the time, Carthage was con-
trolled by the Phoenicians, who were
skilled at producing colorful glass beads in
the form of human and animal heads.

125
Goats

GOATS
Q oats and SHEEP were the earliest and most important domesticated*
animals in the ancient Near East. Combined with the develop-
ment of AGRICULTURE, the domestication of these animals led to the estab-
lishment of settled communities based on farming and the herding of
livestock.
In very early times, people in some parts of the ancient Near East
* domesticated adapted or tamed for hunted wild goats for food. Evidence suggests that goats were first domes-
human use ticated in the Zagros Mountains of western IRAN sometime between 7500
and 7000 B.C. The earliest domesticated goats may have originated from a
wild species with long curved horns known as the Bezoar goat, found in
mountainous regions throughout western Asia. By the third millennium
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 B.C.*, goats of several species had been domesticated throughout the an-
to 2001 B.C. cient Near East. Some of the species could thrive in areas far beyond their
normal environments.
People in the ancient Near East valued goats for their milk, meat, and
hides and for their ability to lead flocks, which often included sheep.
Herding goats and sheep was an important economic activity, and
herders moved flocks continually from one pastureland to another. Tem-
ples also maintained large flocks of goats, not only for their milk, meat,
and hides but also for use in ritual sacrifices and OFFERINGS. These flocks
sometimes consisted of as many as 350,000 animals. Temple goats also
played a role in divination. Priests examined the internal organs of sacri-
ficed animals to foretell a god's will on various subjects. (See also Animals;
Animals, Domestication of.)

or the people of the ancient Near East, gods and goddesses played

GODS AND
F an important role in everyday life. People frequently consulted the
oracles*, asking the gods for advice, help, and protection. They
GODDESSES thanked the gods for providing good harvests and other blessings and
prayed for pardon when they believed the deities* had been angered.
People considered the gods and goddesses to be the ultimate rulers of
heaven and earth. Human beings were considered the servants of the
* oracle priest or priestess through whom gods and had a responsibility to worship them, maintain their temples,
a god is believed to speak; also, the and provide nourishment to them through OFFERINGS, rituals, and sacri-
location (such as a shrine) where such fices. Ancient Near Eastern peoples believed that human behavior was
utterances are made
closely watched by them, who handed out both rewards and punish-
* deity god or goddess ments. It was the role of priests to determine what would make the gods
* piety faithfulness to beliefs happy, and it was up to the people to express their piety* by providing the
necessary offerings and praise.
Ancient Near Eastern mythology is filled with stories about gods and
goddesses. CREATION MYTHS recount how the gods created heaven, earth,
and living things. All the myths about the gods reveal the gods' character-
istics, including their strengths and weaknesses. The gods could be kind
or cruel, fair or unjust. In many ways, the deities were anthropomorphic;
that is, many looked like humans and had similar traits and characteris-
tics. They displayed anger, jealousy, and hatred, as well as kindness, un-
derstanding, and love. Unlike humans, however, the gods were larger
than life and had supernatural powers. Many were immortal.
126
 Gods and Goddesses
* city-state independent state consisting Each of the ancient Near Eastern cultures had many deities. Some
of a city and its surrounding territory were major deities, while others wereof only minor importance. To-
* fourth millennium B.C.
years from gether, all the godsand goddessesof a culture
formeditspantheon. Each
4000 to 3001 B.C. of the ancient Near Eastern city-states*had its own pantheonbut was es-
* patron special guardian, protector, or pecially dedicated to the worship of a particular god orgoddess. Manyof
supporter these gods and goddesses had counterparts in other cultures. While the
* cult system of religious beliefs and names of the gods often differed, their powerand characteristics were
rituals; group following these beliefs quite similar.
* Semitic of or relating to people of the
NearEast or northern Africa, including Mesopotamia. The earliest Mesopotamians were animists, concerned
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, with nature spirits.By the late fourth millennium
B.C.*, these spirits were
Jews, and Arabs
perceived as having humanforms and emotions. Each city, town, and
village MESOPOTAMIA
in had its own patron* deity, whomthe people con-
sidered a king. The local deity, along withthe god's familyand servants,
was thought to livein a temple,the palaceof the god.Astatueof the de-
ity in the temple allowed the god to be accessible to worshipers. The
temple was the centerfor the god'scult*,the membersofwhich were re-
sponsible for providingthe god with shelterand food.
During the third millennium
—
B.C.the years
from
—B.C.3000 to 2001
the Mesopotamians established linkages among their gods and god-
desses. For example, the god of one town mightbe the son of agoddess
worshiped in another town. The godsof the largest cities eventuallybe-
came the most important deities in the pantheon, and these major gods
were worshiped throughout Mesopotamia. Over time, the gender and
family ties among deities sometimes changed, and their names might
change as well. For example,as the influenceof Semitic* peoples in-
creased in ancient Sumer, many Sumerian gods received Semitic names.
Ancient Mesopotamian myths explainedhowmajor the deities orga-
nized the world after the separationof heavenand earth.Lesser godsla-
bored for themajor gods, digging riversand canalsand building homes.
Burdened by such tasks, the lesser gods eventually rebelled, andmajor the
gods agreed to create humansto act as servants instead. EA,the god of
wisdom, then created humans.Hismother, Namma,agoddesswhorep-
resented the primalwaters*, helped him in thistask.
According to early Mesopotamian myths, the responsibilities for
heaven and earth were divided among ANU,
the
thegods.
god ofheaven,
presided over the divine assemblyof godsand goddesses.His son Ishkur,
the storm god, was responsiblefor rain ENLIL,
andthethunder.
citygod of
NIPPUR, organizedthe world after creation.His son Ninurta, the wargod,
defeated theforces of evil that threatened divine rule.
Enlil's son Nanna,the moon god, residedin the URand
cityofwas re-
sponsible for the division of time. Nanna had a son,Utu, and adaughter,
Inanna. Utu, the sun god, livedin the cities Larsa
of and Sipparand was
responsible for justice. Inanna,the goddessof the morningand evening
star (Venus), resided
URUK.inResponsiblefor loveand war, she later
be-
came known ISHTAR.
as
Besides thesemajor deities, there were hundredsof minor godsand
goddesses associated with Mesopotamian citiesand towns. There were
also thousands of unnamed deities,who servedas the personal godsof in-
dividuals, as wellasDEMONS,
manywho served the gods.
127
Gods and Goddesses
* primal waters in mythology, the In the second millennium B.C.*, alliances and military conquests
original oceans that covered everything united the cities and towns of Mesopotamia into nations and empires. As
in earliest times the region united, some city gods became national gods, worshiped by
* second millennium B.C. years from people throughout all of Mesopotamia. Two of the most important of
2000 to 1001 B.C. these national gods were ASHUR in Assyria and MARDUK in Babylonia.
When illustrated in art, Mesopotamian deities were distinguished
from humans by their size, costumes, crowns (often with several pairs of
horns), and symbols. The depictions illustrate the deities' power or the
myths and stories about them. The storm god Ishkur, for instance, is of-
ten shown holding forked lightning in his hands.

Egypt. As in Mesopotamia, the people of ancient Egypt also worshiped

many gods and goddesses. Egyptian temple worship focused on the
main deity of the temple, but it included other divine beings as well.
Many of the gods were related to one another in some way. Although
Egyptian deities lived in heaven, they also appeared on earth, where
they resided in temples with their divine families. Cult statues of deities,
made by the temple priests in secrecy, were kept in the innermost section
of the temple. The image of the principal god of the temple was placed in
a special shrine within the temple.
Egyptian myths described the powers of the gods and explained the
relationships among them. Creation myths are particularly revealing,
explaining how the gods created heaven, earth, and humans and de-
scribing the responsibilities of the pantheon of gods. Throughout Egypt's
long history several different views arose at different times in different
religious centers. According to the mythology of priests at Heliopolis
during the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), only the primal
waters existed at first, and in them was Atum, the creator. A pantheon of
great gods emerged from Atum as manifestations of him. The first deities
to emerge from Atum were Shu, god of the space between heaven and
earth, and his sister, Tefnut, the goddess of moisture. They represented
the male and female forces of the universe. The next generation of gods
was Geb and Nut. Geb, the god of the earth, was also known as father of
the gods. Nut was the goddess of the sky. Together, they formed a perma-
nent boundary between the newly created world and the primal waters
that surrounded it.
The next god to appear was Ra, the sun god, who divided day and
night and brought order to the universe. Worshiped in Egypt, Ra was of-
ten combined with other gods. After the 1500s B.C., Ra was combined
with AMUN, a local god of the city of THEBES, to become Amun-Ra. One of
the most important Egyptian deities, Amun-Ra was considered the king
This Egyptian wall painting shows the
of gods, creator of the universe, and father of Egyptian monarchs.
pharaoh Sety I with the goddess Hathor. Geb and Nut had four children—two sons, OSIRIS and SETH, and two
Daughter of the sun god Amun, Hathor was daughters, Isis and Nephthys. Organized in pairs, Osiris and Isis repre-
worshiped throughout ancient Egypt. She is sented order and the fertility of the earth and humankind, and Seth and
depicted here in her most common form—a Nephthys represented disorder, confusion, conflict, and infertility. Seth
woman wearing cow's horns with a sun disk
in between. A benevolent goddess, Hathor
brought death into the world by killing Osiris, but Isis raised Osiris from
was associated with women, music, danc- the dead, and he became the lord of the underworld, where he judged the
ing, and sexuality. souls of the dead. HORUS, considered the son of Isis and Osiris as well as
Osiris reborn, defeated Seth in battle and became god of the sky and of
128
 Gods and Goddesses
earthly kingship. Horus represented the final form of the creator god
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt Atum, and each pharaoh* was considered a manifestation of the god.
Egyptians worshiped many other local and national deities. Among
the most important were Thoth, Anubis, Ptah, HATHOR, and ATEN. Thoth,
* scribe person of a learned class who the moon god, was a scribe* for the gods. His responsibilities included
served as a writer, editor, or teacher learning, writing, and good government. Anubis was the god of death
* embalming treating a corpse with oils and embalming*. The god Ptah, worshiped primarily at the city of Mem-
or chemicals to preserve it or slow down phis, was a creator god. Hathor was the goddess of women and of music
the process of decay, usually after body and dancing; she could also be the source of drunkenness and sexual
fluids have been removed
arousal. For a short time, the god Aten became a major deity during the
reign of AKHENATEN (ca. 1353-1336 B.C.), who attempted to make him the
sole and exclusive god of Egypt.
When illustrated in art, Egyptian deities were shown as composite in
form, combining human and animal characteristics. In the later periods
A God's Best Friend of Egyptian history, they were represented as the animal itself or as a hu-
Many Mesopotamian gods were as- man with the head of the animal. For instance, Horus appeared as a hawk
sociated with particular real animals
or fantastic beasts, and the deities
or falcon, Thoth as a baboon or ibis, Hathor as a cow, Amun as a ram or
were often depicted with these goose, and Anubis as a jackal. Just as in Mesopotamia, the artworks depict
creatures. A god might be linked to the deities' power or the myths and stories about them.
an ordinary animal, such as a lion, a
snake, or a bull. However, the Anatolia. The region of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) was occupied by
beasts associated with gods could different peoples in ancient times, including the Hattians, HITTITES, and
also be fantastic creatures that
combined different animals, such as HURRIANS. Each group had its own deities. In their traits and powers, the
a lion dragon or a goat fish* Some deities resembled those elsewhere in the ancient Near East.
of these beasts combined the parts The Hittites were among the most important peoples to occupy Ana-
of several creatures. For example, tolia. They had a remarkably complex pantheon of deities, which they
the snake dragon associated with called the thousand gods. This pantheon included Hittite gods as well as
the gods Marduk, Nabu, and Ashur,
had a snakelike body, horns, the
deities borrowed from the Hurrians, Hattians (indigenous* people who
forelegs of a lion, and the hindlegs lived in Anatolia before the Hittites), and others. The Hittites often
of a bird Statues of these beasts of- adopted deities directly from other cultures, merely changing the names.
ten stood at the entrances to tem- Thus, the Hattic goddess Inar became the Hittite Inara. Consequently,
ples and shrines to guard as watch gods in the Hittite pantheon often had many manifestations, or forms,
beasts. Statues of beasts also were that included different names and genders.
used inside temples and shrines as
altars. Hittite religious texts dating from between 1600 and 1400 B.C. men-
tion several Hattian gods. Among these were a storm god who went by
different names and several deities of the sun, including the sun goddess
of Arinna. The children of the storm god and sun goddess included two
indigenous referring to the original sons, the storm gods of Nerik and of Zippalanda. Other deities of Hattic
inhabitants of a region origin were Telipinu, a god of vegetation, and the sun god of Eshtan.
Between 1350 and 1200 B.C., the Hittites adopted several Human
deities, including the storm god TESHUB, the sun god of Shimegi, the vege-
tation god KUMARBI, and the moon god Kushukh. Teshub's mate was the
See sun goddess KHEPAT, who had been combined with the Hattic goddess of
k
color plate 5, Arinna. As in other religions of the ancient Near East, the storm god al-
vol. 1.
ways held a prominent place in Hittite religion because of the importance
of rain for AGRICULTURE. The Hittite pantheon also included several Aryan
deities, including Indra, Mithra, Varuna, and the Natwatwa twins, as well
as a Syrian goddess named Kubaba. Later worshiped by the Phrygians as
their primary goddess, Kubaba was eventually adopted by the ancient Ro-
mans as the goddess Cybele.
129
Gold
Many Hittite deities served as protectors of certain places or groups.
The Hittites also recognized other divine spirits. Mountains, rivers,
springs, and other natural features were considered holy and received of-
ferings just like other gods.

See Iran. As in Anatolia, several groups lived in IRAN at different periods in

color plate 13, history, including the Elamites and Persians. Among the earliest Elamite
vol. 1,
deities was Simut, the "god of Elam" and "powerful herald of the gods./;
Other Elamite deities included Narunde, the goddess of victory; the sky
goddess Pinengir; the Seven Wise Men; and Khumban, who was associ-
ated with the Sumerian god Enlil. Ruler of the atmosphere, he some-
times caused disastrous storms. The most important and powerful
Elamite god was Inshushinak, the "King of the Gods/'
The most important god of the Persians was AHURA MAZDA, the "Wise
Lord." His evil counterpart was his twin brother, AHRIMAN. In the 600s B.C.,
From Architect to God the Persian prophet Zoroaster proclaimed that there was only one god—
A man known as Imhotep worked Ahura Mazda. Many Persians continued to worship other deities, includ-
in the court of King Djoser in Egypt ing Mithra, the sun god and god of war, a popular Aryan god.
during the 2600s B.C. What scholars
know of Imhotep makes it clear
that he was a multitalented person. Syria and the Levant. For most of ancient history, the region com-
He explored many different areas of j prising present-day Syria and the Levant* consisted of many fortified
human endeavor, He held the of- city-states, each with its own deities. As in Mesopotamia, these city gods
fices of chief executive and master were related to each other, and they had specific responsibilities. The
sculptor. Credited with inventing
the technique of building with cut gods were present in all phenomena, including rain and thunder, birth
stone, Imhotep probably was the and death, drought and fertility, beauty and terror. At the same time,
architect who planned Egypt's first < worshipers had a very personal relationship with their gods because the
pyramid, the Step Pyramid at gods possessed human characteristics and resembled humans.
Saqqara. An author of a book of in- j The oldest known pantheon is that of EBLA. Its principal god, Dagan,
struction, Imhotep was also a healer became one of the most popular deities of this region. Next in rank to Da-
and a priest. After his death, in
honor of his extraordinary gifts, gan was ADAD, the god of storms and weather. Among later Syrian gods,
Imhotep was considered a god, the the most important seems to have been EL. However, El's importance
son of the god Ptah. A shrine to later declined in favor of BAAL, a storm god. Baal's wife and sister ANAT was
Imhotep was built at a temple in a goddess of war and fertility. She was eventually displaced by the Phoeni-
Thebes, and Egyptians also wor- cian goddess Astarte. Two other important Syrian gods were Mot—the
shiped him at a chapel on the is-
land of Philae in the Nile River. god of death—and Reshef—the god of the underworld.
Unlike their neighbors, the Israelites strived to abandon the worship
of all other deities in favor of just one god—YAHWEH. Yahweh's dominant
place in ancient Israel evolved gradually, and at times, he was associated
with other gods such as El. Nonetheless, at many points throughout their
* history, the peoples of ISRAEL AND JUDAH turned to the worship of the gods
Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- of their Canaanite neighbors, especially BAAL. Eventually, however, the Is-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West raelites rejected all other gods and worshiped only Yahweh, the god of
Bank, and Jordan
the Hebrew BIBLE. (See also Animals in Art; Birds in Art; Cults; Egypt
and the Egyptians; Mythology; Palaces and Temples; Priests and
Priestesses; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Theology.)

Gold See Metals and Metahvorking.

130
 Government

Gordium See Alexander the Great.

GOVERNMENT
T he peoples of the ancient Near East developed various institutions of
government to maintain order, administer the law, defend against
enemies, and provide services that supported the economy and society.
Before the rise of cities and city-states*, governing was the concern of
tribal chieftains and village councils. As settlements grew, local leaders as-
sumed more power, and kingships arose. Kingship became the main form
* city-state independent state consisting of government in the ancient Near East, and other institutions existed
of a city and its surrounding territory mainly to help the king with the administration of the state.

GOVERNMENT IN MESOPOTAMIA
The ancient lands of Sumer and Akkad consisted of several city-states. Al-
* patron special guardian, protector, or though every city was protected by a patron* god or goddess, it also
supporter needed a form of secular* power. This power was always held by a ruler
* secular nonreligious; connected with and his representatives.
everyday life
Early Rulers. The rulers of early Mesopotamian city-states had differ-
ent titles, depending on the role they played in their societies. At the end
* fourth millennium B.C. years from of the fourth millennium B.C.*, the period of the earliest written texts,
4000 to 3001 B.C. each city's ruler was connected in some way with the temple—the center
of the economic and societal systems through which all goods and ser-
vices circulated. At URUK, the ruler was called an en; at LAGASH, an ensi;
and at Isin, a sanga. Beginning in the early third millennium B.C. (years
from 3000 to 2001 B.C.), the palace, headed by a lugal, or king, whose
principle functions were military, began to replace the temple as the cen-
ter of economic and governmental power. Whether secular or religious,
all rulers were believed to hold power only by the authority of the gods.
Mesopotamian rulers were seen as representatives of the city god.
No matter what title a ruler held, his religious responsibilities in-
cluded building and maintaining the city's temples and satisfying the
gods through rituals, OFFERINGS, and religious festivals. A community's fa-
vor with the gods and its prosperity depended on how well its ruler ful-
filled these duties. Consequently, it was in the ruler's best interest to
honor his religious obligations. Another duty of Mesopotamian rulers
was to administer the laws that the gods had entrusted to him. Justice
and the protection of the poor and weak were inseparable parts of social
order and peace. Thus, while a ruler's power as an enforcer and lawmaker
came from the gods, it served an important secular role as well.

City Governments and Institutions. Cities were often divided into

districts, which were generally governed by an assembly, often known as
the Elders. Membership in this assembly, which included the heads of
powerful local families, was based almost solely on heredity. Elders were
responsible for enforcing laws, maintaining order, and resolving disputes
131
Government
and other local issues. They also helped select citizens to provide labor or
military service to the state. In some cases, the district governments were
completely controlled by the ruler of the city-state. However, many local
governments were able to maintain a significant degree of independence.

Changing Patterns of Government. With the rise of the Akkadian

empire in the late third millinnium B.C., governments changed to ac-
commodate the demands of a large territorial state. The founder of the
* dynasty succession of rulers from the dynasty* of Akkad, SARGON I (ruled ca. 2334-2278 B.C.), made several
same family or group changes during his rule that centralized power within the kingship.
To gain greater control over his growing empire, Sargon replaced local
* provincial having to do with the rulers with loyal provincial* governors. There was a civilian governor,
provinces, outlying districts, who performed religious and judicial duties, and a military governor,
administrative divisions, or conquered who was supported by troops sent by the central government. Sargon
territories of a country or empire
also built military posts in many cities and sought to ensure the loyalty of
* bureaucracy system consisting of his armies by awarding soldiers large grants of land. A large bureaucracy*
officials and clerks who perform was established to keep all sorts of administrative records, such as ship-
government functions ments of goods, offerings to temples, and the collection of taxes.
Despite these changes, Sargon and his successors did not break com-
pletely with the traditions of previous governments. They adapted to local
politics and assumed roles with traditional structures. For example, at the
city of UR, Sargon installed his daughter as the high priestess of Ur;s patron
* deity god or goddess deity*. It is probable that this role had traditionally been held by the ruler's
daughter, so Sargon was acknowledging and continuing local beliefs.
When Sargon's grandson NARAM-SIN (ruled ca. 2254-2218 B.C.) rose to
* divinity state or quality of being a god the throne, he became the first Mesopotamian ruler to claim divinity* for
himself. This change was important because it reflected the new idea that
the king was the patron god of a united empire. Few kings after Naram-
Sin claimed divinity, although his immediate successor, Shar-kali-sharri,
and King SHULGI of Ur (ruled ca. 2094-2047 B.C.) did.
Under Shulgi's leadership, bureaucracies in Sumer and Akkad ex-
panded greatly. Shulgi also introduced a system of messengers and road
stations throughout the empire, standardized weights and measures, and
introduced a new calendar. The introduction of more detailed record
keeping for all phases of the economy and society meant that more offi-
cals loyal to the state rather than to a particular city or temple needed to
be trained and employed. This centralized bureaucracy became a promi-
nent feature of government.

A New Political Order. By the middle of the second millennium

* second millennium B.C. years from B.C.*, a new political order emerged, one in which powerful rulers known
2000 to 1001 B.C. as Great Kings governed empires, such as the Babylonian and Assyrian
empires. Administration was accomplished through a multilevel system
* vassal individual or state that swears of government, which consisted of the Great Kings, major vassals* where
loyalty and obedience to a greater the royal house descended from the Great Kings' ancestors, and minor
power rulers. In conquered territories, kings often entrusted power to loyal sup-
porters or members of the royal family, although they sometimes left lo-
cal rulers in charge. Relationships between the king and these rulers were
maintained through treaties, marriage arrangements, and other obliga-
tions, such as providing land in return for military support.
132
 Government
In this new political order, the king was the center of the govern-
ment. Palaces served as the royal residence, the royal treasury, the site of
state ceremonies, and the center of administrative activities. Palaces were
large and impressive, reflecting their role in government and the prestige
and authority of the king.

The Neo-Assyrian Empire. During the 1300s B.C., Assyria established

itself for the first time as a territorial state. Beginning in the 800s B.C., As-
syria began to expand by conquering its neighbors. The Assyrians estab-
* tribute payment made by a smaller or lished dominance in other states by having them send tribute* to the
weaker party to a more powerful one, Assyrian king. However, the kings of these territories kept their thrones.
often under the threat of force This changed when TIGLATH-PILESER III became king in 745 B.C. and re-
placed the local dynasties with provincial governors.

GOVERNMENT IN EGYPT
By about 3500 B.C., towns in Egypt's Nile River valley had gained control
of strips of land along the river. Easy access along the Nile and the con-
centration of towns in the narrow river valley led to the formation of
strong links among communities. This made it easier for a powerful ruler
to bring large areas of the Nile Valley under his control, and kingdoms de-
veloped in Egypt.
Two major kingdoms emerged in Egypt: Upper Egypt and Lower
Honorary Titles Egypt. According to tradition, sometime between 3100 and 3000 B.C.,
King Menes joined the two regions into one great kingdom, with its capi-
Important officials in ancient Egypt
tal at MEMPHIS, and became the king of a united Egypt. Although the posi-
often had many titles added to their
names. Some titles indicated an in* tion and prestige of the king changed over time and not all kings ruled
dividual** function, such as Oversea the whole land, the concept of kingship remained stable throughout
of the Great Mansions, Other titles Egypt's long history.
reflected the individual's rank within
a particular branch of the govern* Kingship in Egypt. The Egyptian king was an absolute ruler who
ment Some officials, however, had
as many as 200 different titles,
Egyptians believed was divine but inferior to the major gods. The king
These names probably did not all was the supreme high priest and, as some of his titles stated, the main
refer to their functions and ranks. link between Egyptians and their gods. As high priest, it was the king's
Many were honorary titles, perhaps duty to build and maintain temples and to see that religious rituals and
awarded because of a particular ac- ceremonies were conducted properly. In return, the gods assured the
complishment or contribution.
king—and the Egyptian people—peace and prosperity.
Although the king was an absolute ruler, the task of governing a large
kingdom required help from others. He, or occasionally she, appointed
various officials and scribes*, who carried out such administrative activi-
* scribe person of a learned class who ties as collecting taxes, building temples and other public buildings, over-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher seeing economic activities, maintaining law and order, and protecting
Egypt's borders from attack. Although these tasks remained the same
throughout Egypt's long history, the officials or institutions that carried
them out changed over time as a result of political and social change.

Early Government Administration. The basic structure of govern-

ment administration in Egypt took shape during the Old Kingdom pe-
riod (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.). Governmental positions and institutions
133
Government
established during this period remained in place throughout ancient
Egyptian history.
Administration centered around the king, who governed Egypt from
his palace with the assistance of a group of high officials. The highest se-
Long-Lived Kings
nior official, called the vizier, coordinated and supervised all governmen-
In many parts of the ancient Near
tal affairs. Two other senior positions were Overseer of All Royal Works,
East, myths and legends described
how early kings came to power. An- who organized and supervised the labor forces needed for royal building
cient texts from Surner, for exam- projects and agriculture, and Overseer of the Treasury, who collected,
ple, tell of how the early kings of stored, and distributed goods in the state treasury.
the city of Eridu were lowered from Egypt was divided into provinces called nomes. Royal control over
heaven and took the throne* Ac- the nomes increased gradually, but local governments retained some de-
cording to these texts, two of the
early kings of Eridu—considered
gree of authority. The overseer of Upper Egypt acted as the central gov-
the oldest city in Sumer—reigned a ernment's head of provincial affairs, while officials known as Great
total of 64,800 years between Overlords of the Nome served as a type of provincial governor.
them. This reflects the ancient
Sumerians' belief in the antiquity of Restructuring Government. During the period of instability that
Eridu as well as the idea that king-
followed the end of the Old Kingdom, royal authority in Egypt broke
ship came from the gods.
down, and provincial rulers took on more responsibilities. This period
ended in 1980 B.C., with the rise of the Eleventh Dynasty. This dynasty,
the first in a period known as the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.),
established a new capital at THEBES and began to rebuild the country and
restructure the government administration. However, another family,
that of the Twelfth Dynasty, seized power and moved the capital far to
the north to the area of LISHT.
The principal arm of the government was the White House, or trea-
sury. It was the main storehouse and accounting and distribution center
of national revenues. The treasury had a large bureaucracy that included
officials throughout the empire.
The central government's control over the provinces was a delicate
matter in the early years of the Twelfth Dynasty. Provincial rulers had be-
come accustomed to some independence, and the central government
exercised caution in dealing with them. The king maintained control by
appointing all senior provincial administrators, or nomarchs. He also vis-
ited many provinces and helped settle local disputes. The provincial no-
marchs continued to enjoy a large degree of freedom, however. They
collected their own revenues, kept armed forces, and acted as local high
priests. They strengthened their power by forming alliances with neigh-
boring provinces and through marriage arrangements.
By the late 1900s B.C., the administrative structure of Egypt became
more centralized. The vizier supervised Egypt's administrative life, and
the treasury took control of provincial treasuries and became more im-
portant than ever. A labor bureau, known as the Office of the Provider of
People, was established during this period and was responsible for regis-
tering and assigning the manpower to government projects.
Also, Egypt was divided into three main administrative units: District
of the North, District of the South, and District of the Head of the South.
Each district contained a number of nomes and was headed by several
officials assisted by a large bureaucracy. At this time, other officials,
known as councillors, were sent to the provinces on government busi-
ness and carried out general administrative duties, such as supervising
134
 Government
the construction of irrigation canals. During
B.C.,the center
1700sof
power shifted to a new dynasty at Memphis that could neither hold
Egypt together nor prevent its invasion andHYKSOS.
conquestby the

Ruling a Growing Empire. During the period known as the New

Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), followingthe expulsionof theHyksos,
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Egypt began to expand its rule over parts of the Levant* and toNubia,
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- the region to the south of Egypt.As the Egyptian empire grew,itsrulers
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West faced the new responsibility of governing conquered peoples, which led
Bank, and Jordan
to changes in government administration.
The conquered territories had special administrations tooversee their
government and affairs. The chief administratorfor Nubia was aviceroy,
a governor overseeing the land as the king'srepresentative. In theLevant,
local kings were overseenby a number officials,
of titled Overseers
of All
Northern Foreign Lands,who were assistedbymilitary commanders.
During the New Kingdom period, the central government revolved
more than ever around the king.The palacewas run byoffi- anumberof
cials, including the chief royal steward, who managed the vast royal
estates throughout the country. There was one vizier for the north,sta-
tioned in Memphis, and one in the south, usually residing atThebes. The

135
Government
viziers worked closely with two overseers of the treasury, and they were
assisted by officials. Among these were heralds, who represented the
vizier around the country and maintained communication between the
office of vizier and the various local branches of government.
The religious administration became very important in the New
Kingdom. Much of the wealth from the provinces and territories went to
Symbols of Power the temples, and the priests gained control of large tracts of land as well.
Throughout much of Egyptian his-
Temples had their own treasuries and other institutions, and temple ad-
tory, the king wore the Double
Crown. This was a combination of ministrations began to resemble those of the king's palace.
the White Crown of Upper Egypt
and the Red Crown of lower Egypt Later Changes in Government. Between about 1075 and 656 B.C.,
which symbolized the king's au- royal prestige and authority in Egypt declined, and the united kingdom
thority over the entire nation. The was once again divided into northern and southern kingdoms, ruled by
Blue Crown, which symbolized
coronation and legitimate succes-
separate dynasties. By around 730 B.C., Egypt had fragmented into many
sion, was later combined with the small areas headed by rulers who used the title of king or claimed author-
Double Crown* On top of these ity over a particular territory. The limited authority of these kings forced
crowns was the Uraeus, a rearing them to rely increasingly on their own families for help in governing. As
hooded cobra, the symbol of Wad- a result, large numbers of well-established and experienced officials were
jit, the goddess of Lower Egypt.
replaced by loyal, but not necessarily competent, royal relatives.
Alongside the Uraeus was the neck
and head of the vulture goddess, Beginning in about 664 B.C., the government of Egypt began to im-
Nekhbet, of Upper Egypt, prove. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty reunified the nation and divided it ad-
ministratively into the two traditional areas of Upper and Lower Egypt.
The new rulers appointed government officials, reorganized the navy,
and increased revenues to the central administration. Many of the types
of officials who had governed in previous centuries, such as viziers, once
again became part of the central government. Provincial institutions were
run by two governors, one for Upper Egypt and one for Lower Egypt. The
next level of government consisted of 40 nomes (provinces), each headed
by a nomarch. Below them were towns governed by mayors.
After ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Egypt in 332 B.C., he and his
successors took over the Egyptian kingship. Most of the changes they put
into effect occurred at the upper ranks, where Egyptian officials were re-
placed by Greco-Macedonians. At the local level, administrations re-
mained largely unchanged, and Egyptian government continued to
function much as it had over the course of more than 3,000 years.

GOVERNMENT IN ANATOLIA
Ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) consisted of city-states, each ruled
* aristocracy privileged upper class by powerful families who formed an aristocracy*. By about 1500 B.C., the
HITTITES had established their empire. They had transformed the kingship
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or of city-states into an imperial* monarchy with the king as an absolute
an empire ruler. As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, other government institutions, such
as a bureaucracy, developed to assist the king.

Hittite Kings. During the second millennium B.C., the ruler of the Hit-
tite empire was known by many titles, including Great King—a title that
was also used elsewhere. The king, who gained his authority from the
gods who also protected him, was the chief priest of the national god. He
was responsible for overseeing rituals and ceremonies.
136
 Government
The king was also responsible for organizing, maintaining, and direct-
ing the army and for establishing friendly relations with other states, ne-
gotiating treaties, and arranging marriages between ruling families.
* diplomatic concerning relations with Although the king sometimes carried out such military and diplomatic*
foreign powers activities himself, he also appointed representatives to act on his behalf.
The king was the chief judge of the land, and he enforced the law, handed
down decisions regarding crimes, and settled disputes.

Hittite Administration. The day-to-day work of the Hittite govern-

ment was carried out by a royal bureaucracy, consisting of many offi-
cials, each responsible for a broad range of activities. The royal palace
served as the central government, and local officials operated within a
network of government institutions directly connected to the central au-
thority. These institutions collected goods and revenues, sent wealth to
the central government, and redistributed goods on the local level.
Within Anatolia, the administrative level directly beneath the king
was that of the "Lands," nearby states subdued by the king that were
Communication governed by prominent members of the royal family. The next level
Between Kings consisted of royal appointees known as stewards, who governed the dis-
Rulers in ancient Mesopotamia of- tricts. "Lords of the watchtower" governed small territories in frontier
ten communicated by letter as part regions, supervising a number of towns. Their responsibilities included
of diplomacy and foreign affairs.
Kings often addressed each other as watching the borders, organizing agriculture, maintaining royal build-
father, son, or brother to imply a ings and temples, and administering justice within the areas under their
certain type of relationship. For ex- control.
ample, to address another ruler as Over time, the Hittite empire included a changing array of conquered
father indicated that king's seniority territories and kingdoms, some of which were incorporated into the cen-
or superiority. The word brother im-
plied a equal relationship, while the tral Hittite state. Others became vassal kingdoms that were generally
term son signified a position of infe- ruled by members of the local ruling families. Their kings were bound by
riority. Rulers could be very sensitive treaty to the Hittite king and were obligated to pay tribute, provide mili-
to these forms of address and might tary assistance to Hittite armies, and protect the rights of the designated
strongly resent one that they con- successor to the Great King.
sidered inappropriate.

GOVERNMENT IN THE LEVANT

Throughout ancient times, the Levant consisted of small political units
headed by chieftains, military leaders, and kings. Some city-states in the
region developed a type of government known as an oligarchy, where a
small group of people rule together.
The city-states of the Phoenicians and Philistines had kingships. Evi-
dence points to the existence of oligarchic rule in early Israel, where
groups of elders held authority and made decisions for the community.
They oversaw tax collection and were responsible for sending men and
supplies to the army in times of war. Over time, these groups may have
become advisers to the king.
In CANAAN, the king was considered the son of the patron god of the
state. As the god's chosen representative, he had a duty to defend the
god's territory, establish and enforce the law, and care for the people. He
did this with the help of a palace administration centered at the capital
city. This administration consisted of senior officials and a bureaucracy
whose members were stationed all over the state.
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Graves
Temples played an important role in society, both as a symbol of the
gods and as part of the economic system. It was the king's duty to build
temples and to appoint priests, prophets, scribes, and musicians to run
* cult system of religious beliefs and the temples. The state cult* was the responsibility of the Canaanite gov-
rituals; group following these beliefs ernment, and as the supreme authority over this cult, the king had many
religious duties, including offering sacrifices and participating in other
rituals.

GOVERNMENT IN IRAN
The kings of Persia in IRAN were believed to be the chosen representatives
of the god AHURA MAZDA. As such, it was the king's duty to administer jus-
tice, and one of the most important components of justice was being
faithful to the law of Ahura Mazda.
The Persian empire was created by CYRUS THE GREAT (ruled 559-529 B.C.).
Cyrus established an imperial government for ruling the conquered territo-
ries. One of his successors, DARIUS I (ruled 521-486 B.C.), contributed greatly
* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled to the administration of the empire by organizing it into 20 satrapies*. Each
territory under the rule of a satrap, or satrapy was ruled by a governor called a satrap, a high-ranking Persian offi-
provincial governor cial who was required to pay taxes in the form of money, horses, and other
items, as well as to provide ships or soldiers for the Persian army and navy.
(See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians;
Cities and City-States; Dynasties; Egypt and the Egyptians; Israel and Ju-
dah; Persian Empire; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Sumer and the
Sumerians.)

Graves iSee Burial Sites and Tombs.

GREECE
Q reece is the part of Europe geographically closest to the Near East.
Throughout history, the two areas have influenced each other as a
result of close contact, through trade and war. The Greeks picked
AND THE GREEKS up ideas from the civilizations of the Near East and added many impor-
tant elements of their own. Ever since, the world has learned from the
unique Greek culture.

GEOGRAPHY
Mainland Greece is at the southern end of Europe's Balkan Peninsula.
Across the Ionian Sea to the west are Sicily and southern Italy. To the east,
See map in Phoenicia and the the AEGEAN SEA separates Greece from the Near Eastern peninsula of
Phoenicians (vol. 4). Turkey, which the ancient Greeks called ANATOLIA.
The Greek peninsula is almost divided into two parts by the Gulf of
Corinth. On the smaller, southern part, known as the Peloponnese, the
land is rough and hilly, with many valleys leading down to its long,
rugged coastline. The northern section is more mountainous; its highest
138
 Greece and the Greeks
peak, Mount Olympus, is almost 10,000 feet high. The coastline is in-
* headland high land that juts out over a dented with bays and headlands*. In general, the terrain in Greece is
body of water more rugged and the soil is less fertile than in many areas of the Near East.
The many islands of the Aegean Sea, which include the large island of
CRETE and the Cyclades, are considered a part of Greece and are often called
* second millennium B.C. years from the Greek islands. However, until late in the second millennium B.C.*, they
2000 to 1001 B.C. were influenced more by the civilizations of the Near East than by peoples
from the Greek mainland. As the inhabitants of the islands had increasing
contact with the peoples of the Greek mainland, they brought Near East-
ern culture to the Greeks.

HISTORY OF ANCIENT GREECE

The islands of the Aegean Sea probably received their first settlers from
Anatolia. These people brought techniques for farming, for making pot-
tery, and perhaps for primitive metalworking from the ancient Near East.
In Crete, settlers developed a unique culture called the MINOAN CIVILIZA-
TION. Several kingdoms emerged on Crete, and each was centered around
a magnificent palace. The islanders became a seafaring people and
amassed great wealth from trade in the eastern Mediterranean region.
The fact that they did not fortify their cities indicates that they were able
to remain peaceful at first. Later in the second millennium B.C., however,
early Greek mainlanders—known as the Mycenaeans—appear to have
taken over the Minoan cities on Crete and built walls around them.
The Mycenaeans had probably entered the Greek mainland from the
north. In about 1150 B.C., another Greek people, the Dorians, attacked
the Mycenaeans on the mainland and also crossed the sea to Crete. The
Dorians had stronger weapons and were able to bring down the devel-
oped settlements on the mainland, Crete, and around the Aegean. The
invasions left the palaces and cities in ruins. This invasion began the pe-
riod that modern historians call the Dark Age, which lasted from about
1150 to 800 B.C.

The Greek Language. By late in the second millennium B.C., the

tribes on the mainland spoke early versions of Greek, a distinct Indo-
* dialect regional form of a spoken European language. At the time, several dialects* of the Greek language
language with distinct pronunciation, were spoken and understood by the people of the region. The Minoans
vocabulary, and grammar apparently did not speak Greek until the Mycenaeans brought it to
Crete. This version of the language was written down in a script scholars
call Linear B. After the Dorian invasion, their dialect of Greek became
prevalent. By the 500s B.C., there were four main types of Greek dialects.
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- The Greek language became more uniform during the Hellenistic* pe-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean riod, when people throughout the eastern Mediterranean and western
world and western Asia during the three Asia spoke a common dialect of Greek known as Koine.
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
The Rise of Greek Culture. There is no sign of any Dark Age build-
ings to rival the Minoan and Mycenaean palaces, and the art of writing
probably died out during that period. However, a new culture was begin-
ning to grow—one that, yet again, was picking up ideas from the peoples
it had displaced.
139
Greece and the Greeks
Although the Mycenaeans had been conquered by the Dorians, sto-
ries of their earlier victories continued to be told, especially tales about
* siege long and persistent effort to force their celebrated siege*
TROY,ofin Anatolia, around
B.C. These
1200
stories
a surrenderby surroundinga fortressor were collected and written down at the end of the Dark Age. They
city with armed troops, cutting it off evolved into two of the most celebrated works in world literature:
from supplies and aid
Homer'sIliad and Odyssey, which interweavethe exploitsof Greek heroes
and the plotting and planning of their gods.
The NearEast continued to influence Greece during the Dark Age.
Scholars have noted that the religion described in Homer's works is in
some waysdifferentfrom earlier Greek beliefs.For example,the godsact
as a sometimes argumentativefamily, like gods in Babylonian myth,
* deity god or goddess whereas Greek deities* were traditionally seen as individuals who did not
belong to a larger group. This suggests that Greek views of the gods were
shifting to be more in accordance with Near Eastern views.
By 900B.C., Greekshad settledthe islandsof the central Aegean and sec-
tions of the west coastof Anatolia (East Greece). Between
B.C.,750 and 550
Greek settlers spread to the west, establishing colonies in southern Italy
* rhetoric study of therules of the oral or (Magna Grecia),Sicily, southern France,and northern Spain. They alsoes-
written discussion of a subject tablished colonies south across the Mediterranean Libya in in Africanorth
(Cyrenaica) and, in the northeast, ringing the shores ofBlack the Sea.
Thesefar-flung colonies alloweda varietyof cultural influences, as well
as
great wealth, to circulate widely.
Greek cities, unlike those of the Near East, were smalland indepen-
dent. The citizens were rarely willing to cooperate with their neighbors,
and they feuded almost as often as they traded. One consequence of this
isolation was that Greek cities in Anatolia were unable to defend them-
selves alone and were quickly made subjectto larger Asian
empires—first
Lydia in the 600s
B.C.,and then Persia
B.C.after546

Classical Greece. The classical periodof Greece PERSIANbegan withthe

WARS, in which the Greeks repelled Persian invasions. The mainland city
of
Athens was the targetof the first PersianB.C.
invasion
because
in 492
Athens
had sentforces to help some Anatolian cities reject Persian rule there.The
Persians then launchedmajor expeditions
B.C.
B.C.,
andwith
in480
the
490
intention of subduing theGreek mainland.
The Greek victories in these wars led to the liberation of the cities of
Anatolia, freeing them for expanded trade with the Greek mainland. It
also gave Athens the opportunity, as the leading naval power that de-
feated the Persian fleet, to dominate sea trade. Athens gained great wealth
and became the center of the vibrant Greek civilization that flowered dur-
ing the next 50 to 100 years. This period produced major works of sculp-
ture, architecture, philosophy, history, rhetoric*, and medicine and is
considered to be the starting point of "Western" culture.
Athens's domination of the Greek world was resisted by Sparta, the
chief city of the Peloponnese. Sparta had been the leading military
force among the Greek cities for many years and resented Athens'sat-
tempt to expand. A series of battles, known as the Peloponnesian War,
occurred between Athens and Sparta from about B.C.
431 to 404
Athens made several rash mistakes, allowing Sparta and its allies to
break up Athens's power base. Athens remained the main center of a
140
 Greece and the Greeks
still glorious culture but lacked the political influence that it had en-
joyed before its defeat.
One of the allies who supported Sparta was the Persian empire — a
Homer's Image long distance away, but still extremely wealthy. Persian influence was felt
in Greece for the next 60 years or so, the Persians coming to the aid of dif-
of Egypt ferent local cities as they fought each other for power.
In the Iliad, the Greek hero
Achilles refuses to fight the
Trojans for a long time. He says that Macedonia and the Hellenistic World. In 359 B.C., a new force
he would not be willing to do battle emerged when the kingdom of Macedonia, to the north of Greece, gained
even for all the wealth in Thebes: a new king, Philip II. Philip saw the warring Greek cities to the south and
Egyptian Thebes, where the sensed opportunity. In less than 25 years, Philip dominated all the north-
houses overflow with the great- ern cities of Greece, including Athens. Then, over a 13-year period,
est troves off treasure, Thebes Philip's son ALEXANDER THE GREAT led a united Macedonian and Greek ex-
with the hundred gates and pedition all the way to India. This expedition crushed the ancient Persian
through each gate battalions—
two hundred fighters—surge to
empire and resulted in a new balance of power in the ancient Near East.
war with teams and chariots. From this time on, the influence of Greek culture rivaled that of any
Egypt, to the poets of Homer's tradi-
of the Near Eastern civilizations. Philip had greatly admired Greek culture
tion, was the very essence of wealth and taught his son to admire it as well. Thus, Alexander's conquests had
and power. the effect of spreading Greek culture across western Asia. After Alexander's
death in 323 B.C., the vast Macedonian empire that he had created disinte-
grated into three large realms: Macedonia, Asia, and Egypt. Macedonian
monarchs ruled all three lands — and though they warred with one an-
other, all three of them provided fertile soils for further development and
intermingling of Greek and Near Eastern cultures. These blends of Greek
and local cultures resulted in what is broadly called Hellenistic culture.
The roughly 300 years after Alexander's death, when Rome began to im-
pose its own power across the Near East, is known as the Hellenistic age.

GREEK CIVILIZATION
AND THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
Ancient Greece provided unique and glorious contributions to the devel-
opment of Western civilization, many of which owe part of their origins
to the older, Near Eastern cultures. In social organization and politics,
perhaps, the Greeks remained totally unlike the groups they came in con-
tact with, but signs of Near Eastern influence exist in other cultural ar-
eas—from art and architecture to science and philosophy.

Society and Politics. Greek politics was very different from ancient
* city-state independent state consisting Near Eastern politics. City-states* and lands in the ancient Near East
of a city and its surrounding territory were frequently large and almost always ruled by kings. Kingship was
not unknown in Greece, especially in Mycenaean times, but during the
classical period, several Greek city-states were democracies, meaning
they were ruled by their citizens.
The most famous ancient Greek democracy, known as the Council of
500, was centered in Athens from around 508 to 322 B.C. The council,
which was made up of citizens chosen by lottery, prepared legislation, and
an assembly of Athenian citizens voted on the issues. The assembly in-
cluded all qualified citizens of the city, typically fewer than 5,000 people.
141
Greece and the Greeks
Not all inhabitants, such as foreign-born residents and slaves, were able to
vote. In addition, Greek culture generally did not recognize any rights for
women. The fact remains, however, that a pattern of Greek government
was ruled by groups of people rather than by a single leader.

Architecture and Art. The most notable buildings of ancient Greek

architecture were its temples and theaters. The temples were usually sur-
* colonnade row of regularly spaced rounded by a colonnade* that supported an overhanging stone roof.
columns or pillars Though the careful details and proportions of these temples were a Greek
creation, the influence of Egyptian monument building in stone was
clearly felt; the Greeks had previously made temples from clay and wood
and later switched to stone. Greek theaters, which were great semicircles
with rows of seats carved into hillsides, were as unique as the plays that
they housed.
The sculpture of Greece also borrowed techniques from Egypt. Typi-
cal statues at the end of the Dark Age were clay molded figures standing
Small Change? upright and looking straight ahead, with rigid looking bodies and limbs.
What could be more basic to our
Visits to Egypt during the 700s B.C. inspired Greek artists to create much
Idea of trade than money? Vet dur-
ing ancient times, trade took place larger works in stone. Around 480 B.C., Greek sculptors developed a new
either by barter, which means ex- pose for the human body, one in which the body weight is unevenly dis-
changing goods directly, or by us- tributed on the feet. In these sculptures, the head, torso, arms, and legs
ing desirable metal objects such as are gently and naturally turned and bent.
silver bats. The first coins to be is-
sued came from lydia around 600
B.C. Lydian coins contained gold as
Mythology and Religion. The Greeks' religious beliefs were based on
well as silver and must have been myths about their gods, whom they believed played certain roles in hu-
used for large transactions only. It man activity. Different gods served different functions. Many of the
was in the cities of Greece and Ana- characters in Greek mythology may have their origins in earlier stories
tolia that smaller, silver coins of dif- from the ancient Near East. For example, certain myths about Aphrodite,
ferent sizes were first used for
the goddess of love and beauty, can be traced to a Syrian legend.
buying and selling.
Greek cities also had their own patron gods and goddesses. The
Greeks built magnificent temples for their deities, and priests and priest-
esses served in them to ensure that rituals were performed correctly.

Literature, Philosophy, and Science. Greek literature began with

myth and with the stories of Homer and other writers. Athenians pro-
duced much of Greek literature: there were Athenian playwrights such as
Sophocles, historians such as Thucydides, orators such as Demosthenes,
and philosophers such as Plato. People who traveled to Athens from else-
where also became prominent writers. The Greek historian HERODOTUS
was born in Anatolia. The philosopher Aristotle came from Macedonia.
The list of ancient Greek contributors to Western culture includes
many people. Hippocrates, born on the Aegean island of Cos (or Kos), is
known as the father of modern medicine. Democritus, born in Thrace in
northern Greece, was the man who coined the term atom to mean a parti-
cle of matter. Pythagoras, the mathematician from Samos, and Archi-
medes, the physicist from Sicily, are other well-known ancient Greeks.
Greek philosophy provided the means to study and analyze the world in
a way that had never been done before.
The tool with which Greece's contribution to culture was recorded
was largely a product of the ancient Near East. The Greek ALPHABET—the
142
 Hair
basis of many other alphabets—was developed from a writing system
used by the Phoenicians, who lived in the area that is now Israel and
Lebanon. (See also Hellenistic World; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on;
Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

GUDEA
I n the late third millennium B.C.*, the ancient Sumerian city-state* of LA-
GASH was ruled by Gudea (goo»DAY»ah), who was more a governor than
an independent king. During his reign, Gudea built and restored scores of
temples, including a temple to Ningirsu, the patron* god of Lagash.
Gudea also supported the arts and literature. This is evident in the
ruled ca. 2144-2124 B.C. artistic and literary developments of the period as well as in the reemer-
Ruler of Lagash gence of Sumerian as a dominant written language. Among the most im-
portant artistic achievements from his reign are the cylinders of Gudea,
the longest and most complex surviving early Sumerian literary work.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 The clay cylinders are inscribed with a hymn that describes the recon-
to 2001 B.C. struction of Ningirsu's temple—the Eninnu. In it, Ningirsu promises
* city-state independent state consisting Gudea such material rewards as these:
of a city and its surrounding territory
* patron special guardian, protector, or Prosperity shall accompany the laying of the foundations of my
supporter house. All the great fields will raise their hands for you, dikes and
canals will crane their necks for you, and for you the water will rise
to the high ground which the waters do not reach. Cream will be
poured abundantly in Sumer in your time.

To build his temples, Gudea imported materials from distant lands.

He also claimed to have made the Elamites and other inhabitants of Susa
provide laborers to help build the temples. Many of the finished temples
contained statues of Gudea, which portray the ruler standing or seated on
a low stool. Dressed in a long robe, he often has a shaved head or wears a
distinctive headdress decorated with fine curls. In all the statues, his
hands are clasped together in reverence to the gods. These and other im-
ages of Gudea present him as an ideal ruler who was strong, wise, pious,
attentive to divine command, authoritative, and protective of his people.

Gutians i See Akkad and the Akkadians.

HAIR
A rchaeologists* working at sites in the ancient Near East have found
bronze razors; combs made of wood, ivory, and bone; and curlers
that were probably used for curling women's hair and men's beards. Wall
paintings, carved panels, and statues offer evidence of the great variety of
hairstyles worn over the millennia*. From these objects and artworks, it is
clear that the men and women of the ancient Near East shaved, cut,
curled, and arranged their hair.
143
Hair
* archaeologist scientist who studies It is not always known whether everyone in a particular society wore
past human cultures, usually by the styles represented in the surviving artworks. Scholars do know, how-
excavating material remains of human ever, that hairstyles often had a social significance. People's age, class, or
activity
role in society often determined their hairstyle. In Egypt, for example,
* millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. children wore short hair, often with one long lock falling down the right
millennia
side of the head. Grown royal children wore loose sidelocks over their
wigs to highlight their relationship to their father, the king. Among the
Babylonians of MESOPOTAMIA, a slave wore an apputtum, which was most
likely a distinctive hairstyle. The law forbade barbers to shave away a
slave's apputtum without the owner's permission. The barber's penalty for
committing this crime was to lose a hand.
In many societies in the ancient Near East, long hair was considered a
mark of beauty for both men and women. Kings, nobles, and other elite
sometimes grew their hair long. Common people and slaves, on the other
hand, often wore their hair shorter because they could not afford the care
that long hair required.

Women's Hairstyles. Images from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey),

* Levant lands bordering the eastern Mesopotamia, and the Levant* illustrate developments in women's hair-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- styles in these three regions. A figurine from the sixth millennium B.C.*
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West shows a woman with long hair hanging down her back in a braid or
Bank, and Jordan
plait. Other figurines depict women wearing long hair piled on their
* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 heads in topknots. A Mesopotamian goddess or priestess in an image
to 5001 B.C.
from the fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.) has long
hair tucked behind her ears and falling past her waist. Women in other
artworks, shown engaged in everyday activities such as weaving, wear
their hair in braids.
Between 3000 and 2001 B.C., there was great variety in Mesopotamian
women's hairstyles and headdresses. Women kept their hair long but
rarely allowed it to hang down. Instead, they wore elaborate topknots or
arrangements of braids on top of their heads. Some images show women
with their hair contained in nets, scarves, coiled turbans, or headdresses
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 of pleated cloth. An image from the first millennium B.C.* shows a queen
tO 1 B.C. of Assyria with curled, shoulder-length hair and a crown that resembles a
miniature fortress.
Ancient artworks and the evidence found at burial sites suggest that
some Canaanite and Israelite women wore wigs over their long hair. Be-
fore about 900 B.C., women in SYRIA and CANAAN parted their hair in the
middle. Later they wore short hair with curled or braided bangs.
Royal Egyptian women wore wigs made of human hair, with vegetable
fiber beneath the hair for extra fullness. Underneath the wigs, the head
was often shaved or the hair cut quite short to prevent head lice. Wig
styles seem to have reflected stages in women's lives rather than social
class. Married women wore long-haired wigs, sometimes in a style that di-
vided the hair into three parts. Unmarried women wore shorter hair that
grazed the shoulders, with curls hanging beside the face. Women also
wore special hairstyles during pregnancy, childbirth, and nursing.

Men's Hair and Beards. Mesopotamian artworks from the second half
of the fourth millennium B.C. often depict a male figure that scholars call
144
 Hair

As seen in this Eighteenth Dynasty wall

painting from the tomb of Nebamun,
wealthy and refined Egyptians often wore
perfumed cones made of animal fat on top
of their wigs. During the course of an
evening, the fat would melt over the hair,
face, and clothing, spreading the perfume.

the priest-king. This figure wears shoulder-length hair held in place by a

headband and has a full, thick beard. The same hairstyle and beard still ap-
pear in sculptures hundreds of years later. Later artworks show a greater va-
riety of styles, though, including men without beards or wearing longer
wavy or curly hair.
The variety and complexity of women's hairstyles may have influ-
enced the hair fashions of Mesopotamian men during the third millen-
nium B.C. A gold helmet found in a royal cemetery is decorated with a
thick braid wrapped around the head and looped in a bun at the base of
the neck. This style became associated with royalty and was also adopted
in Persia. During the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900-2700 B.C.), Sumerian
men began to shave their heads and faces, but Akkadian, Babylonian, and
Assyrian men kept long curly hair and curly beards. By about 2500 B.C.,
most men were clean-shaven. In some cases they kept their beards but
shaved their heads.
During the Old Babylonian period (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.), kings were
generally bearded and moustached, but other men might be beardless
and have shaven heads. Assyrian kings had moustaches, thick, elabo-
rately curled beards, and curled shoulder-length hair. During the same pe-
riod, imperial Hittite men had long, straight hair and were clean-shaven.
Syrian men depicted in Egyptian tomb paintings from the 1400s B.C. wear
short beards and either shaven heads or shoulder-length hair held in
place by a fillet, a strip of metal worn like a headband.
Ancient Egyptian art shows Canaanite and Israelite men with pointed
beards covering their cheeks and chins but usually without moustaches.
Art produced in Canaan sometimes shows noblemen and gods as clean-
shaven, however. Israelite men are always portrayed with full beards and
long hair tied back with linen bands. During the late first millennium
B.C., some Israelites and Neo-Hittites adopted the Assyrian custom of ar-
ranging their beards in curls. Minoan men and women had long, wavy
black hair, and the men were usually clean-shaven.
Egyptian men, like Egyptian women, often wore braided or plaited
wigs over bald heads, shaven heads, or close-cropped hair. Some men
kept mustaches, but they were rare. Wigs were considered attractive for
both men and women. Priests were required to display their shaven heads
when they were in the temple. Outside the temple, they, too, wore wigs.
(See also Clothing; Jewelry.)
145
Haiiiitic Languages
^ J ost of the major LANGUAGES of the ancient and modem Near East
/ ^ Ibelong to a large family of languages that goes by several names.
HAMITIC Scholars in the United States usually refer to this group of languages as
LANGUAGES Afro-Asiatic languages. In Europe, they are called Hamito-Semitic or
Semito-Hamitic languages. This large language family includes more than
250 distinct languages and dialects*, which fall into five main branches,
or subfamilies: Egyptian, Semitic*, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic. Of these
* dialect regional form of a spoken branches, Egyptian, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic belong to the Hamitic
language with distinct pronunciation, family of languages.
vocabulary, and grammar The Egyptian subfamily consists of the ancient Egyptian language,
* Semitic of or relating to a language which can be divided into two stages, each of which is characterized by
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, certain differences in grammar and usage. The older form of Egyptian is
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician
called Older Egyptian, which was the language of all written texts from
about 3000 to 1300 B.C. Older Egyptian, which can be further subdivided
into phases that affect the writing system known as HIEROGLYPHICS, sur-
vived in formal religious texts until the A.D. 100s. The second stage of the
Egyptian subfamily, known as Later Egyptian, remained in use from
about 1300 B.C. to A.D. 1300. It also can be subdivided into several sublan-
guages: Late Egyptian, Demotic Egyptian, and Coptic Egyptian. Much of
the greatest literature of ancient Egypt was written in Late Egyptian. De-
motic Egyptian was in use from the 600s B.C. to the A.D. 400s. Coptic
Egyptian, the language of Christian Egyptians, lasted from the A.D. 300s
to the 1300s. It was replaced by Arabic, which remains the spoken and
written language of Egyptians today.
The Berber subfamily includes modern Tuareg (spoken in the central
Saharan region of Africa) as well as other languages and dialects of north-
ern and northwestern Africa. Many groups that speak Berber also speak
Arabic, and Arabic script is used to write the Berber languages. Written
records in Berber do not appear until the A.D. 1800s. However, many
scholars believe that these languages are descended from the language of
ancient Libya, which appears on thousands of inscriptions dating from
the 100s B.C.
Today about 15 million people in eastern Africa—from the Sudan to
Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania—speak languages be-
longing to the Cushitic subfamily. The existence of this language group
has been known to the West only since the A.D. 1600s. Although there is
no written record of Cushitic in the ancient world, some of these lan-
guages show close ties with ancient Egyptian. A group of languages
known as Omotic includes languages spoken in parts of southwestern
Ethiopia. At one time, this group was considered part of the Cushitic sub-
family, but scholars argue that it may not belong to the Afro-Asiatic fam-
ily of languages.
The Chadic subfamily includes 140 languages and dialects that are
spoken today by about 30 million people in central and West Africa.
* fourth millennium B.C. years from Among the most important of these is Hausa, a language of northern
4000 to 3001 B.C. Nigeria and neighboring areas. Little is known about the relationship be-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern tween modern Chadic languages and ancient languages.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- The Semitic subfamily has existed in the ancient Near East since at
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West least the fourth millennium B.C.* Spoken in Mesopotamia, Syria, the
Bank, and Jordan
Levant*, and the Arabian peninsula, it included such languages as
146
 Hammurabi
Akkadian, Eblaite, Amorite, Ugartic, Aramaic,Old Canaanite,and
Phoenician. Many Semitic languages arestill used widelyinwestern
Asia and northernAfrica, including Hebrew, Arabic,
andAmharic—the
(See
also Indo-EuropeanLanguages; SemiticLan-
language of Ethiopia.
guages; Writing.)

HAMMURABI
H ammurabi(ha«muh*RAH«bee), also spelled Hammurapi,was the
sixth kingof the Amorite dynasty*
During his 43-year reign,he establishedone first
BABYLON.
of the city-state*
of the
sets
of
ofwritten
laws in history, calledthe CodeofHammurabi. Healso united most of
MESOPOTAMIA underthe ruleof his kingdom, known as the OldBabylon-
ruled ca. 1792-1750
B.C. ian empire.
King of Babylon Hammurabi's ancestors AMORITES,
werea tent-dwelling, nomadic*
peoplefrom the Syrian desert, who firstentered Mesopotamia latein the
third millennium
B.C.* Hammurabi's father, Sin-muballit,was thekingof
an Amorite dynasty that had been ruling Babylonforabout 100years.
When Hammurabi inheritedthe throne from
B.C.,
father
his around1792
he was still a young man.He had probably prepared for hisresponsibili-
ties as kingby performing some official dutiesin thegovernment when
he was younger.
Like previous Mesopotamian kings, Hammurabi beganhisreignby
praising himself. Heclaimed that he hadbeen destined to be theking
since the beginning oftime and proclaimed hisdedication tojusticein
the laws he made for his people. Unlike earlier Mesopotamian kings,
Hammurabi continued to proclaim hisdedication tojustice throughout
his reign.A statueof Hammurabi presented him as the"kingofjustice/'
and Hammurabi spokeofhaving "establishedjusticein theland" only
monthsafter he took the throne.
During thefirst yearsof his rule, Hammurabi builtandrestored tem-
ples, canals, city walls,and public buildings.Healso honoredthegods of
Mesopotamia by dedicating shrines, temples, andcult objects tothem in
the cities and towns of hisrealm.
Around 1787B.C., Hammurabi conquered the southern city-statesof
URUK and Isin, whichhad been controlled by chief
his rival,
King
Rim-Sin
of the city-stateof
Larsa.For the next20years, Hammurabi's kingdom did
not engage in anymajor wars. During this time, Hammurabi concen-
trated on building and renovating temples, strengtheningthewallsof his
cities in the north against possible enemies, andimplementing justice
within his land.
About 23 years after he had conquered UrukandIsin, Hammurabi be-
gan a campaigntodefeatRim-Sinand seize Larsa.
Aspart
of hismilitary
strategy, he constructeda dam on the Euphrates Riverupstream
from
Larsa. Evidence suggests thathe either releasedthewaters suddenlyto
cause a devastating floodLarsa
in orwithheldthewaters inorder
tocause
drought and famine. Once Larsawasconquered, Hummurabi's kingdom
became the dominant power in theregion.
Around 1762B.C., Hammurabi went toMARI,
war
powerful
aagainst
kingdom to the northeast. Marihadonce been anallyofBabylon,and it
147
Hammurabi, Code of
* dynasty succession of rulers from the is not known why the two powers became enemies. The cause may have
same family or group been a dispute over water rights or it may have been an attempt by Ham-
* city-state independent state consisting murabi to gain access to the overland trade route from which Mari de-
of a city and its surrounding territory rived its wealth. By conquering Mari, Hammurabi extended the power of
* nomadic referring to people who travel the Old Babylonian empire farther up the Euphrates River. Two years
from place to place to find food and later, Hammurabi began a campaign to defeat ESHNUNNA, a city-state east
pasture of the Tigris River. Using his strategy of damming the river waters, Ham-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 murabi soon conquered Eshnunna.
to 2001 B.C. Toward the end of his reign, Hammurabi became very ill and had to
hand over his power to one of his sons before he died. Many Babylonian
inscriptions have been discovered which say, ''for the well-being of Ham-
murabi" and may date to the time of this illness. Around 1750 B.C., his
son Samsu-iluna took over the throne, and Hammurabi died shortly
thereafter.
Hammurabi's reign is regarded by many as a high point of Mesopota-
mian civilization. During this time, Mesopotamia made significant ad-
vances in the arts and in the study of astronomy and mathematics.
Multiplication tables, tables of square and cube roots, and what we call
the Pythagorean theorem were all known and used. (See also Babylonia
and the Babylonians; Hammurabi, Code of.)

HAMMURABI,
O ne of the best-known artifacts* from ancient MESOPOTAMIA is a
stela* that contains 282 laws set down by King HAMMURABI of BABY-
LON. These laws are collectively known as the Code of Hammurabi, one of
CODE OF the oldest sets of written laws in history. The stela, made of black basalt*
and standing about eight feet tall, depicts in relief* King Hammurabi re-
ceiving rod and ring, symbols of kingship, from the sun god Shamash.
The laws are engraved in cuneiform* beneath this relief as well as on the
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or back of the stela from top to bottom. Archaeologists* think that originally
other object made by humans there were at least two stone stelae containing these laws in Mesopo-
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been tamia, parts of which were copied onto clay tablets by scribes* and their
carved or engraved and serves as a students. However, only one stela has been recovered to date.
monument; pi. stelae Hammurabi decreed that his code was to be located in a public place,
* basalt black or gray stone, often with a where people could read the laws or have them read out loud whenever
glassy surface they had a legal question. Historians believe that one copy of the code
* relief sculpture in which material is cut was kept in a temple next to a statue depicting Hammurabi as the King of
away to show figures raised from the Justice.
background
In ancient Mesopotamia, it was thought that the gods established the
* cuneiform world's oldest form of order of the world, that the king was the representative of the gods on
writing, which takes its name from the
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
earth, and that it was the king's job to implement justice on the gods' be-
into clay tablets half. Consequently, the Code of Hammurabi served as a prescription for
* archaeologist scientist who studies
maintaining the divine order of the world.
past human cultures, usually by The code includes laws about a variety of topics. Some of the legal is-
excavating material remains of human sues covered by Hammurabi's laws included theft, murder, manslaughter,
activity property damage, MARRIAGE, adoption, DIVORCE, trade, TAXATION, and the
* scribe person of a learned class who manumission* of SLAVES. Many of the laws in the Code of Hammurabi
served as a writer, editor, or teacher share similarities with other law codes of the ancient Near East. In fact,
Hammurabi probably collected parts of older law codes from previous
148
 Hanging Gardens of Babylon
* manumission act of legally freeing a kings and included them in his code to prove his commitment to an an-
person from slavery cient tradition of justice. The Code of Hammurabi shares common themes
with the older Sumerian laws set forth by King Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (ruled
ca. 1934-1924 B.C.), including the commitment to justice and the well-
False Accusations being of the people. The laws of MOSES in the Hebrew BIBLE also are similar
The Code of Hammurabi con- to the Code of Hammurabi. However, the similarities are generally
tains several laws that forbid thought to be due to common cultural roots rather than a direct influ-
accusing someone of a crime ence of Hammurabi's laws on the laws of JUDAISM.
without providing proof of that per-
son's guilt. The first law of the code Hammurabi's laws were more severe in their punishments than ear-
states: lier Akkadian and Sumerian laws. One special characteristic of the Code
If a man accused another man of Hammurabi was the concept of "an eye for an eye/' in which the per-
and brought a charge of murder petrator of a crime is punished by having that same crime inflicted on
against him, but has not proved him. For example, the code states: "If a man struck another man's
it, his accuser shall be put to daughter and . . . if that woman has died, they shall put his daughter to
death. death."
The third law states: The Code of Hammurabi recognized three social classes: awilum
If a man came forward with (landowner), mushkenum (landless free citizen), and wardum (slave). Pun-
false testimony in a casef and ishments for crimes varied according to the social class of the victim. For
has not proved the word which example, Law 200 states: "If a man has knocked out the tooth of a man of
he spoke, if that case was a case his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth." However, Law 201 states:
involving life, that man shall be
put to death. "If he has knocked out a commoner's tooth, he shall pay one-third mina
of silver."
The fourth law states:
Some historians believe that because many ancient Mesopotamian
If he came forward with false people could not read the cuneiform script used to write the laws and be-
testimony concerning grain or
money, he shall bear the penalty cause the stela was probably not accessible to everyone, the Code of Ham-
of that case. murabi was used only by the elite and educated. Other historians believe
that the laws were meant to serve as guidelines for future kings, in the
hope that they would continue the traditions of their predecessor Ham-
murabi. (See also Law.)

HANGING
D uring the Hellenistic* period, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon,
famed for their beauty and magnificence, were considered one of
the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. However, the gardens are not
GARDENS OF mentioned by ancient writers living during the time that they were said
to have been built. Neither Babylonian cuneiform* tablets nor the in-
BABYLON scriptions of Babylonian king NEBUCHADNEZZAR II speak of the gardens,
though they do describe, in great detail, many building activities in
Babylon. Moreover, the Greek historian HERODOTUS, who traveled to
Babylon in the 400s B.C. and wrote about the region, does not mention
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- the gardens.
influenced culture of the Mediterranean Nevertheless, it is commonly believed that the gardens were built by
world and western Asia during the three Nebudchadnezzar for his wife, Amytis, who was from Media (in present-
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
day Iran). It is said that the king built the gardens to resemble a mountain
to please Amytis, who was homesick for the mountainous landscape of
* cuneiform world's oldest form of
writing, which takes its name from the
her homeland.
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed Although the mountainous shape of the gardens is generally agreed
into clay tablets on, their size and their source of water are disputed. Diodorus Siculus, a
historian writing during the 50s B.C., reported that the gardens were 75
149
Harbors
feet in height. Strabo, a geographer writing a few years later, reported
them to be even larger. It is unknown how the gardens were irrigated.
Some ancient writers described pumps that were used to transport water
from the EUPHRATES RIVER. Others suggested that the source of water was a
well that was equipped with an endless chain of buckets.
* archaeologist scientist who studies Archaeologists* have searched for the remains of the Hanging Gar-
past human cultures, usually by dens of Babylon inside the walls of Nebuchadnezzar's palace and have
excavating material remains of human discovered large underground walls, vaulted* rooms, and a well. These
activity
remains could be the original foundations of the gardens. Some archae-
* vaulted having an arched ceiling or ologists believe that the gardens were built in the area outside the palace
roof
near the Euphrates River because one of Nebuchadnezzar's inscriptions
describes forming baked bricks into the likeness of a mountain in this
region. A series of underground canals used for water supply and
drainage were also found nearby and could have been used to irrigate
the gardens.
More recently, it has been suggested that late classical writers, who
were writing many hundreds of years after the gardens' construction,
may have confused the enormous building activities of Nebuchadnezzar
in Babylon with memories of a vast artificial garden in the city of Nin-
eveh. This city was the famous capital of the Assyrians, who were known
to have built irrigated terraces planted with trees from distant lands. Un-
til new archaeological and textual discoveries are made, details about the
Hanging Gardens of Babylon will remain unknown. (See also Babylon;
Gardens.)

HARBORS
A harbor is a sheltered coastal area where the waters are deep enough
for ships to approach the shore. Harbors also enable ships to escape
storms, anchor safely, and load and unload cargo. The ancient Near East
had many excellent natural harbors as well as some that were improved
by human efforts. Because these harbors were used by ships from all over
the Near East, they become important centers of seafaring trade.
In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER were
crowded with ships transporting goods. Like other bodies of water, the
rivers in Mesopotamia had harbors that were used for docking and un-
loading cargo. These harbors attracted sailors from other lands, such as
Dilmun (near present-day Bahrain), Magan (present-day Oman), and
MELUKKHA (in present-day India), who came to buy and sell goods. During
* guild association of professionals that the 1800s B.C., societies of merchants or guilds* were formed in the
sets standards and represents the wealthy port cities that surrounded the Mesopotamian harbors.
interests of its members The NILE RIVER was the most commonly used route for transporting
goods in ancient Egypt. However, one of the most famous trade expedi-
tions in Egyptian history was launched from the harbor of Mersa Gawa-
sis, located on the northwestern coast of the RED SEA. In about 1495 B.C.,
Queen HATSHEPSUT commissioned an expedition to Punt, a mysterious
land of legendary wealth located along the southwestern coast of the
Red Sea. The ships used for the expedition were carried in pieces over-
land from the city of THEBES to the harbor. After assembling the ships,
150
 Hathor
the sailors departed for Punt. Many months later, the ships returned
* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree loaded with frankincense and myrrh*, ebony*, IVORY, panther skins, and
resins used to make incense and COSMETICS.
perfumes Some of the most important harbors in the ancient Near East were on
* ebony dark, heavy, and highly prized the Mediterranean Sea. One particularly important harbor was in UGARIT,
wood from certain tropical trees a city located on the Mediterranean coast of present-day Syria. The city's
White Harbor, so-called because of the white cliffs surrounding it, was im-
portant because it was located between ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to
the north and Canaan and Egypt to the south. In addition, the harbor
was directly east of the island of CYPRUS, which had rich copper mines.
This location led to seafaring trade with many cities, and as trade grew, so
did Ugarit. However, the ships also brought disaster. Around 1200 B.C., in-
vaders attacked from the sea and destroyed the city.
Harbors were essential to the commercial empire of Phoenicia (present-
day Lebanon). The Phoenicians made improvements to harbors at the
breakwaters barriers to lessen the cities of SIDON and TYRE. In the 1200s B.C., they built breakwaters* to pro-
impact of waves, such as in a harbor; tect the harbors from rough seas. These changes were among the first
also called breakwalls or moles human-made improvements of harbors in history. (See also Economy
and Trade; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Ships
and Boats.)

HATHOR
H athor (HATH>awr) was a sky goddess and the universal mother
goddess of ancient Egypt. She was most often pictured as a woman
wearing a pair of cow's horns with a sun disk between them. She was also
depicted as a lioness, snake, and tree goddess. Sometimes called the cow
goddess, she was also represented as a cow or as a woman with a cow's
head, horns, and ears.
* cult system of religious beliefs and It is not known whether Hathor had her own cult* in predynastic*
rituals; group following these beliefs Egypt, but it is clear that she was widely worshiped in ancient Egypt after
* predynastic referring to the period that time. Temples and priestesses were dedicated to Hathor, and she was
before 3000 B.C., when Egypt's First well represented in art and architecture, especially in tombs.
Dynasty began Hathor was the daughter of the sun god Ra and, in some ways, the
mother of the falcon god HORUS. Her name literally meant "house of Ho-
rns/' Because Horus symbolized the king, Hathor symbolized the mother
of the king. Eventually, however, the role of Horus's mother was given to
the goddess Isis, and Hathor became Horus's wife.
* deity god or goddess Hathor was primarily a benevolent, or helpful, deity*. She protected
* underworld world of the dead and assisted the dead in the underworld*, healed the sick, and helped
women in childbirth. Her role in healing was probably based on a well-
known story in which Hathor restores Horus's eyesight after he is injured
during a battle. She was also associated with sexuality, wine, music, and
dancing. Dances were held in her honor, and music was an important
part of worship in her cult. Hathor was also occasionally considered a de-
structive deity. According to one myth, Hathor in the form of a fierce li-
oness nearly destroyed all of humanity before AMUN could trick her into
stopping the slaughter. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and
Goddesses; Religion.)
151
Hatshepsut

HATSHEPSUT
H atshepsut(hat«SHEP»soot)was a queenof ancient Egypt who later
proclaimed herselfthe kingdom's ruler,or pharaoh.She was one of
only four women everto rule Egyptin her own right. Hatshepsutwasable
to gain control of the throne largely becauseof her strong characterand
forceful personality.
ruled ca. 1472-1458 B.C. Hatshepsutwas the daughterof a pharaoh named Thutmose I. As was
Egyptian pharaoh common among ancient Egyptian royalty, Hatshepsut marriedherhalf
brother, Thutmose II, and theyhad a daughter named Neferura.Around
* regent person appointed to govern 1492B.C., ThutmoseII succeeded Thutmose I aspharaoh, with Hatshepsut
while the rightful monarch is too youngas his queen. After an unremarkable reign,he died unexpectedly around
or unable to rule
1479 B.C. Becausehe had no sons with Hatshepsut, Thutmose II wassuc-
* oracle priest or priestess through whom
ceeded byTHUTMOSE III,his son by a minor
wifeand Hatshepsut's stepson.
a god is believed to speak; also, the
Thutmose III wasjust a boy whenhe inheritedthe throne,so at first,
location (such as a shrine) where such
utterances are made
Hatshepsut reigned as regent*. During that time, shegained powerand
the support of important royal officials. Then B.C.,
after
around 1472
* funerary having to do with funerals or
the handling of the dead
about seven yearsas regent, Hatshepsuthad herself declaredthe rulerof
Egypt by an oracle*from AMUN.
the godShe abandonedthe titlesof
queen, which belonged to her as the chief wife of ThutmoseII, and
;
adopted all the pharaoh s traditional titles. In art and architecture, she
was depicted wearing kingly dress, includingthe ceremonial false beard
that was an ancient symbol of theking's power. However,it is not known
whether she dressed as a man in life.
real
From thenuntilherdeath about
14 years later, Hatshepsut ruled Egyptas the dominant partnerin a co-
reign with Thutmose III.
During Hatshepsut's reign,Egyptwasinvolvedin relatively little mili-
tary activity. Thereare no recordsof military campaigns Asia,
in
and
Egypt
seems to have lost much of the ground that previously hadbeen won in
Asia. Nonetheless, Hatshepsuthad a prosperous reign,asreflectedby the
impressive buildings and monuments that were constructed during her
rule. She had the temple at Thebes renovated, includingthe addition of a
chapel andfour obelisks, each nearlyfeet100tall.Shealsocut atomb for
herself in theValleyof the
Kings.Herbest-known achievement magnif-
is a
icentfunerary* templeshe had built for
herself
Dayr
atal-Bahri.
The
foun-
dation of the temple stands today muchas it must have looked in her time.
Inscribed on its wallsare the
major eventsofHatshepsut'sreign, including
the storyof how Amun grantedher the rightto rule Egyptaspharaoh.
During Hatshepsut's reign,a man named Senenmut became one of
the few commoners everto gain prestigeand renownin ancient Egypt.
Senenmut was an influentialman who held many important offices.
He
was the administratorof royal domainsand tutorto Hatshepsut's daugh-
ter, Neferura. He also supervisedthe construction of the
Dayr
al-Bahri
temple.(Seealso Egypt and the Egyptians; Pharaohs.)

HEALTH
T he ancient Egyptians hoped that they would

lasted for 100 or 110years—butit was the

enjoythe twin blessings
of "a good old age and a goodburial." They believed that
rare Egyptian
lifean ideal
who reached such
an advanced age. Throughoutthe ancient Near
East, people
faced many
health hazards, including diseaseand infectionby parasites*. Although
152
 Health
*
parasite organism that lives inside the diseases were caused by unclean water, poor sanitation, crowded living
another organism and is often harmful conditions, and dietary deficiencies, most ancients believed that diseases
to the host organism were the result of attacks by demons or other supernatural beings. In Akka-
dian (the language of the Babylonians), the term for plague was literally
* plague contagious disease that quickly "the touch of god," often Erra. In the Hebrew BIBLE, plagues* are similarly
kills large numbers of people referred to as "the touch." Consequently, most ancient Near Eastern peo-
ples sought relief from these troubles in MAGIC and RELIGION.
Diseases and Ailments. More is known about the diseases and ailments
of the ancient Egyptians than about those of any other Near Eastern
culture. That is because of the Egyptian practice of preserving bodies. By
examining MUMMIES and skeletons, as well as ancient medical texts, archae-
* archaeologist scientist who studies ologists* have been able to identify the problems that afflicted the people
past human cultures, usually by of ancient Egypt. Dental problems were common, especially wear on tooth
excavating material remains of human enamel caused by sand in bread and other foods. Other health problems
activity
included broken bones, bone cancer, obesity, arthritis, lung diseases such
as emphysema and tuberculosis, smallpox, polio, and parasitic diseases.
Medical texts from ancient MESOPOTAMIA suggest that eye diseases were
common there, perhaps in part due to a diet poor in vitamin A. The Meso-
potamians also suffered from many ailments of the digestive system, some
of which were probably caused by intestinal parasites. Skin problems such
as sores and rashes occurred frequently and may have been caused by the
hot, dry, sunny climate as well as by certain infections.
Records left by the HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey)
mention ailments of the eyes, mouth, throat, and digestive system. They
* epidemic spread of a particular disease also refer to plagues—devastating epidemics* of disease.
within a population Few references to health or illness appear in texts that survive from
ancient IRAN. Health problems there were probably similar to those of
neighboring Mesopotamia. It is clear, however, that people who suffered
from some diseases with visible signs, such as skin ailments, were outcasts
from society.
Health problems in SYRIA and CANAAN were much like those elsewhere
in the ancient Near East. People combated infestations of insects such as
lice by shaving and covering themselves with oil. Internal parasites such
as tapeworms and whipworms, however, were not so easily defeated. The
Hebrew Bible mentions illnesses among the ancient Israelites, including
fevers, parasitic diseases, stroke, epilepsy, and skin diseases including lep-
rosy. The Israelites believed that the plagues they suffered were caused by
contact with other peoples. They also regarded a woman's infertility, or
inability to bear children, as both an illness and something that lowered
her social status.
Public Health. Many health problems in the ancient Near East were
* domesticate to adapt or tame for related to changes in lifestyle, such as domesticating* animals, which
human use placed people in closer contact with animals and, consequently, the dis-
eases they carried. Another change was the shift from the hunting-and-
gathering life to settling in permanent communities in which people
lived close together in large numbers. Greater population density allowed
some diseases to flourish and to spread more easily. Finally, war, trade,
* migration movement of individuals or and migrations* led to more contact among different populations. These
peoples from one place to another events also spread diseases more widely.
153
Hebrew

The Mesopotamians recognized that some illnesses passed from per-

son to person. They tried to prevent this spread by isolating sick people.
Sometimes they moved the population of an entire village in the hope of
preventing epidemics.
The social and physical conditions of people's lives also affected
health. In some societies, food was unequally distributed among classes,
Disease Prevention so some people consumed more varied and plentiful food than others.
This extract from an ancient Those whose food was insufficient or limited were more likely to suffer
Mesopotamia!! letter shows
some understanding of dis- from conditions caused by a lack of nutrients.
ease transmission and prevention: Poor sanitation also contributed to public health problems. Water
/ hear that the woman Nanna is was necessary to life, but it could also bring disease. In Syria and Canaan,
ill,. * . Give strict orders that no people collected rainwater in large containers called cisterns. Over time,
one drink from a cup she drinks water standing in these cisterns could become contaminated with dis-
from, that no one sit on a chair ease-carrying organisms or with parasites. River water, too, could harbor
she sits on, and that no one health threats such as disease-causing parasites.
sleep in a bed she sleeps in so
that she does not infect [any
Contamination of drinking water by garbage or by human and ani-
more] of the women around her. mal wastes was one of the worst public health problems of the ancient
world. Excavations in Egypt have shown that even the most luxurious
homes, well built and maintained, were surrounded by heaps of garbage,
open sewers, and thousands of flies.
Some cultures made efforts to dispose of human wastes effectively, al-
though it is not clear whether they did so specifically to protect their
health. In Mesopotamia, for example, some towns and cities had clay
sewer pipes. Archaeologists have found clay pipes and drainage systems
in several Hittite sites too, and some Hittite homes had toilets. Various
cities in CANAAN also had drains, and remains of ancient toilets have been
discovered in JERUSALEM.

Life Expectancy. It is difficult to determine how long people lived, on

average, in the ancient Near East. Some of the best-preserved human re-
mains come from Egypt, but even experts in the study of these relics do
not always agree on life expectancy. Some experts suggest that Egyptians
rarely lived more than 40 or 50 years, while others argue that those who
survived into adulthood and did not die giving birth had a good chance
of living to age 60. It must be remembered, though, that the mummies
from which much of our information is gathered were almost always
from Egypt's upper classes and do not represent Egyptian society as a
whole.
Members of the privileged classes in Mesopotamia might live to age
70, although the average life expectancy of the ordinary farmer or laborer
was undoubtedly much lower. Even for the privileged, however, existence
* famine severe lack of food due to failed was full of health threats. Accidents, famine*, and CHILDBIRTH, as well as
crops illness, claimed a heavy toll in lives. Infant mortality, or the percentage of
people dying before their first birthday, was also high in all ancient soci-
eties. (See also Drought; Famine; Medicine.)

Hebrew See Semites; Semitic Languages.

154
 Hebrews and Israelites
Hebrew is generally used to refer to the patriarch* Abraham
T he(alsotermcalled Abram) and his descendants—a nomadic* tribespeople
HEBREWS who worshiped the god YAHWEH. The traditional history of these people—
AND ISRAELITES beginning with Abraham's migration from MESOPOTAMIA to CANAAN—is
told in the Hebrew BIBLE. The term Hebrew itself is rarely used in the Bible,
in most cases only by other people in their references to or about Abra-
ham or his descendants. Some historians believe that the name Hebrew
* patriarch male leader of a family or may have come from a people who lived in Canaan during the Late
tribe Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.) and were referred to in cuneiform* and
* nomadic referring to people who move Egyptian hieroglyphic* texts as Khabiru. Others suggest that the term He-
from place to place in search of food brew derives from the name Eber, the name of one of Abraham's ancestors.
and pasture The term Israelites refers to the descendants of Abraham and his im-
* cuneiform world's oldest form of mediate family—considered the patriarchs and matriarchs* of Israel. Ac-
writing, which takes its name from the cording to the Hebrew Bible, Abraham's grandson Jacob, who was
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
into clay tablets
renamed Israel by Yahweh, had 12 sons. Their descendants were later or-
ganized into 12 tribes, each named for one of Jacob's (Israel's) sons or
* hieroglyphic referring to a system of
writing that uses pictorial characters, or
grandsons. Together, these tribespeople came to be known as the children
hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas of Israel or the Israelites.
* matriarch female leader of a family or
tribe Biblical History. According to the Bible, Jacob and his family fled to
* famine severe lack of food due to failed
Egypt to escape a famine* in Canaan, and there their descendants even-
crops tually became slaves. A leader named MOSES led them out of captivity on
a 40-year journey through the desert back to Canaan, which Yahweh
had promised to them as their homeland, the Promised Land. During
the Exodus, as this journey was called, Yahweh revealed the TEN COM-
MANDMENTS to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Israelites then completed the
journey to Canaan, where they began a new phase of their history.
Once back in Canaan, the Israelites came into conflict with Canaan-
ite peoples and the PHILISTINES, a people who had come from the eastern
Where Are They Now? Mediterranean and settled in Canaan. To combat the Philistines, the Is-
In 722 B.C, the Assyrians conquered raelite tribes united under King Saul. The Bible describes a series of wars in
the kingdom of Israel and forced th€ which the Israelites overcame these groups. After Saul died in battle
ten northern Israelite tribes to relo-
cate throughout the Assyrian em-
against the Philistines, his son-in-law DAVID, a former outlaw, became
pire. The people of these tribes king. David conquered JERUSALEM, which had been under foreign control
blended into their new societies and but was situated between lands held by the southern and northern Is-
were lost to history. However, many raelite tribes, and made it Israel's capital. During the reign of SOLOMON,
Jews continued to believe that their David's son and successor, Israel became an empire that stretched from
descendants would be found some-
Syria to Egypt. Solomon also built a splendid temple and palace in in the
day. One traveler in the A.D. 800s
claimed to have found the tribes city of Jerusalem.
beyond the rivers of Ethiopia. From Still, the Israelite kingdom was fragile. Some tribes objected to the
time to time, claims have been taxes and forced labor that paid for and built the new structures, and ten-
made that certain religious and sions existed between the northern and southern tribes. After Solomon's
ethnic groups—the Mormons, the death, the kingdom was divided into a northern kingdom called Israel
Afghans, the Japanese, and the in-
digenous people of North Amer-
and a southern one called Judah, whose people were the Judeans, or, in
ica—are descendants of these tost modern English, Jews. After the split, the histories of the kingdoms of IS-
tribes. RAEL AND JUDAH were separate.

What Modern Historians Believe. No contemporary archaeologi-

cal* evidence exists to support the story of the patriarchs and early Is-
raelites as told in the Bible. Historians are divided on the accuracy of
155
Hebrews and Israelites
* archaeological referring to the study biblical accounts because this text was compiled many centuries after
of past human cultures, usually by the events occurred. Moreover, it was compiled by editors whose inten-
excavating material remains of human tions may have been to strengthen national and religious unity by em-
activity
phasizing the shared past of the Israelite people. Notwithstanding its
problems, the Bible is considered a starting point for discussing the early
history of the Israelites and for archaeological investigations.
* Semitic of or relating to people of the Although historians know that the Israelites were a Semitic* people,
Near East or northern Africa, including they know little of their history before 1100s B.C. At the time, the Lev-
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, ant* was undergoing social and political change, perhaps caused by pop-
Jews, and Arabs
ulation movements and invasions of the SEA PEOPLES. City-states* were
* Levant lands bordering the eastern falling, urban culture was weakening, and people were on the move.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
Some historians believe that the Israelites settled in the thinly occupied
Bank, and Jordan highlands of Canaan during this period. Others, however, have sug-
* city-state independent state consisting
gested that the Israelites may have originated among segments of the
of a city and its surrounding territory Canaanite population.
After arriving in Canaan, the Israelites began to shift from a nomadic
lifestyle to permanent settlement and agriculture. At first, they occupied
the northeast region of present-day Israel, but they eventually moved
down the hills and into more fertile regions. They tended to form new set-
tlements in areas outside the territories of the old city-states. Archaeological
evidence from the region does not easily support the idea of the sudden or
violent changes resulting from the battles with other groups as described in
the Bible. Instead, the Israelite expansion may have involved gradual
blending with other groups as well as conflict. Over time, the Israelites
came to share many customs, traditions, and cultural elements with their
Canaanite neighbors, although they maintained a separate identity.
Some historians also think it is unlikely that the empire of David and
Solomon existed as described in the Bible. The lack of historical evidence
about David and Solomon suggests to some scholars that their achieve-
ments may have been more modest than described in the Bible. A few
others even question whether the united monarchy existed. Instead, they
suspect that the kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged separately be-
tween 900 and 800 B.C. and that later Jewish historians claimed there had
been a united kingdom in order to link the people of the two kingdoms to
a common heritage.

Government and Economy. The Israelites had established settled

communities by 1200 B.C. Divided into tribes, they were headed by a
tribal chief who came forward at times of crisis. It is unclear what role
the leaders played in day-to-day governance. The tribes recognized their
shared identity as "children of Israel" and were united mainly by their
religion, the worship of Yahweh.
After the Israelites adopted kingship as their system of government, a
* bureaucracy system of officials and bureaucracy* developed within the monarchy to handle the administra-
clerks that perform government tion of the royal estates, tax collection, and defense. The state cult* was
functions also a function of the monarchy. The king had supreme authority over
* cult system of religious beliefs and the cult and performed such duties as offering sacrifices and ordering the
rituals; group following these beliefs people to religious meetings. There were also two classes of priests: the
Levites, who were in charge of temple maintenance, and the Kohens,
who performed sacrifices and rituals.
156
 Hebrews and Israelites
The economy of the early Israelites was based on agriculture, and
ownership of land was the basis of wealth and social status. Farmers ei-
ther developed or adopted from neighboring cultures several technical
advances that helped them cultivate the hilly, dry land. They dug cisterns
* terrace artificial level platform of earth, (reservoirs) in rocks where they could store rainwater and built terraces*
supported by an outer wall, dug or built to plant crops on steep hillsides. Their principal crops were grain, olives,
into the side of a hill; terraces may be and grapes. Although they had taken up farming, and eventually urban
stacked on top of each other like stairs
living, they did not abandon raising livestock. They maintained herds,
primarily sheep and goats but also some cattle. Craftspeople produced
pottery, including cooking pots with handles and jugs with spouts. Met-
alworkers produced tools and weapons of bronze, which was gradually re-
placed by the use of the more abundant and stronger iron. The Hewbrew
Bible describes trade in foreign luxury goods under King Solomon, but ar-
chaeological evidence supports only modest trade in the region.

Society. In the period before the establishment of the monarchy, Is-

raelite settlements differed from the earlier Canaanite cities in that they
did not have large temples or palaces, nor were they surrounded by
walls. Settlements fell into three types: villages, towns or villages with
buildings circling an open center, and farmsteads that consisted of indi-
vidual buildings or small clusters of buildings in walled compounds.
During the early years of the monarchy, the village pattern of settlement
gave way to cities and towns. These were usually surrounded by a thick
defensive wall pierced by a single GATE. Many cities had systems of wells,
pools, and tunnels to distribute water.
Differences in the size and quality of buildings were not extreme, sug-
gesting that the differences between social classes were not great. There
were free farmers or herders who worked their own land and whose indi-
vidual wealth and social status depended on the amount of land they
controlled. In addition, some individuals may have been recognized as
having higher status because of birth, performance in battle, or for other
reasons. Slaves occupied the lowest social class. The majority of people,
however, were free peasants.
Two kinds of education existed among the Israelites. One was the tra-
ditional ancient Near Eastern system of home schooling, in which parents
taught children practical skills, social customs, and religious and moral
matters. The other was a formal system devoted to training in writing. In
* scribe person of a learned class who the schools in this system, professional scribes* were trained to perform
served as a writer, editor, or teacher such functions as writing letters and keeping records. The scribes trained
in this manner became an essential part of the religious tradition, respon-
sible for copying sacred and legal documents and for teaching the law.
*
Semitic of or relating to a language Alphabet and Language. The Israelites spoke Hebrew, a Semitic* lan-
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, guage that is closely related to Phoenician and Moabite (from the king-
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician dom of Moab in present-day Jordan). As a spoken language, Hebrew was
replaced by Aramaean by the 300s B.C. It existed only as the language of
Jewish religious traditions and worship until it was revived in the A.D.
1800s and 1900s.
The early Hebrew alphabet that was used before the 500s B.C. was
based on early Northwest Semitic traditions. It was an aleph-beth, having
157
Hellenistic World
signs only for consonants. A later form of Hebrew alphabet, called Classi-
cal or Square Hebrew, was based on the Aramaic alphabet.

Culture. Very little is known about the culture of the early Israelites.
Aside from some settlements uncovered by archaeological excavations,
few physical objects can be dated with certainty to the era before the di-
vided monarchy.
While the Israelites placed great importance on their distinct and
unique identity, in truth, they shared many cultural and artistic elements
Hie Question with other peoples who lived in Canaan. Despite the official devotion to
of the Khabiru Yahweh, Israelites were exposed to other cults, and some worshiped other
In the 1300s B.C, Canaan was oc- gods—such as the Canaanite deities BAAL and Asherah—instead of, or in
cupied by smalt kingdoms and city- addition to, Yahweh.
states whose documents refer to a
class of people called the Khabiru
The architecture of the Israelites expanded from residential structures
(sometimes Hablruor Hapiru). The to include public buildings such as palaces and temples. In the south,
terms referred to social outcasts, in- they were influenced by Egypt and built structures modeled on Egyptian
cluding refugees, outlaws, and palaces, with rooms arranged around a central courtyard. In the north, a
other people outside the main- different type of public building appeared. It consisted of two rectangular
stream of society. Rulers sometimes
rooms and a porch supported by two columns, a style influenced by Syr-
used the term as an insulting way
to refer to their enemies. Some ian architecture.
modern scholars, noting the simi- Much art in the ancient Near East concerned images of gods and god-
larity between the terms Khabiru desses. However, making images of Yahweh was forbidden by the religion
and Hebrew, suggested that these of the Israelites. As a result, the surviving artworks of the Israelite period
documents contain early mentions tend to be sculptures of guardian lions or other animals from gateways or
of the Hebrews. However, because
the connection cannot be proved,
public buildings.
most scholars believe instead that The Israelites had a rich tradition of poetry. The biblical PSALMS are
the term refers to a miscellaneous among the best-known examples of Israelite poetry. Such poems were of-
social class rather than a particular ten set to music. Among the Canaanites, music was both a folk art and
nation or people. part of temple worship. The Israelites probably shared this musical tradi-
tion; the Bible contains references to singing and playing musical instru-
ments, and King David is said to have been talented at music. (See also
Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

HELLENISTIC T he term Hellenistic (he»luh»NIS»tik) refers to the Greek-influenced

cultures throughout the lands of the eastern Mediterranean and
western Asia during the period between the death of ALEXANDER THE GREAT
WORLD in 323 B.C. and the conquest of Egypt by Rome about 300 years later. The
word comes from Hellas, the Greek word for Greece. Alexander, himself a
Macedonian, admired Greek culture and initiated the spread of Greek
ideas throughout the areas he conquered, from Egypt and ANATOLIA (pre-
sent-day Turkey) in the west to the borders of India in the east.
* dynasty succession of rulers from the After Alexander's death, the lands he conquered did not remain a sin-
same family or group gle empire. His generals began to fight among themselves, and eventu-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ally, three important dynasties* were established. The lands from Syria to
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- India fell to Seleucus I, founder of the SELEUCID EMPIRE; Egypt and the
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West southern Levant* became the domain of the Ptolemies; and the Antigo-
Bank, and Jordan
nids ruled MACEDONIA.
158
 Herodotus
Settlers from Macedonia and Greece moved to the new empires in
large numbers. These colonists built numerous cities, which were laid out
*
city-state independent state consisting to resemble traditional Greek city-states*. The colonists also brought their
of a city and its surrounding territory language with them, and Greek became the language of government and
commerce. In addition, coins of the type used in Greece, especially Athens,
were now minted in large quantities throughout the Hellenistic world,
and these helped promote trade.
The Hellenistic colonies were ruled by the central state authority of
their land or by his local representative. For example, the Seleucids di-
vided their territory into smaller administrative units ruled by military
* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled governors responsible to the king, a system similar to the satrapies* of the
territory under the rule of a satrap, or Persian empire. This blending of Greek culture with that of the ancient
provincial governor Near East was typical of many aspects of life during the Hellenistic period.
The decline of the Greek-influenced world began when the Romans
conquered Macedonia and Greece in 148 B.C. At this time, the Seleucids
also began losing power to the Parthians in IRAN. By 63 B.C., the Seleucid
j? ^%j See map in Alexande state had ceased to exist, and the Romans ruled those parts of their former
(vol.1). empire not already conquered by the Parthians. Egypt, the last surviving
Hellenistic power, became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 B.C.,
marking an end to the Hellenistic world. (See also Greece and the Greeks;
Ptolemy I.)

HERODOTUS
H erodotus (hi«RAH»duh»tuhs), a Greek writer of the 400s B.C., was
the first major historian of the ancient Near East. His work is sim-
ply called the History, which means "inquiry" in Greek. In the History, he
sought to give an account of the PERSIAN WARS between the Greeks and the
Persians and the events leading up to them. Most of what is known about
lived ca. 484-430 B.C. the Persian Wars comes from his writings. Herodotus's writings are also a
Greek historian major source of information about the history and legends of the ancient
Near East.
* city-state independent state consisting Herodotus was born in Halicarnassus, a Greek city-state* in Caria in
of a city and its surrounding territory southwest ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), which was under Persian rule at
that time. As a youth, he was banished from the city for his opposition to
the Persian regime. He then traveled widely and lived in several places, in-
cluding Athens and Thurii, a Greek colony in southern Italy.
During these travels, Herodotus collected numerous stories, which he
later included in the History. He organized his work by beginning with an
account of the rise of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. He wrote about the lands that
were conquered by Persia, including Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA, supplying
details about the customs, religions, and histories of each land's people.
He then described the Persian Wars, including Persia's attack on Greek
city-states, the major land and sea battles, and the surprising victory of
the Greeks against the much larger Persian army.
* archaeologist scientist who studies Later historians, including some from the ancient world, have found
past human cultures, usually by errors in some of Herodotus's work. However, modern archaeologists*
excavating material remains of human have found that some of his accounts of places and events are supported
activity
by their own findings. Herodotus's detailed descriptions of ancient Near
159
Hieroglyphics
Eastern social customs—which he often tells with great enthusiasm
because they were so different from his Greek customs—are still enjoyed
by modern readers. (See also History and Historiography.)

HIEROGLYPHICS
T he term hieroglyphics (hy«uh«ruh*GLI»flks) refers to a system of writ-
ing in which picture symbols represent ideas and sounds. The term
was derived from the Egyptian expression ''god's words/' First developed
in Egypt around 3000 B.C., the system continued to be used for INSCRIP-
TIONS on monuments, wall paintings, and religious texts until the A.D.
300s. Other systems of hieroglyphics, possibly inspired by the Egyptian,
were used in Crete during the Middle Bronze Age, in Hittite Anatolia in
the Late Bronze Age, and in Neo-Hittite north Syria in the Iron Age. De-
coding each of these different forms of hieroglyphics became a key to un-
derstanding much about these ancient cultures.

Hieroglyphic Symbols. Egyptian hieroglyphics was based on a set of

about 700 signs, including pictures of living beings and objects, gods, god-
desses, people, animals, human and animal body parts, plants, celestial
bodies, buildings, furniture, and vessels. Each of these signs was used as a lo-
gogram, phonogram, or determinative, to convey the message to the reader.
Basic Egyptian vocabulary was expressed by logograms (derived from
* scribe person of a learned class who the Greek words for "word" and "writing"), where the sign literally means
served as a writer, editor, or teacher what it depicts. Scribes* used the sign in the shape of a house to mean
house, or the sign in the shape of a head to mean head.
Phonograms (from the Greek words for "sound" and "writing") were
Hittite Hieroglyphics used to sound out a word, most often because no suitable logogram ex-
isted. Individual signs might represent one, two, or even three conso-
In addition to the Egyptians, the Hit-
tites also developed a hieroglyphic
nants. Vowels are not expressed in this system. The sounds represented
script, during the second millen- by the signs were usually related to the name of the object shown by the
nium B.C The script first appeared sign. For example, because the Egyptian word for house was per or par, the
on Hittite Old and Middle Kingdom sign in the shape of a house could represent the sound p-r in a word, even
seals at Bogazkoy. It was initially if that word had nothing to do with a house. Among the phonograms,
used on royal seals and was later there was a set of 24 symbols, each representing the sound of a single
used to write identifying labels on
sculptures. Overtime, however, Hit* consonant. These symbols included all but one of the consonant sounds
tite hieroglyphics was increasingly in spoken Egyptian. Still, the Egyptians never developed hieroglyphics
composed in the Luwian language, into an alphabetic system of writing, in which symbols standing for sin-
instead of Hittite, By about the 700s gle sounds are combined to create words.
B.C., the Hittite hieroglyphic tradi- When phonograms are used to "spell" out a word, the word is usually
tion had come to a close.
followed by a determinative, a sign that gives the reader a visual clue (it
was not read) to the meaning of the preceding word. For example, the
picture of a house might follow the word for a building, room, house, or
tomb, or the picture of a seated god might follow the name of a god. A
special determinative was the cartouche—an oval enclosing a person's
name—which indicated that the person named was an Egyptian ruler. To
help the reader decide whether a sign was a logogram (which is to be
read) or a determinative (which is just a visual clue), the scribes often
placed a vertical line after a logogram.
160
 Hieroglyphics

An examplefrom English showshow the system worked. Suppose a

word contained the phonograms w-sh-ngt-n(remember that hieroglyphics
did not includevowels).Ifthe phonograms were followed by thepicture
of
a sitting man, thereference wouldbe to aperson, George Washington. If
they were followedby the symbolfor avillage,theword referwould
to a
place, Washington, D.C. Hieroglyphicswasgenerally written
fromrightto
left with the heads on human and animal signs facing right. Inmonu-
ments and wall paintings,the sequence could different
be forartistic rea-
sons. In allcases, however, the text wasalways read
from the directionin
which the human and animal heads faced.

Changes to Hieroglyphics. In use formore than3,000 years, Egypt-

ian hieroglyphics evolved over time. During the OldKingdom period
(from about 2675toB.C.),
2130there were about 1,000 signs. This num-
ber declined to about 750during the time of theMiddle Kingdom (ca.
1980-1630B.C.)and New Kingdom (ca. B.C.).1539-1075
B.C.,
From about
300
the number of signs increased to several thousands. The newsigns in-
cluded combinations that creatednewmeaningsbytaking advantageof
the fact that hieroglyphics wasbased onpictures. Forexample, scribes
had used a rectangular box open on oneside toindicate thesound /m/
and a crawling snake for the sound /f/.Inlater years, these signs were
combined by placing the snake symbol inside theopen box. Theresult
was two new signsforwords.If the snake facedtheclosedend of thebox,
as though it hadjust crawledin, the symbol meant"toenter." faced
If it
the open end, the meaning was "to exit."
Because each symbol had to be carefully createdonsurface
the indi-
vidually, hieroglyphics wasdifficult
a systemto adopt easily. Conse-
quently, scribes derived other waysofwriting theEgyptian language
from
hieroglyphics. They developed another formofwriting called hieratic,
whichfirst appeared around B.C.In2600
B.C.,
theanother
600s cursive
form of hieroglyphicswas also developed. Called demotic,form this
was
a shorthand andsimplified versionofhieratic, whichitmostly replaced.

Deciphering Hieroglyphics. A.D.300s,

In theEgypt, thenapartof
the Roman Empire, became Christianized. Undertheinfluenceof the
Christian church, a new systemofwriting basedon theGreek alphabet
was adopted. Hieroglyphics and the hieratic anddemotic scripts were
abandoned, and the meaningof the symbolswasforgotten. Hieroglyphic
161
History and Historiography

texts on monuments were still visible, though, and European scholars

and travelers tried to understand what these scripts meant. Their at-
tempted explanations were often fanciful—and completely wrong.
The key to understanding hieroglyphics came in the early 1800s, after
the discovery of the ROSETTA STONE. This monument, which dates from
about 200 B.C., contains inscriptions in three scripts: ancient Greek and
demotic and hieroglyphic Egyptian. French scholar Jean-Frangois Cham-
pollion determined that the three inscriptions all contained the same text.
By comparing the Greek to the hieroglyphics, Champollion developed the
* decipher to decode and interpret the basic principles to decipher* hieroglyphics, enabling later scholars to un-
meaning derstand other Egyptian writings. (See also Alphabets; Decipherment;
Egypt and the Egyptians; Languages; Writing.)

HISTORY AND
H istoriography is the writing of history. Modern historians write his-
tory by examining ancient inscriptions, manuscripts, texts, arti-
facts*, and other sources and use that information to try to reconstruct a
record of human activities. Their aim is to get a true understanding of
HISTORIOGRAPHY people in earlier times.
The peoples of the ancient Near East recorded their histories in vari-
ous kinds of written documents, such as INSCRIPTIONS, KING LISTS, CHRONI-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or CLES, and annals*. These sources contain two types of history. The first
other object made by humans type documents recent events: battles, coronations*, or other important
* annals record of events arranged events that were recorded soon after they occurred. The second type pre-
chronologically by year sents events and people from the remote past. The dividing line between
* coronation act or ceremony of these two types of histories is often unclear. Yet in the ancient Near East,
crowning a leader the recording of recent events was distinct from the recording of the re-
mote past, both in terms of the kind of information they contained and
the reasons for writing.
The audience for historical works also varied in the ancient Near East.
Some works were intended to be read to the public, while others were of
* scribe person of a learned class who interest to only a small group of people, such as scribes*. In some cases,
served as a writer, editor, or teacher historical texts were created for a god rather than for humans. Texts such
as these were often put in inaccessible places because they were meant
only for the gods.

TREATMENT OF RECENT EVENTS

When peoples of the ancient Near East recorded recent events, they pri-
marily relied on eyewitness accounts. The purpose of recording history
was to preserve the story of important events, especially triumphs and ac-
complishments, for future generations. The main focus of such accounts
was usually the king. Historical records included not only references to
specific public events but also information about the king's life, character,
and achievements.

Mesopotamia. In ancient Assyria and Babylonia, the recent events

that were recorded were almost always about the activities of the king.
162
 History and Historiography
Among the earliest texts were simple inscriptions crediting the king with
building temples. Over time, these inscriptions developed into lengthy
texts praising the king for constructing temples and palaces.
Babylonian inscriptions dealt almost entirely with royal building ac-
tivities. Assyrian texts, however, placed greater emphasis on their king's
military campaigns. Some Assyrian texts are in the form of annals, which
were written by royal scribes and listed the king's wars in chronological
order. Based onfield records, these wereofficial
the versionof events that
would become the source for future historical texts. Nevertheless,the pur-
pose ofAssyrian texts, and textsfrom other Near Eastern cultures,was not
to create an accurate record of events. Instead, the texts were intended to
glorify the king and recount his conquest of the kingdom's enemies.
Another type of historical writing in ancient Mesopotamia was "let-
ters to the gods." These special texts were usually written for presenta-
tion at public gatherings to celebrate an important military victory.
Addressed to a god, they praised the king for his great victory and hon-
ored the soldiers who fell in battle. An interesting feature in some of
these texts is that they included details about the geography and cus-
toms of foreign lands.

Egypt. As early as aboutB.C.,

2600the Egyptians developeda chrono-
logical method for recording important recent events.
first,Atthese texts
simply recorded the names of kings and the years of their individual
reigns. Beginning with the Middle Kingdom (ca. B.C.),1980-1630these
records included information on government activities.
The ancient Egyptians also wrote inscriptions on the tombs of high-
rankingofficials. The autobiographical texts listed the achievementsof

163
History and Historiography
the deceased as well as his titles and honors and how he earned them.
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been Officials also installed stelae* with inscriptions that detailed the accom-
carved or engraved and serves as a plishments of important leaders. Both types of inscriptions were major
monument; pi. stelae sources of historical information for later generations of Egyptians.
By the 1900s B.C., some royal inscriptions in Egypt reflected impor-
tant changes in historiography. Instead of just recording events, these in-
scriptions described the circumstances that existed when the events
occurred. This was important because it helped explain not only what
happened but also why it happened.
Beginning in the 1500s B.C., Egyptian kings produced inscriptions
that contained narratives of their military conquests. Based on field
An Egyptian Historian records and other sources, these inscriptions included detailed descrip-
One of the few named individuals tions of some military campaigns and overviews of others. The inscrip-
who might be considered a histo-
rian In ancient Egypt was a priest
tions served an important purpose. They helped the king prove that he
named Manetho, tn about 280 B.C, was the rightful heir to the throne because of his victories over foreign
Manetho compiled a list written in j armies. Victory, the Egyptians believed, was proof that the king had the
Greek, of all Egyptian kings from support of the gods. Some of the inscriptions also contained highly poetic
the beginning of Egyptian history stories of battles.
to his own time. He divided the list
into 30 dynasties/ giving the name
and length of reign of each ruler as The Hittites. Most ancient Hittite texts contain accounts of recent
welt as information about him. Fo events and were presented in royal inscriptions. The earliest of these
example, Manetho claimed that texts describe events that occurred around the 1700s B.C. The Hittites
the first Egyptian king, Menes, "was continued to record their history until the end of their civilization in the
taken by a hippopotamus and 1200s B.C. They maintained two types of inscriptions, and each took the
died/' Only fragmentary copies of
Manetho's work have survived.
form of public pronouncements of the king.
However, these fragments have Annals, which reported the king's military activities year by year,
been important sources for scholars1 were one type of Hittite royal inscription. These texts describe the king's
trying to confirm the succession of "manly deeds'' and were meant to impress the reader and justify the
Egyptian kings. Moreover, scholars king's succession to the throne. Some annals cover a greater time frame
still use Manetho's division of than a king's individual reign and record the activity of other Hittite
Egyptian rulers into 30 dynasties.
princes and generals. In this way, they are very different from Assyrian
and Egyptian annals, which focused exclusively on the achievements of
the king. Hittite annals also contain information on military campaigns,
such as explanations of strategy and the reasons for undertaking or delay-
ing actions.
A second type of Hittite text dealing with recent history contained
justification for past actions. This emphasis on accountability is distinc-
tive to Hittite historiography. The earliest example of such a text is the
"Political Testament" of KHATTUSHILI I. Addressed to nobles and officials,
this text explains that the king's unusual selection of a grandson as heir
was due to the evil behavior of certain members of the royal family. The
king cites events from the past (although not in chronological order) in
support of his decision. The use of past historical events to justify current
actions became a significant feature of Hittite historiography.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Syria and the Levant. In ancient Syria and the Levant*, recent his-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- tory was recorded in memorial inscriptions, which include royal inscrip-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West tions written in an autobiographical style. Memorial inscriptions dating
Bank, and Jordan
from the 1200s B.C. to 700s B.C. are found throughout the Levant. The in-
scriptions were dedicated to a god and contain details about the king's
164
 History and Historiography
relationship to the god as well as accounts of his achievements. Gener-
ally composed late in a king's reign or after his death, these inscriptions
are not presented in chronological order. They served mainly as a memo-
rial to a ruler and his accomplishments.
* civil relating to the state or its citizens Memorial inscriptions often refer to a troubled period of civil* disor-
der or foreign domination that was ended by the ruler. For example, the
stela of King Mesha (ca. 800s B.C.) describes how he liberated his people
from Israelite domination and praises him for constructing temples and
other buildings.
No memorial inscriptions have been found from the kingdoms of IS-
RAEL AND JUDAH. However, some of the books in the Hebrew BIBLE contain
accounts of military and other activities by kings that resemble memorial
inscriptions found elsewhere in the Levant. The Hebrew Bible also specif-
ically refers to the existence of the annals of the kings of Israel and Judah.
Biblical narratives about King David may have been based on eyewitness
reports of the events. Indeed, the succession story of David found in the
book of Samuel and the book of Kings in the Hebrew Bible is regarded by
some experts as the foremost example of Israelite historiography because
of its accurate presentation of the Israelite monarchy.

TREATMENT OF THE REMOTE PAST

Historiography dealing with the remote past serves to explain the present
in terms of a society's origins. This approach relied heavily on mythology,
and it presented history largely in religious terms rather than relating ac-
tual events that took place. As time passed, however, records became
more accurate and detailed.

Mesopotamia. Chronology, or the sequence of events, is an indispens-

able part of presenting the remote past. Chronologies developed in Mes-
opotamia in response to the practical need for dating administrative
documents. In Babylonia, it led to the creation of a system in which each
year was named for an important event that occurred during the previ-
ous year, such as a military victory or the dedication of a temple. These
year names enabled scribes to trace the chronology of Babylonian kings.
Chronologies eventually spanned thousands of years, providing a his-
tory of the remote past for later generations. The Assyrians also devised a
similar system of limmu lists, where each year was named for an impor-
tant official.
The Mesopotamians also used king lists as a chronological record.
Such lists were used to understand the remote past, including the origins
of kingship and the state. The Sumerian king list, first produced during
* second millennium B.C. years from the second millennium B.C.*, extended into the distant past and included
2000 to 1001 B.C. references to mythical events and godlike kings. In this way, Sumerian
history reached back to the time of human origins. The Assyrian king list,
first compiled in the 1200s B.C., also reached back into the distant past.
Once the king list was established, the Assyrians continued to add the
names of new rulers.
Another group of texts dealing with the remote past were chronicles.
Like annals, these works presented a precise chronology dated according
165
History and Historiography
to the reigns of kings. A single chronicle might cover the reigns of several
kings, and series of such texts extended over many years. By the 600s B.C.,
chronicles had become quite precise and detailed in their accounts. As
with annals, they focused on the king, but they were not written to justify
his actions. Instead, they recorded the activities of successive rulers with a
great deal of objectivity and concern for factual accuracy.

Egypt. Around the 2300s B.C., the Egyptians compiled annals covering
a period of about 700 years, and they preserved this information on a
stone monument known as the Palermo Stone. This artifact is believed
to have originally contained the names of all the kings of Old Kingdom
Egypt and the years each ruled, along with one or more important
events for each year.
A text similar to the Palermo Stone, called the "Turin Canon of
Kings," dates from the 1200s B.C. Although only fragments of this pa-
The Historian pyrus text remain, it originally contained a list of all the kings of Egypt,
of Babylon with the lengths of their reign. It extends into the distant past and deals
In the late 300s and early 200$ &c, with the role of gods and spirits in early Egyptian history.
a Babylonian priest named Berossus
wrote a three-volume work, the
Babyloniaca, that traced the history \
The Hittites. The Hittites did not develop a way of recording the re-
and culture of Babylonia from the mote past comparable to that of the Mesopotamians or Egyptians. Their
creation of the world to his own civilization was shorter, and they did not have any interest in long-range
time. Although only fragments of chronology or king lists. In texts that do deal with history beyond one or
this work survive, it was widely used two generations, accounts of the past are used to lend force to arguments
by early Greek historians as a source?
concerning matters such as treaties.
of information on ancient Meso-
potamia. For hundreds of years, Only one text treated the remote past extensively: the Edict ofTelip-
Berossus was recognized as the inu. This text served to regulate succession to the throne, and it did so by
ultimate authority on the history setting forth the history of the monarchy to show the importance of a
of Babylonia, Written in Greek, strong kingship to the survival of the state.
Berossus's work may have been a
token of gratitude and support to
the Greek-speaking kings who re-
The Levant. Apart from the Hebrew Bible, texts that deal with the re-
stored order to Mesopotamia after mote past of the Levant are scant. King lists exist from a few cities in the
the death of Alexander the Great region, and the works of later historians refer to annals. Other than this,
and the breakup of his empire. information is not dated and does not resemble the annals or chronicles
elsewhere in the ancient Near East.
The writers of the Hebrew Bible used ancient sources such as annals,
chronicles, and king lists in creating their histories. Biblical writers also
used materials based on oral tradition and mythology to reconstruct the
history of Israel and its people and to extend it back to the origins of hu-
mans and the world. Because the Hebrew Bible is a religious document as
well as a historical one, some later editors may have changed dates and
facts to support certain religious beliefs.
The Hebrew Bible went beyond any other history written in the an-
cient Near East in the scope of its presentation of the history of a nation
and people. Rather than focusing on the role of kings, its focus is on the
origins and destiny of the people as a whole. Moreover, it makes no dis-
tinction between the recent past and the remote past in terms of the ac-
tivity of God in civil and human affairs. (See also Archaeology and
Archaeologists; Books and Manuscripts; Epic Literature; Herodotus;
Libraries and Archives; Writing.)
166
 Hittites

HITTITES
T he Hittites(HIT^tyts)lived
where they flourished
time, they becamemajor
a
ANATOLIA
inancient
from about
political
(present-day
B.C. During
Turkey),
1700to1200
forcein theNear
East.
that

HISTORY
Anatolia is dividedbymountains, which madedifficult
it for anyancient
power to gain control of theentire region.Anatolia'searly history, then,
was markedby the developmentofindependent states, includingthe
early Hittite state.

The Old Kingdom. Theearly Hittite rulers aimed tocontrol thetrade in

metalore and metal products.
KHATTUSHILI
King
I(ruled
B.C.)
ca. 1650-1620
made KHATTUSHAin north-central Anatolia, thecapital
andrenamed him-
self after the city.Thecity'slocationon aplateau made iteasy
toprotect
from enemies and agood stronghold fromwhichtolaunch attacks.Khat-
tushili quickly began effort
an toexpand theterritoryhecontrolled.He
defeated aforce to the northand akingdom named Arzawato thewest.
He then turned south SYRIA,
toward
where most trade routes met. Hedied
before he could conquer Syria,but hissuccessor, Murshili I,continued
the effort. He quickly tooktheimportant Syrian city Halab
of (Aleppo)
and, in aboutB.C.,
1595
the more important city ofBabylon.
Shortlythereafter, Murshili returnedtoKhattusha because thegov-
plague contagiousdisease that quickly ernment there was tooweakanddisorganizedtocontrolthe newcon-
kills large numbers of people quests. However, he wasassassinatedby abrother-in-law,andduringthe
next century, weak rulers led theHittites. TheHittites lost Syriaand
Arzawa, and tribes fromthe northwest were abletochip away atHittite
lands to within a fewmilesofKhattusha. Nevertheless, thecapital
re-
mained a symbolofHittite powerandpotential.
Tudkhaliya I tookthe throneB.C., around
andHittite
1450 fortunes
seemed to improve.Hequelled nearby unrest, then retrieved Arzawa and
acquired some additional land.Hemade apeace treaty with
AfterEgypt.
he died in about B.C.,1420
however,thesituationhadworsened again,
and the armies of the Hittites'Anatolian enemies seized moreandmore
Hittite lands. Hittite fortunes fellso lowthatin aletterto theking of
Arzawa, AmenhotepIII ofEgypt wrote, "Ihave heard . .that
. theland
of
Khatti [as the Hittite kingdomwascalled] is dead/'

The Hittite Empire. TheHittites'fortunes were soon reversed.

Around 1380
B.C., SHUPPILULIUMA
— the
I great-grandson
of
Tudkhaliya
—
rose to the throne. Hefirst consolidated hisempirein thenorth and
west. He then advanced intoLebanon KARKAMISH,
andSyria
aandtook
city on the west bank of the Euphrates River.Thiswas avital conquest
becauseKarkamishwas a hub oftrade. Shuppiluliuma's success broke the
power of Mitanni,the kingdom
HURRIANS
ofSyria.
ofthe Shuppiluliuma
then sent an expedition toEgypt,butvictory therewascostly. Captive
prisoners brought with them aplague*,which soon killed theHittite
king and his son and desired successor.
Murshili II, another son ofShuppiluliuma, ascended thethrone
around 1339
B.C. He reconquered Arzawain thewest, quieted unruly
167
Hittites

tribes in the north, held Karkamish against anAssyrian attack, andkept

Syria under Hittite control. Hemaintained internal stability, and neither
Egypt norAssyria attacked during hisreign. Duringthereignof his son
Muwattalli II (ca. 1306-1282 B.C.),warwith Egypt erupted when Egypt
tried to take over Syria.TheEgyptianandHittite armies foughtabattleat
Qadesh, but Syria remained inHittite hands.
Shortly thereafter,the Assyrians, whose power increasedas aresult of
the defeat of the Hurrians, began threatening theHittites from theeast.
KHATTUSHILIIII (ruledca. 1275-1250
B.C.) countered
thethreatbysigning
a
peace treaty with Egypt. Healso gave hisdaughter inmarriage to the
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt pharaoh*. This kept the Assyrianscheck—if
in they attacked theHittites,
* archaeologist scientist who studies they would also be fighting Egyptian armies.
past human cultures, usually by The Hittites alsofaced challenges on thewestby apower namedAh-
excavating material remains of human hiyawa, whose kings resided at Mycenae. TudkhaliyaIV(ruledca.
activity 1254-1220 B.C.) tried to counter this threat bycapturing Cyprusandtak-
* diplomat person who conducts ing tighter control oftrade in the Mediterranean. Nevertheless, this was
negotiations or relations with foreign the beginning of the end. Therewasunreston allsidesof theempire,and
kingdoms, states, or nations
dissent within. The once great empire was now toodisorganized topro-
* pastoralist person who herds livestock tect itself when its lands were invaded inB.C.,theperhaps
late 1200s
by
to make a living
the SEAPEOPLES. AroundB.C.,1190
Anatolian enemies,fromperhapsthe
north, invaded and burned Khattusha to theground.

CULTURE
Excavationsat Khattusha have yielded more CLAY TABLETS.
than 10,000
They have helped archaeologists* reconstructwho theHittites wereand
how they lived. The tablets have also provided scholars with information
on the government, economy, religion,andliteratureof theHittites.

Government and Laws. TheHittites were ruled byhereditary kings.

Succession passed fromfather to son,but itcouldbe anyson,notneces-
sarily the oldest.The kingwas in chargeof theoperationof thegovern-
ment and of all the administratorsheappointed.He wasalsothe land's
chief priest and presided overthe empire'sreligious events.Thekingwas
seen as acting in the place of the gods, protectedbythembutrulingthe
land that belonged to the chief god.He wascommanderinchiefof the
military and chief diplomat*and wasexpectedtojoinhistroopson the
battlefield. The kingwasalsothe highest judgein theland,and themost
serious crimes were brought before him.
The Hittiteshad a codeof laws thatconsistedof 200paragraphs of
text on clay tablets.The laws defined crimesashomicides, kidnappings,
sorcery, and sexualoffenses;set rules
formarriages, wages,andprices
of
goods; and prescribed punishments, including fines,banishment,and
death. Twoversionsof the code have been found,onedating fromabout
1650B.C. and the otherfrom betweenB.C.1350
Theand
later
1200
ver-
sion contains some changes in the punishments assigned tovarious
crimes.

Economy. Most Hittites were small-scale farmersandpastoralists*.

They raised oxen, sheep, goats, horses, mules, donkeys, pigs,anddogs.
168
 Hittites

Some animals were usedasworkers—oxenforplowing, horses topull

WinnersandLosers chariots, mulestocarry loads. Goatsandsheep produced milk,whichthe
Hittites consumed directly ormade intocheese. They also cultivated
A popular Hittite athletic event was
the archery contest. The king
wheat, barley,and oatsforbread, cake,
andcereal
andfruits
grew
andveg-
judged the competition andchose etables, including grapesforraisinsandwine. Food producers were
the best archers toserve in the obliged to give part ofwhat they producedto thegovernmentastax. a
army. The winnersalso received Somefarmers workedonlands ownedbyanother individualor an institu-
wine as a prize. Theloserswere re- tion such as atemple. Captivesandslaves couldbesenttoHittite villages
quired to fetchwater naked.
to workthefields,major
a helpin aland that
often
suffered
ashortage
of
workers.
The Hittites were skilledinmetalwork, fashioning objects fromcop-
per, tin, bronze, andiron. There wereavarietyofcraftspeople: potters,
leatherworkers,weavers, blacksmiths, beekeepers, carpenters, sculptors,
gold- and silversmiths,andglassmakers. Most ofcrafts
theseworkers were
* deity god orgoddess controlled by thepalaceortemple.

Religion. Hittite religious traditions drewonthoseof

other peoples.
The Hittites had somany deities* thatthey said theyhad"athousand
gods." When the Hittites adopted thegodsofother peoples, they also
adopted the prayers andphrases addressedtothese godsin theoriginal
languages. The important gods were
TESHUB
theand
storm
the
godsun
goddess Khepat. Hittite mythsandlegends reflect Humantraditions,

169
Holy Land
including the Kumarbi Cycle, a three-part story of KUMARBI and his desire
Hittite Queens for power in heaven and his battle with his son Teshub.
Official festivals occurred monthly, along with seasonal festivals in
Hittite queens had a measure of
power and prestige, Pudukhepa,
the spring and fall. The king, queen, or a prince presided. A statue of the
wife of Khattushili III, had an ad- deity was offered food and drink, clothing, and entertainment from mu-
ministrative role. She and King sicians, acrobats, and athletes.
Ramses It of Egypt carried on a vig- The Hittites believed in an AFTERLIFE and considered it necessary to fol-
orous correspondence full of mu- low the proper death and burial rituals for a smooth transition from the
tual respect Even the gods listened
to Pudukhepa. When her husband
world of the living to the world of the dead. The Hittites also believed
was ill, she implored the goddess that their dead ancestors reached from beyond the grave to provide
Lelwani to make him well. Lelwani strength to the family. A grandfather was thought to pass his powers to
answered the prayers: Khattushili his grandsons. For this reason, from about 1500 B.C. on, grandsons took
lived to be 70, leiwani apparently the name of their grandfathers when reaching the Hittite throne.
favored Pudukhepa, though, She
lived to be 90.
Literature and Mythology. Hittite literature was greatly influenced
by Mesopotamian traditions. It was from Mesopotamia that the Hittites
adopted the cuneiform* writing system, and the achievements of Meso-
* cuneiform world's oldest form of potamian culture had an impact on Hittite writing. Like others, Hittite
writing, which takes its name from the kings left often glorified accounts of their achievements. They consid-
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed ered it important to be recognized and remembered as mighty warriors
into clay tablets
and wise rulers. They also wrote official proclamations that provided in-
struction on how to organize the state or punish crimes.
The Hittites are better known for their architecture than their art.
Their capital at Khattusha contained at least 30 temples, some adminis-
trative and royal buildings, and many homes and workshops. The city
was surrounded by high walls with towers, seven gates, and a moat. (See
also Assyria and the Assyrians; Egypt and the Egyptians; Government;
Khatti; Law; Metals and Metalworking; Neo-Hittites; Religion.)

Holy Land See Israel and Judah.

HORSES
H orses were domesticated* in the ancient Near East around 3000 B.C.,
much later than SHEEP, GOATS, and CATTLE. Valued primarily for their
labor rather than for their meat or hides, horses played an important role
in warfare. The armies of many ancient Near Eastern empires contained
horse-drawn CHARIOTS and mounted cavalry*. Horses also played a role in
transportation and farming and were represented in art and RELIGION.
* domesticated adapted or tamed for Horses were probably introduced into the ancient Near East from a re-
human use gion in Central Asia north of the Black and Caspian Seas. By 2000 B.C.,
* cavalry soldiers who fight on horseback horses had been domesticated in Iran, Anatolia, and northern Syria.
Horses were not commonly used in Mesopotamia until the 1800s B.C.
* nomadic referring to people who travel They did not reach Egypt until about 1600 B.C.
from place to place to find food and Horses were probably first used as pack animals for carrying goods or
pasture pulling wagons. Nomadic* peoples of Central Asia rode horses as early as
170
 Horns
the third millennium B.C. (years from 3000 to 2001 B.C.), and some groups
became accomplished horsemen. Riding horses in the ancient Near East
was uncommon until horses were introduced into warfare.
Among the first groups in the Near East to develop horse-drawn char-
iots for use in warfare were the people of Mitanni, a HURRIAN kingdom in
northwestern Mesopotamia, and the HYKSOS. By about 1600 B.C., the use
of horse-drawn chariots had spread throughout Mesopotamia and into
Egypt. Among the earliest peoples to fight and hunt on horseback were
the HITTITES, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians. Such horseback riding
led to the development of mounted cavalry.
The use of horses in warfare greatly increased their importance to
Near Eastern societies. People developed specialized gear for both riding
and harnessing horses to chariots and wagons. Horse breeding and train-
ing became important activities, and certain groups became known for
their skills as horsemen and breeders. The KASSITES and Phrygians were
among the first to breed horses systematically and successfully. They bred
horses for specific characteristics, such as size, and kept detailed records of
horses and their pedigrees, or ancestry.
Only wealthy people could afford to own and raise horses. Horses be-
came a symbol of status and prestige. In many societies, charioteers were
members of the highest social classes. The demand for horses in warfare
was high and contributed to a thriving trade. Nubian horses, a particu-
larly large and strong type bred in Nubia (present-day Sudan) and Egypt,
were especially in demand by the Assyrians to pull their large chariots.
Horses made suitable gifts for monarchs, and they were often used in
ceremonial processions. In both art and religion, horses symbolized such
characteristics as power, wealth, and sexuality. The Kassites considered
the horse to be a sacred animal, and the Greeks sometimes sacrificed
white horses to the gods. Horses also figured in ancient MYTHOLOGY. A
creature with the body of a horse and the head, arms, and torso of a hu-
man was popular in Assyria, Babylonia, and eventually Greece, where it
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- was called a centaur. In the Hellenistic* period in Babylonia, a leaping
influenced culture of the Mediterranean winged centaur, with bow and arrow drawn, came to represent the astro-
world and western Asia during the three logical sign Sagittarius. Persian mythology includes a story about a battle
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
between an evil black horse and a good white horse. (See also Animals;
Animals, Domestication of; Animals in Art; Transportation and Travel;
Wars and Warfare.)

HORUS
H orus (HOHR»uhs) was one of the most important gods of ancient
Egypt and was the kingdom's first state god. The name Horus
meant "the high" or "the distant one." As the god of the sky, Horus was
depicted as a hawk, falcon, or a man with a hawk or falcon's head. Early
in Egyptian history, Horus became the symbol of divine kingship. He was
identified with the king, who was considered a living manifestation of
the god.
Horus was the son of OSIRIS, king of the gods, and Isis, the mother god-
dess (although some say HATHOR was the mother of Horus). According to
171
Houses
an ancient Egyptian legend, Isis secretly raised Horus in the marshes of
the Nile Delta, where she used her magical powers to protect him from all
kinds of dangers, especially scorpions, snakes, and crocodiles. Isis also
protected Horus from his uncle, the god SETH, who had killed Osiris and
tried to take over his position as king of the gods. Later Horus challenged
Seth to the throne, and after many years of battle and with support from
the other gods, Horus finally won. He became king of the gods and of hu-
manity and was considered the reincarnation of Osiris. At that time,
Osiris came to symbolize Egypt's dead kings, and Horus was identified
with the living king.
During one of Horus's battles with Seth, Horus's eye was ripped out
but was healed by the goddess Hathor. The representation of the restored
eye, known as the Eye of Horus, became one of the most important reli-
Horus, was one of the most important gods gious symbols in ancient Egypt. It was a sign of protection and was often
in ancient Egypt. As the sky god, Horus was
usually depicted as a hawk or falcon, or as in
worn as an amulet (object thought to possess magical powers) on neck-
this relief, a man with a hawk or falcon's laces or placed in tombs. Since Horus was the sky god, the Eye of Horus
head. Egyptians considered their king the also symbolized the sun. In addition, the Eye of Horus represented all that
living manifestation of Horus, who was also was complete, good and holy. This included the concept of kingship, the
the king of the gods. power and strength of the king, and the salvation of the cosmos. (See also
Egypt and the Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

HOUSES
I n the ancient Near East, the house not only sheltered a family but was
also the center of its daily activities. The grand structures of PALACES AND
TEMPLES were houses built on a larger scale for kings and deities*. Although
much of our knowledge of the ancient past comes from the excavated re-
mains of the more impressive structures, the daily life of the ancient
world took place within the humble walls of the houses in which genera-
* deity god or goddess tions of ordinary folk were born, lived, and died.

Mesopotamia. The oldest known houses in MESOPOTAMIA, dating from

* eighth millennium B.C. years from the eighth millennium B.C.*, have been found at the sites of Qermez
8000 to 7001 B.C. Dere and Nemrik in the north. These houses are single round rooms
built partly underground. In the western Zagros Mountains, the people
who inhabited the sites of Jarmo and Tell Maghzaliyeh built rectangular
multiroomed houses around 6750 B.C. By the second half of the fifth mil-
lennium B.C. (4500 to 4001 B.C.), two regional styles emerged in Mesopo-
See tamia. In the north, at such sites as Tell Arpachiyah, people built a type
color plate 8, of round house called a tholos, made of pressed mud on a stone founda-
vol. 3.
tion. These houses consisted of just one room, sometimes with a rectan-
gular chamber attached at the side. In the south, a typical house had a
three-part structure with a single large central room and a row of smaller
chambers on either side, such as those found at the sites at Chogha
Mami and Tell es-Sawwan.
After 3200 B.C. or so, as large urban centers developed, a new house
form consisting of a central unroofed courtyard with rooms on all sides
became the standard. This style remained in use for thousands of years
and became the basis for later architecture in Mesopotamia. Temples,
palaces, and ordinary houses were built around central courtyards. The
172
 Houses
form was not rigid, however.Incrowded urbansettings,some houseshad
rooms on only two or three sidesof thecourtyard. (City houses were next
to each other and shared outer walls.)
The houses of the wealthy included bathrooms andchambers where
household goods could bestored. Sometimes they contained aroom that
served as a shrine to godsand ancestral spirits. Some larger houseshad a
second story. Housesin Mesopotamia were always made of brick—
mud
mud, straw, and water mixed and dried in thesun. Sometimes stonewas
used for foundations. Woodwasscarceandexpensive. Beams
anddoors
made of wood were considered precious partsof ahouseandwere care-
fully listedin billsof saleor inwills.

* archaeologist scientist who studies Anatolia. Archaeologists* ANATOLIA

working (present-day
in Turkey)
past human cultures, usually by have uncovered the remainsofvery early houses dating frombetween
excavating material remains of human 9000 and 6000
B.C. The remains consistoffieldstone foundations that
activity
supported mud-brick walls.Thestructures varied little size
inandstood
side by side withno spaces between
HUYUKwere
£ATAL
them. Houses
at
apparently enteredby climbingaladder fromthegroundto aroof shared
by all the structures and then bydescending another ladder through a
hole in the roof of the individual house. Elsewherein Anatolia,people
built houses with entrancesatground level.
TheHITTITESforged an Anatolia-based empirein themiddleandlate
second millennium
B.C. (period
from 2000
B.C.).
to They,
1001 too, built
houses of mud brick, perhaps reinforced with wood,onstone founda-
tions. Wooden beams supported flat
roofsthat were packed withmud
and twigs. Atypical house might haveaforecourtoropen space front,
in
with two rooms behind it. Other rooms couldbeaddedasneeded. There
could be a second story, enteredbymeansof awooden ladder fromthe
courtyard. Ahouse builton ahillside might contain storage rooms under
one part of the building and residential spaceson theupper level. Houses
had hearthsforfiresand areasfor bathing.

173
Houses
Egypt. The ancient Egyptians were more likely to demonstrate wealth
and social status in the richness of their family tombs than in their
houses. Most houses were fairly small and simple. Still, wealthy people
did have larger homes than common folk. One high-ranking official's
home had 28 rooms on the ground floor. Such country estates often in-
cluded gardens as well. The paintings that decorate Egyptian tombs
show scenes from the idealized world of these country estates rather
than the cramped reality of the ordinary Egyptian's life.
Most Egyptians had simple homes. Because work was done outside,
the needs for indoor space were not great. The main elements of a house
Beware of the Dog were a large room for eating and entertaining, small rooms for sleeping
The ancient Mesopotamians be- and washing, and areas that served as kitchens, workshops, and storage
lieved that by keeping spirits of ill spaces. Small windows, which could be covered with wooden grilles or
will out of their houses they could
protect themselves from disease
reed mats to shut out dust, were designed for ventilation and light.
and misfortune. On the walls of The city of AKHETATEN (dating from the 1300s B.C.) contained a large
their houses they hung small clay area of ordinary workers' houses built close to each other on narrow
tablets with quotations from mythi- streets. A partly roofed area at the front of the house was used for keeping
cal works and certain tablets that livestock and for such tasks as grinding grain. Behind it was the main liv-
contained blessings for the owner
ing room. Smaller chambers at the rear of the house were used for sleep-
of the house that were believed to
ward off the plague. People also ing or storage. In some houses, the kitchen was located in a back
buried small statues they believed courtyard, while in others it was on the roof. Some houses had a chamber
had protective qualities under the on the roof for women and young children.
doors, in the bedrooms, and along
the walls of their houses. Some of Iran. In the fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.) site of
these figurines were of dogs and
bore inscriptions such as, "Don't
Tepe Sialk on the northern Iranian plateau, people built multiroom houses.
think it over, [but] bite!" These hid- Erected on stone foundations, the houses had walls made of molded rec-
den statues served as a household's tangular brick and were decorated with buttresses (stone or brick structures
spiritual watchdogs. to support the wall) and alcoves. The doors were less than three feet high
and narrow; windows looked out onto the streets, which wound through
the town separating estates from each other. The interiors were decorated
in red or occasionally in white; the dead were buried beneath the floors.
The city of Susa in southwestern Iran was the capital of the Elamite
kingdom during the years between about 2000 and 646 B.C. Excavations
there have yielded royal and religious buildings, as well as the houses of
some important citizens. These were like little palaces organized around a
central courtyard. Visitors reached the courtyard by passing through a se-
ries of rooms in a zigzag arrangement. The reception room in such a
house was a long rectangle, perhaps measuring 80 feet wide and 16 to 17
feet long. It contained a chimney specifically designed for heating, differ-
ent from the hearths and chimneys used for cooking. This type of heating
system was unknown in nearby Mesopotamia.

The Levant. The region that consists of present-day Syria, Lebanon,

the West Bank, Jordan, and Israel was one of considerable cultural mix-
ing and ethnic diversity, resulting in many styles of homes. Still, some
See features were standard from about 3500 to 500 B.C. A typical house was
[color plate 13, built of sun-dried mud bricks on two or three layers of stone foundation.
vol. 3.
Floors were usually of packed earth, although some houses had floors
plastered with mud or paved with stone. The ceiling and the flat roof
were made of wooden beams and reeds packed with mud.
174
 Human Form in Art
To create more living space in crowded towns, people began building
houses with upper levels. In Canaanite houses, these levels were reached
by staircases inside an enclosed courtyard, while Israelite houses had lad-
ders leading to the roof or upper levels. The family's private chambers
were usually located in the rear of the upper level. Activities such as wash-
ing and cooking were performed on the terrace, which was formed by the
roof of the lower level. The ground floor of the house might contain
shops, craft workshops, and storage rooms.
Houses in the city of UGARIT on the north Syrian coast had rooms of
varying sizes. The number of rooms depended on the status and wealth of
the owners. All of the houses, however, had small central courtyards, living
spaces on the upper floor or floors, and windowless rooms on the ground
floor for storage and possibly also to serve as workshops. Nearly every
house also contained a family tomb built into the basement and usually
entered through its own door. Tombs were within the house because
houses were expected to remain in the same family's hands over time.
Israelite sites dating from 1100 to the 580s B.C. feature houses built to
a standard rectangular pattern. The entrance led into a large courtyard
open to the sky. To the left, part of the courtyard was roofed. Here cook-
ing, baking, washing, and household chores such as spinning and weav-
ing took place. To the right was a storeroom equal in size to the roofed
part of the courtyard. A doorway at the rear of the central courtyard, op-
posite the entrance, led to a room used for dining, sleeping, and enter-
taining guests. Some of these activities may also have taken place on an
upper level, which was reached by a ladder. The residents may have kept
livestock in one or more of the ground-floor rooms. (See also Architec-
ture; Bricks; Building Materials; Furnishings and Furniture; Stone.)

HUMAN
I n portraying people, artists of the ancient Near East tried to show them
realistically but not as individuals. That is, the people depicted in art
are recognizably human, but they are idealized or stylized* to emphasize
FORM IN ART certain features rather than to show characteristics unique to the individ-
ual person being portrayed. Artists used the size and posture of a figure
and the positioning of other humans in their artworks to make a point
about the status of the people they portrayed.
* stylized referring to art style in which Egyptian and Mesopotamian artists each had standard ways of pre-
figures are portrayed in simplified ways senting human figures, which they followed over the course of several
that exaggerate certain features, not millennia*. This style was more rigidly followed in Egypt. In Mesopo-
realistically
tamia, where different peoples dominated the region from time to time,
* millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. there was more variety.
millennia

Portraying the Human Body. The Egyptian style used in painting

* relief sculpture in which material is cut and reliefs* was standard in Egypt for about 3,000 years. People were por-
away to show figures raised from the trayed with the head in profile and with one entire eye visible. The
background shoulders and chest faced forward, while the hips, legs, and feet returned
to a profile view. When humans are shown facing left, the right hand ap-
pears on the left arm and the left hand appears on the right arm. Both
feet rest on a baseline.
175
Human Form in Art

Egyptian artists used mathematical calculations to determine thepro-

portions of the body parts. Egyptians used a grid of 18 squares that
stretchedfrom the baseline to the hairline. Fromthe sole of the foot to
the ankle was 1 square, from the ankle to the kneecap was 5squares; and
so on. These proportions changed over time,but the general principleof
following strict guidelines continued. The combination ofprofileand
frontal views along withthe use of standard proportions give Egyptian art
its distinctive look.
No evidence of aformal systemof proportions exists for Mesopo-
tamian art. Still, many scholars believe that similar guidelines existed.In
Mesopotamian art, as in Egyptian, human figures were shownin acom-
bination ofprofiles andfrontal views. These combinations would be im-
possible to see in real life, but they allowed the artists to make images
that conveyed the human body. In early Sumerian art, as in aproces-
sional scenefrom the royal tombs of Ur, the head and legsare inprofile
but the bodyfrom the shoulders to the hips isdepicted in frontal
a view.
The style was followed down to Assyrian times, whereit appearsin the
magnificent scenes of battles and lion hunts that decorated thepalaces
of Assyrian kings.
In full-body sculpture, also called sculpture in the round, the human
figure is three-dimensionaland freestanding. The viewer can walk around
the statue and see thefigure
from all sides rather thanthe two-dimensional
view in a painting orrelief. Whetherthe subjectwas shown standingor
sitting on a throne, the front of a statue looked likethe front of the per-
son: headfacingforward, withthe eyesin the front; torso
facing
forward;
and legs andfeet pointing straight ahead.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern The art of ancientSyria and the Levant*was influencedby thatof
shores of the Mediterranean Sea(present- the Egyptians and Mesopotamians. Duringthe Early BronzeAge(ca.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West 3000-2200 B.C.), inlandSyria borrowed techniquesand traditions from
Bank, and Jordan
Sumer. For example, statuesSyria
in portray worshipers dressed inSumerian
garments. Sculptures from Phoenicia during the Iron
Age(ca.
B.C.) 1200-500
showfigures wearing Egyptian costumesand headdresses. Although they
176
 Human Form in Art
borrowed from other cultures, the people of Syria and the Levant also
added their own contributions to the portrayal of the human form.
Unlike the rest of the ancient Near East and perhaps because of their
isolation, the Minoan artists of Crete portrayed people engaged in sports
or leisure activities rather than in scenes of battle or worship. The Minoans
* fresco method of painting in which are especially known for their frescoes*. In them, they portrayed the hu-
color is applied to moist plaster so that man form in more natural poses than did the Egyptians or Mesopota-
it becomes chemically bonded to the mians. The sculptures produced by the Minoans were generally miniature
plaster as it dries; also, a painting done
in this manner
rather than life size or large. Two examples from around 1600 B.C. are fe-
male figures — snake goddesses—who are seminude and hold snakes in
front of them. Later, during the 600s B.C., Crete and Greece were influ-
enced by Egyptian art, and their sculptures assumed the proportions and
formal poses of Egyptian figures.

* propaganda communcation Idealized Forms. Ancient paintings and sculptures typically were not
deliberately shaped or slanted toward a accurate pictures of a particular person. In reality, people were short and
particular viewpoint tall, fat and thin, ugly and beautiful. However, art at this time was not
* hierarchy division of society or an depicting reality as seen by the human eye. Humans were shown in ideal
institution into groups with higher and ways. In Egyptian art, men had broad shoulders and looked muscular,
lower ranks
and women were smaller and had a slighter build. The size difference re-
flected the fact that Egyptian society was male-dominated.
Generally, there was little attempt to depict physical changes that
would reveal age. In Egypt, however, artists drew lines on the neck to in-
The Medium dicate folds that came with aging. Older people might also be portrayed
Makes the Message as fatter, although this could also symbolize wealth. In addition, Egyp-
The material used to create art had tians used colors symbolically to indicate age or other attributes. Red skin
an impact on how humans were
was used to portray men, and yellow was used for women, a technique
portrayed. A temple from the Kas-
site period of Babylonian history, borrowed by the Minoans of Crete. Gods were painted in blue or gold.
dating from about 1400 B.C., illus- Throughout the ancient Near East, many paintings, reliefs, and sculp-
trates this idea. In this temple, re- tures were ordered made by a ruler. In these cases, art served as propa-
liefs were created by combining a ganda*; it was one way the ruler made clear the power and authority of
series of bricks, each carved to hold being king. A statue of GUDEA, leader of the Mesopotamian city of Lagash,
part of the final image. Because the
bricks were a standard size, the
emphasizes his shoulders and chest to show his power, and his clasped
sizes of different parts of the body hands reveal religious devotion and justice. In group scenes, the king was
were determined by the height of always the largest figure and tended to be in the center. Further, in some
the bricks. The legs of the people cultures, a king shooting a bow was shown with the bowstring passing
shown were made extra long so behind his head so as not to pass in front of his face. As people's status de-
that the figure filled the height of
creased, so did their size. At the lowest rung were enemies, who often
the wall being decorated. A Persian
relief used the same principle of were shown lying down or crouching in submission. In the Persian reliefs
manipulating form to fit a space, al* at the palace at Persepolis, the hierarchy* is obvious. King DARIUS I sits en-
beit in the opposite way. Artists throned at the center, larger than life and larger than anyone else. Persian
working on this relief shrank some nobles of equal rank are smaller but all the same size. Nonnobles are
of the figures so they would fit un- smaller still.
derneath a nook in the wall.
Some images were styled to emphasize the particular traits of differ-
ent groups of people. An Egyptian painting from the 1280s B.C. shows
four groups of people — those of Egypt, Libya, Nubia, and the Levant.
Each is depicted in characteristic clothing and hairstyle. A similar exam-
ple comes from the palace at Persepolis. Reliefs showing 20 different peo-
* indigenous referring to the original ples who lived in the PERSIAN EMPIRE decorate the staircase leading to the
inhabitants of a region audience hall of the palace. Each figure, whether Mede, Scythian, Persian,
177
Humor
* tribute payment made by asmaller or or Ionian, appearsin indigenous* dressandcarries some object associated
weaker party to a more powerful one, (See
with his homeland as tribute*also
toArt,
the king.
Artisans,and
often under the threat of force
Artists;Bas-Reliefs; Sculpture.)

C eryression
culture has its own senseofhumor—theperceptionand ex-
of the ridiculousor amusing. Still,allcultures share some
HUMOR ideas about what ishumorous. Humor breaks taboos, referringpubliclyto
things considered private, suchas sex andbodily functions.Itridicules
people by pointing to truths they prefer toignore, or itembarrasses peo-
ple by presenting them in an unfavorable light. Whatever thesituation,
the object of humor is to provoke laughterand to entertain.
Humor was commonin ancient LITERATURE,
Near Eastern
and many
examples ofjokesand humorous sayingsorepisodes have been found in
many texts. Numerous surviving examplesofancient Near Eastern hu-
mor deal with the breaking of taboos, suchasbodily functions.One
Babylonian poem scolds awoman: "Why did youbreak windfeel and
mortified? Why did you stinkupyourboyfriend'swagon likeawild ox?"
Sexual behavior is another favorite subject.Forinstance, aBabylonian
poem includes a humorous episodeinwhichawidowed queen must deal
with sexual frustration.
Literatures of the ancient NearEastarealso richinstoriesinwhich
someone is outwitted or put to shameby aperson less cleveror at adisad-
vantage. One well-preserved Babylonian story, forexample, tells
of how a
poor man named Gimil-Ninurtatricks NIPPUR
the mayor
into
ofgiving
him afine meal, new clothes, and apound ofgold.
Social satire,a typeofhumorinwhichthehumorist makes fun ofcer-
* piety faithfulness to beliefs tain professionsor classesofpeople,wasalso common. Just aspeople
to-
day tell jokes about lawyers,an Egyptian joke makes fun of apotter,
remarking that although he iscovered with earth, he isstill among the
living. In a Sumerian satire,apriestisridiculedfor hispiety*. Whenhis
boat sinks, he hopes that the rivergodwill enjoyhiscargo. Whenheslips
and falls, he is not sure that heshould get upbecause it was thewillof the
gods that he should fall.
They also produced witty sayingsandproverbs.Oneexample Baby-
of
lonian wisdom offers this advice:"Donot buy an ox in thespringtime,do

178
 Hunting

not choose a girl on a holiday. Even a bad ox will look good in that season,
a bad girl just wears good clothes for the occasion/'
A type of humor that was common in Mesopotamia and Egypt cen-
tered on animals behaving like humans. Various human weaknesses are
revealed in humorous stories about conceited dogs and wily foxes. This
type of humor also was portrayed in art. For example, a series of Egyptian
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt drawings show a group of mice asking a cat pharaoh* for peace and an
* siege long and persistent effort to force army of mice laying siege* to a cat fortress.
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or Ancient Near Eastern literature also contains comic characters usually
city with armed troops, cutting it off found in folklore around the world, including the trickster, the wise fool,
from supplies and aid the country bumpkin, and the deceived lover, whose actions and failings
reflect the human condition. (See also Animals in Art; Poetry.)

HUNTING
P eople throughout the ancient Near East hunted animals, but the role
of hunting changed over time. Before people developed AGRICULTURE
and domesticated* animals, hunting was a survival strategy, and wild
game was a food resource. While people continued to hunt for food after
adopting food-producing strategies, hunting took on another role. People
also hunted for sport, and in several cultures, the royal hunt was used to
* domesticate to adapt or tame for enhance the status of the king.
human use Anthropologists* use the term hunter-gatherers to describe people who
* anthropologist scientist who studies live by hunting wild game, FISHING, and gathering wild food such as fruits
human cultures and seeds rather than by growing crops or herding animals. Before the be-
ginnings of controlled food production, all people were hunter-gatherers.
In prehistoric Egypt, for example, people living along the NILE RIVER
hunted hippopotamus, giraffe, antelope, and buffalo and also fished and
gathered turtles and shellfish.
People eventually began to domesticate some of the animals they had
once hunted, such as SHEEP, GOATS, and CATTLE. Other game animals such
as deer and antelope, however, were never domesticated. The dog and the
cat, two domesticated animals, became the hunter's helper. An Egyptian
stone carving dating from around 2400 B.C. shows a hunter pursuing sev-
eral antelope with the help of three trained dogs. Hunters sometimes
used a cat to make geese and other fowl fly up out of the reeds so that
they could more easily be killed or captured.
After the rise of agriculture and the ensuing growth of urban civiliza-
tion, hunting became a pastime instead of a necessity, at least for some
people. Egyptian tomb paintings often show noble families on fishing
and bird-hunting excursions in the reed marshes along the Nile.
The kings of Assyria in northern MESOPOTAMIA liked to be portrayed as
strong, brave, and skillful hunters who were victorious over the fiercest
beasts. King Tiglath-pileser I, for example, claimed to have slayed 4 wild
bulls, 10 elephants, and 920 LIONS. A successful hunt meant that the king
enjoyed divine favor. It also demonstrated the ruler's personal qualities and
symbolized the protection he gave his people. Assyrian royal hunts were
carefully managed, however. Often, captured wild lions were released into
royal game parks so that the king could kill them under controlled condi-
tions. The practice of having royal parks continued in the PERSIAN EMPIRE.
179
Hurrians

Assyrian kings decorated their palaces with some breathtaking bas-

* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which reliefs*of hunting scenes.A
relief
ASHURNASIRPAL
fromthe palace
II
of at
material is cut away to leave figures Nimrud shows the king hunting bulls and lions from achariot. Themost
projecting slightly from the background vivid hunting scenesare carved intothe walls
ASHUR-
of the palace
King
of
BANIPALNINEVEH.
at One scene showsthe king stabbing a lion standing
on
its hind legs. This motifwas adopted
SEALof Assyrian
as the royal
kings.
Images of these hunts were often spectacular. Wall paintings show
Amenhotep III of Egyptand his court hunting antelope from chariots,
* scribe person of a learned
class who with a royal scribe* keeping countof the king'skills. Amenhotep also slew
served as a writer, editor,or teacher more dangerous game, suchas wildalso (See
bullsandAnimals;
lions.
Animals in Art.)

HURRIANS
T he Hurrians(HUR»ee»uhnz) wereone of many peopleswho mi-
grated to theFertile Crescent*
from the surrounding hills. Sometime
before the end of the third millennium
B.C.*, Hurrians arrivedin north-
easternMESOPOTAMIA. From there, they worked theirwaywestward into
SYRIA, establishinga numberof kingdoms, including the kingdomof Mi-
tanni, which grew intomajor
a power in the ancient Near
Eastduringthe
* Fertile Crescent semicircular
area of 1400s and 1300s
B.C. Human culture, whichhad absorbed many Mes-
rich farmland that stretches from Egypt opotamian elements, was alsomajor
a influenceon the literatureandreli-
across the southeastern coast of the gion of the
HITTITES,a peoplewho inhabited
ANATOLIA
north
Syria
and
Mediterranean Sea down to the Persian
Gulf
(present-dayTurkey).
* third millennium B.C.
years from 3000
to 2001 B.C.
Origins and Migrations. The language of the Hurrians suggests that
they originated in eastern Anatoliaor a region near the Zagros Moun-
tains of northwestern
IRAN. Thisis because
the Human language
ismost
closely related to the language
URARTU,ofa kingdom that historians
know arose in eastern Anatolia.
180
 Hurrians
Historians believe that the migrationofHurrians occurred overalong
period of time. From about B.C. onward,
3000 small groups ofHurrians
Hurrians in the left their homelandand migrated westward. ByB.C.,
around
small2200
Hebrew Bible Hurrian states existed along and between the upper reaches of theTigris
Does the Hebrew Bible record inter- River and the Euphrates Riverin northern Mesopotamia.
actions between Hurrians and He-
By around 1700 B.C., the Hurrianshad expanded westward into
brews? Many American scholars
believe that a people called the northern Syria. Infact, many textsin their language have been foundat
Horites—who appear in the book of ALALAKH, locatedjust northof the present-day Syrian border along the
Genesis—were Hurrians, Although Mediterranean Sea. However,the Hurrian heartlandwas in northern Mes-
some European scholars disagree, opotamia. It was in this region that the Hurrians establishedpowerful
the
those who support the identifica- kingdom of Mitanni.
tion of the Horites with the Hurrians
point out thatthe Hurriansare
known to have been numerous The Kingdom of Mitanni. Theoldest known references toMitanni
along the Syrian coast They may are foundin Egyptian texts dating fromtheB.C.late
These1500s
texts also
well have moved south from there contain the namesof the kingsof Mitanni,but B.C.
after
only
the
early 1400s
into regions where they would have However, these royal namesare not Hurrian. Theyarerelatedto the Indo-
come in contact with the Hebrew
European language-speaking groups that conquered northern Indiain the
population.
second millennium B.C. (years
from 2000
B.C.).
to 1001
Consequently,
some historians believe thatIndo-Europeans, along with groups Hurri-
of
ans, entered northern Mesopotamia fromthe eastand founded Mitanni.
An Indo-European dynasty* ruledthe kingdom, althoughthe majority of
* dynasty succession of rulers from the the population was Hurrian, and Hurrian was the spoken language.
same family or group Mitanni became the dominant powerin northern after
Syria
the Hit-
* archaeologist scientist who studies tites lost controlof the area around
B.C.In the
1500
B.C.,
mid-1400s
Mi-
past human cultures, usually by tanni came into conflict with Egypt, which also wantedtoexpanditsrule
excavating material remains of human into Syria. UnderKing Saushtatar, Mitanninot only survived this conflict
activity
but also acquired new territory on the borders of the Hittite empire.
Saushtatar ruledfrom the capital city, Washukkani, which modernar-
chaeologists* have not yet located.
During the 1400s B.C., Mitanni reachedthe heightof its power. By
around 1420 B.C., the Mitanni kingdomhad grown, stretching fromthe
Mediterranean Sea to northern Iran. Shortly thereafter, Mitanni estab-
lished peaceful relations with Egypt. During this time,as a gesture of
peace, Mitanni kings sent their daughters to become the wives of the
rulers of Egypt.
During the reignofKing TushrattainB.C., theMitanni
1300s beganto
lose power.The Hittite empirehad emergedas aserious threat,and itcon-
quered Washukkani.By around B.C.,
after1350
the Hittites had seized
much Mitanni territory,one of Tushratta's sons killedhim in disgust. Fol-
lowing attacks by the Assyriansin its major cities, Mitanni became partof
the Hittite empire.
Hittite control over Mitannidid not last long. Assyria,which
referred
to the Hurrian kingdom as Khanigalbat,had become strongerand more
aggressive, and eventually the Assyrian empire overwhelmed the last
remnants of theformer kingdomof Mitanni.The Assyriansdispersed the
Hurrian population, settling new groups in the region, and theHurrian
language gradually disappeared. However, Hurrian culture greatly influ-
enced those partsof the Hittite empire that remained from
free
Assyrian
rule. The Hittites worshipedthe Hurrian TESHUBand
storm adopted
god
the Hurrian literary work calledthe Kumarbi Cycle into their mythology.
181
Hyksos

HYKSOS
T he Hyksos (HIK»sahs) were a nomadic* group from west Asia who
ruled Egypt from about 1630 to 1523 B.C. The word Hyksos is the
Greek pronunciation of an Egyptian term meaning "shepherd kings."
The exact origins of the Hyksos are not known. Some historians think
they were HURRIANS who came from SYRIA, while others believe they were
* nomadic referring to people who travel AMORITES who came from the Levant*.
from place to place to find food and
pasture The Hyksos Takeover. Most of the information on the Hyksos take-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern over of Egypt comes from writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho, who
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- lived in the 200s B.C., and from archaeological* excavations. According
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
to Manetho, the Hyksos invaded Egypt from the east, destroying cities
Bank, and Jordan
* archaeological referring to the study
and temples and oppressing the population. In reality, the Hyksos
takeover may have been more gradual and less forceful than Manetho
of past human cultures, usually by
excavating material remains of human suggested. Archaeological evidence indicates that there was a large pres-
activity ence of immigrants from west Asia in the eastern Nile Delta as early as
2000 B.C. and that the number of immigrants increased over the next
300 years.
At first, the west Asian immigrants appear to have peacefully coex-
* indigenous referring to the original isted with the indigenous* Egyptians. Egypt was already ethnically di-
inhabitants of a region verse, and the immigrants were probably accepted into Egyptian society
without prejudice. However, when Egypt's central government weak-
ened around 1700 B.C., some of the west Asian immigrants may have de-
cided to take advantage of the situation and seize control of power. First,
* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed they created a series of small states in the eastern delta*, with a center of
of soil deposited by a river power at the city of Avaris, which is the only known Hyksos city in
Egypt. Then around 1640 B.C., they captured the city of MEMPHIS. This
event, according to Manetho, marked the beginning of the Fifteenth Dy-
nasty, which consisted of a succession of six Hyksos kings who ruled
Egypt for almost a century.
It is not surprising that the Hyksos were able to seize control of
Egypt. They had superior weapons and methods of warfare that gave
them a further advantage over the Egyptians, who were already weak-
ened by internal problems. Egyptian soldiers used wooden bows and ar-
rows with stone arrowheads. They also fought nearly naked and on foot.
In contrast, the Hyksos used compound bows made of wood, horn, and
* sinew tough cord of tissue that sinew* that could send their bronze-tipped arrows twice as far as the
attaches muscles to bones Egyptian arrows. They also wore armor and leather helmets for protec-
tion, and they fought from horse-drawn CHARIOTS. In short, the Egyptians
were no match for the Hyksos.
Once in power, the Hyksos kings presented themselves as traditional
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt Egyptian pharaohs*. They used Egyptian titles in their royal court,
adopted the Egyptian system of writing called HIEROGLYPHICS, and retained
the general structure of the Egyptian government. However, unlike tradi-
tional Egyptian pharaohs, the Hyksos ruled most of Egypt outside the
delta only indirectly. In those regions, the Hyksos allowed the local kings
to remain in power as long as they were willing to acknowledge the au-
* tribute payment made by a smaller or thority of, and pay tribute* to, the Hyksos kings.
weaker party to a more powerful one,
often under the threat of force Driving Out the Hyksos. Although the local kings of THEBES in cen-
tral Egypt grudgingly acknowledged the authority of the Hyksos rulers,
182
 Hymns
there was growing resentment toward them. Around 1575 B.C., King Se-
qenenre II of Thebes rebelled against the Hyksos. Seqenenre did not suc-
ceed in his rebellion and was killed in battle. His successor Kamose,
continued the fight. He eventually recaptured much of the Nile Valley.
Later Kamose tried to capture the Hyksos capital of Avaris but failed.
King Kamose was succeeded by his younger brother AHMOSE, the first
king of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the founder of the New Kingdom.
Because Ahmose had adopted Hyksos weapons and methods of warfare,
he was able to capture Memphis, which completed the recapture of the
Nile Valley. Around 1530 B.C., Ahmose captured Avaris and pursued the
Hyksos out of Egypt and into the Levant, where the Hyksos had a strong-
hold. Eventually, the Hyksos surrendered, and the Levant came under
Egyptian rule.
Although the Hyksos were driven out of Egypt after ruling for a rela-
tively short time, they had a lasting impact on Egypt. As a result of Hyk-
sos influence, the Egyptians created a permanent professional army and
improved their military technology, allowing them to create their em-
pire. The Hyksos also had an influence on Egyptian music, language, and
religion. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Weapons and Armor.)

HYMNS
H ymns are poems addressed to deities* or rulers that praise, cele-
brate, make requests, and give thanks. Hymns are found in the LIT-
ERATURE of many ancient Near Eastern cultures, including those of the
Sumerians, Egyptians, Israelites, and Greeks.
Of the surviving 130 royal hymns from ancient Sumer, some address
the gods, seeking their protection and blessings for the king. Others
* deity god or goddess praise the king, who is presented as a god and an ideal human being. The
hymns, which were recited in court, praise the king's power and author-
* piety faithfulness to beliefs ity, beauty and strength, wisdom and piety*, and justice and achieve-
ments. Among the finest Sumerian hymns are those written for SHULGI, a
great king of ancient UR.
Ancient Egyptian literature contains several hymns, including those
to OSIRIS, prayers of the goddess Isis for her baby, hymns to the gods
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt AMUN and Ra, and those of the pharaoh* AKHENATEN. Many Egyptian
hymns are prayers of thanksgiving, such as one in which the artist Ne-
bre thanks Amun for healing his son. The Egyptian BOOK OF THE DEAD
contains hymns of mourning. Ancient Egyptian hymns were sung or re-
cited during sacred ceremonies, and many of these works have been
preserved.
Hymns were also common in ancient Israel and Greece. The largest
collection of hymns from ancient Israel is found in the Hebrew BIBLE in
the book of Psalms. The book contains numerous songs of praise, ad-
dressed to God. Greek hymns begin with the name of the deity to whom
the work is addressed. They were important in religious ceremonies and
as an accompaniment to dancers. One of the oldest surviving Greek
hymns is addressed to the god Dionysus by his women followers. (See also
Prayer.)
183
Iconography

ICONOGRAPHY
I conography is the use of imageryortraditional illustrations selected
to convey the meaning in aworkofart.
Easilyrecognizable visualim-
ages of the gods and rulers served to helppeople recall thepowers of a
deity* or king. People of the ancient Near
Eastbelieved thatgodsand
goddesses, who had created societies, hadultimate power over them,
and if displeased, could destroy them.
Kingswere seenas the gods'cho-
* deity god or goddess sen representatives. The portrayalofdeitiesandkingsin artreminded

184
 Iconography
people of their role and helped keep them united in their beliefs and pur-
poses as a society.
The ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians often used animal im-
agery to symbolize their gods. For instance, during the Akkadian Empire
(ca. 2350-2193 B.C.), the goddess ISHTAR was portrayed as a lion. Egyptian
iconography consisted of a mixed form in which gods typically were de-
picted with an animal head on a human body. In the Egyptian Late

PRINCIPAL SYMBOLS Q^MESOPOTAMIAN DEITIES

Symbol Deity represented*
1 Solar disk Utu/Shamash, sun god
2 winqed disk Utu/Shamash, sun god; Ashur, state god of Assyria; Ninurta, war god
3 ••• Possibly Utu/Shamash, sun god
4 crescent Nanna/Sin, moon god
5 %m^^wmg^ww^«^^@|^W^^nw9W
»jPi^;PiipSt|tmiirj:i^P<!l::;p;Sif^«|-l5;:i Inanna/Ishtar, goddess of passion, love, and war
6 seven dots or Sebittu, the seven gods
seven stars
7 lightning Symbol of storm gods throughout the ancient Near East
8 triangular-headed spade Marduk, state god of Babylonia
9 plough Ningirsu, city god of Girsu
10 barley stalk Shala, goddess of agriculture
11 stylized tree Possibly a general symbol of fertitlity
12 vase with streams Possibly a general symbol of fertility; Enki/Ea, wisdom god; Marduk, state god of Babylonia
13 homed cap Anu, sky god; Ashur, state god of Assyria
14 stylus Nabu, scribal god
15 lamp Nusku, fire goda
16 "omega" Associated with the mother or birth goddesses; Inanna/Ishtar, goddess of passion,
love, and war
17 lozenge Possibly Inanna/Ishtar, goddess of passion, love, and war
18 bull Associated with storm gods
19 !•• Iftarwa/lshtar/gocWess of p&ssfon, love, and war; MMil, goddess of Nippur
20 horse Utu/Shamash, sun god
21 horse head (unknown)
22 dog Gula, goddess of healing
23 turtle Enki/Ea, Wisdom god
24 scorpion Ishkhara,
Ishtaran, city godgoddess of love
of Der; Ningishzids, godand healing
of the underworld
25 homed snake god of th« wKfesrworki
26 striding bird Papsukkal, messenger god
27 bird with back-turned head Harbe, Kassite god
28 bird on high perch Shuqamura and Shumalia, twin gods
29 bird on low perch Ninutta, War god
30 (snake-)dragon (unknown)
31 lion-dragon IW||l|^^wPWjW|||H^WplS^i^Pl|p
32 qoat-fish Enki/Ea, wisdom god
33 double lion-headed scepter Nergal, god of the underworld
34 lion-headed staff Nergal, god of the underworld
35 eagle-headed staff Zababa, patron god of Kish
36 ram-headed staff Enki/Ea, wisdom god
37 crook Amurru, god of the nomads
38 ring-post with streamer Inanna/lshtar goddess of passion, love, and war
39 ring-post without streamer Possibly Enki/Ea, wisdom god
40 ring-post Possibly Utu/Shamash, sun god
*"/" separates Sumerian and Babylonian names of deities

185
Incense
Period (664-332 B.C.), the gods could be represented by more than one an-
imal image. For example, the goddess HATHOR was shown as a cow, a
snake, a lioness, or as woman with a cow's head. This way of displaying
their gods occurs as early as 3000 B.C.
Ancient people sometimes portrayed their gods in human form. When
shown as humans, the gods were usually portrayed with an object that
came to symbolize the deities themselves. For example, the HmrrES of ANA-
TOLIA portrayed the storm god holding a lightning bolt and the moon god
with a crescent moon on his hat. In ancient Mesopotamia, the sun god
might have rays coming out of his upper body and be shown rising between
mountains. During and after the Akkadian Empire, Mesopotamian gods
were commonly shown wearing a headdress with sets of horns—the greater
the number of sets, the more major the god. When appearing in a scene
with people, gods in human form were distinguished by their larger size.
Other ancient peoples also used symbols for their gods. The Persians
depicted their chief god, AHURA MAZDA, as a human within a winged disc.
Unusual in the ancient world was the Israelite god YAHWEH, who was not
depicted by his worshipers. A passage in the Hebrew Bible (Deuteronomy
4:12, 15) says that Yahweh has no form, no shape that can be shown.
Other Near Eastern cultures also had gods that were not symbolized.
Imagery and symbols were also used to represent rulers in the ancient
Near East. In Mesopotamia, the king could be recognized in art by the gar-
ments, headgear, and weapons he was wearing. To the ancient Mesopota-
mians, these served more as identifiers than did actual physical features.
Hittite kings in art were also recognizable through their dress.
Other figures appear in Near Eastern art, from those of nobility and
high ranking officials to conquered peoples. Such people were portrayed
in ways that reflected their situations. For example, captives were shown
with their arms bound. The ancient people who viewed such art would
have been able to identify who or which group the figures represented
based on how they were portrayed. (See also Gods and Goddesses; Hu-
man Form in Art.)

INCENSE
I ncense is a substance made from the sap, wood, bark, roots, or fruit of
certain plants. When burned, it releases a fragrant or spicy odor. In the
ancient Near East, incense was used for religious purposes and was an im-
portant article of trade. Two of the most important forms of incense were
frankincense and myrrh*.
The ancient Babylonians burned incense while offering prayers or
* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree sacrifices and consulting oracles*. They also believed that they could read
resins used to make incense and the future from the smoke rising from burning incense. Incense was also
perfumes
important to the Egyptians, who used it daily in rituals to their gods. The
* oracle priest or priestess through whom ancient Israelites believed that incense had miraculous powers, and they
a god is believed to speak; also, the
made daily OFFERINGS of incense to please their god YAHWEH and to protect
location (such as a shrine) where such
utterances are made the priests. Only priests could offer incense to Yahweh, and its use for
nonreligious purposes was forbidden. The Greeks burned incense as an
* embalming treating a corpse with oils
or chemicals to preserve it or slow down offering to the gods and for protection against DEMONS.
the process of decay, usually after body Incense also played an important role in funerary rites and was used
fluids have been removed in embalming* dead bodies. The use of incense at funerals may have
186
 Indo-European Languages
arisen as a way of masking the disagreeable odors of decomposing bodies.
Still, it also had religious signifance. Burning incense was believed to pu-
rify the dead, and the rising smoke represented the soul of the deceased
rising to heaven.
Ancient peoples also believed that incense had divine powers. They
used it as a medicine to cure diseases and heal wounds. People also used
certain kinds of incense as PERFUME, believing that it made them divinely
beautiful or transferred them to a higher level of life.
Incense was also an important item in Near Eastern trade. The de-
mand for frankincense and myrrh, which came primarily from southern
Arabia, encouraged trade between that region and the kingdoms in the
FERTILE CRESCENT. Trade routes also ran between Egypt and Syria and other
regions in the Near East. So much wealth was involved in the incense
trade that it often had political consequences. The Assyrians and Babylo-
nians expanded their empires, in part, to gain greater control over the in-
cense trade. (See also Cosmetics; Death and Burial; Economy and
Trade; Oracles and Prophecy; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

INDO-EUROPEAN
I ndo-European languages are today the most widely spoken family of
languages in the world. In use from western Europe through Central
Asia to India, they are also the dominant languages in the Americas and
LANGUAGES in Australia. While most of the languages of the ancient Near East were
HAMITIC LANGUAGES, a few of the languages of that region belonged to the
Indo-European language family.
The idea that certain languages were all part of an Indo-European lan-
guage family first took shape around A.D. 1800. Scholars at that time began
to recognize similarities between Greek, Sanskrit (an ancient language of
India), Latin (the language of the Romans), and a number of other lan-
guages. The research of linguists, or language experts, was later combined
* archaeological referring to the study of with archaeological* evidence, allowing scholars to trace the development
past human cultures, usually by of Indo-European languages as well as the relationships among them.
excavating material remains of human The Indo-European language family includes ten main language
activity
groups, or subfamilies, two of which are no longer spoken. The groups are
Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek, Italic, Germanic, Armenian, Tocharian,
Celtic, Balto-Slavic, and Albanian. Indo-European languages share com-
mon roots for several words, certain grammatical forms, and patterns of
sounds. Yet the languages also have many differences that reflect their in-
dividual development, which occurred over thousands of years.

Development of Indo-European Languages. All ancient and

modem Indo-European languages are thought to have descended from a
common parent language, sometimes called Proto-Indo-European. The
origins of that language are unknown, but scholars are quite certain that
it began to divide into several distinct languages as early as the 4500s B.C.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 The home of the Indo-European languages is thought to be in the re-
to 2001 B.C. gion north of the Black Sea. By the third millennium B.C.*, people from
* dialect regional form of a spoken that region had begun to migrate, spreading different Indo-European di-
language with distinct pronunciation, alects* throughout Europe and Asia. Soon these dialects developed into
vocabulary, and grammar distinct languages, many of which have been preserved in written records.
187
Inheritance

Indo-European Languages of the Near East. The majority of Indo-

European languages developed in areas outside the Near East, primarily in
Europe. For example, the Italic subfamily today includes the so-called Ro-
*
Romance language one of several mance languages*. The Germanic languages include German, English, and
languages that developed from Latin, the languages of Scandinavia, while the Balto-Slavic subfamily consists of
including French, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Polish, and other languages of eastern Europe and areas near the
Romanian, and Spanish
Baltic Sea. Only three subfamilies of Indo-European languages were spoken
in the ancient Near East: Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, and Greek.
The Anatolian subfamily of languages, now extinct, was one of the
Mystery of an oldest Indo-European language groups in the ancient Near East. These
Extinct Language languages were spoken in ANATOLIA and northern SYRIA as early as the sec-
ond millennium B.C.* The best-known Anatolian language is Hittite,
Two Indo-European language
groups have become extinct: Ana-
which was spoken in the northwestern parts of the region. Hittite was
tolian and Tocharian. White scholars written in a CUNEIFORM system adapted from that used in MESOPOTAMIA.
know quite a bit about Anatolian Hittite texts date from the 1600s to about 1200 B.C.
and the people who spoke it, Another Anatolian language, Luwian, was spoken in southern Anato-
Tbcharian is more of a mystery. lia and northern Syria. Forms of this language were written in both
Known only since A,D, 1908, the
Tbcharian languages were an iso-
cuneiform and a HIEROGLYPHICS system. Scholars believe that the Luwians
lated group of Indo-European di- borrowed cuneiform from Mesopotamia but that they created the hiero-
alects once spoken in remote areas glyphic system on their own. Surviving texts in the Luwian language date
of northwestern China. The Tochar-J from between 1400 and 200 B.C.
Jan dialects were strikingly different \ Closely related to Hittite and Luwian is Palaic, a language spoken in
from the Iranian languages spoken areas north of the Hittite heartland in central Anatolia. This language was
by people in surrounding regions
Instead, they showed similarities to
extinct by the 1300s B.C. Other ancient Anatolian languages—all spoken
some of the Indo-European dialects! in western Anatolia—include Lydian, Lycian, Pisidian, Sidetic, and Car-
spoken in Europe. Scholars do not ian. Little is known of these languages except that they were written in a
know how Tocharian came to this script closely related to Greek.
remote area nor how it disap- A second group of Indo-European languages is Indo-Iranian. This
peared Some experts suggest that
group contains two main subgroups. The first, Indo-Aryan, which in-
the Tbcharians migrated to China
from Europe as early as the third cludes Sanskrit, was spoken in India, Pakistan, and Iran. The second sub-
millenium B.C. Until more evidence group are the Iranian languages, including Avestan, the sacred language
is found, however, the origin and of Zoroastrians, spoken in Iran as early as the first millennium B.C. (years
disappearance of the Tbcharian lan-3 from 1000 to 1 B.C.), and Old Persian, the language of the PERSIAN EMPIRE.
guage group will remain a mystery,] Historically, Greek is one of the oldest and most important Indo-
European languages. Various forms of Greek have been spoken in Greece
from at least the 1600s B.C. One of the oldest known forms of ancient
Greek was Mycenaean, which dates from about the 1200s B.C. Later
* second millennium B.C. years from dialects—Arcadian, Aeolic, Doric, and Ionic—were spoken on the Greek
2000 to 1001 B.C. mainland, on the islands of the AEGEAN SEA, and in western Anatolia.
By the 400s B.C., a dialect known as Attic became popular among the
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- Greeks. During the Hellenistic* period, the Attic Greek language and cul-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean ture spread far beyond the borders of Greece. Modern Greek is descended
world and western Asia during the three from earlier forms of the language. Meanwhile, ancient Greek remains an
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
important language for learning about the ancient world. (See also Ethnic
and Language Groups; Languages; Semitic Languages; Sumerian Lan-
guages; Writing.)

Inheritance See Family and Social Life; Law.

188
DAILY LIFE
Plate 2
Once a year, the ancientEgyptians went to their relatives' tombs for a funerary
banquet. Egyptians believed that during this meal, the living could communicate
with the dead. Dating from the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca.1539-1292 B.C.), this
scene from a tomb painting at Thebes shows events at such one banquetThe
seated figure at the far right of the lowerpanel
plays a double flute.The two
women to her right are dancing next to a stack jars of of wine.
 Plate 4
The people of the ancient Near
East sometimes played games to
entertain themselves.The game
board shown here dates from
around 2700 B.C. and was found
at a tomb at Ur in Mesopotamia.
The board, which is approximately
I I inches long and 5 inches wide, is
made of wood and is covered with
shell, bone, lapis lazuli, and colored
stone inlays. Next to the board are
two sets of game pieces. Although
modern scholars know how some
ancient Near Eastern board games
were played, the exact rules for
this game are not known.

Plate 5
All the major cultures of the ancient Near
East allowed marriages to be dissolved. In
this tablet, Hittite king Tudkhaliya IV (ruled
ca. 1254-1220 B.C.) grants a divorce between
Ugarit's kingAmmishtamru and his wife, the
daughter of the ruler of the Syrian kingdom
of Amurru.The seal impression in the center
of this cuneiform clay tablet belongs to
Tudkhaliya, and it may have been placed there
to authenticate the divorce agreement.
 Plate 6
These Hittite storage pots were found at Bogazkoy
(ancient Khattusha).The Hittites and others in the an-
cient Near East made pottery to store food and drink
and other items. It is possible that these pots, or ob-
jects like them, were used by the palaces and temples
to store goods that were later distributed among the
people as part of an economy based on redistribution.
The Hittites also specialized in making artistic pottery
in the forms of lions, bulls, and waterbirds.

Plate 7
Scholars have been able to learn
about the clothing worn by people
in the ancient Near East from their
portrayal in art. Dating from be-
tween 500 and 300 B.C., the figure,
probably of a Mede, depicted on this
six-inch-high gold sheet from Central
Asia is wearing trousers and a tunic.
This type of outfit was also worn by
the Persians, especially when they
engaged in hunting or warfare.
Plate 8
This relief from Khafaje in Mesopotamia,
which dates from around 2700 B.C., depicts
a feast. At the top left and right, a man and
woman enjoy a drink while servants attend
to their needs, and in the center, a musician
plays a harp. Ancient Mesopotamians ob-
served many state and religious occasions
with a feast. In fact,each city-state or king-
dom in Mesopotamia had its own calendar
to guide people on the proper dates for
feasts and festivals. til
 Plate 10
The painted cosmetics box shown
here belonged to an Egyptian no-
blewoman during the reign of
Thutmose III (ca. 1479-1425 B.C.).
The cedar box holds glass and
alabaster jars containing ointments
and oils. Standing in the center of
the box is an eye paint (kohl) con-
tainer with a wooden device for
the paint's application. Egyptian
women used this to darken their
eyebrows, color their upper eye-
lids, and outline their eyes. In addi-
tion to enhancing beauty, makeup
protected the skin from the sun
and repelled disease-carrying flies.

Plate II
Dice games were among the games of
chance played in the ancient Near East.The
dice were made of stone, metal, and glass
and could be four-sided, six-sided, or even
pyramid shaped.Two royal children are por-
trayed rolling dice in this Neo-Hittite relief
from Karkamish, which dates from the
700s B.c.The relief itself is approximately
18 inches in lengthThe square section be-
tween the children at the center contains
an inscription in Hittite hieroglyphics.
Plate 14
Seals such as the one from ancient Bahrain
shown here held a place of importance in the
ancient Near EastThey were used to authen-
ticate documents, to seal rooms or objects,
and for religious purposes. Stamp seals found
in Bahrain are markedly different from seals
excavated elsewhere in the ancient Near East.
This was probably a result of the Bahrainis'
adapting the techniques of the wide range of
peoples with whom they conducted trade.

Plate 15
Dating from around 1500 B.C., this
Cycladic fresco from Thera depicts two
children engaged in a boxing match.
Other children's games included foot
races, rope skipping, wrestling, tug-of-
war, and leapfrog. However, children's
activities were not limited to leisure
activities.Youngsters were also expected
to work with and for their families.
The Ancient
Near East
An Encyclopedia
for Students
The Ancient
Near East
An Encyclopedia
for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief

JackM. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 3

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

An Imprint of The Gale Group
NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT
 Inscriptions

INSCRIPTIONS
T he term inscription refers to writing on a durable material that is
meant to provide a permanent record. In the ancient Near East, in-
scriptions were usually made by scribes* and masons working on many
different types of material. Inscriptions are found throughout the ancient
Near East on palace walls, statues, and rock formations and on smaller,
movable objects, including tablets and scrolls.
scribe person of a learned class who Kings often had inscriptions made to preserve their accomplishments
served as a writer, editor, or teacher for future generations to see. Inscriptions were also made by travelers
who wanted to leave their mark on a place. As a result, the texts range
from basic names and dates to accounts of almost fantastic tales and ex-
ploits of rulers.

Type. Inscriptions provide important data for reconstructing the his-

tory of the ancient Near East. They are the words of the people them-
selves. Although inscriptions are helpful to historians, they cannot be
solely relied on because they only provide a one-sided and often exagger-
archaeologist scientist who studies past ated view of events. The monumental royal inscriptions archaeologists*
human cultures, usually by excavating have uncovered generally show kings portraying themselves in the best
material remains of human activity light possible. The pattern is the same no matter where the inscriptions
were written or during which period. They were written in the first per-
son, each naming the particular king and his ancestors, emphasizing his
relationship to the gods, and telling of his achievements, both civic and
military. Each royal inscription also specifies the king's current project
and puts a curse on anyone who might steal or harm the monument.
KING LISTS, texts containing the names of kings and details of their reigns,
are another type of inscription that provide historical data, but these too
are often biased.
* funerary having to do with funerals or Many other types of inscriptions exist, such as funerary*, celebrative,
the handling of the dead commemorative, and SEAL inscriptions, along with administrative records
* Levant lands bordering the eastern and school lessons. In Egypt, the Levant*, ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey),
shores of the Mediterranean Sea and parts of Iran, there are also ''graffiti" inscriptions, which contain a
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), person's name and a prayer. Such inscriptions serve to record that that
the West Bank, and Jordan
person was passing along a road or route. Scholars suggest that these in-
scriptions are not found in Mesopotamia because the landscape there is
flat and not as rocky as elsewhere in the ancient Near East. Therefore,
there was little for a passerby to leave his mark on.

Format. Writing emerged around 3300 B.C. in Sumer and shortly there-
cuneiform world's oldest form of after in Egypt. Sumerians used a system of writing known as cuneiform*,
writing, which takes its name from the which consisted of several hundred symbols that represented words and
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed syllables. Egyptians used HIEROGLYPHICS, pictorial symbols similarly repre-
into clay tablets
senting words and syllables. Later, other cultures of the ancient Near East
developed their own systems of writing, which were often based on hi-
* second millennium B.C. years from eroglyphics and cuneiform. In the early second millennium B.C.*, people
2000 to 1001 B.C. who spoke Semitic* languages in the Levant developed a system of writ-
* Semitic of or relating to a language ing based on an aleph-beth, which contained signs only for consonants.
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, These scripts were written in different directions, some left to right, some
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician right to left, and some top to bottom. In some inscriptions in South Ara-
bic, Greek, and Semitic languages, each line takes the reverse direction of
1
Inscriptions

the one before, much like the way an ox plows a field, a system known as
boustrophedon.
Large public inscriptions, such as those on palace walls, contained
* literate able to read and write text and pictures. Few people knew how to read, and the small literate*
elite of one region often did not know the language of another area. Con-
sequently, pictures recording a victory over enemies were an effective
means of showing the greatness of a king because they could be "read" by
everyone.

Materials and Methods. Scribes in the ancient Near East wrote on and
* parchment writing material made from carved in stone, clay, wax, wood, leather, parchment*, metal, ivory, and
the skin of sheep or goats ostraca—flat stones or broken pieces of clay pottery; in Egypt, papyrus*
* papyrus writing material made by was used. To carve inscriptions in damp clay, scribes used a stylus—a reed
pressing together thin strips of the inner or metal tool with a pointed end for writing and a blunt "eraser" end for
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri smoothing out errors. When the inscription was to be made in stone,
scribes either inked or scratched the symbols and pictures into the stone,
and then stoneworkers followed the marks using a chisel. The dry climate
in Egypt allowed scribes there to use papyrus, a paperlike material on
which scribes used pens or brushes and ink.
Smaller objects, such as pottery, seals, or metal and ivory personal
items, including amulets and bowls, were also sometimes inscribed. Pot-
tery inscriptions were either painted in or scratched in. Smaller luxury
items might be inscribed with the owner's name as were seals.

Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian kings were concerned with "celebrative

texts," which contained a record of their military victories and civil accom-
plishments. The earliest preserved inscriptions are brief, but there are longer
texts dating from the time of the Akkadian empire (ca. 2350-2193 B.C.).
They describe the kings' continued power and their greatness. For exam-
ple, inscriptions about the kings SARGON I and NARAM-SIN placed in the
major temples of the country tell of the wide-sweeping changes they in-
stituted with their victories. The inscriptions also attribute the victories
* piety faithfulness to beliefs to the piety* of the kings, saying, "Sargon, the king, bowed down in
prayer to Dagan in Tuttul, and [the god] gave him the Upper Country."
These glorifications of kings proved to the gods that they had made wise
choices in Sargon and Naram-Sin.
One of the longest inscriptions found in the ancient Near East ap-
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been pears on the seven-foot-tall stela* ordered by King HAMMURABI of Babylon.
carved or engraved and serves as a It shows Hammurabi standing, facing the enthroned sun god Shamash.
monument; pi. stelae Hammurabi appears to be listening to Shamash. Below the figures is a
lengthy cuneiform text explaining how Hammurabi was chosen by other
gods to care for the Mesopotamian people and to create a system of laws
to ensure justice and well-being. The inscription goes on to list his 282
laws, known as the Code of Hammurabi. This inscription is addressed to
Shamash to impress him with what Hammurabi did on his behalf. In
keeping with the idea of leaving a permanent mark, it is also addressed to
Hammurabi's people and the generations to come, and it curses anyone
who tampers with the stela.
Mesopotamian kings also left "private" celebrative inscriptions that
were not meant for the public. The kings intended these inscriptions for
2
 Inscriptions

the gods andfuture kings. Such inscriptions were usuallynotillustrated

and were placedin the foundationorsome other out-of-the-waypartof a
palace or temple. They describehowwelltheking servedthegodsand
contain instructionsfor futurekings.
Becausetemples were frequently re-
built, a king could expect thatasuccessor would findthese inscriptions
and be suitably impressedby hispredecessor'saccomplishments.
The most commonly preserved formofinscribed material from
Mesopotamia TABLET.
CLAY
is theSome 500,000clay tablets have been
recovered to date. They spantheperiod from
B.C.about
through 3300
at least thefirst century
A.D. Mostof the tablets
arerecordsofvarious
kinds from palaces, temples,andprivate households. They include
sales receipts, leases, accounts, letters, marriage contracts, wills, and
court decisions.Another important groupoftablets includetheschool-
work of studentsand teachers, ranging fromsimple lists ofsigns
and
3
Inscriptions
* epic long poem about a legendary or Sumerian and Akkadian words to mathematics problems, epics*, myths,
historical hero, written in a grand style and legends.

Egypt. Egypt is known for large inscriptions in tombs, monuments,

and temples. The earliest inscriptions are displays of laws and decrees.
Not until the establishment of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.)
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt did pharaohs* inscribe their military exploits in detail. King Kamose
commissioned three inscribed stelae to celebrate his military victories
over the HYKSOS. King THUTMOSE III described 21 years of military cam-
paigns, including a list of the spoils of war, which he offered to the god
Amun-Ra. These inscriptions are found variously on stelae and on the
walls of the Temple of Amun at Karnak. Those found at the temple were
in recognition of Amun-Ra, who is believed to have granted the king his
victory. This was also Thutmose's way of claiming his legitimacy as heir
to the throne.
Inscriptions in tombs were very important to the ancient Egyptians
because they helped guide the deceased in the AFTERLIFE. At first, inscrip-
I Destroyed, tions were carved into the walls of tombs; later, inscribed linen shrouds
I Felled, or papyrus scrolls buried with the body helped the soul reach its desti-
I Conquered nation. Tomb inscriptions contained prayers, such as the one the de-
The following is an inscription ceased recited on his day of judgment, as well as a ''road map" through
describing a victory of the Assyrian
the underworld—if he got lost, he could be stuck there for eternity. One
king Ashurnasirpal II:
especially helpful map was carved into the bottom of the coffin. It
/ besieged [and] conquered the
showed a safe route through the underworld, including tips on eti-
city. I felled 3,000 of their fight-
ing men with the sword. I car-
quette and advice on repelling snakes and crocodiles. During the Old
ried off prisoners, possessions, Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), only members of royalty had
oxen... from them. I burnt these guides along with autobiographical inscriptions, but by the New
many captives from them. I cap- Kingdom period, many Egyptians were buried with inscribed spells for
tured many troops alive: I cut off guidance.
some of their arms [and] hands;
I cut off of others their noses,
Egyptians also left smaller and shorter graffiti inscriptions carved into
ears, [and] extremities. rock throughout the kingdom. These served as markers to identify the
I gouged out the eyes of many person who visited or passed by or to record significant accomplish-
troops. I made one pile of the ments, such as a military victory or a mining expedition that occurred
living [and] one of the heads. there. The markers were situated on well-traveled routes, so many visitors
I hung their heads on trees
would see them.
around the city. I burnt their
adolescent boys [and] girls. I...
destroyed, burnt, consumed the Iran. The most important inscription in Iran was the BEHISTUN INSCRIP-
city.
TION, carved into the cliffs in the Zagros Mountains. The carvings show
Darius Fs triumph over rebels and his ascent to the throne of the Persian
empire in 521 B.C. The accompanying text was written in cuneiform in
three languages: Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite. Darius arranged for
smaller copies of the inscription to be circulated throughout his kingdom.
Various inscriptions in the Elamite language have also been found in
Iran. One of the earliest is the Treaty of Naram-Sin, from around 2250 B.C.,
which was found at Susa. This treaty, a series of about 24 tablets, records
an agreement between the Elamite king Khita and the Akkadian con-
queror, King Naram-Sin. In the treaty, Khita states that Naram-Sin is his
ally and promises to provide the Akkadians with troops. Several thousand
cuneiform tablets, many containing Elamite inscriptions, have also been
4
 Inscriptions
recovered at Persepolis, the capital of the Achaemenid empire from the
500s to the 300s B.C. These tablets record the distribution of food, cloth-
ing, and silver to various officials throughout the empire.

Anatolia. Inscribed royal pronouncements in Hittite Anatolia from

around 1600 B.C. were meant to impress. Some detailed a king's military
victories, or his "manly deeds/' year by year. These were an early form of
autobiography. Some texts looked back and explained a king's actions, jus-
tifying his unorthodox or failed activities. An inscribed apology of King
* usurp to wrongfully occupy a position KHATTUSHILI III contains his justification for usurping* the throne from a
nephew and his thanks to the goddess Ishtar for being his guide and pro-
tector. This indicated to the people that it was the gods who wanted him
to serve as king. These royal inscriptions, as well as several thousand clay
tablets found in the palace archives, were written in a cuneiform script.
However, the Hittites also developed their own form of hieroglyphics,
* relief sculpture in which material is cut which they used on seal inscriptions and monumental reliefs* that were
away to show figures raised from the carved on rock faces.
background The Luwians and the Lycians, who lived in southern and southwest-
ern Anatolia, also left inscriptions. They cut their inscriptions into the
faces of rocks. Some are primarily artistic, showing a king engaged in
some activity, with an inscription that is merely an identification. Others
include long texts giving a context for the art. Luwian inscriptions use a
form of Hittite hieroglyphics. Lycian inscriptions—written with a Greek-
like alphabet—were carved into rock tombs and consist mainly of burial
instructions and prayers. The most important Lycian inscription is the
pillar of Xanthus, dating to 400 B.C., which details the military adven-
tures of the Xanthian dynasty.

The Levant. In the ancient Near East, the Levant was a crossroads. Every-
one traveling by land between Mesopotamia or Iran and Egypt passed
through this region, which lies on the eastern border of the Mediterranean
Sea. Some of these travelers liked what they saw and stayed. Consequently,
inscriptions in every imaginable script appear in virtually every language
spoken by these settlers: Luwian, Aramaic, Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic,
Egyptian, Akkadian, Canaanite, Greek, and Latin.
Very early inscriptions in Syria were used to dedicate statues, temples,
and palaces. They contained the name of the king and his ancestors, assur-
ances of his approval by the gods, and lists of his civic and military
achievements. They also included colorful curses on anyone foolish
enough to harm the monument. One such statue is that of Idrimi, king of
the city of ALALAKH, in Syria. It is 41 inches tall and dates from the second
millennium B.C. In this statue, Idrimi sits on a throne with his left hand in
his lap and his right hand over his heart. His expression is serious. The in-
scription is written in Akkadian cuneiform, but the language reflects Hur-
rian and West Semitic influences. The 104 lines of inscription are carved
into the figure itself. They are written in the first person: 'Thirty years I
was king. My achievements I have inscribed on my statue." Idrimi asks
people to read this record of his life's work and "let them continually
bless me." It includes the requisite curse: "Whoever alters . . . [this statue],
5
Iran
may the storm god, lord of heaven and earth, and the great gods annihi-
late his name and his seed from his land." (See also Papyrus; Scribes; Se-
mitic Languages; Writing.)

IRAN
L ocated in southern Asia, south of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmen-
istan, and the Caspian Sea, present-day Iran corresponds roughly to
the same region as ancient Iran. It is bordered on the west by Iraq (ancient
MESOPOTAMIA) and Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA), on the east by Afghanistan
and Pakistan, and on the south by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian
Gulf. Iran is known for the diversity of its cultures, both in ancient and in
modern times.

Geography. The majority of Iran is made up of the huge central Iran-

* oasis fertile area in a desert made ian Plateau and its surrounding mountain ranges, the Elburz Mountains
possible by the presence of a spring or to the north and the Zagros Mountains to the west. The central plateau
well; pi. oases contains two large deserts, the Dasht-i-Lut and the Dasht-i-KavIr. Iran is
* millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. divided into three main climatic regions. In the south, the coast is hot;
millennia the plateau is dry and has milder temperatures; the mountains, particu-
* archaeologist scientist who studies larly the high regions of the northern Elburz, are much colder. Most of
past human cultures, usually by Iran receives little rainfall.
excavating material remains of human
activity
Human History. The availability of water and access to it have greatly
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000
to 2001 B.C.
determined the patterns of human habitation in Iran. Populations his-
torically congregated at the edges of the region, in the mountains, and
along the coasts, though later the oases* became populated as well.
Humans have lived in present-day Iran for many millennia*. The ear-
The Treasure liest evidence of human habitation, dating from around 10,000 B.C., has
been found on the Iranian Plateau. From excavations at old farm sites in
ofZiwiye the Zagros Mountains, archaeologists* have determined that people were
In A,D. 1947, antiquities
domesticating animals at least as early as 7000 B.C. Archaeologists know
dealers reported that a trea-
sure of artifacts had been re-
far more about human development in southwestern Iran, or present-day
covered from an iron Age site Khuzestan, a region that receives more rainfall than much of the rest of
in Ziwiye, in northwestern Iran, the country. Located next to ancient Mesopotamia, the region's develop-
Hundreds of these objects were ment was linked to that of Mesopotamia.
sold, and scholars published papers Beginning in about 4000 B.C., cultural influences from southern Mes-
based on their conclusions about
the artifacts. However, these con-
opotamia began to strongly influence local development in southwest-
clusions were invalid because no ern Iran, creating the Proto-Elamite culture. The descendants of the
one knew the actual place from Proto-Elamite people, the Elamites, later dominated the region until 640
which the objects had come. Ar- B.C. By the end of the third millennium B.C.*, Elam stretched from the
chaeologists eventually investigated borders of Mesopotamia in the south to the Caspian Sea in the north and
a site in Ziwiye and found nothing
included the great Iranian deserts. For much of its history, Elamite civi-
resembling the treasure that was
said to have come from there. The
lization was centered on the city of Susa (present-day Sush). However,
artifacts themselves may be extraor- evidence suggests that during the third and into the second millenia B.C.,
dinary, but much of their value to if not earlier, Susa was its own kingdom. Throughout their history, the
scholars has been lost. Elamites were conquered at various times and controlled by the Babylo-
nians and Sumerians, among others.
Much less is known about the cultures that thrived in northern Iran.
What is known is that a tribe called the Manneans was among several
6
 Iran
different groups who had built cities andestablished distinct cultures
there. The Manneans also controlled trade routes leading to thenorth
and eastof Iran.
Starting around B.C.,
1000
a newARYANS
group entered
called
the Iran.
nomadic referring to people who travel The Aryan tribes wereanomadic* peoplewhomigrated fromthesteppes*
from place to place to find food and ofCENTRAL ASIA intoIranand India. Between B.C.,
the
two
800s
and
im-600s
pasture portant Aryan tribes cameto settle
MEDES
inIran,
andthe
thePersians. The
r
steppe large semiaridgrassy plain with Medes settled in the northwest, aregion that became Media.ThePersians
few trees settled on the southern plateau, which they named Parsamash (present-
day Pars). By theB.C.,
600s
the Medeshad becomethedominant tribe and
controlled an empire stretching from IndiatoAnatolia.ThePersians were
* vassal individual or state thatswears their vassals*.
loyalty and obedience to agreater All that changed when the
GREAT
Persian
CYRUS
THE
(ruledking
power 559-529 B.C.) cameto power.Herebelled against hisgrandfather,
the Me-
dian kingAstyages, and established Persiaas anindependent state. He
successfully conquered most of the surrounding kingdoms, including
Babylonia,and created PERSIAN
the EMPIRE.With helpfromhissons, Cyrus
See map on inside covers. expanded the empire to include Egyptandeastern landsinCentral Asia.
Cyrus's dynasty later became knownas theAchaemenid dynasty.
In 331B.C.,the Persian empire
GREAT
was
ALEXANDER
THE
conquered
by
(ruled 336-323 B.C.). When Alexander died, control of thecore
of thePer-
sian empire passed to his general SeleucusI, whofoundedtheSeleucid
dynasty, which ruled IranB.C., to the
when
260stheParthians took over.

Religion. The Elamitesand the Persiansdifferent

had religious
beliefs.
The Elamites, like other ancient Near Eastern peoples, worshiped many

7
Iraq
* cult system of religious beliefs and gods and goddesses. Elamite religious cults* played an important role in
rituals; group following these beliefs society, and religious rituals included regular public feasts and OFFERINGS
of animal blood to the gods. The Persians practiced a religion called
* prophet one who claims to have Zoroastrianism. This religion was named for Zoroaster, a prophet* who
received divine messages or insights lived during the 600s B.C. and taught that there was only one god, AHURA
* deity god or goddess MAZDA. At first, Ahura Mazda was the only deity* and was worshiped as a
sun god, the creator of all things, and called Wise Lord. Later he was seen
as the chief god among others.

Trade. For much of its history, Iran served as the crossroads for the an-
cient Near East and central and south Asia. Various ancient Iranian king-
doms were involved in international trade throughout the region by the
end of the fourth millennium B.C. (the years between 4000 and 3001 B.C.).
* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious Lapis lazuli* was very popular all over the ancient Near East and could be
stone found only in what is now northeastern Afghanistan. Sumerian traders
traveled through the Zagros Mountains of Iran to obtain lapis lazuli. In
the third millennium B.C., the Proto-Elamites and Elamite kingdoms con-
trolled areas with large supplies of tin, an essential product to the peoples
of the Bronze Age. Later the Manneans to the north controlled the routes
into the Ural Mountains, where copper and precious gems were mined
and animal fur was obtained. (See also Darius I and Darius III; Elam and
the Elamites; Parthia; Persepolis; Persian Wars; Satraps; Zoroaster and
Zoroastrianism.)

Iraq See Mesopotamia.

Iron See Metals and Metalworking.

Iron Age See Chronology.

I ural
rrigation is the process of supplying WATER to land for AGRICULTURE. Nat-
irrigation depends on normal rainfall and flooding to irrigate land.
IRRIGATION Artificial irrigation uses human-made systems to irrigate land that would
not otherwise get water. Irrigation by means of ditches, channels, CANALS,
basins, and other methods was critical to successful agriculture and thus
to the growth of cities. In the ancient Near East, civilizations grew because
natural and artificial irrigation allowed people to establish settled com-
munities and live off the land. Developing and managing irrigation
8
 Irrigation

contributed to social organization as societies defined their rights and re-

sponsibilities for water and land use.

Early Irrigation. Although cities were established along RIVERS, the

earliest attempts at irrigation occurred away from the great rivers. Farm-
ing itself began in hill country or on plains where rainfall sustained
* dry farming farming that relies on crops—a method known as dry farming*. At first, the land near the NILE
natural moisture retained in the ground RIVER in Egypt and the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER in MESOPOTA-
after rainfall MIA was difficult to irrigate. The rivers, especially during flooding, were
too large or too destructive for early societies to control. Consequently,
the first attempts at irrigation took place where smaller streams spread
* alluvial composed of clay, silt, sand, out during flooding. These regions of streams, called alluvial* plains, or
gravel, or similar material deposited by floodplains, were natural places to extend farming beyond a reliance on
running water rainfall. Archaeological* site surveys reveal ancient systems of irrigation
* archaeological referring to the study and field patterns, even in areas that are now barren. Artificial watering
of past human cultures, usually by methods were developed in the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Valleys before
excavating material remains of human
activity
5000 B.C., long before the great settlement of southern Mesopotamia.

Large-Scale Irrigation. There are two basic ways to extend the reach
of a river. The first is to draw water away from the banks of the river by
means of channels. Each channel waters a specific area. Such channels
run roughly perpendicular from the stream out to the intended area. The
other way to extend the fertile area is to cut a channel parallel to the
river, widening the river's floodplain. Although details of the earliest irri-
gation plans are unknown, site surveys suggest that networks of chan-
nels and small canals were the early means of large-scale irrigation.
As the population grew in Mesopotamia, so did the need for irriga-
tion. In the north, the people were able to rely on rainfall, but in the
south, the lands were dry and the people there depended on large-scale ir-
rigation. Most of this effort was directed at the Euphrates River because it
was easier to control than the Tigris. The Euphrates also tended to split
into branches in the floodplain, which was helpful for irrigation.
By about 2500 B.C., larger and more permanent canals and channels
began to replace smaller or temporary irrigation systems in Mesopo-
tamia. Building and maintaining canal systems became important polit-
ical concerns to developing societies. Some scholars believe that the
need to construct, control, and administer waterworks directly led to
the growth of larger kingdoms. Others disagree, noting that the actual
control of the irrigation devices usually remained in the hands of local
authorities.
Mesopotamians used irrigation to carry out four important tasks nec-
essary for growing crops and avoiding harmful FLOODS. These four tasks
were supply, storage, drainage, and protection from unwanted water.
* dike embankment used to confine or Canals, channels, basins, dikes*, and other water management systems
control the flow of water performed these roles. Whether waterways ran out in small branches
* sluice human-made channel or passage from the river or in larger courses parallel to the main stream, control de-
to direct water flow vices were necessary. A sluice* diverted water to the intended area and
* regulator gate or valve to control could be as simple as a hole in the side of a channel blocked with a board
amount of water passing through a when not in use. Regulators* held water back until it reached a great
channel enough level to flow freely through sluices. Early regulators were as simple
9
Irrigation

as piles of brush or reeds, but large, permanent structures of baked brick

were constructed as well.
Water supply was critical in the late autumn when planting occurred,
but the Tigris and the Euphrates were at their lowest then. It was essential
for the ancient Mesopotamians to distribute water efficiently and fairly to
ensure that everyone got the water necessary for newly planted crops to
grow. Rotating the irrigation of fields was the solution. Good timing and
division of water were necessary for effective irrigation.
Location of crops depended on the irrigation system. Such plants as
date palms do best with moist roots, and vegetables need daily watering.
Cereal crops, such as wheat, require less frequent watering. Therefore, or-
chards and vegetable gardens were close to the waterways, while the ce-
real fields were farther away. The channels served to get water to the more
distant cereal crops whenever necessary.
Maintenance of the irrigation channels was important to supply.
Slow-flowing water left much of its silt in the channel. Silt, reeds, brush,
and other debris clogged waterways further, slowing water flow and lead-
ing to evaporation. Other problems included salt buildup in the water
and leaks. These problems necessitated constant maintenance of irriga-
tion systems, which was the responsibility of officials and workers at the
local or village level. In the case of large-scale projects, such as those con-
structed during the reign of SARGON I (ca. 2334-2278 B.C.), the upkeep de-
* city-state independent state consisting pended on cooperation between city-states*.
of a city and its surrounding territory Storing the water from annual floods was difficult. Around each field
was a low bank to hold water in the fields. These earthen dikes not only
prolonged floods, but also held water to be used during the ten-day to
two-week interval between irrigations later in the year. Ancient Near East-
ern people also built narrow basins alongside canals, but their purpose is
not clear. The basins varied in size, but none was large enough to retain
water through the Mesopotamian dry season. Perhaps these small reser-
voirs were for other crops growing nearby that needed to be watered more
frequently than the cereal fields.
Draining excess water from the relatively flat land was another im-
portant task. If water remained on the land for too long, it would pull up
salt from the ground below. This process, called salinization, ruined the
fields. One way Mesopotamian farmers tried to avoid salinity was to let
* fallow plowed but not planted, so that fields lie fallow* for a season, but they were often forced to abandon land.
moisture and organic processes can Other drainage strategies remain unknown. Protection against floods was
replenish the soil's nutrients a feature of Mesopotamian irrigation as well. In times of high water, the
same sluices and regulators that diverted water to the fields were opened
to allow as much water as possible to run off the land.

Natural Irrigation. In contrast to the hard work of large-scale artificial

irrigation in Mesopotamia, Egypt depended mostly on natural irrigation,
which consisted largely of working with the natural flow and drainage
patterns of the Nile flood. The timing of the annual flood in Egypt was bet-
ter suited to farming than it was in Mesopotamia. The flood ended in Sep-
tember, just before planting season. The floodplain itself was not flat but
slightly rounded outward, allowing water to drain to its edges, carrying
away harmful salts. Although marshy areas at the edges of the floodplain
10
 Irrigation
became salty, elsewhere the fields remained free of salt. Egyptians built
channels to extend the reach of the floodwater, allowing it to flow into
natural depressions or basins.
Irrigation efforts in Egypt consisted primarily of maintaining the Nile
banks, the channels through which the water flowed, and dikes that sur-
rounded natural basins. The favorable timing of the flood made the con-
stant labor of irrigation less necessary in Egypt than in Mesopotamia.
In Upper Egypt, canals crossed the west side of the Nile Valley. They
may have had a role in irrigation, probably directing the natural flood
into basins. They could also have helped conserve water for irrigation in
years when the Nile did not have a large flood. During the Middle King-
dom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), a large royal project took place in the
* oasis fertile area in a desert made Faiyum Depression, a lake and oasis* west of the Nile near the delta*,
possible by the presence of a spring or which is fed by a branch of the Nile called the Bahr Yusuf. Its purpose was
well; pi. oases to drain the marshes, resulting in the development of more farmland,
* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed which would mean more food and wealth. In the Ptolemaic period
of soil deposited by a river (305-30 B.C.), the Bahr Yusuf was redirected to fill a valley, creating a
reservoir called Lake Moeris. The waters from the lake were used to water
a second summer crop.

Intensive Artificial Irrigation. In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and else-

where around the Mediterranean, some plants required water daily.
Hand-drawn water was the only answer for them. Private GARDENS such as
those in Egypt and pleasure gardens such as the HANGING GARDENS OF
BABYLON used wells or ponds as sources. For large-scale agriculture, how-
ever, only high-value crops justified the cost and effort of carrying water
by hand. Orchards, vineyards, and vegetable gardens were placed as
close to water as possible. Combining certain crops also eased the task of
irrigation. For example, fruit trees were grown beneath date palms, and
vines were trained on trellises to form leafy shelters. This shading re-
duced water loss through evaporation.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Ancient Syria subsisted on dry farming. Most agriculture in the rest of
shores of the Mediterranean Sea the Levant*, however, depended on intensive artificial irrigation from
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), springs and wells. JERICHO, one of the earliest urban sites, was near a
the West Bank, and Jordan
perennial spring. JERUSALEM, Gibeon, and MEGIDDO used natural springs
for their water supplies and developed wells and cisterns, or underground
tanks, to conserve them. Protecting the water supply against attackers
was crucial to a city. Defenders built increasingly complex systems of
camouflage, tunnels, and shafts to protect the water supply. At Megiddo,
a shaft went straight down, then joined a tunnel that came from a spring.
The tunnel was pitched slightly downward to allow water from the spring
to form an underground pool. A similar tunnel discovered in A.D. 1838
near Jerusalem was 1,750 feet long.
Another ancient Near Eastern irrigation technique that used tunnels
was the qanat system. This system involved using underground moun-
* second millennium B.C. years from tain water sources—the water was channeled through a series of tunnels.
2000 to 1001 B.C. The qanat system originated in Oman in the late second millennium B.C.*
It was used in Iran in the early first millennium B.C., and its use spread to
the rest of the ancient Near East shortly thereafter. The qanat system is
still used in regions with an arid climate. (See also Climate; Floods.)
11
Isaiah

IIdah.
saiah (eye»ZAY»uh) was a priest and prophet* in the kingdom of Ju-
Around 742 B.C., he was called to prophecy* when he had a vision
ISAIAH in which he saw the god YAWEH and angels in a heavenly temple. Isaiah
then began to urge the people of Judah to observe the worship of Yah-
weh. Isaiah also criticized social injustice.
lived ca. 700s B.C. Isaiah made his prophecies at a time when Judah was at risk of attack
Jewish prophet by foreign powers, especially Assyria. Believing that the threat was a
warning from Yahweh, Isaiah advised the rulers of Judah to show their
faith in Yahweh because that, and not their attempts to thwart Assyria by
* prophet one who claims to have entering into foreign alliances, would deliver their people.
received divine messages or insights Between about 740 and 700 B.C., Isaiah, or one of his followers, wrote
* prophecy message from a deity; also, the first 39 chapters of the Book of Isaiah, which is included in the Hebrew
the prediction of future events BIBLE. During the captivity of the Jews in Babylon between 587 and 539 B.C.,
later writers added several chapters, which they also attributed to Isaiah.
Modern scholars attribute chapters 40 through 55 to a "second Isaiah/'
and chapters 56 through 66 to a "third Isaiah/'
The authors of the later chapters wrote to inspire hope in the Jewish
exile person forced to live away from exiles*, who had been removed to Babylon when the Babylonians con-
his or her homeland for a long period of quered Judah. The authors claimed that Yahweh would help the Jews and
time looked to the rise of the Persians as a sign of Yahweh's favor. This proved
correct when the Persian king CYRUS THE GREAT conquered Babylon and al-
lowed the Jews to return home to Judah. (See also Hebrews and Israelites;
Israel and Judah; Oracles and Prophecy.)

ISHTAR
I shtar was the most important goddess in ancient MESOPOTAMIA. She was
known as Ishtar by the Akkadians; as Inanna, which means "lady of
heaven," by the Sumerians; and as Astarte in Syria. Although best known
as a goddess of LOVE and fertility, Ishtar was also revered as a fierce goddess
of war, especially by the Assyrians.
Near Eastern myths reveal different aspects of Ishtar's personality, an-
cestry, and life. In some, she is the daughter of the sky god ANU or the
moon god Nanna; in others, she is the daughter of either ENLIL or EA. In
Babylonian mythology, Ishtar is the wife and sister of Tammuz, known as
Dumuzi by the Sumerians. In other myths, she has no spouse, and Tam-
muz is her lover.
One popular myth about Ishtar tells of her yearly descent into the
netherworld, a realm ruled by her sister Ereshkigal. Ishtar went there in
search of Tammuz, who had been forced into the netherworld. His return
from the netherworld and reunion with Ishtar became associated with
fertility and were linked to the seasons and to the agricultural cycles. An-
other well-known myth, embedded in the Epic of Gilgamesh, tells how
Ishtar offers herself in marriage to the mortal hero GILGAMESH. However,
he refuses, insulting her. She then unleashes the fierce Bull of Heaven
against him, but Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu manage to kill the bull.
city-state independent state consisting Ishtar's most important center of worship was at the city-state* of
of a city and its surrounding territory URUK, which contained a shrine dedicated to her known as E-anna (House
of Heaven). Her equivalents were the Greek goddess Aphrodite and the
Roman goddess Venus. (See also Cults; Gods and Goddesses.)
12
 Israel and Judah

iSIS
I sis (EYE^suhs), widely worshiped throughout the Near East, was one of
the most important goddesses of ancient Egypt. Isis was viewed as a
protector, especially of pregnant women, infants, and children, and as a
great magician. Egyptians also believed that she had the power to control
their fates and fortunes.
Symbolically, Isis was considered the mother of the Egyptian king. To
* hieroglyphic referring to a system of reflect this role, her name was always written with a hieroglyphic* sign
writing that uses pictorial characters, or that represented a throne. In art and architecture, Isis usually was por-
hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas trayed wearing the throne symbol on her head or wearing a crown of cow
horns with a sun disk between them.
Isis was believed to be the sister and wife of OSIRIS, the king of the
Egyptian gods. According to Egyptian mythology, Osiris's brother SETH
See murdered Osiris to take over his position as king of the gods. Seth scat-
'(color plate 10, tered pieces of Osiris's body throughout Egypt, but Isis found them and
vol. 1.
put him back together again. Then Isis became pregnant by Osiris and
gave birth to a son named HORUS. She raised Horus in secret in the
marshes of the Nile Delta, so that he might grow up to avenge the death
of Osiris and take the throne from Seth. Isis guarded Horus closely and
used her magic to protect him from such dangers as scorpions, spiders,
and crocodiles. When Horus became an adult, Isis helped him fight for
his rightful inheritance. She convinced the other gods to support him,
and Horus became the new king of the gods. (See also Egypt and the
Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

Theplekingdoms of Israel and Judah were founded by the Israelite peo-

in the highlands of CANAAN. The kingdoms, which had once been
ISRAEL AND JUDAH parts of a larger unified kingdom of Israel, were both later overcome by
more powerful Near Eastern empires. Because many events in Jewish his-
tory occurred in Israel and Judah, modern Jews consider these regions
their Holy Land. Christians and Muslims, whose religions are derived in
various ways from Judaism and who have their own connections with
the regions, also consider several sites there sacred.

Origins of the Kingdoms. There are few sources for the early history
of the Israelites outside the Hebrew BIBLE, the sacred book of Judaism.
However, historians debate the reliability of the Bible as a source of his-
tory because much of it was composed many centuries after the events it
describes and because of the lack of other supporting sources. Moreover,
the editors who compiled the Bible may have been attempting to
strengthen national and religious unity by emphasizing the shared past
of the Israelite people.
Semitic of or relating to people of the The Israelites were a Semitic* people who settled in the highlands of
Near East or northern Africa, including Canaan sometime during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1500-1200 B.C.). Ac-
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, cording to the Bible, they called themselves the children of Israel, or Is-
Jews, and Arabs
raelites, after their ancestor Jacob, whom their god YAHWEH had renamed
Israel. The Bible also notes that on occasion, outsiders referred to the Is-
raelites as "Hebrews/' which remains a common synonym for them. The
Israelites were divided into 12 tribes, each named for one of Jacob's sons
13
Israel and Judah
or grandsons (other tribes not attached to Jacob's descendants arealso
mentioned in theBible). These tribes livedin Canaanforseveral genera-
* famine severelack of food due to failed tions until a famine* forced them to leave. They went toEgypt,where
crops they eventually became slaves untilaMOSESleader
freed them
named
and
* Promised Land land promised to the led them back to Canaan—the Promised Land*.
Israelites by their god,Yahweh After returning to Canaan,the Israelites gradually expanded their ter-
ritory. They established the kingdomIsraelof and amassed great wealth
under their kings
DAVID
SOLOMON.
and After Solomon's death, however,
tensions grew between the northern and southern tribes in the kingdom.
Ultimately, around B.C.925
Israelwas split intotwo smallerkingdoms—
Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Although thepeople remained
united in the worship of Yahweh and in their shared religiousand histor-
ical traditions, the kingdoms fought over territoryforabout 50years.
No other source recovered to date from the time in which David and
Solomon were said to have lived mentions either of the twokings or the

14
 Israel and Judah
empire they created. The earliest knownreference to David occurs on a
* stela stoneslab or pillar that has been recently excavated fragment of a victory stela* written by an Aramaean
carved or engraved andservesas a king in the B.C.
800sThe near lack of historical evidence about David and
monument; pi.stelae Solomon suggests to some scholars that their achievements may ha
* archaeological referring to the study been more modest than described in the Bible. A few other scholars even
of past human cultures, usually by question whether the united monarchy existed. Relying on archaeologi-
excavating material remains of human
activity
cal* evidence, they suggest that the kingdoms may have emerged sepa-
rately—Israel around
B.C. and
900 Judah
B.C. around800
* city-state independent state consisting
of a city and its surrounding territory
History of Israel. Israel was the larger and the more populated of th
* Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the MediterraneanSea
two kingdoms. It consisted of 10 of the 12 tribes: Asher, Dan, Ephraim,
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), Gad, Issachar, Manasseh, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, and Zebulun. Cen-
the West Bank, and Jordan tered in the region around Mount Ephraim and the Sea of Galilee, Israel
* vassal individual or state that
swears possessed good agricultural land, and its people produced grain, wine,
loyalty and obedience to a greater power and olive oil for export and local use. Israel also controlled
major north-
south and east-west trade routes and had many contacts with ancient
Near Eastern powers. These economic advantages led to rapid popula-
tion growth.
In 886
B.C., Omri became king of Israel.The first Israelite kingto be
ca. 925B.C.
Independent kingdoms mentioned in sources outside the Bible, Omri established a new capital
of Israel and judah called Samaria, a city that eventually gave its name to the whole kingdom
are established.
^^^m During his reign, Omri engaged in several conflicts with the Moabites,
neighbors and enemies of the Israelites. He reconquered lands that had
722 B.C. previously been lost whenIsrael split into two kingdoms. Omri was suc-
BBBB Assyria conquers Israel
ceeded byARAB (ruledca. 875-854
B.C.),whoDAMASCUS,
foughtan against
increasingly powerful city-state* B.C.,
inSyria.
however,
In 853 Ahab
597 B.C. joinedforces with the king of Damascus and with other nearby kingdoms
Bfg?BBH Nebuchadnezzar II to fight an invading armyofAssyriansled SHALMANESER
by their king,
III.
occupies Jerusalem.
They won that battle, but the small states of the Levant* could not ho
back the Assyrian empire for long. The Assyrians continued to seize more
500 b>C. 539 B.C. of Syria and Israel until
B.C., when
722 they captured Samariaand brought
judah becomes a the kingdom ofIsrael to an end.
Persian province.
Assyrian policy called for the relocation of captured populations to
^^^^5| minimize the possibility of revolts. TheAssyrians shifted large numbers
330 B.C. of Israelites into other parts of theAssyrian empire, where they gradually
Judah falls under merged with other peoples and disappeared from history. As a result, the
Macedonian control
^^^^^B Israelites came to be called the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. The Assyrians set-
tled people from Mesopotamia in Samaria.Later a cult of Yahweh arose
160B.C. there among a groupSAMARITANS.
knownas
Maccabean revolt
50 b.c erupts in Judah.
History of Judah. The kingdom of Judah consisted of the tribesof Ju-
dah and Benjamin and their land. It was smaller andless fertile than its
63 B.C. northern neighbor, but JERUSALEM,
it includedthe city that had been the
^^^^Bl Judah falls to Romans
capital of the united Israel. Founded by King David, Jerusalem was the
site of the Temple of Solomon, the Israelites' religious center.
A.D.135 From the late 900s toB.C.,
the Judah
700s achieved periods of stability
^^^^?1 Romans destroy under the kings
Asa, Jehoshaphat, and Uzziah(Azariah). The kingdom was
Jerusalem and force
Judeans into exile. later forced to acknowledgethe dominance B.C.,
Assyria
ofbe- in the 700s
coming itsvassal*.
After theAssyrian empire's collapse
B.C., in the late 600s
the Babylonian empire expanded westward.B.C., Babylonian
In 597
15
Israelites
armies underNEBUCHADNEZZAR
King II occupied Jerusalemandforcedthe
Judeans to submit to their rule. Ten yearslater, Judah rebelled, and Baby-
lonia responded by destroying Jerusalem and the temple. The Babyloni-
ans dissolved the kingdom of Judah, made the region a Babylonian
province, and forced many Jews (as the Judeans became known) into ex-
ile in Babylonia.
In 539B.C., the Babylonians were conquered by the Persians, whose
leaderCYRUSTHE
GREAT allowedthe Jewsto return to Jerusalem and re-
build the temple. Theformer territory of Judah became a Persian
province calledYehud, which theGreeks called Judaea. Judah remained a
part of the Persian empire for several hundred years. Generally, this was a
peaceful time.
In 330B.C., Judah became part of the Macedonian empire, when
ALEXANDERGREAT
THE overthrew the Persian empire.
After Alexander's
death, Judah was ruled by hissuccessors—first by the Ptolemies and later
by the Seleucids. When the Seleucids prohibited the practice of Judaism,
the Judeans, led by Judas Maccabeus, revolted After
B.C.
in the 160s
Maccabean Revolt, Judah enjoyed abrief period of independence.
In 63B.C., the region came under the control of Rome. The Jews re-
volted against Roman A.D.rule 66,
in and the Romans sacked* Jerusalem
and destroyed the second temple shortly thereafter. Another Jewish upris-
ing occurred between 132 and 135, ending with the destruction of
Jerusalem. The Romans forced the Jews of Judah into exile in
gions of the Roman Empire and gave Judah the name Syria-Palestina.
(See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians;
Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Patriarchs and Matriarchs
* sack to loot a captured city of Israel.)

Israelites See Hebrews and Israelites.

IVORY
I vory, a rare and expensive material recovered from the tusks of ele-
phants and hippopotamuses, was used for decorative arts
the ancient NearEast. Most elephant ivory was imported
throughout
from India, al-
though there were elephants
SYRIAfrominaboutB.C.to3000
about 800
B.C., when they became extinct due to hunting. Hippopotamuses lived in
and near the NileRiver inEgypt and also in the Levant*.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Ivory was used to make luxury items, such as finely carved cosmetics
shores of the Mediterranean Sea containers, perfumejars, and combs. The carvings contained the images
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
of gods, animals, or plants. Other objects made from ivory included small
the West Bank, and Jordan
statues of people and animals, ivory dolls, ornamental panels for chair
backs, and headboards for beds. Carved ivory also appeared on chair legs
and as the decorative tops of bedposts.
See A large number of ivory objects were excavated from tombs and
colorplate1, palaces in the Levant, especially
UGARIT,
MEGIDDO,
SAMARIA.
at and
The ob-
vol.4.
jects include boxes with hinged or pivoting lids and several plaques de-
picting hunting and conquest scenes. The carvings on these objects
16
 Jericho
reflect styles and images prevalent in Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Hit-
tite art. In Egypt during the New Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), a
technique known as cloisonne was popular among ivory carvers. In this
technique, carvers made small hollows in the ivory and filled them with
stones. This technique was also used in the Levant by the Phoenicians
and Syrians after 1000 B.C. This is evident from the large numbers of Syr-
ian and Phoenician ivory carvings found at Assyrian palaces. In Assyria,
* artisan skilled craftsperson artisans* also connected flat pieces of wax-coated ivory with hinges to
make writing boards.

JEREMIAH
B orn to a family of priests, Jeremiah (jer»uh«MY»uh) was a
prophet* and social critic in Judah during the turbulent period
when the Babylonians captured JERUSALEM and took many Jews to BABY-
LON. His deeds and words are preserved in the Book of Jeremiah in the
Hebrew BIBLE.
lived ca. 650-570 B.C. Around 627 B.C., Jeremiah emerged as a prophet. His messages were
Jewish prophet chiefly criticisms of the Jews' religious and social faults. Sometime after
609 B.C., Jeremiah delivered a sermon in which he attacked the Jews for
* prophet one who claims to have emphasizing worship in the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. This temple
received divine messages or insight was the religious center of the Jews, and Jeremiah felt that Jews relied on
worshiping there rather than truly observing their god Yahweh's religious
laws. This made him unpopular, and his popularity did not improve when
Babylonia seized Jerusalem in 597 B.C. Jeremiah wrote that Babylonia's
domination of Judah was Yahweh's will, and he counseled the people to
surrender and to submit quietly. He believed that the Jews would earn the
chance to regain their homeland by obeying Yahweh's will.
Jeremiah was eventually imprisoned for attempting to desert
Jerusalem. However, he was freed by the Babylonians who appointed
Gedaliah, their governor in Judah, to look after him. When Gedaliah was
assassinated, a group of Jews who feared that the Babylonians would
come to avenge his death took Jeremiah to Egypt. According to legend,
Jeremiah annoyed his fellow Jews so much with his unpopular views that
they stoned him to death in about 570 B.C. (See also Israel and Judah; Ju-
daism and Jews; Oracles and Prophecy.)

JERICHO
J ericho (JER»i*koh) is an ancient town located in the Palestinian West
Bank. Settled as early as 9000 B.C., it is perhaps the oldest permanent
settlement in the world. Artifacts* found at the site have enabled archae-
ologists* to learn more about the development of the first settlements
and civilizations in the Near East.

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or Beginnings of Urban Civilization. Jericho may have first served
other object made by humans as a camp to nomadic* hunters who stopped there because it was located
* archaeologist scientist who studies past near the Jordan River and a spring, both of which provided water in
human cultures, usually by excavating an otherwise arid region near the Dead Sea. Between 9000 and 8000 B.C.,
material remains of human activity people began to establish permanent settlements in Jericho. They built
17
Jerusalem
* nomadic referring to people who travel round, one-room houses with mud bricks*. For protection, they sur-
from place to place to find food and rounded the town with a 5-foot-thick stone wall that included a watch-
pasture tower about 30 feet high.
* mud brick brick made from mud, By around 7500 B.C., about 2,000 people were living in Jericho and
straw, and water mixed together and practicing AGRICULTURE. Researchers have found cultivated grain in Jericho,
baked in the sun
evidence that the people there might have been among the earliest farm-
* obsidian black glass, formed from ers. They grew wheat and barley and may have been the first to build IRRI-
hardened lava, useful for making sharp
blades and tools
GATION channels to water their crops. Moreover, tools made from obsidian*
found in the ruins show that Jericho had established trade with places as
* cult formal religious worship
far away as ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), the source of the obsidian.
Around 7000 B.C., the people of Jericho began building rectangular
^Didthe houses centered on courtyards that contained fireplaces. Bodies buried
beneath these houses suggest that the people practiced ancestor worship.
Walls Come Archaeologists have also found collections of human skulls, suggesting
Tumbling Down? the presence of an ancestor cult*. The facial features of the skulls were re-
According to the Book of constructed in plaster with seashells for eyes.
Joshua in the Hebrew Bible,
the Israelites captured Jericho Between 6000 and 3000 B.C., Jericho was abandoned periodically for
with trumpet blasts and a loud reasons not yet known. Thereafter, it once again became a permanent set-
war cry that made the city's de- tlement. Its people traded salt, which they collected from the nearby
fensive walls collapse. Modern Dead Sea, for goods from Anatolia, SYRIA, and Egypt. Using this wealth,
scholars debate whether the Is- the town rebuilt its walls. Then, sometime after 2300 B.C., the AMORITES—
raelites conquered Jericho militarily nomadic peoples from Syria—settled in the region.
or took over the city gradually and
peacefully. During the A.D. 1950s,
Kathleen Kenyon of the British New Inhabitants. By around 1900 B.C., Jericho had again become
School of Archaeology in Jerusalem fortified city, this time occupied by the Canaanites. Furnishings and tools
excavated the site and found no ev- found in tombs from this period have provided archaeologists with infor-
idence of a city wall from what is mation about Canaanite life. Around 1550 B.C., Jericho was destroyed by
believed to be Joshua's time, about
1200 B,C However, erosion has left a fire that may have been caused by an earthquake or an attack. Jericho's
almost no trace of Jericho from that history after that time is not as well known as its earlier history because
^period. Is the Joshua story an exag- erosion wore away the ruins before archaeologists could study them. His-
: gerated account of a real battle? torians do know, however, that the Israelites probably gained control of
t Archaeology cannot yet answer Jericho and other parts of Canaan around 1200 B.C.
^that question. Jericho was the site of later settlements, notably during the 600s B.C.,
when it was part of the kingdom of Judah. Later powers that occupied the
region during the ancient period included Persia and Rome. (See also Is-
rael and Judah; Hebrews and Israelites.)

JERUSALEM
T he city of Jerusalem is located amid rocky hills about 25 miles from
the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Its most important role in the
ancient world was as the capital of the united Israelite monarchy, later of
the Judean state, and as the center of the religion known as Judaism. To-
day it is the capital of the modern nation of Israel. The name Jerusalem ap-
pears to have come from Canaanite words possibly meaning "[the god]
Shalem is its founder/' or "the foundation of Shalem." Texts from the city
archaeologist scientist who studies past of UGARIT in Syria mention Shalem as a god of night.
human cultures, usually by excavating
material remains of human activity
The Canaanite City. Much of what is known about Jerusalem's early
history comes from the work of teams led by archaeologists* Kathleen
18
 Jerusalem
Kenyon and Yigal Shiloh in the middle to late A.D. 1900s. Shiloh uncov-
ered the oldest known traces of human occupation at Jerusalem at sites
on a hill called Ophel. Those traces consist of pits dug in the late fourth
* fourth millennium B.C. years from millennium B.C.* and pottery from the third millennium B.C.*
4000 to 3001 B.C. During the 1700s B.C., Jerusalem became a fortified city ringed by a
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 stone wall up to ten feet thick. By the 1300s B.C., the Canaanites, whose
to 2001 B.C. culture extended across much of the Levant*, occupied Jerusalem. Evi-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern dence of this has been found in several Egyptian texts that mention
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Jerusalem.
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), During the 1000s B.C., people called the Jebusites, members of a Can-
the West Bank, and Jordan
aanite culture group, occupied Jerusalem. However, little is known about
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or them, and few artifacts* of their residence in Jerusalem have survived.
other object made by humans

Biblical Jerusalem. The Hebrew BIBLE describes Jerusalem during the

reigns of DAVID and his son SOLOMON, kings of the unified kingdom of Is-
rael. However, no other surviving text from the period mentions the two
See map in Israel and Judah (vol. 3). kings or their kingdom, although a later inscription found at Tel Dan
mentions the "House" (dynasty) of David.
According to the Bible, in the late 1000s B.C., the Israelites were united
under David. One of David's greatest successes as king was the capture of
Jerusalem from the Jebusites around 1000 B.C. David wisely incorporated
Jerusalem into his kingdom and made it his capital. The city had a spring
to provide water, its hilltop location gave it some protection against at-
tack, and it lay along the main north-south trade route between Phoeni-
cia and Egypt.
David captured Jerusalem for the Israelites, but his son Solomon gave
the city its most impressive and important features. Solomon expanded
Focus of Three Faiths the administrative functions of the Israelite state and created new royal
Jerusalem is a holy city for three of institutions in Jerusalem, including a court and the Temple of Solomon,
the modern religions that origi- constructed in the Phoenician style.
nated in the Near East: Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam. To jews,
The Temple of Solomon, also known as the First Temple, stood on the
Jerusalem symbolizes their contin- Temple Mount. The structure is known from descriptions in the biblical
ued identity over thousands of Books of Kings, Chronicles, and Ezekiel. No direct archaeological evi-
years. It was the capital of their an- dence of it exists, but researchers have found buildings at other Phoeni-
cient state and the site of their most cian-Canaanite sites that resemble the biblical descriptions.
sacred temple. Christians honor
Solomon borrowed the basic design of his temple from his Phoeni-
Jerusalem as the site of Christ's
teachings and miracles and of his cian neighbors and adapted it to the worship of the Hebrew god YAHWEH.
death, burial, and resurrection. For example, Phoenician temples featured thrones on which stood stat-
Muslims believe that the prophet ues of the deities. Reflecting the invisible spirit of Yahweh, the throne in
Muhammad, the founder of Islam, Solomon's temple was empty, except for an ark—a box of acacia wood,
began a journey to heaven from a which contained the tablets of the Covenant. The Israelites not only ac-
rock on the Temple Mount. The
mosque, or Muslim house of wor-
cepted the new structure, they willingly paid for it with increased taxes.
ship, built there in the A.D. 680s, is As a highly visible, impressive monument in the capital, the temple be-
one of the oldest surviving Islamic came the focus of religious life, which was closely linked to national iden-
buildings. tity. This royal state religion was a departure from the traditions of
worship outside Jerusalem. Over the years, tension would occasionally
develop between those who wanted the temple to be at the center of reli-
gious life and those who resisted the authority of the temple priests.
During the rule of Solomon's son Rehoboam, the kingdom of Israel
broke up into two kingdoms: Israel in the north and Judah, including
19
Jewelry
Jerusalem, in the south. In the centuries that followed, the Temple of
Solomon was the center of Jewish religious movements and reforms.
In the late 700s B.C., the Assyrians attacked Israel and Judah, but
siege long and persistent effort to force Jerusalem's thick city wall enabled it to survive an Assyrian siege*. By
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or 597 B.C., however, the Babylonians had occupied Judah, including
city with armed troops, cutting it off Jerusalem. When the Judeans (people of Judah) rebelled ten years later,
from supplies and aid
the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and its temple.

Exile, Return, and Exile Again. After the destruction of Jerusalem,

the Babylonians carried many Judeans off to exile in Babylonia. Around
538 B.C., CYRUS THE GREAT of Persia conquered the Babylonians and per-
mitted the Jews, as the Judeans later became known, to return to
* scribe person of a learned class who Jerusalem. There the governor Nehemiah and the scribe* and prophet*
served as a writer, editor, or teacher Ezra tried to rebuild civic and religious institutions. They also rebuilt the
* prophet one who claims to have temple at a somewhat smaller scale.
received divine messages or insights During this time of resettlement and rebuilding, Jerusalem took on
additional importance to the Jews. It became the symbol of a people
who had suffered but whom Yahweh was now lifting to a new level of
glory. Yet, Jerusalem was smaller than it had been before the Babylonian
exile. The city did not regain its importance until the 100s B.C., when
King Herod rebuilt the temple and built a lavish palace and other struc-
tures there.
The Jews who resettled Jerusalem may have dreamed of creating a
new and greater kingdom of Israel, but in the centuries that followed,
Jerusalem passed into the hands of a series of outside powers: first the PER-
SIAN EMPIRE, then the SELEUCID EMPIRE, and finally the Roman Empire. The
Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the second temple in A.D. 70 and took
many Jewish captives to Rome. The Jews who remained in Jerusalem re-
volted against Rome in 132 but were defeated by the Roman emperor
Hadrian in 135. After this defeat, Hadrian ordered that the Jews could no
longer live in Jerusalem, so they were forced into a second, much longer,
exile. Hadrian renamed the city Aelia Capitolina. (See also Canaan; He-
brews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews.)

JEWELRY
I n the ancient Near East, jewelry was—as it is now—a sign of status. Be
cause jewelry was expensive, it was generally worn only by royalty and
the elite. However, jewelry was used for more than personal beautifica-
tion. Ancient Near Eastern peoples adorned the statues of gods and god-
desses with bracelets, rings, necklaces, and other items. People wore
jewelry bearing images of their deities* to show their devotion. They also
* deity god or goddess wore amulets* to protect themselves from evil spirits or to enlist the aid
* amulet small object thought to have and support of favorable ones. The rareness of the material, the beauty of
supernatural or magical powers the design, and the artisan's skill also made jewelry a valuable gift for
weddings or royal exchanges. Finally, jewelry was an investment as well
as a currency.

Materials for Jewelry. Many materials were used to make jewelry in

ancient times. The base of much jewelry was gold and, less commonly,
20
 Jewelry

silver or copper. Gold is an easy metal to work with—when heated; it can

be molded into any shape or thickness. It also lasts and does not tarnish
as do silver and copper. The Egyptians favored gold for symbolic reasons;
its yellow color and long-lasting quality reminded Egyptians of the sun
and the sun god Amun-Ra.
Jewelry was decorated with many semiprecious stones. Among the
* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious most popular GEMS were lapis lazuli*, carnelian, turquoise, agate, and ob-
stone sidian*, but many others were used as well. Valuable natural materials,
* obsidian black glass, formed from such as ivory and bone, seashells, ostrich eggshells, and amber were also
hardened lava, useful for making sharp set in jewelry. Manufactured products such as faience* were used, too, be-
blades and tools cause they were less expensive and could be sold to common people.
* faience decorated object made of Around 1400 B.C., craft workers in the Levant* developed great skill in
quartz and other materials that includes making faience and, later, glass. This skill supported a lively export trade
a glaze
in many goods.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
The Development of Jewelry. The earliest jewelry was simple. Finds
the West Bank, and Jordan from the seventh millennium B.C.* in MESOPOTAMIA have yielded jewelry
* seventh millennium B.C. years from
made of bones or shells strung together. Over the years, artisans* per-
7000 to 6001 B.C. fected their craft and produced magnificent jewelry for rulers and people
* artisan skilled craftsperson
of wealth. Records from as early as 2100 B.C. in Mesopotamia reveal the
practices of jewelers' workshops. One text describes a workshop divided
* archaeologist scientist who studies past
human cultures, usually by excavating
into eight different specialists: metalworkers, goldsmiths, stonecutters,
material remains of human activity blacksmiths, leather workers, felt workers, carpenters, and reed workers.
Some of the jewelry produced by artisans in the ancient world was
placed in tombs as part of burial practices. This is evident from the exca-
vations of the Sumerian royal tombs at UR, dating from about 2600 B.C.
There archaeologists* found a queen's jewelry, including gold earrings
Buried Treasure and necklaces. They also found chokers strung with beads in a variety of
shapes made of gold, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. The jewels found in the
Archaeologist Leonard
Woolley led the excavation
tomb of the Egyptian king TUTANKHAMEN further reveal the skill and talent
at the Royal Cemetery of Ur, of ancient crafts workers—and the great wealth of the rulers. Such excava-
which dates from about tions are still under way at many sites. The royal tombs of the Assyrian
2900 B.C. Among his finds queens in the city of KOLKHU were discovered only in the A.D. 1980s. Ar-
was the magnificent tomb of chaeologists uncovered large quantities of jewelry there. The intricate de-
Queen Pu-abi, whose body was
adorned with jewelry that required
signs of the pieces—which include delicate gold flowers and tiny grapes
great skill to create. Covering her made of lapis lazuli—show that Assyrian goldsmiths were highly skilled
upper body was a garment of gold, workers.
silver, and beads made from blue,
red, white, and multicolored Types of Jewelry. Common items in ancient Near Eastern jewelry in-
stones. Near her head were three cluded diadems (ornamental crowns or headdresses), necklaces, pectoral
diadems, two of which were deco-
rated with delicate leaves made of
(chest) ornaments, bracelets, armlets, and rings. Ancient peoples wore
faience attached to a gold band. diadems around the head, across the forehead. In Mesopotamia, archae-
Necklaces of semiprecious stones ologists found one royal diadem made of lapis beads with carved gold
circled her neck. She wore amulets animals, fruit, and flowers and another with large interlocking rings that
made of gold and lapis lazuli. Even extended down and over the forehead. In Egypt, they have excavated a
the horses buried with her were
diadem in gold and copper with a carving of a papyrus nest for two
decorated with jewelry.
ibises, a bird linked to Thoth, the god of learning, and another with 15
flowers inlaid with carnelian and faience. In King Tutankhamen's tomb,
archaeologists found a gold diadem with a snake in the front and back
and details in carnelian, obsidian, and colored glass. A Sumerian queen's
21
Jewelry

gold, lapis, and carnelian headdress hadtall stemmed flowers on thetop,

with leaves, hoops, and other shapes covering theforehead anddan-
gling all around.In Egypt,one ofTHUTMOSE
the queens
IIIof
wore
ahead-
dress of flower-shaped gold disks that coveredthehair likea wig and
extended down past the shoulders.
Men and women wore earrings, usually madeforpierced ears. Most
were large and long. The earrings contained gold filigree,carvings with
stone inlays, or dangling beads.In the Levant, earrings were shaped like
birds, beans, pomegranate buds, andlotus flowers.
Beaded necklacesof precious stones were also worn throughoutthe
region. They ranged from simple chokerstomultistrand necklaces of
stones and beads in many shapes andcolors, interrupted bycarved gold.
Egyptian jewelry included thewesekh, acollar thatcovered theentire
breastbone and waswornby men andwomen.Itconsistedofmany rows
of stone orfaience beadsin geometric
floral
or patterns.
22
 Judaism and Jews
Egyptian and Mesopotamian men and women also wore pectorals on
the upper chest (the location of the pectoral muscles). One Egyptian ex-
* ankh cross with a loop at the top; ample shows two large birds, two snakes, two ankhs*, and a scarab*, all
Egyptian symbol of life inlaid with amethyst, turquoise, feldspar, lapis, garnet, and carnelian. An-
* scarab representation of the dung other contains papyrus plants, two lionlike animals, defeated enemies,
beetle, held as sacred by Egyptians and the god HORUS. A third, of gold, silver, and stones, has flowers, fish,
snakes, and a scarab with large wings.
Men and women wore bracelets at the wrists and armlets on the up-
per arms. They were decorated with lion heads, trees, and winged crea-
tures. A frequent and useful feature was the metal hinge, which served a
decorative purpose as well as a practical one. An armlet with hinges fit
snugly around the upper arm, whereas a bangle-type bracelet was large
and could get past the elbow. An Egyptian statue shows a woman wearing
11 bracelets on one arm and 12 on the other.
Rings, worn on many fingers, were common. They might be of
See carved gold, silver, bronze, or iron; plain or engraved or with stone set-
[ color plate 8, tings. Sometimes attached to the band was a gold wire, at the end of
vol. 4.
which a precious stone dangled. Many Egyptian rings contained a stone
scarab, some of which swiveled, and the other side was carved. This al-
lowed the ring also to be used as a SEAL. (See also Faience; Metals and
Metalworking.)

lews See Judaism and Jews.

Jezebel See Ahab.

Judah See Israel and Judah.

JUDAISM AND JEWS

J udaism—the religion of the Jews—is a monotheistic* faith that devel-
oped over hundreds of years among the ancient Israelites. The reli-
gion is centered on the worship of YAHWEH, the god also known as EL, a
Semitic* term that means god. Many ancient texts deal with the legends,
history, laws, prophecies*, and teachings of Judaism, but the sacred book
of the religion is the Hebrew BIBLE.
* monotheistic referring to the belief in The name Jew comes from the Old French word Jiu, which referred
only one god to the people of Judah, the ancient name of their homeland. The an-
* Semitic of or relating to a language cient Jews were united by their religious beliefs and by their strong tra-
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, dition of religious education and customs. For a time, they had lived
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician together in Israel—a land with which they identified deeply. However,
* prophecy message from a deity; also, conquest and deportation* caused the Jewish population to spread out
the prediction of future events across the Near Eastern landscape. Separated from old institutions such
as the Temple of Solomon, the place of worship in their holy city of

23
Judaism and Jews
* deportation forced movement of JERUSALEM, they interacted with other people and absorbed new influ-
individuals or groups of people from ences. Their religion developed further as a result of political and social
one place to another changes.

* patriarch male leader of a family or Origins of Judaism. Jews trace their history to the patriarch* Abra-
tribe ham (also called Abram), who lived in Ur of the Chaldees (a city and dis-
trict in ancient Sumer). According to the Hebrew Bible, Yahweh made a
covenant, or solemn agreement, with Abraham. Yahweh promised him
the land of CANAAN (known as the Promised Land) and many descen-
dants. (These descendants called themselves the children of Israel after
Abraham's grandson Jacob, whom Yahweh had renamed Israel.) The Is-
* famine severe lack of food due to failed raelites then lived in Canaan for several generations, until a famine*
crops forced them to leave. Thereafter, they went to Egypt, where they eventu-
ally became enslaved.
Another important figure in Judaism was MOSES, a leader who brought
the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and back into Canaan. This journey,
known as the Exodus, lasted 40 years. During the Exodus, Moses gave the
Israelites a new understanding of Yahweh. A key element of this new un-
derstanding was the renewal of the Covenant. The Israelites vowed to fol-
low Yahweh's laws so that the promises he made to them, the ones he
promised Abraham, might be fulfilled. The covenant meant that they
were a "chosen people" who had a special relationship with Yahweh. It
also made them responsible for living in accordance with Yahweh's will
as interpreted in laws and rules, such as the TEN COMMANDMENTS, which
Yahweh had revealed to Moses during the Exodus.

Conflict, Reform, and Change. When the Israelites arrived in

Canaan, Moses was not allowed to enter the Promised Land because he
had not followed one of Yahweh's orders exactly. Nevertheless, his fol-
lowers entered Canaan, and there they eventually founded the kingdom
of Israel, which endured in various forms for more than 400 years. King
DAVID established Israel's capital at Jerusalem. SOLOMON, his son and suc-
cessor, built a magnificent temple, which was the center of the Israelite re-
ligion, in Jerusalem. Solomon placed the ARK OF THE COVENANT—a sacred
chest made of acacia wood and gold—in the temple. The ark contained
tablets of the covenant between Yahweh and the Israelites from the time
of the Exodus.
Religion and the government were closely linked in Israel. The state
* cult system of religious beliefs and cult*, which centered on institutions such as the Temple of Solomon, was
rituals; group following these beliefs headed by the king. He had supreme authority over the cult and per-
formed duties such as offering animal sacrifices and ordering the people
to religious meetings. Kings, administrators, and the urban priesthood
worked to make temple rituals the focus of the religion. The state cult
helped fuse the Israelites' religious and national identity.
Some Israelites resisted the trend toward centralized authority. They
criticized royal laws and policies and emphasized the importance of
moral purity, justice, and individual worship that was not based on par-
ticipating in functions of the state cult.
Another trend influenced Israelite religious life during the period of
the monarchy: the attraction to other gods and cults, such as the fertility
24
 Judaism and Jews
cults of the Canaanites. Soon Israelites began toworship deities other
* prophet one who claims to have than Yahweh,and prophets* begantocriticize themfalling
for from
away
received divinemessages or insights the sole worship of Yahweh. They claimed thatYahweh would punish
those who continued to worship foreign gods. The prophets'words be-
came part of theBibleand sometimes inspired suchreformsas the de-
struction of shrinesto other gods.

The Exile. In about B.C.,

925
Israel separated intotwo kingdoms—Israel
in the north and Judah in the south. Although thekingdoms achieved
some stability atfirst, they were botheventually overcomebyother Near
Eastern empires.The peopleof the kingdomofIsrael disappeared fromhis-
toryafter they were conqueredand deported by B.C.
theAssyrians
in 722
Nevertheless, Judaism continued todevelop with theJudeans (the people
of Judah, who later became knownJews), as after
eventheBabylonians
conquered Judah, destroyed Jerusalemand thetemple,forced and many
Jews into exilein Babyloniain the B.C.early 500s
The period of Babylonian exileisknownas the Diaspora, aswere
all
subsequent periods when Jews lived scattered outside ofIsrael, even to
this day. The exiled Jews considered their plightatestoftheir faithin
Yahweh. They developedabeliefinfuture a when Yahweh would restore
Israel to itsformer glory.
While they were in exile, theJews hadalso developed areliance on
rituals and rules about prayeranddietary lawstokeep themselves purein
Yahweh's eyes. This bodyofpractices became associated with their iden-
tity as Jews. Thus, the Babylonian exile changed Judaism fromalocal

25
Judaism and Jews

faith, tied to its place of origin, into a universal or world religion based on
following a code of laws.

After the Exile. In 538 B.C., after the Persian empire had conquered
Babylonia, the Persian emperor CYRUS THE GREAT allowed the Jews to re-
turn to Jerusalem and Judah, which had become part of Persian territory.
The Persians called this province Yehud, which was known in Greek as
Judaea. The Jews who returned to Jerusalem focused on building the sec-
ond temple and on organizing and publishing the traditional texts deal-
ing with Jewish law, which became established as the constitution
within their province.
Two important figures in Judaism during the 400s B.C. were Ne-
hemiah, a leader and Persian official who helped rebuild Jerusalem, and
* scribe person of a learned class who Ezra, a scribe* and priest. Both men felt that Jews in Judah had fallen
served as a writer, editor, or teacher away from traditional worship and set about to reform and reorganize the
people. Nehemiah issued many reforms and worked to strengthen the
Jews' observance of religious laws. Ezra brought together the most impor-
tant traditional writings in the TORAH, the first five books of the Hebrew
Bible. In doing this, Ezra made the law a central fixture of Judaism and
linked observance of the laws with preserving Jewish identity. As a result
of his efforts, Ezra is considered responsible for reestablishing Judaism af-
ter the exile.
Another important development after the exile was in the role of the
scribe. Scribes had always been important as transmitters of the Israelite
The Issue of religion, but with the new emphasis on the law brought by Ezra, they be-
Intermarriage came the recognized experts on religious and other issues.
Judaism is not just a religion but The issue of who was a Jew also became important after the exile. Jews
also an ethnic and national heritage who had returned from Babylonia to Jerusalem considered themselves
or identity. After their return from
more faithful to Yahweh and more observant than those who had not
the exile, Jewish leaders in Judah
took steps to preserve that identity.
been forced to leave Judah. This feeling caused a rift between Jews who
They discouraged marriages be- had returned and those who had not been exiled. As a result, Jewish lead-
tween descendants of returned ex- ers, scribes, and priests, such as Ezra and Nehemiah, tried to prevent these
iles and descendants of people who ''pure" Jews from mixing with other cultures, including Jews who had re-
had not been exiled. The scribe mained in Judah.
Ezra, to whom the Persians had
given considerable power in Judah,
By this time, Jews' experiences had led them to believe that Yahweh
set up a court that examined mar- directed the destinies of all nations and peoples, which meant that Ju-
riages and dissolved those that did daism was now completely monotheistic. They also believed in the im-
not meet his standards. Not all Jews mortality of the human soul, punishment after death for those who
appreciated Ezra's high standards* chose sin, and a heavenly reward for those who chose righteousness.
The marriage court made him un-
popular. As a result, the Persians
took away Ezra's authority.
Judaism During the Hellenistic Period. Around 330 B.C., the
Macedonian army of ALEXANDER THE GREAT overthrew the Persian empire
and Judah passed into Alexander's control. After Alexander's death, his
successors, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria and Mesopo-
tamia, fought over Judah and the other territories that Alexander had
Hellenistic referring to the Greek- conquered. During the Hellenistic* period, as many as a million Jews may
influenced culture of the Mediterranean have lived in each of the four major sites of the Diaspora: Babylonia,
world and western Asia during the three Egypt, SYRIA, and ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Alexandria, a Greek city
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
in Egypt, became a center of Jewish learning, and the Jews there adopted
the Greek language. During the Diaspora, the emphasis on education and
26
 Judaism and Jews
the transmission of knowledge helped preserve and spread the Jewish
traditions and beliefs. Jewish culture itself developed in new directions,
* sect group of people with a common producing rival schools of thought and sects*.
leadership who share a distinctive set of The Jews also absorbed aspects of the local cultures into their religion.
religious views and opinions For example, a common Mesopotamian belief in healing through magic
was adopted by the Jews of Babylon. The Persian religion known as
Zoroastrianism and Egyptian beliefs shared some common features with
Judaism, especially the idea that the immortal human soul receives pun-
ishment or reward based on a person's actions in life.
The Israelites originally spoke Hebrew, a Semitic language. In the sec-
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 ond half of the first millennium B.C.*, Hebrew, like some other Near East-
tO 1 B.C. ern languages, was replaced in daily life by another Semitic language,
* exile person forced to live away from Aramaic, the language of the ARAMAEANS. The exiles* who returned from
his or her homeland for a long period of Babylonia brought Aramaic with them. The Jews continued to use He-
time brew as a literary and scholarly language, but by the Hellenistic period,
they were speaking Aramaic and Greek.
Jerusalem and the Jews enjoyed a brief period of independence in the
100s B.C., but in 63 B.C., they came under the control of yet another for-
eign power—Rome. When the Jews revolted against Roman rule, the Ro-
mans destroyed the second temple and Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Jerusalem
had been partially rebuilt and repopulated when the Jews revolted again
in 132. After this revolt, the Romans dispersed the Jewish inhabitants of
Judah to other regions of the Roman Empire and renamed Judah Syria-
Palestina. Jewish religion and culture remained alive, however, in this sec-
ond exilic period.

Further Developments. After the destruction of the second temple,

synagogues—places of assembly and worship—became important cen-
ters of Jewish life. Synagogues date back to the 200s B.C. and possibly as
far as the 580s B.C., when the Temple of Solomon was destroyed. The ear-
liest synagogues may have been homes that were used for religious in-
Levant lands bordering the eastern struction. In the first century A.D., synagogues existed in the Levant*,
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Rome, Greece, Egypt, Babylon, and Asia Minor. Synagogues remain as
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), places of worship by Jews today.
the West Bank, and Jordan
After the destruction of the second temple, Judaism was further
changed with the emergence of rabbis as religious leaders. Rabbis were
spiritual guides and teachers who organized around separate houses of
worship or synagogues. They devoted themselves to studying the scrip-
ture, or sacred writings, and teaching it to their communities. They were
considered interpreters of Jewish law. Rabbis took on even greater impor-
tance after A.D. 135, when the Jews were forced to leave Jerusalem. This
began what is referred to as Rabbinic Judaism, when the rabbis and their
centers of learning were looked to for religious leadership. The rabbis em-
phasized the study of the sacred writings of Judaism, prayer, and faithful-
ness over centralized worship in a temple. This reemphasized the idea
that had emerged during the Babylonian exile that Judaism could be
practiced anywhere.
The rabbis arranged and set an order for Jewish laws during the first
centuries A.D. in a compilation of ancient sacred teachings known as the
Talmud. The Talmud contains explanations of and commentaries on the
27
Kalkhu
laws that Yahweh told to Moses. Talmudic schools were established where
scholars could study the Talmud. Between the A.D. 500s and 900, scholars
at these schools devoted themselves to retrieving and arranging the He-
brew scriptures and recording them in Hebrew. This version of the Bible,
known as the Masoretic text, was carefully transcribed when it was com-
piled, and was first printed in the late 1400s. Today rabbis and scholars
around the world consider the Masoretic text to be the authentic Hebrew
Bible. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babyloni-
ans; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Monotheism; Mosaic
Law; Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel.)

k alkhu (KAL»hoo), present-day Nimrud, was a city located on the

anks of the TIGRIS RIVER in northern MESOPOTAMIA. Kalkhu was es-
KALKHU tablished in the 1200s B.C. and during the reign of ASHURNASIRPAL II
(ca. 883-859 B.C.), became the capital of the Assyrian empire.
Archaeologists* have found temples dedicated to the city god Ninurta
and another to Nabu, the god of writing. They have also found the North-
archaeologist scientist who studies west Palace built by Ashurnasirpal, which contained stone sculptures de-
past human cultures, usually by scribing important events in the king's reign. The palace was guarded by
excavating material remains of human stone statues of lions and bulls. In addition, archaeologists have discov-
activity
ered the "tombs of the queens/' where important women in the Assyrian
empire were buried. Among the many objects found in the tombs are
golden jewelry and pottery and alabaster containers.
One of the most important buildings found at Kalkhu was built in the
* tribute payment made by a smaller or mid 800s B.C., during the reign of SHALMANESER III. The building was an arse-
weaker party to a more powerful one, nal (military structure) and contained items of tribute* that the Assyrians
often under the threat of force received from their vanquished enemies and vassal* states. Objects found
* vassal individual or state that swears there include ivory carvings, figurines, tools, jars, and furniture panels.
loyalty and obedience to a greater power In 721 B.C., King SARGON II moved Assyria's capital to Khorsabad.
* provincial having to do with the Thereafter, Kalkhu became a provincial* capital. In the late 600s B.C., the
provinces, outlying districts, city was destroyed by the invading armies of the MEDES. A small village re-
administrative divisions, or conquered
territories of a country or empire
mained until the 100s B.C., when the site was finally abandoned. (See also
Cities and City-States.)

KARKAMISH
K arkamish (KAHR»kuh»mish), also known as Carchemish, was a Hit-
tite city-state* on the west bank of the upper EUPHRATES RIVER, near
the border of present-day Turkey and Syria. It was inhabited from the Ne-
olithic period* but flourished during the Neo-Hittite period.
Karkamish first appears in written records dating from the 2500s B.C.
Its location made it an important part of the trading network of the an-
* city-state independent state consisting cient Near East. Caravans from ancient SYRIA, MESOPOTAMIA, and ANATOLIA
of a city and its surrounding territory all crossed the Euphrates near Karkamish. The city was known as a trad-
* Neolithic period final phase of the ing center for wood, which was shipped down the river to be sold to
Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. desert peoples who had little access to this rare and useful material. Dur-
ing the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), the city was ruled by the
Hittite king's governor.
28
 Kassites
Karkamish contained buildings that attested to its prosperity, including
a temple dedicated to the storm god TESHUB, a gatehouse, and the King's
Gate. Much of the architecture and sculpture is inscribed in Luwian hiero-
* hieroglyphics system of writing that glyphics* with details of rulers' successes and blessings from the gods.
uses pictorial characters, or These blessings could not protect the region from the mighty Assyrians,
hieroglyphics, to represent words or however. TIGLATH-PILESER III and SARGON II conquered several Neo-Hittite
ideas
cities including Karkamish in 717 B.C. Karkamish remained a province of
the Assyrian empire until Assyria fell in 612 B.C. In 605 B.C., Karkamish
See map in Syria (vol. 4). was the site of the final battle between the Babylonians and the Egyp-
tians. The Babylonians, under NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, prevailed and drove the
Egyptians out of Syria. Thereafter, Karkamish disappeared from history.
(See also Hittites; Neo-Hittites.)

KARNAK
L ocated near the ancient city of THEBES in Lower Egypt, Karnak was
among the most important religious sites in ancient Egypt. The site
began as a small shrine but developed into a massive temple complex
over a period of 2,000 years. Karnak was home to AMUN, the chief god of
Thebes.
Begun by Sesostris I, the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty, the temple
was enlarged by many later kings, each eager to show his devotion to the
god. It evolved into a huge T-shaped structure surrounded by four walls
See map on inside covers. enclosing more than seven acres. Within the walls, six monumental py-
lons, or gateways, lead from the west to the main temple, which was set
near the center. Four more pylons lead to the temple from the south.
One of the temple's most striking features is a hall with 134 columns
carved to look like huge papyrus plants. The columns are laid out in 16
rows with up to 9 columns in each row. The complex also contains many
smaller temples, chapels, and a sacred lake. In ancient times, the high
priest washed and purified himself in the waters of the sacred lake each
morning before entering Amun's temple and worshiping the god. It was
here that pharaohs prayed to Amun for victory.
Two other brick-walled enclosures comprise the rest of the ruins at
Karnak. To the north of the enclosure of Amun is the enclosure of Montu,
the original local god of the Theban area. To the south is the enclosure of
Mut, another god of Thebes. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Palaces
and Temples.)

KASSITES
T he Kassites, a tribal people of unknown origin, began arriving in MES-
OPOTAMIA by way of the Zagros Mountains around 1800 B.C. They
lived in the countryside surrounding the cities of Babylonia and worked as
farm laborers, construction workers, and soldiers. Shortly after 1595 B.C.,
when Hittite king Murshili I raided Babylon and weakened the ruling dy-
nasty* there, the Kassites seized power. They ruled Babylonia for about
dynasty succession of rulers from the 400 years—the longest-ruling dynasty in the ancient Near East.
same family or group During Kassite rule, there were political stability, economic prosperity,
and achievements in culture and literature. The Kassites also undertook
29
Khabiru
public building projects, encouraged trade, and improved international
relations. The Kassites brought about a lasting period of political unifica-
tion in Babylonia. The ruling classes also adopted traditional philosophy,
according to which the ruler was responsible for the land and was to en-
sure the basics of life for all.
* assimilate to adopt the customs of a The Kassites assimilated* Babylonian culture and integrated them-
society selves into mainstream society. They worshiped the Babylonian gods as
well as two of their own—Shuqamuna and Shumaliya—who were some-
times called the gods of the king. The Kassites also favored the Sumerian
god Enlil, and they adopted the language of Babylonia. Consequently, lit-
tle is known about the native Kassite language and customs.
During the Kassite period, Babylonia engaged in trade with Egypt,
Afghanistan, and the peoples of the Aegean. Babylonian textiles, horses,
lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious and chariots and imported lapis lazuli* were traded for gold, precious
stone stones, and varieties of wood. The Kassites invented a type of boundary
stone called the kudumi, which recorded areas of land given by the king
to people he favored. These stones were inscribed with writing about the
land and its recipient and were elaborately carved with images of the
gods who witnessed its being given by the king. The Kassites also
brought horse breeding, horse riding, and new technology in chariot
making to Babylonia, and they invented molded bricks to form figures
* relief sculpture in which material is cut in relief*.
away to show figures raised from the In addition to the ruling dynasty in Babylon, Kassite tribal groups in-
background habited regions east of the Tigris River. These tribes remained there long
after the Kassite dynasty lost power around 1158 B.C., when they were at-
tacked by Elamites.

Khabiru See Hebrews and Israelites.

KHATTI
T hroughout the history of the ancient Near East, the term Khatti
(HAT»ti) was used to refer to different groups or states in different pe-
riods. Before the 1600s B.C., the term referred to the indigenous* peoples
who inhabited ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) before the arrival of the
HITTITES. During the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), the term re-
ferred to the Hittite kingdom with its capital at KHATTUSHA (present-day
* indigenous referring to the original Bogzkoy). During the Iron Age (ca. 1200-500 B.C.), Khatti referred to
inhabitants of a region north Syria probably because that region contained several NEO-HITTITE
settlements, such as KARKAMISH.
The indigenous people of Khatti, sometimes called the Proto-Khattians,
* decipher to decode and interpret the spoke Hattic, a language that has not been deciphered*. Consequently,
meaning of the land and people of Khatti will remain a mystery until scholars are able
to read the Hattic tablets. However, historians know that they were skilled
metalworkers from evidence (sophisticated metal objects) excavated at
See map in Anatolia (vol. 1). tombs in northeastern Anatolia. After the arrival of the Hittites, the peo-
ple of Khatti were absorbed into the Hittite state, and their history be-
came intertwined with that of the Hittites.
30
 Khattushili I

KHATTUSHA
T he ancient city of Khattusha (HAT»tu»sa) was located in north-
central ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). It was the capital of the empire
of the HITTITES. Known today as Bogazkoy, the site was first settled shortly
before 2000 B.C. and became the empire's capital around 1650 B.C.
Khattusha was located at a great distance from a group of city-states*
near the Euphrates River and seemed an unlikely place for a capital. How-
* city-state independent state consisting ever, the site had practical and strategic advantages because it was situ-
of a city and its surrounding territory ated on a hill at the junction of two smaller rivers. This gave the city's
inhabitants access to water and a means of transportation. Moreover, the
See map in Hittites (vol. 2). city fulfilled the Hittites' need for a strategic location from which they
could safely wage war.
Khattusha reached the peak of its power around the 1300s B.C. At that
time, it covered an area of more than 400 acres. The city had a population
of about 20,000 and was protected by a wall and a moat. Seven gateways,
archaeologist scientist who studies including the famous King's Gate, Lion Gate, and Sphinx Gate, led into
past human cultures, usually by Khattusha. The city also contained 30 temples, administrative and royal
excavating material remains of human buildings, and an audience hall.
activity
Around 1200 B.C., there was unrest on all sides of the Hittite empire
cuneiform world's oldest form of and dissent within. Enemies from the north captured and burned Khat-
writing, which takes its name from the
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
tusha. Not all was lost, however. Archaeologists* have found more than
into clay tablets 10,000 cuneiform* tablets in the ruins at Khattusha. They offer valuable
and detailed information about Hittite history and culture.

KHATTUSHILI I
K hattushili I (hat«too«SEE*li) was the founder of the Hittite Old
Kingdom. He made the city of KHATTUSHA—atop a hill and at consid-
erable distance from other major Hittite cities—the kingdom's capital.
Surrounded by a tall, thick wall, Khattusha was well defended from in-
vaders and an excellent location for launching military campaigns.
ruled ca. 1650-1620 B.C. Khattushili concentrated on extending the Hittite kingdom. He de-
Hittite king cided to take over powerful cities on the trade routes because they would
ensure a steady supply of metals, such as tin, to his empire. His aim was to
conquer all the regions south of Khattusha so that he would have access
to the Mediterranean Sea. From there, he planned to sail to northern
SYRIA, a region that could bring the HITTITES great wealth because most
trade routes met there.
Khattushili decided to attack the powerful Syrian cities of ALALAKH
and Halab (present-day Aleppo). He carried out this plan and conquered
Alalakh, robbing Halab of an outlet to the sea. Then instead of moving on
to Halab, he turned west toward Arzawa, a powerful state in western Ana-
tolia bordering on the Aegean Sea. After the success of this campaign, he
turned his attention back to Halab. However, the Halab campaign was
again postponed when HURRIANS attacked the Hittites from the east. It
took Khattushili more than a year to push them back across the Eu-
phrates River. He attempted one more attack on Halab but was unable to
conquer the city. Some historians believe that Khattushili may have been
killed during this attempt, but no one is certain how he died.
During most of his reign, Khattushili was away from his kingdom. In
his absence, the kingdom experienced civil strife, and his three rebellious
31
Khattushili III
sons competed for power. In retaliation, Khattushili disowned them and
named his grandson Murshili I his successor. Murshili successfully con-
quered Halab, realizing Khattushili's plans.

KHATTUSHILI III
K hattushili III (hat»too»SEE»li), ruler of the HITTITES for 25 years, was
an accomplished soldier and an expert in diplomacy and peacemak-
ing. He was a younger son of Murshili II. When his father died in about
1306 B.C., Khattushili's older brother, Muwattalli II, became king, and
Khattushili was appointed governor of a region in northeastern ANATOLIA.
ruled ca. 1275-1250 B.C. There he repelled the Gasga people who invaded from the region of the
Hittite king Pontic Mountains. He also recovered Hittite territory that had been previ-
ously lost, including the capital, KHATTUSHA.
When King Muwattalli II died around 1282 B.C., his son Urkhi-Teshub
became king, taking the name Murshili III. Khattushili continued his mil-
itary campaigns in the north, but he resented his nephew, who began to
undermine Khattushili's power. Finally, after seven years, Khattushili as-
sembled an army and marched against Murshili. He overthrew the king
and exiled him.
Knowledge of the events of Khattushili's reign comes from his autobi-
ography, entitled Apology, a document written largely to justify the new
king's actions and his right to rule. His rule was generally one of peace
and prosperity. However, the growing power of Assyria and of the Kassites
in Babylonia had become a problem. Khattushili used his powers of per-
suasion to work out agreements with both empires. With Babylonia, he
signed a treaty by which each party would help the other in times of war
or crisis. Khattushili had in mind a Hittite-Babylonia force in case Assyria
did not remain friendly.
In light of Assyria's growing power, Khattushili forged good relations
with the Egyptian king RAMSES II, with whom his father had previously
waged war. A peace treaty with Egypt was signed around 1258 B.C.—
a significant diplomatic feat. The treaty was originally inscribed on two sil-
ver tablets (one tablet for each party). Although these tablets are lost, ar-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past chaeologists* have unearthed an Akkadian language cuneiform* copy on
human cultures, usually by excavating clay from Khattusha. They have also recovered hieroglyphic* Egyptian
material remains of human activity
copies that were carved on stelae* at the KARNAK temple and at Ramses'
* cuneiform world's oldest form of mortuary temple. The treaty marked the beginning of a national and per-
writing, which takes its name from the
sonal friendship. For example, the Egyptians sent medicine for Khat-
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
into clay tablets tushili's eye disease and offered the king other medical advice as well.
Around 1245 B.C., Khattushili arranged a dynastic marriage between one of
* hieroglyphic referring to a system of
writing that uses pictorial characters, or his daughters and Ramses II.
hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas Khattushili spent the last years of his reign securing the throne for his
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been son Tudkhaliya IV against threats from other family members, including de-
carved or engraved and serves as a scendants of his nephew Murshili III. In his autobiography, Khattushili cred-
monument; pi. stelae ited the goddess ISHTAR with all his success. Years earlier, she had said: "Hand
him over to me and let him be my priest, then he will live." Khattushili was
thus ordained a priest of Ishtar and remained devoted to her: "In times of fear
the goddess, My Lady, never abandoned me [She] shielded me in every
way, favored me." Khattushili was more than 70 years old when he died.
32
 Kliufu

KHEPAT
K hepat (HE«pat), the Queen of Heaven, was the chief goddess of the
HURRIANS and companion of the storm god TESHUB. In art, Khepat is
usually represented as standing on a lion or on a leopard as well as seated
on a throne.
A member of the Human pantheon*, Khepat was also the city goddess
of Halab (present-day Aleppo). Along with Teshub and ISHTAR, she formed
* pantheon all the gods of a particular the triad of gods worshiped at the city of ALALAKH. In the 1300s B.C., when
culture the Human pantheon was incorporated into the Hittite state religion,
Khepat became identified with the Hittite sun goddess of Arinna, the tra-
ditional protector of the king and queen.
In mythology, Khepat appears in the Kumarbi Cycle, which tells the
story of KUMARBI'S attempt to destroy his son Teshub and keep him from
power. In the end, the stronger and wiser gods prevail, and Teshub and
Khepat keep their thrones in heaven.

KHUFU
K hufu (KOOfoo), also known as Cheops, ruled ancient Egypt during
the peaceful and prosperous Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130
B.C.). He is remembered mainly as the builder of the Great Pyramid at GIZA.
Khufu succeeded his father, Sneferu, who founded the Fourth Dynasty (ca.
2625-2500 B.C.). He reigned for about 25 years and was succeeded by his
ruled ca. 2585-2560 B.C. sons, Redjedef and Khafre.
Egyptian king After Khufu ascended the throne around the age of 25, he ordered his
overseer of royal works to begin building the Great Pyramid as his tomb.
He chose Giza as the site for the pyramid, and construction continued
throughout his reign. When finished, the Great Pyramid at Giza was the
largest of all of Egypt's pyramids. It is still the largest stone structure in the
world, covering more than 570,500 square feet and rising to a height of
about 1,500 feet. Located nearby are three smaller pyramids, one each for
Khufu's mother and his two principal queens, the mothers of Khufu's sons
and successors. In addition, Khufu ordered the Great Sphinx to be carved
out of a large stone outcropping nearby. In this massive statue, the king's
head is carved atop the body of a lion. Khufu also ordered the building of a
ship that is known today as the Royal Ship of Khufu. The ship imitates the
papyrus craft that Egyptians believed transported the sun god Amun-Ra
across the heavens.
When Khufu died, his mummified body may have been transported
on the Royal Ship from his palace at MEMPHIS to the burial site in a funeral
procession. His attendants carried his coffin through a temple at the base
of the pyramid and then climbed through a cavernous gallery to the
king's burial chamber high inside the pyramid. The location of the cham-
ber reflects the belief that after death, the king would rise to the sky and
become one with Ra. The attendants placed the king's mummy in a stone
sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually sarcophagus* and closed off the chamber with huge boulders. Notwith-
made of stone; pi sarcophagi standing these precautions, robbers later found their way into the burial
chamber and stole its contents.
In order for Khufu to have built his Great Pyramid, he must have had
the state's resources completely under his control. This indicates the
power of Egyptian kings during the Old Kingdom period. Building the
33
King Lists
* bureaucracy system consisting of Great Pyramid alsois evidenceof acomplexand
efficient government
officials and clerks who perform also Egyptand the Egyptians; Kings;
bureaucracy* at that(See
time.
government functions Pharaohs.)

KINGLISTS
I n the ancient NearEast, king lists were texts thatcontained thenames
of kings and detailsof eachruler'saccomplishmentsandexploits as
well as important events in the history of anempire. Fewking lists have
survived to modern times, and those thathave provide only afragmen-
tary picture of ancient history. Nonetheless, king lists have greatly aided
* second millennium B.C. years from modern historiansin establishing
CHRONOLOGYa forancient Near Eastern
2000 to 1001 B.C. history and determining the originsofkingshipinthat region.
* cuneiform world's oldest form of
writing, which takes its name from theMesopotamia!! King Lists. Several king lists from
MESOPO-ancient
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed TAMIA have helped historians piece togetherthehistory ofkingdoms in
into clay tablets
that region. Among the oldest is the Sumerian king list. Composed in
* dynasty succession of rulers from the the early second millennium B.C.*,the listispreservedinseveral versions
same family or group
on cuneiform* tablets.It servedas the basisforlater king lists developed
* city-state independent state consisting by the Babylonians,and at leastone version BABY-
of thelist
wasused in
of a city and its surrounding territory
LON as lateas the B.C.
300s
In its oldestform, the Sumerian king list describeshowkingshipwas
established in theKISH.
cityof
It also liststhe dynasties* thatruled city-
states* in Mesopotamiaand tracesthe transferofpowerfromonecityto
another.Later versionsof the Sumerian king list extend back toeven ear-
lier times, attempting to reach backto the originsofhuman life.These
versions name semidivine kings whoreigned forvery long periods at the
beginning of Sumerian civilization.
Much of the early history presentedin theSumerian king listismore
myth thanfact, portraying an idealized viewof theestablishmentof
Sumerian civilization. It isalso highly biased, ignoring some citiesand
dynastiesand focusingon others,URUK such
and
asfirst
the
the
dy-city
of
nasty ofLAGASH. Thisispossibly becausethe scribes* whocreated theking
list were trying tojustify the dominanceof aparticular cityand itsking-
ship over other cities.
The Babylonian king lists tracethe chronologyofBabylon fromthe
time ofKing
HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750
B.C.)through theperiod
of the
KASSITES to the time when Assyrians dominated theregion
B.C.). (ca. 1200s
These lists were based on year lists, which identified each year by a
unique name based on important events, suchas theaccessionof a new
king to the throne. Although there aregaps in thesurviving king lists,
historians have been able to piece together achronology bycomparing
the lists with other Babylonian texts andchronicles and toAssyrian king
lists that cover the same periods.
The most important Assyrian king list dates B.C.
from
Pro-
the 700s
duced by royal scribes,it wasINSCRIPTIONS,
basedon texts, and the so-
called Synchronistic History. This chronicle listedthekings Assyria
of and
Babylonia in a comparable sequence over hundredsofyears. TheAssyrian
list tracesthe kingsofAssyria
from about
B.C.until
B.C.
1700
The
the 700s
34
 Kings
* scribe person of a learned class who list suggests that Assyria had been an independent state from the begin-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher ning, but that is historically untrue.

Egyptian King Lists. The earliest surviving Egyptian king list is a text
known as the Palermo Stone. Compiled from earlier sources in about
2400 B.C., it originally contained the names of all the kings from the ear-
liest periods of Egyptian history and summarized the significant events
in each year of their reigns. The Palermo Stone became an important
source for later Egyptian king lists and texts and was used as a type of cal-
endar to date events in Egyptian history.
Among the most important of these later Egyptian king lists is the
Turin Canon of Kings, a fragmentary papyrus, which lists the names of
kings from earliest times to the reign of RAMSES II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.).
Considered the most detailed and reliable Egyptian king list, the Turin
Canon not only lists the kings but also the years, months, and days of
each of their reigns. It further divides Egyptian history into three major
periods, a system that later historians adopted and labeled the Old King-
dom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom periods. Another important
* demigod partly divine being feature of the Turin Canon was that it listed gods and demigods* as the
earliest rulers of Egypt, thus supporting the idea that the kingship was a
divine institution. The Turin Canon and other king lists served as sources
for Manetho, a Greco-Egyptian writer of the 200s B.C., who compiled a
complete chronology of Egyptian history up to his time.

Other King Lists. The HITTITES do not appear to have had an interest
in long-range chronologies or king lists. However, the rulers of Persia and
CANAAN did create such lists to record their history and to provide a basis
for their kingship.
An important source for late Mesopotamian history is a king list pro-
duced in Egypt during the time of the Roman Empire. Called Ptolemy's
Canon, it was written in Greek by the astronomer Claudius Ptolemy. It
lists kings from 747 B.C. through the period of the PERSIAN EMPIRE and the
empires of ALEXANDER THE GREAT and his successors. (See also History and
Historiography; Kings; Record Keeping; Scribes.)

KINGS
T hroughout ancient times, kingship was the predominant institution
of government in the Near East. Kings filled both sacred and secular*
roles. Although their power and prestige changed from time to time and
place to place, they remained at the center of government and society.

The Rise of Kingship. Kingship emerged in the ancient Near East

secular nonreligious; connected with when strong leaders began to gain power and authority over cities and
everyday life states. Their authority came from the military power they held and from
the belief that they were chosen by the gods to rule.
According to the traditions of most Near Eastern societies, the roots of
kingship stretched back to the beginning of time, when gods ruled the
earth. Kings were the chosen successors of the gods, and in some cases,
35
Kings

particularly in ancient Egypt, they were considered divine themselves.

The link between kingsand godswasoften reflectedinofficial
kings'ti-
Egyptian tles and their roles and responsibilities.
Royal Titularies
Egyptian kings hadseveral royal tit- Roles and Responsibilities. Some scholars suggest that kings were
ularies, or titles. Amongthese were originally chosen as temporary leaders, especially during times of war or
names of gods, which symbolized
emergency.Aswarfare became more common during theearly third millen-
the king as the earthly embodiment
of a particular god. The first titulary
nium B.C.*, however, kingships became permanent. Askingships developed
of Egyptian king Amenemhet HI, for in the ancient NearEast, kings gained increasing power. They becameab-
example, was The Horus:Great of solute monarchs who reigned with seemingly unlimited power. Neverthe-
Might. Sometimes, the titles less, most citizens stillhad certain basic rights,and it was theresponsibility
might
include a throne name,such as the of kings to guard these rightsand toserveandprotect their people.
King of Upper and Lower Egypt, N
maatre, and a birth name,such as
Ancient Near Eastern kingshad many rolesandresponsibilities
ful- to
the Son ofRa: Amenemhet. The fill. Amonga king's most important roleswas to act as thechief priest of
throne name and birth nameusu- the state religion or national deity*.Aspriest,theking stoodat the point
ally appeared inside a cartouche— of contact between the realmof the godsandthatofhumans.Heserved
a hieroglyphic symbol that indicates as both a symbol of divine poweron earthand amediator betweenhu-
that the person named is an Egypt-
mans and the gods.
ian ruler and symbolizes the king's
authority over the entire world.
In fulfilling his roleas the chief priest,akinghadseveral practical
re-
sponsibilities, including building andmaintaining temples, performing
religious rites and ceremonies, attending religious festivals,andsupport-
ing the worshipof the gods.Theperformance ofthese duties directly
af-
fected the society, bringing either prosperity orhardship, depending on
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000whether the king had gained the favor of orcaused displeasureto the
to 2001 B.C. gods.
* deity god or goddess A king might also serveas the chief justice
for hissociety. Considered
the source of all laws (throughthe divine inspirationof thegods),aking
See made and enforced laws and servedas the foundationofmorality.
colorplate4,
vol.1. Although a king rarely dispensed justice himself,heservedas theultimate
legal authority of the state, bound onlyby thehigher authorityof thegods.
36
 Kings
The king was head of the government. As the most superior of offi-
cials, kings had overall responsibility for running the government. In
Legitimacy practice, however, kings generally wielded their authority through a host
from the Gods of appointed officials. This was especially true in large empires, where the
Kings often expressed their re- king could not possibly personally oversee all aspects of government.
lationship to the gods in
prayers and official texts. The Hittite
The foremost role of a Near Eastern king was that of military leader
king Muwattalli II addressed his pa- and protector of the kingdom. As commander of the armies, the king was
tron: responsible for the organization, maintenance, and direction of the
0 storm-god of lightning, my troops. Although these tasks were delegated generally to subordinates, the
lord!.,. [You] took me from king was ultimately responsible for military decisions. Some kings, such as
[my] mother and raised me. You NARAM-SIN, ASHURNASIRPAL II, and SHALMANESER III, actually led troops into
made me a priest for the sun battle and distinguished themselves as warriors. SARGON II was killed de-
goddess ofArinna and for all the
fending his kingdom against an invasion of nomadic Cimmerians.
gods and installed me in king-
ship for the Land ofKhatti.
Symbols of Power and Kingship. The power and authority of kings
In this prayer, Muwattalli not only
expresses gratitude toward the god
was represented by various titles and visual symbols. Among the most
but also justifies the legitimacy of his obvious symbols of kingship was a king's titulary, or titles. While these
rule by saying that the storm god in- differed from society to society, they often included references to the
stalled him as king. king's relationship to the gods, the territory he controlled, and terms of
honor and respect. The title Great King applied only to the rulers of the
greatest states, including Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, and the Hittite king-
dom of KHATTI.
* scepter ceremonial baton or staff Other symbols of kingship included crowns, scepters*, thrones, and
carried by a ruler to show his authority palaces. In ancient Egypt, the pharaoh* wore several crowns, each repre-
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt senting the regions of Egypt. Scepters, such as a mace, generally served as
* cult system of religious beliefs and symbols of authority. Thrones represented the social differences between
rituals; group following these beliefs the king and his subjects. Royal palaces, designed and decorated to awe
visitors, also served as powerful symbols of kingship.
Such symbols of kingship were bestowed on kings during important
and elaborate ceremonies, such as the king's accession to the throne and
Hierarchy of Rulers his coronation. It was also during these ceremonies that the power and
All kings of the ancient Near East authority of the gods were transferred to the king.
were not equal in status or power.
The rulers of large kingdoms and
empires had much more power
Succession to the Throne. In most cases, kingship was a hereditary
and prestige than the kings of institution in the ancient Near East, usually passed from the king to a
smaller states. These differences male relative. This was often a son, but kings sometimes chose other
created a hierarchy of kingship. The male relatives to succeed them, including brothers, nephews, brothers-
Great Kings of Egypt, Babylonia, As-j in-law, and sons-in-law. When there was no male heir, a woman might
syria, and Khatti were considered
rise to the throne, as in the case of Nefrusobek of the Twelfth Dynasty in
the most superior. Next came the
rulers of smaller kingdoms and
Egypt. She took the royal titles and reigned as king. Sometimes, to avoid
states, many of whom were subor- disputes over succession, kings established a co-regency, in which they
dinate to the Great Kings. The low- ruled alongside a chosen successor to help establish that individual's le-
est levels of the kingship hierarchy gitimacy and gain support for him.
consisted of the rulers of local city- Women rulers were rare in the ancient Near East. Although women
states. These relationships were re-
flected in the administration of
from royal families usually played only a minor role in governing, some
empires as well as in the titles and gained a great deal of power or became the head of a religious cult*. Oth-
powers of different rulers. ers ruled as regents*, wielding authority on behalf of heirs too young to
rule themselves. For instance HATSHEPSUT was regent for her stepson, but
she soon seized power, declaring herself to be pharaoh by an oracle* for
AMUN. (See also Ahab; Ahmose; Akhenaten; Artaxerxes I, II, and III;
37
Kish
regent person appointed to govern Ashurbanipal; Cambyses II; Cyrus the Great; Darius I and Darius III;
while the rightful monarch \s too young Djoser; Dynasties; Esarhaddon; Government; Hammurabi; Khat-
or unable to rule tushili I; Khattushili III; Nabonidus; Nabopolassar; Nebuchadnezzar
oracle priest or priestess through whom II; Necho II; Pharaohs; Ptolemy I; Ramses II; Ramses III; Sargon I; Sen-
a god is believed to speak; also, the nacherib; Sety I; Shalmaneser V; Shamshi-Adad I; Shulgi; Shuppiluli-
location (such as a shrine) where such
utterances are made
uma I; Taharqa; Thutmose III; Tiglath-pileser III; Tutankhamen;
Ur-Nammu; Wars and Warfare; Xerxes; Zimri-Lim.)

KlSH
K ish, located in present-day Iraq, just east of BABYLON, was an ancient
Mesopotamian city-state*, inhabited as early as the fourth millen-
nium B.C.* The city declined in importance later but remained occupied
until the A.D. 600s. Kish was important throughout Mesopotamian history.
According to Sumerian texts, it was the seat of the first Sumerian kings. The
title King of Kish was a high-ranking one, and some Mesopotamian kings
* city-state independent state consisting took this title to make others acknowledge their supremacy.
of a city and its surrounding territory The excavations at Kish have yielded the remains of many structures,
* fourth millennium B.C. years from including two of the earliest-known Mesopotamian palaces. The two
4000 to 3001 B.C. palaces, which testify to the importance of the king of Kish, were sepa-
rated from the rest of the city by solid defensive walls. In one of the
palaces, the main wing contained long corridors that formed a double en-
closure around the royal rooms and courts.
* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a The city also contained two ziggurats* and two temples, probably
multistory tower with steps leading to a dedicated to the god Zababa and the goddess ISHTAR, patron gods of the
temple on the top city. King HAMMURABI and his son SAMSU-ILUNA both ordered reconstruc-
tion of the Zababa temple in the 1700s B.C., making it stronger and more
elaborate. An inscription on the temple announced that Samsu-iluna was
the god ENLIL'S "favorite king/' and that the god ordered him to rebuild a
See map in Sumer (vol. 4). temple worthy of Zababa and Ishtar.
The cemeteries at Kish have yielded POTTERY, SEALS, and sophisticated
metal objects, such as chariots and carts. The number of tombs and the
valuable objects buried in them indicate that Kish had a large, wealthy
population.

KNOSSOS
K nossos (NAHS^suhs) was the chief city of CRETE during the second mil-
lennium B.C.* Its ruins lie about five miles inland from the present-day
city of Heraklion, located on Crete's north coast. The site of Knossos was first
occupied by a Neolithic period* culture from Anatolia (present-day Turkey)
before the year 6000 B.C. New immigrants arrived at the beginning of the
Early Bronze Age, in about 3000 B.C. Around 2000 B.C., an early palace with a
* second millennium B.C. years from large, rectangular central court was built at Knossos, but it was destroyed by
2000 to 1001 B.C. an EARTHQUAKE around 1700 B.C.
* Neolithic period final phase of the A second, more magnificent palace was constructed on the ruins of
Stone Age, from about 9000 to 4000 B.C. the first, with staircases, colonnades*, and walls decorated with colorful
* colonnade row of regularly spaced frescoes*. The palace also had an elaborate drainage system, built with clay
columns or pillars pipes, and rooms with large urns that may have been used to store oil,
grains, and other foods.
38
 Rush and Meroe
* fresco method of painting in which The palace is considered the most magnificent artifact of the MINOAN
color is applied to moist plaster so that it CIVILIZATION. Evidence suggests that power over Knossos may have shifted
becomes chemically bonded to the from the Minoans to the Mycenaeans from mainland Greece during the
plaster as it dries; also, a painting done
in this manner
1400s B.C. Palaces in Crete were destroyed by fires of unknown origin
around 1400 B.C. After the destruction of its palace, Knossos was no
longer a major city, but it remained in existence as a small town under
Mycenaean control.
Excavation of the site of Knossos was begun in the late A.D. 1800s by the
* archaeologist scientist who studies past English archaeologist* Sir Arthur Evans. Evans worked at excavating Knos-
human cultures, usually by excavating sos for more than 30 years. The main building he unearthed was huge, and
material remains of human activity its features are astounding. The palace appears to have been three stories
high and to have contained several dozen rooms arranged around a court-
yard. Evans reconstructed many parts, some in ways that modern archaeol-
ogists believe are incorrect. (See also Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

KUMARBI
K umarbi was known as the father of the gods in the pantheon* of the
HURRIANS, peoples who dominated northern SYRIA and MESOPOTAMIA
in the 1400s B.C. He was the central figure in a series of mythological nar-
ratives known as the Kumarbi Cycle. In the late 1400s B.C., the HITTITES of
ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) translated the Kumarbi Cycle from Human
into their own language, inscribing it on clay tablets. These tablets were
* pantheon all the gods of a particular later found at KHATTUSHA, the capital of the Hittite empire.
culture The Kumarbi Cycle was apparently recited aloud for the entertain-
ment and education of the Hittite people. The stories served to help the
Hittites understand the personalities of their gods so that they could be-
have in a manner that would please the deities and ensure their contin-
ued blessing. The narratives in this work, including such stories as
Heavenly Kingship and the Song of Ullikummi, describe the battles for
power among the gods, including Kumarbi's struggles to achieve and
then retain his control over other deities.
In these stories, Kumarbi dethrones ANU from his position as king of
the heavens by biting off his genitals, just as Kronos did to Uranos in
Greek mythology. In revenge, Anu causes Kumarbi to give birth to the
storm god TESHUB and two other gods. Teshub quickly overpowers Ku-
marbi and banishes him. Kumarbi seeks revenge by fathering a monster,
named Ullikummi, who temporarily dethrones Teshub. This monster
grows out of the ocean until his head reaches the heavens, threatening all
the gods. At first, Teshub is unsuccessful in his battle against Ullikummi.
Eventually, however, he descends into the ocean in his chariot and de-
feats Kumarbi and his monstrous son in a great battle.

KUSH AND MERGE

T he kingdom of Kush was located in Upper Nubia (present-day north-
ern central Sudan). Around 2000 B.C., Egyptian armies began to
move south into Nubia, conquering the land. The Egyptians valued Kush
because it was located along trade routes that ran to the Red Sea. Along
these routes, merchant caravans carried ivory, gold, emeralds, and slaves.
39
Kush and Meroe
Meroe(MER»uh«wee), located RIVER,
on the
became
NILE
east bank
of the
the kingdom's most prosperous city.
During the early yearsof Egyptian control, Kushwasgovernedby an
viceroy one who governs a country or Egyptian viceroy*and other officials, including Nubians.TheEgyptians
province as a monarch's representative; wanted to spread their culture, while KushitesattemptedtopreserveNu-
royally appointed official bian culture. Both succeeded. Kushites used Egyptian hieroglyphics*but
hieroglyphics system of writing that had their own spoken language. They worshiped Egyptian gods, suchas
uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, AMUN, but continued to worship theirowngodsaswell. They built pyra-
to represent words orideas
mids as tombs, but not in the Egyptian style.
By the 900sB.C., Egyptian control over Kushhad greatly weakened.
An independent kingdomof Kush developed
B.C., with
around
its 850
capital at Napata.Byaround
B.C.,the
725
Kushites had regained control
of the land, conquered Egypt,and reigned over Egypt duringitsTwenty-
Fifth Dynasty. However,the Kushitesdid not rule Egypt for long. By
around 657B.C., they were drivenout byinvading Assyrians (conquerors
from northern Mesopotamia). Nevertheless, Kushremained indepen-
dent. Soonafterfleeing Egypt,the Kushites moved their capital from
Na-
pata to Meroe,farther south.
Meroe had many natural advantages.Thesmall amountofrainit re-
ceived annuallywas enoughto grow grassforraising animals such as Nu-
bian horses, which were famous throughouttheancient East Near
for
their strength. The region alsohad sandstone forbuilding materialand
clay, from which the Kushites made distinctive whiteandblack pottery.
* smelt to heat ore for the purpose of The city also had iron ore for arobust smelting* industryandtimberto
extracting pure material fuel it. Allthis enabled Meroetoprosper.
The citizens who prospered in Meroe built temples, palaces, homes,
and tombs. The areaof Meroe wherethe rulers lived containedtwolarge
palaces, audience halls, living quartersfor the staff,
palace
and aRoman-

40
 Labor and Laborers
style bath connected by channels to a nearby well. A temple dedicated to
Amun was typical of the combination of Egyptian and Nubian influ-
ences that dominated the culture. The walls of the temple were covered
relief sculpture in which material is cut with Egyptian-style reliefs* of such Egyptian gods as Amun, OSIRIS, Isis,
away to show figures raised from the and HORUS. However, the faces of the sculptures look Nubian rather than
background Egyptian.
Meroe continued to prosper for many years. Yet, its location along
important trade routes and its rich iron ore deposits and gold and emer-
ald mines attracted conquerors. In the A.D. 200s, Axum, a city in the high-
lands of northern Ethiopia, began to dominate the region. The final
collapse of Meroe came when Axum invaded and conquered the city in
the A.D. 300s. (See also Nubia and the Nubians; Sudan.)

LABOR AND
I n ancient times, the advancement from hunting and gathering to
farming and herding allowed formerly nomadic* people to stay in one
place over long periods of time. This shift to living in villages and later, in
LABORERS towns and cities concentrated the population and allowed for the devel-
opment of new kinds of labor. People needed to perform different tasks in
order for society to function.
In the ancient Near East, the great advances in ART, ARCHITECTURE, and
nomadic referring to people who travel AGRICULTURE could not have occurred without the work of thousands of
from place to place to find food and organized laborers. Whether laborers were involved in building monu-
pasture ments or in growing food on the ruler's land, they were probably em-
ployed, for at least part of the year, by a temple or a palace.

Types of Laborers. The types of laborers in the ancient Near East can
be divided into free, forced, semifree, and slave. The number of people in
each category depended on the society and time period in which they
See worked. Free laborers probably existed in all societies to some degree, but
(color plate 12,' they were the rarest type of workers in each society. These workers were
vol. 2.
paid wages, in either grain or silver, for their work. They probably were at
the highest skill levels and had some freedom to choose for whom they
worked and when they worked.
Forced laborers were free people who were required to give the palace
or the temple a certain amount of their time each year. This was the earli-
est form of TAXATION; instead of taking money, the government demanded
the people's time. Forced laborers were given rations of food and wool in
exchange for their work. Almost all working members of a society were
required to participate in forced labor.
In the most general sense, semifree labor included people who went
into debt and had to work for the palace or temple to pay off their debt.
They were also paid in rations, not wages.
Slaves were people who could be bought and sold. They were usually
indigenous referring to the original foreign-born captives, although they could also be indigenous*. Slaves
inhabitants of a region generally worked inside households, which allowed their owners to keep
an eye on them.
Whatever their status, most workers were paid in the same "cur-
rency": wool and grain. There was also often little difference in the
41
Labor and Laborers
amount laborers were paid, although wages, which were paid by the day,
were worth more than monthly rations.
Most of the laborers in the ancient Near East were PEASANTS who
worked in agriculture. They also performed most of the manual labor and
might find themselves working as carpenters, miners, tanners, bricklay-
ers, or millers. If the crops did not need to be sowed, weeded, harvested,
* thresh to crush grain plants so that the or threshed*, then a laborer might repair the irrigation system or help
seeds or grains are separated from the build a new one. Generally, labor was highly specialized only among the
stalks and husks most advanced artists and artisans*, such as metalworkers and stone
* artisan skilled craftsperson carvers and those in the "intellectual" sphere, such as scribes*, physi-
* scribe person of a learned class who cians, and diviners*.
served as a writer, editor, or teacher
* diviner person who foretells the future Mesopotamia. Most of the labor records from ancient Mesopotamia
* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a come from the palaces and the temples. The state was the largest em-
multistory tower with steps leading to a ployer, and the system of forced labor enabled the state to construct
temple on the top enormous public works projects such as the IRRIGATION system. This sys-
tem was probably built by thousands of workers, both forced and semi-
free. After it was built, the state continued to employ manual laborers to
maintain and repair the canals.
Large numbers of workers were also involved in the construction of
buildings, including palaces, temples, and ziggurats*. When building a
Payment for new capital city or rebuilding an old one, the state employed thousands
Work Done of workers to construct city walls, gates, administrative buildings, and liv-
The Hittite laws from the sec- ing quarters.
ond millennium B.C (years
from 2000 to 1001 B.C.) were
Generally, in early Mesopotamian society, if women and children
among the most detailed in the were recorded as workers, it meant that they were semifree labor and
Near East Law 158 describes the among the poorest members of society. They were commonly put to work
wages paid an unskilled laborer; preparing and weaving cloth. For instance, during the Third Dynasty of Ur
If a man hires himself out for the (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.), there is evidence of a textile factory that employed
harvest (on the understanding) 6,000 workers, mostly women and children. Women were also employed
that he will bind the sheaves, to grind grain. In addition to these tasks, records of the time reveal that
(that) the bound (sheaves) will
women also had to clear canals, tow boats, and gather and carry reeds.
get on the wagon, (that) he will
bring it into the barn, and (that)
they will dear the threshing Egypt. In ancient Egypt, the majority of organized labor was controlled
floorf his wages for three by the state, although there were private landowners who hired or
months shall be 30 parisu [390 bought laborers. The greatest task for which labor was employed apart
gallons] of barley. 11 a woman from farming was to build tombs for the kings and members of their
hires herself out for the harvest,
her wages for two months shall
households. Most of the laborers who helped build the great Egyptian
be 12 parisu [156 gallons] of monuments such as the PYRAMIDS at GIZA were peasants. They were used
barley. as forced labor by the government during the seasons between planting
This law reflects the fact that women and harvesting, when there was less farmwork to be done.
in the ancient Near East were not Throughout ancient Egyptian history, women seem to have had some
paid the s#me wages as men. flexibility when it came to work. In addition to farming and the tradi-
tional household tasks, they worked as millers, bakers, spinners, weavers,
musicians, and dancers. Some even held high offices.

Anatolia. The HITTITE empire of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) was

made up of large cities dominated by government, where specialized la-
bor thrived, and small villages, where labor was more a communal activ-
ity. As in the rest of the Near East, people were required to provide the
42
 Labor and Laborers

government with their laborfora portionof the year.

Verylittle evidence
of independent enterprise exists.
The Hittites had veryspecific laws governing laborand payment,and
unlike many other Near Eastern societies, someofthose laws favoredthe
worker. For example,if a workerwas injured,
the responsible partywas re-
quired to take care of the worker while he recoveredand to pay the physi-
cian'sfees and an additionalfee oncethe worker recovered. Wages were
paid to workers either in silveror in grain. Wages werefixedforcertain
forms of labor.
Most occupations were male dominated, but there isevidence that
women servedas weavers, farmworkers, cooks, innkeepers, millers, musi-
cians, singers, dancers,and medical workers.

The Levant. As was true elsewherein the Near East,the rulersof the
Levant lands bordering the eastern Levant* usedforced labor.InUGARIT,
the citymen
of were forcedto
shores of the MediterraneanSea spend a portion of each year in service to both Ugarit's king and hisHit-
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), tite overlord.
the West Bank, andJordan
According to the BIBLE,
Hebrew
King Solomon employed 30,000
Israelitesforfour months each year
for
forcedAfter
labor.
around
B.C., 1100
the majority of laborers were
free, although they still paid taxesin the
form of work.The Israelites, particularlythe religious leaders, disliked
forced labor. This has caused historiansto speculate that forced laborwas
43
Lagash
imposed only on non-Israelites such as Canaanites. However, this was
probably not true because during the reigns of Solomon and DAVID, at
least, forced labor probably included Israelites as well. (See also Land Use
and Ownership; Markets; Mining; Nomads and Nomadism; Palaces
and Temples; Servants; Slaves and Slavery; Work.)

LAGASH
L agash (LA»gash) was a city-state* of ancient Sumer, a region located
between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in southern MESOPOTAMIA. Ar-
chaeological* discoveries indicate that Lagash was inhabited as early as
the fourth millennium B.C.*, but it did not flourish until around 2400 B.C.
Lagash was known for its building projects. The city's inhabitants
built irrigation works to bring water from the surrounding rivers and even
city-state Independent state consisting built reservoirs* to preserve the valuable water supply. These works were
of a city and its surrounding territory sophisticated for the time and included devices that controlled the wa-
archaeological referring to the study ter's direction and flow.
of past human cultures, usually by The people of Lagash believed that water was provided by deities,
excavating material remains of human such as their patron god, Ningirsu. They built a temple complex called
activity
the Bagara to honor him. Another oval temple complex was dedicated to
fourth millennium B.C. years from the goddess ISHTAR (Inanna). There also was a temple dedicated to the
4000 to 3001 B.C.
high god ENLIL.
reservoir place where water is collected Lagash was also well known for its warfare. Royal INSCRIPTIONS and
and stored for future use
cuneiform* tablets provide accounts of wars between Lagash and other
cuneiform world's oldest form of city-states in Sumer, especially UR and UMMA. One of the most famous
writing, which takes its name from the
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
monuments found at Lagash is a stela* known as the Stela of the Vultures,
into clay tablets which celebrates the military victory of Lagash over Umma.
stela stone slab or pillar that has been
Around 2300 B.C., Lagash fell to SARGON I, the king of Akkad, a city-
carved or engraved and serves as a state in central Mesopotamia. However, around 2100 B.C., Lagash revived
monument; pi. stelae and prospered under the leadership of its governor, GUDEA, who restored
peace and prosperity during his rule. Sculptors in Lagash created many
statues of Gudea with cuneiform inscriptions proclaiming his achieve-
ments. (See also Sumer and the Sumerians.)

Lamps See Furnishings and Furniture.

LAND USE
I n the ancient Near East, humans began taming wild land when they
began farming. They chose areas where there was enough water and
where they could easily turn the soil. AGRICULTURE was closely followed by
AND OWNERSHIP the domestication* of animals and herding. Therefore, early humans set-
tled near lands that also served as good pastures for their animals. The
earliest societies were probably organized as simple, communal villages,
where the people grew food to feed themselves.
* domestication adaptation for human As society became more complex, the purpose and organization of
use farming and herding changed. People began to gather around the regions
44
 Land Use and Ownership
where farming was most successful. The settlements became large, lead-
ing to the growth of towns and cities. Soon not all people grew their own
food. Grain, the most basic food, became a source of wealth, and owner-
ship of land became important. For these reasons, ancient Near Eastern
peoples began to draw boundaries around their property, and land was
bought, sold, and held, with some people acquiring more than others.

Land Use. Water and the control of it have been key to the use of land.
Humans began to control the water supply to their crops before 5000 B.C.
This first occurred along the TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER in MESO-
POTAMIA and along the NILE RIVER in Egypt. As agriculture developed and
advanced, cities came into being. The existence and stability of cities, in
turn, provided farmers with the protection to move into uncharted terri-
tory and therefore to increase their lands. Cities also provided large, cen-
trally controlled workforces that could carry out huge public
improvement projects such as irrigation and canal systems.
Still, most land in the ancient Near East was left wild because it was ei-
ther unsuited for farming or was too far away from where people lived.
The Life of an This wild land was used by herders to graze their animals. The largest
Egyptian Farmer amount of farmland was used for growing grain. People used small plots
Many school texts in ancient Egypt of land for private gardens and vegetable plots. Land was also used for
described the everyday We of a planting a relatively small number of orchards.
farmer. The descriptions were often;
satirical and poked fun at the
farmer. They were written to en-
Landownership. Most of the information about landownership in
courage students to stay in school. the ancient Near East comes from excavations of tax records at the great
In one of these texts, a farmer goes temples and palaces. However, scholars have found that it is difficult to
through a series of unfortunate ex- tell the difference between a palace's tax records (which would mean
periences. First, his oxen are eaten someone else owned the land) and its rental records (which would mean
by jackals, and he has to sell his
clothes to buy a new team. Then as\
the palace owned the land). In addition, these excavations have yielded
he plants his crop, all the seeds are almost no information on the lands owned by small farmers. Notwith-
eaten by a snake He replants the standing, scholars believe that most ancient Near Eastern societies had
crop, using borrowed seeds. Still, it private land ownership. This was probably even true in Egypt, where his-
seems that at the harvest, he has no torians once believed that the rulers owned everything.
grain* He and his wife are beaten In most societies, there were many types of landowners—peasant
up, and their children are taken
away in chains. farmers, large landowners, and rulers and priests. The rulers and priests
generally owned more land than most others. Therefore, they required
more people to work the land. They used two main methods to gather la-
bor. One was forced labor, in which PEASANTS were required to work for the
palace or temple as a form of TAXATION. Another was semifree labor, in
which individuals gave themselves and their labor to the palace or temple
for a period of time (perhaps their entire lives) to repay a debt or because
they could not support themselves. Slave labor was less common than
previously thought. Occasionally, the palaces and temples might even
hire free laborers.
As with the temples and palaces, large landowners employed semifree
and slave laborers to work their fields. (Forced laborers were generally
only used on state lands.) Peasant farmers worked on land that they
owned or on land owned by someone else. The latter form of farming is
called sharecropping. In this system, the peasant retained a portion of the
crop, and a portion went to the landowner. If the farmer provided all the
45
Land Use and Ownership
tools, animals, and seed, he received two-thirds of the crop, and the
landowner received one-third.

Mesopotamia. The Sumerians and Babylonians of southern Mesopo-

tamia used the floodwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers to cultivate
their crops. However, they had to devise a system to control the floodwa-
ters because they came in when the crops were planted. The Mesopotami-
* levee embankment or earthen wall ans built an elaborate system of levees* and canals to control and save the
alongside a river that helps prevent floodwaters and to divert water from the rivers in the dry months. Soon
flooding Mesopotamian farmers became expert in preventing flood damage to
their crops and were often the most productive in the region.
From 5000 to 1595 B.C., more northern Mesopotamians owned land
than did southern Mesopotamians. Moreover, land management prac-
tices differed between Akkad in the north and Sumer in the south.
Mesopotamians bought and sold land until the time of the Third Dynasty
of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.), when land sales seem to have ended abruptly.
Many scholars believe that this was simply because land sales were not re-
ported during that period. After the Third Dynasty of Ur, however, the
sale of land began again (or began to be reported again). When the Kas-
sites controlled the region, between about 1595 and 1158 B.C., the king
began to award grants of land as gifts. The boundaries of such land grants
were marked by stone monuments called kudurrus.

In Egypt. The Nile River was the source of agriculture in Egypt. Unlike
the flooding in Mesopotamia, the Nile floods were predictable. Each
year, the waters spread over the plains, depositing a thick layer of rich
* silt soil or other sediment carried and silt* on the land. After the waters subsided, the Egyptians could plant
deposited by moving water their crops in the moist floodplain, which remained wet until the har-
vest, about three months later. They planted their grains at the edge of
the floodplain and used other lands for gardens and orchards. Lands that
did not drain properly were used as pasture.
Modern scholars agree that private individuals owned some land and
that land was consistently cheap. However, public institutions (the state
and the temples) owned the majority of land. Throughout ancient Egypt-
ian history, women could own land and rent it out to tenants.

* dry farming farming that relies on Syria and the Levant. Using dry farming*, the people of ancient SYRIA
natural moisture retained in the ground and the Levant* cultivated such crops as barley and planted orchards. By
after rainfall the second millennium B.C.*, Levantine farmers began to manipulate the
* Levant lands bordering the eastern region's hilly land by building terraces.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea In ancient EBLA, the palace owned most of the land and could give
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
the West Bank, and Jordan
gifts of land to loyal subjects. The Canaanites and Israelites believed that
all land belonged to god, who then allocated it among various families or
* second millennium B.C. years from
2000 to 1001 B.C.
clans. By the late 700s B.C., however, landowners began to buy enormous
amounts of land, leaving many peasants poor and landless. Canaanite
and Israelite kings also owned large amounts of land, which they often
gave as a reward to high officials.

Anatolia. Most land in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) was owned as

small farms or was used for herding. Palaces and temples also owned a
46
 Languages
good deal of land, but they were not nearly as powerful as those in Egypt
and Mesopotamia. Anatolian farmers and herders were organized into
villages. In free villages, farmers owned the land, the village owned it
communally, or the villagers sharecropped palace lands. In another type
of village, people worked the land belonging to the king or a landowner.
In a third type of village, the people worked for and belonged to state in-
stitutions, including palaces, temples, or royal tombs. (See also Animals,
Domestication of; Canals; Cereal Grains; Environmental Change; Ir-
rigation; Slaves and Slavery.)

LANGUAGES
T he people of the ancient Near East spoke hundreds of languages and
dialects* over a period of several thousand years. Even during a short
period of time, a region's population could include speakers of many lan-
guages, and people were generally aware of the multitude of tongues used
by other peoples. For example, an inscription of the Babylonian king
HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C.) mentions the people of lands to the
dialect regional form of a spoken east "whose land is far and whose tongue is confused/' Sometimes, how-
language with distinct pronunciation, ever, one particular language became commonly spoken in large regions,
vocabulary, and grammar perhaps because it was brought by a conquering kingdom.
A language that is widely used for communication among speakers of
different languages is called a lingua franca. In the modern world, English
is a lingua franca. Several languages served the same function in the an-
diplomacy practice of conducting cient Near East. These languages—used for trade, diplomacy*, or litera-
negotiations between kingdoms, states, ture—spread across large areas, replacing other tongues or becoming a
or nations region's second language.
Language experts called linguists have divided the world's ancient
and modern languages into several large categories called families. A few
languages, however, bear no relation to the recognized families, and their
origins remain a mystery.

Major Language Families. Most of the ancient Near Eastern languages

belong to one of two major language groups. The first is the Afro-Asiatic
family, which is also called the Hamito-Semitic or Semito-Hamitic family.
The other is the Indo-European family.
Many important languages of the ancient and modern Near East be-
long to the Afro-Asiatic family. This large family can be divided into Se-
* Semitic of or relating to a language mitic* languages and Hamitic languages.
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, The Semitic subfamily includes the dominant languages spoken in
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician MESOPOTAMIA, the Levant*, and Arabia since at least the middle of the
* Levant lands bordering the eastern third millennium B.C.* At various times, a Semitic language served as a
shores of the Mediterranean Sea lingua franca for the whole region; Akkadian was the lingua franca during
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
the West Bank, and Jordan
the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), Aramaic from
around 700 B.C. to around A.D. 600, and Arabic since then.
* third millennium B.C. years between
3000 and 2001 B.C.
The Semitic subfamily of languages can be further divided into East
Semitic and West Semitic languages. The Old Akkadian, Assyrian, and
Babylonian dialects for the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia, and per-
haps the Eblaite language of Syria belong to the East Semitic group. The
47
Languages
West Semitic group includesthe languagesofEthiopia,Arabia,and the
Levant. The Phoenician and Hebrew tonguesareWest Semitic, as isAra-
maic, whichwas an official language
PERSIANofEMPIRE.
the Someof the
* archaeologist scientist who studies HebrewBIBLEwas writtenin Aramaic. Archaeologists* have found Ara-
past human cultures, usually by maic textsfrom EgypttoAfghanistan.
excavating material remains of human The Hamitic subfamilies include ancient Egyptian, Berber,Cushitic,
activity
and Chadic. The ancient Egyptian language, which existed different
in
forms over at least 4,000 years,can besubdivided intoLate Egyptian,de-
motic Egyptian, and Coptic. Thelanguages of the Berber,Cushitic, and
Chadic subfamilies include many modern languages anddialects spoken
by millions of people.
TheINDO-EUROPEAN
LANGUAGESare thoughtto have originated in the
region north of theBlack Sea. Most modern European languages,and
some of western and central Asia,belong tothis family. Peopleinvarious
parts of the ancient Near East spoke languages belongingtothree Indo-
European branches, or subfamilies: Anatolian, Indo-Iranian,andGreek.
The Anatolian subfamilyis one of the oldest Indo-European language
groups in the NearEast. Theselanguages—nowextinct—werespoken in
ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) SYRIA
and
at least
northern
asearly
as the
second millennium
B.C. Hittite—thelanguage ofHITTITES—is
the ancient
a well-known exampleofthis subfamily. Other Anatolian languages in-
clude Luwian, Palaic, Lydian, Lycian, Pisidian, Sidetic,andCarian.
The Indo-Iranian subfamilyoflanguages includes Avestan, thesacred
language of Zoroastrianism,and OldPersian. These languagesareknown
to have been spoken
IRAN during
in and afterfirst
the millennium
B.C.
(years from 1000 B.C.)
to 1They arerelated tosome of theancient and

48
 Languages
modern tongues of India and Pakistan, many of which also belong to the
Indo-Iranian subfamily.
Greek, which survives today in modern form, has existed in written
form since the 1400s B.C. Greek dialects were spoken in western Anatolia
and on the islands of the AEGEAN SEA as well as in Greece. The far-ranging
conquests of ALEXANDER THE GREAT in the 300s B.C. spread the Greek lan-
guage throughout the Mediterranean region and western Asia and made
Hellenistic referring to the Greek- Greek the lingua franca of the Hellenistic* era.
influenced culture of the Mediterranean
world and western Asia during the three Languages Outside Major Families. Some ancient Near Eastern lan-
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
guages, including several important ones, do not fall into either the
Indo-European or the Afro-Asiatic language family. Linguists are still
working to interpret these languages fully and to determine to which
family they belong. Many of these languages survive in a large body of
texts, whereas there is only fragmentary evidence for others, increasing
the difficulty for the linguists who wish to study them.
The SUMERIAN LANGUAGE is the oldest language in the world for which
Aramaic: written texts survive. The earliest documents in this language date from
Then and Now before 3000 B.C. Sumerian, the language of the rulers of southern Mesopo-
tamia, was spoken along with Akkadian and other languages during the
The Aramaic language, once the lin-
gua franca of the ancient world, has
third millennium B.C. Akkadian became the official tongue after the con-
been in use for thousands of years. quests of SARGON I of Akkad (2334-2278 B.C.). However, rulers decided to
The first textual evidence of the Ara- continue to use Sumerian as a written language for scholarly, literary, and
maic language, known as Old Ara- religious texts in the same way that Europeans during the Middle Ages
maic, dates from the 800s B.C. used Latin long after they had stopped speaking it.
Today modern Aramaic can be sub-
divided into four branches: Western
The language of the Elamites is another tongue with no known ties to
Aramaic, spoken in three Syrian vil- other ancient or modern languages. Although Elam was located in south-
lages; Central Aramaic, spoken in western Iran near Mesopotamia, its language—which existed in various
southeastern Turkey; Eastern Ara- forms from around 3500 B.C. to the 300s B.C.—developed independently.
maic, spoken in various dialects in Some ancient Near Eastern languages are known only from names
and near Kurdistan; and Neo- or references in other languages. The language of the KASSITES falls into
Mandaic, which is spoken by a small
group of people in western Iran.
this category. The Kassites occupied Babylonia from the mid-1500s B.C.
until the mid-1100s B.C., but they adopted the Sumerian and Babylon-
ian languages. Their original tongue appears to bear no relation to any
other language.
The HURRIANS came to northern and eastern Mesopotamia in the late
third millennium B.C. Although speakers of the Assyrian and Hittite lan-
guages borrowed many words from Human, the Human language itself
has only one known relative, the language of URARTU, a kingdom north of
Assyria. The Human and Urartian languages appear to belong to a small
language group unrelated to all others. In fact, they may have been
closely linked dialects of the same parent language.
Although Hittite belongs to the Anatolian subfamily of Indo-European
languages, modern linguists have realized that Hittite texts also contain
words or passages in a different language—Hattic. Hattic was spoken by the
people who lived in the city of KHATTUSHA before the Hittites made it their
capital. The Hittites preserved some traces of Hattic in their religious rituals.

Deciphering Lost Languages. Modern Western scholars have learned

the languages of the ancient Near East in three ways. Some languages,
49
Lapis Lazuli
including Hebrew and Greek, have been used and studied in Europe
since ancient times. Such languages as Arabic and Persian survived and
are spoken today. Some languages became extinct, but scholars are
* decipher to decode and interpret the sometimes able to decipher* these languages if they were preserved in
meaning texts on materials durable enough to survive the passing of centuries.
Many decipherers of ancient languages owe their success to bilingual
inscriptions, a term referring to documents that contain the same text in
two languages. If one of the languages is known, it can be used as a start-
ing point for a researcher to identify words in the unknown text. Often
the first words to be identified are names or terms repeated throughout
the text. Deciphering from bilinguals is not simply a matter of substitut-
ing new words for known words one by one. Sentence structure and other
elements of grammar may differ greatly between the two languages, mak-
ing the text difficult to interpret.
One of the most famous of all bilingual archaeological texts is the
ROSETTA STONE, which provided the key to the decipherment of the an-
cient Egyptian language in the early A.D. 1800s. The stone contains in-
scriptions in the Greek language and script, everyday Egyptian from the
Hellenistic period in the demotic script, and ancient Egyptian, written in
hieroglyphics system of writing that hieroglyphics*. Another famous text used by modern scholars to under-
uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, stand ancient languages is the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION, a trilingual inscription
to represent words or ideas written in the Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite languages. (See also De-
cipherment; Hamitic Languages; Semitic Languages.)

LAPIS LAZULI
L apis lazuli is a rare, semiprecious stone of deep blue color, sometimes
speckled with gold-colored minerals. Greatly prized in the ancient
Near East, lapis lazuli was used in making beads, cylinder SEALS, inlays*,
JEWELRY, and other decorative objects. The main sources of the stone lay in
CENTRAL ASIA, just outside the Near East, and the demand for lapis lazuli
helped stimulate interregional trade.
* inlay fine layer of a substance set into Ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians believed that lapis lazuli had
wood, metal, or other material as a form the power to protect against evil. The stone became popular for jewelry,
of decoration and trade in lapis lazuli became well established by about 4000 B.C. The
main sources of lapis lazuli were in Badakhshan, a mountainous region of
Afghanistan far to the northeast of Mesopotamia. A number of sites in east-
* entrepot intermediary center of trade, ern IRAN served as entrepots* where the stone was processed and prepared
usually on a caravan or sea route for distribution to areas throughout the Near East. By about 3500 B.C., an
interregional trading network based on lapis lazuli extended from India in
the east to Egypt in the west and from Central Asia in the north to the Per-
sian Gulf in the south.
Lapis lazuli was especially prized by Mesopotamian rulers, including
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or the Sumerians, and artifacts* from royal cemeteries at UR demonstrate
other object made by humans its use in elite Mesopotamian life. It was often used in combination
with gold and carnelian, especially in Sumerian jewelry. Even some
Mesopotamian myths mention the importance of lapis lazuli. Wealthy
Egyptians also greatly valued the stone for its rarity and beauty, and the
finest Egyptian jewelry often contained lapis lazuli. Much of the lapis
lazuli that reached Egypt before 3000 B.C. came through the city of UGARIT
50
 Law

See in northern SYKIA. Although lapis lazuli never became very popular among
color plate 5, the HITTITES, a number of Hittite texts contain references to the beautiful
vol. 1.
blue stone.

LAW
T he people of the ancient Near East believed that laws were estab-
lished by their gods. The king was chosen by the gods as their repre-
sentative, and he was responsible for communicating the gods' laws to
the people and ensuring that they were obeyed. In turn, the people put
their faith in the king to protect the weak from the strong and to ensure
that they were pleasing the gods. In this capacity, the king served as the
supreme legal authority of the land.
Although the king had the most authority, he was not the only source
of laws and legal decision making in the ancient Near East. In many soci-
eties, the male head of household—usually the father—had a number of
legal rights and did not have to defer to the state or the temple for ap-
proval of his judgments. After the family, the next legal authority was the
village council or town assembly. At this level, legal decisions were based
on custom or tradition, not laws.
The final level of the law was the state and its law codes. These codes,
however, were not strict rules to be followed. Rather, they were sugges-
tions to the judges on how to decide different types of cases. Even as law
codes became more complex, many legal matters, such as that of inheri-
tance, were left up to local customs, because a large segment of the popu-
lation was illiterate and therefore unable to consult the codes.
Throughout the ancient Near East, many legal transactions took place
between people using contracts as a means to document events such as land
Levant lands bordering the eastern sales or marriage or divorce agreements. In the Levant* and Mesopotamia,
shores of the Mediterranean Sea the contract was witnessed and often impressed with seals or fingernail
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), marks. The contract could then be referred to in case of a dispute.
the West Bank, and Jordan

Judicial System. The court systems throughout the ancient Near East
shared several characteristics. Trials were usually led by a group of judges.
For minor crimes and disputes, such as those over property rights or in-
heritance, the judges were village or city elders. More serious crimes,
such as murder or treason, were referred to a higher court, where deci-
sions were made by state judges appointed by the king. Usually, the final
judge was the king himself.
Evidence presented at trials often consisted of the testimony of the
witnesses and participants, who testified under oath. If the defendant was
convicted at the end of the trial, punishment was usually immediate. De-
pending on the nature of the crime, the types of punishment included
fines, beatings, mutilation, banishment, terms of forced labor, or death.
Certain societies punished not only the criminals but also their families
or communities, especially in cases of treason.

Mesopotamia. Evidence of laws from the ancient Near East survives in

the form of law codes, contracts, and court decisions. Historians know more
about the law in ancient Mesopotamia than in other Near Eastern lands
51
Law
because the clay tablets on which Mesopotamians wrote have survived very
well. Not only are there records of the numerous law codes from Mesopota-
mia, but reports of court cases and texts for training judges also exist.
In Mesopotamia, the earliest codes of law were the Sumerian codes of
kings SHULGI (ruled ca. 2094-2047 B.C.) and Lipit-Ishtar (ruled ca. 1930 B.C.)
and the laws of ESHNUNNA (ca. 1800 B.C.). One of the most famous legal
codes of the ancient world was the Code of Hammurabi. This code, set by
Babylonian king HAMMURABI (ruled ca. 1792-1750 B.C.), was by faj^the
most extensive of the preserved Mesopotamian codes. It was also more se-
vere in its punishments than earlier codes, stating that for some crimes,
the perpetrators should be punished by having the same crimes inflicted
on themselves.
Jh\s copy of the Code of Hammurabi from Other Mesopotamian law documents include records of court cases
the library of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal was that summarized the events during the case, the final decision, and some-
excavated at the site of the ancient city of times a statement quoting an important participant in the trial. In Babylo-
Nineveh. The original code, dating from the nia during the first millennium B.C.*, trial records also included quotes of
1750s B.C., contained 282 laws and was writ-
dialogues between the parties agreeing to the terms of the deal. Initially,
ten by Hammurabi, king of Babylon. The
Code of Hammurabi is one of the best-known only one copy of a case was written. In a lawsuit, it was given to the win-
artifacts of Mesopotamia and perhaps the ning party for safekeeping. A contract or sale document was given to the
most famous legal code of antiquity. party who was paying the money. In Neo-Babylonian times (612-539 B.C.),
a copy was often made for each party.
In the most serious court cases in Mesopotamia, the oaths of those on
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 trial were often combined with a test called an ordeal. One form of ordeal
tO 1 B.C. involved swearing an oath to the river god and then jumping into a river.
If oath takers were telling the truth, they would survive; if they were not,
they would die, because of the river god's knowledge of the truth.
Matters of inheritance in Mesopotamia were based on custom rather
than a code. Usually, the majority of an estate went to the oldest son, and
the rest of it was divided among younger sons. In Sumer, women were
also able to inherit from their fathers if there were no sons.

Egypt. With the exception of some contracts and legal documents, very
little evidence of the legal system in ancient Egypt exists. Historians believe
that the law was based on local traditions and oral history, not on set legal
codes. However, by the time of the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.),
there were certain national laws, particularly in areas where the state had
a concern, such as in the runaway of a forced laborer.
Egyptian judicial cases were judged by members of the community,
including members of the royal administration and ordinary people. Un-
til the Late Period (664-332 B.C.), Egyptian courts were not permanent in-
stitutions, and unlike the situation in the rest of the Near East, the king
almost never presided over a case himself. For state trials, there were two
high courts, one for northern Egypt and one for southern Egypt, each led
* vizier minister of state by a vizier*. The viziers presided over a tribunal (court of justice) made up
of royal officials and possibly priests.
National inheritance laws in Egypt probably developed because the
elite members of society owned land in different areas and did not want
to be subject to many laws that depended on different local traditions.
The general law of the New Kingdom was that people could leave their
goods and property to whomever they pleased. When a person died
52
 Law
without a will, the child who took responsibility for the deceased's burial
would inherit the deceased's property.

Hittites. Knowledge of the law the HITTITES comes mostly from their
* scribal referring to people of a learned law codes, although there are a few scribal* records and some stories in-
class who served as writers, editors, or volving legal issues in Hittite literature. Even though no contracts from
teachers Hittite culture survive, scholars know that these documents were used
because they are referred to in other texts.
The Hittite law codes were unusual in that when a new law was
recorded, that law contained the old law it replaced. Moreover, unlike
To Catch a Thief other ancient Near Eastern laws, Hittite laws tended to include state-
A sort of police force called the ments of what is, as well as what is not, permitted. As a result, historians
Medjay operated during the New
know that the Old Hittite Laws (ca. 1650 B.C.) had different penalties, de-
Kingdom period in Egypt ^fter an
offense was reported, the Medjay pending on whether the victims and criminals were slaves or freemen.
began pursuing suspects. Once a The most important difference between the Old Hittite Laws and the New
suspected criminal was in custody, Hittite Laws (ca. 1350-1200 B.C.) was that the later laws took into account
the Medfay sometimes used such a larger variety of legal situations.
methods as torture to obtain a con-} The court system of the Old Hittite Kingdom (ca. 1650-1500 B.C.)
fession. One document from Egypt
tells the story of a tomb robber who\
consisted of the royal court, where the king was judge, and local courts
was being questioned under tor- run by magistrates*, who were the elite of the kingdom. These magistrates
ture: *He was then examined again were chosen by the king and sent to the various districts of the realm. By
with the stick, the birch, and the around 1500 B.C., local elders also served as judges, along with representa-
screw. He would not confess any- tives of the king and the district governor.
thing beyond what he had said/'
Hittite punishments were quite lenient compared with those of other
societies of the time. Most punishments were in the form of fines. The
amount of a fine was only intended to repay the victim, not punish the
criminal. In fact, in many cases, the Old Hittite Laws replaced CAPITAL PUN-
ISHMENT with fines or animal sacrifice. However, when the criminal was a
* magistrate person empowered by the slave, capital punishment or mutilation was still used.
state to administer and enforce the law Scholars do not know much about inheritance laws among the Hit-
tites, but it appears that sons inherited the family property. Women could
not inherit property directly from their fathers.

archaeologist scientist who studies The Levant. Archaeologists* have found some letters and scribal records
past human cultures, usually by from the Levant, but the greatest source of knowledge of the law in the Lev-
excavating material remains of human ant is the Hebrew BIBLE. Most of the Israelite codes are recorded as divine
activity
revelations that were given to the people during the period the Israelites
spent in the desert after leaving Egypt. Among these are the most famous
laws in the Western world—the TEN COMMANDMENTS—which set basic
boundaries for how people should behave. The oldest code in the Bible is
the Covenant Code, from the Book of Exodus. It covers issues of slavery,
theft, and crimes punishable by death.
According to the Bible, among the ancient Israelites, a father's land
was divided among his sons, but the oldest son received a double por-
tion. If a man had no male heirs, a daughter could receive an inheri-
tance. However, she had to marry within her tribe so that property
belonging to that tribe would not pass to others.
Apart from biblical law, no actual law codes from this region have been
found. Nevertheless, letters, contracts, court declarations, and inscriptions
have been discovered in both Phoenician and Canaanite ruins.
53
Lebanon

Persia. Most of the information about ancient Persia comes from Greek
writers and historians. There is almost no direct knowledge of Persian law
codes and court procedures. However, it is known that Persian law was
based on faithfulness to the Persian god AHURA MAZDA and to the king.
In the court system of Persia, judges were appointed for life by the
king. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, they judged all types
of disputes. Another report says that judges traveled through the country-
side judging cases. As in other societies, the king had the final word.
According to Persian law, women did not have the right to inherit.
Persian men married more than one wife and also married relatives to en-
sure that they would have several descendants and that wealth remained
within the family. (See also Divorce; Mosaic Law; Property and Prop-
erty Rights; Slaves and Slavery.)

Lebanon See Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.

Leprosy See Medicine.

Levant, The See Canaan; Israel andjudah; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Syria.

LIBRARIES A fter writing was invented in about 3300 B.C., the people of the an-
cient Near East were able to keep records and accounts of business
transactions. Over time, as the frequency and uses of writing increased,
AND ARCHIVES people needed to store their documents. This resulted in the creation of
libraries where texts and documents were kept for reference and archives
where records and historical documents were preserved.
In Mesopotamia and other places where the cuneiform* script was
* cuneiform world's oldest form of used, texts were written on clay tablets as well as on wooden boards cov-
writing, which takes its name from the ered with wax. Unfortunately, very few of these boards have survived.
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed Consequently, our knowledge of Mesopotamian archives and libraries de-
into clay tablets
pends almost exclusively on the recovery of clay tablets. In Egypt, there
are even fewer surviving records from both libraries and archives because
papyrus writing material made by papyrus*, the writing material the Egyptians used, was destroyed more
pressing together thin strips of the inner easily than cuneiform tablets. Most of the surviving papyri were recov-
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri ered from tombs.

Libraries. Libraries in the ancient Near East could be found in temples,

palaces, and schools and at the homes of priests. Libraries began as
places for storing texts, such as lists of words, samples of different scripts,
54
 Libraries and Archives
and practice documents for students to copy. When ancient Near Eastern
peoples began to write down and copy LITERATURE around 2500 B.C., li-
braries became places to store such texts as OMENS, medical knowledge,
ASTROLOGY, MYTHOLOGY, magical spells, and wisdom literature, such as the
teachings of a father to his son.
In Mesopotamia, temple libraries existed in the Assyrian capitals of
Nineveh, Nimrud, and Dur-Sharrukin. All these temples housed impor-
* scribe person of a learned class who tant literature and were dedicated to Nabu, the god of scribes*. Palaces in
served as a writer, editor, or teacher Mesopotamia often did not have libraries at all. One major exception to
this was King ASHURBANIPAL'S library at Nineveh dating from the 600s B.C.
The king personally oversaw the collection and sent scribes to Babylonia
to confiscate or copy religious and scholarly texts. By the time Assurbani-
pal's library was complete, it had at least 1,500 tablets containing the
most important literature of the day.
* archaeological referring to the study Although there is little archaeological* information available about
of past human cultures, usually by libraries in ancient Egypt, literary evidence suggests that Egyptians had
excavating material remains of human libraries dating back to the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.)
activity
Later texts indicate that members of Egyptian royalty were interested in
libraries, suggesting that palace libraries were perhaps more common in
Egypt than in Mesopotamia. The most information about Egyptian li-
braries in Egypt comes from the Ptolemaic dynasty and the Roman era.
The most famous library of the ancient world, that in Alexandria, was
established in the 200s B.C. Although no trace of this library remains, it
was reputed to hold a copy of every known scroll of ancient times in its
collection. The library's holdings are believed to have exceeded 400,000
scrolls.

Archives. In ancient times, administrative and business records such as

contracts, reports, letters, and ledgers were stored in archives. Today
archives also contain old documents that are no longer used but are his-
torically important. In the ancient Near East, archives contained docu-
ments that were still in use or that were needed for reference.
Administrative and institutional documents were stored at official
archives. Temple archives in Mesopotamia were considered official even
though a temple only stored those records that were directly related to its
own business. Palaces, on the other hand, not only had archives relating
to the business of the palace, such as lists of personnel and what they
were paid, but also those relating to the business of the country, such as
international treaties.
In Mesopotamia, even people of modest means had private archives
that contained contracts, land use or sale documents, and records of law-
suits. The archives of merchants or traders probably contained business
One of the most impressive libraries of the ledgers as well as lists of goods and their sale prices.
ancient Near East was located in the palace In ancient Egypt, more temple archives have survived than any other
of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. kind. However, historians believe that the state also kept extensive
Ashurbanipal's goal was to collect the most records, particularly with regard to military matters. Private household
important scholarly and religious texts. Dat-
ing from the 600s B.C., this dictionary of syn-
archives from ancient Egypt have been found as well. It is known that
onyms, inscribed on a tablet made of baked archival material was used in court cases throughout ancient Egyptian
clay, was part of Ashurbanipal's collection. history. Documents could be binding over many generations, and the
courts would refer back to documents created hundreds of years before.
55
Libyans
Storage and Retrieval of Texts. Large libraries and archives had to
organize all their documents for easy access. Labels were used to identify
Library Rivalry collections of tablets that were kept in baskets, boxes, or trays. Through-
According to legend, parchment- out the ancient Near East, both papyri and cuneiform tablets were stored
writing material made from the skin in three main ways: in containers such as clay jars, wooden or reed boxes,
of sheep or goats—became widely or leather bags; on open shelves; and in niches built into walls.
used because of a rivalry between
libraries. In the 100s B.C, the librar Cuneiform tablets were organized by shape, size, and the layout of
at the city of Pergamum in Anatolia their text. Initially, library texts were not very long, and there was no
was said to be almost as magnifi- great need to catalog the documents. Later when scribes began to write
cent as the one in Alexandria in reference works as long as 100 tablets, the catalogs recorded their incip-
Egypt The Egyptians wanted their its—the first words or lines of each tablet. This system enabled people to
library to be the best and refused toj
find the tablet they needed. After 600 B.C., scribes used ink to write identi-
supply papyrus—the chief writing
material of the time—to Perga- fying information on the edge of a tablet in Aramaic, the common lan-
mum, Because the scribes of Perga- guage of the time.
mum could no longer write on In ancient Egypt, different types of documents were written on pa-
papyrus, they turned to using pyrus rolls of various heights. This made it easy to catalog and identify
parchment instead. Parchment them. In addition, papyri commonly began with a date, which could im-
eventually replaced papyrus as a
writing material. mediately be seen when one opened a scroll. Such papyri were organized
by date. Libraries in Egypt from the Greco-Roman period (332 B.C.-A.D. 642)
contained lists of texts on the walls. Some scholars believe that these were
an inventory of the library's contents and that such lists were used in
many Egyptian libraries from long before the Greco-Roman period. (See
also Books and Manuscripts; Clay Tablets; Cuneiform; Hieroglyphics;
Record Keeping; Scribes; Writing.)

LIBYANS
I n ancient times, the Libyans (LI»bee»uhnz) were a partially nomadic*
people who lived in the desert lands west of Egypt. Although Egypt
had seized control of other neighboring lands, such as NUBIA and KUSH to
the south, it was not interested in controlling the Libyans' land. This was
because Libya did not contain valuable raw materials or lie on any impor-
tant trade routes.
* nomadic referring to people who travel However, the Egyptians wanted to prevent the Libyans from entering
from place to place to find food and Egypt. Over the centuries, Libyans had migrated to Egypt in search of a
pasture better life. As the Libyan population increased in Egypt, especially as a re-
sult of several mass migrations, their power increased as well. Many of
them lived like Egyptians and worshiped Egyptian gods, but they contin-
ued to honor their Libyan chiefs.
The Egyptians employed captured Libyans as professional soldiers, or
mercenaries. As payment for their service, the Egyptians gave the Libyan
See map in Phoenicia and the soldiers land. This increased the Libyans' power and wealth. The Libyans
Phoenicians (vol. 3).
also married into the Egyptian royal family, thus extending and cement-
ing their influence.
Meanwhile, Libyans outside of Egypt had strong kings and armies.
RAMSES II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.) recognized this potential threat and
built forts along Egypt's western borders. However, this was not sufficient
protection. The Libyan armies made repeated attacks. Egypt managed to
repel these incursions, but the attacks left the Egyptian government in

56
 Lions
disarray. After a series of weakened kings and high priests, Egypt was ripe
for infiltration and takeover.
The Libyan rule of Egypt began at the time of the Twenty-second Dy-
nasty (ca. 945-712 B.C.), when Shoshenq I took the throne. Until that
time, Thebes had been the royal residence, but Shoshenq ruled from Ta-
nis, in the Nile Delta, which had long been a Libyan stronghold.
Shoshenq gave the military considerable power to maintain order. Under
his rule, the Egyptian economy prospered. Both Libyans and Egyptians
received positions in government, which kept the kingdom unified. His
son even married the daughter of his Egyptian predecessor. Shoshenq is
Levant lands bordering the eastern best known for his invasion of the Levant*, which increased his king-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea dom's prestige and wealth. Many scholars identify Shoshenq with an
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), Egyptian king in the Hebrew Bible named Shishaq, who plundered
the West Bank, and Jordan
Jerusalem around 925 B.C.
However, this cohesiveness and prosperity did not last. Over the next
200 years, the kingdom was divided by civil wars fought among several ri-
val dynasties. No single ruler was strong enough to unite the various par-
ties into a cooperative group working toward a common goal.
By this time, the Libyan dynasties were ripe for takeover. Around
750 B.C., Nubians from the area of present-day Sudan and southern Egypt
seized control of Egypt, initiating the kingdom's Twenty-fifth Dynasty.

Life Expectancy See Health.

LIONS
I n ancient times, lions roamed wild throughout the Near East. These
great beasts were eventually exterminated in most areas, but in parts of
the Levant* and MESOPOTAMIA, they continued to live in remote areas until
as late as the early A.D. 1900s.
As civilization developed in the ancient Near East, lions increasingly
became a danger and nuisance to the people. In many regions, lion hunt-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ing became a necessity to prevent attacks on humans and their flocks and
shores of the Mediterranean Sea herds. Lion hunting was a popular activity of royalty, and the walls of As-
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), syrian palaces contain many reliefs* of kings hunting the beasts from
the West Bank, and Jordan
CHARIOTS or on foot. Although the earliest royal lion hunts took place in
* relief sculpture in which material is cut the wild, the Assyrians later kept lions in enclosures, where they were
away to show figures raised from the
background
bred to be hunted by the king within a royal park.
The strength, power, and majestic appearance of lions made them a
popular subject in Near Eastern art and literature. Images of lions ap-
peared in many paintings, and lion sculptures were often placed in or
near palaces and temples. Lions were also portrayed as protective
guardian animals on city gates. In art, lions were often combined with
sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's parts of humans or other animals to produce a variety of demons and
body and a human head monsters, including sphinxes*, griffins*, and dragons. In literature, lions
griffin imaginary creature with a lion's often symbolized strength and aggression. In Egypt, the lion was sym-
body and an eagle's head and wings bolic of the king.
57
Lisht
Lions also served as powerful symbols in religion and mythology. A
number of gods and goddesses who served as protectors—such as the
See Sumerian god Ningirsu, the Akkadian goddess Ishtar, the Syrian goddess
color plate 2, Atargatis, and the Phrygian goddess Cybele—were associated with lions.
vol. 3.
The Egyptian goddess Hathor could take the form of Sekhmet, a lioness,
when she was angry. (See also Animals in Art; Cats; Hunting.)

LISHT
L isht, also called al-Lisht, is the modern name of a site in northern
Egypt where a field of PYRAMIDS is located. These pyramids were built
around 1900 B.C., during the reigns of King Amenemhet I and his son and
successor, King Senwosret I.
During his reign, Amenemhet moved Egypt's capital and royal resi-
dence from THEBES to a newly built city called Itjtawy, which was located
between MEMPHIS and the Faiyum Depression, near the west bank of the
Nile. The royal residence at Itjtawy became a model for later royal resi-
See map in Pyramids (vol. 4). dences, and the city retained its importance as capital throughout the
Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.). Although Itjtawy has never
been found, it is certain that its main cemetery was located at Lisht.
The tomb complexes of Amenemhet and Senwosret at Lisht each in-
cluded a pyramid, a temple, and a number of monuments. Many smaller
* mastaba ancient Egyptian burial pyramids and mastabas* were also built at Lisht for high-ranking govern-
structure with long rectangular sides and ment officials and members of the royal family. In addition, there were
a flat roof over a burial pit or chamber numerous cemeteries containing the graves of common people.
Lisht was first explored in A.D. 1884 by an expedition of the French In-
stitute of Oriental Archaeology. From 1906 through 1934, the site was ex-
plored by expeditions sponsored by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in
New York. (See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

Literacy See Education; Writing.

LITERATURE
B efore WRITING was invented, people learned the history, MYTHOLOGY,
religious rituals, and songs of their cultures through oral tradition;
that is, they memorized what they heard from their elders. The invention
of writing meant that information could be transcribed for future genera-
tions to read as literature. However, most of the population in the ancient
Near East was illiterate*, so the oral tradition remained the most common
* illiterate unable to read or write way for stories and rituals to pass from one generation to the next. Conse-
quently, most ancient literature was written with the understanding that
it would be read aloud.
The literature of the ancient Near East can be divided into two main
styles of writing: poetry and prose. Poetry includes HYMNS, songs, myths,
58
 Literature
* incantation written or recited formula PSALMS, love poems, and magical incantations*. Prose writing includes sto-
of words designed to produce a given ries, law codes, royal INSCRIPTIONS, histories, and annals*. Some types of
effect literature were written in both poetry and prose. Occasionally, an ele-
* annals record of events arranged vated or lyrical prose bridged the two styles.
chronologically by year
Poetry. Most literature in Mesopotamia until the end of the Old Baby-
lonian empire (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) was written in Sumerian, although
the language was no longer spoken. Much of this literature was in the
form of poetry, although its principles still largely escape modern re-
searchers. Among the earliest pieces of poetry recorded were incanta-
* deity god or goddess tions and short hymns. Hymns were written to deities*, composed for
kings to celebrate special occasions in their reigns, or written for specific
rituals and ceremonies. In Sumerian literature, there are also narrative
poems—poems that tell stories—that contain myths about various gods.
For example, Enki and the World Order tells the story of the creation of the
universe and how it is divided between the gods.
During the time of the Old Babylonian empire, new types of poems be-
came popular. Poetic petitions were prayers addressed and written as letters
Title and Author to the gods. There were also debate poems, which presented arguments be-
Works of poetry and prose Jn the tween characters representing opposites, such as summer and winter. In
ancient Near East did not generally these poems, the characters praise themselves and insult each other.
have titles, Instead, they were Poetry written in the Sumerian language does not rhyme nor does it
known by their inciplts—the first
few words of tharflrst line. What have a set rhythm. Various sections of poems are repeated, as are words or
modem historians call the fpfc of phrases. For example:
G%om£s& was known in the second
millennium B.C. as "Surpassing King am I, warrior from the womb am I,
Other Kings" and in thefirstmilien Shulgi am I, mighty male from birth am I,
nium as "He Who Saw Everything." Lion fierce of eye, born to be a dragon am I,
Moreover, the authors of these an-
cient literary works remain un- King of the four comers of the universe am I.
known, The fpfc of Gilgamesh may
be an exception, however, A tablet Beginning around 2300 B.C., poems were written in Akkadian, a Se-
found in the library of Assyrian Wng mitic* language, but it was not until the 1700s B.C. that Akkadian poetry
Ashurbanipal attributes its composl truly began to flower. Among the greatest poems written in Akkadian is
tion to Sin-teqe-unninni, an exorcis the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was based on a series of earlier Sumerian po-
ems. The Akkadians also wrote love songs and a great number of exor-
cism* rituals.
* Semitic of or relating to a language As with the Mesopotamians, hymns and poetry were by far the most
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, common forms of Egyptian literature. Around the end of the Old King-
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician dom period, a type of protest literature developed. These texts, which crit-
* exorcism removal of evil spirits through icized mainstream government, took several forms in poetry and could
specific rituals, incantations, and also be written in prose. Egyptians also excelled at love poetry:
ceremonies

Of graceful step when she treads the earth,

She has seized my heart in her embrace!
She causes the neck of every male
To turn about at the site of her;
Happy the one whom she embraces!

The best-known literature from the ancient Near East is the Hebrew
BIBLE, which contains a great deal of poetry and prose. The most famous
59
Literature
Israelite poems are in theBible, among them the "Song of Solomon" and
* Levant lands bordering the eastern the Psalms.From elsewherein theLevant*,atUgarit, comesa great dealof
shores of the MediterraneanSea narrative poetry. The most famous CYCLE,
Ugaritic
BAAL poetryis the
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), which is a seriesof stories about
BAAL.the
Despite
god the
differencesbe-
the West Bank, and Jordan
tween Hebrew and Ugaritic poetry, they used many of the same phrases,
and both used repetition within and between phrases.
In Anatolia, the Hittites wrote songs with a straightforward, strong
rhythmic structure and refrain,
a a line that is repeated throughout. Most
Hittite mythology texts were used for rituals and probably werenot told
as stories.

* secular nonreligious; connected Prose. Among the earliest prose pieces in Mesopotamia were the
everyday life SumerianKING LISTS. These were part historical and part fictional lists
of
* edict pronouncement of the the leaders in Sumer's history. Other types of early Sumerian prose in-
government that has the force of law cluded stories and riddles, law codes, and royal inscriptions.
The Akkadians contributed to prose by composing works on religious
issues written as essays, or as discussions. These could sometimes be writ-
ten in the form of dialoguesor monologues, of suchas
aDialogue
Man
with His God. Comic stories, such as The were als
Poor
Nippur
from
Man
preserved in prose. The Assyrians developed royal inscriptions, which de-
tailed a king's accomplishments, into annals CHRONICLES—accounts
and
of past events.
Like Egyptian poetry, Egyptian prose paid attention to the secular*
world. Tomb inscriptions, especially biographies, influenced all types of
Egyptian literature. Ultimately, these texts developed into fictional narra-
tive stories. One of the most popularwasStory ofSinuhe, whichis
The
about a man's escapefrom Egypt and his struggle to come to terms with
his past and learn the advantages of returning home. Other types of
Egyptian prose included myths and rules of conduct, or "teaching" texts
in which a superiorfigure, such as a king, shares his views. Egyptians also
excelled in writing short stories.
Hittite prose concentrated more on historical writing, which in-
cluded edicts*, narratives, and annals. Among the earliest Hittite edicts is
the EdictofKhattushili
[I],from aroundB.C.In it, King
1620 Khattushili I
presents his chosen heir to the dignitaries of his realm.Edict The of
Telipinu, written around B.C.,is a1500
more general discussion of how an
effective state should be organized.A remarkable text is theof
Apology
III, from aroundB.C., in1250
Khattushili whicha king justifieshis moveto
take over the throne.
Perhaps the most interesting Hittite prose pieces are the historical
narratives that tell the stories of a king's reign. These stories can be very
descriptive and dramatic. For example, early Hittite prose frequently used
similes such as 'Then his mother bellowed like an ox." The Hittites also
exaggerated the activities of their kings. In one story, the king describes
his role in the universe:

Who rulesall the lands(withhishand)?

Is it not I whofixedhold
(in theirplaces)therivers,the mountainsand sea?
theI set the
mountaininsucha way thatitdoes not move;I set the sea such
in
a way thatit doesnotoverflow!
60
 Love

The Canaanites and other peoples of the Levant also produced prose,
including royal inscriptions and letters, but because they wrote on easily
perishable materials, much less has survived there than in the rest of the
Near East. (See also Book of the Dead; Books and Manuscripts; Gil-
gamesh; Proverbs; Ten Commandments; Torah.)

LOVE
I n the ancient Near East, people saw love as a force underlying the di-
vine and social orders. Love linked not only men and women but also
worshipers and deities*, parents and children, and rulers and subjects.
People did not distinguish between the emotion of love and the sexual or
physical expressions of love. Rather, both were seen as part of the same
force, and even relationships that were not sexual, such as the union be-
* deity god or goddess tween gods and their worshipers, could be described in terms that in
* erotic related to sexual excitement or other contexts referred to physical or erotic* love.
pleasure In the Sumerian language, the verb for love could be used for a per-
son, a thing, or an idea. The Akkadians also used their word for love,
rdmu, in various contexts. Gods could love other gods, people, animals,
heaven, kingship, life, prayer, and sacrifice. People could love gods, other
people, places, and ideas. Even animals were thought to be able to love
their offspring and their owners.
The ancient Israelites used the same word to describe love for their
god Yahweh, other people, objects, and ideas. Parents, however, were
"honored" rather than "loved."
The Egyptian word for love, mry, was usually directed from the higher
being to the lower. A god or a king might love people, but people held
their gods and rulers in awe. The Egyptians used the same word for both
the emotional and physical aspects of love. They also used it to mean
wishing, wanting, or preferring.
Aspects of love appear in the poetry of the ancient Near East. Many
Mesopotamian love poems are addressed not to human lovers but to gods
and kings, although the language of attraction, sexual union, and marriage
appears in them. Some poems, however, speak of passionate love between
people. Topics include a woman advising her suitor how to win her par-
ents' consent to their marriage and a description of the marriage ceremony.
Egyptian love poetry focuses on courtship and the world of happy
young lovers. The poems praise romantic and erotic love, but historians
do not know how such feelings ranked with social and financial consider-
ations when people planned MARRIAGES. Romantic love was also a promi-
nent feature in Egyptian tomb paintings. They often portrayed couples in
tender poses—holding hands, in an embrace, or with one's arm resting
on the other's neck or shoulder.
The best-known Hebrew love poetry appears in the Bible in "The
Song of Songs," also called "The Song of Solomon." The poem is filled
with themes such as the praise of love, the courting of the beloved, and
the separation of lovers. Some scholars have interpreted the song as a
symbolic account of the soul's relationship with Yahweh. (See also Family
and Social Life; Gender and Sex; Marriage.)
61
Lunar Theory

LUNAR THEORY
P eople of the ancient Near East looked to the moon as a way to mea-
sure time. Astronomers watched the cycle of the moon's phases,
the changes in its position in the sky, and how long it was visible on
any given day. From their observations, ancient astronomers were able
to develop lunar theory, a mathematical description of the moon's
movements that attempted to predict its appearance, position, and
phases.
One of the earliest known studies of the moon used to develop lunar
theory is in a series of Babylonian tablets called Enuma Ann Enlil. The ear-
liest surviving examples were written in the 1200s B.C. The fourteenth
tablet in this series contains mathematical formulas that calculate the
length of time the moon can be seen on any day of any month. Although
very basic, these formulas are thought to be the first use of mathematics
to understand and predict astronomical patterns.
The evolution of lunar theory was reflected by changes made to the
Babylonian CALENDAR. The Babylonians' months, which were either 29
or 30 days long, were based on the phases of the moon. However, their
year was based on the behavior of the sun. Since the 12 lunar months
did not agree with the 365 solar days, the Babylonians added an extra
month to the year periodically. By the 300s B.C., the addition of lunar
months became standardized. This marked the high point of the devel-
opment and use of lunar theory as a mathematical model of the behav-
ior of the moon. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and
Astronomers.)

LUWIANS
T he Luwians (LOOee«uhnz) were a group of peoples who settled
throughout ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the early second mil-
lennium B.C.* Their place of origin is unknown, but historians believe it
may have been the area of southern Russia just north of the Black Sea.
The Luwians probably moved into the Anatolian region sometime before
2000 B.C. Thereafter, they moved into northern SYRIA as well.
second millennium B.C. years between Throughout the second millennium B.C.*, part of southern and west-
2000 and 1001 B.C. ern Anatolia was referred to as Luwiya. However, this name probably did
not refer to a specific state or kingdom. Instead, it referred to the common
language spoken by the peoples of the region. The Luwian language,
* cuneiform world's oldest form of which has been preserved in cuneiform* and hieroglyphic* INSCRIPTIONS in
writing, which takes its name from the Anatolia and Syria, later became the language of the Neo-Hittite states.
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed The Luwians assimilated* many aspects of Hittite culture, which
into clay tablets
they preserved for centuries after the Hittite empire collapsed around
* hieroglyphic referring to a system of 1200 B.C. The Luwians formed Neo-Hittite states in southern Anatolia
writing that uses pictorial characters, or
hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas
and northern Syria that survived until the Assyrians conquered them
around 700 B.C.
* assimilate to adopt the customs of a
society
Traces of the Luwians remained after the Assyrian conquest. For in-
stance, the languages of the Lycians, another Anatolian people, may have
descended from the Luwian language, and Luwian personal names sur-
vived to the time of the Roman Empire. (See also Languages; Lycia and
the Lycians; Neo-Hittites.)
62
 Lycia and the Lyciaiis

LUXOR
L uxor (LUHK»sawr) is the name of the modern town nearest the an-
cient Egyptian city of THEBES. Located on the east bank of the Nile
River in central Egypt, Luxor is best known for the ruins of the Great Tem-
ple of Amun.
Thebes was the capital of Egypt first during the Eleventh Dynasty
(ca. 2081-1938 B.C.) and again during the New Kingdom period
(ca. 1539-1075 B.C.). In about 1375 B.C., King Amenhotep III built the
See map on inside covers. magnificent temple for AMUN, the king of the gods, on the city's southern
edge. After the temple was built, the city developed around it and became
famous. After Egypt's capital moved from Thebes to northern Egypt, Luxor
remained an important religious center.
Luxor was the site of a long religious festival called Opet, which was
celebrated when the Nile River flooded. Statues of Amun and his family
were carried on sacred golden boats from their shrines at the Great Tem-
ple of Amun at KARNAK, a little more than one mile to the north of Luxor,
to the Great Temple of Amun at Luxor. The statues were accompanied by
a procession of Theban people. The route lay along an avenue lined with
sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's sphinxes*. The festival lasted about three weeks, at the end of which the
body and a human head statues were carried back to Karnak along the same route.
Amenhotep's original temple consisted of a large open court sur-
rounded by columns. Beyond the court were many halls and chambers.
One of the most striking features of the temple is a majestic row of 14 pil-
lars, 52 feet high, and carved to look like the buds of papyrus plants.
Around 1250 B.C., King RAMSES II added an outer court surrounding
the original temple. It was decorated with colossal statues of Ramses
and 74 columns carved in the shape of papyrus buds. The court also had
a pylon (gateway building) covered with scenes portraying a famous
battle Ramses fought against the Hittites in Syria. In front of the pylon
* obelisk four-sided pillar that tapers as it were huge images of Ramses and a pair of red granite obelisks*, each ap-
rises and ends in a pyramid proximately 82 feet tall. One of the obelisks still stands in front of the
ruins of the temple. The other was moved to Paris, France, in A.D. 1836.
(See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Feasts and Festivals; Palaces and
Temples.)

LYCIA AND L ycia (LI»shee»uh) was an ancient region located in southwestern

ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Because of its location, Lycia was
greatly influenced by the peoples across the sea and to the east and
THE LYCIANS west. Nevertheless, it was able to maintain its independence for many
centuries.

History of Lycia. The Lycians, an Indo-European people, were descen-

dants of the Lukka people, who were related to the HITTITES. Their origins
* nomad person who travels from place are difficult to trace because the Lukka people were nomads* who left lit-
to place to find food and pasture tle evidence of their culture. Although Lycia is depicted at the time of the
Trojan War (ca. 1100 B.C.) in Homer's Iliad, the earliest traces of Lycian
culture are remains of buildings that date to the late 700s B.C. These re-
mains were found in the Lycian city of Xanthus.
63
Lycia and the Lycians

Lycia remained independent until B.C., around

whenit540
was con-
queredby the PersianGREAT.
CYRUS
THEking
Around B.C.,
Lycia
516
was
* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled made a partof a satrapy* PERSIAN
of theEMPIRE. During this time, a ruling
territory under the rule of a satrap, or dynasty*, supported byPersia, arosein Xanthusand controlled Lyciafor
provincial governor about 100 years.
* dynasty succession of rulers from the In the mid-400s
B.C.,Lycia becamea memberof the Delian League, a
same family or group group of cities allied to the Greek city of Athens. Athenian influence in
Lycia grew quite strong, but ended when the Peloponnesian Wars be-
tween the cities of Athensand Sparta began. B.C.,
LyciaBy
was
the 420s
again a satrapyof Persia.By the B.C.,early
there300s
was general unrestin
See map in Anatolia (vol. Lycia, and a new Lycian leader, Perikles, emerged. Perikles' ambitions
were in conflict with thoseof the Persian B.C.,
rulers,
the Ly-
and in 367
cians took part in failed
a rebellionof the satrapies against Persia.
In 334B.C., ALEXANDER
GREAT
MACEDONIA
THE
of invaded Lycia. Mace-
donia controlledLycia PTOLEMY
until
I ofEgyptB.C.Lycia
invadedit in 309
was conquered by the Seleucid emperor B.C., Antiochus
but III in 197
seven years later,the Romans defeatedhim and took Lycia.
During the lateB.C.,100sseveralLycian cities came together form
to
diplomat person who conducts the Lycian League. This body made decisions about war, sent diplomats*
negotiations or relations with fgn to other lands, and elected judges to establish and oversee the laws of the
kingdoms, states, or nations land.After many diplomatic missions fromthe league, Rome granted Ly-
cia independenceB.C. in 168
However, B.C.,
Lycia
shortly
after
was100 in-
vaded by Mithridates VI, the king of Pontus, in northern Anatolia. Rome
retook Lycia inB.C.42
A.D.
and,43,
in combinedit withthe neighboring
territory of Pamphylia toform a Roman province. Rome controlled Lycia
for the next 300 years.

Language and Culture. The Lycian language was derived from the
Luwian language,but muchof it remainsa mysteryto scholars. Lycian
re-
ligion also camefrom
LUWIANS
the and other earlier civilizations
in Anato-
lia. However,by theB.C.,300s
a strong
Greek influence
led to many local
* deity god or goddess deities* beingidentified with Greek godsand goddesses.The main
Lycian
goddess, calledEnimahanahi (motherof the gods) became linkedto the
64
 Lydia and the Lydians
Greek goddess Leto, and she and her children Apollo and Artemis became
* oracle priest or priestess through whom Lycia's national gods. Lycia was known for its many oracles*. Among the
a god is believed to speak; also, the ancient Greeks and Romans, Lycia was noted for its fine wine, perfumes,
location (such as a shrine) where such and timber from its famous groves of Cyprus and cedar trees. The Lycians
utterances are made
themselves had a reputation as people who appreciated order and re-
spected the law.
Despite the strong influence of the Greeks and Romans, the Lycians
preserved many of their traditional customs. This was particularly true in
areas farther from the main cities and harbor towns that had the most
contact with foreigners and foreign cultures. (See also Religion; Satraps;
Seleucid Empire.)

LYDIA AND
L ydia (LI«dee»uh) was a small kingdom in western ANATOLIA (present-day
Turkey) that flourished between the early 600s and the mid-500s B.C. Al-
though Lydia survived for only a brief time, it achieved fame throughout
THE LYDIANS the ancient world for its legendary wealth. In fact, the name of its last
ruler, King Croesus, came to symbolize fabulous riches.

History. During the third millennium B.C.*, Lydia was greatly influ-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 enced by TROY and other states bordering the AEGEAN SEA. In the second
to 2001 B.C. millennium B.C.* (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.), the HITTITES of Anatolia
and the Mycenaeans of Greece had a major impact on the region. With
the collapse of the Hittite empire in the 1200s B.C., however, the Phry-
gians became the dominant influence over Lydia. According to tradi-
* dynasty succession of rulers from the tion, two ruling dynasties* controlled Lydia before the 600s B.C. The
same family or group second of these, the Herakleid dynasty, lasted about 500 years.
Lydia's rise to power began in about 680 B.C., when a ruler named
Gyges came to the throne. Gyges allied with Egypt and Assyria and ex-
panded his kingdom by warring with Greek cities on the Aegean coast of
Anatolia. During his reign, Lydia faced attacks by the Cimmerians, war-
riors from eastern Anatolia. The Cimmerians captured the Lydian capital
of SARDIS in 652 B.C., and for the next few decades, Lydia faced threats
from these invaders. By 626 B.C., Gyges' successor Ardys, with the help of
Assyria, defeated the Cimmerians and regained Sardis.
Lydia reached the height of its power under King Alyattes, who ruled
from about 607 to 560 B.C. Alyattes brought many regions in western Ana-
city-state independent state consisting tolia—including a number of Greek city-states* in Ionia—under Lydian
of a city and its surrounding territory rule. He also countered threats from the MEDES, who had begun to push
into the region from the east. The last and most famous Lydian king was
Croesus, who succeeded Alyattes around 560 B.C. Croesus was known to
the Greeks because of his wealth and the rich OFFERINGS he made at Greek
See map in Anatolia (vol. 1). temples. Despite his respect for Greek gods and religion, Croesus
launched attacks on Greek cities in Ionia. By 547 B.C., he had brought
much of coastal western Anatolia under his control.
Croesus planned to expand Lydian power to the Greek islands of the
Aegean Sea. However, he had to abandon this goal because of growing
threats from the Persians, who had replaced the Medes as the major
65
Lydia and the Lydians
threat in the east. Croesusformed alliances with Egypt,Babylonia,and
the Greek city-stateof Sparta,and setPERSIAN
out toEMPIRE.
attack
the
In 547
B.C., Croesus and his army foughtan indecisive battle withthe
Persian leader
CYRUS
GREAT.
THE He then returnedto Sardis
to raise
alarger
army and wait for reinforcements fromhis allies. However, Cyrus sur-
prised Croesusby pursuinghim and attacking Sardis, after
fell
which
a
siege long and persistent effort to force short siege*. This defeat marked the end of the Lydian kingdom. Lydia
a surrender by surroundinga fortressor and the rest of Anatolia became part of the Persian empire. ThePersians
city with armed troops, cutting it off eventually madeSardisthe western capitaloftheir empire.
from supplies and aid

Economy and Culture.Lydia wasfamous in the ancient world for de-

veloping thefirst gold and silver coins for use as currency. It wasalso
famed for establishing the earliest retailMERCHANTS
tradein which
sold
small quantities of goods directlyto consumers.
Lydia's wealth came fromitsfertile landand depositsof gold, silver,
and other metals. Its supply of precious metals contributed to the devel-
opment of coins as a medium of exchange. The widespreaduse of such
currency inLydia influenced the Persians and the Greeks. With the use of
coins as currency, retail tradewas easily established. Thiswas a change
from the traditional systemin which goods reachedaconsumer onlyaf-
ter they had passed through many middlemen. Amongthe products for
which the Lydians were famed were carpets, golden cloth, reddye, and
COSMETICS. Lydian healing ointments were sold in Anatolia, Greece, Italy,
and NorthAfrica in distinctively shaped vases called lydions.
Lydian culturewas essentially Anatolian, withastrong blendofeastern
Greek culture. Thereis little evidenceofinfluence
from other regionsof the
Near East. Lydian architecture, known primarily fromthe ruinsofSardis,
included massive fortsand large impressive burial mounds, many ofwhich
contained stone chambersand entrance halls. Littleisknownof the Ly-
dian languageor religion, except thatthe INDO-EUROPEAN
people spoke an
LANGUAGE relatedto such languages suchas Hittite, Luwian, and Lycian.
epic long poem about a legendary or Few texts have survived, and there is no evidence that the Lydians had so-
historical hero, written in a grand style phisticated literature suchas epics*or drama.

66
 Macedonia
Cybele was a major Lydian goddess, but little is known about other
* cult system of religious beliefs and Lydian gods and cults*. Lydian religion borrowed heavily from the
rituals; group following these beliefs Greeks. This is evident from many carved images and INSCRIPTIONS that
bear the names of Greek deities. At the same time, a number of Greek
and Roman myths and legends may have a basis in Lydian MYTHOLOGY.
(See also Burial Sites and Tombs; Economy and Trade; Greece and the
Greeks; Money; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Phrygia and the
Phrygians.)

MACEDONIA
M acedonia (ma*suh«DOH>nee«uh) was an ancient kingdom in
northeastern Greece. The region contains fertile plains, swift rivers,
and rugged mountains, which isolated Macedonia from its neighbors.
Macedonia played an important role in the later history of the ancient
Near East as the home of ALEXANDER THE GREAT, who created an empire that
included much of the Near East as well as parts of India and CENTRAL ASIA.
* dialect regional form of a spoken The Macedonians spoke a dialect* of the Greek language and adopted
language with distinct pronunciation, Greek religious beliefs. According to ancient Greek MYTHOLOGY, the Mace-
vocabulary, and grammar donians were descended from one of the sons of the god Zeus.
Around 650 B.C., King Perdikkas I began to expand Macedonia's ter-
ritories. For the next 300 years, his descendants continued to strengthen
and expand the kingdom, bringing Macedonia into periodic conflict
with Athens, Sparta, Illyria, the PERSIAN EMPIRE, and other neighboring
city-state independent state consisting kingdoms and city-states*. In 338 B.C., King Philip II of Macedonia de-
of a city and its surrounding territory feated an alliance of Greek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea. This
victory left Macedonia in control of Greece. Philip's son Alexander the
Great built on Philip's successes when he defeated the Persians and cre-
ated the largest empire in the ancient world. By the time of Alexander's
death in 323 B.C., the Macedonian empire stretched from Greece in the
west to India in the east. Included in the empire were ANATOLIA (present-
day Turkey), MESOPOTAMIA (present-day Iraq), IRAN, Egypt, SYRIA, and the
Levant lands bordering the eastern Levant*.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea After Alexander's death, the empire was divided into provinces, each
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), controlled by one of his generals. During the next 20 years, when the gen-
the West Bank, and Jordan
erals fought for control of the entire empire, Macedonia and Greece were
ruled by General Antipater and his son Cassander. After Cassander's death
in 297 B.C., Macedonia endured 20 years of civil war and attacks by the
See map in Alexander the Great Galatians, invaders from the north. This period of strife ended in 276 B.C.,
(vol.1). when military leader Antigonus Gonatas drove back the Galatians and
was proclaimed king by the Macedonian army. The Antigonid dynasty
ruled Macedonia for about 100 years.
Between 215 and 148 B.C., Macedonia fought a series of conflicts
known as the Macedonian Wars with the Roman Empire. Roman victo-
ries in the first two wars greatly reduced Macedonian territory and power.
In 168 B.C., during the third war, the Romans defeated King Perseus and
* republic government in which citizens divided Macedonia into four separate republics*. Twenty years later, the
elect officials to represent them and Romans reunited these republics and made Macedonia a province of their
govern according to law empire. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Seleucid Empire.)
67
Magic

MAGIC
T he people of the ancient Near East believed that the world was filled
with supernatural beings and unseen powers that caused things to
happen. Magic was the people's attempt to control or influence those be-
ings and powers. Magical practices included ritual ceremonies, spells or
incantations*, and everyday acts such as the wearing of protective
charms called amulets*. All cultures, however, drew a clear distinction
between white magic, the helpful or protective practices that were ac-
cepted in society, and black magic, which was considered destructive
and was not tolerated.
Both magic and religion were expressions of humanity's relationship
to the supernatural world of GODS, DEMONS, and spirits. Magic also had a
A Purification Spell practical aspect. The people who used it hoped to acquire some benefit—
A Mesopotamian text called anything from quieting a crying baby to winning another's love to curing
Shurpu, which means bum- an illness.
ing, describes rituals to
cleanse people of misdeeds and
i harmful influences* One spell re- Types and Uses of Magic. Magic is based on the idea that every-
" quires the person to burn a clump of| thing in the universe is somehow connected to everything else. A
wool while reciting this text: magician is a person who understands and can manipulate those con-
Just as this feelf of wo/ is plucked nections. This concept of interconnection is clear in analogic magic,
apart and thrown into the tire, one of the most popular forms of magic. It drew on the analogies, or
[and just as] the firegod likenesses, among things and was used to drive evils, such as sickness
consumes it a&ogether,
just as it w§ not return to its or impurity, out of people. Among the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day
sheep, Turkey), for example, an object, such as a piece of wax, was shaped in a
will not be i&acf for f fce cbthing of form representational of evil. A spoken incantation then established
god or king: the magical connection between the evil and the object representing it.
May ... the sickness that is in my Destroying the object—for example, by melting the wax—then re-
body, flesh, and veins, moved the evil. The Hittites also used contact magic, in which touch-
bepbdted apart like this flock of
wool, andrmy the Rregadon ing certain objects removed evil from a person and transferred it to an
this very day consume it object. For example, people might pass between nets or thornbushes to
dtog&het rid themselves of evil.
May the ban go away, and may I Many magical practices in the ancient Near East were protective. Peo-
[again] see the lightl ple used spells and charms to keep themselves and their homes from
harm. For example, in the Babylonian city-state* of NIPPUR, people buried
bowls inscribed with incantations under the corners of their houses to
drive away the demons that might harm the household. A stela* found in
* incantation written or recited formula Egypt from the 300s B.C. contains magical spells seeking the protection of
of words designed to produce a given the god HORUS against dangerous demons and wild animals.
effect Some magic was directed at a specific demon, spirit, or ghost that was
* amulet small object thought to have believed to be troubling the living. For instance, texts from ancient Meso-
supernatural or magical powers potamia give many examples of rituals against Lamashtu, a female de-
* city-state independent state consisting mon who attacked pregnant women and babies. Other Mesopotamian
of a city and its surrounding territory magic rituals dealt with such problems as angry ghosts and the harmful
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been WITCHCRAFT performed by human sorcerers.
carved or engraved and serves as a Magic was closely associated with medicine. A healing treatment
monument; pi. stelae
could include incantations, spells, rituals, and herbal potions. In Egypt,
for example, the oldest known texts dealing with health care contain
both medical and magical remedies. According to these texts, magic was
the only treatment for the bites of snakes and scorpions.
funerary having to do with funerals or Many surviving descriptions of Egyptian magic deal with funerary*
with the handling of the dead rituals. Spells performed during the burial ceremony transformed a dead
68
 Maps
person into a spirit. Egyptians also relied on spells astheir defense against
demons and the roaming dead.
The Canaanites in the Levant* practiced therapeutic, or healing,
magic. They recited incantations to the gods to prevent and heal snake-
bites. A textfromthe SyrianUGARIT
city-state
contains
of a spell thatcalls
on the god
BAALto drivethe illnessout ofsick
a person.
Officially, the Israelites disapproved of magical practices,but in
everydaylife, people wore amulets and buried protective charms in
tombs. Ugaritic, Canaanite, Phoenician, and Aramaic texts show t
people throughout the Levant used magic to try to connect with the su-
pernatural world. For instance, some Canaaniteand Israelite refer
texts
to the practice of necromancy,form a of magicin whichthe spiritsof
the dead were evoked. The dead were thought to possess knowledgede-
nied to the living, including knowledge of the future. Among the Is-
raelites, necromancy was practiced only when other methods of
divination*failed because theirofficial religion disapprovedof the prac-
tice of calling on the dead.If caught,the offender could receive harsh
punishment.

Roles of Magicians. In all ancient Near Eastern cultures, the magician

who worked within the public realmof religionand socially acceptable
behavior wasdifferentfromthe wizard, sorcerer, orwitchwhoperformed
magic forharmful purposes. Magicians often interacted with priests
and
healers. In Mesopotamia, magical experts ashipucalled sharedthe respon-
sibility for providing health care with physicians. Aphysician mightuse a
magical spell to increasethe
effect of his medications, while an
ashipu
might own a library of handbooks on medicine and medical treatment.
Ashipu also performed other actsof magic, such ascasting spells
orexor-
cising—driving away—demons, for private clients. In addition, some
ashipu advised kingsand servedin temples. The profession
was
of
ashipu
* Levant lands bordering the eastern generally handed down from generationto generation within family.
a
shores of the Mediterranean Sea The most important magician in the Hittite kingdom wasoften a
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), "Wise Woman/' She was an incantation priestessand performed rituals
the West Bank, andJordan
and spells. The Wise Woman worked alone or with other incantationspe-
* divination art or practice of foretelling cialists such as physiciansand fortune-tellers.
also Amulets and
(See
the future
Charms; Omens; Oracles and Prophecy.)

MAPS
H aps are used to show locationsin all or partof an area.Thepeople
of the ancient NearEast producedthe oldest known maps, most
of which coveredfairly small areasand had practical uses. By the Hel-
lenistic* period, however, mapmakers (cartographers) in the Near East
were trying to envision the entire world and were laying the foundations
of modern cartography,or mapmaking.
Hellenistic referring to the Greek-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean
world and westernAsia during the three The First Maps. The first knownMESOPOTAMIA.
maps come
from
One of
centuries after the death of Alexander the oldest, datingfrom
CLAYabout
TABLET
B.C.,isfrom
a2300
the ruins
of
the Great in B.C.
323 the city ofNuzi.The map shows several settlements aswell
aswaterways
69
Maps
and hills.The writingon the MEASUREMENTS
map—theof plots of
land—
offers a clue that the Nuzimap and others likeit may have been records
of land ownership. These records may have been usedby tax collectors
or other officials.
The Babylonians drew maps,or plans,of houses, temples, towns,and
cities. One example,a clay tabletfrom aboutB.C.,
features
1500 a planof
the cityNIPPUR.
of The map shows GATES
the city
in the
wall,
wall,
theand
the moat protecting the wall, as well as a park, several canals, temples,
and the nearby Euphrates River. Such plans mayhave had military or en-
gineering uses. The Babylonians also drew mapsofmore distant regions,
such as larger areas, districts,and towns.
Very few maps have survived from ancient Egypt. One example is a
papyrus writing material made by drawing on papyrus* from aboutB.C.,
1300which showsthe central area of
pressing together thin strips of the the Wadi Hammamat. It contains a sketch ofsome stonequarriesand gold
inner
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri mines east of the NileRiver and shows a road leading to the mines, atem-
ple, and a small number of houses. Some fragmentsof the map also con-
tain topographical details. The Egyptians also created maps to mark the
locations and boundariesof the fields alongtheafter
Nilethe yearlyfloods.
Ancient mapmakers were mostly concerned with fairly small
areas—
properties and cities. A district map might cover no more thanhalf a
dozen or so small towns, with roadsand canals.One exceptionis asmall
Babylonian clay tablet,from around B.C.,
500
which presents an imageof
the world. However, this map probably reflects the cartographer'svision
of the universe more than geographical knowledge.

The Dawn of Scientific Cartography. Beginning around B.C., 6

the Greeks speculated about the shapeof the world. first,
At Greek
philosophers, like the Babylonians, picturedthe earthas a floatingdisk.
Later, during the 500s
B.C.,the philosophers Anaximanderand Hecataeus
from the Greek city of Miletusin Anatolia (present-day Turkey) produced
geographic writings and world maps based on this image. However,
HERODOTUS, a well-traveled Greek historian
who knew something ofgeog-
raphy, claimed that their ideas were wrong.ByaroundB.C.,
the350
cor-
rect view of the earth as a sphere had been established, B.C.,
and by 300
geography and mapmaking had become more scientific.
During the 200s B.C.,the mathematician and philosopher Eratos-
thenes of Gyrene (present-day Libya), workingin the Egyptian cityof
Alexandria, calculated the size of the earth and drewaworld map.In the
A.D. 100s, another mapmaker who workedin Alexandriawas Claudius
Ptolemaius, better known as Ptolemy. Ptolemy was the most important
figure in the laterera of ancient mapmaking. Hiseight-volume
Guideto
Geography was the most complete and learned workof its sortin the an-
cient Near Eastern and Mediterranean worlds. However, Ptolemywas
wrong about many details. For example, he thought that t
Ocean was enclosed by land like a vast lake. Notwithstanding hismis-
takes, he set down someof the basic principlesof scientific mapmaking,
such as methods for portraying the curved surfaceof the earthon flat
maps. Later mapmakersin Europeand the Near East based their workon
Ptolemy's.(Seealso Astronomy and Astronomers; Geography; Scienc
and Technology.)
70
 Mari

MARDUK
K nown as the lord of the gods and father of mankind, Marduk be-
came the national deity* of Babylonia after the 1200s B.C. As the
chief god of the Babylonian pantheon*, his power and prestige were unri-
valed. His main temples in BABYLON—the Esagila, meaning "House with
Lifted Head/' and a ziggurat* called the Etemenanki, meaning "House of
Foundation of Heaven and Earth"—were considered the center of the
* deity god or goddess universe. Their splendor was known throughout the ancient Near East.
* pantheon all the gods of a particular According to Babylonian MYTHOLOGY, Marduk was the son of the god EA
culture (or Enki) and brother of the goddess ISHTAR. Considered a god of wisdom,
* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a healing, and magic, Marduk also was associated with fertility. Over time,
multistory tower with steps leading to a Marduk took over the traits and functions of other gods, making his nature
temple on the top and character increasingly complex. In art, he was depicted carrying a trian-
gular spade or hoe, suggesting that he may have originally been an agricul-
tural deity.
* patron special guardian, protector, or In the 2100s B.C., Marduk became the patron* god of Babylon. There-
supporter after, his rise to prominence was linked to the rising political power of
Babylon, especially under King HAMMURABI, and to its transformation
* city-state independent state consisting from a city-state* into the capital of an empire. The main story of Marduk
of a city and its surrounding territory and his rise is found in the Babylonian CREATION MYTH, Enuma Elish. The
myth describes how Marduk saves the gods from a monster named Tia-
mat, creates the heavens and earth, brings order to the universe, and pro-
poses the creation of humans. As a reward for his efforts, the gods give
Marduk many of their powers and promote him to supreme deity, dis-
placing the god ENLIL. The myth also lists Marduk's many names, essen-
tially investing in him the power of other gods.
* cult formal religious worship The cult* of Marduk gradually spread beyond Babylonia, especially dur-
ing the Kassite period (ca. 1595-1158 B.C.). Marduk was adopted by the As-
syrians, who honored him as a great god. However, during the reign of the
Assyrian king SENNACHERIB (ruled 704-681 B.C.), some of Marduk's functions,
traits, and rituals were transferred to the Assyrian national god, ASHUR. Dur-
ing the time of the Chaldean empire (626-539 B.C.) of NEBUCHADNEZZAR II,
Marduk was referred to as Bel, meaning "lord." Following the Macedonian
conquest, Marduk (Bel) became equated with the Greek deity Zeus. (See also
Babylonia and the Babylonians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

MARI
A t the height of its power, Mari was one of the wealthiest cities in
MESOPOTAMIA. Located on the banks of the EUPHRATES RIVER near im-
portant caravan routes, the city gained its wealth and importance as an
entrepot*. The ruins of the city, a site known as Tell Hariri, have yielded
remarkable artifacts*, including a magnificent palace and thousands of
CLAY TABLETS, which contain records of the economic, administrative, and
* entrepot Intermediary center of trade, diplomatic* affairs of the city.
usually on a caravan or sea route Founded in the beginning of the third millennium B.C.*, Mari quickly
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or rose to prominence as a trading center. The city gained immense wealth
other object made by humans from taxes on the trade goods that passed through it. One of its most im-
* diplomatic relating to the practice of portant trading partners was the city-state* of EBLA in northern SYRIA. In
conducting peaceful negotiations the latter part of the third millennium B.C.*, Mari was ruled by Akkadian
between kingdoms, states, or nations governors, who launched enormous building projects, including the
71
Markets
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 construction of a magnificent new royal palace and an expansion of the
to 2001 B.C. city's sacred temple area.
* city-state independent state consisting Around 1800 B.C., Mari and its surrounding territory came under the
of a city and its surrounding territory control of a succession of dynasties* of AMORITES. Around 1760 B.C., King
* dynasty succession of rulers from the HAMMURABI of BABYLON conquered and destroyed the city. By this time,
same family or group Mari was no longer a great trading center, so the city was left deserted and
used only as a cemetery.
* archaeological referring to the study The archaeological* discoveries at the site of ancient Mari are some of
of past human cultures, usually by the most significant in the Near East. The Great Palace is one of the best-
excavating material remains of human
preserved and richest palaces of the period before 1000 B.C. The thou-
activity
sands of tablets found there have provided invaluable information about
Mari and revealed much about culture and society in Mesopotamia dur-
ing the third and second millennia B.C. (See also Cities and City-States;
Economy and Trade; Palaces and Temples; Trade Routes.)

MARKETS
T he term market has two distinct meanings. In one sense, a market is
the physical location where goods are bought and sold and commer-
cial transactions take place. This is more commonly known as a market-
place. The second meaning of the term is the mechanism by which goods
or services are made available and by which the values of those goods or
services are determined. For example, the term labor market refers to the
overall demand for labor and the price at which that labor will be hired.
Historians have debated whether marketplaces in the modern sense
of the word existed in the ancient Near East. However, there is little doubt
that market forces of demand and supply did operate, especially to deter-
mine the value of goods and, in many instances, services.

Marketplaces. There is almost no evidence that ancient Near Eastern

civilizations earmarked specific physical locations to serve as market-
places. The physical remains of ancient cities offer little help, because
marketplaces would probably have been open spaces with no special fea-
tures to distinguish them from ordinary squares or courtyards. Although
the Sumerian and Akkadian languages contained words for "open space"
or "square," there is no indication that such places were centers of com-
mercial activity.
The Greek historian HERODOTUS tells a story in which a Persian king
says that towns in Persia did not set aside special places where people
could cheat each other as did the Greeks in their agoras, or marketplaces.
Some economists and historians believe that this remark implied that the
Persians did not have markets. However, others believe that it implied
that they did not cheat as much as did the Greeks.
In Egypt, some tomb paintings depict market scenes. For instance in
the Deir el-Medineh tomb of Ipuy, women on the banks of the Nile River
are shown selling goods to a man in a boat in exchange for grain. These
traders, however, were not independent MERCHANTS, but were employed
by other citizens or temples to sell surplus goods. Egypt never developed a
prominent merchant class, and the existence of marketplaces is no more
strongly attested in Egyptian sources than it is in Mesopotamian sources.
72
 Markets

Market Forces. The lack of evidence of marketplaces does not mean

that marketforces did not operate in the ancient Near East. Perhaps the
most obvious indication that markets existed isfact the that prices for
different goods varied over time. Documents from the Sumerian city-
city-state independent state consisting state* of
UMMA list the prices of various goods, mostof whichdid change.
of a city and its surrounding territory This suggests that some market forces, such as supply and demand, did
operate to alter the values of goods and that these values changed ac-
cording to changing market conditions.
The forces existed and operated especially because households
needed markets to obtain what they could not themselves produce. Vir-
tually no household is totally self-sufficient, so it must go outside
itself to
obtain those things it lacks. When it does so, it must have some idea of
the availability and cost of those things it needs. The market is the mech-
anism by which it obtains this information.
Unfortunately, it isdifficult to trace the market valuefor many com-
* commodity article of trade modities* in the ancientNear East because the written records are incom-
plete. For example, no information about labor markets in the Near
East
before about 2100B.C. has survived. The market value for land presents
similar difficulties. There is no mention of landsalesor pricesin Mesopo-
tamia before 2000
B.C. Beginning around B.C., 1800
wealthy households
began to acquire large tracts of land, but there is no evidence that the pe
ple were motivated by economic concerns.
Kings occasionally listed the prices of certain staple goods, such as
barley, dates, oil, wine, wool, and copper, in their royal inscriptions as a
way of boasting about their prosperous reigns. Sometimes pricesfor such
staples were set in Babylonian and Hittite law codes. A most unusual
source of information about market prices, the Babylonian astronomical
cuneiform world's oldest form of diaries, were written monthly in cuneiform* on clay tablets between the
writing, whichtakes its name from the sixth andfirst centuries
B.C. The tablets list not only the daily positions
distinctive wedge-shapedsignspressed of the moon, planets, andstars, but they also contain information about
into clay tablets
the weather, the water level of the Euphrates River, historical events of
the period, and the market prices of the same six staple commodities—
barley, dates, wool, and three spices. Consequently, scholars studying
these diaries are able to see how historical events such as the death of a
king or a foreign conquestaffected thealso market.
(See Economy and
Trade; Money.)
73
Marriage

MARRIAGE
T he basic unit of most ancient Near Eastern societieswas thefamily.
The foundation of thefamilywasmarriage,theformally recognized
union of a man and awoman CHILDREN.
forproducing
Although
theinsti-
tution of marriagewas sharedbymost Near Eastern societies,thelaws
and customs surrounding marriage took various forms.

Making Marriages. Many modern societies view marriage as achoice

made by two individuals and based onlove and companionship. In the
ancient NearEast, marriages werenot alwaysamatterofpersonal choice,
nor were they always basedon love. Royalandnoble
families,forexam-
ple, often arranged marriages asmatters ofstate, toseal alliances or
maintain the balanceof power.Forexample, Nabopolassar Assyria
of
gave his son in marriageto the granddaughter ofMedian king Cyaxares
to seal an alliance between the twokingdoms.
Marriagewas the businessof two MESOPOTAMIA,
families.
In fathers
arranged the marriagesoftheir children. Girls were marriedasteenagers
to men about ten years older.After selectingabridefor hisson,afather
paid the girl'sfamily abrideprice—acertain amountofmoney, goods, or
property. She was then considered thechosen bride of the groom'sfamily.
From herfather, the bride receivedanequal amountofmoneyorgoods
as a dowry, which she tookas her contributionto themarriage. Marriage
contracts between families described these arrangements indetail.A man
Levant lands bordering the eastern whosewife did not bear children could takeasecond wife.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Among the Canaanitesand Israelitesof theLevant*,fathers arranged
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), some marriages. Others were arranged byindividuals in the community
the West Bank, and Jordan who acted as matchmakers. Some men, however, chose wives without

74
 Marriage
the consent of their parents or even in defiance of their wishes. Just as in
Mesopotamia, marriage agreements included a bride price from the fam-
ily of the groom and a dowry from the bride's family. Such payments
could consist of money, livestock, slaves, land, or goods. Marriage was
generally monogamous, or limited to one spouse, although royal and no-
ble men often had more than one wife.
Polygamy, or the practice of taking multiple wives, was common
among the Persians. Men took multiple wives to have many children,
and the Persian king encouraged a high birthrate by giving prizes to the
heads of the largest families. The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey)
also practiced polygamy, although it was less common there than in Per-
sia and may have occurred mostly within the royal family. Hittite mar-
riage contracts were usually arranged by the parents of the couple to be
wed and required a bride price and a dowry.
Historians know little about the marriage practices of the ancient
Remember:Words in small capital
letters have separate entries, and the
Egyptians. Men might have married in their 20s or 30s, while women
index at the end of this volume will
were usually somewhat younger. Although parents might have arranged
guide you to more information
many marriages, Egyptian women had considerable freedom, and histori-
on many topics. ans doubt they were forced to marry against their wishes. Poems and art-
works show that ancient Egyptians hoped for marriages that included
affection, harmony, and physical attraction. The Egyptians did not re-
quire marriage contracts, but parents negotiated settlements to ensure
the financial well-being of married daughters, who usually brought vari-
ous goods to their new households. Sometimes the husband or his family
paid the bride a "sum for becoming a wife."

Wedding Ceremonies. The Egyptians may not have had any require-
ment for registering a marriage or conducting a standard ceremony.
Families may have held a feast when a couple set up house together.
Records from Mesopotamia suggest that wedding ceremonies often
lasted five to seven days. During the ceremony, the groom removed the
bride's veil. According to some ancient texts, the bride had "best men" re-
sponsible for protecting and guarding her until the wedding night.
In Israel, marriages began with an engagement that could last several
months. The second stage of marriage was marked by seven days of cele-
bration, with singing, dancing, and wine drinking. The couple, adorned
in special clothing and jewelry, stood under a canopy and declared, "You
shall be my wife" and "You shall be my husband."
Several ancient texts hint that the Persians celebrated marriages in
group ceremonies. One account says, "Seats were placed in several rows
for a number of bridegrooms. After they toasted each other's health, the
brides came in and seated themselves, each one near her future husband.
The bridegrooms took them by the hand and kissed them."
Hittite weddings could be elaborate and costly. Sometimes men who
had promised to pay for religious festivals had to ask priests or other tem-
ple authorities to delay the festivals until they had recovered from the ex-
pense of a wedding. As in Mesopotamia, Hittite bride's wore veils until the
moment the wedding was complete. This act is repeated at many wed-
dings today, thousands of years later. (See also Divorce; Family and So-
cial Life; Gender and Sex; Love; Women, Role of.)
75
Mathematics
^LA athematics is the science ofnumbers and therelationships among
/ ^ Ithem. The people of the ancient Near
East were familiar with
MATHEMATICS arithmetic, which includes counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying,
and dividing. The operations of arithmetic later developed intoalgebra
and geometry—morespecifically,formulas. Ancient mathematicians also
studied and practiced metrology, the science ofmeasurement, to deter-
mine the relationships between the various units oflength, area, volume,
and weight. Modern scholars know about Mesopotamian and Egyptian
' papyrus writing material madeby mathematicsfrom
TABLETS
CLAY
surviving
and papyri*
as well
from
as an-
pressing together thin strips of the innercient Hebrew documents that were written by rabbis.
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri
Mesopotamia. More than 1,000 mathematical tablets dating from the
Old Babylonian and the Seleucid periods have been recoveredinMesopo-
tamia. According to these tablets, Babylonian mathematicians used the
sexagesimal system (counting by sixties) more often than they did the
decimal system (counting by tens). Thiswasprobably becausethe base-
sixty system included a large numberfactors—1,
of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,10,12,15,
20, and 30. Remnantsof the base-sixty systemarepreserved today, espe-
cially in the way we telltime—60 seconds to aminute, 60minutes to an
hour—and in measuringacircle—360°is 6times60.

76
 Mathematics
Babylonian mathematics also used a place-value system, that is, a lim-
ited number of symbols whose value is determined by its position within
the number. The higher values were placed on the left and the lower val-
ues on the right. For each place a number moved to the left, its value was
multiplied by 60, and for each place it moved to the right, the value was
divided by 60.
Addition, subtraction, and multiplication were performed in the sex-
agesimal system. However, there was no division. Instead, numbers were
multiplied by their reciprocal. A reciprocal of a number, n, is 1 divided by
n or I/H, except when n equals zero. There was no special sign for the
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 number zero until the first millennium B.C.* Before then, some mathe-
tO 1 B.C. maticians left blank spaces or used signs that indicated spaces between
words to represent zero.
* cuneiform world's oldest form of Mathematical texts written in the cuneiform* script can be divided
writing, which takes its name from the into three main categories—table texts, coefficient lists, and problem
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed texts. The table texts dealt mostly with multiplication and reciprocals (for
into clay tablets
division). They also contained information on squares and cubes, square
roots and cube roots, exponential tables, logarithms, and meteorological
lists and tables. The coefficient lists contained fixed values for categories
of items, such as geometric shapes, to help solve mathematical problems.
Problem texts contained anywhere between one and several hundred
Mathematical Text problems, some of which were accompanied by drawings. The algebraic
and geometric problem texts generally contained problems relating to ar-
A Babylonian text contained eas, not volumes. These problems were solved using linear and quadratic
the following problem;
equations. The solution to most problems in geometry was algebraic be-
/ found a stone but did not cause the purpose was to find length, width, and volume. For instance, a
weigh it; I added one-seventh
and added one»efeventh. I problem might contain references to brick works, the excavations of
weighed it: 1 mina. What was canals, and the construction of walls, dams, and ramps.
the original (weight) of the Babylonian mathematicians also possessed considerable knowledge of
stone? geometric shapes and formulas. For instance, to solve problems on right-
The answer; The original (weight) angled triangles, they used a concept similar to the Pythagorean theorem
of the stone was 2fy mina, 8 she- (a2 + b2 = c2) more than 1,000 years before the Greek mathematician
qelsf 221/2 barleycorns. Pythagoras was born. They used n = 3 in measurements dealing with cir-
The student places the stone on cles, although a coefficient list from Susa in southwestern Iran suggested a
a scale against one mina. Then he more precise value of n = 3 Vs. Mathematicians now know that n is approx-
balances the scale by adding two
known weights to the side of the imately 3.14159. Babylonian texts did not include proofs or detail the
stone, He then determines the steps in the formulation of theorems. Consequently, scribes* performed
: weight of the stone by adding the the steps leading to the solution without explaining them.
± two known weights and subtracting \
*- that amount from one mina. Egypt. Because Egyptian mathematicians recorded their work on pa-
pyrus, fewer documents have survived there than in Mesopotamia. These
texts, unlike their Mesopotamian counterparts, show the method of in-
struction and even prove that the correct answer was reached.
* scribe person of a learned class who One of the most important Egyptian texts is the Rhind Mathematical
served as a writer, editor, or teacher Papyrus, which contains calculations with fractions and applies this knowl-
edge to practical problems. This document provided a value of n = 3.16,
which was calculated by drawing a circle within a square. Another well-
known text is the Papyrus Anastasi I, a document that contains the calcula-
tions required for digging a lake, building a ramp, and transporting an
obelisk—information that a scribe was required to know.

77
Measurement
Using the decimal system, Egyptian mathematicians manipulated
whole numbers and fractions. They performed operations in multiplica-
tion by repeatedly doubling a number and adding the results and they
performed division using reciprocals. As in Mesopotamia, geometry con-
sisted of formulas—but no proofs—that were calculated using arithmetic
operations. Egyptian trigonometry (study of the properties of triangles)
was not very developed—the measurement of slope was assumed to be
45°, and right angles, 90°. The Egyptians also used fractions, usually writ-
ten with a numerator of one, to solve problems.

Ancient Israel. Knowledge about mathematics of ancient Israel is con-

fined to one biblical reference describing the diameter of King SOLOMON'S
pool as 10 cubits wide and the circumference, 30 cubits, yielding n = 3. In
* Talmud collection of recorded A.D. 150, Rabbi Nehemiah gave the value n = 3l/7, but the Talmud* later
interpretations and teachings of hundreds restored the value of n to 3. Around the 200s, the Jews began to apply the
of rabbis who lived before A.D. 500 Pythagorean Theorem to determine the length of the diagonal of a
square or rectangle. This is apparent from the Mishnah (a code of oral
law, religious laments, and teachings), which describes a variety of geo-
metric patterns that a gardener or farmer might or might not use when
planting different types of seeds. (See also Astronomy and Astronomers;
Education; Measurement; Numbers and Numerals; Record Keeping;
Science and Technology.)

MEASUREMENT
A s governments and temple administrations became more central-
ized and domestic and international trade relations became more
complex, the peoples of the ancient Near East began to develop standard-
ized measures and notation systems. These developments enabled them
to maintain a record of goods produced, distributed, and traded.

Early Development of Numbers and Units of Measurement.

Beginning around 8000 B.C., clay tokens came into use in the ancient
Near East as a form of RECORD KEEPING. The tokens were geometrically
shaped objects that represented items and their quantities. This method
of record keeping remained in use for more than 5,000 years and became
the main accounting system in palaces, temples, and markets. Tokens
gave rise to the earliest known system of WRITING and the invention of
MATHEMATICS. Once the ancient Near Eastern people became familiar with
arithmetic, they began to practice metrology, which is the science of
measurement. This enabled them to determine and evaluate the rela-
tionships between the various units of length, area, volume, and weight.
* scribe person of a learned class who In Mesopotamia, scribes* learned metrology from lists or tables. Dur-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher ing their training, scribes were often required to memorize these tables,
which contained the ratios between the different units of measurement.
Sometimes, they consulted the tables to perform simple calculations in-
volving ratios.

Length. In Mesopotamia, the basic unit of length was the cubit, which
means forearm, or the distance from the elbow to the end of the middle
78
 Measurement
finger. Other units of length included reeds, rods, ropes, stages, the dis-
tance marched between two rest stops that were two hours apart, and the
fingerbreadth, or the width of the thumb. In Egypt, length was measured
in palms (of a hand), royal cubits, fingerbreadths, and the skd, which was
the measure of the slope of a pyramid. The few wooden, stone, and
metal measuring devices that have survived in Mesopotamia and Egypt
measure cubits or parts of cubits. From these devices, it is apparent that
the length of a cubit varied greatly.
In ancient Israel, there were two basic measures—the "sad measure/'
which was a little less than a full measure, and the ''smiling measure/'
which was larger than a full measure. The basic unit of length was the fin-
gerbreadth, which ranged from about 3/4 to 1 inch. Other units of mea-
sure were the handbreadth—the width of a clenched fist—and the reed,
which is mentioned in the Hebrew BIBLE.

Area. In Mesopotamia, area was most often measured by the sar, or gar-
den plot. Other measures included dikes (of land), holes, and barley-
corns, which referred to seeds of barley and were the smallest measure of
area. In both Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, land areas were measured
as irregular quadrilaterals, their area being the product of the average of
opposite sides.
In Israel, area measures were based on two systems. One was based on
squaring standard units of length, such as square fingerbreadth, square
handbreadth, and square cubit. The other was used for larger measures,
such as large surface units or to measure a space needed to plant certain
quantities of produce. The two systems were compatible, and scribes
could easily convert the measures from one to the other.

Volume. In Mesopotamia, the units that measured volume were the

same as those that measured area, including sar, dike, hole, and barley-
corn. Bricks were counted in units of sar, where 1 sar was equal to 720
* Talmud collection of recorded bricks. The Jewish Talmud* refers to several systems of volume that used
interpretations and teachings of hundreds different terms for the same measure.
of rabbis who lived before A.D. 500
Weight. The basic units of weight in ancient Mesopotamia were the
mina (1.1 Ibs.) and the sheqel (0.3 oz.). The smallest unit was the barley-
corn. The Egyptian system of weights was based on a unit called the kite,
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- which ranged from 4.5 to 29.9 grams. During Hellenistic* and Roman
influenced culture of the Mediterranean times, the common units of weight throughout the Near East were the
world and western Asia during the three sheqel, mina, and talent. They came to be used as units of currency be-
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
cause they sometimes described the weights of gold and silver.

Measures of Capacity. Mesopotamians measured the volume of bar-

ley and oil in units called sila, which was the basic small capacity unit
equal to about 1 liter. Other units of measurement included ninda, the
See amount of grain (or flour) used to make 1 flatcake; gur (78 gallons); gra-
color plate 3, nary, which was sometimes called king's measure, normal, or correct
vol. 2.
measure; and greater measures. Throughout ancient times, the Mesopo-
tamians devised measures relevant to their needs, such as sacks, standard
pots, and ass-loads.
79
Meat
In both Mesopotamia and Egypt, wooden and metal baskets were
used for capacity measures. No wooden measures have survived, how-
* fourth millennium B.C. years from ever. By the end of the fourth millennium B.C.*, bevel-rimmed bowls and
4000 to 3001 B.C. conical cups were used as measures in Mesopotamia. The bevel-rimmed
bowls, which constitute up to 80 percent of the pottery excavated in that
region, all measured the same approximate volume. They were probably
used to measure corn or flour for daily rations.
In ancient Israel, the Bible and the Talmud list units to measure large
amounts of liquids or dry goods. Rabbis devised many smaller measures
based on the bulk of an egg. Most units were based on the capacity of
utensils, human measurements, and objects in nature.

Problems with Ancient Measurements. Historians face many

challenges in analyzing the values and systems of ancient measures. One
of the main problems is the lack of evidence. Archaeologists have exca-
vated many ancient weights, but few measures of length have survived.
Reliable measures of volume are scarcer still. Another difficulty is that
most ancient weights and measures do not contain inscriptions or mark-
ings to indicate what unit of measure they represent.
Determining the measures of volume in the ancient Near East is par-
ticularly difficult because the only vessels that have survived are jars or
pots marked with their intended capacities. However, these were simple
storage jars and not the original vessels used to set standards of volume.
They contain no markings to indicate how full the vessel should be when
it contained the amount of liquid marked on the jar.
Documents that discuss various units of measurement have provided
historians with some clues that have helped them better understand an-
cient measures. However, even knowing how ancient measures related to
each other has been of little help in determining their modern equivalents.
Some ancient documents relate Near Eastern measures with units from
Greek and Roman cultures, but these too are of limited value since the val-
ues of many Greek and Roman measures are themselves not well known.
In addition, the accuracy of the measurements found in these ancient doc-
uments are often quite doubtful. (See also Money; Pyramids; Calendars.)

Meat See Food and Drink.

MEDES
T he Medes were a people of northwestern IRAN who spoke an INDO-
EUROPEAN LANGUAGE and inhabited a plateau region that became
known as Media. Together with the Persians, their neighbors and rivals,
they left a lasting heritage that greatly influenced the culture of Iran.
Because no written documents of the Medes have been excavated,
* archaeological referring to the study of knowledge of these people is based on other archaeological* evidence and
past human cultures, usually by the writings of people who came in contact with them. Several Median
excavating material remains of human
sites in Iran have been excavated by archaeologists, including the reli-
activity
gious center of Tepe Nush-i Jan and Godin Tepe, which contained a large
80
 Medes

fortified palace.TheMedesfirstappearinwrittenB.C.
sources
in the mid-800s
See map in Babylonia and the in the records of the Assyrian
SHALMANESER
king III.TheGreek historian
Babylonians (vol. 1).
HERODOTUS also wrote abouttheMedes
B.C. in the400s

Migration into Iran. TheMedes migrated intonorthwestern Iran as

early as the 1600s
B.C. They probably came fromthearea north of the
Black Sea and Caspian Sea, crossing the
CAUCASUS
mountains
re- of the
gion and settling in the Zagros Mountainsofnorthwestern Iran. Most of
these early Median settlers were farmerswholivedinsmall villagesand
sheepherders who tended their flocksonmountain slopes.A related
group of Indo-European speakers,thePersians, entered Iran aroundthe
same time as the Medesandsettledinsouthern Iran.
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 By the first millenniumB.C.*,the Medeshadgained control ofmost
tO 1 B.C. of the eastern Zagros Mountain regionand hadbeguntopush westward
through the mountains andtowardthebordersofMesopotamia.As they
* indigenous referring to the original moved west, they mixed with indigenous* groupsbutalsometwith resis-
inhabitants of a region tance from some local populations, URARTU,
wholooked
Assyria,
to and
ELAMAND THE
ELAMITES
for help
in holding back
the invaders.
Until the 700s
B.C., the Medes consistedofmany independent tribes,
each led by achieftainandcharacterizedbygreat diversity inculture
and so-
cial and political organization. By thetimefirst they
appearinwritten
* vassal individual orstate thatswears records in theB.C.,
700s
the Medeshadbecome Assyrian vassals*. At the
loyalty and obedience to agreater time, the Assyrians werethedominant forceinIranand one ofmajor
the
power powers in the ancient Near East.Soon, however,theMedes begantogrow
more powerful and started tobuild towns andfortresses.In the mid-
700sB.C. AssyrianTIGLATH-PILESER
king IIIreported
hisconquest
Zakruti,
of
the "city of the mighty Medes/'which mayindicate growing Median
power in the region.

Kingdom of the Medes. Sometime B.C., the

invarious
the700sinde-
pendent tribes ofMedes unitedform
to asingle Median kingdom, which
81
Medes
became thefirst Iranian state.The early historyofthis kingdomis re-
ported by the Greek historian Herodotus. Some scholars think that
See Herodotus's version of the foundingof the Median kingdommay be
colorplate7, based more on myth than fact, andthey argue thatthereis nowrittenor
vol. 2.
archaeological evidenceofsuchastateatthat time.
According to Herodotus,the kingdomof theMedeswasfoundedas
early as 725
B.C. by a king named Deioces,whoestablishedtheMedian
capital at Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan)andruledtheMedes forsev-
eral decades until about
B.C. Deioces
675 wassucceeded by his sonPhra-
ortes, who ruled for 22years. Phraortes conqueredthePersiansand led
the Medes in an unsuccessful revolt against their Assyrian overlords. He
was killed while fightingthe Assyrians
B.C. in 653
After Phraortes died, the kingdomwasoverrunby theScythians,no-
nomadic referring to people who travel madic* warriorswho had entered western from IrantheCaucasus region.
from place to place to find food and The Scythians dominated the Medes B.C., when
until
Phraortes'
625 son
pasture Cyaxares took the throne and forced themout ofMedia. Cyaxares greatly
satrapy portionof aPersian-controlled expanded Median power and strengthened hisarmybycreating separate
territory under the rule of asatrap, or units of spearmen, CAVALRY.
archers,
and
provincial governor
Faced with a continued threat from
Assyria,Cyaxares formed an al-
liance with the Babyloniansbymarryinghisgranddaughter to the son of
KingNABOPOLASSAR,who later ruled NEBUCHADNEZZAR
Babylonia
asII. In
ca. 725B.C.
612B.C., Cyaxaresand his Babylonian allies attackedandcaptured the As-
Kingdom of Medes syrian capitalNINEVEH.
of This victory ended Assyrianleft rule
the
and
founded by Deioces. Medes and Babyloniansas the twodominant powersinMesopotamia.
775 »,cj Thereafter, the Medesand Babylonians dividedtheAssyrian empirebe-
ca. 675B.C.
tween them. TheMedes tookthe northern andeastern partsof theempire,
Phraortes succeeds including mostof Iran, northern Mesopotamia,ANATOLIA.and partsof
Deioces. They extended their power westward inAnatolia until they encountered
675 »,c the Lydians.Abattle betweentheMedes B.C.
andLydians
endedinina585
653-625
B.C. draw, after which the two groups formedanalliance. Aroundthesame
Scythians dominate time, Cyaxares' son Astyages took overtheMedian throne.Heruledfor
Medes.
35 years, but little isknown abouthisreign.
575 B.C
625 B.C.
The Medes and Persians. After theAssyrian conquest, relations be-
Scythians forced out tween the Medesand Babylonians remained friendlyforawhile. Soon,
of Media; Cyaxares
becomes king.
however, hostilities arose as both groups claimedthesame lands.As
475 n,cJ their relations with the Medes soured, theBabylonians encouraged and
supported uprisingsby the Persians,whowere vassalsof theMedes.
612B.C. In 550B.C., the Persian
GREAT
CYRUS
THE
led
kingsuccessful
a revolt
i Cyaxaresand Babylonians
capture Nineveh.
against Astyages, who wastaken prisoner. Cyrus marched toEcbatana,
375 e,c,i
which he took with no resistance when theMedian nobility accepted
him as their king. Cyrus quickly took controlof therestof theMedian
550 B.C. kingdom,and Media became asatrapy*
PERSIAN
of the growing
EMPIRE.
| Media becomes satrapy
of Persian empire.
On several occasions, the Medes tried unsuccessfullytorevolt against
their Persian overlords.Still, relations betweenthe twogroups were good,
275 «x!
and the Medes enjoyedaprivileged position undertheAfter Persians.
the
330 B.C. Persians, the Medes were the most important people in thePersian em-
Alexander the Great
occupies Media. pire, and they exerted a strong cultural influence.Forexample,thePer-
sians adopted Median court ceremonies andmoved thePersian royal
court to Ecbatana each summer. Other elements ofMedian culture,
82
 Medicine
including religious practices, were blended with Persian traditions and
became the foundation of the later culture of Iran.

Later History. In 330 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of MACEDONIA con-

quered the Persian empire and occupied Media. After Alexander's death
in 323 B.C., northern Media was ruled by a Persian general named At-
ropates, who founded an independent kingdom called Atropatene.
Southern Media became a province of the SELEUCID EMPIRE. This area re-
mained a Seleucid province for about 150 years, during which time it was
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- greatly influenced by Hellenistic* culture. In the centuries that followed,
influenced culture of the Mediterranean the Medes gradually lost their distinctive character, though various Me-
world and western Asia during the three dian traditions blended with those of other groups to form a single Iran-
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
ian culture. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Lydia and the
Lydians; Migration and Deportation; Scythia and the Scythians.)

MEDICINE
M edicine in the ancient Near East was a blend of religious rituals,
folk remedies, and customs, all based on observation and results.
Basic ideas of health and medical practice were different from those of
modern medicine because Near Eastern cultures did not differentiate be-
tween medicine and RELIGION. Illness, disease, accidents, and other mis-
fortunes were considered the work of the gods. Near Eastern peoples
believed that such ailments were usually a punishment from the gods,
who had been offended. Consequently, medical treatment consisted of
pleading with gods to restore the patient's health and attempting to expel
the evil from the body. Physicians mixed their treatments with religion
and MAGIC and made determined efforts to cure their patients.
Life in the ancient Near East was challenging for physicians. Limited
knowledge, uncertain food supplies, lack of food preservation, unsafe
water supplies, and poor sanitation contributed greatly to human suffer-
ing. Common infectious diseases included tuberculosis (which attacks
the lungs and is spread by coughing), pneumonic and bubonic plague
(which are spread by fleas and rodents), typhus (a disease carried by par-
asites, such as lice), and smallpox. Leprosy, which affects the skin,
nerves, and mucous membranes, was another disease that afflicted Near
Eastern peoples.

Mesopotamia. In the 400s B.C., the Greek historian HERODOTUS erro-

neously claimed that Mesopotamians had "no regular doctors." In fact,
medical workers were known in the region as early as the third millen-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 nium B.C.*, and they recorded their treatments. The most important
to 2001 B.C. Mesopotamian sources are medical texts describing treatments and
* city-state Independent state consisting remedies for different problems. The earliest of these from the city-state*
of a city and its surrounding territory of UR date from about 2000 B.C. and are written in Sumerian. Other texts
date from later periods, such as those from the Neo-Assyrian library of
ASHURBANIPAL (ruled 668-627 B.C.). These and other texts show that al-
though their practices included magic and OMENS, Mesopotamian doc-
tors recognized natural causes of such ills as overexposure to heat or
cold, eating too much, drinking alcohol, and eating spoiled food.
83
Medicine
Two kinds of physicians, asu and ashipu, treated the sick. Although
* incantation written or recited formula both used incantations* to heal their patients, it is generally believed that
of words designed to produce a given the asu worked more with medicines and may have been the more practi-
effect cal in his methods, and the ashipu with spirits. However, both relied on
magic. Little is known about their training or whether they worked in or-
ganized groups.
An asu treated such ailments as broken bones, wounds, boils, and in-
fections. He might use herbs for both internal and external illnesses.
Women were allowed to train to become an asu.
An ashipu, a type of exorcist, diagnosed supernatural causes of prob-
lems and prescribed ritual treatments. He had other religious roles, such
as cleansing temples, but his chief role was to interpret symptoms. Some-
times an ashipu might work with an asu on a problematic case. Women
were not permitted to become an ashipu, and the profession passed from
father to son.
Because Mesopotamians believed that sins caused illnesses, they first
tried to find out what a patient might have done to offend the gods.
Physicians examined a patient and asked for a description of the symp-
toms. They took the person's temperature and pulse, noted skin condi-
tions, swellings, and even the colors of bodily fluids. All these findings
were recorded, and over time, the records became the basis of treatments
and prescriptions. Many of the medical texts excavated in the Near East
are descriptions of symptoms and catalogs of remedies, most of which be-
gin with omens. For instance, what a physician saw on the way to a pa-
tient's house was considered an omen—a white pig meant the patient
would live; a black pig meant death.

In this Egyptian relief, female druggists

squeeze an animal skin filled with herbs to
make herbal medicine. Because the Egyp-
tians believed that supernatural forces
caused illnesses, treatments such as these
were administered to repel the evil force
that was believed to have entered the
body and caused the illness. Sometimes a
magical incantation was spoken while
treatment was administered.

84
 Medicine
Mesopotamian healers also experimented with medicinal treatments.
For instance, prescriptions included herbal treatments with instructions
for the best time to collect the herbs and the method of preparation.
Other medicines included salt, potassium nitrate, milk, snake skins,
thyme, fir, figs, dates, and turtle shells. These materials were used as oint-
ments for external use or as powders for dissolving in drinks. One Assyr-
ian document lists more than 400 plants, fruits, and other substances,
about half of which have medicinal value.
Mesopotamian physicians treated a variety of ills. Eye problems were
common, perhaps because of vitamin deficiencies, but no treatments for
blindness existed. Ear problems are also recorded in medical texts, but
they contain no word for deafness. There is little evidence for dentistry,
but texts show that toothaches were common, and various medicines
were prescribed for the pain. Skin problems were treated with ointments
and lotions. Midwives took care of women's health and CHILDBIRTH, but
physicians treated children. Some surgery may have existed, but there is
little mention of it. Diseases of the stomach and intestines were serious
and common. Contaminated water, spoiled food, and parasites led to
many digestive ailments. However, because Mesopotamians did not dis-
sect human bodies, they knew little of the workings of internal organs.
Some scientists regard early attempts to deal with digestive illnesses as the
basis of human medical efforts.
Medical knowledge did not advance much because illnesses were
mainly thought to be caused by supernatural elements. Moreover, medical
texts gradually became sacred documents, and physicians tended to follow
old treatments and not experiment with new methods and procedures.

Egypt. Like the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians also believed in the su-
pernatural cause of illness. Nonetheless, their approach to medicine was
systematic. More than a dozen important documents have been found
papyrus writing material made by describing Egyptian medical practices. These medical papyri* date from
pressing together thin strips of the inner the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 2100-1600 B.C.) but may have been
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri copied from earlier sources. They include descriptions of illnesses, treat-
ments, case studies, and magical chants. Although magical treatments
were part of medicine, Egyptian physicians developed orderly approaches
to treating injuries.
* scribe person of a learned class who Most Egyptian healers came from highly educated groups of scribes*
served as a writer, editor, or teacher and priests and were palace or temple officials. Some were affiliated with
the army, civil service, or local villages. From the earliest times, physicians
seem to have divided into specialties, but it is not clear how well these ti-
tles relate to modern ideas of specialization. Physicians trained as appren-
* apprentice individual who learns skills tices*. Women may have been healers, though rarely.
or a profession from an experienced Egyptians learned about the body from studying slaughtered animals
person in that field and from treatment of wounds at battlefields and work sites. The practice
* embalming treating a corpse with oils of embalming* seems not to have added much knowledge. Egyptians
or chemicals to preserve it or slow down knew about pulse, for example, but not that blood circulates. Arteries,
the process of decay, usually after body veins, tendons, and nerves were considered to be tubes connecting the
fluids have been removed
heart, limbs, and lower digestive system.
Most ancient Egyptian medical texts focus on the treatments offered
to members of the elite classes, and there is little evidence of any health
85
Medicine
care of peasants. Conditions were probably miserable, with many forms
parasitic referring to a disease caused of parasitic* disease, pest-borne illness, and epidemics* caused by poor
by a parasite, an organism that lives nutrition and sanitation. Even the homes of the elite had open garbage
inside another organism and is often dumps nearby. Bread was the main food, and the sand in it wore down
harmful to the host organism
teeth, causing frequent dental problems.
epidemic spread of a particular disease Egyptian medicine contributed significantly to the treatment of
within a population
physical injuries. Doctors closely followed an established procedure. First,
they examined the patient and described the wounds. Next, they decided
whether to treat the patient. The recognition that some problems were
beyond their knowledge demonstrates a rational approach to medical
problems. If a physician decided to treat the patient, he recorded his pro-
posed treatment in logical steps. Medical records also show other com-
ments, including definitions of words and explanations of unusual
procedures. One of the most noted papyri describes 69 cases, including
treatments for wounds to the skull, broken jaws, injuries to the throat
and neck, and broken shoulders, vertebrae, breastbone, and ribs.
Egyptians made many compounds for medicinal purposes. One writ-
A Life Saved ten source records 600 such compounds made from substances native to
the Nile River valley. Most medicines came from plants, but animals, in-
Although many ancient med- cluding insects, and mineral substances were used as well. These drugs
ical practices and rituals seem
simplistic by modern stan- helped expel illness from the body. Some medicines had no use other
dards, the ancients often accurately than their magical or religious association—yellow drugs for jaundice, or
diagnosed and treated medical turquoise, the color of the god HATHOR, for charms for protection.
problems, In the biblical Book of 2 Although simple by modern standards, Egyptian medical practice
Kings^ a child collapsed in the field, was the best in the ancient Near East. Such treatments as applying honey
perhaps of sunstroke, apparently
;dead The prophet Etisha arrived
as a salve, using stitches and tapes to close wounds, and cauterizing
(burning or searing the skin with a hot needle to seal and prevent infec-
and he went up, and lay upon
the cMtf, put hi$ mouth upon his
tion) probably originated in Egypt. Egypt's greatest medical gift to the
mouth, and his eyes upon his ages was the procedure followed by physicians. Examining carefully be-
eyes, and his hands upon his fore deciding whether to treat, using simple treatments first before mov-
hands; and as he stretched him- ing to complex ones, proceeding with care and caution, and recording
self upon him, the flesh of the results carefully were great achievements. These careful procedures indi-
child became warn. Then he got cate a thoughtful and systematic approach to medicine.
up again, gnd walked once to
and to in the house, and went
up, and stretched himself upon Iran. Few ancient medical texts have survived in Iran; therefore, the Ira-
him; the child sneezed seven nians' health care practices are difficult to determine. However, evidence
times, and the child opened his unearthed at excavations suggests that the same conditions prevailed in
eyes, Iran as elsewhere in the ancient Near East. A Zoroastrian sacred text men-
jpWs vivid account of artificial resusci- -\ tions three types of healing specialists: herbalists, surgeons, and incanta-
ftation was recorded in the 800$ B.C tion priests. Historians believe that Persian rulers favored early Greek and
Egyptian methods. For instance, his interest in public health may have
caused DARIUS I to support medical efforts in Egypt and elsewhere.

Anatolia. Just as in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the people of ANATOLIA

(present-day Turkey) believed that illnesses were a punishment from the
gods. The best-known residents of Anatolia, the HITTITES, borrowed ideas
and texts from Mesopotamia. Many Hittite physicians were likely
trained by Assyrians, while unorganized folk healers probably treated
most common people. Anatolian physicians treated disorders of the
eyes, throat, mouth, and digestive system with medicines made from
86
 Mediterranean Islands
plants and minerals. Accounts of plagues and illnesses affecting kings are
recorded in Hittite texts. For instance, the Plague Prayers ofMurshili II
mention an epidemic that lasted 20 years, causing great damage to the
kingdom and its economy.

Levant lands bordering the eastern The Levant. Many gods in Syria and the Levant* were divinities of dis-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea ease and healing. Early texts from UGARIT identify EL, the supreme god,
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), with healing. The Phoenician god Eshmun was also a god of healing
the West Bank, and Jordan
(and perhaps the same as the Greek healing god Asclepius). Temples may
have provided health care. Texts from the 1300s B.C. mention epidemics
and physicians in the ancient Canaanite royal court. Israelites also
viewed disease as divine punishment for sins.
Poor sanitation, ineffectual waste removal, and contaminated water
caused most diseases. Insect-borne diseases were probably a significant
problem as well, although incense and other aromatic substances may
have helped repel insects. Other ailments included intestinal diseases
caused by tapeworms and whipworms.
Although most treatment was left to the gods, physicians frequently
isolated their patients. In the Hebrew BIBLE, the Book of Numbers directs
physicians to "put out both male and female, putting them outside the
camp, that they may not defile the camp." The Book of Leviticus dis-
cusses snakebites.

Summary. In most of the ancient Near East, illness was a part of divine
will and beyond human control. Omens and rituals played an impor-
tant role in medicine. Despite poor sanitation and a lack of thorough
medical knowledge, ancient Near Eastern physicians made medicines of
local materials and recognized that some diseases were contagious and
infectious. (See also Amulets and Charms; Famine; Health; Priests and
Priestesses.)

Mediterranean Islands See Crete; Cyprus; Rhodes; Sardinia; Them.

MEDITERRANEAN
I n ancient times, the Mediterranean Sea became a natural marine high
way for the expanding civilizations of the Near East. Trade encouraged
growth, advanced technology, spread and shared cultures, developed eco-
SEA, TRADE ON nomic systems, and furthered relations between empires.

Equipment and Techniques. Because most Near Eastern civilizations

developed along rivers, SHIPS AND BOATS were early features of life. Excava-
tions on the island of CRETE show that seacraft were built there as early as
* fourth millennium B.C. years from 5000 B.C. During the fourth millennium B.C.*, both the Mesopotamians
4000 to 3001 B.C. and the Egyptians were sailing large river boats. By 2600 B.C., sea trade was
well established in the region, and early sailors navigated lengthy routes.
87
Mediterranean Sea, Trade on
In the earliest times, navigation probably consisted of hugging the
shore and memorizing landmarks along the way. Nevertheless, voyages
well out of sight of land took place as well, sometimes without naviga-
tional instruments. Sailors then depended on the sun and stars and on
journals from earlier voyages. Although the oldest preserved journal dates
only from the 400s B.C., such journals were probably in use long before
that time.
The Mediterranean Sea offered some advantages to shipping. Its wind
patterns were consistent, making it easy for sailors to tell the difference
between a cold north wind and a warmer southerly one. Sailors identified
eight distinct winds and plotted them on a device called a wind rose,
which was in common use in the region in the 600s B.C. Ancient sailors
also detected ocean currents in the sea, which they learned to use to their
advantage. These currents generally run from the Nile Delta northward to
Crete, making possible much Egyptian shipping on the Mediterranean.

Trade. The region surrounding the Mediterranean Sea and its islands
was well settled by the fourth millennium B.C. As cultures expanded, they
came in contact with each other, leading to trade and the exchange of cul-
tural ideas. For instance, artworks found in Crete and Egypt show ships
from both countries, and Cretan textile patterns appear in Egyptian cloth.
Trade on the Mediterranean developed rapidly because of the desire
for materials not available locally. To this end, Egyptian ships pushed
northward to Crete and eastward to SYRIA and CYPRUS to obtain such
goods as timber, aromatic spices, wine, olive oil, tin, and copper. This
type of exchange was typical of trade on the Mediterranean, with states
exchanging what they had much of for things they wanted or needed.
Syria was a center of trade because it was midway between Mesopo-
tamia and Egypt. Although much of the trade there was controlled by the
state, private enterprise developed as well. Small-scale trade in textiles,
foodstuffs, and personal goods such as sandals occurred. Many of the mer-
chants acted on behalf of their governments as well, and these contacts
furthered political communication.
* archaeological referring to the study Cyprus was another center of Mediterranean trade. Archaeological*
of past human cultures, usually by records show that Cyprus had more contact with the ancient Near East
excavating material remains of human than any other island. Moreover, because Cyprus remained neutral in in-
activity
ternational power struggles, the island was able to preserve its trading for-
tune. Many nations sought copper from Cyprus, and the island augmented
its wealth from that trade.
The HARBORS at SIDON and TYRE were established by the Phoenicians,
who also built the greatest trading empire in the region during the first
millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.). In fact, their empire was al-
most entirely built on commerce. Phoenician sailors and their "round
boats" carried metal, glass, textiles, and dyes to customers throughout the
region. In order to expand their trading activities and find sources for raw
materials, the Phoenicians established many colonies throughout the
Mediterranean region from the Red Sea to Spain. The most famous of
these was Carthage, which was founded in 814 B.C. in North Africa.
Carthage itself became the center of a great commercial empire until its
defeat by Rome in the Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.).
88
 Megiddo
The Greeksfollowed the exampleset by the Phoeniciansand also estab-
lished trading colonies on the Mediterranean.B.C.,
Between750 and 550
Greek settlers established coloniesin
Italy,
Sicily, southern France,and
Libya. These colonies brought great wealth
also to the
(See Greeks.
Aegean Sea; Clothing; Economy and Trade; Maps; Naval Power;
Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Textiles.)

MEGIDDO
A n important town in theLevant*, Megiddo (mi»GI»doh) occupied a
strategic location where two main military and trade routes crossed.
One of these was a widely used transportation route between Egyptand
Mesopotamia. The other connected Phoenician cities on the Mediter-
ranean coast to Jerusalem and other towns in the Jordan River valley. Be-
cause of its location, Megiddowas a targetof numerous conflicts between
* Levant lands bordering the eastern kingdoms and groups strugglingfor controlof the Levant.
shores of the MediterraneanSea Megiddo wasfirst settled around
B.C., and7000the
first town ap-
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), peared about 3,000 years later. B.C., By
Megiddo
2000 had becomea
the West Bank, and Jordan
walled city containing a palace and several temples. The original inhabi-
tants of this city were Canaanites. B.C.,
Intheabout
Egyptian
1479 king
THUTMOSE III captured Megiddoand made itmajor
a trading center. The
See map in Israel and Judah (vol. 3). Canaanites later recaptured the city, but the Israelites gained control of it
sometime around925 SOLOMON B.C.King
ofIsrael began building
Megiddo into amajor politicaland military AHAB com-
center,and
King
pleted the work begunby Solomon. B.C.,the
By the
Israelite
800s cityhad
massive walls and an impressive water supply with underground wells
* siege long and persistent effort to force that could withstand a lengthy siege*.
a surrender by surrounding a fortressor The Assyrians conquered Megiddo B.C. and inbuilt
732a new city
city with armed troops, cutting it offthere. When the Persians captured Megiddo, the citywas in decline. It was
from supplies and aid
finally abandonedALEXANDER
GREAT
after
THEconquered
the regionin 332
B.C. Becausethe Hebrew
BIBLE mentions that several significant battles
were fought near Megiddo, many people believe that the
final battle of

89
Melukkha

earth's history (as described in the Christian New Testament Book of Rev-
elation), known as Armageddon (meaning "hill of Megiddo"), would be
fought there too. (See also Hebrews and Israelites.)

MELUKKHA
M elukkha (me»LUK«ka) was a maritime* state that engaged in trade
with Mesopotamian kingdoms and city-states*, including Akkad,
Sumer, Ur, and Babylon, from about 2300 to 2000 B.C. Although it is clear
from ancient texts that Melukkha was a coastal state and that trade be-
tween it and the Near East was by sea, its exact location is unknown. Most
scholars believe that it was located in the Indus River valley region of India
* maritime related to the sea or shipping and Pakistan and that it was probably part of the Harappan civilization.
* city-state independent state consisting The Harappan civilization flourished in the Indus River valley between
of a city and its surrounding territory about 2500 and 1600 B.C. It is noted mainly for its town planning, building
* decipher to decode and interpret the technology, and writing system, which remains to be deciphered*. The
meaning of Harappan economy was based on agriculture and trade, and it is likely
that the Harappans were the first to grow rice. The civilization collapsed
after 1600 B.C., perhaps due to environmental change and invasions by
tribes of ARYANS.
Melukkha was known in the Near East as the source of exotic items,
including gold, tin, ivory, and a black wood thought to be ebony. It was
also a source of lapis lazuli and carnelian—semi-precious stones used in
JEWELRY—and peacocks. Though ancient sources list these products as
trade items from Melukkha, it is not known whether they were native to
that region or obtained by Melukkhan traders from other places.
Melukkha never came under the rule of any of the ancient Near East-
ern kingdoms. However, it appears that some people from Melukkha,
* assimilate to adopt the customs of a most likely traders, settled in Sumer and were assimilated* into that soci-
society ety. (See also Economy and Trade; Metals and Metalworking; Shipping
Routes; Trade Routes.)

MEMPHIS
O ne of the most important and longest-occupied cities in ancient
Egypt, Memphis was located on the west bank of the NILE RIVER
near the head of the Nile Delta. The city was first settled around 3000 B.C.,
when King Menes united the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt and
chose Memphis as his capital, probably because of its strategic location.
Known originally as White Fortress—because of its whitewashed
walls—Memphis became an important religious and ceremonial site. Its
* deity god or goddess principal god, Ptah, was a major creator deity*, and the great temple of
Ptah became a focal point of the city. Memphis was also the center of
court ceremonies, including the crowning of the king. The city had many
palaces, temples, markets, and manufacturing zones, as well as large pri-
vate estates and other residential areas.
Memphis was the capital of Egypt until about 2100 B.C., when the cap-
ital moved to THEBES in Upper Egypt. Nevertheless, Memphis remained an
90
 Merchants
important political, economic, and religious center. It served as the ad-
ministrative center of Lower Egypt until about 1075 B.C. In the 700s B.C.,
* siege long and persistent effort to force Memphis was taken during a siege* by the Assyrians. In about 690 B.C.,
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or Egyptian king TAHARQA regained control of Memphis but was ousted
city with armed troops, cutting it off around 667 B.C. Shortly thereafter, the Persians gained control of Mem-
from supplies and aid
phis. In the late 300s B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Egypt, and
Memphis remained a major city with a large Greek population. When
Memphis came under Roman rule in 30 B.C., it was still considered a
strategic and important city.
Today all that remains of ancient Memphis is a vast complex of ceme-
teries, tombs, and monuments stretching for miles along the west bank of
the Nile River. These include the famous PYRAMIDS at Saqqara and GIZA.
(See also Cities and City-States; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

MERCHANTS
O ne of the most important consequences of the establishment of
cities in the ancient Near East was the development of large-scale
trade and commerce. Although the royal courts and temples organized
most economic activities in ancient times, merchants were still needed to
handle business transactions. As time passed, the role of the merchant ex-
panded as private individuals and families gradually assumed more re-
sponsibility for long-distance trade.

The Earliest Merchants. It is clear that regular long-distance trade

existed between MESOPOTAMIA and other parts of the Near East as early as
2700 B.C. Texts from Mesopotamia mention individuals called tamkaru,
an Akkadian word meaning "merchant." Historians are unsure whether
early tamkaru worked exclusively for the state or whether they engaged
in private business as well. They also do not know whether the tamkaru
traveled themselves or if they traded with travelers.
city-state independent state consisting Business records from the Sumerian city-state* of UMMA detail the na-
of a city and its surrounding territory ture of transactions made on behalf of the state and temple. The state pro-
duced surplus goods, particularly wool and grain, and traded these with
other city-states for goods not available locally. Merchants were given a
certain amount of these surplus goods as well as silver to trade. After ac-
quiring goods either in other lands or in Mesopotamian markets, the
merchants returned to Umma. There they distributed the goods as di-
rected by the state officials for whom they undertook the trade missions.
How merchants were paid is not entirely clear. They may have earned a
fixed amount of income in foodstuffs such as barley.
* third millennium B.C. years between During and after the third millennium B.C.*, merchants in the ancient
3000 and 2001 B.C. Near East traveled to foreign lands. Dilmun, present-day Bahrain in the Per-
sian Gulf, was one of the most important Mesopotamian trading partners,
even though it was not a source of goods. Rather, merchants in Dilmun
acted as brokers for goods that were sent there on their way to other places
as far away as India. Egyptian merchants traveled to the land of Punt,
which may have been in the present-day Sudan or Ethiopia or in Southern
Arabia. Punt was a source of exotic animals, spices, gold, and slaves.
91
Merchants

Assyrian Merchant Communities. ByB.C., theAssyr-

late
the 1900s
ians, who ruledfrom the northern Mesopotamian
ASHUR, rosecity
to of
prominence and assumed a central role in Near Eastern trade. Scholars
have gained their most detailed knowledge of merchant activities in the
ancient NearEastfrom the extensive economic recordsof the Assyrians.
Beginning in the earlyB.C.,1800s
theAssyrians established merchant
communities called karuin southeastern
ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey).
The most importantkarumwas locatedat the cityof Kanesh,and records
suggest that smaller karu were attached to settlements throughout Ana-
tolia. Thekaru answered to theAssyrian rulersAshur,
in who determined
what goods they could bring into Anatolia and what they would receive
in return. Sincethekaru were many hundredsof miles away from
Ashur,
the merchants handled many of their affairs.own In this sense, they
were independent settlements, headed by the most important Assyrian
merchants operating in the region and dealing with matters of local pol-
itics and law.Eachkarum negotiated its own trade treaties with local
Anatolian city-states. These treaties spelled out the types of goods they
were allowed to deal in, the amount of taxes to be paid to officials,
local
and the rights of the merchants who lived in the communities.
The trading houses located inkaru
the wererun by membersof promi-
nent Assyrian merchantfamilies. The heads of the families remained in
Ashur, where they organized the trading missions between Assyria and
Anatolia. The goods involved were primarily tin, obtained from regions in
present-day northwestern Iran andAfghanistan, and fine woolen textiles
from southern Mesopotamia. Merchants collected these goods Ashur in
and, two times a year, loaded CARAVANS
them on fordonkey
the six-to
eight-week trip north to Anatolia. They hired agents to manage the cara-
vans and to ensure that they arrived
safely at their destination. The tin and
textiles were traded for goldand silveror for local products suchas copper
that were then traded elsewherefor precious metals.
92
 Mesopotamia
To finance their trading missions, merchants often organized groups
of investors who contributed sums of silver. In return, investors were
Your Money for My Ufej guaranteed a 100 percent return on their investment. They also received
Merchants who traveled abroad one-third of the profits earned from the trip. The merchant kept one-
faced so many dangers that local third for himself, and the remaining one-third may have been set aside to
kings felt compelled to sign treaties
finance future trips. The merchants assumed all the risks involved with
guaranteeing their protection. In
the 1200s B.C, the Hittite city-state
the trip, including payment of taxes to states through which their cara-
of Karkamish and the Syrian city of vans passed and the loss of goods or human life due to accidents, bandits,
Ugarit signed such an agreement or wild animals. The men who were hired to lead the caravans bore the
According to the treaty, if a mer- brunt of these hazards, but such a position could be the stepping-stone to
chant from one city was killed in
the other, the latter city would pay
greater wealth. A caravan leader with a solid record and a good relation-
three times the value of the mer- ship with a trading firm might be entrusted with more responsibilities.
chant and three times the value of These added responsibilities would enable him to earn the capital needed
any goods that were taken from to become an independent merchant.
htm. However, this only applied if
the killers were caught. If they were j
Later Merchant Activities. Internal political problems in Anatolia
not caught, the city had to pay
three times the value of the mer-
led to the collapse of the karu system by about 1750 B.C. However, Assyr-
chant and the normal value of the ian and Babylonian merchants continued to trade with city-states
stolen goods. throughout the Near East. Beginning in about 1000 B.C., Phoenician mer-
chants, who specialized in dyes and other goods, conducted much of the
sea trade between Egypt and other civilizations along the Mediterranean
coast. References from Hebrew sources also suggest that foreign mer-
* domestication adaptation for human chants were common in CANAAN after about 1000 B.C. The domestication*
use of CAMELS around this same time led to an increase in the number of Arab
merchants, who established trade routes through the desert between
Egypt and Mesopotamia.
After the rise of the PERSIAN EMPIRE in the 500s B.C., more of the Near East
was united under one rule than ever before, widening the scope of trading
and merchant activity. By this time, Near Eastern merchants were making
more contacts with cultures in the West such as Greece. These contacts in-
creased after ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered Persia in the 320s B.C. Near
Eastern merchants maintained a busy trade with the West until the fall of
Rome shortly before A.D. 500. (See also Economy and Trade; Mediter-
ranean Sea, Trade on; Money; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Ship-
ping Routes; Taxation; Trade Routes.)

Meroe See Rush and Meroe.

MESOPOTAMIA
T he term Mesopotamia was derived from a Greek word meaning "be-
tween the rivers/' an apt description for a land that lay mainly
between the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER in present-day Iraq. Meso-
potamia was a cradle of early civilizations in the Near East—the home of
the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and others. Because these groups
spread beyond the land "between the rivers," the term often includes
93
Mesopotamia
* Levant lands bordering the eastern areas surroundingtheANATOLIA
rivers
SYRIA,
in nearby
(present-day
shores of the MediterraneanSea Turkey), and
IRAN.The influence of Mesopotamian civilizations spread
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), throughout the ancientNearEast, reachingas far as Egypt
in the westand
the West Bank, and Jordan
the IndusRiver valleyof present-day Indiain the east.
* assimilate to adopt the customs of a
society

LANDAND
PEOPLE
The landscape of what was once Mesopotamia ranges from high moun-
tains to rolling countryside to broad level plains. Much of the region re-
ceives relatively little rainfall or only seasonal rains, with the more
mountainous regions in the northeast receiving more rain than the areas
in the south. However, the region is watered by a number of rivers and
streams, and many areasareAGRICULTURE,
well suitedtoespeciallythe
floodplains of the Tigrisand Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamialay at the
eastern end of a broadarc of
fertile FERTILE
land known
CRESCENT,
as the
which curves to the west through the Levant* into Egypt.
An important geographicfeatureof Mesopotamiawas its openness.
There were few natural boundariesor defensesto isolateand protectit
from surroundingareas and peoples. Throughout history, Mesopotamia
experienced periodic wavesof invasionsand migrationsof people, most
of whom settled in the region and became assimilated* to the popula-
tions already living there.

94
 Mesopotamia
The first civilizations in Mesopotamia arose in the fertile areas of the
region when people developed IRRIGATION to harness the waters of the
The More Things rivers and to increase the productivity of the land. An abundance of food
Change, the More led to increased populations and urbanization*, and the need to manage
They Stay the Same farmlands and urban populations led to the formation of GOVERNMENTS
Despite the conquests, invasions, and bureaucracies*. These included organized states with boundaries and
and political changes that Mesopo- \ political institutions, religious and political leaders to direct society, a
tamia experienced during its thou- hierarchy* of social classes, a specialization of labor, and the development
sands of years of history,
Mesopotamian civilization re- of arts and intellectual ideas.
mained remarkably uniform. It also Ancient Mesopotamia contained many ETHNIC AND LANGUAGE GROUPS.
had a great capacity to restore itself ] Besides the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, there were Akkadians,
after major disasters. One of the AMORITES, ARAMAEANS, KASSITES, and HURRIANS. The Sumerians—among the
reasons for this stability in the face earliest of these groups—spoke a unique language and developed a distinct
of change may have been the un-
changing nature of the small agri-
and highly influential culture. Many of the other peoples of Mesopotamia
cultural communities that remain spoke Semitic* languages, but some also spoke INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
the basic unit of Mesopotamian so- Mesopotamians ranged from nomads* to settled farmers and city
ciety. These communities provided dwellers. The various groups in Mesopotamia often intermingled and
a framework within which most adopted certain aspects of other cultures, including religious beliefs.
people worked and lived. They re-
mained stable and unchanged over!
generations and centuries despite
disruption by flood, war, and
OVERVIEW OF MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY
famine. The history of ancient Mesopotamia included remarkable achievements,
from the development of agriculture and the domestication* of animals
by about 9000 B.C. to the rise of empires that began around 2300 B.C. Mes-
opotamia's history was marked by conflicts between states, invasions,
conquests, and the rise and fall of governments and societies.

* urbanization formation and growth of Origins of Mesopotamia!! Cities. By the early fourth millennium B.C.*,
cities large agricultural settlements in Mesopotamia had begun to act as religious,
* bureaucracy system consisting of administrative, and economic centers for the people of surrounding areas.
officials and clerks who perform Among the earliest of these emerging centers was URUK in southern Meso-
government functions potamia, an area known first as Sumer, and later as southern Babylonia. The
* hierarchy division of society or an main institution at Uruk and similar centers was the temple, which regu-
institution into groups with higher and lated all aspects of society and economy. It was through the temples that
lower ranks
writing, government, judicial and economic systems, official art, and other
* Semitic of or relating to a language elements of civilization first developed.
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic,
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician
The economy of these centers was based primarily on agriculture,
herding, and trade. Through trade and the contacts it created with other
* nomad person who travels from place
to place to find food and pasture
areas, the urban culture of southern Mesopotamia gradually spread to
other parts of the region. By about 2800 B.C., disputes began to occur
* domestication adaptation for human
use
among urban centers, especially over water rights and territorial bound-
aries. The resulting unrest transformed these centers into fully developed
* fourth millennium B.C. years from
4000 to 3001 B.C.
cities, as people in rural areas migrated to them.
Many rivalries existed between the cities of southern Mesopotamia
as each sought to gain an advantage over its neighbors or to expand its
territory. Before long, many of these cities had gained control of large ar-
city-state independent state consisting eas of surrounding territory, forming city-states*, such as KISH, LAGASH,
of a city and its surrounding territory UMMA, and UR, that were ruled by kings. Despite political differences,
these Sumerian city-states shared the same language, religious beliefs,
and customs.
95
Mesopotamia
Rise of Early Empires. Around B.C., 2350
the king of Umma seized
several city-statesand became rulerof all of Sumer. Soon after,he was
defeated and replaced
SARGON
byI, a ruler
from
Akkad
(a region northof
Sumer in northern Babylonia),who established firstthe
centralized state
in Mesopotamia. Sargon and his successors, including his grandson
NARAM-SIN, launched programsof territorial expansion, spreading their
control as far as partsof Syria, Iran,and Anatolia. Their conquests trans-
formed the "land of SumerandAkkad;; intoatrue empire.
The Akkadian empire lasted nearly200 years.The periodwasdomi-
nated by rivalry between southern Babylonia, which waspeopled with
non-Semitic Sumerians, and northern Babylonia, which wasinhabited by
Semitic-speaking Akkadians.At the same time, however, the cultureof
the two groups began to merge.
After a period of declineand invasionby the Gutians,apeople from
dynasty succession of rulers from the the northeast, Babyloniawas reunitedB.C. by about
under UR-
2112
same family or group NAMMU, who foundeda new dynasty* knownas the Third Dynasty of Ur.
SHULGI, perhaps the most important rulerof this dynasty, expanded the
territory of the kingdom and launched a series ofpolitical, administra-
ca. 3000s B.C. tive, and economicreforms that transformed it into ahighly centralized
Large, urban
settlements have
state with a governing bureaucracy.The periodof the Third Dynasty of Ur
emerged. is known as the Neo-Sumerian period.
3000B.CJ

ca. 2800s B.C. The Age of the Amorites. Weakened byinternal rebellions, raids by
City-states are formed.
2750B cj the Elamites, and migrations of nomadic peoples called Amorites,the
Third Dynasty of Ur collapsed around B.C. This2004
resultedin the
ca. 2350-2193 B.C. reemergence of independent states, manyof which gradually fell under
250OB.C,
Akkadian empire the control of two rival powers: the city-states of Isin and Larsa.For
is formed.
nearly 250 years,
Larsaand Isin viedfor supremacy ofBabylonia.
In the 1760s
B.C.,an AmoriteBABYLON
ruler
ofHAM-
thenamed
city
of
225OB.C, ca. 2112-2004 B.C. MURABI united southern Mesopotamiaand established a powerfulnew
Babyloniais reunited empire that dominated the region. One of Hammurabi's best-known
under the Third
Dynasty of Ur. achievements was his system of laws known as the Codeof Hammurabi.
2000
BXL- Meanwhile, in northern Mesopotamia, a newkingdom had arisen. It was
centered on the ASHUR
city ofand ruled by an Amorite leader named
ca. 2000 B.C.
Amorite leaders begin
SHAMSHI-ADADI. This kingdom became the foundation
of the state
of As-
1750BC to come to power. syria, which playedmajor
a rolein later Mesopotamian history.

ca. 1595
B.C. The Dark Age and the Kingdom of Mitanni. Following aser
1SOOBC Kassites take control raids by the Hittite king MurshiliI B.C.,
in about
Babylonia
1595wasover-
of Babylonia.
run by theKassites, who established various small independent kingdoms
there. Little is known about the Kassites and their cultureand first
of the
1250BC
ca. 1500
B.C. 200 years of their rule in Babylonia,a period referredto as the Dark Age.
Kingdom of Mitanni More is known about theKassites from their contacts, shortly
after 1400
is formed.
B.C., with the later kingsofEgypt's Eighteenth Dynasty. Kassite
The period
100OBC
was relativelypeaceful, exceptfor periodic conflicts with Ashur. Kassite
ca. 1200s B.C. rule came to an end around B.C., when
1158 the Elamites raidedand
Northern Mesopotamia
falls to theAssyrians.
looted Babylon, taking many of its monuments to their capital Susa
of in
southwestern Iran. In the years that followed, Babylon and other cities in
the region regained much of their independence under local rulers.
96
 Mesopotamia

As centralized rulein Mesopotamia declined

B.C.,
after
a group
1500
of people known as the Hurrians from northwestern Iran establisheda
The Many Facesof
number of small states in northern Mesopotamia aswellas in Syriaand
Mesopotamian Anatolia. Around this time, a powerful Human state called Mitanni arose
Religion in the north. Mitanni extended its authority over many neighboring
Different regions in ancient Meso- kingdoms, eventually controlling a region that extended from the
potamia shared thesame religious
beliefs. However, because ofvaria-
Mediterranean Sea in the west to Iran in the east.
tions in their history, they devel-
oped independent religious
The Rise of Assyria. While the Kassites controlled Babylonia, the re-
practices and ideasas wellas differ-
ent ways to represent divine pow- gion ofAssyria in northern Mesopotamia emergedon the international
ers. Thiswas most evident in the scene. In the 1300s
B.C.,the city-stateofAshur expandeditsborders and
names of deities, or gods and god- became a territorial state.The Assyrians conquered parts ofMitanniand
desses. A complete list of Mesopo- divided up other areas in the north between themselves and the Hittites
tamian deities would include more in Anatolia, with whom conflicts frequently arose. During B.C.,the 1200s
than 3,000 different names. They
were not all different deities, how-
northern Mesopotamia fell entirely under Assyrian rule.
ever. Many of the gods and god- Beginning in the early 1100sB.C., Aramaean nomads began migrating
desses were actually the same, but into Mesopotamiafrom north Syria. They raided many cities Assyria
in
they were known by different and Babylonia but were unable to gain a foothold in the cities and thus
names.Even in neighboring cities, settled primarilyin rural areas.One of the main contributions
Ara- of the
for example, the same deity might
maeans was their language, Aramaic, which eventually offi-
becamethe
be worshiped under different
names. Although there were many cial language of diplomacy*and trade throughout Mesopotamia.
faces to Mesopotamian religion,re- j Assyria entered a period of decline in theB.C.1000s that lasted until
ligious belief was much more simi- the 900sB.C., when Assyrian power was again on the rise. Over the next
lar than it would seem. 300 years, the Neo-Assyrian empire reached itsgreatest extent under such
rulersas
SARGON
ESARHADDON,
II, ASHURBANIPAL.
and The Assyrians created a
large, centralized state, and their aggressive military might made them
the undisputed mastersof the ancient Near
East.
* diplomacy practice of conducting
negotiations among or between The Fall of Assyria and Babylonia. Formany years, theAssyria
kingdoms, states, or nations let Babylonia keep its independence. The regionhad many cult* centers
* cult formal religious worship dedicated to gods also worshipedAssyria.
in Babyloniawasalso revered
97
Mesopotamia
for its ancient culture. However, beginning
B.C.,
Assyria
faced
in the 700s
periodic problems with Babyloniaand had to putdown several rebel-
lions there.
Assyrian power began to decline B.C.,inwhile
the 600s
thepowerof
Babylonia began to increase under theleadershipof theChaldeans,apeo-
ple from the coastal areas nearthe Persian Gulf.TheBabylonians rebelled
in 626B.C. andforcedtheAssyriansout ofBabylonia. Later
theBabyloni-
ans joinedforces withthe MedesofIranandbegan attacking Assyrian
provinces.In the late
B.C.,the
600s
Assyrianempire collapsed as aresult
of
repeated attacks by these invaders. Although some army units continued
Hellenistic referring to theGreek- to fight, the Assyrian empirehad effectively ended,and itslands weredi-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean vided among the victors.
world and western Asia during the three Babylonia then experiencedabrief periodofpeaceandprosperity.
centuries after the death ofAlexander
the Greatin B.C.
323
Babylonian rulers, especially
NEBUCHADNEZZAR II,launched spectacular
building programsand restored culturalandreligious for- institutions long
autonomous self-governing
gotten. Trade and commerce flourished, andBabylon becamethelargest
and most magnificent city in the ancient world. This period wasshort-
lived, however.B.C.,
In 539
Babyloniawasconquered by thePersians,
who
ca. 1100s B.C. madethe regiona province
PERSIAN
of theEMPIRE.
Aramaeans enter
Mesopotamia.
1500B.C]
Mesopotamia Under the Persians, Greeks, and
900sB.C.
Assyrians defeat
the height of their power,the Persians ruledall ofMesopotamiaaswell
11O D B C Aramaeans and establish as other partsof theNearEast. Babylonia, known as thebreadbasket
of
Neo-Assyrian empire.
the Persian empire, remainedaprosperous land, Assyria
but sank into
poverty and obscurity. Although controlled Persia
by through satraps, or
900 Bc 626 B.C. provincial governors, Babyloniaand other partsofMesopotamiare-
Chaldeans take control mained relatively unchanged intheir culture, society, andreligion.
of Babylonia.
The Persians controlled Mesopotamia
ALEXANDER
B.C., whenuntil
330
700 B c THEGREAT conquered the Persian empire. Under
SELEU-Alexander
and the
late 600s
B.C. CIDEMPIRE thatwas created after
his death, Mesopotamia experienced
Medes and Babylonians great changes. Although Mesopotamian cities generally kept theirold
conquer Assyria.
500 Bc systems of local government,the Hellenistic* culture introducedby the
Seleucids brought Greek ideas, language, customs,andreligious beliefs
539 B.C. to the region. Mesopotamia also prospered greatly under theSeleucids.
300 cB
Persians conquer In the mid-lOOs
B.C., Mesopotamiawasconqueredby theParthians,
Babylonia.
an originally nomadic people who hadconquered neighboring Iran in
the mid-200s
B.C. Little changedin the region undertheParthians,who
100BC
331 B.C. generally allowed local governmentstoremain autonomous*. Hellenis-
Alexander the Great
seizes Mesopotamia.
tic culture continuedtoflourish, blending GreekandIranian ideas.
Af-
ter the 30s
B.C., Parthiahad to compete withtheRomansfordominance
AD 100
in Mesopotamia. Soon the Romans gained increasing advantage in the
mid-1OOs
B.C. region, and in A.D.
the100s, Mesopotamiawasconqueredby the Ro-
Parthians control
Mesopotamia.
mans and madea provinceof thealso Roman
(SeeAkkad Empire.
and
the Akkadians; Animals, Domestication of; Archaeology and Ar-
AD 300
chaeologists; Architecture;Art, Artisans, andArtists; Assyria and the
A.D. 100S Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea a
Romans conquer
Mesopotamia. Chaldeans; Cities and City-States; Economy and Trade; Elam
the Elamites; Geography; Hellenistic World; Parthia;Sumer and
Sumerians.)
98
 Messengers

MESSENGERS
M essengers provided an important means of COMMUNICATION in the
ancient Near East, particularly over long distances. By carrying
written or oral messages from one place to another, they served a basic
function within every society. They became the principal means by which
states conducted international business. According to the Greek historian
HERODOTUS, "neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night" could
stop royal messengers as they carried messages between places.
There were three classes of messengers in the ancient Near East. The
first was simply an individual—a servant, slave, or even a child—who
traveled within a city carrying messages between households or busi-
nesses. The second class of messengers was composed of individuals who
traveled long distances but only delivered a message and received the re-
ply. The third, and most important class of messengers, was made up of
individuals who delivered messages and had the authority to negotiate
with the recipient, usually the ruler of another kingdom or state. Such
messengers could negotiate treaties, trade relations, and other political,
economic, or social matters. This last group of messengers served as am-
* diplomat person who conducts bassadors and diplomats* between states.
negotiations or relations with foreign Only trustworthy, loyal, and fast individuals were chosen as messen-
kingdoms, states, or nations gers. They came from all classes in society, from slaves to royalty. Women
served as messengers, too, most often carrying messages for other women.
A royal messenger serving as an ambassador might be a trusted servant, a
* vassal individual or state that swears soldier or military officer, a member of the royal family, or a vassal* king
loyalty and obedience to a greater traveling on behalf of another ruler. When communications involved per-
power sonal matters or sensitive negotiations, a ruler might choose a member of
the royal family to carry the message.
Royal messengers were skilled and intelligent individuals. They
needed to know their own rulers and to understand the nature and terms
of the negotiations taking place. They also had to know the culture and
customs of the country where a message was to be delivered, as well as the
personality of the ruler receiving the message. In learning the customs,
politics, and news of the places they visited, messengers became the
state's main link to its neighbors and the world. Royal messengers and
their staff generally stayed at the palaces of the recipient rulers or in the
homes of local individuals responsible for foreign relations. The messen-
gers received normal rations of food and drink. In special instances, they
might dine with the king or receive special gifts.
Long-distance messengers might travel by boat, by horse-drawn
wagon, or on horseback. However, most traveled by foot, either walking
or running, depending on distance and the urgency involved. As king-
doms expanded, systems of roads were constructed to make travel and
communication easier. Many roads had rest stops for messengers set up at
certain intervals. During the 2000s B.C., King SHULGI of UR described how
he "enlarged the footpaths, straightened the highways [and] established
rest houses/' Later, the Persians and Romans both became famous for
their extensive and well-organized systems of roads and messengers.
Although being a messenger was an important job, it was also diffi-
cult and dangerous work. Messengers generally had to travel on bad roads
in all kinds of weather and faced threats from robbers as well as enemies
in hostile states. (See also Transportation and Travel.)
99
Metals and Metalworkiiig
A^ etals have fascinated humans for thousands of years. Early arti-
/ ^ Isans* fashioned the first objects out of metal more than 9,000
METALS AND years ago. However, it was not until some 7,500 years ago, with the in-
METALWORKING vention of metallurgy—the science of extracting metal from ore* and cre-
ating useful objects from it—that metal came to be widely used for TOOLS,
weapons, decorations, and currency. The art and science of metalworking
probably began in the ancient Near East, and the civilizations there were
* artisan skilled craftsperson at the forefront of metallurgy for thousands of years.
* ore mineral or rock containing a high
concentration of one or more metals
METALLURGY
To produce useful metal objects, one must learn how to separate metals
from ore, melt metal, work with it in a liquid form, and change its proper-
ties through heating and other processes. These skills are known as metal-
lurgy, and their discovery was a turning point for humanity.

Native Metals and Ores. Most metals are embedded in rocky miner-
als called ores, from which they must be extracted before they can be
used. However, small quantities of some metals occur naturally as pure
nuggets already separated from ore. These so-called "native" metals—
such as gold, silver, and copper—result from the action of water passing
over and through the ore-bearing rock formations. Such metals can be
easily collected with a minimum of effort. The oldest metal objects
found in the Near East—a pin and a needle of native copper dating from
between 7500 and 7000 B.C.—were found in ANATOLIA.
Native metals can be worked in their natural state by hammering
them into the desired shape. Because such metals make up only a small
fraction of the metals contained in the earth, however, only a limited
number of objects can be made from them. Moreover, hammering makes
metals brittle and the shapes and uses of objects produced in this manner
are limited. To produce a larger variety of metal items, it is necessary to
apply the basic techniques of metallurgy.

Melting and Smelting. The most basic metallurgical technique is heat-

ing metal until it becomes soft or melts into a liquid. By pouring the liquid
into a mold and letting the molten metal cool, early peoples discovered
that they could create metal objects of any desired shape. Working copper
in this way also made it less brittle. Evidence suggests that by about 7000
B.C. early metalworkers in the Near East learned how to change the nature
of metals by heating them. The first metal to be worked in this way was
copper.
Another basic metallurgical technique is smelting, a process by which
an ore is heated together with another substance that combines chemically
with the nonmetal in the ore and separates it from the metal. The earliest
evidence of copper smelting in the ancient Near East—a lump of slag, a
waste product of the smelting process, dating from about 5500 B.C.—
comes from Anatolia. However, lumps of copper ore have been found at
various sites in MESOPOTAMIA dating from about the same period, suggest-
ing that the smelting process may have been known there as well. By
3000 B.C., copper smelting technology had become widely known
100
 Metals and Metalworking
throughout the Near East. The process was essential to the growth and
further development of metalworking in the region.

Alloying. As early artisans in the Near East worked with various types
of metals, they eventually discovered that some metals could be com-
bined by melting them together, a process known as alloying. Alloying
enabled metalworkers to change the properties of metals and produce
metals that were stronger and more durable. One of the first alloys used
in the Near East, and the most important, was bronze, a mixture of cop-
per and tin. The production of bronze and its use in making weapons,
tools, and other objects was so important that historians call the period
from about 3000 to 1200 B.C. the Bronze Age.

METALS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

The people of the ancient Near East used precious metals—gold and sil-
ver—as well as common metals—copper, tin, and iron. In addition, they
produced alloys, such as bronze, that were used extensively. A later inven-
Levant lands bordering the eastern tion was steel, an alloy of iron and carbon.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), Copper. The first metal to be used throughout the ancient world was
the West Bank, and Jordan
copper. This was largely because native copper and copper ores are abun-
archaeologist scientist who studies past dant throughout the Near East. Large copper deposits existed in Anatolia,
human cultures, usually by excavating
material remains of human activity
in northern IRAN and Mesopotamia, on the island of CYPRUS, in parts of
the Levant* and SYRIA, in the deserts of eastern Egypt, and on the OMAN
PENINSULA of Arabia.
Archaeologists* have discovered evidence of copper metallurgy in Ana-
tolia, Iran, and the Levant dating from between 5500 and 3500 B.C. This
The Copper-Silver technology appeared later in Mesopotamia. The earliest copper objects
Dispute there were made from metal mined in Iran and brought to Mesopotamia
An ancient Sumerian text called The by traders. After about 3000 B.C., the Sumerians began to import copper
Dispute Between Copper and Silver from the land of Magan (present-day Oman) because it was cheaper to
contains an interesting "dialogue" import copper from Magan by ship through the Persian Gulf than
between copper and silver. Copper \
mocks silver for its uselessness, say-I through overland trade from Iran.
ing that it has a place only in the
palace: "If there were no palace, Bronze and Tin. The earliest bronze objects appeared around 3000 B.C.
you would have no station; gone By about 1900 B.C., tin bronze (copper and tin) had replaced arsenical
would be your dwelling place," bronze (copper and arsenic) in much of the Near East. The Egyptians,
Even in the home silver is "buried
away in its darkest spots/' while however, continued the use of arsenical bronze because arsenic forms a sil-
copper is widely used every day. very surface on copper that can be polished to a mirrorlike finish. Bronze
The "dispute" goes on to mention was used to make domestic utensils, furniture, lamps, sculpture, arms, ar-
the use of capper tools for planting.] mor, coins, tools, and implements.
crops, harvesting grain, and cuttin Scholars are uncertain about the origins of the tin that was used to
wood. Because of copper's great make the earliest tin-bronze alloys. Native tin may have been used for
usefulness, the text concludes of sit- j
ver: "That's why nobody pays any some early bronze work, but deposits of the metal were much too small to
attention to you!" have supported a widespread bronze industry. Anatolia contains some tin
ores, but there is little evidence to suggest that ancient peoples either
knew about or mined them. The best current evidence of ancient sources
of tin points to eastern Iran and areas in present-day Afghanistan, which
contain large quantities of native tin and tin ores.
101
Metals and Metalworking
Gold and Silver. The major sources ofgold in the region were eastern
Anatolia, eastern Iran,Afghanistan,and Egypt.Becausegold couldbeeasily
bent or drawn out,it was impracticalfortoolsorweapons.It wasalmost ex-
See clusively used
JEWELRY
for and luxury items, as well
as for decorations in
colorplate3, temples, palaces, and other official buildings. Although gold wasbeing
vol.4.
worked in Egypt, Anatolia,and Mesopotamia before B.C.,its use
3000
did
not become widespread until later.
Silver was used widely throughoutthe ancient B.C.
Near
Eastprior to 3000
Among the most important sources of silver were Iran, Afghanistan, and
Anatolia. This precious metal, like gold, wasused mainlyforjewelryand
luxury items. Silverwas also accepted in Mesopotamiaas amediumof ex-
change, or type of currency,and some societiesin the Near Eastusedanat-
ural alloy of silverand gold, knownaselectrum,formaking coins.

Iron. Although iron was found everywhere in the ancient world, it was
the last metal to be widely used in the ancient Near
East. Theoldest piece
of ironwork foundin the Near East comes
from Mesopotamiaand dates
from about 5000
B.C.Fewer than25 iron objects have been discovered
that datefrom between 3000B.C. andAlmost
2000 all of these came
from the gravesof wealthy individuals, temples,or collectionsoftrea-
sure, suggesting that they were rare and valuable items.
Increasing numbers of iron objects were produced in the NearEastbe-
tween about 2000 andB.C.,1200
but these were probably by-products of
copper smelting. It was not until
after
B.C. that
1500iron wasproduced in
any quantity, and it was not usedfortools and weapons B.C.
until the 1200s
TheHITTITES are considered the earliest ironworkersof the ancientNear
East, and some historians credit their rise as amilitary power to the early
use of iron weapons.

102
 Metals and Metalworking
By about 1100 B.C., metalworkers in the Near East had mastered the
techniques for producing steel from iron, and by 900 B.C., ironworking had
spread throughout the region. Although bronze continued to be used
widely for hundreds of years after that time, the period after about 1200 B.C.
and until 500 B.C. is known as the Iron Age.

METALWORKING
The term metalworking refers to the ability to make useful objects out of
metal. This ability dramatically transformed ancient society, and because
The Lame Smith of the advantages of metal items, ancient metalworkers became impor-
One of the common characters in tant members of ancient Near Eastern societies.
myths and folktales around the
world is the blacksmith. In stories Metalworkers. Those who mastered the arts of melting, smelting, and
from the Near East and the Medi-
terranean world, the smith is typi- casting metals such as copper or tin were called smiths. Although highly
cally tame. For example, the Creek valued for their skills, they had the lowest social status among metal-
smith god Hephaestus and his Ro- workers. For example, an ancient Egyptian text described coppersmiths
man counterpart Vulcan were al- in unflattering terms, saying that their ''fingers are like crocodile scales''
ways depicted as lame. This may and their flesh "stinks more than fish eggs."
reflect a reality of life for early met-
alsmiths, who often worked with Those who worked metal and created metal objects, considered met-
bronze ores that contained arsenic. \ alworkers, were more highly respected. The most highly esteemed mem-
While working with arsenic over a bers of the metalworking profession were jewelers and goldsmiths. These
period of time, ancient smiths ab- artisans typically worked in royal workshops making personal items for
sorbed the dangerous substance the wealthy and powerful. They also created cult* objects and official
into their skin. This could easily items such as metal SEALS.
have led to chronic arsenic poison-
ing, which causes decay of the
muscles, loss of reflexes, and even- Metalworking Techniques. Near Eastern metalworkers used two ba-
tually lameness. sic techniques: casting and hammering. Casting involved pouring molten
metal into molds of various shapes and allowing the metal to cool and
harden. Ancient Near Eastern artisans used a complex type of casting
called the lost-wax method. Here an artisan made a wax model of the de-
* cult formal religious worship sired object and covered it with clay. When the clay hardened into a
mold, it was heated until the wax ran out through a hole on the bottom.
Molten metal was then poured into the mold through the same hole.
When the metal cooled the mold was broken, leaving a metal reproduc-
tion of the original wax model. This method was used for making small
objects as well as larger works such as statues.
Hammering, which involved pounding metal into a desired shape,
produced one-of-a-kind objects. Artisans used one of five methods of
hammering: raising, sinking, repousse, chasing, and punching. In raising,
the metal was hammered into shape from the outside, while in sinking it
was hammered into a depression cut into wood or another material. In re-
pousse, the design was hammered into sheet metal from the back to form
a raised pattern. In chasing, a reverse of repousse, the metal was ham-
mered from the front to produce a sunken design. Punching involved
hammering holes into a piece of metal. It was often used for artistic deco-
ration and to cut INSCRIPTIONS into metal objects. Another more specialized
type of metalworking skill was gilding, in which an artisan applied a thin
layer of gold to the surface of an object. Gilding was used for only the
most valuable or sacred objects.
103
Midas
Local Metalworking Traditions. Archaeologists have uncovered
metal artifacts that demonstrate the great skill of ancient metalworkers
and the differences in metalworking traditions. For example, copper axes
and weapons from Iran feature elaborate decorations, often including
animal forms. The wide distribution of such objects indicates that they
were traded throughout the region.
Some of the most interesting and impressive metalwork of the ancient
Near East was produced in the kingdom of URARTU from about 650 to 600
B.C. Urartu had especially gifted bronze workers who created highly deco-
rated bronze objects such as belts, plates, bells, plaques, and statues.
Other Urartian treasures include bronze statuettes covered in gold leaf
and inlaid with precious stones. While the Urartian culture was particu-
larly gifted in the arts of metalworking, they were not unique. Metalwork-
ing played a key role in the advancement of Near Eastern civilization, and
metalworking skills were essential to every society that made its mark on
the region. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Economy and Trade;
Jewelry; Mining; Money; Science and Technology; Weapons and
Armor.)

Midas See Phrygia and the Phrygians.

MIGRATION
I n the ancient Near East, people often migrated for economic reasons:
to search for better agricultural or grazing land or to escape famine*
or drought*. They also migrated for political reasons: to escape oppres-
AND DEPORTATION sion or to flee from invaders. Sometimes they were forcibly removed
from their homelands and taken elsewhere. This occurred when one
state conquered another. Such involuntary movement from one place
to another, known as deportation, was much less common than other
famine severe lack of food due to failed types of migration.
crops
drought long period of dry weather
during which crop yields are lower than
usual MIGRATION
Most migration in the ancient Near East occurred as people wandered in
search of better land for farming or grazing livestock. Some of this migra-
tion was seasonal and generally involved small numbers of people and
had only a minor impact on settled communities or societies. More per-
manent migrations involving thousands of people also occurred. These
great migratory movements caused profound political, economic, and so-
cial changes throughout the ancient Near East.

Pastoral Nomadism. From as early as 8000 B.C., ancient Near Eastern

societies contained both farmers and herders. Over time, the herders de-
veloped a lifestyle known as pastoral nomadism, which was quite different
104
 Migration and Deportation

from that of farmers. They had no fixed residence and wandered from
place to place. They were also pastoralists, which means that their
lifestyle was based on the breeding and herding of animals. Some schol-
ars believe that pastoral nomadism arose in the Near East as human pop-
ulations increased and fertile lands became increasingly scarce. To
conserve land for crops, herders had to move away from communities to
graze their herds, leading to the nomadic lifestyle.
Drought, famine, and other problems sometimes forced even farmers
to take up a nomadic pastoral lifestyle because they could no longer sup-
Opposing Lifestyles port themselves by raising crops. They often returned to farming when
In ancient times, many nomads j agricultural conditions improved. Similarly, pastoral nomads often set-
mistrusted farmers and the city
life, white farmers and city tled in communities, perhaps to farm or because they needed a home
dwellers distrusted the nomads. A let- \ from which to manage their herds over a large area. Such changes back
ter written in Syria by one Yaminite and forth between nomadism and farming occurred in ancient times,
leader to another around 1770 B.C. contributing to the migrations of people throughout the Near East.
expresses perhaps a common view
about the opposing viewpoints of city j
life and the nomadic existence:
Large-Scale Migrations. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, political instability,
war, and other factors also caused large-scale migrations. However, these
You foofc forward to eating,
drinking and sleeping, but not
were very different from pastoral nomadism because they involved
to accompanying me? Sitting or larger numbers of people. Often these people were from different ethnic
sleeping will not redden you backgrounds, worshiped different gods, and spoke different languages
[from the sun]. As for me, if I than those of the inhabitants of the lands to which they migrated.
keep myself Inside just one day, The people in these types of migrations were usually seen as invaders,
until I leave the city walls behind even if their purpose was not to conquer but to escape some problem or
to renew my vigor, my vitality
ebbs away. disaster in their homelands. The movement of such groups often caused
great upheaval, leading to changes in government, the rise of new states,
the disappearance of old traditions, and the emergence of new cultural
and religious ideas.
One of the earliest large-scale migrations known from ancient sources
involved the Gutians. This pastoral nomadic group from the Zagros Moun-
tains region of western IRAN migrated to MESOPOTAMIA sometime before the
2100s B.C. and possibly contributed to the collapse of the Akkadian empire.
The best-documented series of migrations in the ancient Near East
were probably those of the AMORITES, a nomadic people who migrated from
northern Mesopotamia and SYRIA to central and southern Mesopotamia be-
ginning in about 2000 B.C. Although the Amorites attacked some areas,
city-state independent state consisting their migration was largely peaceful. Records from the city-state* of MARI
of a city and its surrounding territory indicate that it tried unsuccessfully to control the Amorites and their mi-
gration. Other city-states probably attempted to do the same. Eventually,
however, the Amorites took over many areas and established small, inde-
pendent kingdoms. They were absorbed into the local populations and
* assimilate to adopt the customs of a assimilated* many local customs, beliefs, and institutions. Among the most
society famous Amorite rulers were HAMMURABI and SHAMSHI-ADAD I.
By about 1600 B.C., the Amorites were being forced westward by mi-
grations of KASSITES, a pastoral nomadic group that probably originated in
the Zagros Mountains. Around 1595 B.C., the Kassites seized power in
Babylonia and established various small kingdoms. Another group of
people known as the HURRIANS, who had moved from northwestern Iran,
settled in northern Mesopotamia and founded a number of states there,
including the powerful Mitanni.
105
Migration and Deportation

In about 1200 B.C., Egypt was invaded both by land and by sea by
groups historians call the SEA PEOPLES. These peoples were not one group
but various tribes, including the PHILISTINES. After Egyptian king RAMSES III
drove the Sea Peoples out of Egypt, they appear to have settled in the Lev-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ant* and in Syria. During the following century, many cities including
shores of the Mediterranean Sea KARKAMISH and UGARIT in Syria, and KHATTUSHA, the capital of the HmrrES in
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), Anatolia were violently destroyed. Many scholars believe that these wide-
the West Bank, and Jordan
spread destructions resulted from the migrations of Sea Peoples into these
regions.
Around 1100 B.C., another nomadic group known as the ARAMAEANS
began migrating into the settled areas of Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia.
Scholars believe that the Aramaeans came from the desert fringes of Syria,
although there is no evidence of them before about 1300 B.C. The Ara-
maeans captured various city-states in Syria, and their growing power
eventually brought them into conflict with the Assyrians. Assyrian king
Tiglath-pileser I spoke of crossing the EUPHRATES RIVER many times to chase
them away. Around 926 B.C., the Aramaeans had established a large state
called Bit-Adini. Aramaean culture gradually spread throughout Syria and
Mesopotamia, and the Aramaic language became the common language
of government and business in many parts of the Near East.
Another series of migrations had a great impact on the later history of
the Near East. Around 1500 B.C., a nomadic people called the ARYANS be-
gan migrating from CENTRAL ASIA to Iran. The two most important Aryan
tribes were the MEDES and the Persians. The Medes settled in northwest-
ern Iran, established a kingdom in the 700s B.C., and played an important
role in the collapse of the Assyrian empire in the following century. The
Persians settled in southern Iran, and by the late 500s B.C., the PERSIAN EM-
PIRE had become the mightiest empire in the Near East.

DEPORTATION
At various times in the ancient Near East, rulers forcibly moved groups of
people from one place to another. Such forced migration, or deportation,
generally was done for political purposes. Rulers deported people from a
conquered territory to limit the possibility of rebellion, to improve their
* tribute payment made by a smaller or ability to control the area, and to punish rebellion or refusal to pay tribute*.
weaker party to a more powerful one, Deportation not only broke up any unified opposition but also created
often under the threat of force forced labor that could be used to build monuments or work in farm
colonies.
Most deportations in the Near East were carried out by the Assyrians.
Around 1235 B.C., King Tukulti-Ninurta I deported several Babylonians
into Assyria as retaliation for an attack by the Kassites. In the 800s B.C.,
King ASHURNASIRPAL II began a military conquest in the Levant to gain con-
trol of various trade routes. He ordered the deportation of Phoenicians
and Aramaeans from their homelands.
In the 700s B.C., after conquering Syria, King TIGLATH-PILESER III
launched mass deportations that removed at least 80,000 people from the
area. He then brought people from other parts of his empire to replace
them. SARGON II forced an even larger number of people to move in 707 B.C.
After conquering Babylon, he deported more than 100,000 Aramaeans
106
 Mining
and Chaldeans to SAMARIA, the former capital of Israel, and other distant re-
gions and moved in others to replace those deported. Earlier, in 722 B.C.,
the Assyrians had moved large numbers of people from Israel to northern
Mesopotamia.
The Assyrians were not the only ones to use deportation, however.
The Babylonians used the tactic against the Jews around 587 B.C., when
the kingdom of Judah rebelled against Babylonian control. After destroy-
ing the city of JERUSALEM, the Babylonians deported a large part of the Jew-
ish population to Babylonia, where they were enslaved. When the
Persian king CYRUS THE GREAT conquered Babylonia in 538 B.C., he freed
the Jews and permitted them to return to their homeland. However,
many chose to stay in their new home.
The Hittites also deported people from conquered territory and reset-
tled them in Hittite lands. These people became slaves and provided labor
for the state. (See also Drought; Famine; Labor and Laborers; Nomads
and Nomadism; Slaves and Slavery; Wars and Warfare.)

MINING
M ining is the recovery of metal or metal-bearing minerals called
ores from deposits in the earth. Archaeologists* have uncovered
evidence of metal use in the ancient Near East from at least 7000 B.C.
However, the earliest metal artifacts* were probably made from metals
found above ground, such as gold, silver, or copper taken from stream-
beds. The actual mining of metals and metallic ores probably did not de-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past velop until around 5000 B.C. Because of the usefulness of metal for
human cultures, usually by excavating making tools, weapons, and other objects, mining became an important
material remains of human activity economic activity in the ancient Near East.
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or
other object made by humans
THE MINING PROCESS
Most metals are embedded in ores that contain varying amounts of
metal. Ore deposits are typically located in mountains or beneath the
earth's surface, and recovery of the ores often requires a great deal of ef-
fort. To reach ore deposits, workers usually must cut shafts or tunnels into
the rock and then dig out the ore. The earliest miners did this with picks
and hammers made of stone. The ore is then transported to workshops
where the metal is removed through various techniques.
Mining and the recovery of metal from ore involve complex processes.
They require the technical expertise to locate and recognize ore deposits,
the organizational ability to assemble a large workforce to extract ores
from the earth, and the technology to separate metal from ore so that it
can be worked to produce useful items.

MINING IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Very little is known about early mining in the ancient Near East. Many re-
gions, including MESOPOTAMIA, SYRIA, and Egypt, have few mineral de-
posits. Extensive mineral deposits were found in ANATOLIA (present-day
107
Mining
Turkey), and studies in that region have produced significant information
about ancient mining activities. That information, combined with
knowledge about trade and metalworking in the Near East, has provided
an overview of mining and the metals recovered.

Copper. The first metal mined extensively in the ancient Near East was
copper. Large deposits of copper were found in a belt that extended
across Anatolia into northern Assyria and IRAN. The earliest evidence of
* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 copper mining in these regions dates to the early fifth millennium B.C.*
to 4001 B.C. At a site called Tepe Ghabristan in northern Iran, archaeologists discov-
ered the remains of a copper workshop from about 4500 B.C. Equipment
found at the site included a deep bowl containing pieces of copper ore and
a furnace for smelting, a process by which an ore is heated together with an-
other substance that combines chemically with the nonmetal in the ore
* artisan skilled craftsperson and separates it from the metal. The fact that artisans* were smelting copper
at this site suggests that copper probably was mined in the area at the time.
Archaeologists have also discovered evidence of copper metalworking
Levant lands bordering the eastern in the Levant*, dating from as early as 3500 B.C. The copper ore for this in-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea dustry probably came from deposits in present-day Jordan, although
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), some may have also come from sites in southern Israel.
the West Bank, and Jordan
The Egyptians were mining copper in the SINAI PENINSULA as early as
3000 B.C. In Mesopotamia, there is little evidence of copper metalworking
before about 2000 B.C., probably because the area had few deposits of ore.
The copper used in the region in early times probably came from mines
in Iran. CYPRUS and parts of the OMAN PENINSULA contained significant de-
posits of copper. After 3000 B.C., the Mesopotamians began to import cop-
per from the mines of Oman instead of from Iran.

Tin. The metal tin is often contained in a mineral ore called cassiterite,
which can be found in streambeds or on plains where it has been de-
posited by running water. When tin is combined with copper by melting
the two metals together—a process known as alloying—the result is
bronze, a much harder and more useful metal than either copper or tin.
The appearance of bronze items in Anatolia indicates that people in
that region were using tin by the early third millennium B.C. (years from
3000 to 2001 B.C.) Bronze items dating from about 2500 B.C. have been
found in cities as far apart as TROY and UR. Although tin is currently mined
in southeastern Turkey, there is little evidence that tin mining occurred
there in ancient times. The most likely source of ancient tin was present-
day Afghanistan. Tin from mines there was traded over much of the Near
East. MERCHANTS brought much of this tin to such cities as ASHUR and MARI,
where it was shipped to various places in Anatolia and the Levant.

Iron. Bronze was the most important metal in the ancient Near East
from about 3500 B.C. to 1200 B.C., when it was replaced by iron. Al-
though remains of iron objects dating from as early as about 5000 B.C.
have been found in the Near East, these were probably by-products of
copper smelting, because some copper ores contain small amounts of
iron. Iron was not produced in significant quantities until after 1500 B.C.,
and it was not used for tools or weapons for another 300 years.
108
 Minoan Civilization
The most abundant metal on earth, iron makes up nearly 6 percent of
the earth's crust. Deposits of iron ore as well as meteoric iron existed in al-
Life in the Mines most every part of the ancient world. Yet iron mining and metalworking
Ancient texts and other evidence were slow to develop. The primary reason is that ironworking requires
provide a glimpse of the difficult more advanced techniques than were available in the earlier periods of
conditions that ancient miners of- ancient Near Eastern history. Once these techniques were developed,
ten had to endure. Remains of min-
ing sites in eastern Egypt reveal tha
however, iron became very important because it provided a stronger,
miners not only had to travel across cheaper, and more practical alternative to bronze. Because of the impor-
the harsh desert to the mines, but tance and abundance of iron, evidence of iron mining and metalworking
they also had to carry their own have been found in many areas of the ancient Near East.
food with them from home. Egypt-
ian records show that mining for
turquoise in the desert of the Sinai
Other Metals. The people of the ancient Near East also mined lead, sil-
peninsula took place in winter at al ver, and gold. Evidence indicates that lead ores were being smelted to
titudes where the cold was intense produce metallic lead as early 3500 B.C. and perhaps earlier. This suggests
and water was scarce. Copper and that lead mining existed at that time as well. The Egyptians were mining
gold mining took place in the same gold by about 2700 B.C., with most mining activity taking place in the
region during the blistering heat of
desert east of the NILE RIVER and in the region of Nubia south of Egypt.
the summer. According to Greek
sources, water was rationed, and
Silver mines were located in many places in the ancient Near East. Most
many Egyptian miners died under of the silver in ancient Egyptian jewelry came from mines in Anatolia,
such harsh conditions. Cyprus, and CRETE. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Economy and
Trade; Metals and Metalworking; Science and Technology; Tools;
Weapons and Armor.)

MINOAN
I n A.D. 1900, English archaeologist* Sir Arthur Evans made an amazing
discovery on the island of CRETE in the Mediterranean Sea. He uncov-
ered the ruins of a unique and distinctive culture dating from about 3000
CIVILIZATION to 1000 B.C. He called this culture the Minoan civilization, named after
King Minos, a legendary king of Crete in Greek MYTHOLOGY.
Despite many discoveries since Evans, the Minoan civilization re-
mains a mystery and a matter of disagreement among modern historians.
* archaeologist scientist who studies Experts generally agree, however, that the Minoans were a mostly peace-
past human cultures, usually by ful and sophisticated people who developed extensive trading networks
excavating material remains of human and created beautiful POTTERY, JEWELRY, WALL PAINTINGS, and SCULPTURE.
activity

Geography and Early Settlements. Crete is located south of Greece

at the edge of the AEGEAN SEA. Apart from CYPRUS, it is the largest island in
See map in Phoenicia and the the eastern Mediterranean. With a mild climate, abundant resources,
Phoenicians (vol. 3). and an excellent location for sea trade, it is not surprising that a great
civilization arose on the island in ancient times.
The earliest inhabitants of Crete probably arrived on the island
around 6000 B.C., but their exact origins are unknown. Continuous mi-
* domesticated adapted or tamed for gration over the next 3,000 years led to the introduction of domesticated*
human use plants and animals from the ancient Near East, and this contributed to
the development of a flourishing agricultural economy.
By about 3000 B.C., the people of Crete had become successful farm-
ers, herders, and traders, and their settlements were scattered throughout
the island. They exported wine, wool, textiles, timber, and olive oil and
109
Minoan Civilization
imported metals andjewels. Long-distance trade ANATO-
was strong with
* Levant lands bordering theeastern LIA (present-dayTurkey)and the Levant*. Cretan society at this time con-
shores of the Mediterranean
Sea sisted of various socialclasses, and political power beganto centralizein
(present-daySyria, Lebanon,and Israel), several of the largest settlements.
the WestBank,andJordan

The Rise of Minoan Power. ByB.C., aboutthe2000

Minoans began
to construct palaces at a number of major towns. Among the most im-
portant of these wereKNOSSOS,
at Phaistos,and Mallia. Built aroundan
open central courtyard, Minoan palaces were multistory buildings witha
fresco method of painting in which maze of rooms andbeautiful frescoes*, baths,and running water.
color is applied to moist plaster so that Each palace was centrally located in a town. Thepalaces became im-
it becomes chemically bonded to the portant focal points of Minoan societyand servedas the seatsofgovern-
plaster as it dries; also,a painting done
in this manner
ment, administration, and centers of trade and as sites where food
products, raw materials, and manufactured goods were collected and re-
distributed. It is possible that the palaces became the centers ofsmall city-
* city-state independentstate consisting states*, which competed with each otherfortrade.
of a city and its surrounding territory Because of extensive trade and an abundance of resources, Minoans
of all social classes were welloff. Many scholars believe thatwealthwas
spread more evenly throughout Minoan society than in anyother culture
of the NearEast. Peace and prosperity allowed the Minoansto devote
more time to enjoying life, which explains their remarkable achieve-
hieroglyphic referring to a systemof ments in the arts. During this period, the Cretans used a hieroglyphic*
writing thatuses pictorial characters,or writing system that has not been decoded and interpreted.
hieroglyphs, to represent wordsideas
or In the early EARTHQUAKES
1700s
B.C., damaged some Minoan palaces,
but they were rebuilt. Byabout B.C., the
1600
Minoan civilization had
reached its peak, and its influence extended beyond Crete.TheMinoans

110
 Miiioan Civilization
possibly colonized—and certainly influenced—many islands in the
King Minos Aegean Sea, including THERA. It is also likely that, through trade, the Mi-
and the Minotaur noans and other Near Eastern peoples influenced each other. Minoan
In Greek mythology, King Minos of goods have been found as far away as Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA, and there
Crete was the son of Zeus. Minos are wall paintings in Egypt depicting Minoan traders. The Minoans of
once angered Poseidon by not sac- this period used a simple script that modern scholars call Linear A, which
rificing a white bull to the god. To has not been deciphered*.
punish Minos, Poseidon made his
wife, Pasiphae, fall in love with the
bull, and she bore a creature with a
The Collapse of Minoan Power. Around 1500 B.C., many Minoan
bull's head and a man's body called palaces on Crete were again destroyed, probably because of a volcanic
the Minotaur. Minos kept the Mino- explosion on Thera. Although they were rebuilt and were as beautiful
taur in an enormous labyrinth, or and elaborate as before, the size and number of settlements outside the
maze, beneath his palace. To palaces declined. Within the next 100 years, all the palaces—with the ex-
avenge the death of his son at the
hand of the king of Athens, Minos ception of the one at Knossos—ceased to be important political or trad-
made the Athenians give him seven
ing centers.
young men and seven young At the same time, Crete was being increasingly dominated by MYCE-
women each year. He locked these NAE AND THE MYCENAEANS, who brought a warrior-based culture from main-
youths in the labyrinth, where they land Greece. Certain Cretan burial practices and artistic themes from this
died of starvation or were killed and
period reflect Mycenaean influence, as does the adoption of a new writ-
eaten by the Minotaur: One of these:
youths, the Greek hero Theseus,
ing system—Linear B—used to write the Mycenaean Greek dialect*.
later killed the Minotaur. Although Around 1400 B.C., the palace of Knossos was destroyed by fire, perhaps
the story of the Minotaur is only a a result of a Mycenaean invasion or natural catastrophe. The destruction
myth, there may once have been a of Knossos marked the collapse of Minoan power, although regional Mi-
real king of Crete named Minos.
noan cultures continued to flourish for some time on various parts of
Crete. When Minoan power collapsed, the center of culture in the Aegean
region passed to the mainland of Greece and the Mycenaeans.

* decipher to decode and interpret the Religion, Politics, and the Arts. A unique feature of Minoan civi-
meaning lization was the absence of great temples such as those found elsewhere
* dialect regional form of a spoken throughout the ancient Near East. Minoan religious rites took place in
language with distinct pronunciation, the palaces, in sacred caves, and on mountaintops. Minoan religious be-
vocabulary, and grammar liefs focused on nature worship, female goddesses, and fertility cults*,
* cult system of religious beliefs and and sacred symbols included doves, trees, bulls, and snakes.
rituals; group following these beliefs Strangely, no individual leader is named on any artifact* created by
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or the Minoans, and archeologists have found no evidence of any type of
other object made by humans warrior class before Mycenaean influence took hold. This has led many
scholars to believe that the Minoans were ruled by their religious leaders.
Scholars cannot agree whether these rulers were priest-kings, priestess-
queens, or both. It is certain from studying Minoan art, however, that
women played prominent roles in religious ceremonies.
Minoan civilization is probably most famous for its artwork. Deli-
cately shaped pottery pieces were decorated with scenes of animals and
plants and used a beautiful style of light on dark. Frescoes were brightly
* secular nonreligious; connected with painted and depicted both religious and secular* scenes. Some showed
everyday life magical gardens full of animals. In later periods, art became increasingly
realistic, and by the 1400s B.C., artists were creating a sense of depth in
* relief sculpture in which material is cut wall murals through the use of relief*.
away to show figures raised from the One of the most interesting features of Minoan art is the pictures of
background "bull leaping/' Painted on vases and frescoes, these pictures show young
men and women leaping over the horns of bulls. Scholars are uncertain
111
Money
whether "bull leaping" was a sport or a religious ceremony, although
most believe it was connectedalso
tofertility
(See Animals
rituals.
in Art;
Architecture; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on.)

MONEY
C oins and paper currency have been used for so long
people today consider them the only acceptable
However, thefirst coins werenot minted*
B.C.,and
after
until700
paper
forms of
that most
money

money has only been in existence for a few hundred years. This does not
mean, however, that money did not exist in ancient times. Different
items served Near Eastern societies as money, including precious metals,
* mint to make coins; place where coins such as silver and gold, and grain.
are made
Defining Money. To understand how grain and other items served as
money, it is important to consider the technical definition of money.
Most economists consider money to be anything that can be used as a
means of exchange, aform of payment,and a standardfor accounting.
The first definition is probably the broadest. Money is anything used
to obtain an item one desires. Even items traded in barter can function as
a form of money, because each party gives the other some item in ex-
change for another item. Althoughthe second definition seems first at
* commodity article of trade glance the same as thefirst, thereis difference.
a Asform
a of payment,
* city-state independent state consisting money is anything used to settle a debt or obligation that does not neces-
of a city and its surrounding territory sarily involve receiving something in return, such as taxes. Farmers in an-
cient Egypt gave the state a portion of their harvest as tax. The third
definition considers money to be any commodity* usedas a measure of
value against other commodities.The valueof items MESOPO-
in ancient
TAMIA was expressedas fixed
a amountof silveror grain. Thus,
a particular
piece of cloth might be valued at so many shekels of silver or a certain
number of bushels of grain. Goods could be and were purchased with
things other than silver or grain. However, the value of the goods ac-
quired and the value of the goods given were both calculated in termsof
either silver or grain. This ensured that both parties received itemsof
equal worth regardlessof the items they exchanged.

Early Money.Before the rise of cities andcity-states*, barter was the ba-
sis for economic activity. People acquired goods
fromone anotherby trad-
ing items that they judgedto be of roughly similar value. However, barter
was too cumbersome, especiallyin complex urban economies.To regulate
economic activity, ancient peoples
fixed standardsof value,and the com-
modities used to set such standards functioned as money Records
from
the ancient NearEast indicate that silver and grain were used as money in
nearly every society. Both shared qualities that made them ideal for this
use. They had value, could be storedfor long periods without losing their
value, and were interchangeablefor similar items. Thatis, one shekelof
silver was the sameas any other,as was one bushelof grain.
The choice of silverand grainas money stemmed from their abun-
dance. Because ancient Near Eastern societies
AGRICULTURE,
were based on
112
 Monotheism
grain was not only essential for life but also easily available. Silver was
also quite abundant, which explains why it was used as money more of-
They Were Coins, but ten than gold. Around 1600 B.C., an increase in Egyptian gold production
Were They Money? led to a temporary increase in its use as money. When gold production
By about 400 B.C., many Near East decreased after about 1200 B.C., so did its popularity as a form of money.
ern societies were minting coins, Other metals occasionally served as money as well. Copper, for example,
but not all of them were used as was the most common form of money in Mesopotamia in the 700s B.C..
currency in the states that pro-
duced them. For example, King
Silver money often took the form of rings or coils. To pay for an item, one
Nectanebo I minted the first broke off a piece of silver whose value was equal to that of the item ac-
Egyptian coins shortly after 400 quired. Archaeologists* have found hoards of silver, including ingots
B.C., but these were used to pay (bars) in Near Eastern sites, but these are too large to have been used in
Greek mercenary soldiers, not cir- everyday transactions. The absence of smaller pieces of silver suggests
culated as local currency. The rela-
that ingots were used as a store of value or a standard against which
tive lack of small coins in ancient
Greece suggests that they were
smaller pieces of silver were measured.
not used in everyday transactions.
Most coins found in hoards, even Coinage. The earliest coins were minted around 650 B.C. in the king-
as late as the Roman era, are also dom of Lydia in present-day Turkey. The Lydians invented coins to guar-
of high denominations, indicating antee that a certain amount of precious metal had a fixed value. Pieces
that coins were not widely used forj
simple transactions.
broken from a ring or coil had to be weighed to determine their value,
but coins of the same type supposedly contained the same amount of
silver, making weighing unnecessary. However, because people often
shaved off bits of coins, they reduced the coins' true worth, making the
* archaeologist scientist who studies past promise of standard value worthless; when such coins were used for pay-
human cultures, usually by excavating ment, they were always weighed.
material remains of human activity Despite their convenience, coins only slowly replaced other forms of
money. This was partly because many people believed that the system used
for thousands of years was still quite useful and that coins offered little ad-
vantage over traditional forms of money. Moreover, they believed that a
shortage of precious metals could be disastrous for a society that relied solely
on coinage. However, in flexible monetary systems, grains or other forms
of money could be used when silver or gold ran short. The use of coins only
became widespread after the PERSIAN EMPIRE conquered much of the Near
East in the 500s B.C. (See also Economy and Trade; Merchants; Taxation.)

MONOTHEISM
M onotheism is the belief in only one god. This doctrine* is most
closely associated with the three great modern religions that orig-
inally developed in the Near East: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Most
of the cultures in the ancient Near East practiced polytheism, the belief in
many gods. However, a number of Near Eastern religious traditions in an-
cient times also developed monotheistic tendencies.

* doctrine principle, theory, or belief Early Monotheism. One of the earliest examples of monotheistic be-
presented for acceptance liefs appeared in Egypt during the reign of Amenhotep IV in the mid-
* pantheon all the gods of a particular 1300s B.C. The Egyptian pantheon* at that time contained many gods,
culture including the sun god ATEN. Amenhotep singled out Aten for worship and
proclaimed that he was the only true god. Amenhotep renamed himself
AKHENATEN, which means "he who is effective for Aten," and forbade the
113
Moon
* cult system of religious beliefs and worship of other gods. This displeased the priests of other cults* and
rituals; group following these beliefs many Egyptians, and after his death, the cult of Aten disappeared.
Other tendencies toward monotheism occurred in MESOPOTAMIA dur-
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 ing the first millennium B.C.* In Babylonia, the ancient god MARDUK rose
tO 1 B.C. to great prominence and became head of that region's pantheon. He also
took over the characteristics and functions of many other gods, making
him far superior to them. A similar tendency toward unifying many gods
into one deity occurred in Assyria with the god ASHUR. Though not truly
monotheistic, these religious beliefs were moving in that direction.
A more authentic type of monotheism developed in Persia in the
600s B.C. with the rise of a new religion called Zoroastrianism. This reli-
* prophet one who claims to have gion was founded by Zoroaster, a prophet* who taught that there was
received divine messages or insights only one true god—AHURA MAZDA, the Wise Lord, who represents all that
is good. Opposing him are the evil spirits led by AHRIMAN, the spirit of
darkness and lies. Zoroastrianism shares many aspects with Judaism and
Christianity, including the belief that at the end of time, all souls will be
judged and those only found worthy will enter paradise.

Israelite Monotheism. The ancient Israelites did not originally prac-

tice a pure form of monotheism. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, they
worshiped their god YAHWEH in various manifestations of the Canaanite
god EL. After MOSES led the Israelites out of Egypt, they entered into a spe-
cial covenant, or agreement, with the god Yahweh. Even then, however,
Yahweh was not seen as the only god but rather as the supreme god.
When the Israelites settled in CANAAN, some of them began to wor-
ship other local gods, such as BAAL. Eventually, however, they came to see
Yahweh as not only their supreme god but as the only true god and the
creator of the universe. The Israelites saw themselves as the "chosen peo-
ple" who were given the land of Canaan because they believed in and
obeyed Yahweh. Later they hoped that this unique god would recall his
covenant and bring them back from their exile in Babylon. Their belief in
the "oneness" of Yahweh marked a dramatic break with the polytheism
of other ancient Near Eastern religions. Israelite monotheism, Judaism,
formed the basis of the monotheistic beliefs of both Christianity and Is-
lam, which arose centuries later. (See also Cults; Gods and Goddesses; Ju-
daism and Jews; Religion; Theology.)

Moon See Lunar Theory.

MOSAIC LAW
T he Mosaic Law is a set of legal provisions contained in Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—four of the five books of the
TORAH, one of the three parts of the Hebrew BIBLE. At the core of the Mo-
saic Law are the TEN COMMANDMENTS, which according to tradition, were
given to MOSES by YAHWEH during a meeting on Mount Sinai. Like earlier
law codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, the Mosaic Law includes
114
 Mosaic Law
legislation for criminal and civil punishments. The Mosaic Law also deals
with personal matters (health, grooming, marriage, and sexual relations)
* tabernacle portable place of worship as well as religious matters (construction of the ark and tabernacle*),
that the Israelites carried with them which were rarely included in other Semitic* laws. The Mosaic Law be-
during their journey through the came the basis of Jewish practices and remains so today.
wilderness and into the Promised Land
* Semitic of or relating to people of the Origin and Nature of Mosaic Law. According to the Bible, Moses
Near East or northern Africa, including
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians,
freed the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and led them through the desert to
Jews, and Arabs the Promised Land*—CANAAN. During the journey, Moses received the Ten
* Promised Land land promised to the
Commandments from Yahweh. The commandments were basic prohibi-
Israelites by their god, Yahweh tions on actions such as murder, theft, worship of other gods, and adultery.
As the Israelites continued their journey to Canaan, it became clear
that the Ten Commandments did not address many issues. Through
Moses, Yahweh then began to issue additional laws to cover the gaps in
the commandments. Ultimately, the body of laws grew quite large and
was set down in the Torah, or the Pentateuch.
In ancient times, the Mosaic Law served as a way to distinguish the Is-
* pagan one who believes in more than raelites from the pagans* who lived among them. After the exilic period,
one god the laws were interpreted differently. They forbade Israelites from marry-
ing or interacting with non-Israelites, emphasizing that the Israelites are a
special people chosen by Yahweh. At its heart, the Mosaic Law is the for-
mal expression of the covenant, or agreement, between the Israelites and
their god Yahweh.
An important subset of the Mosaic Law concerns the Israelites' diet.
These laws prescribe what types of animals Israelites can and cannot eat.
For instance, they may not eat animals that do not ruminate (chew their
cud) and do not have split hooves (such as pigs and horses) or consume
the products of such animals. The laws also forbid Israelites to eat fish
without fins and scales (such as shrimp, crabs, and lobster), animals that
creep, carnivorous birds, or the blood of any animal. Certain portions of
acceptable animals are also prohibited. During the Passover festival, Is-
raelites may not eat bread containing yeast.
The laws warn Israelites to avoid wearing garments woven from dif-
ferent fibers (for example wool and linen), urge men and women not to
dress in each other's clothing, tell them to have tassels on the four corners
of their garments, and instruct them on grooming their hair.
Some laws instruct the Israelites on building their homes and holy
constructions. When building homes, Israelites are required to build a
wall around the roof to prevent people from falling to the ground and
polluting the house with blood. The laws provide exact specifications for
the construction of the tabernacle and the ark—two major components
in the worship service. The tabernacle was to be constructed with offer-
ings given by Israelites, such as gold, oil to feed lamps, and fine linen. The
ark—a cabinet that, according to some passages, held the original Ten
Commandments, which symbolized the covenant (agreement) between
Yahweh and the Israelites—was to be constructed of acacia wood accord-
ing to the specifications provided by the Mosaic Law.

When Was the Mosaic Law Written? Scholars disagree on whether

the Mosaic Law was handed down during the time of Moses or written
115
Moses

later. Many of the individual laws mentioned in the Torah were not rele-
vant to the Israelites' situation at the time of their journey from Egypt to
the Promised Land. For example, laws about ownership of land or differ-
ent types of crops are clearly meant for a settled agricultural society, and
laws about kingship and temple rituals presume an urban society.
Many scholars feel that such laws were added much later, perhaps
hundreds of years after the settlement of Canaan. A few even argue that
none of the laws originated during the time of Moses. Historians have iso-
lated what they believe are discrete compilations or codes within the
Torah in addition to the Ten Commandments—which appear in Exodus,
Chapter 20, and Deuteronomy, Chapter 5—such as the Holiness Code
(Leviticus, Chapters 17-26), the Book of Covenants (Exodus, Chapters
20-23), and the Deuteronomic Code (Deuteronomy, Chapters 12-26).
They believe that these codes may have come from separate periods of Is-
rael's history. Regardless of its origin, the Mosaic Law remains the most
important part of the Hebrew Bible for followers of Judaism. (See also He-
brews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Law.)

f\^ ccording to Jewish tradition, Moses freed the ancient Israelites from
/iLslavery in Egypt and led them to the Promised Land* of CANAAN.
MOSES The Hebrew BIBLE says that it was Moses who received the TEN COMMAND-
MENTS from the god YAHWEH on Mount Sinai and brought them to the Is-
raelites. Moses was also believed to be the author of the TORAH, or
ca. 1200s B.C. Pentateuch, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.
Israelite leader The Book of Exodus claims that Moses was the child of Israelite slaves
in Egypt (the Egyptians referred to the Israelites as Hebrews). When the
* Promised Land land promised to the pharaoh* ordered all newborn Israelite males to be killed to control the Is-
Israelites by their god, Yahweh raelite population, Moses' mother set her child adrift in a basket on the
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt NILE RIVER. He was found by the pharaoh's daughter and raised in the royal
court. One day when Moses was touring a region where the Israelites were
working, he saw an overseer beat an Israelite slave. Moses killed the over-
seer, but his deed was discovered and he had to flee to the land of Midian
(in the Sinai and northwestern Arabia). There he met and married Zippo-
nomad referring to one who travels rah, the daughter of a nomad* chieftain. Later when he was tending his
from place to place to find food and sheep, he came to a burning bush, from which the voice of Yahweh told
pasture him to return to Egypt and free his people.
Moses returned to Egypt and demanded that the pharaoh release the
Israelites, but the pharaoh refused. Under Yahweh's instruction, Moses
brought down a series of ten plagues (disastrous events) on Egypt, the last
one resulting in the death of every firstborn Egyptian male. The pharaoh
let the Israelites leave, but he soon tried to bring them back. His army fol-
lowed the Israelites across the RED SEA, where Yahweh had miraculously
parted the waters. After the Israelites had passed, the waters flooded the
Egyptian army and destroyed it. For the next 40 years, Moses guided the
Israelites on their journey from Egypt to Canaan. During this period,
Moses received the Ten Commandments from Yahweh and assumed the
role of lawgiver and judge for the Israelites. Once near the Promised Land,
116
 Mummies
Yahweh refused Moses entry because he had failed to follow precisely one
of his directives. Moses died on Mount Nebo in Moab (in present-day Jor-
dan), just outside Canaan, but his burial place has not been found.
Modern historians disagree about which parts of the story are based
in fact and which are fictional. Some believe the story is historically accu-
rate but combines the deeds of several people and presents them as the
work of one man. Others accept it as a historical event, often setting
Moses and the journey to Canaan (the Exodus) during the reign of Ram-
ses II (ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C.). Some claim that the story is entirely fic-
tional because there is no certain evidence of the Exodus or Moses in the
* archaeological referring to the study historical and archaeological* record. Nevertheless, Moses is considered a
of past human cultures, usually by symbol of the covenant, or agreement, between the Israelites and their
excavating material remains of human god, Yahweh. (See also Ark of the Covenant; Egypt and the Egyptians;
activity
Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law.)

MUMMIES
A mummy is a dead body that has been dried both inside and out,
embalmed*, and wrapped in cloth for preservation. Preserving dead
bodies in this way before burial was common in ancient Egypt because
the ancient Egyptians believed in the AFTERLIFE, or life after death, includ-
ing the continued existence of the physical body. Men, women, and chil-
dren were mummified, as were certain animals that were considered
* embalm to treat a corpse with oils or sacred, such as CATS, bulls, and crocodiles. Thousands of mummies from
chemicals to preserve it or slow down ancient Egypt have been recovered from PYRAMIDS, tombs, and graves, and
the process of decay, usually after body many are on display at museums throughout the world.
fluids have been removed

Development of Mummification. The first Egyptian mummies

may have come about accidentally, when Egyptians buried the dead in
the desert sands, which naturally dried out and preserved the bodies. In
* Egyptologist person who studies fact, some Egyptologists* believe that the natural preservation of dead
ancient Egypt bodies in this way spurred the Egyptian belief in the afterlife. In turn,
this belief led to a search for ways to preserve the bodies of the dead.
As early as 3000 B.C., the Egyptians had developed many techniques
to preserve dead bodies. The techniques reached their peak toward the
See end of the New Kingdom period, around 1080 B.C. By that time, they
color plate 9, were so successful that today we can look at a mummy, such as the well-
vol.3.
preserved mummy of TUTANKHAMEN, and get a good idea of what the per-
son looked like several thousand years ago.
The process of mummification took several months to complete. The
process was very expensive, and only royalty and other wealthy individu-
als could afford it. Bodies of the poor, in contrast, were simply wrapped in
cloth and buried in the desert a few days or weeks after they died.

The Mummification Process. The mummification process began

with the removal of the dead person's lungs, stomach, and intestines
through an incision on the left side of the body. The organs were then
covered with a natural drying agent—a salt called natron—until they
dried out. Then the organs were wrapped in linen and stored in jars that
117
Mummies
Egyptologistscall canopic
jars.The lidsonjars
thewere shaped
likethe
heads of gods, which was believedto help protectthe organs contained
within.Later the
jars were buried withthe dead person.
Next, the heart was removed from the body, dried out, wrapped in
linen, and replaced in the body. Sometimes the heart wassewn intoplace
in the chest cavity. The Egyptians returned the heart to thebody because
they believed it was the seatof intelligence.Thebrain,on the other hand,
was considered insignificantto the body.It wascrudely removed witha
* amulet small object thought to
have long hooked rod inserted into the skull through the nostrils and dis-
supernatural or magical powers carded. Then resin wasinjected intothe skull with funnel
a toprevent the
* scarab representation of the dung head from collapsing.
beetle, heldassacredby Egyptians Once the internal organs and brain were removed, the blood and
other fluids were drainedfrom the body. Thenthe bodyfilled
was and

118
 Music and Musical Instruments
covered with natron until it dried out completely. After a few weeks, the
natron was removed and the body was carefully cleaned and rubbed with
Learning from scented oils. It was also packed with resin-soaked linen and bags of fra-
Mummies grant materials, such as myrrh and cinnamon. At this time, the eyes were
Archaeologists, historians, and an- replaced with artificial eyes made of glass.
thropologists have learned a great The last step in the process was wrapping the body in about 400 yards
deal about ancient Egyptians by of linen strips. First, the head was wrapped, followed by each individual
studying mummies. For example,
by examining the body wrapped finger and toe. This was followed by the hands, feet, legs, and arms. The
within the strips of cloth, these sci- arms were then crossed over the chest. Finally, the entire body was
entists have learned about the dis- wrapped. A mask was placed over the head and shoulders before the last
eases that afflicted ancient Egyptians j layer of wrappings.
and how those diseases were The linen was soaked in fragrant resins before it was wrapped around
treated. From X rays of mummy
bones, they have been able to esti-
the body. This helped mask the odor of decay. In addition, when the resin
mate the average height and life dried, it made the wrappings stiff so that the cloth held the body's shape
span of ancient Egyptians. They even after the body started to decompose. Sometimes the body was
have even inferred ties of kinship in padded with sawdust, sand, or clay to help preserve its shape.
royal families from examining the The Egyptians often painted facial features on the outer layer of wrap-
similarities and dissimilarities in the pings to make the mummy look more lifelike. In addition, up to 100
appearance of kings who were
mummified. amulets* were placed among the wrappings, including a scarab* over the
heart, to protect the mummy after burial. Sacred writings were also
wrapped with the body to guide the deceased in the afterlife. (See also
Book of the Dead; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians.)

MUSIC AND M usic was important to the cultures of the ancient Near East, partic-
ularly during temple rituals, funeral rites, and religious and royal
festivals and ceremonies. Little is known about the role of music in the
MUSICAL daily life of the people. However, ancient texts and artifacts* indicate that
music provided a form of entertainment at important family events and
INSTRUMENTS gatherings, particularly among the upper classes of society. In both reli-
gious and secular* events, music was performed for its own sake as well as
an accompaniment to DANCE.

* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or Occasions for Music. Temple rituals throughout the ancient Near
other object made by humans East often included music. The music served to honor and please the
* secular nonreligious; connected with gods, some of whom were linked to music and specific musical instru-
everyday life ments. In ancient Egypt, for example, several deities*, including HATHOR
* deity god or goddess and OSIRIS, were closely associated with music. When HYMNS were sung in
praise of the gods at temple rituals, the singers were usually accompa-
nied by musical instruments. Music also accompanied daily rituals and
other religious activities. Each culture, of course, had its own forms of re-
ligious music as well as instruments used to perform it.
Although little is known about secular music, it is certain that most
Near Eastern peoples enjoyed music. Mothers no doubt sang lullabies to
their young children, and men and women probably sang work songs
while laboring in the fields. Musical entertainment was a part of royal
feasts, processions, and other celebrations, while ordinary families en-
joyed music at family gatherings and on special occasions. Sometimes
music was performed on serious or dangerous occasions, such as during
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Music and Musical Instruments
eclipses or childbirth. Music even played apart in military activities, with
musicians accompanying armies while they marched. Ancient Hittite
texts mention a number of military battle songs.

Musical Performers. Both men and women sang and played musical
instruments in the ancient Near East. Temples employed professional
musicians to performin orchestras, choral groups,and assolo perform-
ers. These musicians sometimes functioned aspriests. In ancientEgypt
andMESOPOTAMIA,female musicians in religious cults*
often were
of high
rank. Sometimes the wives of priests might serveasmusicians in the
same cults as their husbands.
Temple musicians occupied a high social rank.In ancient Egypt, indi-
viduals who held the title "great one of the musical troupe" were respon-
sible for training performers, overseeing musical practice,and ensuring
that performances in temple activities went well. Some temples inMeso-
potamia established their own schools to train musicians.
Musical troupes, or groups, were sometimes attached to secular insti-
tutions, such as the palacesof kings.On special royal occasions, hundreds
of musicians might singand play instruments.As in temples, palacemu-
sicians and singers were organizedby rank, with such titlesas"masterof
singers" or "superintendentofperformers." Secular troupes also consisted
of both men and women. Some of the musicians who performed insecu-
lar events were professionals. Others, however, were amateurswhoper-
formed music only occasionally. Among the Hittites, singers were
distinguished by the language in which they specialized.

Musical Instruments. Musicians playedavarietyofinstruments.Al-

though the specific design of these instruments might vary from one
region to another, they fell under
four basic categories: stringed instru-
ments (chordophones), wind instruments (aerophones), drums (mem-
branophones), and other percussion instruments (idiophones).
The two most common types of stringed instruments werethe lyre
and the harp.Lyres varied in size, shape, and number ofstrings. Some
lyres were small, handheld instruments that could beplayed while sit-
ting, standing, or walking. Larger lyres couldbeplayed onlyby twostand-
ing musicians. Harps were smaller than lyres,but they also variedinsize
* cult system of religious beliefs and and shape. They could be played by sitting or standing musicians holding
rituals; group following these beliefs the instruments in either a vertical or a horizontal position.Another
stringed instrument, the lute, developed much later thaneither the harp
or lyre. Lutes alsodiffered in size, shape,and numberof strings.Allthree
stringed instruments were madeof wood, sometimes covered with pre-
cious materials such as silverand gold.
Wind instruments—flutes, trumpets,andhorns—were madeofreed,
wood, bone, and metal. Like stringed instruments, they varied size
inand
shape. The earliestflutes contained one or two pipes, but by the firstmil-
* first millennium B.C.
years from 1000 lenniumB.C.*, a typeofflute with several pipes, knownas the panpipe,
tO 1 B.C. was introducedfrom the West. Some flutes had reeds like present-day
clarinets and oboes. Flutists generally accompanied singersand dancers.
Trumpets and animal horns, because of their loud sounds, were used
more often in military contexts and grand processionals and tosignal
120
 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans
public announcements. The ram's horn, or shofar, is mentioned often in
the Hebrew BIBLE in connection with wars and religious rituals.
Lost Sound of Music Drums ranged from small hand drums to giant kettle drums. Smaller
Very little is known about the
"sounds'' of ancient Near Eastern drums were an indispensable accompaniment to dancing at banquets
music. Some surviving texts include; and festivals. Small to medium-sized drums also were played in military
information on musical notation, contexts, such as while troops were marching. Larger drums often played
scales, and musical theory. How- an important role in temple rituals. In Mesopotamia, for example, large
ever, it is difficult to know what this
kettledrums were often beaten at temples during eclipses of the moon.
means in terms of present-day mu-
sical ideas. Even less understood is Drums are a type of percussion instrument, an instrument that pro-
the tempo and rhythm of ancient duces sound when a stick, hand, or other object strikes another surface.
musical works. It is obvious that Other percussion instruments used in the ancient Near East included bells,
some music was fast and other mu- rattles, cymbals, and "clappers/' Made from wood, metal, clay, shell, or
sic slow and that some music was bone, these instruments provided background accompaniment to other
considered sad while other music
was joyful or associated with some instruments during religious and secular events. One of the most charac-
other emotion. However, without
teristic percussion instruments of ancient Egypt was the sistrum, a type of
more information, the true sounds rattle whose soft sound resembled that of a breeze blowing through pa-
and rhythms of ancient Near East- pyrus reeds. Egyptians believed that the sistrum attracted the attention of
ern music are lost to the ears of the gods and helped ward off evil. (See also Entertainment; Family and
present-day humans. Social Life; Feasts and Festivals; Palaces and Temples; Rituals and Sac-
rifice; Women, Role of.)

MYCENAE AND
M ycenae (my»SEE»nee), the most important city-state* in Late Bronze
Age Greece (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.), was located in the Peloponnese,
the peninsula that forms the southern part of mainland Greece. According
to legend, the city of Mycenae was founded by Perseus, a hero in Greek
THE MYCENAEANS MYTHOLOGY. Legends about the Mycenaeans (my»suh»NEE«uhnz) have
been preserved in Homer's great epics*, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Whether
Homer's stories were based on historical fact or were fictional, is still dis-
puted, but many scholars believe that elements of the stories are true.

city-state independent state consisting History. Greece, including the Peloponnese, was settled as early as
of a city and its surrounding territory 6000 B.C., and by 3000 B.C., the people there began to build multistory
epic long poem about a legendary or houses and to use SEALS to identify ownership of goods. Some scholars be-
historical hero, written in a grand style lieve that beginning around 2000 B.C., the Mycenaeans invaded the re-
gion and settled there. The Mycenaeans came from the north of Greece
See map on inside covers. and spoke an INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE. They were more advanced at pot-
tery making, building, and metalworking than the people they dis-
placed. However, this theory is disputed by other scholars, who believe
that the Mycenaeans were the original inhabitants of the area.
Notwithstanding their origin, the Mycenaeans were a warlike tribe
and set up competing city-states. The city of Mycenae quickly became the
most powerful of these. Other major Mycenaean cities included Pylos,
Tiryns, Thebes, and Orchomenus. The Mycenaeans fortified the cities
with enormous walls to protect them during an attack. Many of the cities
also contained magnificent palaces, which were organized around large
* archaeologist scientist who studies past halls. The entire society, like that of the Minoans, was "palace based/' The
human cultures, usually by excavating Mycenaean economy was based on the export of such items as wine,
material remains of human activity grain, POTTERY, and olive oil. Historians and archaeologists* believe that
121
Mycenae and the Mycenaeans

the Mycenaean trade network stretched throughout theMediterranean

because remnants of Mycenaean pottery have been found throughout
the region.
From around B.C.
1400
untilB.C.,
1100
the Mycenaeans colonizedthe
Searchingfor islands of AEGEAN
the SEA. This period marked the height
ofMycenaean
power in the region. Infact, it wasduring this period thatthefamous bat-
Agamemnon tle of Troy is believed to have taken place. Sometime between 1250and
Hehirfch Schfiemann was a
1180B.C., the Mycenaean king, Agamemnonled acoalitionofGreek
German merchant who be-
came wealthy in the Indigoarmies against the kingdomof Troy ANATOLIA
in western
(present-day
trade in the mid-l 800s. Turkey) and ultimately destroyed thatcity.B.C., Around
Mycenae 1100
When he was In his 40s, he was destroyed. It is not known whetherthedestructionwascausedby fire
gave it all tip tosearch for or an enemy attack.
the
sites described in Homer's epics. He
first uncovered the city ofTroy in
northwestern Turkey. In 1876,
Relations With Other Aegean Powers.Although theMycena
Schliemann moved to Greece, look- focused greatly on military conquest, they also established important
jpg for King Agamemnon's home, trade relationships with other empires. Tradewiththeislandsof the Cy-
He thought that he had found what clades and with
CRETE probably existed
B.C.asearly
as3000
he was looking for when he discov- From about 1600B.C.,
to 1400
therewasobviouslyagreat deal ofcon-
ered some prehistoric tombs at
tact between the Mycenaeans and theMinoans. The twosocieties were
: Mycenae* One ofthese tombs,
which Schliemann thought
was the probably in competition for the Mediterranean trade, but itseems that
location of Agamemnon's burial site there was no ongoing warfare between them until (possibly) theMyce-
contained a goldenmask that he naean destruction of the KNOSSOS
palaceon at Crete
B.C.around 1400
thoughtwas Agamemnon's. Al- Thereafter, the city ofKnossos remainedinMycenaean control. During
though Schliemann was mistaken, this period, the Mycenaeans also established colonies on theislandsof
he had opened a new understand-
ing of ancient Greece to later ar-
the Cycladesand Dodecanese,
CYPRUS,Sicily,northern
MACEDO-
Greece,
chaeologists, NIA, and partsofAsia Minorand Italy. Being more warlike than the Mi-
noans, they also raided the Egyptian andHittite coasts.

Culture. Although the Mycenaeans built several cities, most continued

to live in small villagesin the countryside. Thiswasunlikethecaseof the
great civilizations, suchasEgyptandMesopotamia,in theNearEast.The
122
 Mythology
Mycenaeans borrowed their WRITING, pottery, ARCHITECTURE, and palace
culture from the Minoans. They used a script called Linear B, which was
based on the Minoan script, Linear A, and was an early written form of
fresco method of painting in which the Greek language. They built huge palaces with beautiful frescoes* and
color Is applied to moist plaster so that halls with large columns. Mycenaean pottery, which is similar to Mi-
it becomes chemically bonded to the noan pottery, was known and copied throughout the ancient Near East,
plaster as It dries; also, a painting done
in this manner
particularly in the Levant*.
Unlike the Minoans, however, the Mycenaeans buried their kings in a
Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea
tholos, or large tomb lined with rock and capped with a false dome. Dead
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), leaders were buried with magnificent grave goods, such as golden masks,
the West Bank, and Jordan jewelry, game boards made of ivory, and several weapons.
Many modern scholars, while impressed with the Mycenaean cul-
ture, feel that it did not compare with the culture of the Minoans, from
whom they borrowed so much. One scholar even goes so far as to call
Mycenaean culture "rather dull/'

The Fall of Mycenae. The Mycenaean civilization began to decline af-

ter 1200 B.C. The city of Mycenae was destroyed around 1100 B.C., and the
cities of Tyrins and Pylos were destroyed shortly thereafter. Other settle-
ments on the Peloponnese were also abandoned around the same period.
Most scholars believe that massive invasions and immigrations of the
Dorian people were responsible for this. However, it is possible that the
abandonment of the smaller sites was caused by the invasions of the SEA
PEOPLES, who also invaded Egypt and perhaps the Levant around the same
time. Finally, it is possible that environmental factors such as prolonged
* drought long period of dry weather drought* or earthquakes or internal revolutions brought down the Myce-
during which crop yields are lower than naean civilization.
usual Notwithstanding the cause, the city of Mycenae and the Mycenaean
civilization lost power in the region. Thereafter, Mycenae was only a vil-
lage and did not again flourish until several centuries later. Around the
400s B.C., Mycenae reemerged as an independent city-state but soon de-
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- clined in importance. Later, for a short time during the Hellenistic* pe-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean riod, Mycenae again became an important city, but by A.D. 160, the city
world and western Asia during the three had been abandoned and was in ruins.
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
Modern Discoveries. Remnants of the Mycenaean civilization were
excavated in 1876 by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann.
Schliemann's archaeological work, as well as the research conducted by
later scholars, yielded fortification systems, bronze armor and weapons,
precious grave offerings, and thousands of pottery fragments. Little re-
mains of the city today, except its main entrance. (See also Greece and
the Greeks; Minoan Civilization; Troy.)

MYTHOLOGY
M ythology is a medium through which a culture expresses its most
deeply held values. Myths put into words a culture's vision of its
history, its place in the universe, and its relationship with its deities*.
Many types of myths exist in the records of the ancient Near East.
Some are CREATION MYTHS, which tell how the world came into being.
123
Mythology
* deity god orgoddess Other myths recount the originofcivilization,the shapeof the cosmos,
the actions and relationshipsof the gods,the foundingofstatesorking-
ships, or the interactionsof peopleand gods.

Role of Mythology. Mythology existed long before writing was in-

vented, and its original purposewas to help people make senseof the
world around them. For example, many cultures havea myth thatex-
plains the change of seasonsas periodsofgrowthfruitfulness
and alternat-
ing with timesof decayand barrenness.
fact,
Inthe Sumerian, Babylonian,
Greek, and Roman myths explaining seasonal change feature
all agod-
dess offruitfulness who must spend some time every yearin the king-
dom of death, resultingin winter. Such similarities, which also exist
among other myths, suggest that regionsof the ancient East Nearmay
have shared a common heritageof beliefs, stories,and images largelybe-
cause of their common climatic conditions.
After the inventionof writing, myths became
LIT-subject
a of written
ERATURE. Mythologywas woven fromthe same material asreligious
belief-

124
 Mythology
the gods of the stories were the same gods people worshiped in temples
and in daily life.

Mesopotamia. Several myths dating from the 2500s B.C. have survived
* decipher to decode and Interpret the from ancient Sumer, but they are difficult to decipher* or interpret. Some
meaning Akkadian myths recorded during the second millennium B.C.* have also
* second millennium B.C. years from survived. From ancient Babylon, the most notable example of mythmak-
2000 to 1001 B.C. ing is Enuma Elish, a creation myth. Its author wove together old mythi-
cal themes into a tale of conflict among several gods, explaining how
MARDUK, the city god of Babylon, rose to power and became the chief god
of Babylonia.
Another Babylonian myth, the Erra Myth, is a dialogue between Erra
(Nergal), the god of the underworld, and his lieutenant, Ishum. It dates
from around 1000 B.C., when invasions by the ARAMAEANS disrupted life in
Babylonia. The Erra Myth explains the turmoil in Babylonian society as
the punishment for the noise produced on earth by humanity, which was
out of control.
The Sumerian Enki and Ninmakh and the Babylonian Epic ofAtrakha-
sis describe the creation of the human race from clay and divine blood.
Other Sumerian and Akkadian myths deal with the adventures of leg-
endary heroes such as GILGAMESH, Enmerkar, and Lugalbanda, who were
later considered gods.

Egypt. Myths were important in the religion of ancient Egypt. However,

they existed more as spoken, not written, literature. Consequently, sur-
viving Egyptian texts include relatively few myths, fragments of which lie
incantation written or recited formula embedded in incantations* and spells. It may be that the ancient Egypt-
of words designed to produce a given ian cults* guarded their myths as secrets or mysteries. Still, most people
effect would have known the central myths about their major deities.
cult system of religious beliefs and A good example of the Egyptians not recording their myths is the
rituals; group following these beliefs story of Isis and OSIRIS, possibly the best known of Egypt's myths. Count-
less Egyptian texts and artworks refer to both Isis and Osiris, but no sur-
viving Egyptian document tells the whole story. The myth only survives
in a version told by the Greek writer Plutarch in the A.D. 100s.
According to Plutarch, the myth centers around three events: the
murder of Osiris by his brother SETH; the birth of Osiris's son HORUS and
his protection by his mother, Isis; and the conflict between Horus and
Seth. A key element of the myth is the cutting up of Osiris's body into
pieces, which were buried at locations throughout Egypt.

The Levant. The ancient Israelites and their neighbors, the Canaan-
ites, shared a great many myths. Elements of their shared beliefs are
found in the Canaanite myths that scholars call the BAAL CYCLE. These
stories describe the activities of the storm god BAAL and his role in estab-
* cosmic pertaining to the whole universe lishing the cosmic*, human, and natural orders. His battles against Sea
(Yamm) and Death (Mot) are echoed in the Hebrew BIBLE. The Israelites
also used imagery similar to that in the Baal cycle in their mythmaking,
even after they officially ceased to worship Baal, EL, and the other
Canaanite gods in favor of their national god, YAHWEH.
125
Nabonidus
Other elements of Canaanite myths focus on relations between hu-
mans and deities in days long past. For instance, Aqhat tells how the god-
dess ANAT killed a young man and how his sister avenged his death. Keret
tells how El helped a king acquire a bride and overcome illness.
The priests and kings of Israel who developed Israelite mythology
used old, familiar mythic stories and images, but they added new details
Myths That Heal to make them their own. One example is the Hebrew Bible's image of
In the ancient Near East, myths Eden, or paradise, which features elements common to both Ugaritic and
were seen as having the power to Mesopotamian myths. The Israelites' greatest story revolves around their
heal and drive away evil A magi-
cian dealing with someone suffer-
central myth about how they were chosen by Yahweh from among their
ing from evil causes might call on a| more powerful neighbors.
myth that described the victory of
good over evil This n[iyth would Iran. All known ancient Iranian myths come from after the 600s B.C.,
help drive the evil away* For exam- when the religion Zoroastrianism was founded. As a result, it is difficult
ple, learning how a toothache to determine which myths include elements from the time before
came to be (a worm refusing any
other food but gumtissue)allowed j
Zoroaster and which were Zoroastrian creations. However, historians be-
a healer to banish it In ancient lieve that Zoroastrian mythology was the first to mention a savior who
Egypt, when people were sick, part] would save the world from evil in the days of the world's end.
of their medical treatment included j
listening to mythical stories. This i Anatolia. The HITTITES of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) blended
assured them of their place in the
universe, enabling them to get well \
mythological elements from the Hurrians and Mesopotamians with
and to continue to live as part of their own beliefs. For example, a major Hittite god, KUMARBI, was a Hur-
the cosmic order. rian deity. Tales about Kumarbi refer to the Human weather god TESHUB
and to EA, the Babylonian god of wisdom. One distinctively Hittite set of
myths concerned gods who disappeared from the earth. In each version
of this story, the deity's absence brought suffering on earth until some-
one found the vanished deity. The deity then returned to earth and re-
sumed his duties. (See also Epic Literature; Literature; Religion.)

NABONIDUS
N abonidus (nab»uh«NY*duhs) was the last indigenous* king of
Babylonia. For much of his reign, he lived in Arabia, leaving his
son Belshazzar as head of a regency* in BABYLON. Nabonidus also intro-
duced several religious reforms centered on the worship of the moon god
Sin, which challenged the superiority of MARDUK, the national god of
ruled 556-539 B.C. Babylonia and angered the Babylonians.
Babylonian king Nabonidus was the son of a Babylonian prince and Adad-guppi, a
woman from Haran, an important religious center in northern Mes-
* indigenous referring to the original opotamia. Adad-guppi had an avid devotion to Sin, the patron* god of
inhabitants of a region Haran, which might explain her son's support of that deity*. Though not
* regency form of government in which a direct member of the Babylonian royal family, Nabonidus came to the
a regent rules in place of the rightful throne in 556 B.C., after the assassination of King Labashi-Marduk. Schol-
ruler, who is absent, too young, or ars believe that Nabonidus may have taken part in the conspiracy, but
otherwise unable to rule
that he did not expect to become king. As king, Nabonidus led successful
* patron special guardian, protector, or military campaigns to Cilicia in southeastern ANATOLIA (present-day
supporter
Turkey). He also began to focus religious attention on Sin. He rebuilt the
* deity god or goddess Temple of Sin in Haran and installed his daughter as high priestess of Sin
at the city of UR.
126
 Nabopolassar
In 553 B.C., Nabonidus left on a military campaign to Lebanon and
then to Arabia. During his absence, the Persians under CYRUS THE GREAT
began to threaten Babylonia. This growing threat forced Nabonidus to re-
turn to Babylon. Thereafter, he continued to carry out his religious re-
See map in Babylonia and the forms with greater fervor, leading to increasing opposition from his
Babylonians (vol. 1). subjects. In 539 B.C., the Persians attacked Babylonia and captured Baby-
lon without a fight. Because of their hostility toward Nabonidus, the
Babylonians welcomed the Persians as liberators.
The capture of Babylon ended the Babylonian empire, which was in-
corporated into the PERSIAN EMPIRE. The fate of Nabonidus, however, is dis-
puted. Some historians say that the Persians sent him into exile in
Carmania, a Persian province in southeastern IRAN. (See also Babylonia
and the Babylonians.)

NABOPOLASSAR
N abopolassar (nab»uh»puh«LAS»uhr) was the first ruler of the Neo-
Babylonian empire and the founder of the so-called "Chaldean"
dynasty. During his reign, the Babylonians captured and destroyed a
number of important Assyrian cities, including ASHUR, NINEVEH, and
KALKHU, and played a leading role in the collapse of the Assyrian empire.
ruled 626-605 B.C. Nabopolassar seized the throne of Babylon after the death of King
Babylonian king ASHURBANIPAL in 627 B.C. At first, Nabopolassar encountered resistance
from Babylonians as well as the Assyrians. After many years of fighting,
however, he finally secured firm control over Babylonia. Nabopolassar
then began working to extend his power into surrounding areas while de-
fending Babylonia from the Assyrians.
In 616 B.C., Nabopolassar began to advance into Assyria and gained
limited control of some Assyrian provinces. Around the same time, a new
power was growing in the region—the MEDES of IRAN. In 614 B.C., the
Medes, led by King Cyaxares, attacked and raided the Assyrian city of
Nineveh. Nabopolassar marched into Assyria as well and met Cyaxares at
Ashur after that city had fallen to the Medes. The two rulers signed a
treaty forming an alliance that they secured with the marriage of
Nabopolassar's son to Cyaxares' granddaughter.
The Medes and Babylonians together launched devastating attacks
against Assyria and took control of several cities there. The fall of Nineveh
in 612 B.C. marked the end of the Assyrian empire, although the Assyrians
made a few unsuccessful attempts at recovery over the next few years. Ac-
cording to the treaty between Nabopolassar and Cyaxares, the Medes
gained control of northern MESOPOTAMIA, leaving the Babylonians in con-
trol of the rest of the region.
After the Assyrian conquest, Nabopolassar turned his attention to the
Levant lands bordering the eastern Levant*, which had been seized by the Egyptians. In 605 B.C., an aging
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Nabopolassar sent his son NEBUCHADNEZZAR II to fight the Egyptians. The
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), Babylonians won a decisive victory against the Egyptians at KARKAMISH in
the West Bank, and Jordan
SYRIA. Shortly thereafter, Nabopolassar died, and Nebuchadnezzar raced
home from Syria to claim the throne. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians;
Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans.)
127
Names, Personal

[NAMES, PERSONAL
D epending on how the people of a particular culture select names, a
personal name may be a link to an individual's ancestors, ethnic
heritage, or deities*. Ancient Near Eastern texts contain thousands of
names. Historians have looked through these texts to examine how
change in a region, such as conquest, assimilation*, or changes in reli-
gious beliefs, might be reflected in its personal names.

* deity god or goddess Customs of Naming. The peoples of the ancient Near East followed a
* assimilation adoption of the beliefs and variety of practices in giving personal names. Patriarchal cultures, in
customs of a society which people traced their descent and social status from their father's fam-
* Semitic of or relating to people of the ilies, often used patronymics, names based on the father's name. Semitic*
Near East or northern Africa, including cultures generally used personal names followed by a patronym, except
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, when the identity of the father was unclear, such as with slaves. In that
Jews, and Arabs
case, the mother's name was used. Matriarchal* societies, such as that of
* matriarchal society in which women the Lycians of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) took their names from their
hold the dominant position
mothers.
The people of ancient MESOPOTAMIA named their babies soon after
birth. Some children were named for their grandfathers or for their dead
relatives whom the new babies were thought to replace. Adults some-
times took or were given new names to reflect events in their lives. Schol-
ars know of one case where the name of a Babylonian governor was
changed to a Greek name by a Seleucid king. Slaves might receive a name
that emphasized dependence on their owner, such as / look at her eyes.
* scribe person of a learned class who Mesopotamian scribes* and scholars signed their works with names that
served as a writer, editor, or teacher identified them as descendants of famous scribes of earlier generations.
The use of ancestral names or occupations for "last names" came into use
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 in Mesopotamia during the middle of the first millennium B.C.*
tO 1 B.C. The Akkadian people had the unique custom of giving names that
seemed to reflect the newborn baby's feelings, such as My god has mercy
upon me. The Sumerians used names consisting of a sentence or phrase,
such as Servant of [king's name].
Theophoric names, personal names that included the name of a de-
ity, were also common in many cultures. In Elam, people bore names that
included the names of their gods. For example, Manzat, the name of an
Elamite goddess, appeared in male and female names. These personal
names usually took the form of sentences, such as God [name] loves me or
God [name] may protect me. When the sentences became too long to be
easily used as names, people shortened them until only the name of the
god remained.
The religious society of the ancient Egyptians was reflected in their
use of theophoric names. For example, the personal name Sebekhotpe
meant "[The god] Sebek is satisfied."
When people from other ethnic backgrounds settled in Egypt, they of-
ten took Egyptian names. People of foreign origin were well aware of the
power of names to identify them as outsiders or members of the commu-
r
Asiatic referring to people who come nity. For such people, taking an Egyptian name was an important step in
from the Levant, the lands bordering the being accepted by Egyptian society. For example, one royal official from
eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea the 1100s B.C. bore both the Asiatic* name Benazu and the Egyptian name
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
the West Bank, and Jordan
Ramessesemperre. During the Ptolemaic period (305-30 B.C.), however, it
was considered a crime punishable by death for an Egyptian to take a Greek
128
 Naram-Siii
name without permission. This was largely because the Greek-speaking
Ptolemies were trying to keep the Egyptians separate from themselves.
Nicknames were also common throughout the history of the ancient
Near East. Usually, a nickname was given by abbreviating a long name.

Clues to the Past. Many personal names from the ancient Near East
appear in texts. Some are the names of kings or generals whose deeds
were recorded. Others are the names of ordinary people found on popu-
lation registers, tax rolls, property deeds, and other documents.
The structure and content of names often reflect the ethnic or linguis-
* linguistic related to language tic* roots of the people who bore those names. The study of the origins and
uses of personal names is called onomastics, and it is useful to historians in-
terested in tracing the movements of peoples and the spread of languages.
Researchers investigating population changes toward the end of the
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 third millennium B.C.* in Babylonia believe that there was a migration* of
to 2001 B.C. West Semitic peoples (Amorites) into Babylonia. They base this conclu-
* migration movement of individuals or sion on the presence of West Semitic names in Babylonian texts, because
peoples from one place to another no such names appear in texts from earlier periods in the same region.
Another example of onomastics concerns the spread of Aramaic, the lan-
guage of the Aramaeans from Syria, across much of the Near East during
the first millennium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.). Historians have
found a high percentage of Aramaic personal names in Mesopotamia,
even among non-Aramaean royal families. In these cases, studying per-
sonal names provides historians with a means to see the influences one
culture had on another.

NARAM-SIN
O ne of the greatest kings of Akkad, Naram-Sin (nah»RAHM«seen)
ruled for more than 35 years. The Akkadian empire reached its
height of power under Naram-Sin, who changed the nature of kingship
by claiming the titles of a god. After his death, the empire experienced a
swift, irreversible decline.
ruled ca. 2254-2218 B.C. The grandson of SARGON I, Naram-Sin took the throne on the death of
King of Akkad his father, King Manishtushu. He inherited a secure kingdom, which he
enlarged by launching military expeditions to SYRIA, ANATOLIA (present-
day Turkey), Elam, and Magan (Arabia). Most of his military campaigns
were successful, and the Akkadian empire reached its greatest extent.
* city-state independent state consisting When his power threatened some Sumerian city-states*, which feared for
of a city and its surrounding territory their own independence, Naram-Sin quelled any rebellions that erupted.
Naram-Sin unified the administration of Akkad and appointed mem-
bers of the royal family to powerful positions in the empire. He encour-
aged growth in trade and began an extensive building program,
* fortification structure built to strengthen constructing temples, fortifications*, and monuments commemorating
or protect against attack his military victories and achievements. At some point during his reign,
Naram-Sin began using titles usually reserved for the gods. This was the
* divinity state or quality of being a god first time in Mesopotamian history that a king had claimed divinity* dur-
ing his own lifetime. The practice continued under a few later kings in
MESOPOTAMIA, but the idea of divine kingship never became as firmly es-
tablished as in ancient Egypt.
129
Natural Disasters
In the centuries after his death, Naram-Sin became the subject of
many legends. Although most honor him for his military victories, some
criticize him as a misfortunate ruler who caused rebellion and invasion
because of his pride and unwise decisions. (See also Akkad and the Akka-
dian Empire; Dynasties; Kings.)

Natural Disasters See Disasters, Natural.

NAVAL POWER
T he major waterways of the ancient Near East—including the
Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf, RED SEA, NILE RIVER, TIGRIS RIVER, and
EUPHRATES RIVER—all served as highways for commerce and conquest. In
the early history of the region, naval power was relatively unimportant.
Over time, however, developments in ships and weaponry made navies
more significant.
The first naval vessels in the ancient Near East were cargo ships, which
were used to transport SOLDIERS to the scene of battle. When necessary,
troops fought from the ships, standing on the decks and shooting arrows or
throwing spears at the enemy. The earliest known depiction of a naval bat-
tle, dating from about 3100 B.C., is found on a carved ivory knife handle
from Egypt that shows two rows of ships—one Egyptian and one, perhaps,
Sumerian—with dead men floating between them. Another early reference
to a naval battle dates from the 2200s B.C., when King Shar-kali-sharri of
Akkad sent a naval force to conquer the islands and coasts of the Persian
Gulf. Yet another reference dates to the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-
2004 B.C.), when an enemy fleet of 240 ships threatened the city of KISH, lo-
cated on the Euphrates River. Texts also mention an attack by the Egyptians
* Levant lands bordering the eastern on the coast of CANAAN in the Levant* during the late third millennium B.C.*
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Most powerful states in the ancient Near East eventually developed
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), navies. Even the HITTITES, who were not naturally a seagoing people, assem-
the West Bank, and Jordan
bled a navy when necessary. One of their greatest naval successes was the
* third millennium B.C years from 3000 conquest of the island of CYPRUS in the 1300s B.C. During the same period,
to 2001 B.C.
the Minoans of CRETE and Mycenaeans of Greece had the strongest navies
in the eastern Mediterranean region. During the first millennium B.C.
(years from 1000 to 1 B.C.), the Phoenicians were best known for their
* maritime related to the sea or shipping maritime* skills.
In Egypt during the New Kingdom (1539-1075 B.C.), the navy in
Egypt was a separate entity. Egyptian naval forces at this time had offi-
cers of various ranks and titles, as well as different classes of ships. The
See naval officers who sailed the ships were professional sailors. However,
[color plate 12,] the men who served as combat troops and rowers were still land soldiers.
vol. 4.
In the 1200s B.C., one of the most famous battles in the history of the
Near East took place between the Egyptians and the SEA PEOPLES. The
Egyptian victory was depicted on a temple wall.
By the 800s B.C., the first true warships appeared. Developed by the
Greeks, these ships, propelled by oars and sails, had large, spearlike rams
attached to the bow, or front, of the ship near the waterline. These rams
130
 Nebuchadnezzar II

were designed to damagethehulls,orbodies,ofenemy ships, causing

them to sink.BytheB.C.,
700s
theEgyptians hadbegun tobuild naval ships
with rams, and the Phoenicianshadadoptedthedesign B.C.by the600s
With the developmentandimprovementofsuch rams, naval vessels be-
came formidableweaponsofwar.
During the years between 1000 B.C.,
and
naval1 power became increas-
ingly important in theNearEastand theeastern Mediterranean region.
The Persians,who dominatedtheNear East
from
B.C.,
atem-
least
500
ployed sailorsfrom Phoenicia, Greece,andEgypt. B.C.,
Inthethe400s
Greeks began to achieve naval superiority with Athenian triremes—
oar-powered warships thatwere fastandeasytomaneuver—thathad
crews of up to 200rowers.Byabout
B.C.,
the
300use ofsuch ships allowed
the Greeks to overcome both thePersiansand thePhoeniciansand to be-
come the dominant naval powerin theentire alsoArmies;
(See region.
Ships and Boats; Wars andWarfare.)

NEBUCHADNEZZAR
T he greatest kingof the so-called "Chaldean" dynasty*
BABYLON, Nebuchadnezzar (neb»yuh*kuhd»NEZ»uhr)
II isknown
for
his military prowessand hisrolein thehistoryof theIsraelites.
ofancient

He also
is
II credited with transforming Babylon intoone of thegreatestand
magnificent citiesof theancient Near East.
most

The oldestsonNABOPOLASSAR,
ofKing thefounderof thedynasty, Neb-
uchadnezzarbeganamilitary career at ayoungage andbecame known as
ruled 605-562
B.C. a capable leaderand administrator. B.C.,
Inhe607
led theBabylonian
Babylonian king troops in northernAssyriaandlater commandedthemilitary expeditions
againstthe Egyptians
SYRIAand
in theLevant*.
131
Necho II
* dynasty succession of rulers from the Two years later, Nebuchadnezzar led his forces to an impressive vic-
same family or group tory against the Egyptians at KARKAMISH in Syria. This victory gave Babylo-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern nia control over Syria. Nebuchadnezzar then began to pursue the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Egyptians toward Egypt. After receiving the news of his father's death in
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), Babylon, however, he returned home to claim the throne. Soon after he
the West Bank, and Jordan
secured power in Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar resumed his campaigns. In
604 B.C., he led his forces into the Levant and subdued local states there,
including the kingdom of Judah. Gradually, he consolidated his control
over the Levant, although pockets of resistance remained.
In 601 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar clashed again with the Egyptians near
the borders of Egypt. This time, however, the Babylonians suffered great
losses and were forced to retreat. The kingdom of Judah, an ally of Egypt,
* tribute payment made by a smaller or took this opportunity to rebel, and it stopped paying tribute* to the Baby-
weaker party to a more powerful one, lonians. Nebuchadnezzar remained in Babylon for a few years to
often under the threat of force strengthen his forces. In 597 B.C., he crushed the revolt in Judah. When
the Judeans revolted again, Nebuchadnezzar's response was swift and
fierce. He destroyed much of the city of JERUSALEM, including its great tem-
ple, and took many Judeans into captivity in Babylonia. Thereafter, Neb-
uchadnezzar had full control of the Levant.
He continued to extend Babylonian power in other areas. After a 13-
* city-state independent state consisting year siege of TYRE, he gained control of that Phoenician city-state*. He
of a city and its surrounding territory also gained control of former Assyrian provinces in northern Mesopo-
tamia but failed in his later attempts to invade and conquer Egypt. Never-
theless, Nebuchadnezzar had established Babylonia as the foremost
power in the Near East, and the empire reached its greatest extent since
the days of King HAMMURABI more than 1,000 years earlier.
Nebuchadnezzar also launched extensive building projects, especially
in Babylon. He built and repaired shrines and temples and constructed
* fortification structure built to massive fortifications*, defensive walls, and lavish palaces. Many scholars
strengthen or protect against attack credit him with building the famous HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON, con-
sidered one of the wonders of the ancient world.
After his death in 562 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son
Amel-Marduk, the first of several ineffective rulers. Despite Nebuchadnez-
zar's military successes and the magnificence of Babylon, his successors
inherited a politically unstable empire, which began to decline. Within
25 years, during the reign of King NABONIDUS, the Babylonian empire fell
to the Persians. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and
the Chaldeans; Israel and Judah; Judaism and Jews.)

NECHO II
N echo II was the second pharaoh* of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty,
which ruled Egypt between the reigns of Ethiopian and Persian
kings. During his reign, Necho II tried unsuccessfully to expand the terri-
torial boundaries of Egypt and to promote Egyptian trade.
Necho came to the throne on the death of his father, Psamtik I, the
ruled 610-595 B.C. founder of the dynasty*. Like his father, Necho worked hard to keep
Egyptian pharaoh Egypt independent of foreign rule and helped the Assyrians as their em-
pire collapsed at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes. In 609 B.C.,
132
 Nefertiti
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt Necho invaded SYRIA to stop further Babylonian expansion there. Despite
* dynasty succession of rulers from the early successes, the Egyptians suffered defeat in the city-state* of KARKAMISH
same family or group in 605 B.C. at the hands of the Babylonian leader NEBUCHADNEZZAR II.
* city-state independent state consisting Thereafter, Necho was forced to withdraw from Syria and abandon any
of a city and its surrounding territory hope of expanding Egyptian power into the Levant*.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Necho also launched efforts to expand Egyptian trade and commerce.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea He maintained fleets of ships on both the Mediterranean and Red Seas. To
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), promote Egypt's position as an intermediary in trade, Necho began build-
the West Bank, and Jordan ing a canal between the Nile Delta and the Red Sea. However, technical
difficulties forced the Egyptians to abandon that project. According to the
Greek historian HERODOTUS, Necho then sought another way to promote
Egyptian trade. He sent an expedition of Phoenician sailors to find a sea
route around Africa. The expedition was successful, but the route was im-
practical for trade purposes. At his death in 595 B.C., Necho II was suc-
ceeded by his son Psamtik II. (See also Economy and Trade; Egypt and
the Egyptians; Trade Routes.)

NEFERTITI
O ne of the best-known queens of ancient Egypt, Nefertiti was the
chief wife of the pharaoh* AKHENATEN. She supported the religious
reforms initiated by her husband and may have served as co-ruler during
his reign. It is not known who Nefertiti;s parents were or even where she
came from. Some historians believe she may have been a princess from
lived ca. 1370-1336 B.C. Mitanni, a kingdom in upper MESOPOTAMIA.
Egyptian queen Nefertiti's husband, originally called Amenhotep IV, came to the
throne around 1353 B.C. After a few years, he initiated revolutionary reli-
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt gious reforms that caused great turmoil in Egypt. Mainly, he cast aside
* cult formal religious worship Egypt's chief god, AMUN, and established a new cult* of ATEN, a sun god.
Amenhotep also built a new capital dedicated to Aten, called AKHETATEN,
and changed his own name to Akhenaten.
Nefertiti played an important role in the new cult of Aten. In ancient
Egyptian art, she is shown making offerings to the god, a privilege that
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been was generally reserved for kings. Nefertiti's name also appears on stelae*
carved or engraved and serves as a alongside her husband's name and the name of Aten. These stelae were
monument; pi. stelae the focus of household worship, and they suggest that Nefertiti was wor-
* deity god or goddess shiped as a deity* along with Akhenaten and Aten.
Ancient Egyptian art from early in Akhenaten's reign shows Nefertiti
wearing the same headdress as that worn by earlier queens. Later she
wore a tall blue crown that became unique to her. In the last years of
Akhenaten's reign, Nefertiti is shown wearing crowns normally reserved
for kings, leading some historians to believe that she may have served as
co-ruler. They also believe that she may have ruled as king for a brief time
after Akhenaten's death around 1336 B.C.
Nefertiti was not Akhenaten's only wife, but little is known about his
other wives. Nefertiti and Akhenaten had six daughters, two of whom
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which later became queens of Egypt.
material is cut away to leave figures Nefertiti is depicted in art and statues more frequently than any other
projecting slightly from the background Egyptian queen. She appears in many bas-reliefs* and artworks in the
133
Neo-Hittites

templesKARNAK
at AMARNA.
and The mostfamous representation of the
* bust statue of a subject's head, neck, queen is alife-sized painted bust* in which she iswearing herunique blue
and shoulders crown.
(Seealso Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

NEO-HITTITES
T he Hittite empire
ANATOLIA
in (present-day
1200B.C., when invaders destroyed
Turkey)
fell shortly
KHATTUSHA.
after
its capital,
The Hittite
peoples then begantoform independent kingdoms
KHATTI, southeast
of
their homeland. These kingdoms, and the people who inhabited them,
are known as the Neo-Hittites,or new Hittites.Fornearly500
years,the
134
 Neo-Hittites
Neo-Hittites preserved the language and traditions of the Hittite empire
before they were finally absorbed into the Assyrian empire.

HISTORY
By 1200 B.C., a group known as the SEA PEOPLES may have advanced into
Anatolia from the north and west. This migration put tremendous pres-
sure on the Hittite empire there. Taking advantage of the situation, hos-
tile armies from the north—perhaps the Hittites' old enemies, the Kashka
people—possibly attacked Khattusha and burned it to the ground in
about 1190 B.C.

New States and New Threats. As the Hittite empire disintegrated,

many of its inhabitants migrated to southeastern Anatolia and northern
SYRIA. They regrouped around old TRADE ROUTES and river crossings and es-
* city-state Independent state consisting tablished small independent city-states*. The westernmost of these states
of a city and its surrounding territory were grouped into a kingdom called Tabal. To the east, along the western
* Levant lands bordering the eastern bank of the EUPHRATES RIVER, lay the states of Melid and Kummukh. South
shores of the Mediterranean Sea of Kummukh in Syria lay KARKAMISH, the most important Neo-Hittite
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), city-state. Several smaller Neo-Hittite lands lay south of Karkamish.
the West Bank, and Jordan
Between about 1190 and 1110 B.C., the Neo-Hittites strengthened
* nomadic referring to people who travel their control on the trade routes that ran through Anatolia. They also es-
from place to place to find food and
pasture
tablished new city-states in the Levant*. Around 1100 B.C., a nomadic*
people known as the ARAMAEANS began to move into Syria, perhaps from
* vassal individual or state that swears
loyalty and obedience to a greater power
east of the Euphrates River. The Aramaeans conquered some of the exist-
ing Neo-Hittite city-states and stopped Neo-Hittite expansion in the
* tribute payment made by a smaller or
weaker party to a more powerful one,
south. Notwithstanding their conquests, it was not the Aramaeans but
often under the threat of force the Assyrians who posed the greatest threat to the Neo-Hittites.

The Assyrians. Around 1110 B.C., King Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria

crossed the Euphrates River and attacked Melid and Karkamish. These
Inscription of kingdoms became vassals* of Assyria and paid tribute*, but they were not
Azatiwada absorbed into the Assyrian empire. The Assyrians allowed the local Neo-
in the A,D. 1940s, archaeolo- Hittite kings to retain control in exchange for their loyalty.
gists excavating the site of The Assyrians were not strong enough to advance as far as Tabal,
ancient Azatiwadiya in which remained free of Assyrian influence for several hundred years. Fi-
southern Turkey found bilin-
gual inscriptions in Phoenician nally, in the 840s B.C., the Assyrian king SHALMANESER III attacked Tabal,
and in Luwian hieroglyphics. destroyed many of its cities, and forced the kingdom to pay tribute. By
These inscriptions were commis- about this same time, a number of hill peoples north of Assyria had estab-
sioned by the Neo-Hittite ruler Aza- lished a powerful new kingdom there, called URARTU. Thereafter, Melid,
tiwada, who ruled in the 700s B.C. Karkamish, and many other Neo-Hittite states severed their alliances with
The inscriptions celebrate Azatiwada \
as the founder of Azatiwadiya. The Assyria and joined forces with Urartu.
complete Phoenician version has Around 745 B.C., King TIGLATH-PILESER III of Assyria launched the first
survived and is the longest Phoeni- of several campaigns to regain the lands lost to Urartu. During the next
cian document known to scholars. 30 years, the Assyrians conquered Tabal, Karkamish, Melid, and finally,
The accompanying Luwian text has Kummukh. The conquerors dealt harshly with the Neo-Hittites; they de-
aided scholars in the study of the stroyed their cities, sold much of the population into slavery, and made
Luwian language and in decipher-
ing the hieroglyphic script the former kingdoms provinces of the Assyrian empire.
The Assyrians were resettled in the newly conquered Neo-Hittite
states, which remained under Assyrian control until the Assyrian empire

135
Neo-Hittites
collapsed some 100 years later. Although some of the remote Neo-Hittite
states in the west and north regained a degree of independence, the As-
syrian conquest marked the end of the Neo-Hittite period.

CULTURE
Many historians consider the period following the collapse of the Hittite
empire as the Anatolian Dark Ages. Nevertheless, the Neo-Hittites pre-
served much of the culture and traditions of the empire during that pe-
riod, making contributions of their own.

Language and Religion. The Hittites spoke two main LANGUAGES:

Nesite, which was spoken in Khattusha and central Anatolia, and
Luwian, which was spoken in the west and south. The Neo-Hittites
abandoned the Nesite language but continued to use Luwian for official
writings, such as INSCRIPTIONS, and for everyday texts, such as letters and
* cuneiform world's oldest form of contracts. Unlike Nesite, which was written in cuneiform*, the Luwian
writing, which takes its name from the language used a type of HIEROGLYPHICS, in which pictures represented
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed words and syllables. Many Luwian inscriptions have been found by
into clay tablets
archaeologists*, providing a significant amount of information about
* archaeologist scientist who studies past Neo-Hittite life and culture.
human cultures, usually by excavating
material remains of human activity
The Neo-Hittites retained many of the religious traditions of the Hit-
tites. They worshiped the storm god TESHUB, the sun goddess KHEPAT, and
ISHTAR, the goddess of love and war. In the north, religious traditions were
similar to those in Khattusha, while Syrian traditions prevailed in the
south. In the kingdom of Karkamish, for example, the Syrian goddess
Kubaba was the city's main deity for hundreds of years.
Like the Hittites, the Neo-Hittites incorporated foreign gods into their
religious system. For instance, the rulers of the state of Hamath wor-
Semitic of or relating to people of the shiped the Semitic* goddess Baalat in addition to traditional Hittite
Near East or northern Africa, including deities. One new religious development among the Neo-Hittites was the
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, belief in an AFTERLIFE for humans.
Jews, and Arabs

Architecture and Art. Neo-Hittite cities were centered on a high

citadel, or fortress, containing palaces and temples. The surrounding
town consisted of residences and other public buildings. Most buildings
* mud brick brick made from mud, were constructed of mud brick* and heavy wooden beams. The bases of
straw, and water mixed together and the buildings were covered with carved stone. Massive walls and towers
baked in the sun to protect against enemy attack surrounded both the city and the citadel.
Neo-Hittite art consists largely of SCULPTURE from temples and public
* relief sculpture in which material is cut buildings and relief* carvings on walls, gates, and doors. These artworks
away to show figures raised from the usually portray religious, military, and mythological themes. Some free-
background standing sculptures have also been found, most of which are figures of
deities or funeral monuments to dead leaders.
While Neo-Hittite art has various distinct features, many of its ele-
ments can be traced back to the art of the Hittite empire. It also seems
likely that early Neo-Hittite art influenced the art of both the Assyrians
and the Aramaeans. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cities and City-
States; Indo-European Languages; Luwians; Religion.)
136
 Nile River

NILE RIVER
T he Nile River of Africa is the longest river in the world, covering a
distance of more than 4,000 miles. Beginning near the equator,
the river flows northward through northeastern Africa and passes
through Egypt before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile
River was extremely important to ancient Egypt. Without the Nile,
Egypt would be nothing but desert, because the region receives very lit-
tle rainfall. The Nile has provided Egypt with fertile land since ancient
times, allowing one of the greatest civilizations of the ancient world to
develop.
See map in Egypt and the Egyptians The ancient Egyptians were well aware of their dependence on the
(vol. 2).
Nile River. Their name for Egypt, kemet, means "black land/' and refers to
the rich, black soil carried and deposited by the river. In fact, because of
the river's importance to Egyptian civilization, the ancient Greek histo-
rian HERODOTUS wrote that Egypt was "the gift of the Nile."

Geography of the Nile. The Nile River consists of three major water-
ways: the Blue Nile and the Atbara River, which originate in the high-
lands of ancient Nubia (present-day Ethiopia), and the White Nile,
which originates in Lake Victoria in present-day Uganda. The Blue Nile
and White Nile join in the present-day Sudan to form one river. The At-
bara River joins that river about 200 miles farther downstream.
Before the Nile River flows into Egypt it passes through six rapids
called the Nile Cataracts. These cataracts occur where the river flows be-
Puzzling Behavior tween steep cliffs, causing the current to become swift and rough. The
of the Nile Sixth Cataract is downstream from the present-day city of Khartoum in
The behavior of the Nile puzzled the Sudan. The First Cataract is hundreds of miles farther north at a place
the people of ancient Egypt as well,
as ancient Creeks and Romans. The
known in ancient times as Elephantine. This cataract was the traditional
Nile overflowed its banks each sunrxl southern boundary of ancient Egypt and served as a natural barrier to
mer, no matter how little rain fell in \ outsiders trying to enter Egypt from the south.
Egypt, Explanations for this were North of the First Cataract, the river forms three fertile regions that
many and varied. For example, have been intensively farmed and heavily populated since ancient times:
Thales, a Greek philosopher, sug-
the Nile Valley, the Nile Delta, and the Faiyum Depression. The Nile Val-
gested that strong winds blowing
south from the Nile Delta in sum- ley consists of a long, narrow strip of land running along both sides of the
mer held back the waters of the river from the First Cataract to the head of the Nile Delta near the ancient
river, causing floods upstream. An- city of MEMPHIS. In ancient times, the Nile Valley ranged between 1 and 13
other ancient Greek, Oenopides of miles in width. Barren desert stretched outward for hundreds of miles on
Chios, thought that heat stored in both sides of the valley.
the ground dried up underground
water in winter, causing the river to
The Nile Delta was formed of soil deposited by the river as it flowed
recede. It was not until the 10Os B.C \ into the Mediterranean Sea. In ancient times, the delta began north of
that the correct explanation was of-j Memphis, where the river fanned out into several branches. The Nile
fered fay a Greek astronomer and Delta covers an area stretching about 100 miles from north to south and
mapmaker named Eratosthenes. He 3 about 150 miles from east to west. The entire delta has a very low eleva-
was the first to learn about the
tion, enabling the land there to remain wet long after floodwaters recede.
heavy rains at the headwaters of
the Nile. Many areas within the delta remain swampy year-round. Because of its
great size and abundant water supply, the Nile Delta has always had more
fertile land than the Nile Valley.
Southwest of Memphis, the Faiyum Depression—a broad, low-lying
area—is fed by the Bahr Yusuf, a branch of the Nile River. Since ancient
times, this region has contained a lake whose level rises and falls with
that of the Nile. Surrounding this lake is an area of fertile land where,
137
Nile River
in ancient times, the Egyptians built CANALS and systems of IRRIGATION to
use the water of the Faiyum Depression and expand the area of fertile
farmland.

Impact on Agriculture. Ancient Egypt was dependent on the Nile

River for AGRICULTURE, which was based on the flood patterns of the river.
Egyptians also marked the season by the different phases of the Nile.
The Nile flooded in a more or less predictable pattern. Each year in late
June, the Nile began to rise because of heavy rains in the highlands of
Ethiopia and farther south. The river continued to rise gradually, and by
August, it overflowed its banks. The floodwaters spread slowly over the nar-
row plain on both sides of the river, depositing a thick layer of rich black
* silt soil or other sediment carried and silt* on the land and soaking into the soil. After the floodwaters subsided,
deposited by moving water Egyptians could plant crops in the moist floodplain, which remained wet
long enough for the crops to grow for harvest about three months later.
The flooding of the Nile River irrigated the land naturally. Natural lev-
* levee embankment or earthen wall that ees* formed along the banks of the river because more silt was deposited
helps prevent flooding there than in the outlying floodplain. Ancient Egyptians built homes and
other structures on these areas of higher ground and cultivated DATE PALMS
and other trees on these natural ridges.
Around 3000 B.C., Egypt's rulers began to build irrigation systems to
bring more land under cultivation and increase production. Projects in-
cluded repairing and reinforcing the natural levees, building artificial lev-
ees around fields to contain floodwaters, and maintaining channels to
control the flow of water.

Impact on Transportation, Government, and Society. The Nile

was a convenient means of transportation in ancient Egypt because of its
natural features. North of the First Cataract, the Nile flows slowly and
smoothly all the way to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the north-
flowing current of the river is matched by highly reliable south-blowing
winds. Consequently, ancient boats and barges could float north with
the current and sail south with the wind. Transportation along the Nile
was easy, quick, and cheap, and the river served as the major highway of
Egypt. The ease of transportation on the Nile promoted trade, which be-
came an important part of the economy of ancient Egypt.
The narrow width of the Nile Valley and the fact that the river runs
the full length of Egypt enabled Egyptian rulers to extend their control
over the entire realm. By about 3000 B.C., this had led to the establish-
ment of a strong centralized government in Egypt. Because people clus-
tered along the Nile, the rulers found it relatively easy to control the
population and keep Egypt united.
Although the Nile's flood patterns were quite regular, abnormal FLOODS
caused serious problems in ancient Egypt. Unusually low floods caused
food shortages and FAMINE, while high floods damaged crops and destroyed
villages. Such fluctuations in Nile flooding may account for the periodic
declines in the power of Egypt's central government, as people lost faith in
the ability of their leaders to please the gods and guarantee prosperity. (See
also Climate; Egypt and the Egyptians; Environmental Change; Eu-
phrates River; Geography; Nubia and the Nubians; Rivers; Tigris River.)
138
 Nineveh

NINEVEH
T he last great capital of the Assyrian empire, Nineveh was also the old-
est and most populous city in ancientAssyria. Located in northern
MESOPOTAMIA on the east RIVER,
bank
TIGRIS
theof the
citywas continuously
inhabited from as early as the sixth millennium
B.C.* A.D.
until the
1500s.
Attracted byfertile land and a strategic location,early peoples established
a settlement at Nineveh. During theUruk period (ca. B.C.),4000-3000
the
* sixth millennium
B.C.years from 6000 city developed muchlike those in southern Mesopotamia. In the second mil-
to 5001 B.C. lenniumB.C.*, Nineveh became famous as the main center for the cult* of
* second millennium
B.C.years from the goddess
ISHTAR. In the B.C.,
800s Nineveh underwent significant expan-
2000 to 1001 B.C. sion. King
ASHURNASIRPALII (ruled 883-859
B.C.)and his successors builtand
* cult formal religious worship repaired palaces and temples there. However, Nineveh did not reach it
height of power and prestige untilthe SENNACHERIB
B.C., 600s
whenKing
made it the new capital of the Assyrian empire.

139
Nippur
Sennacherib transformed Nineveh into a magnificent city. He con-
structed an enormous, lavishly decorated palace, enlarged the city square,
and built impressive avenues. He also created acres of parks and open
See map in Assyria and the Assyrians spaces, including a great wildlife park with exotic plants and animals. Sen-
(vol.1).
nacherib also built canals and aqueducts to bring water from mountain
streams many miles away. The pace of construction in Nineveh slowed
during the reigns of ESARHADDON and ASHURBANIPAL, although both kings
continued to build new structures and modify existing ones. Ashurbanipal
is noted for the library he established at Nineveh, which contained thou-
bas-relief kind of sculpture in which sands of CLAY TABLETS on many subjects, and for the magnificent bas-reliefs*
material is cut away to leave figures that decorated the walls of his royal palace.
projecting slightly from the background Nineveh became a symbol of the power, prestige, and wealth of the
Assyrians, but it was short-lived. In 612 B.C., the Babylonians and MEDES
attacked and sacked Nineveh during the last stages of their conquest of
Assyria. The city survived but sank into obscurity. Parts of it continued to
be inhabited for another 1,000 years, until they were absorbed into the
city of Mosul.
The ruins of ancient Nineveh consist of several mounds, the main
one of which is known as Tell Kuyunjik. Excavated in the A.D. 1800s,
these ruins have yielded evidence from many periods in the city's his-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or tory. Among the most famous artifacts* recovered there are more than
other object made by humans 20,000 tablets from Ashurbanipal's library and bas-reliefs from his
palace. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cities and City-States;
Hanging Gardens of Babylon; Libraries and Archives; Palaces and
Temples; Sculpture.)

NIPPUR
A n ancient city-state* in southern MESOPOTAMIA, Nippur (ni»POOR)
was the site of the main temple of ENLIL, the supreme god of the
Mesopotamian pantheon*. Nippur was occupied as early as the 5000s B.C.
The city's religious importance dates from about 2100 B.C., when King Ur-
Nammu of UR constructed a temple dedicated to Enlil called the Ekur. The
city also contained temples to other deities*, including the goddess Inanna.
* city-state independent state consisting As the center for the cult* of Enlil, Nippur played an important role in
of a city and its surrounding territory Sumerian and Babylonian religion and politics. For instance, according to
* pantheon all the gods of a particular Sumerian tradition, the roots of kingship came from Enlil. Thus, Nippur
culture was considered the seat of kingly power, and kings sought legitimacy
* deity god or goddess through official recognition from the priests of Enlil. Yet Nippur never be-
* cult formal religious worship came a political capital, and no king or dynasty* from that city ever dom-
* dynasty succession of rulers from the inated Mesopotamia.
same family or group Nippur grew into a large city, attracting people from throughout the
* scribe person of a learned class who region because of its religious significance. The city also became a center
served as a writer, editor, or teacher of learning, with an academy for training scribes*, founded by King
SHULGI. Around the 1700s B.C., Nippur began to experience periods of
prosperity and decline. The city was nearly abandoned several times but
experienced a rebirth each time. The final period of decline began in the
A.D. 200s, which led to the city's complete abandonment several centuries
later. (See also Cities and City-States; Palaces and Temples; Religion;
Sumer and the Sumerians; Ziggurats.)
140
 Nomads and Nomadism

NlTOKRIS
N itokris was one of just a few queens of ancient Egypt to serve as the
ruler of her country and not just as the wife of a king. She was the
sister of King Merenre II of the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2350-2170 B.C.). When
Merenre was killed at the hands of his subjects, who blamed him for the
famine* Egypt suffered during his reign, Nitokris took over the throne.
ruled ca. 2100s B.C. Much of what is known of Nitokris's reign comes from the writings of
Egyptian queen later historians Manetho and HERODOTUS. Manetho claimed that Nitokris
built the third pyramid at GIZA, but later historians have discovered that
* famine severe lack of food due to failed the monument preceded her reign.
crops Nitokris is best known for avenging the death of her brother. Accord-
ing to the Greek historian Herodotus, she had a huge underground room
constructed and connected by a hidden pipe to the NILE RIVER. She then
invited all those she believed responsible for killing her brother to a ban-
quet. While they feasted in the chamber, Nitokris opened the pipe and
water flooded the room, drowning everyone present. She then commit-
ted suicide. Nitokris was the last person in her family to rule Egypt, so
dynasty succession of rulers from the with her death, a dynasty* ended.
same family or group Two other women named Nitokris are known from ancient times.
One, as described by Herodotus, was a queen of BABYLON, who may have
ruled during the 500s B.C. and been responsible for the construction of
many public works. The other was an Egyptian princess who was named
the wife of the god AMUN by her father, King Psamtik I, around 650 B.C.
(See also Dynasties; Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

NOMADS AND
T he term nomad refers to people who travel from place to place in
search of food and pasture. Most nomads are pastoralists, which
means that their lifestyle is based on breeding and herding livestock.
They live such a life because of the need to find new pastures in which to
NOMADISM graze their herds of SHEEP, GOATS, CATTLE, or other animals. Nomads and
nomadism existed throughout the ancient Near East, and they played an
important role in shaping the history and culture of the region.

NOMADISM IN THE NEAR EAST

Pastoral nomadism probably arose in the Near East sometime after 9000 B.C.,
when AGRICULTURE began to develop. Despite the differences between no-
madism and farming, modern scholars believe that the two lifestyles may
always have been intertwined and that they probably developed together
rather than independently.

Origins of Nomadism. The earliest agricultural settlements in the

Near East consisted of farmers who tilled the soil and individuals who
* domesticated adapted or tamed for cared for domesticated* animals. At first, the animals probably grazed in
human use pastures close to the fields and villages. Some animals, especially goats,
which grazed on crops as well as pasture, probably did a great deal of
damage to land that was valuable for crops as well.
The practice of herding animals in lands away from farming commu-
nities probably began for the purpose of conserving nearby land for
141
Nomads and Nomadism
crops. Moving herds to and from distant pastures becamethe main task
of individuals andfamilies who specializedin tendingthe animals. Over
time, these people developeda nomadic lifestyle separate
from thatof
agriculturists and their communities.
By about 3500
B.C., the largest agricultural settlementsin the Near
East had developed into the first cities.The urban populations needed
wool, milk, hides, and meat. The nomadic peoples and their herds sup-
plied these animal products in exchange for manufactured goods from
cities. By aboutB.C.,
2300nomadism had becomefeasible
a alternativeto
agriculturalism. Pastoralists and agriculturists remained in contact with
each other andoften moved between the two lifestyles. Farmers turned to
nomadic pastoralism when raising crops became difficult or impossible
becauseDROUGHTS
of or other problems. Likewise, some nomads practiced
HUNTING, trading, andfarming in addition to herding animals.
The relationship between nomads and sedentists (people who live in
one place) wasoften mutually beneficial, but this did not prevent the oc-
casional outbreak of hostilities between the two groups. Sedentists some-
times waged war against nomads, and nomads frequently raided settled
communities. The interaction of these two groups played major
a rolein
the politics and economy of the ancient Near East.

142
 Nomads and Nomadism
Notable Nomadic Groups. Among the earliest nomads mentioned in
Near Eastern texts were the Gutians from the Zagros Mountains of IRAN.
The Gutians are credited with destroying the Akkadian empire of
MESOPOTAMIA in the 2100s B.C. Like many other nomadic groups that
lived close to urban civilization, they became absorbed into settled soci-
eties and adopted many of the traditions and customs of the people they
conquered.
The nomads most often mentioned in Mesopotamian texts are the
Frozen in Time AMORITES, a group of peoples from northern Mesopotamia and SYRIA, who
spoke a Semitic* language. Shortly before 2000 B.C., the kings of UR consid-
Archaeological work has
shown that nomadic ered the Amorites a threat and built a wall to protect their kingdom. Yet
lifestyles have remained records also indicate that many Amorites settled in Mesopotamian com-
much the same for thou- munities. After the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur in about 1950 B.C.,
sands of years. For example, the Amorites took control of several Mesopotamian cities. One Amorite
in 1973, American archaeolo- leader, SHAMSHI-ADAD I, established a kingdom that included almost all of
gist Frank Hole studied an ancient
nomadic campsite in southwestern northern Mesopotamia. The Babylonian king HAMMURABI is also believed
Iran with the help of local nomads. to have descended from the Amorites.
Based on their modern practices, Another important group of nomadic people were the ARAMAEANS of
one of Hole's nomadic assistants Syria. First mentioned in texts from the late 1100s B.C., the Aramaeans es-
was able to determine the size and tablished many small states west of the Assyrian empire. The Aramaeans
arrangement of the site, the season and Assyrians clashed frequently until the Aramaean states were finally
in which it was occupied, and
whether a tent site belonged to a defeated by Assyria in the early 700s B.C. Nevertheless, Aramaic, the lan-
leader or an average person* He also guage of the Aramaeans, became the lingua franca* of the Assyrian em-
told Hole where to dig to uncover pire. It remained in widespread use throughout the ancient Near East for
the locations of the fireplace and more than 1,000 years, even following the introduction of Greek by
ash dumps of the ancient site. The Alexander the Great and his successors.
assistant's accurate assessment of
the site suggests that the layout of Yet another nomadic group, the Arabs, first appeared in written
nomadic campsites has remained records around 850 B.C. Arabs controlled important TRADE ROUTES through
the same for nearly 9,000 years. the Arabian peninsula on which CARAVANS carried luxury goods, such as
frankincense and myrhh*, from southern Arabia to the Near East. Fearing
that Assyrian expansion would disrupt trade, the Arabs often allied them-
selves with other groups in campaigns against Assyria. At the same time,
* Semitic of or relating to a language Arab rulers paid tribute* to Assyrian kings who, in turn, relied on the
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, Arabs to ensure the flow of goods through their lands.
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician The Arabs played an important role in Assyrian campaigns against
* lingua franca language that is widely Egypt in the mid-600s B.C. Arab leaders provided King ESARHADDON with
used for communication among CAMELS and supplies to invade Egypt through the deserts. Still, the Assyri-
speakers of different languages
ans continued to raid Arab territories to weaken the tribes, extract tribute
* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree from them, and ensure their loyalty and cooperation.
resins used to make incense and
perfumes
Around the 500s B.C., two nomadic groups from southern Russia caused
much destruction in the ancient Near East region. These were the Cimmeri-
* tribute payment made by a smaller or
weaker party to a more powerful one,
ans and the Scythians. The Cimmerians were warriors who invaded the
often under the threat of force kingdom of URARTU and ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) in the 700s and 600s
* Levant lands bordering the eastern
B.C. The Scythians, were warrior horsemen who invaded Assyria, Syria, the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Levant*, and Egypt in the 600s B.C. Their attacks contributed to the fall of
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the Assyrian empire and Urartu in the 600s and 500s B.C. Yet another tribe
the West Bank, and Jordan of nomadic people who had a strong impact on the ancient Near East were
the Parthians, a horse-riding tribe who were originally from CENTRAL ASIA.
The Parthians seized Iran during the 200s B.C. and Mesopotamia during
the 100s B.C.

143
Nomads and Nomadism
Nomads and Politics. The relationship between nomads and seden-
tists ranged from distrust and hostility to trust and cooperation. The
leaders of Near Eastern kingdoms considered nomads a threat because
they were suspicious of any group whose movements they could not
control. Not only did their wandering make nomads a security problem,
but it also made them difficult to tax. On the other hand, nomads played
an important part in the trade and economy of Near Eastern states. Ex-
pert animal breeders, they supplied donkeys to MERCHANTS, farmers, and
soldiers. Nomads also hired themselves out as shepherds to farming
fallow plowed but not planted, so that communities. Nomadic herds were often allowed to graze on fallow*
moisture and organic processes can fields, where their wastes fertilized the soil.
replenish the soil's nutrients Nomads controlled trade routes between Mesopotamia, Egypt, and
the Levant. This was especially true after the domestication of the camel,
which was better adapted to desert conditions than the donkey. Their
knowledge of safe routes through deserts and other wilderness areas
made nomads invaluable to merchants.

NOMADIC LIFESTYLE AND CULTURE

Because ancient nomads did not live in settled communities, historians
have found it difficult to reconstruct their history and culture. Neverthe-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or less, by studying artifacts* and written records and by looking at the life
other object made by humans of present-day nomadic peoples, they have been able to piece together a
picture of ancient nomadic lifestyle and culture.

Migration. The most prominent feature of ancient nomadism was the

nomads' migration between winter and summer grazing lands. The cli-
mate of the Near East made such movement necessary. From November
to March or April, the rainy season brought abundant water to many ar-
eas, allowing herds to graze on lands that could not support crops as well
oasis fertile area in a desert made as near desert oases*. During the dry season, from April to October, these
possible by the presence of a spring or areas could no longer support enough vegetation to graze large herds of
well; pi. oases animals, forcing the nomads to drive their herds to other pasturelands.
There were two basic types of nomadic migration: vertical and hori-
zontal. Vertical migration involved movement from lowland grazing ar-
eas in the rainy season to highland pastures in the dry season. This
pattern was typical of nomads who lived near mountains, such as in
northern Iran, southeastern Anatolia, and northern Syria. In horizontal
migration, nomads grazed their herds in desert areas or grasslands in the
rainy season and moved closer to agricultural zones during the dry sea-
son. Horizontal migration was common among groups who inhabited
the fringes of desert regions in the Levant and the SINAI PENINSULA.

Lifestyle and Culture. Nomads made their living by trading animal

products. They also relied on hunting, gathering, and trade with agricul-
turists for grains, fruits, and other goods to supply other needs. Nomadic
people sometimes raided agricultural settlements to obtain the goods
they needed. Usually, however, they enjoyed peaceful relations with
their settled neighbors, and the two groups learned to rely on and bene-
fit from each other's special skills.
144
 Nubia and the Nubians

Most nomadic groups were organized into tribes whose membersbe-

* clan group of people descended from a longed to various clans*. Each group claimed descent
fromacommonan-
common ancestor or united by a cestor. Politically, they ranged in organization
from small, decentralized
common interest groups to large chiefdoms. In small groups, most individuals held equal
* hierarchical referring to a society or status, while larger groups were more hierarchical*.
also
(See Animals,
institution divided into groups with Domestication of; Arabia and the Arabs; Economy and Trade; Family
higher and lower ranks and SocialLife; Land Use and Ownership.)

NUBIAAND
N ubia was theArabic name for the region that comprises present-
day southern Egyptand northern
SUDAN.The ancient Greeksand
Romans called the region Aethiopia. During their long history, the Nu-
THE NUBIANS bians were periodically involved inaffairs
the of Egypt and the Mediter-
ranean world. Nubia also became the homeland of agreat civilization,
the oldest inAfrica southofEgypt.

Land and Early History. Physically, Nubia wasprimarily desert and

arable suitable for growing crops not arable* exceptfor narrow strips
NILE RIVER.
along
theHowever,
the re-
gion was rich in gold and other valuable minerals. Moreover, theNile
provided an important trade route between Egyptand the Africa.
restof
Nubia's minerals and trade goods brought the region great wealth.
145
Nubia and the Nubians

Early farmers raised cropsin seasonallydry channelsof the River

Nile
and established the earliest permanent settlement in the region by about
5000B.C. By about
B.C.,3800
the peopleof Nubiahad established several
See map on inside covers. trading centers along the Nile.IVORY,
Gold,shells,
copper,semiprecious
stones,
INCENSE, and other luxury goods were traded northward Egypt
to in
exchange for Egyptianmanufactured goodsand agricultural products.

First Nubian Kingdom. Sometime B.C., aaround

small king-
3500
dom emerged in northern Nubia, a region that later became knownas
Lower Nubia. The Egyptians called this first Nubian kingdomTa Sety
(land of the bow), a name thatreflectedthefameof Nubian archers.
This early kingdomwas greatly influencedby Egypt.The kingsof Ta
Sety modeled themselves after Egyptian rulers, a tradition continued by
later Nubian kings.Like Egyptian kings, Nubian rulers built large tombs
and monuments for themselves, and they were buried with many objects
of wealth. At this time, the Nubian economywas basedon a mix of herd-
ing and farming, while contact with Egypt focused on a regular trade in
luxury items and manufactured goods.
Nubia was prosperous between aboutB.C., 3500
butand
this pe-
3100
riod was followed by a shadowy period of nearly 1,000 years about which
little is known. During this time, northern Nubia lost much of its popula-
tion, and the distinctive culture of the region disappeared suddenly. It is
possible that Egyptian raids may have caused the decline in northern Nu-
bia. AroundB.C.,
2300a new Nubian culture appeared,and Nubia again
began to prosper. This culture was noted for the importance it placed on
CATTLE raising,
POTTERY,
itsfine and increased trade with Egypt.

Egyptian Rule and the Rise of B.C., Kush. the

Egyp-
Around 2000
tians conqueredLower Nubia, but the Nubians there managed to retain
their cultural identity. The Egyptians built a seriesforts
of alongthe Nile
River in Nubia to protect trade and guard against a kingdom in southern
Nubia (Upper Nubia) calledKush.The kingdomKush, of whichre-
mained independent of Egyptian rule, was developing into
major
a
power that began to rivalEgypt and its dominance of the Nile.
Egypt controlledLower Nubia until
B.C., about
whenthe1700
Egypt-
ian government collapsed due to internal strife. Taking advantage of the
situation in Egypt,Kush took controlLower
of Nubia. The capital
Kush
of
at this time was the city of
Kerma, locatedon the Nile between Upperand
146
 Nubia and the Nubians
Lower Nubia. Kerma soon became an urban center with large temples,
manufacturing sites, and huge tombs. Its people included metalworkers
and potters, whose goods were exported throughout Egypt.
By 1540 B.C., strong kings had reunited Egypt, regained control of Nu-
bia, and extended their rule farther south to include Kush. Egypt also
made a determined effort to "Egyptianize" Nubia and the Nubians, which
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or led to their adoption of Egyptian culture. Nubian customs and artifacts*
other object made by humans became almost indistinguishable from those of Egypt, and wealthy Nu-
* deity god or goddess bians adopted Egyptian deities* and their system of writing, called hiero-
* hieroglyphics system of writing that glyphics*. The Egyptian rulers built great temple complexes in Nubia that
uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, became important centers of religion, politics, culture, and economy. The
to represent words or ideas best known is the famous temple complex at ABU SIMBEL.

The Empire of Kush. Little is known about the history of Nubia and
the Nubians in the years between 1100 and 800 B.C. By the end of this
period, a new kingdom had emerged in Upper Nubia, centered at the city
of Napata on the Nile River. This kingdom, which arose from the earlier
kingdom of Kush, soon developed into a great empire.
As the new empire of Kush expanded and gained power, the Egyp-
tians experienced another period of political upheaval, during which
northern Egypt fell to the LIBYANS. Taking advantage of this situation, the
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or new rulers of Kush extended their control into Egypt as far north as the
an empire city of THEBES. Controlling Thebes, the old imperial* capital of Egypt, was
* cult formal religious worship an accomplishment. The city was the center of the cult* of AMUN, the
state god of Egypt and later of Kush.
Around 760 B.C., a Kushite king named Piye gained control of all of
Egypt and united it with Nubia to form one of ancient Africa's greatest
Opposing Views states. Piye and his successors ruled Egypt for about 100 years, a period
of the Nubians known as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. Kings of this so-called ''Ethiopian"
The Nubian people did not develop dynasty led Egypt through its last era of great achievements, which in-
a written language of their own urv cluded a massive building program under King TAHARQA. Around 660 B.C.,
til quite late In their history. There*
fore, most of what we know about
invaders from Assyria advanced into Egypt and drove out the last Nubian
them today comes from the an- king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. However, Kush remained a powerful
cient Egyptians, Greeks, and Ro- state in Nubia for another 1,000 years.
mans, each of whom had biased
views. The Egyptians viewed the
Nubians as culturally inferior to The Rise of Meroe and the Fall of Kush. By about 300 B.C., the cap-
themselves. Consequently, early ital of Kush had moved to Meroe, a city on the right bank of the Nile sev-
Egyptian scholars dismissed Nubian eral hundred miles south of Napata. Meroe and Kush developed a culture
civilization as a crude copy of the
that reflected Egyptian traditions as well as Greek, Roman, and African
Egyptian civilization. The Greeks
and Romans viewed the Nubians a ideas. Nubian art and architecture became distinct and original, and Nu-
a morally and culturally superior bians used their own language and writing instead of Egyptian hiero-
people beloved by the gods. The glyphics. During this period, Egypt faced a succession of foreign rulers:
Greek historian Herodotus even be- the Persians, the Macedonians, and the Romans. The Nubians tried to
lieved that Nubia was the source help the Egyptians revolt against foreign rule, but they came under Ro-
rather than a copy of the Egyptian
civilization.
man rule themselves in about 20 B.C. In the A.D. 200s, Meroe came into
conflict with Axum, a kingdom in Ethiopia. Around 350, invaders from
the west known as the Noba overran most of Kush, ending the Kushite
state. (See also Dynasties; Economy and Trade; Egypt and the Egyp-
tians; Kush and Meroe; Trade Routes.)
147
Numbers and Numerals

NUMBERS AND
N umbers are units of quantity and the basis of counting. As ele
ments of mathematical systems, they enable people to perform
simple arithmetic and complex mathematical operations. Numerals are
NUMERALS the symbols used for writing numbers. In ancient times, the peoples of
the Near East developed systems for counting and expressing num-
bers—a necessary step toward the growth of mathematics, engineering,
and astronomy.

Counting and Writing Numbers. Even before writing was in-

vented, Near Eastern peoples counted with small objects called tokens.
Each token represented one of a particular type of item, such as a sheep.
A clay packet found in the ruins of the Mesopotamian city of URUK con-
tained six egg-shaped tokens, each representing a jar of oil. Scholars be-
lieve that before 3000 B.C., the people of the ancient Near East did not
* commodity article of trade have a conception of numbers independent of the commodities* they
counted. The signs included both the commodity and the measurement.
In other words, abstract numbers such as one, two, or three, referring to
any set of items was unknown.
Once people began to write, they developed images for numerals.
Some experts believe that the written symbols were imitations of the
counting marks that people had made earlier by pressing tokens into wet
clay. For instance, a CLAY TABLET found at Godin Tepe, IRAN, expresses the
idea "33 jars of oil" with an egg-shaped symbol for a jar of oil preceded by
three circles (three tens) and three wedges (three ones)—much easier than
collecting and storing 33 tokens.
The Egyptians developed a decimal system based on multiples of ten.
They used distinctive symbols for 1, 10, 100, and 1,000. To write a num-
ber, they wrote down each symbol as many times as it appeared in the
number. The numeral for 48, for example, was written with four symbols
for 10 and eight symbols for 1. The Sumerians also wrote numerals by
adding as many symbols as necessary. Their counting system alternated
between units of ten steps and units of sixty steps. Number sequences ran
from 1 to 60, 61 to 600, and 601 to 3,600. They used the number 3,600 to
indicate any very large but indefinite number, as we might say "a zillion/'
The Babylonians, who dominated Mesopotamia during the second
* second millennium B.C. years from millennium B.C.*, developed new methods of counting and writing
2000 to 1001 B.C. numbers. Like the Sumerians, their counting system was sexagesimal, or
based on units of 60. They had symbols for every number between 1 and
10 as well as symbols for 20, 30, 40, and 50. To write numbers of 60 and
above, they developed a place-value method. Instead of repeating sym-
bols as many times as necessary to reach a given total, they assigned a
value to each position, or place, in the numeral. For example, the symbol
for 1 could also represent 60 or 3,600, depending on its position within
the numeral. Modern number systems also use place value—a single nu-
meral represents units of one, a numeral to the left of it represents units
of 10, and so on. By the 300s B.C., the Babylonians began to use a special
sign for zero.
Today, much of the world uses a decimal system that expresses num-
bers with the numerals 1 through 9. Called Arabic numerals, they origi-
nated in southern India before A.D. 500. Shortly thereafter, the Indians
148
 Nazi
began using the zero as a multiplier and placeholder. The Arabians
adopted the Indian numeral system in the 700s or 800s, and through
Spain, introduced it to the European world.

Mystical Meanings of Numbers. Numbers also held religious and

magical significance in the Near East. Mesopotamians regarded seven as
a powerful number, and many magical spells or ritual actions were re-
peated seven times. They used numerals to write the names of their gods
in shorthand—EA, for example, was 40 and ENLIL was 50. Numerals could
* deity god or goddess also represent deities* and heavenly bodies—the number 15 stood for
both the goddess ISHTAR and the planet Venus. Numerals were also used
* scribe person of a learned class who by scribes* to indicate colors or the cardinal points of the compass, or to
served as a writer, editor, or teacher convey messages intended only for other scribes.
Near Eastern peoples also gave mystical significance to numbers in
a system called alphabetic numeration, where each letter of the alpha-
bet corresponded to a number. In the Hebrew method, aleph, the first
letter, equaled one. Beth, the second letter, equaled two, and so on. Jew-
ish religious scholars used this method to find what they believed were
hidden meanings in biblical texts. For example, they claimed that
when the Hebrew BIBLE said that 318 men accompanied Abraham it re-
ally meant that his servant Eliezer accompanied him, because the nu-
merical value of Eliezer's name was 318. During the 200s and 100s B.C.,
Greek letters were similarly used on the SEALS of certain officials and tax
officers of the SELEUCID EMPIRE to indicate the year the seals were issued.
(See also Mathematics.)

Nuzi
N uzi (NOOzee) was a town in northeastern MESOPOTAMIA. During
the period of the Akkadian empire, the town was called Gasur. In
the second millennium B.C.*, when the town was controlled by the
HURRIANS, it was renamed Nuzi. The town reached its height of prosper-
ity in the 1500s B.C., when it was an administrative center in the king-
dom of Mitanni. By the 1200s B.C., the Assyrians had attacked and
* second millennium B.C. years from destroyed Nuzi.
2000 to 1001 B.C. Inhabited by the Hurrians, KASSITES, Assyrians, and Babylonians, Nuzi
was an ordinary town. Its economy was based on AGRICULTURE and trade.
Nuzi's population consisted of a mix of rich and poor residents, including
farmers, merchants, craftspeople, and slaves. The town was governed by
* provincial having to do with the provincial* officials of regional kingdoms. At its height, the city's popula-
provinces, outlying districts, tion was estimated at 1,600. Despite its small size, Nuzi possessed all the
administrative divisions, or conquered characteristics of major Mesopotamian cities, including defensive walls,
territories of a country or empire
temples and government buildings, outlying settlements, and surround-
ing agricultural lands. The town had several neighborhoods housing vari-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past ous classes of people.
human cultures, usually by excavating Archaeologists* began to excavate the ruins of Nuzi in the early
material remains of human activity A.D. 1900s. The ruins and artifacts* they found—including temples dedi-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or cated to ISHTAR (goddess of love, fertility, and war) and TESHUB (storm god),
other object made by humans government buildings, canals and IRRIGATION systems, homes, and public
149
Obsidian

and private documents—have provided one of the most complete pic-

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). tures of the economy and societyof a typical provincial townin ancient
Mesopotamia.
(Seealso Walled Cities.)

OBSIDIAN
O bsidian (uhb»SI«dee»uhn)is a natural, glasslike rock formedby
the rapid cooling of volcanic lava. Slightly harder than window
glass, it generally is blackin color. However,the presenceof certain min-
erals in the rock can produce red, brown, and green varietiesof obsidian.
Obsidian is a brittle rock that chips easily, creating smooth surfaces
bordered by extremely sharp edges. Since prehistoric time, humans have
used sharp-edged pieces of obsidian to TOOLS
makeandcutting
weapons.
They sometimes used theJEWELRY
rocktoand
makedecorative ornaments
as well. Some ancient cultures, such as that of the Greeks, made mirrors
from obsidian by polishing its smooth, glassy surfaces.
In the ancient NearEast, one of the most important sources of the rock
was in central
ANATOLIA (present-dayTurkey).
AsB.C.,
early
in-as about 6000
habitants of the settlement
HUYUK
£ATALused
of local sources of obsidian
* archaeological referring to the study to make tools and weapons. In fact, archaeological* evidence suggests
of past human cultures, usually by that much of that community's prosperity centered on an obsidian trade
excavating material remains of human with other regions.
activity
Obsidian was an important item of trade, and archaeologists have
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or uncovered extensive trade networks over which the rock was carried.
other object made by humans
Obsidianartifacts* SYRIA
foundand
in theLevant*,for example, can be
* Levant lands bordering the eastern traced to sourcesin central Anatolia. Others IRAN
incan
southwestern
be
shores of the MediterraneanSea
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
traced to sourcesCAUCASUS
in the region nearthe Blackand Caspian Seas.
the West Bank, and Jordan It is unclear whether obsidianwas carriedby tradersor was passed from
village to village through exchanges of goods. In either case, obsidian
150
 Offerings
rock and tools made from obsidian reached areas far from the sources.
(See also Caravans; Economy and Trade; Glass and Glassmaking;
Trade Routes; Weapons and Armor.)

OFFERINGS
P eople in the ancient Near East gave offerings to gods, rulers, temple
officials, dead ancestors, and spirits, such as the ghosts of loved ones.
These offerings might consist of food or other necessities of daily life, lux-
ury items, or an animal or human sacrifice.

Caring for the Gods. A scholar who studied ancient MESOPOTAMIA

coined the phrase "care and feeding of the gods" to describe the temple
rituals of ancient Mesopotamia. The phrase can also be applied to reli-
gious rituals performed throughout the Near East. These rituals, which
included making offerings of food and drink to the gods, were believed
* city-state independent state consisting to be vitally important. Without them, the city-state* or kingdom might
of a city and its surrounding territory lose the favor of the gods, resulting in disaster for the society.
During major festivals, the responsibility of making offerings to the
gods fell largely on the king. This formal activity emphasized his duties as
Food of the Gods ruler and his obligation to maintain a good relationship between the gods
The gods of the ancient Near East and his land and people. Kings made such offerings in special cere-
had to eat just like humans did, so monies, using stone bowls and other containers to present offerings of
offerings of food and drink were food and drink.
common in religious rituals and cer
emonies. In some places and time
Offerings were also an important part of daily religious worship. Tem-
periods, meals were regularly served ple priests prepared and offered meals and drinks to the gods each day,
to the gods in temples, often twice generally in the form of a banquet. In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt,
a day, in the morning and evening. offerings included cooked meat, fish, bread, grains, fruits and vegetables,
Such offerings included bread, flour mixed with oil, honey, wine, and milk. Offerings might also include
cakes, beer, wine, fish cakes, meats,
images, INCENSE, CLOTHING, COSMETICS, PERFUMES, and decorative objects. The
and all sorts of fruits and vegetables
tn order to supply these offerings on daily offerings were intended for the gods, but the priests and worshipers
a regular basis, temples often had who presented them partook from the food once it was consecrated*. In
their own gardens, wineries, and Israel, however, the offerings were burned and converted into smoke,
herds of livestock. They also relied which then reached YAHWEH in heaven.
on regular contributions from the Throughout the ancient world, blood offerings were an essential part of
people in the community.
worship. Such offerings involved the sacrifice of animals, where the blood
was drained and offered to the gods. Although rare, human sacrifice was
also performed to atone for sins or to avert major disasters. Evidence sug-
consecrate to declare sacred or holy by gests that the Phoenicians sacrificed children at the city-state of CARTHAGE
means of a religious rite in North Africa as did other Canaanites in the Levant*. There is also evi-
Levant lands bordering the eastern dence of human sacrifice dating from the earliest periods in Egypt and
shores of the Mediterranean Sea Mesopotamia, especially in royal burial sites.
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel),
the West Bank, and Jordan
Offerings to the Dead. In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and ANATOLIA (present-
day Turkey), people believed that it was important to make offerings to
the spirits of the dead. Called funerary offerings, they consisted of
things the spirit would need for the afterlife. The spirits of dead kings
might receive offerings of delicious meat dishes and baked goods as well
as fine clothing, furniture, perfumes, and other luxury items. Ordinary
people might receive cold water, hot broth, beer, flour, oil, wine, honey,
151
Olives

See and occasionally the ribs of a sacrificed animal. These offerings were
k
colorplate7, made to please the dead and to make their existence afterlife
in the more
vol.
1.
comfortable. If the spirits
failed to receive the
offerings due them, they
could return as troublesome ghosts to botheralso the
After-
living.
(See
life; Book of the Dead; Priests and Priestesses; Religion; Rit
Sacrifice.)

OLIVES
O ne of the firstfruits cultivatedby peoplesof the ancient
the olive was well suited toCLIMATE
the types
andofsoil foundin
Near
East,

many parts of the region. Olive groves thrive in cool, wet winters and hot,
dry summers, which are typical of the eastern Mediterranean region.
They also require little rainfall and flourish in sandy, rocky, well-drained
soil. Because the olive is so well adapted to the region's land and climate,
it became one of the most important crops of the ancient Near East.
Levant lands bordering the eastern The oldest evidence of olivesin theNear East comes
fromthe Levant*
shores of the MediterraneanSea and dates to about 3700 B.C. Olive trees were also nativeto southeastern
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), ANATOLIA (present-dayTurkey) and the Mediterranean
SYRIA. coast
of
the West Bank, and Jordan
Around 3000 B.C.,the cultivationof olives spreadto many regionsin the
Near East.Local growers began to plant olive groves with cuttings taken
from wild olive trees. Becauseit takes several years after plantingfor an
olive tree to bearfruit, olives were not grownsatisfyto immediate needs
for food. In many places, olives and olive oil, obtained by pressing the
ripe fruit, became important trade goods.
Olives and olive oil had many usesand werean important partof the
diet, partly because they can be easily preserved. When stored in brine
(saltwater), olives keepfor long periodsand can be transported across
great distances. Oliveoil was used fuel
asCOSMETICS
asa well
as to make
* anoint tobless by applying oil or someandPERFUME. The oil was also usedin political and religious rituals.
Is-
other substance raelite and Hittite kings were anointed* with oliveoil as a signof their
152
 Omens

authority. Priests, too, were anointed with olive oil, and it was used in pu-
rification ceremonies and as a part of animal sacrifices. (See also Agricul-
ture; Food and Drink; Rituals and Sacrifice.)

OMAN PENINSULA
T he Oman peninsula in southeastern Arabia was an important center
of trade in the ancient Near East. Although much of the peninsula is
desert, it also contains oases*, mountains, and a plateau, which have
enough water to support AGRICULTURE. The Omani Mountains contain
large deposits of copper and two kinds of black stone—diorite and
olivine-gabbro—which were popular for use in ancient SCULPTURE.
* oasis fertile area in a desert made Hunting, gathering, and fishing societies existed on the Oman Penin-
possible by the presence of a spring or sula for thousands of years. By about 3000 B.C., permanent agricultural
well; pi. oases settlements had begun to emerge in the region. Around the same time,
local inhabitants began to mine copper in the mountains. Around the
See map in Arabia and the Arabs 2500s B.C., cities in MESOPOTAMIA began to import copper from Oman, a
(vol.1). land they called Magan. This is evident in texts found in the city of Akkad
that mention that ships from Magan docked at its harbors.
Early relations between Akkad and Magan were peaceful, but the two
regions later went to war. Around 2250 B.C., an Akkadian fleet crossed the
Persian Gulf to attack Magan, and texts mention a later campaign as well.
By about 2100 B.C., trade had resumed between Mesopotamia and Ma-
commodity article of trade gan. Commodities* included copper, black stone, IVORY, and semiprecious
stones. The last two items probably came to Magan from MELUKKHA (in In-
archaeological referring to the study dia), and archaeological* evidence suggests close trade links between the
of past human cultures, usually by Oman peninsula and the Harappan civilization of western India. Shortly
excavating material remains of human after 2000 B.C., for reasons that remain unclear, trade links between Meso-
activity
potamia, Magan, and Melukkha broke down. Thereafter, their names
came to refer to distant places. Evidence also suggests that Oman was in-
dependent throughout most of its early history. (See also Arabia and the
Arabs; Metals and Metalworking; Trade Routes.)

OMENS
A n omen is a natural phenomenon or other occurrence that is
believed to be a sign that a good or bad event is to happen in the fu-
ture. Reading omens is a form of divination*. Many texts from the ancient
Near East refer to omens, and everyone from kings to peasants and slaves
took the observation and interpretation of omens very seriously. Priests,
diviners, and astrologers* were responsible for explaining omens.
* divination art or practice of foretelling Belief in omens emerged from the notion that gods created and oper-
the future ated the universe in a meaningful way. People who knew how to read the
* astrologer person believed to be able patterns in natural phenomena could peer into the supernatural secrets
to foretell earthly events by studying the of the gods. In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, the bam, Akkadian for examiner,
motions of heavenly bodies asked the gods for omens and interpreted them. Most of the baru men-
tioned in the records worked for the crown; they were either palace schol-
ars or were attached to a branch of local government or the army.
One of the barn's standard methods of divination was extispicy, or
reading omens in the liver and intestines of a sacrificial animal, usually a
153
Oracles and Prophecy
sheep. Archaeologists* have found clay models of livers with notes de-
scribing and locatingfeatures important in divination. These models
have been found not only in Mesopotamia but also in Anatolia and
Canaan, where extispicywas also practiced.
Such practices produced "solicited" omens, or omens requestedby in-
dividuals at a particular timefind
to the answersspecific
to questions.Di-
viners also found omens in such things as the movementof a dropof
water placed in a dish of oil (lecanomancy) or the patterns in a cloud of
INCENSE smoke (libanomancy).Usually,the client askedfor a yes or no an-
swer to a question. If the omen was unclear, the diviner could repeat the
process. A diviner might also provide advice on how to avoid a bad out-
come foretold by the omen.
Not all omenswere solicited. Any abnormal or unusual event, such
as the birth of a deformed animal or an earthquake,was seenas an
omen, often signaling looming evil or danger. Such unsolicited omens
usuallydiffered in their significance.For example,an untimely thun-
derstorm might be interpreted as an omen affecting a city or district.A
larger event, such as an eclipse of the sun or a large earthquake, was an
omen of national importance, perhaps signaling an invasion or the
death of a king. Divine messages might also DREAMS
come
or to peoplein
trances.
Among the most common unsolicited omens were astral omens,
which dealt with such events as eclipses, meteor showers,and the move-
ments of the planets and stars. In ancient times, astronomers closely
archaeologist scientist who studies past watched heavenly objects in the sky,and the observation of astral phe-
human cultures, usually by excavating nomena led to the development of astrology, the belief that the move
material remains of human activity ments of heavenly bodies correspond to events on earth.
Over the course of time, omens were gathered and organized into
handbooks, which people used as aids in interpreting divine signs. Omen
handbooksfrom Mesopotamia contain long listsof divine signs written
in a specificformat: "If thisis the sign: thisis what will happen/' Many of
these signs dealt with situationsin everydaylife—for example:"If a man
washes himself with water in the corridor of the house: he will become
old." The use of such books becamean important partof lifetodaily
dis-
cover and control the supernatural forces
(See Astrology
also of the gods.
and Astrologers; Oracles and Prophecy.)

ORACLES
I n the ancient Near
RELIGION
East,
MAGICandwere
two closely related
expressions of the relations between people and the supernatural
world. Both were concerned with obtaining certain types of knowl-
ANDPROPHECY edge: those that interpreted the will of the gods and foresaw the
future.
Many Near Eastern peoples believed that with the right methods and
the aid of a trained priest, magician, or other practitioner, they could
uncover the hidden knowledge that was all around them, waiting to be
revealed.
Oracles, which are communicationsfrom the godsin answerto ques-
tions, and prophecies, which are messages
from the gods thatmay predict
154
 Oracles and Prophecy
the future, were two avenues by which supernatural or divine knowledge
reached humans. The term oracle also refers to people who deliver the
communications from the gods and who operate within the religious,
royal, or social structures of society. They included priests or priestesses at
temples and shrines. Prophets, in contrast, believed they were called—or
commanded—to prophecy by their gods. They were driven by strong
feelings to share their prophecies, which could be unexpected or even un-
welcome. Like oracles, many prophets also worked for the temple or state,
although some prophets appeared outside these establishments, driven
by the urgency of their messages.

DIVINATION AND ORACLES

Many ancient Near Eastern societies practiced divination, or the technique
of interpreting signs to tell the future. Oracles often served as diviners
because they could respond to people's questions about the future or
about the meaning of certain occurrences.

Types of Divination. Diviners in the ancient Near East helped ex-

plain the meaning of signs, including OMENS, or indications of coming
events, either good or bad, and DREAMS. In ancient Egypt and Mesopo-
tamia, diviners looked for omens using ASTROLOGY, in which the move-
ments of the sun, moon, visible planets, and stars were thought to
correspond to events or conditions in earthly life.
Almost all cultures practiced divination through dreams. People re-
garded dreams as a channel through which the gods or dead ancestors
communicated with individuals in the living world. However, the person
who received the dream could not be the one who interpreted it; the
process required separate individuals. Kings could receive divine com-
mands through dreams. People sometimes slept in temples in the hope
that the gods would appear in their dreams to give advice, a practice
called incubation. Hittite texts contain descriptions of dreams along with
omens and oracles. For example, one text describes how King Murshili II
asked the gods to send a dream that would explain why his people were
plague contagious disease that quickly dying of a plague*. The Israelites also believed that dreams could contain
kills large numbers of people communications from their god, YAHWEH.

Oracular Process. An omen or a dream could appear on its own, but

an oracle could be heard only when someone posed a specific question
to the gods ab^ut the future or the meaning of events or things. Records
of consultations with oracles provide the best documentation for Egypt-
ian divination. According to these records, the general procedure was to
present a prepared question that could be answered yes or no. The
process of presenting the question was called "reaching the god." The
subjects of questions varied widely and included such matters as nomi-
nations for offices and accusations of theft. The methods of acquiring
the answer also differed from place to place.
The Hittites relied on oracles to predict the success of almost all im-
portant undertakings in public and private life. Hittite texts contain
155
Oracles and Prophecy
references to oracular inquiries about such matters as the course of a mili-
tary campaign and illnesses in the royal family.

PROPHETS AND PROPHECIES

Prophecy in the ancient Near East was associated mainly with Israel, al-
though prophets lived in other places as well. A prophet believed that a
* deity god or goddess deity* had chosen him to communicate important information to an in-
dividual or a community. The prophet could obtain that information
from his or her deity or from other supernatural beings—in the case of
the Jewish prophet Zechariah, an angel—through a dream, a vision, or ec-
stasy. Prophets are described as inspired, sometimes even frenzied by the
urgency with which divine messages are conveyed.

In Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Iran. Texts unearthed at the Mesopo-

tamian city of MARI include prophecies from the reign of ZIMRI-LIM,
around 1760 B.C. Prophets claimed to be speaking for the god Dagan,
who at the time had a broad regional appeal. Some of the prophecies
deal with the safety of the king and military affairs, while others relate
to the temple. Men and women could be prophets, but their message
was conveyed to the king through intermediaries, such as the queen or
governors.
Very little evidence exists for prophecy in ancient Egypt. Several nar-
The Prophecy ofNeferti ratives dating back to the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate periods
(ca. 2675-1980 B.C.) contain prophecies, but they are all set after the pre-
Composed during the reign of King \
Amenemhet 1 of the Twelfth Dy- dicted event had occurred. Although these documents contain messages
nasty, The Prophecy of Nefertpsrais and predictions, they do not attribute their statements to the gods.
the king and celebrates his success In IRAN, the religion called Zoroastrianism was founded by the
in ending a chaotic period in Egypt-J prophet Zoroaster around 600 B.C. Zoroaster spoke out against the priests
ian history* Set fictitiously in the and religious practices of his time and declared that the god AHURA MAZDA
court of Fourth Dynasty king Sne-
feru, Neferti, a skilled scribe, sage, had revealed sacred truths to him.
and priest, predicts the future. He
foretells calamities for Egypt until a In Israel. The largest surviving collection of prophetic writings and
king from the south—Ameny stories about prophets is in the Hebrew BIBLE. The prophets of the Is-
{Amenemhet Intakes the two raelites received messages from Yahweh in dreams, in trances, or while
crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt awake. Among the best-known biblical prophets are ISAIAH, JEREMIAH, and
and establishes stability and joy
Ezekiel, who left records of their utterances, while others, such as Elijah
and Elishah, are known mostly through stories that involved them.
There were also women prophets, such as Miriam, Huldah, and Deborah.
Like Zoroaster, some of the prophets of ISRAEL AND JUDAH criticized the re-
ligious establishments of their eras for wandering from the path of true
and righteous worship. They claimed to be speaking for Yahweh and of-
ten began their prophecies with the words "Thus says the Lord."
The Israelite prophets may have answered a divine call, but they also
fulfilled earthly functions. They advised kings on matters of foreign pol-
icy and directed their oracles at enemy nations. In the biblical Book of 2
Kings, prophets are even credited with initiating revolutions and ap-
pointing rival kings to the throne. They also analyzed and criticized royal
actions from the point of view of the common people, helping to keep
156
 Palaces and Temples
kingly power within limits. The prophets, like all diviners and oracles,
gave expression to the universal belief that the affairs of this world were
linked to higher levels of existence. (See also Witchcraft.)

OSIRIS
O ne of the most important deities* of ancient Egypt, Osiris (oh»SY«ruhs)
was the god of the dead, lord of the underworld, and protector of
the deceased in the AFTERLIFE. He was also associated with rebirth, which was
linked to human resurrection and the annual cycles of vegetation and
flooding of the Nile River.
Osiris and Isis, his sister and wife, played a central role in the best-
deity god or goddess known Egyptian myth. Osiris was king of Egypt until he was killed by his
evil brother SETH, who wanted to take the throne. Osiris was brought back
to life by Isis, who gave birth to their son HORUS. Osiris then went to live
See in Duat, the Egyptian underworld. When Horus grew up he fought Seth
[color plate 10,
vol. 1. and became king, and Isis joined Osiris in Duat.
Some scholars believe that this myth was created to explain the death
of an Egyptian king, who was considered a god, and to pave the way for
the rightful successor. The Egyptians believed that their king was the "liv-
ing god" Horus. When the king died, he was reborn as Osiris in Duat, and
his son became Horus and thus the legitimate heir.
* cult formal religious worship The oldest and most important cult* center of Osiris was at ABYDOS.
Because of his connection with death and kingship, Osiris was often de-
picted as a mummy wearing a crown and carrying a royal scepter, or staff.
Although originally associated only with Egyptian kings, the myth of
Osiris was later seen to offer the promise of resurrection for all people.
The cult of Osiris became very popular and even spread beyond Egypt to
the Greek and Roman worlds. (See also Amun; Cults; Egypt and the
Egyptians; Gods and Goddesses; Religion.)

Painting See Art, Artisans, and Artists; Pottery; Wall Paintings.

PALACES P alaces and temples were by far the most important buildings con-
structed in the ancient Near East. Ranging from modest structures to
the largest and most magnificent ones, these buildings were the homes of
AND TEMPLES kings and gods. They were the major centers of power in Near Eastern so-
cieties. Palaces and temples not only played crucial roles in the politics,
GOVERNMENT, economy, and RELIGION of societies, but they also served as
powerful symbols of both earthly and heavenly kingdoms.
Because of their importance, palaces and temples were built to last.
* millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. While many ancient buildings vanished into dust over the course of mil-
millennia lennia*, the remains of a number of palaces and temples have survived,
* archaeologist scientist who studies past providing archaeologists* with evidence to reconstruct the history of an-
human cultures, usually by excavating cient Near Eastern cultures. These structures provide information about
material remains of human activity ancient ARCHITECTURE and building techniques, and the artworks found
157
Palaces and Temples
within them have helped increase our knowledge of ancient ART, ARTISANS,
AND ARTISTS. Moreoever, the LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES excavated at these sites
provide firsthand knowledge of ancient Near Easterners' political and
business activities as well as their religious beliefs.

PALACES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

The palaces of the ancient Near East were the residences of kings and their
families, as well as the centers of royal administration and government.
The dual functionality was reflected in their layout and design, and a spe-
cific palace architecture was developed to meet the special needs and de-
mands of these functions.

Functions of Palaces. As the home of a king, the palace was equipped

with kitchens, storage areas, dining areas, and living quarters. The size
and level of comfort of these facilities varied according to the wealth of
the ruler and his family. While the residences of some local rulers could
be modest, the palaces of kings were large, magnificent structures. Deco-
ration and artwork provided enjoyment for the king and served as sym-
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which bols of his wealth and power. WALL PAINTINGS and bas-reliefs* depicted the
material is cut away to leave figures king as a great warrior, protector, and builder.
projecting slightly from the background Palaces also served as the center of government and often contained
large complexes of official rooms to serve the needs of the state. One of
the most important official rooms was the throne room, where the king
presided over the royal court and exercised his power. Palaces might also
contain other ceremonial rooms, as well as workshops, treasuries, store-
* scribe person of a learned class who rooms, and workrooms for scribes* and other members of the govern-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher ment bureaucracy*. Because the king played a central role in religion,
* bureaucracy system consisting of palaces were often connected to temples and shrines.
officials and clerks who perform
government functions History of Palaces. Palaces did not always exist in the ancient Near
East. In very early periods, the homes of local rulers were probably much
like those of other people, though larger. However, as civilizations devel-
oped and the power of rulers grew, their residences became larger and
more impressive.
With the rise of large territorial states, the wealth, power, and respon-
sibilities of kings expanded greatly. The size and splendor of their resi-
dences grew as well, becoming the first true palaces. Over the centuries,
palaces became larger and more complex to meet the requirements of
growing kingdoms and empires. This was especially evident in the
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or palaces of great kings in imperial* capitals.
an empire
Mesopotamian Palaces. The first true palaces in Mesopotamia were
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 built in the early third millennium B.C.*, when large secular* buildings
to 2001 B.C. that were clearly different from temples and other official structures ap-
* secular nonreligious; connected with peared. Among the earliest palaces of this period were ones built in the
everyday life Sumerian cities of KISH and ERIDU. A classic example of an early
Mesopotamian palace is the Babylonian Palace of the Governors at ESH-
NUNNA. Connected to a large temple complex, this building had an outer
158
 Palaces and Temples
courtyard for public affairs, an inner courtyard for more private func-
tions, and a throne room used as an audience hall by the king.
One of the best-preserved Mesopotamian palaces is the palace at
MARI, which dates from the 1700s B.C. Much larger than the Palace of the
Governors, it had more than 260 rooms on the ground floor and covered
an area of more than five acres. The palace at Mari clearly reflected the
dual function of Near Eastern palaces, with lavish and extensive living
quarters for the king and his family, as well as a large complex of official
areas. The official areas on the ground level of the palace included a richly
decorated royal courtyard, a large throne room, a temple, ceremonial
rooms, and storerooms for food and other goods. The second floor of the
palace contained offices from which the king, officials, and bureaucrats
governed the state.
Among the largest Mesopotamian palaces were those of the Assyri-
ans. Assyrian palaces have a design similar to that of the Palace of the
Governors at Eshnunna, but they are much more extensive. The largest is
* citadel fortified place or stronghold the citadel* of SARGON II, built between 717 and 707 B.C. This palace had
that commands a city two outer courtyards, an enormous throne room, and living quarters. As-
syrian palaces were usually single-story buildings, but there is some evi-
dence that the king carried out religious ceremonies on the roof. The
* relief sculpture in which material is cut inner walls of rooms in the palace were covered with stone reliefs* show-
away to show figures raised from the ing scenes of the court, religious symbols, hunting scenes, and records of
background the king's military campaigns.
The most magnificent palace of the Neo-Babylonian period (612-539 B.C.)
was the Southern Citadel of BABYLON. In fact, King NEBUCHADNEZZAR II
called it ''the marvel of mankind, the center of the land, the shining resi-
* facade front of a building; also, any dence, the dwelling of majesty/' This great palace had a series of five
side of a building that is given special courtyards, numerous reception rooms, a large throne room, and the
architectural treatment other areas typical of large palaces. Its facade* was covered with glazed

Ninurta, a war god, was worshiped by an- STAFF OF THE Tg^ic AT NIPPUR
cient Mesopotamians. His principal cult
center was the temple Eshumesha at Nip- Religious Staff Domestic Staff
pur, built during the first half of the sec-
ond millennium B.C. From excavations at high-priest miller
the ancient site of Nippur, archaeologists lamentation-priest cow herder
have obtained a great deal of information purification-priest oif-presser
about the temple's activities, including the high-priestess water-carrier
kind of staff it employed. naditu [cloistered] priestess fuel-carrier
This chart provides a list of some of the
diviner mat-maker
workers, whose responsibilities fell into
three categories—religious, administrative, snake charmer weaver
and domestic. While religious workers at- stonecarver
tended to the needs of the god, administra- Administrative Staff (copper)-smith
tive and domestic workers oversaw the courtyard-sweeper
managerial aspects and upkeep of the tem- house suervisor
barber
ple. Some of these workers were considered treasurer
specialists and worked at the temple on
guard
accountant
long-term appointments. Workers whose scribe
jobs did not require a high level of skill and
overseer of the oil pressers
training were probably replaced regularly.

159
Palaces and Temples
ceramic bricks depicting lions and trees.In one cornerof the buildingwas
an unusual arrangementof rooms identifiedby some scholars as site
of
the fabled
HANGING BABYLON.
GARDENS
OF

Egyptian Palaces.Little has been preserved from the earliest palaces

of ancient Egypt. Evidence suggests,however, thatthe architectural style
of these palaces probably originatedin northern Egypt, perhaps influ-
enced by Mesopotamia. When northern and southern Egypt were united
at about 2000
B.C., the architectural stylewas adopted throughout the
kingdom.
* mud brick brick made from mud, The basicform of Egyptian palaceswas a mud brick* enclosure wall,
straw, and water mixed together and within which were numerous buildings. The enclosure wallhad an elabo-
baked in the sun rate pattern of recesses and projections on the facade that formed niches.
These niches were plastered, painted white, and decorated with colored
patterns and designs. The high walls of the palace enclosure dominated
the skyline and were visible from great distances.
The royal residences and buildings within the enclosure wall were
built of brick as well. They included columned halls, reception areas,
courtyards, private living quarters, artists' workshops, and areas for ad-
ministration, storage, and other activities. The importance of the
palace—and its symbolic role as the seat ofkingship—was reflectedin the
term pharaoh ("great house"), which became the title of Egyptian kings
during andafter the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. B.C.). 1539-1292
One of the most significant and best-preserved Egyptian palaces is the
palace of Amenhotep THEBES.
III atThis palace, situated nextto a vast arti-
ficial lake, contained an extensive complexof buildings focusingon a se-
ries of rooms organized around columned hallsand open assembly areas.
The structure was one story, but the halls were higher than the surround-
ing rooms, and their upper walls contained windows to let in air and
light. In addition toofficial rooms, the palace contained apartmentsfor
the pharaoh and for royal women different
of ranks. Many of the interior

160
 Palaces and Temples
walls and floors of the palace were decorated with brightly colored paint-
ings related primarily to the world of nature. The ceilings of the public
Palatial Living halls also had decorations, but they were more formal, often consisting of
Ancient Near Eastern rulers spared sacred symbols and designs.
no expense in building, decorating, \ In ancient Egypt, a palace also served as an administrative center for high
and maintaining their palaces. officials acting on behalf of the king. For instance, during the 1700s B.C., a
These buildings were not only the palace at Avaris in the Nile Delta was used by an Egyptian official of the
homes of the most important indi-
viduals in society and the seats of
Thirteenth Dynasty. Bearing the title "overseer of foreign lands/' this
government, but they were also official used the palace to conduct diplomatic* relations with the Mi-
powerful symbols of the prosperity noans from CRETE and the Canaanites and other Semitic* peoples from
and prestige of the state. The lux- the Levant* and SYRIA.
ury of palaces was an obvious ben
fit to the ruler and his family. Yet
Palaces in Other Regions. Palaces also were built by other groups in the
the size and beauty of structures
were meant to inspire awe in citi- ancient Near East, including the Hittites of Anatolia, the rulers of ancient
zens—and perhaps fear in enemies Canaan and Israel, and the Persians. Although these structures different
because of the great power and somewhat in layout and design, they all contained the same basic features
wealth the buildings represented. and served the same purposes as Mesopotamian and Egyptian temples.
A distinctive feature of palaces in Syria was a "half-timbered" con-
struction, which consisted of a stone foundation with the walls above
built of wooden beams and plaster. A number of Hittite palaces were built
* diplomatic relating to the practice of on fortified hill sites. The Persians often reoccupied the palaces of the
conducting peaceful negotiations rulers they conquered as they extended their empire.
between kingdoms, states, or nations
* Semitic of or relating to people of the
Near East or northern Africa, including TEMPLES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians,
Jews, and Arabs
Temples in the ancient Near East were residences of the gods—the places
where deities* lived and where humans served them. Temples also be-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea
came important economic and social institutions. They controlled vast
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), agricultural lands and other resources, providing products and work for
the West Bank, and Jordan members of the 'community. As centers of religious ritual and economic
* deity god or goddess activity, temples also helped bring order and stability to the society and
contributed materially and spiritually to its prosperity.

Functions of Temples. Unlike churches, mosques, and synagogues of

today, most of the temples of the ancient Near East were not places
where ordinary people went to worship. Because they were thought to
be the actual residences of the gods, temples were sacred sites and en-
trance was restricted to the king and the priests of the temple.
In Near Eastern societies, the king was considered the chief priest of
the state religion, and he was responsible for building and maintaining
temples, performing religious rites and ceremonies, and supporting wor-
ship of the gods. How well he performed his duties was thought to have a
significant impact on society, bringing prosperity or hardship to the king-
dom because of the favor or displeasure of the gods. The day-to-day func-
tioning of the temple was in the hands of the priests and other temple
workers. The priests performed daily rituals involved with taking care of
all the needs of the gods, whose presence in the temple was represented
* cult formal religious worship by statues and cult* images.
To serve the gods properly, temples were equipped like households,
with kitchens, tables (in the form of altars), receptions rooms, living and
161
Palaces and Temples
sleeping quarters, and storage rooms. The operation of the temple
"household" required a large staff of priests, craftspeople, scribes, and ser-
vants, many of whom lived within the temple or in surrounding build-
ings. Temple staffs, including priests, were organized according to a
* hierarchy division of society or an hierarchy* of roles and responsibilities. In many ways, the large staffs that
institution into groups with higher and administered the affairs of temples were very similar to the palace bureau-
lower ranks cracies that ran the government of the states.
Maintaining the temple and its staff required not only a complex ad-
ministrative apparatus but also enormous economic resources. Some of
Temples to the resources needed for the temple came as offerings and gifts from the
the Sun Cod king and worshipers. However, temples also controlled land, large herds
in ancient Egypt, a special type of of livestock, and workshops for the manufacture of various goods. Con-
temple was dedicated to the wor- trol of such resources brought great wealth to the temples and their ad-
ship of the sun god Ra. These solar ministrators, making temples among the most important economic
temples were very different in de-
sign from the temples dedicated to institutions of society and their administrators among the wealthiest.
the other gods. They consisted of
an enormous open courtyard that History of Temples. Temples were built in the Near East long before
had an altar in the center for mak- the first palaces. The earliest known remains of temples in Mesopotamia
ing animal sacrifices. As early as th date from before 5000 B.C., although some archaeologists have discov-
Fifth Dynasty (ca. 2500-2350 B.C.), ered wall decorations and statues several thousand years older that may
solar temples were built in connec-
tion with pyramid complexes. A suggest the existence of temples at a much earlier time. In Egypt, the ear-
thousand years later, the growing liest evidence for sanctuaries* dates from only about 3000 B.C.
dominance of Amun, the god of The earliest temples were small, simple shrines. Nevertheless, their
the sun-disk, under pharaoh Akhen- design and structure show certain elements that remained basic features
aten led to the construction of of temples throughout ancient times, including altars and niches for god
huge solar temples that were
among the largest temples ever statues and cult images. Over time, temples increased in size and com-
built in ancient Egypt. plexity, but they always kept various features that were unique and that
distinguished them from palaces, their earthly counterparts.

Mesopotamia!! Temples. Temples throughout Mesopotamia, no

matter what their size, had several elements that distinguished them as
sanctuary most sacred part of a sacred buildings. The most sacred part of a temple was the inner sanctu-
religious building ary, a large room where the statue of the deity stood in an alcove set in
one of the building's short walls. An offering table stood nearby. One or
more rooms, perhaps used for religious purposes or for storage, flanked
the inner sanctuary along the temple's long walls. Often a staircase led to
the roof, where some rituals were performed.
The layout of the temple's sacred spaces generally followed a pattern
that remained relatively unchanged over time. In addition to sacred
spaces, temple complexes had courtyards and rooms designed for use by
the priests in their daily life. Large complexes also had surrounding build-
ings with living and working areas for temple staff. The entire complex
might be surrounded by a wall.
Many Mesopotamian temples were build on platforms approached by
sets of stairs. Shortly before 2000 B.C., this design feature had developed
into platforms consisting of several raised terraces with a temple on top.
Known as a ziggurat, this type of structure was a distinctive feature of
Mesopotamian temple architecture and was found in nearly every impor-
tant city. One of the latest and tallest, the ziggurat at Babylon, was built by
King Nebuchadnezzar II and is believed to have risen nearly 300 feet high.
162
 Palaces and Temples
Egyptian Temples. Most early temples in Egypt were of rather modest
size and made from simple materials. Like Egyptian palaces, these tem-
ples often had enclosure walls decorated with niches. The focus of each
temple was a shrine to its god located in the enclosure. Some temples
were built on platforms filled with clean sand, which may have symbol-
ized the purity of creation. The walls and doorways often were decorated
with elaborate scenes, either painted or carved in relief.
In later centuries, the Egyptians built enormous temple complexes,
such as the great temple at KARNAK dedicated to the god AMUN. These tem-
ple complexes featured massive enclosure walls surrounding the temple,
storehouses, residences for priests, and other buildings. The temples
themselves were long buildings that featured a series of large courtyards
surrounded by columned halls. The inner sanctuary, which held the
statue of the god, was set apart from the other temple areas by a sur-
rounding corridor. It also had a raised floor and a separate roof, forming a
virtual temple within a temple.
While early temples were built primarily of mud brick, later temples
were often built of stone. Some temples were even carved out of rock,
me Temple of Soloi
such as the great temples of ABU SIMBEL. Temples continued to be color-
One of the most famous temples o
the ancient Near East—and per-
fully decorated with both realistic scenes and symbolic designs. Most of
haps the most mysterious—was the the elements of temple design, including building materials and the
Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. placement of a temple on its site, had various symbolic meanings.
Built in the 900s B.C., during the
reign of King Solomon, the temple Temples in Other Regions. Temples in other areas of the Near East,
was destroyed by the Babylonians
such as Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant, served functions similar to those
in the 500s B.C. Nothing of this fa-
bled temple has survived to the in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Their basic architectural elements were simi-
present day except descriptions of lar as well, although certain design and decorative elements reflected re-
it in the Hebrew Bible. Modem ar- gional differences.
chaeologists have the skills to exca- One of the characteristic features of Hittite temples was an elaborate
vate the site of the temple—known gateway that contained small chambers on each side for gatekeepers and
as the Temple Mount—but they
cannot do so because of religious
attendants. A distinctive feature of some Levantine temples, called bench
tensions and opposition from Jews temples, was a series of low mud brick benches around the walls of the
Muslims, and Christians, all of sanctuary and near the central altar. This bench was not for seating but
whom claim the site as a holy was used for presenting offerings.
place. Excavations of other temples With the rise of small nation-states in Canaan after 1200 B.C., temple
have helped confirm that the bibli-
architecture increasingly reflected local religious differences. Several tem-
cal descriptions are probably accu-
rate and that the Temple of ples in Israel, for example, had open courtyards containing sacrificial al-
Solomon was rather modest in size. tars. Sometimes a staircase at the front of a temple led to an open porch
Though no trace of the temple ex- whose roof was supported by two columns. The porch led into the large
ists, it remains a powerful symbol < main chamber and behind that was the "holy of holies/' a small chamber
Jewish faith. at the back of the temple that contained the cult statue. Only high priests
were allowed to enter this chamber.
The most famous temple of the region, the fabled Temple of Solomon
in Jerusalem, no longer exists. The close association between that temple
and the royal palace of King Solomon—which was part of a huge temple-
See palace complex—reflected the close connection between temple and state
color plate 9, that existed throughout the ancient Near East. (See also Archaeology and
vol. 1.
Archaeologists; Bas-Reliefs; Cults; Economy and Trade; Gods and God-
desses; Land Use and Ownership; Priests and Priestesses; Property and
Property Rights; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Ziggurats.)
163
Palestine

Palestine See Canaan; Philistines.

PAPYRUS
P apyrus was the main writing material of ancient Egypt. Manufactured
as early as 3000 B.C., it remained in use for some 4,000 years. By about
2000 B.C., the use of papyrus had also spread to Syria and parts of the Lev-
ant*, and much later, found its way to ancient Greece and Rome.
Papyrus is a paperlike material made from the stems of the papyrus
plant, a reed that grew widely in marshes and swamps in Egypt. Although
Levant lands bordering the eastern stronger than paper, papyrus cannot survive rough handling, dampness,
shores of the Mediterranean Sea or fire. As a result, very few ancient papyri still exist. Most of those that
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), survive were excavated at BURIAL SITES AND TOMBS in the desert regions bor-
the West Bank, and Jordan
dering the Nile River in Egypt, where the dry climate helped preserve
them from decay. A number of ancient papyri have also been found in
the desert regions of the Levant and Mesopotamia.

Manufacture of Papyrus. The basic method of making papyrus re-

mained unchanged for thousands of years. It required a great deal of
skill, and the production of the material generally was left in the hands
of specialized craftsmen, most of whom worked for the government.
After the papyrus reeds were harvested, the long stems of the plant
were cut into shorter pieces. The rough outer coating of these pieces was
Ancient Medical then removed, and the soft fiberlike material inside was cut or torn into
Knowledge long strips about an inch wide. A dozen or more of these strips were laid
One of the oldest known side by side, to form a layer. A second layer of strips was placed perpendic-
medical works is a collection
ular to and over the first layer. The two layers were then covered with a
: of Egyptian medical texts that were
\ recorded on a papyrus roll around cloth and pounded with a wooden mallet until they merged into a single
1550 B.C Named after the German sheet. This sheet was pressed under a heavy weight and left to dry. Dried
\- scholar George Ebers, who acquired sheets were often polished—perhaps by rubbing them with a smooth
\ the document in the late A.CX 1800s, stone—to create a smooth finish. Finally, the edges of the sheets were
\ the Ebers Papyrus contains hun- trimmed.
dreds of magical spells and folk
remedies for various health prob-
Several sheets of papyrus (20 was a standard number) were joined to-
lems, ranging from toenail pain to gether to form a roll. To make this roll, the sheets were placed end-to-end,
crocodile bites* It also contains an with each sheet overlapping the next by about half an inch. The overlap-
; amazingly accurate description of ping edges were sealed with a starch paste. After drying, the pasted sheets
human blood vessels and the func* were rolled up and tied with strings of papyrus fibers. Manufacturers al-
l tioning of the heart. In addition to
most always made rolls rather than separate sheets. If a single sheet of pa-
:;ft$ medical advice, the Ebers Papyrus
* contains directions for getting rid of pyrus was required, it was cut from a roll.
I such household pests as scorpions,
F- rats, and flies. Use of Papyrus. Papyrus was used for writing many types of docu-
ments, from personal letters to government records, religious docu-
ments, and literary works. In ancient Egypt, scribes* usually wrote on
complete rolls of papyrus rather than on separate sheets, which were
* scribe person of a learned class who used for letters. The rolls came in various heights, and rolls of different
served as a writer, editor, or teacher sizes were used for different types of documents. Typically, the more im-
portant the document, the taller the roll. Except for very important doc-
uments, most rolls were less than 16 inches in height, and many were
less than 8 inches high.
164
 Papyrus

This painted relief from Egypt's Fifth Dy-

nasty (ca. 2500-2350 B.C.) depicts men
gathering papyrus plants. Harvested pa-
pyrus stems were used to make not only
writing material, but also baskets, rope,
and even boats.

Most literary works and government documents took up a complete

roll of papyrus. If a work was too long to fit on a standard roll (about 15
feet), additional sheets were pasted together to make the roll longer. One
ancient Egyptian document that records temple donations during the
reign of Ramses III was a papyrus roll 141 feet long. If a work was too
short to fill a standard roll, excess sheets were cut off. In the case of school
texts and private copies of literary works, several works were often written
on one roll.
Completed papyri were rolled and retied with papyrus strings. Such
rolls often were sealed with a small amount of clay, which might be
marked with identifying SEALS. Completed single sheets of papyrus were
folded to form a small package and then tied and sealed. The contents of
the roll—or the address in the case of a letter—were written on the out-
side. Sets of completed papyrus rolls were tied together and stored in
boxes, baskets, pots, or bags, and the containers were labeled to indicate
their contents. In some temples and government buildings, specific
rooms were set aside for the storage of papyrus rolls.
Papyrus was relatively expensive, costing about one-fifth of a skilled
worker's monthly wages. It was also in short supply during the seasons of
the year when papyrus plants were not yet ready for harvest. Because of
cost and seasonal shortages, it was common practice to recycle papyrus
by washing off old text and writing new text on it.

Importance of Papyrus. Nearly all ancient Egyptian documents

were written on papyrus. Many scholars think that the invention of this
bureaucracy system consisting of writing material accompanied the development of bureaucracy* in
officials and clerks who perform Egypt, which necessitated the maintenance of extensive government
government functions records. Papyrus was a more convenient and flexible writing material
than the CLAY TABLETS used in ancient Mesopotamia, although it was not
as durable.
* commodity article of trade By about 2000 B.C., papyrus had become an important export com-
* monopolize to control exclusively or modity* in Egypt, and its manufacture was monopolized* by the royalty.
dominate a particular type of business Light in weight, easily transported, and conveniently stored, it remained
* Middle Ages period between ancient the most important writing material in the Mediterranean world until
and modern times in western Europe, the Middle Ages*, when it was replaced by parchment and vellum, which
generally considered to be from the A.D. were made from animal skins. (See also Books and Manuscripts; Egypt
500s to the 1500s and the Egyptians; Record Keeping; Scribes; Writing.)
165
Parthia

PARTHIA
P arthia (PAHR»thee*uh) was the ancient name for the region that cor-
responds to present-day northeastern Iran. The term also is used to
refer to the Parthian empire, which flourished there between 247 B.C. and
A.D. 224. The empire served as a link between the Near East and the Far
East and a bridge between the ancient world and the world of Islam.
Nothing is known about Parthia before the 550s B.C. except that the
Parthians were members of horse-riding tribes from CENTRAL ASIA and that
* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled Parthia was a satrapy* of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. In 330 B.C., when the Persian
territory under the rule of a satrap, or empire was conquered by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Parthia became a satrapy
provincial governor of his Macedonian empire. When Alexander died in 323 B.C., it became a
satrapy of the succeeding SELEUCID EMPIRE.
In 247 B.C., a Parthian satrap named Arsaces I revolted against the Se-
leucids and founded the Parthian empire and the Arsacid dynasty. Al-
dialect regional form of a spoken though he was not Parthian, Arsaces spoke the Parthian dialect* and
language with distinct pronunciation, adopted the region's Hellenistic* culture. Later kings expanded the em-
vocabulary, and grammar pire, and by 124 B.C., it included all of Iran and territory from MESOPO-
• Hellenistic referring to the Greek- TAMIA to India. The empire was divided into provinces and ruled by a
influenced culture of the Mediterranean small aristocracy*. The Parthian king was the supreme ruler, but the out-
world and western Asia during the three
centuries after the death of Alexander
lying provinces had a considerable degree of independence.
the Great in 323 B.C. The empire prospered and expanded during the reigns of Mithradates I
r
aristocracy privileged upper class
(ruled 171-138 B.C.) and Artabanus II (ruled 128-124 B.C.). Artabanus was
succeeded by Mithradates II, also known as Mithradates the Great. During
his reign, Parthia was attacked repeatedly by Armenians from the north-
east and Scythians from the northwest. Mithradates defeated both groups
dynasty succession of rulers from the and further expanded the empire. When he died in 88 B.C., rival dynasties*
same family or group struggled to take control of the empire until 70 B.C., when Phraates III took
over the throne and restored stability. Beginning in 54 B.C., the Romans
launched repeated attacks against Parthia for about 200 years, weakening
the empire. Finally, in A.D. 224, the Parthians were overthrown by the Per-
sians of the Sasanian dynasty, and the Parthian empire ended.
Because of the Parthians' location and large territory, they controlled
See map in Persian Empire (vol. 3). most of the trade routes between Asia and the Mediterranean. They used
the wealth they gained from this trade to implement and fund their ex-
tensive building programs. In both their buildings and their artworks, the
Parthians showed an interesting blend of Asian and Greek influences. (See
also Iran; Scythia and the Scythians.)

PATRIARCHS AND
T he patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel are considered the most influ-
ential ancestors of the Israelites. These men and women whose sto-
ries are told in the Hebrew BIBLE include Abraham and his wife, Sarah;
MATRIARCHS their son Isaac and his wife, Rebecca; Isaac's son Jacob and his wives,
Rachel and Leah; and Jacob's son Joseph. The stories of the patriarchs and
OF ISRAEL matriarchs explain the origins of the Israelites and why they were selected
as their god YAHWEH'S "chosen people."

Abraham and Sarah. The first patriarch, Abraham (also known as

Abram), lived in Ur of the Chaldees (city and district in Mesopotamia).
According to the Bible, Yahweh commanded Abraham to leave Ur and
166
 Patriarchs and Matriarchs of Israel
travel to CANAAN. In return for Abraham's obedience, Yahweh promised
him that his descendants would inherit Canaan—the Promised Land.
Abraham believed Yahweh's promise of an heir, but his wife, Sarah, was
doubtful. Childless, she believed that she was too old to have children.
To fulfill Yahweh's promise, Sarah urged Abraham to father a child by
her slave, Hagar, whom she could claim as her own. Sarah herself later
gave birth to a son, Isaac, and forced Hagar and her son Ishmael to leave
the household. In Islamic tradition, Ishmael is considered the father of
the Arabs. Abraham is thus revered as an ancestor by Muslims as well as
by Jews and Christians.
One important story about Abraham concerns the potential sacrifice
of Isaac. While Isaac was still a boy, Yahweh commanded Abraham to
prove his obedience by sacrificing Isaac. At the last moment, however,
Yahweh gave Abraham a ram to sacrifice in Isaac's place. This story reem-
phasizes Abraham's faith in Yahweh, who rewards him by promising him
future power and glory.

Isaac &nd Rebecca. When Sarah died, her death was a terrible blow to
Isaac. To relieve his son's grief, Abraham sent a messenger to Mesopotamia
to find Isaac a wife. The messenger left it up to God to choose the proper
wife for Isaac: Rebecca.
After 20 years of marriage, Rebecca gave birth to twins named Esau
and Jacob. Yahweh tells Rebecca that both of her sons will establish great
nations, but that the older son (Esau) will serve the younger one (Jacob).
When her sons became young men, Jacob secured the right of firstborn
from Esau, and Rebecca tricked Isaac, who had gone blind, into giving his
blessing to Jacob instead of to Esau because she believed that Jacob would
make the better leader. When Esau realized he had been deceived, he be-
came angry, and Jacob was forced to flee for his life. During this journey,
Yahweh appeared to Jacob and confirmed the promise originally made to
Abraham, that Jacob would have numerous descendants who would pos-
sess much land.

Jacob, Rachel, and Leah. Jacob went to live with his uncle Laban in
Upper Mesopotamia, where he fell in love with Rachel, Laban's younger
daughter. To win her as his wife, Jacob worked for Laban for seven years.
At the wedding ceremony, Laban substituted his older daughter Leah for
Rachel. Jacob was also given Rachel but then worked another seven years
to deserve her.
Jacob had 13 children by his two wives and their two servants, Zilpah
concubine mistress to a married man and Bilhah, who became his concubines*. After many years in Upper
Mesopotamia, Jacob returned to Canaan with his family. On the way, he
had a physical struggle with a divine being—either Yahweh or an angel—
after which his name was changed to Israel. This name was later used for
the nation of Israel. Once back in Canaan, Jacob made up with Esau. Ja-
cob's sons were ancestors to the 12 tribes into which the Israelite people
were later divided.

Joseph. Joseph was the son of Jacob and Rachel. Joseph was also his fa-
ther's favorite son. When Jacob gave him a splendid "coat of many colors,"
167
Peasants
Joseph's brothers became jealous and sold him as a slave to a group of
traveling merchants, who took him to Egypt.
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt After many episodes in Egypt, Joseph gained the pharaoh's* favor by
interpreting the ruler's dreams. Joseph warned that the dreams referred to
* famine severe lack of food due to failed a coming famine* and advised the pharaoh to store the grain from a pre-
crops ceding period of good harvests. This advice saved Egypt from the famine
and earned Joseph the pharaoh's gratitude and an important position in
the kingdom.
The same famine drove Joseph's brothers to Egypt in search of food.
They met Joseph but did not recognize him because more than 20 years
had passed since they sold him. He recognized them, however. Joseph fi-
nally revealed himself to his brothers and forgave them. He then invited
them all to settle in Egypt, where the family grew, becoming the Israelites.
After many generations, the Israelites (known to the Egyptians as the He-
brews), who had become slaves, left Egypt under the leadership of MOSES.
They eventually resettled in Canaan and established the nation of Israel.

History and Meaning of the Stories. Scholars debate whether the

patriarchs and matriarchs are actual historical figures. Those who do be-
lieve that they are place their origins in Upper Mesopotamia during the
* second millennium B.C. years from second millennium B.C.* Some scholars argue that the patriarchs and
2000 to 1001 B.C. matriarchs symbolize the earliest people who accepted Yahweh. From a
religious standpoint, the stories reinforce the early Israelite belief that
they were a "chosen people" and that the blessing and protection of Is-
rael and its people depends on obedience to and faith in their god, Yah-
weh. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel
and Judah; Judaism and Jews; Monotheism; Religion; Theology.)

PEASANTS
P easants were free laborers—agricultural laborers, craftspeople, and
herders—who worked outside urban centers. They comprised the
majority of the population of the ancient Near East and played a crucial
role in AGRICULTURE, the basis of every economy. Despite their importance
to the prosperity of early civilizations, scholars know very little about
peasants. They were illiterate* and could not keep records of their lives.
* illiterate unable to read or write The literate classes did not write about peasants except for administrative
purposes, such as recording taxes collected from them. Consequently,
much of the information scholars possess about peasants is based on in-
ferences from other sources.

Peasant Work. Most peasants in the ancient Near East were tenant
farmers, who toiled in fields owned by temples, kings, or other members
of the ruling class. They were paid with rations, which consisted of a por-
tion of the crops they harvested, or products from the animals they
tended. Most peasants worked under overseers, who managed the land
for its owner and often had complete control over the peasants.
Peasants' duties were not limited to working the fields. Under a sys-
tem of forced labor known as corvee, peasants had to perform work for
168
 Perfumes
the state for one or two months each year. In the Hittite kingdom of
* fortification structure built to KHATTI, this could include building public works, such as fortifications*,
strengthen or protect against attack temples, or roads. In addition to these duties, peasants in Egypt were re-
quired to perform military service as well.
The role of the peasant in ancient Mesopotamian society changed
over time. From about 3500 to 2000 B.C., most peasants worked for the
second millennium B.C. years from temples, receiving rations in return. In the early second millennium B.C.*,
2000 to 1001 B.C. lands were held by private individuals who paid the peasants in rations.
Some peasants traveled and hired themselves out as workers or sold
themselves into slavery. By the late second millennium B.C., when the
economies of Mesopotamia began to disintegrate, peasants who could no
longer handle their burden and lack of rights went to live on royal land.
Ancient Near Eastern peasants who worked as farmers and those who
worked as herders depended on each other for survival. In order for crops
to grow, farmers needed the herders to bring their animals, such as oxen,
to the fields to plow them.

Peasant Life. The life of a peasant in the ancient Near East was diffi-
cult. Between the long hours tending crops and the corvee system, peas-
ants had little free time. They rested on the occasional festival day, at
which time the landlord might give them extra food or a jar of beer or
wine. Most peasants struggled to survive on the food and produce they
received as wages. Some peasant households owned poultry and goats
that helped meet some of their food needs.
Peasants in Egypt typically lived in tiny mud huts clustered together
in villages that often lacked fresh water or sanitation. Despite their
poverty, peasants were taxed regularly and faced being beaten if they
failed to pay the tax. After suffering years of poor living conditions, some
peasants abandoned the land and their families and moved to cities. Oth-
ers formed outlaw bands and roamed the countryside assaulting travelers
and isolated villages. (See also Land Use and Ownership; Labor and La-
borers; Taxation.)

PERFUMES
H ow fragrant your perfumes, more fragrant than all other spices/'
wrote the author of the Song of Songs in the Hebrew BIBLE. Many
ancient texts reveal an appreciation for perfumes, fragrant substances
worn for personal adornment or used to beautify the air. Ingredients in
perfumes, especially frankincense and myrrh*, became major trade items
in the ancient Near East.
* frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree Perfumes originated in the ancient Near East after people there had
resins used to make incense and formed the custom of burning incense* at religious and healing rituals.
perfumes Kings began to use fragrant woods in the construction of their palaces.
* incense fragrant spice or resin burned Eventually, people started using aromatic spices and other fragrances in
as an offering everyday life, although such delights were very costly.
Ancient perfumes generally consisted of plant oils or animal fats to
which aromatic substances were added. Sometimes they combined ingre-
dients such as roses, myrtle, sandalwood, cinnamon, blue water lilies and
169
Persepolis
hennaflowers (especiallyinEgypt),andhyacinth saffron
and (prized by
the Israelites)to create distinctive scents.
Perfumes were usedinrituals,asmedicinal treatments,and incosmet-
ics. The Egyptians used aromatic creamsMUMMIES
andfor
oils
toprepare
entombment. They also wore scented cones of fat onwigs
forspecial occa-
sions. As the warmthoftheir bodies meltedthefat, the
perfumespread.
InMESOPOTAMIA, perfumeswere oftenmade bywomen andwere used
in medicine, magic, rituals, andcosmetics.Forinstance, herbalists sold
scented medical resinsandperfumed cosmetic creams.Theancients cre-
ated a variety ofjars and spoonsforstoringandhandling perfumes,
scented body creams, bath oils,andother fragrances.Such containersare
among the finest decorative objectsofalso theCos-
(See ancient world.
metics; Economy and Trade; Hair; Incense.)

PERSEPOLIS
T he city of Persepolis(puhr«SE»puh«lis),also known
capital of PERSIAN
the
was founded around
EMPIREunder
B.C., by518
Parsa,
theAchaemenid dynasty.
Persian king Darius
I toreplace
as was the
Thecity
thefor-
mer Persian capitalofPasargadae.It wascompletedbyDarius;successor,
s
XERXES. Other Persian kings also made additionsto thecity, butmost
of it
was built by DariusandXerxesoveraperiodofnearly60years.
Because Persepolis waslocated in aremote, mountainous region,it
was not convenient for theroyaltytoreside there. Persian kingsandtheir
See map inPersian Empire (vol. 3). families probably only lived there in thespring. Much of theadministra-
tion of the empire wascarried out inother cities. Thus,it islikely that
Persepolis wasmainly aceremonial center where coronations, royal buri-
als, and other important ceremonies took place.

170
 Persian Empire
The city was built on a huge stone terrace almost 50 feet high and
measuring about 1,400 feet from north to south and 1,000 feet from east
to west. Two stone staircases led from the plain to a single gatehouse at
the top of the terrace. Palaces, audience halls, and other structures were
constructed atop the terrace. The largest structure was the audience hall
of Darius and the 100-column throne hall of Xerxes. Both were located in
the center of the terrace, dividing it into two halves. The northern half of
the terrace was devoted to the military. The southern half contained the
palaces of Darius and Xerxes, living quarters of the royal family, and the
state treasury building, where most of the empire's wealth was stored. All
the buildings and other structures, including the staircases, were exten-
bas-relief kind of sculpture in which sively decorated with bas-reliefs* and inscriptions.
material is cut away to leave figures Around 330 B.C., Persepolis was captured and partially burned by
projecting slightly from the background ALEXANDER THE GREAT. The city then became a provincial* capital in the
provincial having to do with the Macedonian empire, but it declined in importance during the succeeding
provinces, outlying districts, SELEUCID EMPIRE. Today Persepolis lies in ruins, and the remains of the royal
administrative divisions, or conquered
territories of a country or empire
palaces and other colossal structures are the only evidence of its former
grandeur.

PERSIAN EMPIRE
T he Persian empire flourished in the ancient Near East from 550 to
330 B.C. The empire began in ancient IRAN and came to include a vast
territory stretching from Greece to India. It was the largest empire of the
time, and its extent was unsurpassed until the advent of the Roman Em-
pire, which reached its peak many centuries later. The Persian empire was
a model for later empires because it demonstrated how a centralized gov-
ernment could bring together different peoples and cultures.

HISTORY
People of Indo-European origin began to settle in Iran more than 1,000
years before the Persian empire was founded. The empire itself can be di-
vided into two periods: the period of the first Persian empire, from 550 to
* dynasty succession of rulers from the 522 B.C., and the period of the Achaemenid dynasty*, from 521 to 330 B.C.
same family or group
Early History of the Persians in Iran. Around 1200 B.C., people
who spoke Indo-European languages began arriving in northeastern Iran
from the CAUCASUS region between the Caspian and Black Seas. By the
900s B.C., two groups, the Persians and the MEDES, had gained control of
most of Iran. The Medes lived in northern Iran, which was called Media,
and the Persians lived in southern Iran, which was called Persia.
Around 700 B.C., according to later traditions, the Persians were ruled
by a king named Achaemenes. His descendants, known as the
Achaemenid family, later became the royal family of the Persian empire.
Achaemenes divided his kingdom between two of his sons, who later
formed the two branches of the Achaemenid family. Each branch pro-
duced a line of Persian kings. The first line included*CYRUS THE GREAT,
founder of the first Persian empire. The second line of kings began with
Darius I, also known as Darius the Great, founder of the Achaemenid
171
Persian Empire
dynasty. Aroundthe same time, accordingtoHERODOTUS,
Greek historian
the Medes were unifiedbytheir king DeiokesandformedtheKingdom
of
Media. By the late
B.C.,600s
the Medeshad conquered Persia
andmade it
* vassal individual or state thatswears a vassal*.
loyalty and obedience to a greater
power
The First Persian Empire. B.C., In
Persia
the500s
wasruledby aking
named Cambyses I, who was among the earliest Achaemenid kings.
When Cambyses died B.C.,inhis559
son, CyrusII,later known asCyrus
the Great, took overasrulerofPersia. Cyrus II wasvery ambitious and set
* city-state independent state consisting out to gain power and improve the position of thePersians inIran. He
of a city and its surrounding territory also negotiated an alliance with the Babylonians against theMedes. In
* nomad person who travels fromplace 550B.C., he led a revolt againstthe Medes with help fromtheBabyloni-
to place to find food and pasture ans. The Medes were defeated,and the Persians took controlof the Me-
dian kingdom, markingthe beginningof first
the
Persian empire.
Cyrus immediately began to increasethe territoryof hisempire.He
attacked Lydiaand captured B.C.
SARDIS,
itsThen
capital,
in he
547led his
army in capturing all the Greek city-states* along thewestern coastof
ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey).
B.C.,heIn
turned
540on hisformer Baby-
lonian alliesand captured
BABYLONthe following year. This conquest gave
Cyrus control of all the land westofIrantoEgypt. B.C. Cyrus died
in 529
while trying todefeat atribeofnomads*inCentral Asia,althoughthe ex-
act circumstances are in dispute.
Cyrus's successor,CAMBYSES
his son II,launchedasuccessful attack
against Egyptand established Persian NILEforts
RIVER.
along
Then
thehe
mounted unsuccessful attacks CARTHAGE,
againstNubia,andAmon, an
oasis in the Egyptian desert.B.C., hearing
In 522 of anuprisinginIran,

172
 Persian Empire

Cambyses set out to return home to regain control of his kingdom. How-
ever, he died on the way, and one of his generals, later known as Darius I,
went on to Iran to end the revolt. It took Darius and his troops more than
a year to gain control. In 521 B.C., Darius succeeded to the throne.

The Achaemenid Dynasty. Although Darius was from the Achaeme-

nid family, he did not belong to the branch that had produced the first
line of Persian kings. He was from the second branch of the family,
which became known as the Achaemenid dynasty. It was during the
reign of this dynasty that the Persian empire grew to its largest extent.
Darius undertook an expansionist policy and gained control of large
Life in Iran Before sections of northern India, as well as land previously controlled by the
Scythians to the west and north of the Black Sea. He led his troops into
the Persians Europe as far as the Danube River, although he failed to conquer any new
The Persians were not the lands there. Darius also invaded Greece, but he was defeated in the battle
first people to settle in Iran.
Archaeologists have found
at Marathon in 490 B.C. Darius planned to return to Greece with a much
sites in Iran that were settled larger force, but a revolt in Egypt and Darius's own death in 486 B.C. pre-
at least 5,000 years before the vented him from carrying out his plan.
Persians arrived. One site, Ali Darius was succeeded by his son XERXES, who quickly put down the
Kosh, has more than 20 feet of ac- revolt in Egypt. Xerxes also ended a revolt in Babylonia in 482 B.C. Unlike
cumulated deposits* Deposits from
the lowest layer, which dates back
Cyrus and Darius, who had ruled foreign lands with tolerance, Xerxes
to 7500 B.C., show that the earliest ruthlessly imposed his will. He next turned his attention to Greece, con-
inhabitants gathered wild plants, quering northern Greece after the battle at Thermopylae in 480 B.C. He
cultivated wheat and barley, and then led his troops to Athens, where they burned down the Acropolis.
herded goats and sheep. Deposits Shortly thereafter, Xerxes returned to Iran. His troops were later defeated
from higher layers are more recent,
by the Greeks in the battle of Plataea, and with that defeat, the Persian in-
dating from about 6500 B.C. They
show that by this time the inhabi-
vasion of Greece came to an end. In the later years of his rule, Xerxes lost
tants were living in well-built interest in foreign conquests and focused on domestic problems. He was
houses, making baskets and pot- assassinated in 465 B.C.
tery, and taking part in a far- The death of Xerxes marked a turning point in the history of the
reaching trade network. Achaemenid dynasty. The kings who followed Xerxes —Artaxerxes I,
Xerxes II, and Darius II—were weak and struggled to retain control of the
empire. Their reigns were plagued by rebellions, including one in Egypt
that took five years to bring under control. Xerxes II was assassinated in a
court intrigue after ruling for less than two months. Darius II was faced
with several rebellions, including one by the Medes.
In 404 B.C., Artaxerxes II succeeded Darius II. During his 45-year
reign, Persia fought a 13-year war with the Greek city-state of Sparta. In
the peace treaty that was signed at the end of the war, Greece gave up its
claims in Anatolia to the Persians. Also during Artaxerxes' reign, Egypt re-
volted against Persia. The Egyptians were successful, and Egypt regained
its independence. Artaxerxes tried to regain control of Egypt but failed. In
* satrap provincial governor in Persian- 370 B.C., several satraps* mounted an unsuccessful revolt against him. Al-
controlled territory though these uprisings were put down, the Persian state was weakened,
and Artaxerxes was assassinated in 359 B.C.
Artaxerxes III took over the throne on the death of Artaxerxes II. He
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ordered the deaths of many of his relatives, whom he feared might chal-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea lenge his rule, but revolts continued. He tried to regain control of Egypt,
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), but without success, encouraging rebellions in other parts of the empire,
the West Bank, and Jordan including the Levant*. In 343 B.C., Artaxerxes led another attack on
173
Persian Empire
Egypt. This time he wassuccessful although the Egyptian king escaped to
Nubia, where he established an independent B.C.,kingdom.
Artax- In 338
The Storyof erxes III was poisoned by an administrator named Bagoas.
the FakeBardiya After Artaxerxes' death, Bagoas attempted to become the power be-
AccordingtoDariusthe
Great,
in hind the Persian throne and appointed an Achaemenid prince named Ar-
521B.C,when KingCambyses was ses king. However,Arsesfailed to be a puppet king, and he was was killed
fightinginEgypt he was
informed and replaced on the throne by Darius III, who hadBagoas put to death.
thathisbrotherBardiya
had led a 336B.C., Darius suppressed a rebellion in Egypt. However, Persian success
revoltandseizedthethrone
Iran.
in
Cambysesdied before
he
couldre- was short-lived, and the end of the Persian empire was near.
turn homeand reclaim
the
throne, In 334B.C., ALEXANDER
GREAT
MACEDONIA
THE
of launched
an attack
on
but as he lay dying,
he
revealedto the Persian empire with an army of 40,000 troops. Four years later, the
his troopsthatthe
Bardiyawho had Persian capital PERSEPOLIS
of fell to Alexander,and the Persian empire
seizedthethrone was
fake.
Ap-
a came to an end. Darius III was the last king of the Achaemenid dynasty.
parently,Cambyses knew that
the He was murdered whilefleeingfrom Alexander.
realBardiyawas not on the throne
becausehe had alreadyhad thereal
Bardiyakilled.
Ironically,
Cambyses
had arrangedhis brother's
becausehefearedhewould
death
try to
ORGANIZATION
AND
seizethethrone
wasaway*
while
Cambyses ADMINISTRATION
OF
PERSIAN
EMPIRE
THE
The Persian empire was ruled by a supreme king who was assisted by a
royal court and a large bureaucracy*. The empire was divided
satrapies, each ruled by a satrap. Both the military and law were impor-
bureaucracy systemconsistingof tant elements of the empire.
officials andclerks who perform
government functions The Central Government. The king was at the center of the Pe
empire. His traditional title was "king of kings" because he ruled as th
supreme authority. The king also was considered divine.
The royal court was composed of wealthy landowners, high-ranking
militaryofficers, priests, government
officials, and the wives and relatives
1200sB.C. of the king. The king and his court usually resided at Susa, but moved
The Persians first
I/UO
: ««;
settle in Iran. Ecbatana in the summer and Persepolis in the spring. On occasion,
court moved to Babylon. A smaller version of the court traveled with the
king when he visited distant provinces.
700sB.C. The government's work was carried out by a large bureaucracy. Most
IOOO B,r,
Persia is ruledby King
Achaemenes, founder of government workers were scribes*, the majority of whom worked at the
the Achaemenid family. royal treasuries. The bureaucracy was highly organized, and all government
*WO B r
workers were managed by a hierarchy* officials
of headed by the king.
550 B.C.
Cyrus the Great founds Satrapies and Satraps. The number of satrapies into w
the firstPersian empire.
pire was divided and their boundaries varied over time. There were just
<»OO tt r.
20 satrapies at the beginning of the reign of Darius the Great. As the em-
521 B.C. pire grew, the number increased. first,
At the satraps were appointed by
Darius the Great founds the king, oftenfrom among his relatives. In the later years of the empire,
the Achaemenid dynasty.
toot$< a number of satraps inherited their positions. Although many satraps
were very powerful, they were watched officials
by from the king's court,
330 B.C. known as the "king's eyes."
ZOO t*r Persepolisfalls to
Alexander the Great, and
the Persian empire ends.
The Military. The Persian army was responsible for conquering and re
taining thefar-flung lands that comprised the empire. Troops were
tioned permanently at strategic locations throughout the empire t
174
 Persian Empire

down rebellions and protect trade routes.At thebeginningof the em-

pire, the army wascomposed onlyofPersian soldierswhowere drafted
to fight for the king.Laterit wascomposedofhired professional soldiers.
During wartime, soldiers were draftedthroughouttheempire.

Law. The Persians were notedfortheir justice.One oftheir greatest

achievements was the formulation andimplementation of aunified
code of laws that appliedtoeveryonein theempire. This systemoflaws
made an important contribution totheir ability torule their vast empire
* scribe person of alearned
class who for more than two centuries. DariustheGreat,inparticular, cameto be
served as a writer, editor,orteacher known as a great lawgiverandlegal reformer.Hereformedthe taxlaws
of
* hierarchy division ofsociety or an the empire and instituted a tax onagricultural produce, which variedac-
institution into groups with higher andcording to thesize of the harvest.
lower ranks
Economy. Agriculture was themain sourceofwealthin thePersianem-
pire. Landholdingsvaried insize,fromplots toosmalltosupport more
than a single individual toestates ownedbywealthy
familiesandworked
by hundreds ofpeasantfarmers.Muchof theproduce
fromfarming went
* tribute payment made by asmaller or to the central government fortaxes, rents, andtribute*. Therefore,the
weaker party to amore powerfulone, government took an active role inboosting agricultural productivity. It
often under the threat offorce invested state resources inbuilding irrigation works, improving crops,
and developing better farming techniques.
Another sourceofroyal wealthwastrade.Thegovernment took steps
to promote this sector of theeconomy. Itsponsored voyagestoseeknew
trading partners, encouraged thedevelopment ofports on thePersian
Gulf, standardized weights andmeasures,anddevelopedandcirculated
coins. The government also built andmaintained asuperior systemof
roads that linked Persia with itsmajor trade partners.Theroads also
served vital administrativeandmilitary purposes.
175
Persian Empire

PERSIAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Society and culture were as varied as the peoples who had been brought
together under Persian rule. The tolerance of most kings allowed this vari-
ety to flourish. The society and culture of the Persians themselves were
based on Iranian traditions. However, the Persians were greatly influ-
enced by the peoples who became part of the empire.

* dialect regional form of a spoken Language. The Persians spoke a dialect* of Iranian called Old Persian.
language with distinct pronunciation, The language was first written when Darius the Great ordered that a
vocabulary, and grammar
script be invented so that he could leave a lasting record of his rise to
power on the BEHISTUN INSCRIPTION. However, Old Persian was never the
language of the administration of the empire. Instead, the language
most widely used for administrative purposes was Aramaic. The adop-
tion of a single language as the official language of the empire no doubt
contributed to the empire's success. Many other languages were spoken
throughout the empire, including Elamite, another language that was
* deity god or goddess used for administrative purposes.
* prophet one who claims to have
received divine messages or insights Religion. The earliest Persians to enter Iran worshiped many deities*.
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which These deities were associated with fundamental aspects of nature and daily
material is cut away to leave figures life and with basic concepts such as truth and justice. Traditional rituals in-
projecting slightly from the background cluded sacrificing animals, drinking alcoholic beverages, and using fire.
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 Around 600 B.C., a great Iranian religious prophet* and teacher named
tO 1 B.C. Zoroaster emerged in northeastern Iran. Zoroaster's teachings stressed
moral behavior and truthfulness. He taught that the only true god was
AHURA MAZDA, the traditional Persian god of goodness, and demoted the
other traditional deities to demons. A new religion, called Zoroastrianism,
which was based on Zoroaster's teachings, emerged and became the reli-
gion of the Achaemenid dynasty.

imperial Imports Art and Architecture. Some of the finest examples of art and architec-
The royal architecture of the Persian ture in the Persian empire were created for the kings. The most extensive
empire was created from the most building programs, such as the building of the capital city of Persepolis,
expensive materials and by the
were carried out primarily by Darius the Great and Xerxes. Persepolis is
most highly skilled workers in the
empire. This is clear from a descrip considered one of the great artistic achievements of the ancient world. It is
tion of the construction of the praised for its well-proportioned ground plan, rich architectural ornamen-
palace at Susa that was written by tation, and magnificent bas-reliefs*.
Darius the Great It lists timber from Persian kings brought together artists, architects, craftspeople, and
Lebanon, Candara, and Carmania; materials from all over the empire to create their magnificent buildings,
gold from Sardis and Bactria; lapis
lazuli and carnelian from Sogdiana
monuments, and artworks. Although the finished products are distinctly
turquoise from Chorasmia; silver Persian, almost every detail can be traced to a foreign source. One of the
and ebony from Egypt; ornamenta few exceptions is the columned hall, an Iranian invention dating to the
tion from Ionia; ivoiy from Ethiopia first millennium B.C.*
Sind, and Arachosia; stonecutters The Persians themselves were especially skilled in metalworking, jew-
from Ionia and Sardis; goldsmiths
elry making, seal cutting, and pottery making. Their gold work is espe-
from Media and Egypt; woodwork-
ers from Sardinia and Egypt; and cially noteworthy for its fine quality. (See also Artaxerxes I, II, and III;
brickworkersfrom Babylonia. Babylonia and the Babylonians; Darius I and Darius HI; Elam and the
Elamites; Lydia and the Lydians; Susa and Susiana; Zoroaster and
Zoroastrianism.)
176
 Persian Wars

PERSIAN WARS
T he Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the PERSIAN EMPIRE
and Greece that took place between 492 and 449 B.C. In these wars, an
alliance of small Greek city-states* defended their homelands against con-
quest by the Persians. The ultimate victory of the Greeks humiliated the
Persians and helped ensure the survival of Greek culture and traditions.

city-state independent state consisting Background of the Wars. During the mid-500s B.C., the Persian
of a city and its surrounding territory kings CYRUS THE GREAT and his son CAMBYSES II began extending Persian
rule westward toward the AEGEAN SEA. After defeating the Lydians in ANA-
TOLIA (present-day Turkey) in 547 B.C., the Persians gradually conquered
several small Greek city-states in Ionia, a region in western Anatolia.
In 499 B.C., the Ionian Greeks began to rebel against Persian rule.
They received some support— a small fleet — from the city-states of
Athens (located on the Greek mainland) and Eretria (located on the is-
land of Euboea). The Greek fleet attacked the city of SARDIS, the main Per-
* satrap provincial governor in Persian- sian stronghold in Anatolia, but the Persian satrap* there defended the
controlled territory city until more Persian troops arrived and forced the Greeks to retreat. Al-
though the Ionian Revolt gained strength the following year, the Persians
ultimately triumphed.
The Ionian Revolt had important consequences for mainland Greece.
The Persian king, DARIUS I, was angered by the Athenians' participation in
the revolt. He planned to punish the Greeks and extend his empire by in-
vading the Greek mainland.

History of the Wars. In 492 B.C., Darius sent a large army and a fleet
of 600 ships to attack Greece. However, the invasion faltered when part
of the Persian fleet was wrecked by a storm off the Greek coast. Two years
later, Darius assembled a stronger fleet and launched another invasion.
This time, the Persians reached the coastal plain of Marathon and started
to advance toward Athens, about 25 miles to the southwest. The Atheni-
ans asked Sparta for help, but before the Spartans could arrive, the Athe-
nians seized an opportunity to attack and won a stunning victory over
the Persians. After losing more than 6,000 men in this defeat, the dis-
graced Persians returned home.
Ten years passed before the Persians were prepared to invade again. In
480 B.C., King XERXES, Darius's son and successor, arrived in Greece with a
large army and navy. The Persians began marching to Athens, but a small
Greek force led by King Leonidas of Sparta held them for two days at a
narrow mountain pass called Thermopylae. Xerxes and his army found
another route through the mountains and circled back to attack the Spar-
tans from behind. Realizing what was happening, Leonidas sent most of
his men away, but those who remained fought until their deaths.
The Persians then moved on to Athens, which they captured and
burned without a fight because the Athenians had abandoned the city
while the Persians were delayed at Thermopylae. Meanwhile, the Greeks
decided that their best chance against the Persians was at sea. Some Per-
sian ships had already been destroyed in a storm, and the Greek naval
commander Themistocles devised a plan to defeat the rest of the fleet.
strait narrow channel that connects Pretending to retreat, Themistocles lured the Persian navy into a nar-
two bodies of water row strait* off the island of Salamis, near Athens. When the Persians
177
Pharaohs
entered the strait, the Greek fleet attacked, destroying and capturing
many enemy ships. Xerxes, who was watching from a hilltop, saw the
remnants of his mighty fleet sail away in defeat.
Xerxes returned to Persia after the defeat at Salamis, but he left a mili-
tary force in Greece to continue the Persian conquest. These troops in-
vaded and devastated the region of Attica in eastern Greece, but when a
Greek army began advancing against them, the Persians withdrew north-
ward into the neighboring region of Boetia. In 479 B.C., Greeks forces de-
feated the Persians in Boeotia at the battle of Plataea. The same year, the
Greeks also defeated a Persian fleet at Mycale, off the coast of Anatolia.
The Greek victories at Plataea and Mycale ended the threat of a Per-
sian invasion of mainland Greece, but the wars continued in Anatolia
for another 30 years. In 478 B.C., a number of Greek city-states formed
an alliance called the Delian League to defend themselves against fur-
ther Persian threats. Led by the Athenians, the league also launched an
attack on the Persians in Ionia to regain independence for the Greek
city-states there.
Between 478 and 449 B.C., the Greeks waged war almost continuously
against the Persians in Anatolia. By the end of that period, they had
strengthened Greek power in Ionia and prevented any further Persian at-
tempts at conquest in the Aegean. Hostilities between the Greeks and Per-
sians finally ended in 449 B.C., when the two sides signed the Peace of
Callias, which marked the formal end to the Persian Wars. (See also
Greece and the Greeks; Lydia and the Lydians; Wars and Warfare.)

P araohs were the KINGS of ancient Egypt. The wordpharaoh, which

means ''great house" in Egyptian, originally referred to the royal
PHARAOHS palace. Starting in the late Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. 1300s B.C.), the term
was used as a synonym for the Egyptian king. Since then, the word
pharaoh has come to mean any ancient Egyptian king. The discussion be-
low refers to ancient Egyptian kings in general, whether or not they were
called pharaohs in their own times.

Learning About the Pharaohs. A great deal of information about

Egyptian pharaohs comes from numerous monuments and other struc-
tures built and inscribed with facts about their lives and reigns. Because
of Egypt's dry climate, many of these structures are amazingly well pre-
served. Other sources of information are the KING LISTS, chronological lists
of Egypt's pharaohs. In the 200s B.C., these lists served as sources for a
Greco-Egyptian priest named Manetho, who used them to compile a
complete chronology of Egyptian rulers up to his time. Although neither
complete nor accurate, the lists are still considered the best sources of in-
formation about the pharaohs of ancient Egypt.
In addition to reading about the pharaohs in these sources, scholars
have actually seen some of the pharaohs. Because the ancient Egyptians
believed in life after death, they preserved the bodies of many ancients,
especially pharaohs, as MUMMIES. The bodies of some of the pharaohs are

178
 Pharaohs
so well preserved that scholars have been able to compare the pharaohs'
facial features to help settle disputes about whether or not they were re-
The Sed-Festival lated to each other. One of the best-preserved bodies is that of the
One of the earliest known royal fes- pharaoh TUTANKHAMEN, who ruled Egypt in the 1300s B.C.
tivals in ancient Egypt was the Sec/-
festival, The purpose of this festival The Pharaoh's Role. The pharaoh was the absolute ruler of ancient
was to reaffirm the pharaoh's divine
power. It was supposed to occur 30
Egypt. In principle, this meant that he owned and controlled everything
years after the pharaoh took the in Egypt, including the land, its resources, and its people. Although the
throne and then at various times af- power and reputation of the pharaohs changed over time, the idea of the
ter that The festival lasted several nature of kingship remained relatively the same throughout ancient
weeks, during which the pharaoh, Egypt's long history. This stability of the pharaoh's role helped preserve
priests, and high government offi- the unity of Egypt and promote its great civilization.
cials visited and honored one an-
other and the pharaoh offered gifts
As absolute ruler, the pharaoh governed by royal decree. This meant
to the gods. A number of importan that, in theory, all commands originated with him and were carried out,
rituals also took place during the without question, by his appointed officials. The pharaoh's chief aid and
festival, the most important of the government's highest-ranking official was the vizier*, who reported
which was a symbolic reenactment directly to him.
of the pharaoh's coronation.
As the "owner" of Egypt, the pharaoh was entitled to most of its
wealth. This entered the royal treasury primarily in the form of agricul-
tural produce, which was paid to the pharaoh as taxes and rents. He also
* vizier minister of state had the right to draft soldiers for his military campaigns and laborers for
* tribute payment made by a smaller or his building projects. In addition, the pharaoh received tribute* from for-
weaker party to a more powerful one, eign lands Egypt had conquered. All this wealth supported the pharaoh
often under the threat of force and his family in grand style. Some pharaohs kept an entire community
* artisan skilled craftsperson of artisans* busy creating palaces for this world and tombs for the next,
both for themselves and for their families.
The role of pharaoh was traditionally reserved for men. Although a
QUEEN might have held a great deal of power, normally only a king could
be pharaoh. Of ancient Egypt's 300 or so pharaohs, only 4 were women.
Through a combination of personality, circumstances, and luck, they
See were able to break the mold and play a man's role in society. One of the
[ color plate 2, most famous female pharaohs was HATSHEPSUT, who was co-ruler of Egypt
vol. 4.
with her stepson, THUTMOSE III. Hatshepsut named herself pharaoh while
Thutmose was still a boy. She later took on the traditional titles of the
pharaoh and exercised absolute power. Although she was portrayed in art
and architecture wearing pharaonic dress, including the ceremonial false
beard that symbolized the king's power, it is not known whether she
dressed as a man in real life.

Egyptians and the Pharoah. Ancient Egyptians held several impor-

tant beliefs about the pharaoh that supported his role as absolute ruler. The
Egyptians believed the pharaoh was both all-knowing and all-powerful. Be-
ing all-knowing, the pharaoh was a supremely wise ruler. He was the source
of all laws and the essence of moral behavior. Being all-powerful, the
pharaoh was the trusted protector of the Egyptian people. It was said that
he could defeat any foe by crushing thousands of enemy soldiers on the
battlefield and that the snake on his crown could spit flames at his ene-
mies. Without the pharaoh, the ancient Egyptians believed, there would be
chaos instead of order on earth. He also said to be a shepherd to his people,
who ensured the well-being of his subjects and protected all, rich and poor.
179
Pharaohs
Probably the most important belief the ancient Egyptians held about
the pharaoh was the belief that he was divine. This meant that he was a
representative of the gods and that he was godlike himself. A pharaoh re-
* coronation act or ceremony of ceived his divine power at his coronation*, and it was reaffirmed through
crowning a leader other ceremonies, most importantly the Serf-festival. The pharaoh's di-
vine status was supported by the belief that the first pharaoh appeared at
the beginning of time, when gods ruled the earth. Other myths estab-
lished the pharaoh's relationship with the gods. He was believed to em-
body the falcon god HORUS and to be the son of the sun god Amun-Ra.
After death, the pharaoh was identified with OSIRIS, who was god of the
dead and father of Horus.
Although the pharaoh was considered a godlike representative of the
gods, he was not believed to be a god. However, after he died, he was be-
Co-regencies lieved to rise to the kingdom of the gods and live among them. For this
The transition from a pharaoh to his reason, many of the later pharaohs were worshiped as gods after they
successor was not always smooth.
To avoid potential conflicts over died. Some pharaohs also built gigantic, elaborately decorated PYRAMIDS as
succession, some pharaohs named tombs for themselves and filled them with riches so that they would be
their successors as co-regents, that properly outfitted for their AFTERLIFE among the gods. Many of these pyra-
is, as co-rulers. Although both were mids still stand in Egypt. The largest, the Great Pyramid at GIZA, was built
called pharaoh, the younger of the by a pharaoh named KHUFU, around 2585 B.C.
two pharaohs usually served as a ju Because the pharaoh was believed to be divine, he had absolute
nior partner until the older pharaoh
died. Often the younger pharaoh power and was shown great respect. For example, all people approaching
was assigned more strenuous du- the pharaoh had to prostrate* themselves before him. The pharaoh's di-
ties, such as leading military cam* vine status also made him the high priest of ancient Egypt. In this role, it
paigns, while the older pharaoh was his job to serve the gods on behalf of the Egyptian people. He did this
stayed at the royal palace and man- by building new temples and maintaining old ones and by observing
aged the affairs of state.
daily rituals in the worship of the gods. These acts ensured that the gods
would look favorably on the Egyptian people and bring them peace and
prosperity.
Evidence suggests that sometimes the divinity of a particular pharaoh
prostrate to stretch oneself out, with was questioned. For example, if there were a series of poor harvests or if
face on the ground, usually in submission Egypt was successfully attacked by an enemy, the people sometimes lost
or respect faith in the pharaoh. Some pharaohs were removed or even assassinated
for this reason.

How the Pharaoh Was Chosen. The role of pharaoh was hereditary,
and most pharaohs were succeeded by their oldest son. Many pharaohs
had several wives, but only one was the chief wife, or queen. Ideally, the
oldest son of the chief wife was the pharaoh's successor. This type of suc-
cession was paralleled by ancient Egypt's most widespread myth, that of
Osiris. In the myth, Osiris dies and is succeeded as king of the gods by his
son Horus.
When a succession of pharaohs came from the same royal family,
* dynasty succession of rulers from the they formed a dynasty*. A new dynasty began when a pharaoh died with-
same family or group out a suitable heir and the throne was taken over by a rival family or
seized by a foreign conqueror. Ancient Egypt was ruled by more than 30
different dynasties in its 3,000-year history. Sometimes, to help ensure
the continuity of a dynasty, a pharaoh married a member of his own fam-
ily, such as his sister or niece. Such marriages were common among
Egyptian pharaohs but not among the rest of the Egyptian people.
180
 Philistines

Symbols of the Pharaoh. In the ancient Egyptian system of writing

called HIEROGLYPHICS, symbols were used to represent people and things.
The main symbol used to represent the pharaoh was a double crown.
This combined the white crown of Upper Egypt (the Nile River valley
delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed south of the delta*) with the red crown that represented Lower Egypt
of soil deposited by a river (the delta region). Thus, it symbolized the pharaoh's control over the en-
tire realm. This was important because Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt
had a long history of rivalry and independence. Other symbols used to
represent the pharaoh were the scepter, or royal staff, and the throne.
Both symbolized the pharaoh's authority and power. In addition, the
pharaoh's name and title were always written inside an oval, called a car-
touche, that symbolized the pharaoh's rule over the entire world.
In art, the pharaoh was portrayed in ways that represented his posi-
tion between the people and the gods. In scenes with ordinary people,
the pharaoh was shown as young, strong, and larger than life size to indi-
cate his superior position. In scenes with the gods, the pharaoh was
shown kneeling before the gods to reflect his inferior position or standing
face-to-face or side by side with the gods to show his godlike status. (See
also Ahmose; Akhenaten; Cleopatra; Djoser; Dynasties; Egypt and the
Egyptians; Government; Necho II; Nefertiti; Nitokris; Ptolemy I; Ram-
ses II; Ramses III; Sety I.)

PHILISTINES
T he Philistines (FMuh^steenz) were a people of eastern Mediterranean
origin who settled in the Levant (present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel,
the West Bank, and Jordan) around 1200 B.C. Perhaps best known as ene-
mies of the ancient Israelites, the Philistines were portrayed negatively in
the Hebrew BIBLE. Partly as a result, the word Philistine came to mean "un-
cultured" or "uncouth." In fact, they were a diverse and creative people
who flourished in the land of CANAAN for 600 years.

See map in Israel and Judah (vol. 3). Origins. Historians are uncertain about the origins of the Philistines. Most
believe they were one of a group of tribes known as the SEA PEOPLES, who in-
vaded Egypt during the reign of Ramses III (ruled ca. 1187-1156 B.C.). Some
evidence suggests that they may have come from an island in the AEGEAN
SEA—possibly the island of CRETE—and were forced eastward because of
disruptions within their civilization. The Hebrew Bible says that the
Philistines were descended from the Caphtorites, who some scholars be-
lieve referred to Cretans.
After unsuccessful attempts to invade Egypt in about 1190 B.C., the
Philistines settled in Canaan in the Levant. They came to the region pri-
marily as hostile invaders, destroying the Canaanite towns and cities that
* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, lay in their path and establishing their own. It is also possible that Egypt
often for a foreign country sent the Philistines to Canaan to serve as mercenaries* in fortified, Egypt-
ian-controlled towns.
After settling in Canaan, the Philistines founded many towns and
* city-state independent state consisting five major cities in the region, including Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath,
of a city and its surrounding territory and Ekron. These cities eventually developed into small city-states* and
181
Philistines

* confederacy group ofcities orstates formed a confederacy* thatwaslater calledthePentapolis.

Theentire
re-
joined together for a purpose; an gion under Philistine control became known asPhilistia, and the
alliance
Philistines becamemajor
a politicalandcommercial power.

Philistines and Israelites.Soon thePhilistines began to expand into

surroundingareas,which brought them intoconflict with their neigh-
bors, the Israelites.Fromabout 1150 B.C.,the
toPhilistines
the900s were
the main enemies of theIsraelites, and theHebrew Biblecontains a
number of stories aboutthestruggles between them.
By the early 1000s
B.C., the Philistineshadgained control over much
of Israel. Although they sufferedsetbacks at thehandsof theIsraelite hero
Samson, they soon regained theadvantageandheldmilitary a superior-
ity that lasted several decades. Conflict erupted periodically during this
time. Onewell-known biblical story concernsPhilistine a victory overthe
Israelitesand their
COVENANT,
THE
capture
OFARKof which
the held the sa-
cred tabletsofCOMMANDMENTS
the
TEN MOSES had
that
brought toCanaan
centuries earlier.
Although the Philistines initially hadgreater military success than
the Israelites, the tables eventually turned. B.C.,
Inthetheearly 900s
Philistinessufferedanumberofsignificant defeats
at thehands
King
of
DAVID of the Israelites. According to theHebrew Bible,
infirst
David's
en-
counter with the Philistines, hekilledagiant Philistine warrior named
Goliath.
Despite Israelite victories,thecity-statesofPhilistia survived and re-
mained independent, but theconfederation collapsed.The Philistines
ceased to be amajor military threat.B.C., In when
themid-900s
Israelite
territorywas divided into twoseparate
kingdoms—ISRAEL
JUDAH—the
AND

182
 Philistines

Philistines reasserted their commercial power and began to regain some

of their political might. For about the next 300 years, the Philistines en-
gaged in periodic struggles with Israel and Judah.

Later History. In the 700s B.C., some Philistine cities experienced great
economic growth and prosperity. However, this era also marked the be-
ginning of the end of the Philistines, who could not withstand the
power of the Assyrians and Babylonians as they each expanded into the
Levant. By 700 B.C., the Assyrians had conquered many Philistine cities
* vassal individual or state that swears and made them their vassals*. The Assyrians demanded tribute* and
loyalty and obedience to a greater forcibly moved some of the inhabitants of Philistia to other parts of the
power Assyrian empire and settled other people in their place. Despite the loss
* tribute payment made by a smaller or of their independence, some Philistine cities continued to prosper dur-
weaker party to a more powerful one, ing the period of Assyrian dominance. The city of Ekron, for example, re-
often under the threat of force
mained important and became wealthier than ever. Assyrian rule also
established new economic and political systems and exposed Philistia to
new ideas that undermined Philistine culture and society.
Around 600 B.C., the Babylonian ruler NEBUCHADNEZZAR II conquered
all of Philistia and incorporated it into his empire. The Babylonians de-
stroyed any remnant of the Philistine culture and independence that had
remained after the Assyrian conquest. Like the Assyrians, they forcibly
moved huge numbers of Philistines to other areas of their empire. The
Babylonian conquest largely destroyed what was left of a separate and
unique Philistine culture.
Some cities in Philistia flourished in later periods under Persian,
Greco-Macedonian, and Roman rule. However, their heritage was no
longer Philistine. In later centuries, the Greek historian HERODOTUS and
other travelers called the region Palaistium, a name based on accounts by
descendants of the Philistines. In A.D. 135, the Romans incorporated
Philistia, Judah, and Syria into a single province called Syria-Palestina.
Later the region became known simply as Palestine.

Economic Life and Towns. The Philistines were manufacturers,

traders, and farmers. Among their most important crops were grapes,
OLIVES, and grains, with which they made WINE, olive oil, and flour. De-
spite a healthy system of AGRICULTURE, the Philistines based their econ-
omy on manufacturing and trade.
The city of Ashdod manufactured a purple-dyed cloth that was prized
by royalty throughout the Near East. Ashdod also had one of the largest
POTTERY workshops in the Levant. At the height of its power, the city of
Ekron was the largest producer of olive oil in the Near East. The
Philistines were best known for their metalwork, which included iron
axes and plows as well as bronze armor and weapons.
The Philistines were an urban people, and most of the population of
Philistia lived in towns and cities. Divided into separate zones—a manu-
facturing zone, a central area with temples and public buildings, and resi-
* mud brick brick made from mud, dential areas— the cities were surrounded by mud brick* walls. Houses
straw, and water mixed together and consisted of central courtyards encircled by kitchens, living quarters, and
baked in the sun storerooms. Philistine towns had sophisticated drainage systems and
public garbage dumps outside their walls.
183
Phoenicia and the Phoenicians

Culture and Religion. The culture of the Philistines originally re-

flected their Aegean origins. For example, Mycenaean-style pottery has
been found at the earliest Philistine sites. Initially, the Philistines also re-
deity god or goddess mained faithful to the deities* of the Aegean world, especially the Great
Goddess.
However, by the late 1000s B.C., outside influences had greatly influ-
enced the Philistines, and they began to adopt many of the local cus-
toms of other groups. They adopted various Canaanite gods, such as
Dagon, and practiced burial customs that reflected Canaanite and some
Egyptian influences. A royal inscription from Ekron shows that by the
* dialect regional form of a spoken 600s B.C., they were speaking a Phoenician-like dialect* and writing in a
language with distinct pronunciation, Hebrew-like script. By incorporating cultural influences from different
vocabulary, and grammar times and places, the Philistines gradually developed a new and distinct
culture that was quite different from that of their Aegean ancestors. (See
also Egypt and the Egyptians; Hebrews and Israelites; Mycenae and
the Mycenaeans.)

Poenicia (fl»NEE»shuh) was the name given by the ancient Greeks to

the coastal region of the eastern Mediterranean that included part of
PHOENICIA AND CANAAN in the Levant*. The Canaanite inhabitants of this region, known to
THE PHOENICIANS the Greeks as the Phoenicians (fi»NEE»shuhnz), spoke a Semitic* language
and were among the greatest maritime* traders of the first millennium
B.C.* Although the Phoenicians shared a common culture, they never
formed a unified state. Instead, Phoenicia consisted of a series of indepen-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern dent city-states*, including BYBLOS, SIDON, and TYRE.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea The independent Phoenician city-states were frequently threatened
(present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), by the various empires that arose around them. Still, the Phoenicians
the West Bank, and Jordan
dominated sea trade in the region and exerted influence on their neigh-
* Semitic of or relating to a language bors. They also became great colonizers, establishing colonies in North
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic,
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician
Africa, ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), CYPRUS, and distant Spain. One of
the greatest of these colonies was CARTHAGE in North Africa, which be-
* maritime related to the sea or shipping
came one of the chief commercial and maritime powers in the western
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 Mediterranean region and a powerful rival of ancient Rome.
tO 1 B.C.

* city-state independent state consisting History. Ancient Phoenicia consisted of a narrow coastal strip that in-
of a city and its surrounding territory
cluded parts of present-day Lebanon, southern SYRIA, and northern Is-
* archaeological referring to the study rael. Archaeological* evidence has revealed that humans lived in this
of past human cultures, usually by
excavating material remains of human
region as early as 10,000 B.C., and by 4000 B.C., the people of the region
activity were producing distinctive POTTERY and copper metalwork.
Little is known about the early history of the region. Evidence shows
that Byblos had commercial contacts with Egypt as early as the 2600s B.C.
In fact, the earliest known image of the region's inhabitants appears on a
sculpture in an Egyptian tomb dating from the early 2500s B.C. In about
2150 B.C., the AMORITES invaded the region and destroyed Byblos. Amorite
control lasted several hundred years, during which time the region con-
tinued to maintain close contact with Egypt.
In the 1700s B.C., the HYKSOS from western Asia invaded Phoenicia,
ending Amorite rule there. The Hyksos controlled the region until the
184
 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians
1500sB.C. Thereafter, Egypt conquered almostall of Canaanand domi-
nated the areafor a few hundred years. However, B.C.,
Egypt-
by the 1100s
ian power in Canaan had mostly disappeared.
The late 1200s and early B.C. were
1100sa timeof great changeand
upheaval throughout the ancientNear East. Many societies collapsed,
people migrated in large numbers, and centersof manufacturingand
trade were destroyed or abandoned. On the Mediterranean coast, these
changes may have been caused PEOPLES,
in part
who
SEA
byare
thebe-
lieved to have invaded the region and destroyed many coastal city-states.
Following these upheavals, however, the Phoenician city-states experi-
enced a period of renewal, great prosperity,and expansion. Many schol-
ars date the rise of Phoenician civilizationto this period.
Early in thefirst millennium
B.C., the Phoenicians beganto surpass
other ancient peoples in maritime trade. As their wealth increased, the
Phoenicians began to establish colonies in other areas of the Mediter-
ranean. The drive for colonization resulted primarily froma searchfor
sources of raw materials. The Phoenicians also sought to establish ports
andSHIPPING ROUTES that would enable them to expand their control over
Mediterranean trade.Fearless sailors,the Phoenicians carefully guarded
the secretsofTRADE
their ROUTES,and they became the undisputed masters
of the seas.
The Phoenician city-states were fully independentat the beginningof
the first millennium
B.C., but this independence did not last long. Begin-
ning in the B.C.,
800sPhoenicia was dominated in varying degree by em-
pires to the east. The first of these empires to threaten Phoenicia was

185
Phoenicia and the Phoenicians

Assyria. Betweenthe mid-800sandB.C., thethe600s

Assyrians launched
military campaigns on cities along the Mediterranean coast. Although the
* vassal individual or state thatswears Assyrians did not attackthe Phoenician cities, they made them vassals*.As
loyalty and obedience to a greater powerlong as the Phoenicians paid tribute*and taxes, Assyrian rulewasmild,
* tribute payment made by a smaller or and the city-states were mostly independent.
weaker party to a more powerful one, In the late 600s
B.C.,the Babylonians gained control ofPhoenicia
and
often under the threat of force continued theAssyrian policyof collecting tributeand taxes while allow-
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- ing substantial independence. Less than 100years later,the Persiansde-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean stroyed the Neo-Babylonian empire,and Phoenicia becameaprovinceof
world and westernAsia during the three
centuries after the death of Alexander
thePERSIAN EMPIRE.The Phoenician city-states prospered under the Per-
the Great in 323B.C. sians, who encouraged trade and commercial activities.
The prosperity and peace enjoyedby the Phoenician city-stateswas
interruptedfrom timeto timeby local uprisings against Persian rule, es-
pecially in the 300s
B.C. These rebellions were often encouraged by the
Egyptians andGreeks,who sought greater influencein the region. Al-
though the uprisings were quelled, they made itdifficult
more for thePer-
sians to control the region and helped pave the way for itsconquest by
ca. 3000 B.C. the Macedonians GREAT
ALEXANDER
under
inB.C.
THE
332
Residentsof Byblos
engage in trade
During the Hellenistic* period, Macedonian kingdoms competedfor
3000B.C. with Egypt. control of Phoenicia.In the B.C.,100s
the regionSELEU-
became part of the
CIDEMPIRE. Seleucid rule continued B.C., until
when
64the Romans con-
quered Phoenicia and incorporated it into their empire. Phoenicia
ca. 2150 B.C.
I Amorites invadeCanaan remained under Roman rulefor several centuries, during which time the
2500B.C
and destroy Byblos. remnants of traditional Phoenician culture disappeared.

Trade and Manufacturing. The Phoenicians became agreat mar-

ca. 1700-1500
B.C.
Hyksos control Canaan. itime trading people largely becauseofgeography. Confinedto anarrow
coastal strip and with little farmland, they looked to the sea fortheir
2000B.C. livelihood. As earlyas the third millennium
B.C. (years
from 3000to
ca. 1500-1100
B.C. 2001B.C.), the local people were cutting timber from mountainsin the
Egyptians dominate
Canaan. interior and exportingHARBORS
from
it the
of their cities along the coast.
By the second millennium
B.C.
(years
from 2000
B.C.),
to their
1001 activ-
^^^^^^3 ities includedmanufacturing, and they became well known throughout
ca. 11OOs
B.C. the ancientNearEastfor their glassmaking, metalwork, carved wood
Phoenicians establish
trading empire in the andIVORY,and dyed cloth.
Mediterranean. Some experts believe that the Phoenicians invented glassblowing
1000B.C.
around 100B.C. They were perhapsTEXTILES,
most
famousparticu-
for their
ca. 800-600
B.C.
larly a purple-dyed cloth they manufactured.Thepurpledye forthis cloth,
Phoeniciafalls under which was produced froma typeof shellfish,wasmore valuable thangold
control ofAssyrians
and Babylonians.
and thus became associated with royalty.By the timeof the Roman Em-
pire, the use of the dye wasrestrictedto the most elite membersofsociety.
500 B.C.
The earliest records provide evidence thatthe Phoenicians were very
500sB.C. successful
MERCHANTSand traders. ByB.C.,
the 900s
they
had established
Phoenicia becomes
Persian province.
colonies all along the southern Mediterranean coast,and in thecenturies
that followed, they ventured farther, settingup coloniesin many parts of
1 B.C. the western Mediterranean region. Some evidence suggests that the
64 B.C. Phoenicians also exploredthe Atlantic coastof Europe as far asBritain
Romans conquer
Phoenicia. and perhaps sailed aroundthe continent Africa.
of
In addition to their colonies in the Mediterranean, they established
trading centers in important citiesof the Near East. Foreign merchantsat
186
 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians

these centers conducted business under special arrangements between lo-

cal and Phoenician authorities. In this manner, the Phoenicians con-
trolled virtually all maritime trade in the Mediterranean, and many
nations transported their goods in Phoenician ships. Notsurprisingly, the
Phoenicians made many advances in shipbuilding, including building
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or ships that could make longer voyages.
other object made by humans
* deity god or goddess Culture and Religion. The Phoenicians were influenced by many of
* pantheon all the gods of a particular the great civilizations that surrounded them. Thereis evidence Egypt-
of
culture ian cultural and religious influences startingatB.C.,around
and 2500
other evidence shows HITTITES,
thattheAssyrians,and Mycenaeans of
Greece all influenced Phoenician art and culture.
Very little Phoenician art or architecture has survivedto the present
"Long Before day. Amongthefinest surviving artifacts*are trade items such
jewelry,
as
metalworks, small ivory carved objects, and glassworks. Manyof these
the Titanic objects show a blendingof designsand styles borrowed from other cul-
in A.D. 1999, Robert Ballard, tures yet combined to createa distinct new form. art Highly prizedas
the man who located the
wreck of theTitanic, found
trade items, such works were found throughoutthe ancient Near
Eastand
the oldest shipwrecks ever thus influenced the design of works created by skilled craftspeople in
discovered—two 2,500-year* other societiesas well.
old Phoenician sailing ships con- Little is known of the Phoenician religion except that there were
r taining cargoes of wine. The two many deities*, most of whom were associated with individual cities rather
| vessels, probably bound for Egypt
\ or Cartilage from the ancient city
than
of
with a national pantheon*.Basic religious
beliefs seemto have been
\ Tyre, sank about 30 miles off the shared, however, even though the specific local deities
differed. Although
; coast of present-day Israel.Amaz- the "chief deity in all Phoenician cities was a god, the most important
• ingly, the ships were largelyun- deity was usually a fertility goddess. Called BaalatGubla in Byblos,she
damaged, and the jugs holding the was named TanitinTyreand was knownAstarteas (or Ashtart) in Sidon.
wine were still stacked together and
The names of many Phoenician gods includedtheBaal title ("thelord"),
intact* This was because the ships
\ sank in deep water, where high wa-
such as Baal Shamem ("lord of the sky"). Historians are uncertain
\ ter pressure, cold, and lack of sun- whether these were the actual names of the godsor merely titles usedto
'-. light helped preservethevessels refer to them and to their functions.
I and their cargoes. Scholars also know very little about Phoenician religious ritualsor the
priesthood.Rulers were probably considered to be earthly representatives
of the gods, and in some cases, kingsand queens servedas high priests
and priestesses. The Phoenicians cremated and buried the dead, and there
187
Phoenicia and the Phoenicians

* cult system of religious beliefs and is evidence that they practiced child sacrifice. Phoenician religious cults*
rituals; group following these beliefs and practices spread as a result of colonization, and temples dedicated to
Phoenician deities sprang up in various parts of the Mediterranean world.
One of the greatest cultural legacies of the Phoenicians is their system
of WRITING. The Phoenicians spoke a Semitic language closely related to
* cuneiform world's oldest form of Hebrew. Initially, the Phoenicians probably wrote in cuneiform*. How-
writing, which takes its name from the ever, by about 1400 B.C. they had developed an alphabetic system of writ-
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed ing consisting of 22 letters representing consonants but not vowels. This
into clay tablets
system of writing was eventually adopted by most of the societies in the
western Mediterranean region. The Assyrians also used the Phoenician AL-
PHABET to write the Aramaic language, which led to its introduction into
all the areas controlled by Assyria. Ultimately, the Phoenician writing sys-
See tem was adopted and modified by the Greeks and then the Romans,
color plate 1, whose alphabet became the basis for most of the modern European al-
vol. 1.
phabets in use today. (See also Economy and Trade; Glass and Glass-
making; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans;
Naval Power; Ships and Boats; Taxation.)

188
ARCHITECTURE ANDTOMBS

Plate 1
During the New Kingdom period, Egyptian tombs typically featured decorated
burial chambers.This burial chamber from Thebes belonged to an official dur-
ing the Twentieth Dynasty (ca. 1190-1075 B.C.) and depicts figures from
Egyptian mythology. Anubis, the god of cemeteries and embalming, is depicted
on the walls to the left and right. Among the figures on the back wall are the
falcon of the sky god Horus,and Osiris, god of the dead, who is shown seated.
Plate 2
The architectural design and decoration of Persian
palaces were aimed to reveal the power and majesty
of the ruler.The palace at Susa was built by King
Darius I (ruled 521-486 B.C.), who made the city one
of his capitals. Among the palace's magnificent features
were large halls that were decorated with glazed
bricks, depicting images such as the one above of a
lion with horns, wings, and an eagle's feet.

Plate 3
During the Neo-Babylonian period
(612-539 B.C.), the walls of the inner city
of Babylon were broken by eight gates.
Most impressive was the huge gate dedi-
cated to the goddess Ishtar, a reconstruc-
tion of which is shown here.The Ishtar
Gate, which had 50-foot-high foundation
walls, was built of brick and ornamented
with blue tiles and colored figures of bulls
and dragons. It opened on a wide avenue
called the Processional Way, which was also
decorated with colored figures of lions.
Plate 4
The mortuary temple of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Egyptian female king Hatshepsut (ruled ca. 1472-
1458 B.C.)is a unique structure in New Kingdom
architecture.The temple, built near Thebes, was
partially cut out ofcliffs. Measuring 250 by 700
feet, the temple contains several courtyards,
terraces, and a hypostyle (columned hall) carved
with reliefs that reflect Egyptian religious beliefs.
 Plate 6
The great hypostyle, or columned hall,
at the Egyptian temple of Amun at
Karnak (near Thebes) was constructed
by Nineteenth Dynasty pharaoh Sety I
(ca. 1294-1279 B.c.)The hall features
134 columns that were carved to look
like papyrus plants with either closed
or opened buds.The columns are orga-
nized in 16 rows, with up to 9 columns
in each row.The temple itself is a T--
shaped structure surrounded by four
walls enclosing more than seven acres.

Plate 7
Sculpted guardian figures were often a part of gates
in the ancient Near East. Dating from the 700s B.C.,
this relief from Sargon IPs palace at Khorsabad
shares features with the other Assyrian guardian
figures.They were often sculpted with the body of
a bull (sometimes a lion) and the head of a human
and were crowned with a divine tiara with horns.
Plate 8
Dating from the early third millennium B.C.,
this clay model of a round house was found
at Mari in Syria. It contains foursmall rooms
surrounding a square central room.The cen-
tral room contains a hearth and built-in
benches and is connectedby passages to
the surrounding rooms. One of the outer
rooms is covered by a roof with a chimney.
Some scholars believe that this model, which
measures about two feet in diameter, repre-
sents a shrine or a fort rather than ahouse.
Plate 10
As a formerly nomadic people, the Persians did not
have a strong architectural tradition.
Consequently, they adopted and adapted from other great powers of the ancient Near EastThis
10-foot-high capital, or top section of a column, which dates from theAchaemenid period (538-
331 B.C.), shows influences from other cultures.The spiral scrolls underneath the bulls reflect a
technique used in Greek columns, and the use of floral
images was inspired by Egyptian capitals.
The main part of the capitalconsists of the front sections of two bulls that are placed
Plate 13
This clay model of a house may
come from western Syria and
date from the third millennium
B.C. Typically,housesin Syriaand
the Levant were built of sun-dried
mud bricks on two or threelayers
of stone foundations.Theyalso
had one or more upper floors.
This 16/4-inch-tall model might
have beenusedas an offering.
Plate14
This building is a reconstructed version of the
ziggurat at Ur, built by King Ur-Nammu around
2100 B.C. It represents the earliest true ziggurat
known and consisted of three platforms stacked
on top of each other and topped by a temple.
The base of Ur-Nammu's ziggurat is believed to
have measured210 by 160 feet,and the com-
pleted building mayhave been nearly 50 feet
high. Earlier Sumerian ziggurats, built before
3000 B.C., consisted of a single large platform on
top of which sat a temple.
The Ancient
Near East
An Encyclopedia
for Students
The Ancient
Near East
An Encyclopedia
for Students

Ronald Wallenfels, Editor in Chief

Jack M. Sasson, Consulting Editor

Volume 4

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

An Imprint of The Gale Group
NEW YORK DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO LONDON BOSTON WOODBRIDGE, CT
 Phrygia and the Phrygians

PHRYGIA
AND
P hrygia(FRI«jee»uh)was a landin ANATOLIA

the fall of the

HITTITESin theB.C.At
1100s
west-central(present-day
Turkey). The Phrygians werean important powerin the after
first, the Phrygians were part of
region

THEPHRYGIANS an alliance of Anatolian peoples. Eventually, however, Phrygia emerged

as a kingdom, and its most famous ruler was a semilegendaryking named
Midas.After the kingdomof Phrygia collapsed B.C.,as- shortly
after700
pects of Phrygian culture survivedfor many centuries.

Origins and Early History. Phrygia took itsname from thePhryges,

a people who migrated into central Anatolia B.C.,
in sometime
the 1100s
after thefall of the Hittite empire.The ancient Greeks believed thatthe
Phrygians came MACEDONIA
from and Thrace, north of Greece. This belief
is supportedby the fact thatthe Phrygian INDO-EUROPEAN
language is an
LANGUAGE relatedto Greekor Thracian. After leaving their homeland, the
See map in Anatolia (vol.1). Phrygians movedfrom Anatolia's BlackSeacoast south alongtheSangar-
ios River into the centerof Anatolia.
Between 1100and B.C.,900
various Anatolian peoples competedfor
territory and power in the absenceof a strong central government suchas
that of the Hittites. Although the Phrygians had not formed anorganized
state during this period, by B.C.,
thetheir
700skingdom had been estab-
lished. It was centered on a city named Gordium, located60miles south-
west ofAnkara,the capitalof present-day Turkey.

The Kingdom of Midas. The Phrygian kingdom achieved itspeak of

greatness underKing Midas, who took the B.C. throne
Notaround 738
many details are known about Midas. Some ancient historians claimed
that he married a Greek princess and dedicated his throne to theGreek
sun god Apollo. He may have founded Ankaraand another settlement
called Midaeion (Midas City). Under Midas's rule, the Phrygians con-
trolled most of west-central Anatolia, and they had considerable influ-
ence over Syrian and Anatolian states to the east and southeast.
Midas tried several times to stir other rulers intorebellion against the
Assyrians,but around
B.C.,709
he soughtan alliance
SARGONII withKing
of Assyria. Bythat time, perhaps, Midashad begun fearagreater
to threat
than Assyria—the Cimmerians, warlike horsemen from southern
Russia
who had migrated south through CAUCASUStheand were rampaging
across Anatolia. Around
B.C., the
696Cimmerians conquered Phrygia,
burned Gordium,and—according to one ancientsource—droveMidas to
commit suicide by drinking the blood of a bull.
The Cimmerians eventually withdrew, and the Phrygians rebuilt
Gordium around B.C.600
Bythat time, powerin Anatolia shiftedto the
Lydians, whose homelandwas westof Phrygia. After
B.C.,the mid-500s
Anatolia came underthe domination PERSIAN
ofEMPIRE.
the The Phry-
gians, however, remained a distinctive ethnicgroup within theAnatolian
population.

Phrygian Culture. The Phrygians were known fortheir skills inweav-

ing, wood carving, and metalwork. In addition tobronze (analloy ofcop-
per and tin), the Phrygians knew how to make brass (analloy ofcopper
1
Phrygia and the Phrygians

and zinc). Infact, the bright yellow colorof

brassmay have given
riseto
the legend of Midas's golden touch.
Phrygia's economy, like thatof other Near Eastern societies,was based
on agriculture. As late as the
B.C.,400s
the Phrygians were saidto have
moreflocks and herdsandlarger harvests thanany other peoplein the re-
gion. Longbefore that time, they had earned a reputation for horseman-
ship. A few of their artworks—includinga small square of ivory carved
with the imageof a riderand a miniature bronze chariotand horses from
a child's tomb—reveal how they used horses.
* archaeologist scientist who studies past Archaeologists* workingat Gordium A.D.
in 1900s
the late
uncovered
human cultures, usually by excavating a large citadel—afortified clusterof buildings—that dates
fromthe time
material remains of human activity of Midas. It contained roomsfor foodand textile production, storage, and
eating. Some archaeologists believe that the citadelmay representa cen-
tralized palace economy in which all raw foods came to the palace to be
prepared and distributed to the people.
2
 Pigs
The citadel also provides information about Phrygian art. For exam-
Midas's Resting ple, the floor of one room is tiled with designs of colored pebbles and is
Place probably one of the earliest mosaic floors of the ancient world. Other
Burial tumuli are mounds of
types of Phrygian art reflect a fondness for unusual shapes and tiny geo-
earth covering separate metric patterns. The Phrygians also produced POTTERY with exaggerated
graves. Burial tumuli found spouts and handles and in the shape of animals. Some pieces were
at Cordium served to mark painted with lively pictures of animals, mythological scenes, or soldiers,
the location of and to protect in addition to the geometric patterns.
the one-room wooden tombs be-
Little is known about the Phrygians' religion other than that they
neath them. The largest of the 85
tumuli found there is called the Mi-
worshiped a mother goddess called Matar or Cybele. Many statues of her,
das Mound, which stands 174 feet most dating from several centuries after Midas's time, have been found at
high and measures 984 feet in di- Gordium.
ameter. Although the occupant of The Phrygians used a version of the Greek alphabet that had been de-
the tomb is a short man who died in veloped in the 700s B.C. This fact, together with Greek influences in art
his early 60s, archaelogists are un-
sure whether he is King Midas or an-
and the stories of Midas's Greek wife and his devotion to a Greek god,
other member of Phrygian royalty. suggests that Phrygia had close contact with Greek culture during the
700s B.C. (See also Lydia and the Lydians.)

Physicians See Medicine.

PIGS
W ild pigs were found throughout well-watered regions in the an-
cient Near East. First domesticated* in southeastern ANATOLIA
(present-day Turkey) between 8500 and 8000 B.C., pigs were being raised
in MESOPOTAMIA and SYRIA by at least 6000 B.C. and in the Levant* within
another thousand years. Interestingly, the domestication of pigs was
widespread during the early development of Near Eastern societies but
* domesticate to adapt or tame for declined steadily with the growth of cities.
human use As early societies were established, people raised pigs in abundance,
* Levant lands bordering the eastern probably because they reproduce more quickly than such animals as
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- GOATS and SHEEP. However, pigs thrive only in specific environments,
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
preferably wetlands, areas with abundant rainfall, and forests. Yet AGRI-
Bank, and Jordan
CULTURE required the clearing of forests and draining of marshes to create
fields. Thus, as agricultural settlements grew larger to support cities, the
environment was changed in ways that made it much more difficult to
raise pigs. By about 1500 B.C., the number of pigs in the ancient Near East
had declined substantially.
Although pigs can be an important source of meat, the consumption
of pork was not very widespread in the Near East. A number of cultures
developed taboos against eating pigs or even using them for sacrifices.
The Hebrew BIBLE, for example, declared pigs to be unclean and unfit to
eat, and such taboos generally were practiced throughout the Levant, ex-
cept among the PHILISTINES. Even in societies where the consumption of
pigs was not prohibited, few people ate them after about 1200 B.C. One
reason may be that pigs, like humans, feed on grain. Because of competi-
tion with humans for grain resources, the domestication of pigs may have
been discouraged in favor of animals that ate grasses, such as sheep and
3
Planets

CATTLE. An exception to this trend occurred in the Egyptian city of

AMARNA, where pigs became a basic foodstuff of the working class after
about 1500 B.C. (See also Animals, Domestication of; Food and Drink.)

PLANETS
I n ancient times, astronomers were primarily concerned with the SUN,
moon, and STARS, in part because these bodies exhibited regular move-
ments that could be used to tell time. However, these early observers also
noted the existence of other heavenly bodies—the planets—whose
seemingly irregular movements distinguished them from other objects
in the sky.
Because the stars do not revolve around the sun, their position in the
night sky is fixed in relation to the earth. Thus, each star seems to rise and
set at the same place on the horizon on the same date each year. However,
since planets revolve around the sun, their observed position changes
from one night to the next. This motion led the ancient Greeks to call
themplanetes, or "wanderers."
Ancient astronomers were familiar with the five planets that can be
seen with the naked eye: Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn. The
earliest recorded astronomical observations were compiled in Babylonia
during the 1600s B.C. and tracked the movement of Venus, the brightest
and most important planet to early astronomers. Venus is a Roman name,
but the planet was first associated with the Mesopotamian goddess ISHTAR
and later with the Greek goddess Aphrodite. Over time, astronomers were
able to note and predict the movements of these five planets and their re-
lation to the fixed stars. This eventually led to the development of the ZO-
DIAC, which divided the sky into 12 equal parts, or houses. The positions
of the planets among the stars were believed to influence events on earth.
(See also Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers.)

POETRY
L ike other forms of LITERATURE in the ancient Near East, poetry devel-
oped from the traditions of presenting literature orally before an au-
dience. The influence of these traditions is reflected in the literary devices
used in poems, such as repetition of lines, standard descriptions or
phrases, and simple plots and characters. These techniques helped make
it easier for oral storytellers and those listening to a poem to remember
the basic story. At the same time, most poetry also contained rich and un-
usual imagery and words that made poetic language distinct and separate
from the common spoken language.
Poems were usually recited before an audience, and the storyteller
added new details at each performance. Rather than simply being spoken,
poems were generally sung or chanted in a rhythmic manner, often ac-
* scribe person of a learned class who companied by musical instruments and sometimes by the clapping of
served as a writer, editor, or teacher hands. When poems were written down, they were recorded by scribes*,
* epic long poem about a legendary or who probably recalled them from memory and thus introduced new varia-
historical hero, written in a grand style tions into the works. These texts became standardized versions of the po-
* deity god or goddess ems, which were passed down relatively unchanged through the centuries.
4
 Polygamy
The earliest known examples of ancient Near Eastern poetry are
Sumerian works dating from around 2500 B.C. Most of these barely under-
Brains Over Brawn stood early works are mythological epics* that focus on the deeds of
One of the main themes in Sumer- deities* and rulers. They point out their bravery, intelligence, leadership,
ian epic poetry is that a weaker or and dealings with foreign rulers and deities.
less important person can win over
The best-known versions of these epics, dating from around 2000 B.C.,
a stronger or more important one
because of luck or intelligence. For are about Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and GILGAMESH, semilegendary rulers of
example, in the epic Gilgamesh and ancient URUK. Another great early work, attributed to a priestess, Enkhed-
Khuwawa, Gilgamesh defeats uanna, was written in praise of the goddess Inanna (Ishtar). Most of the
Khuwawa, a fearsome guardian of Sumerian epics available to modern scholars are copies written during
the forest, by tricking him into giv- later periods (ca. 1700-1600 B.C.). The earliest material is very brief and of-
ing away his seven coats of protec-
tive splendor. The moral of such
ten difficult to understand. However, it contains the seed of what scholars
stories is that wisdom and cunning later recognized as mythological epic poetry.
are better and more effective than Another typical form of early Mesopotamian poetry consisted of
force. This lesson also appears in royal HYMNS that celebrated existing rulers and hymns dedicated to partic-
the Iliad, by the Greek poet Homer. ular gods. Hymns to the gods generally played an important role in tem-
The Greeks capture the city of Troy
by hiding men inside a giant
ple rituals and ceremonies. Love poetry was also quite widespread in
wooden horse given to the Trojans ancient MESOPOTAMIA. There were three basic types of love poems. The
as a gift. first told of the love between two deities. A second type dealt with the
love between a ruler and his consort*. The least common type of love po-
etry involved love between ordinary people.
Many of these same types of poetry were popular outside Mesopo-
* consort companion or partner of a tamia, and other types flourished as well. In the Levant*, poems intended
monarch, sometimes but not always a to teach a moral lesson were common. They addressed subjects such as
spouse aging, death, female virtue, and the creative process. The poetry of an-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern cient Israel included prophetic* poems, love poems, and PROVERBS. The
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- best-known Israelite poems are the PSALMS of the Hebrew BIBLE. Interest-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
Bank, and Jordan
ingly, the ancient Israelites had almost no tradition of epic poetry similar
to that of Mesopotamia. In ancient Egypt, the main forms of poetic ex-
* prophetic relating to or containing a
prediction
pression were hymns to the gods and love poetry. (See also Creation
Myths; Entertainment; Epic Literature.)

POLYGAMY
P olygamy (puh»LI»guh«mee) is the practice of having more than one
spouse at the same time. When a woman has more than one hus-
band it is called polyandry. The marriage of a man to more than one
woman is called polygyny, and this is the only type of polygamy known
to have existed in the ancient Near East. Most ancient Near Eastern soci-
eties allowed men to enter into polygamous marriages, but even where
such unions were possible, they were not common. Although rich and
powerful men could afford to maintain many wives, most humble folk
could not.
Persian, Hittite, and Egyptian kings often had several wives. Their
* concubine mistress to a married man lofty status entitled them to many wives as well as concubines*, along
with other privileges and pleasures. Other instances of polygamy were
concerned chiefly with the production of CHILDREN and heirs. The Greek
historian HERODOTUS reported that polygamy existed in the PERSIAN EMPIRE
and that the Persians encouraged it to promote population growth. Some
Persian men with more than one wife had as many as a dozen children.
5
Population Movements
In MESOPOTAMIA, men whose wives had not borne sons could take sec-
ond wives, although the first wife's status in the household and commu-
nity remained higher. Sometimes a childless wife adopted a second
woman as a sister and let that woman also marry her husband. A man
could also take a second wife if his first wife was ill and unable to perform
her marital duties. The man still had to support the first wife and could
not divorce her, although she could voluntarily leave his house.
In ancient Egypt, a man was free to take a second wife as long as he
maintained and supported his first wife and her children properly. How-
ever, the first wife did not have to tolerate another wife and could divorce
her husband. According to Egyptian records, some second wives had
much lower social status than first wives did, perhaps because few men
could afford two wives of equal status. Among the Israelites, the ideal
marriage was monogamous (having only one spouse at a time). However,
a number of figures in the Hebrew BIBLE, including several of the patri-
archs and some early kings, had numerous wives. (See also Divorce; Fam-
ily and Social Life; Marriage.)

Population Movements See Migration and Deportation.

POTTERY
P ottery—objects made of hardened clay—provides the primary evi-
dence of ancient Near Eastern cultures and is also one of the most
useful records of past civilizations. Unlike wood or TEXTILES, pottery does
not deteriorate or change form over long periods of time. Even if broken
into pieces, called shards or potsherds, pottery lasts for a long time. Pot-
tery can tell archaeologists* and historians a great deal about the people
archaeologist scientist who studies past who created it and the culture in which it appeared.
human cultures, usually by excavating
material remains of human activity
CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY
The art and technology of making hardened objects of clay by means of
heat or fire is known as ceramics. Clay, the basic ingredient in ceramics,
was abundant in the river valleys of the ancient Near East. In such regions
as MESOPOTAMIA, which lacked adequate sources of timber and STONE, clay
became an important building material. Ancient builders made clay
BRICKS by mixing clay with straw or animal manure, shaping it in molds,
and placing the molds in the sun so that the bricks would dry and
harden.
Pottery was invented when humans learned how to fire clay in a kiln
to make it hard and durable. Potters could then make cups, plates, con-
tainers, and other items from clay. Evidence suggests that the first pottery
was made in the Near East by at least 8000 B.C. By the fourth millennium
* fourth millennium B.C. years from B.C.*, pottery was being produced in large quantities to supply the needs
4000 to 3001 B.C. of people in towns and cities throughout the region. The demand for pot-
tery led to the appearance of craft specialists—full-time potters skilled at
making various types and sizes of objects.
6
 Pottery

Making Pottery. Clay is found in various textures and consistencies.

* artisan skilled craftsperson In making pottery, ancient artisans* first had to choose the proper type
of clay for the object they planned to make. Delicate, thin-walled ob-
jects, such as cups and plates, were made from fine-textured clay. To
make sturdier items, such as storage jars and cooking pots, artisans used
coarser clay. Potters could make clay stiffer by adding sand, crushed
shells, ash, or vegetable matter, such as the dry husks, or outer coverings,
of grains and grasses. These materials also helped prevent the clay from
shrinking and cracking during the baking process.
Ancient potters shaped clay into objects using various techniques, all
of which are still used today. In a technique known as coil building, a pot-
Gender Roles ter used ropelike pieces of clay, generally placed in spiral-shaped patterns,
Archaeologists are unsure whether to form the base and sides of an object. The surface of the clay was then
most potters were men or women smoothed or flattened, either by hand or with a simple tool. Another
in the ancient Near East Based on technique, known as molding, involved placing wet clay in a preformed
studies of modern-day potters in
the region, it is likely that most of mold made of wood, stone, hardened clay, or metal. The clay thus took
those who worked with potter's on the shape of the mold. A third technique, called throwing, required
wheels were men. Women and chil the use of a device known as a potter's wheel. As the wheel rotated, a pot-
dren, on the other hand, probably ter shaped the moist clay by hand or used simple tools to form the desired
made most handmade pottery. Thi shape.
division of labor may reflect the re-
sponsibilities of men and women in
Once the clay was formed into the desired shape, the object was set
the ancient world. Because the pro- aside to dry. Then it was placed in a kiln and baked slowly at high tem-
duction of handmade pottery did peratures. The earliest kilns were simply open fires on which dried pots
not require full-time attention, it were placed. The pots were covered with a layer of brush, straw, or ma-
could be completed when other nure, which both protected the pottery and served as a source of fuel for
household chores—which were the fire. Later kilns were walled, circular chambers made of fire-hardened
performed by women and chil-
dren—were not pressing. brick. Beneath the kiln was a pit into which the potter fed fuel for the fire.
Holes in the floor of the kiln allowed the heat and gases from the fire be-
low to rise into the chamber containing the pottery. A layer of potsherds
resting on top of the pottery formed the roof of the kiln. Kilns such as this
were used throughout the ancient Near East, and they are still found in
many parts of the region.

See Decorating Pottery. Ancient potters decorated pottery in many

color plate 9, ways. Before the object began to dry, patterns could be pressed or carved
vol. 4.
into the clay with tools. Wet clay could also be trimmed with bits of clay
added to the surface. In the Near East, such additions often took the
shape of animal heads or other natural objects.
When a pot was partially dry, a potter could use tools to incise, or cut,
lines or figures into its surface. Partially dried pots could also be rubbed
with a smooth, hard object such as a pebble to create a glossy finish with
markings. This technique, known as burnishing, also helped compact the
clay, making it less likely that liquids would be able to seep through the
walls of the finished pot.
Before an object was fired in a kiln, potters could coat the surface with
slip—a watery solution of fine clay, water, and natural coloring agents.
After firing, the slip produced a red or black finish, with the final color
depending on how the pottery was fired. Other forms of decoration—
including paint and glaze, a transparent coating—could also be added to
pottery, generally after firing in a kiln.
7
Pottery

CERAMIC
ANALYSIS
Pottery techniques,forms, materials, and decoration canindicate how an
object was used by the society that produced it. Therelative abundance of
certain types of pottery in various regions can also provide information
about the lifestyles of the people. The analysis of pottery by experts,
known as ceramic analysis, can thus supply important evidence of the
cultural, economic, political, social, and technological dimensions of an-
cient societies, as well as the changes and developments that took place
from one time period to another.
Archaeologists call the various types and forms of ceramics used at a
particular time and place an assemblage. Assemblagesprovidea snapshot
of certain aspects of a culture.For example,a large concentration ofsimi-
lar undecorated pots at an archaeological site probably indicates anurban
center with a steady demand for plainand inexpensive pottery. Whenar-
chaeologists have identified different assemblages in aparticular area,
they analyze them on the basis of various classifications, or typologies.

8
 Pottery
These typologies group the objects according to similarities in size, shape,
style, decoration, type of clay, method of manufacture, and other fea-
tures. Grouping and comparing pottery in this way helps scholars estab-
lish relative dates for objects found at different sites and allows them to
determine various factors about the objects and the societies that pro-
duced them.
Using ceramic analysis, archaeologists can learn a great deal about dif-
"Form Follows ferent topics. For example, plotting discoveries of pottery on maps helps
archaeologists determine the location of ancient settlements. Collections
Function of potsherds at sites can help archaeologists trace the rise and develop-
Archaeologists can learn ment of urban centers, and the appearance of foreign pottery types at a
much about an ancient soci-
ety by studying its pottery, site may suggest trade relationships with other cultures. Studying the
but they can also learn about composition of the clays in pottery can tell archaeologists whether an ob-
pottery from various cultural ject was made from local clay or was an import, made of clay from a more
sources* For example, texts from distant source. Examining how a piece of pottery was fired may provide
ancient Mesopotamia have pro- information about the types of fuel used in ancient kilns; this, in turn,
vided important clues to the uses of
the variously shaped vessels found
can reveal something about the vegetation available for fuel in the area.
at many archaeological sites. The
symbols used in early Mesopo-
tamian writing to indicate different
liquids correspond to the types of CERAMIC TRADITIONS IN THE NEAR EAST
vessels used to store those liquids. Humans may have discovered the process of firing clay from the early
For example, the symbol for beer
looks like an upright jug with a practice of heating limestone to produce plaster. Fired clay pottery first
straight spout Beer was a popular appeared in SYRIA around 8000 B.C., and evidence of it in western IRAN
drink in Mesopotamia, and remains dates from at least 7500 B.C. However, pottery did not become widespread
of this type of pot are commonly in the ancient Near East until after 7000 B.C.
found in the region.
Mesopotamia!! Pottery. Shortly after 7000 B.C., people in northern
Mesopotamia began producing hand-formed clay pots in kilns. Because
the clay they used was mixed with large amounts of vegetable matter, it
produced a very coarse type of pottery. Over time, the Mesopotamians
developed advanced technology, using finer clays and applying slips and
other, more elaborate decorations.
The early use of kilns in Mesopotamia suggests that pottery making
had already become a specialized skill. Just before 6000 B.C., potters began
to decorate their work with geometric designs and naturalistic figures,
* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 such as horned animals. The early sixth millennium* B.C. marked a high
to 5001 B.C. point of Mesopotamian pottery, with detailed and beautifully painted
pottery of all types. Much of the pottery produced at this time constituted
luxury items created by skilled artisans for export and trade.
Early pottery in southern Mesopotamia varied greatly in quality. The
best-preserved pieces are often warped and show other evidence that they
were fired at excessive temperatures. Archaeologists have also unearthed
many soft and easily broken pieces, which indicate too little heat during
firing. Some scholars believe that these variations indicate that potters
were experimenting with firing techniques and ways to achieve the best
temperatures in kilns.
The introduction of a fast potter's wheel in southern Mesopotamia dur-
* urbanization formation and growth of ing the fourth millennium B.C. allowed artisans to mass produce pottery to
cities meet the demands of a society experiencing increased urbanization*.
9
Pottery

Painted decoration largely disappeared at this time so that pottery could be

produced faster and more cheaply.
Although the fast potter's wheel was used in northern Mesopotamia
after 4000 B.C., pottery in the region differed greatly from that of the
The Potter's Oracle south. While undecorated and mass-produced objects dominated south-
Predicting the future in the ancient ern Mesopotamian pottery potters in the north still exhibited a great deal
world was the domain of special-
ized prophets and oracles—priests
of innovation. When a glassmaking industry developed in the north in
or priestesses through whom a god the 1300s B.C., potters quickly mastered glazing techniques, which pro-
was believed to speak. However, vided decoration and produced a watertight seal over the clay. Glazed
one Egyptian text, called The Pot- pottery largely replaced more expensive stone and glass containers for
ter's Oracle, suggests that even a storing valuable liquids such as PERFUMES.
humble potter could speak for the
gods. In the text, a potter defends
himself after the pots he had
Egyptian Pottery. In Egypt, most pottery was plain and practical,
molded—an act forbidden for reli- generally lacking in decoration or interesting forms. Yet the Egyptians
gious reasons—were destroyed. H< knew the basic pottery techniques used by other ancient cultures, and
then predicts frightful times for some Egyptian works feature burnished, incised, and painted decora-
Egypt at the hands of enemies. He tions. During certain periods, Egyptian potters typically produced works
also predicts that nature will suffer,
the sun will become dark, and the
of a single color—such as yellow, red, black, or blue—that had geometric
Nile River will cease to flow. patterns, animal figures, and scenes from the Nile River. Among the ani-
Though Amenhotep, the ruling mal figures decorating this pottery were hippopotamuses, crocodiles,
king, was unhappy with the pot- sheep, and goats.
ter's predictions, he placed the tex The potter's wheel was first used in Egypt in about 2400 B.C. Before
in the sacred chambers of his tombj
this time, potters used rotating platforms that they turned with one hand
while shaping clay with the other. Mold-made pottery flourished be-
tween about 1500 and 1200 B.C., and these works show a great deal of cre-
ativity and playfulness. They include animal shapes, bottles shaped like
nursing mothers, and women holding pets or playing musical instru-
faience decorated object made of ments. By this time, faience* and a blue-painted pottery had become pop-
quartz and other materials that includes ular in major cities such as MEMPHIS.
a glaze After about 500 B.C., pottery in Egypt showed increasing signs of
Greek influence. The conquest of Egypt by ALEXANDER THE GREAT in the
late 300s B.C. led to the dominance of Greek pottery styles. This pattern of
increased Greek influence was repeated throughout the Near East as
Alexander's armies conquered the entire region from ANATOLIA (present-
day Turkey) to the frontiers of India.

Pottery in the Levant and Syria. The earliest pottery in the Lev-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern ant*, which appeared around 6000 B.C., was quite crude. Made from
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- coarse clay and fired at low temperatures, it was decorated with simple
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West geometric designs made from slip applied to the surface before firing.
Bank, and Jordan
After 4000 B.C., new pottery forms were introduced in the region, and
the craftsmanship improved. New types of decoration included geomet-
ric designs and hand-cut patterns. Some pieces were made on a rotating
platform that was turned by hand, much like a potter's wheel. By the late
See fouth millennium B.C., distinct ceramic traditions had emerged in Syria
(color
V
plate 13,1 and the Levant, including red and gray burnished pottery and red-
vol. 2.
painted pottery. By this time, the wheel had also come into use.
The period between 2000 and 1500 B.C. marked a high point of urban
culture in the Levant, and the pottery of this time reflected the wealth
and sophistication of the people in CANAAN. There is also evidence of
10
 Prayer
much influence from other cultures, and pottery from CYPRUS and other
Mediterranean civilizations was introduced around this time. After about
1500 B.C., pottery in the region reflected a significant decline in creativity,
with few new forms. However, imports increased dramatically, especially
those from Cyprus, CRETE, Greece, and Egypt.
See Around 1200 B.C., new cultural traditions began to appear in Syria
color plate 5, and the Levant, perhaps because of the movement of the SEA PEOPLES into
vol. 3.
the region. The PHILISTINES (believed to be one of the Sea Peoples) pro-
duced pottery with beautiful geometric and bird designs similar to Late
Bronze Age Greek works from RHODES and Cyprus. In Phoenicia, potters
created delicate pottery featuring a red finish and burnished surface. Ar-
chaeologists have established rough dates for Phoenician expansion and
colonization by tracing the appearance of their distinctive pottery in var-
ious places throughout the Mediterranean region.
After about 500 B.C., much of the local pottery in the Levant imitated
imported designs from areas to the east and west. Imported pottery from
Greece began to increase greatly at that time as well, and Greek designs
eventually replaced the local styles in most places. (See also Archaeology
and Archaeologists; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Clay Tablets; Economy
and Trade; Glass and Glassmaking; Wheel.)

PRAYER
D efined as a verbal act of worship to one god or to a pantheon*,
prayer played an important role in the RELIGIONS of the ancient
Near East. Because ancient Near Eastern peoples considered their deities*
powerful, mysterious, and unpredictable beings, their prayers praised the
gods and showered attention on them. People also prayed to the gods to
ask for protection against misfortune and evil, to apologize, to request
* pantheon all the gods of a particular help, to complain about injustices, and to give thanks for good deeds.
culture Modern scholars know very little about the everyday prayers spoken
* deity god or goddess by ordinary individuals in ancient times. The Book of Psalms in the He-
brew BIBLE is an example of a religious text that records prayers intended
to be spoken by priests and individuals. These prayers were probably
meant to be recited with the help of an expert in ritual. They follow a ba-
sic form and contain general terms, suggesting that they could be used in
* archeologist scientist who studies past a wide range of circumstances.
human cultures, usually by excavating Most of the ancient prayers discovered by archeologists* have been ei-
material remains of human activity ther those recited by priests or diviners on specific occasions or group
* incantation written or recited formula prayers intended to be spoken by an entire community. An example of a
of words designed to produce a given communal prayer was found in ancient UGARIT. It was meant to be recited
effect
by the people to the storm god BAAL during times of danger from attack. It
* lamentation expression of grief; act of begins, "O Baal, drive away the mighty one from our gates, the warrior
grieving
from our walls/' An Egyptian prayer, meant to be recited by a temple
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 priest during the morning ritual, begins: "I worship your majesty with the
to 2001 B.C.
chosen words, with the prayers that enhance your prestige/'
* funerary having to do with funerals or Ancient prayer took many forms, including HYMNS, incantations*, let-
with the handling of the dead
ters, and magic spells. In MESOPOTAMIA, the prayers recited in ancient
* plague contagious disease that quickly Sumer and Akkad included many lamentations*, which were poetic re-
kills large numbers of people
sponses to real or imaginary disasters, such as the destruction of temples
11
Pregnancy
and cities or the death of a king. By the end of the third millennium B.C.*,
A Plague Prayer a type of prayer called the letter-prayer had emerged in Sumer. These
prayers, written on CLAY TABLETS and placed before a god in a temple, were a
Among the most famous Hit-
tite prayers are the Plague
form of private communication between worshipers and the gods. Letter-
Prayers of Murshili II, in which prayers opened with an elaborate greeting that emphasized the divine
King Murshili expresses the respon- qualities that would best serve the needs of the worshiper, such as healing
sibility that he feels toward his land qualities, wisdom, or forgiveness.
and people. The king prays to the Among the most important types of Egyptian prayers were funerary*
gods:
prayers, which were expressions of mourning as well as magical formulas
Storm-god of Khatti, my lord, that would help the dead reach the AFTERLIFE. The Egyptian BOOK OF THE
and you gods of Khatti, my lords.
DEAD contains collections of such prayers. The prayers of the HITTITES of
... [T]he land of Khatti has been
afflicted very badly by the
Anatolia (present-day Turkey) were similar in form and content to Meso-
plague. In my father's days, in potamian prayers. Occasionally, the Hittites added elements typical of
my brother's days, people died, their own culture or in reaction to specific events. Some prayers became
and also since I became a priest masterpieces of Hittite LITERATURE, such as the prayer crafted by King Mur-
of the gods, now, also in my shili II when plagues* were devastating the empire.
days, people are dying And
Ritual was a crucial part of worship. To gain the attention of the
while people are dying in the
heart of the land of Khatti, the gods, prayers had to be recited while the person praying performed spe-
plague has not at all been taken cific ritual movements. The typical gesture of prayer in Mesopotamia
out of the land of Khatti. But I was lifting the hand to the mouth. In Egypt, priests recited prayers
cannot overcome the worry of while standing with their arms at their sides. Like the Mesopotamians, it
my heart and I can no longer seems that the Hittites raised their hands when praying, although they
overcome the anguish of my self.
sometimes kneeled, as did the Israelites. (See also Death and Burial;
Gods and Goddesses; Priests and Priestesses; Religion; Rituals and
Sacrifice.)

PREGNANCY
I n the ancient Near East, people considered pregnancy a natural part of
the cycle of life, one that humans shared with animals. They also re-
garded pregnancy as a special condition of females that might be treated
with MEDICINE, MAGIC, religious ritual, or all three.
The main purpose of MARRIAGE in the Near East was to produce and
raise CHILDREN who could help their parents with work, enter into advan-
tageous marriages, support parents in their old age, perform funeral ritu-
als for deceased parents, and inherit property. Childless people became
objects of pity and sometimes of scorn. To avoid such a fate, women
* fertility ability to become pregnant and sometimes sought medical or magical aids to improve their fertility*. The
bear children or to father children HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) performed fertility rituals for
men and women, and texts from ancient Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA describe
treatments thought to remedy female infertility.
Pregnancy was a time of potential—and of mystery. Magical incanta-
* incantation written or recited formula tions* from ancient Mesopotamia describe the unborn child as a ship with
of words designed to produce a given an unknown cargo, sailing across a dark sea to the world of the living. The
effect Egyptians and Babylonians devised tests to determine whether a woman
was pregnant and, if so, whether the child would be a boy or a girl. Certain
tests for pregnancy that involved the use of various herbs might have had
some basis in scientific fact. However, many tests were based purely on su-
perstition, such as the Babylonian belief that a pregnant woman was carry-
ing a boy if she always stepped to the right, a girl if she stepped to the left.
12
 Priests and Priestesses
Women facing the difficulties of pregnancy and CHILDBIRTH often
sought magical and supernatural aid. Mesopotamian women, for exam-
* amulet small object thought to have ple, wore amulets* during pregnancy to protect them from the demon
supernatural or magical powers Lamashtu, who preyed on mothers and infants. They might also ask for
aid from goddesses such as Nintu, the Lady of Birth, who was occasion-
ally portrayed holding a baby.
Even in social and economic environments that encouraged large
families, women sometimes wanted to avoid pregnancy. The same Egypt-
ian and Mesopotamian texts that describe infertility remedies also list
contraceptive treatments — such as herbal potions to be drunk or applied
to the body—that were meant to prevent pregnancy or cause an abortion.
Breast-feeding gave women at least partial control over the spacing of
children, as women are somewhat less likely to become pregnant when
nursing a child. For instance, because they generally breast-fed children
for about three years, Egyptian women reduced their chances of conceiv-
ing another child during that time. (See also Amulets and Charms; Fam-
ily and Social Life; Gender and Sex; Women, Role of.)

TTJeligion was a very important aspect of life in the ancient Near East,
fV^and priests and priestesses played a crucial role in society. The duty
PRIESTS AND of all humans was to serve the gods, and kings served as the primary link
PRIESTESSES between the world of the gods and the world of humans. Although rulers
were the chief priests of their societies, they could not be present at every
religious function or ceremony. Consequently, religious duties were often
delegated to priests and priestesses.

Qualifications for Priesthood. Throughout the ancient Near East,

priests and priestesses came primarily from the elite, often including in-
dividuals of royal descent, particularly for the chief positions at large
temples. At its higher levels, the priesthood was often a hereditary posi-
tion! passed down from generation to generation. In MESOPOTAMIA,
priestly positions were inherited, and this practice was even more wide-
spread in Egypt. Among the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey),
the chief priests of major temples came from royal families, while village
priests were not of the nobility and had a lower social status. Most priests
in ancient Israel also inherited their positions.
The main qualification to become a priest or priestess was that indi-
viduals be ''pure/' This generally meant that they had no visible imper-
fections, such as marks on the skin or skin diseases, or any physical
deformities. An individual not only had to be pure to enter the priest-
hood, but that purity had to be maintained afterward as well. Each soci-
ety had its own rules about maintaining both physical and symbolic or
ritual purity.
To remain pure, priests had to wash themselves several times each
day. This process was often carried out in a sacred lake or in special wash-
basins at the entrances to temples. The maintenance of purity also usu-
ally required wearing special clothing and eating specific foods while
13
Priests and Priestesses
serving the gods. In Egypt, temple priests shaved their heads and dressed
in white linen. Mesopotamian priests also wore special clothing and of-
ten had shaved heads. They sometimes performed their duties in the
nude, as did the Elamite priests of IRAN. For the Hittites, impurity on the
part of a priest was punishable by death. Their great concern for ritual pu-
rity is evident in Instructions for Temple Personnel, an ancient Hittite text
about religious administration.
chaste not participating in sexual In general, priests and priestesses did not have to remain chaste*. In
relations; virtuous or pure Egypt, however, they had to refrain from sexual relations while serving in
the temple, but otherwise they could marry and, often, have children.
Sometimes priests and priestesses married each other. Priests had to obey
various moral rules to maintain their ritual purity and serve in temples.
An ancient Egyptian INSCRIPTION lists some of these rules: "Do not come in
sin, do not enter in impurity, do not utter falsehood in his house, do not
covet things, do not slander, do not accept bribes, do not be partial as be-
tween a poor man and a great... do not reveal what you have seen in the
mysteries of the temple/'

Role and Organization of the Priesthood. The primary role of

priests was to attend to the needs of the gods by properly conducting re-
ligious rituals and ceremonies. The basic daily ritual in temples was the
"care and feeding" of the gods, who were represented by statues. The
temple was considered the home of the gods, and priests cleaned,
dressed, fed, and entertained these statues as if they were living beings.
Providing for such needs kept the gods healthy and happy and helped
ensure that they would favor their subjects. In addition to their role in
temple rituals, priests and priestesses also took part in various public reli-
gious ceremonies.
Priests performed a variety of roles beyond attending to the needs of
the gods and performing religious rituals. They served as teachers, scien-
tists, doctors, psychologists, and judges. Some priests were considered
* divination art or practice of foretelling magicians, and others practiced divination* by interpreting DREAMS and
the future OMENS from the gods. Sometimes the individuals who served as musi-
cians, cooks, and administrators in temples were members of the priestly
* scribe person of a learned class who class as well. Temple scribes* responsible for learning, performing, and
served as a writer, editor, or teacher passing down sacred texts and rituals were among the most important
members of the priesthood.
In most Near Eastern societies, priestesses held positions that were
similar to those held by priests. They were also organized in the same
ways as the men. Often, but not always, priestesses served goddesses
deity god or goddess while priests served gods. Those priestesses who served a male deity*—
often called a "bride of the god"—sometimes had more power than the
highest male priest serving the same god. In ancient BABYLON, for exam-
ple, priestesses of the god MARDUK had great power. Some women who
were attached to the family of the Sumerian sun god Shamash could
marry, but they were not allowed to have children. Elamite priests and
priestesses were equals. In some regions of the Near East, some priestesses
served as prostitutes, and the money they made went to the gods or god-
* prophet one who claims to have desses they served. Israel was unique in that women were not permitted
received divine messages or insights to serve in priestly functions, but they could be prophets* for Yahweh.
14
 Priests and Priestesses

Dating from the 400s B.C., this Phoenician

sculpture from Carthage depicts a priest-
ess with open arms. Priestesses and priests
in the ancient Near East held similar roles
in society. They generally had to meet the
same requirements and performed the
same religious duties.

Every ancient Near Eastern society had various classes of priests, from
village priests to the high priests of great city temples. Some priests served
major deities, while others served lesser ones. The priesthood was also or-
ganized according to priestly duties and responsibilities, such as perform-
ing daily rituals, keeping track of temple records, performing music,
singing HYMNS, and serving in other specialized roles. Various priestly ti-
tles signified rank, responsibilities, and the god or goddess served.
Ancient Egypt had a highly organized priesthood. There were two
main classes of priests and priestesses: the ''servants of god/' or prophets;
and the "pure ones," or waab priests. The "servants of god" included the
highest priestly ranks, while the "pure ones" were individuals of lesser
rank. Most Egyptian temples had between 10 and 25 priests; larger tem-
ples had many more, however. Egyptian priests were divided into four
groups, called phyle, made up mostly of waab priests. Each phyle was usu-
ally led by a "servant of god," or prophet. The phyles served at the temple
on a rotating basis: One phyle served for one month while the other three
phyles were off duty.
Until about the 1500s B.C., Egypt had no full-time, professional priest-
hood. Scribes from the upper classes of society performed priestly service as
a part-time job. Among this elite, priesthood was a normal part of people's
15
Property and Property Rights
lives and not a separate profession. Moreover, individuals often served sev-
eral temples at different ranks all at the same time. For example, a man who
served as a prophet in one temple might also be a waab priest in another.
The Egyptian priesthood included many priestly titles, such as "father
On Becoming a of the god,;/ "provost of the mysteries/' and "lector priest/' Lector priests,
who read sacred texts, were sometimes called magicians. Some priests were
Priest called "scribes of the sacred book" in the "House of Life," which was essen-
An autobiography written tially a library and school connected to the temple. This is where most of
around 850 B.C. describes
how the author entered the priest-
the science, history, and literature of Egyptian society was kept.
hood of Horus: The structure of the priesthood was less complex in other areas of the
/ was introduced into the [tem-
Near East. In ancient Sumer, many temples were organized around the en,
ple] to sanctify the mysterious a priest or priestess considered the spouse of a god or goddess. Apart from
image of the god who is in the en, the highest figure in most temples was the sanga (bookkeeper),
Thebes, to satisfy him with his who performed both administrative and religious duties for the temple. At
offerings. some small temples, the bookkeeper was the only temple worker.
I... had rid myself from all that
Among the Hittites, the highest religious official was the sanga, fol-
was evil in me, had exchanged
evil with purity, and had loos-
lowed by a priest known as the "anointed." One of the most important
ened clothes and ointments ac- priestesses was known as the "mother of the god." These priests and priest-
cording to the purification of esses performed most of the actual OFFERINGS to the gods and were the ones
Horus and Seth. I entered the who approached the gods most directly. Other temple personnel included
presence of the god... while I musicians, singers, cooks, and administrators.
was afraid and in awe of him.
The king praised me; he made
Among the Israelites, the biblical Priestly Code gave priests more
my position. He appointed me in power than in many other areas of the Near East. According to the Priestly
the steps of my father. Code, all law was regarded as religious law and could be enforced by
priests. This meant that, in addition to all their other duties, Israelite priests
served as judges, physicians, and even state administrators for the society.
(See also Death and Burial; Gods and Goddesses; Occupations; Palaces
and Temples; Prayer; Rituals and Sacrifice; Scribes; Women, Role of.)

PROPERTY AND
I n ancient times, both private individuals and public institutions, such
as the palace or the temple, could own property in the Near East.
Within each Near Eastern culture, however, a web of laws and customs
PROPERTY RIGHTS determined the kinds of property different individuals could hold and
what they could do with it. Women, for example, could not own prop-
erty in their own names in some cultures. Slaves, who were themselves
considered a form of property, could sometimes own property.
Property consisted of real estate (land and buildings), movable prop-
erty (money and possessions), and human property, or slaves. Another
category included nonphysical things, such as offices and occupations
that could be passed from a father to his oldest son, water rights that gave
landowners a share in the water from nearby streams or canals, and busi-
nesses. A slave's labor was also a form of property. For instance, a docu-
ment excavated in Egypt states that a specific number of people owned a
slave together and that each owner was entitled to the slave's labor for a
certain number of days each year. This labor was property that the slave
owner had the right to resell.
In MESOPOTAMIA and Egypt, where agricultural societies developed
early, ownership of farmland was an important element of the social order.
16
 Proverbs
Although much land belonged to powerful individuals (kings and high
priests) or to state institutions (palaces and temples), some land was pri-
vately owned in every society. Such privately owned property was passed
* nomadic referring to people who from one generation to the next by means of one of several methods. No-
travel from place to place to find food madic* peoples generally divided a father's property equally among his
and pasture sons. However, equal division of farmland spelled disaster, for within a few
* dowry money or property that a generations, a farm would be reduced to many plots, each too small to
woman brings to the man she marries support a family. For ancient Mesopotamians, the solution was shared
* will document in which one dictates ownership of property by extended families rather than by individuals. Af-
the division of one's property after ter about 2000 B.C., as Mesopotamian society grew more centralized, land
death
laws placed increasing emphasis on individual ownership. The state found
* disinherit to exclude someone from a it easier to deal with one owner than with a group of brothers, uncles, and
share in an estate
cousins.
Primogeniture, in which the oldest son inherited the land, was an-
other solution to the problem of land division. This type of inheritance
A Woman's Place was customary in Egypt, although sometimes both sons and daughters
In Mesopotamia, during the period could own and inherit land. The Israelites divided their land among sons
of the Old Babylonian empire (ca, but gave the oldest son a double share.
1900-1600 B.C.). there appeared a Every society was concerned with keeping family property within the
social and economic practice by
which families with daughters and family, which was defined by the father's bloodline. For this reason, sons
no sons could keep wealth within usually inherited land and most other property. A daughter's share of the
the family. Rich young women be- estate was her dowry*, which she took to her marriage. The dowry then
came naditus. These women were became part of her husband's family's property. In the case of DIVORCE,
sent to live in special communities however, a portion of that property might be returned to the wife or her
maintained by donations from their
families. There they led lives of de- family. The family that lost property in the form of a daughter's dowry
votion to the gods but were forbid- might expect to regain the loss when sons married and brought their
den to marry, preventing the wives' dowries into the family's estate.
wealth from being given away as a Customs and laws were not the only factors that shaped the handing
dowry. The naditus maintained down of property from one generation to the next. A will* from ancient
control of their property, engaged Egypt reveals a woman disinheriting* some of her children for not taking
fully in business activities, made
profits, and could dispose of prop- proper care of her. In another will, a man disinherits a female relative be-
erty as they wished. cause she failed to nurse him when he was ill. Although the general pat-
tern of property transfer reflected the needs and values of the larger
society, individuals could still express their personal preferences and fam-
ily feelings through the disposal of their property. (See also Egypt and the
Egyptians; Family and Social Life; Land Use and Ownership; Law;
Women, Role of.)

Prophecy See Oracles and Prophecy.

PROVERBS
P roverbs are short, sometimes witty, often educational sayings meant
to express some common truth or useful thought. Proverbs created
primarily to educate were among the earliest forms of LITERATURE in the an-
cient Near East. A type of instructional text classified as wisdom literature,
proverbs record observations about the nature of reality and provide sim-
ple instructions and rules of behavior based on experience and thought
17
Psalms
about the meanings of life. Proverbs provided valuable advice to everyone
from kings to ordinary people.
Among the earliest proverbs were so-called "wisdom of events/' say-
ings about simple factual situations based on observations of occurrences
in nature and society. Later proverbs taught lessons by describing an action
and its result. For example, the lesson of the Egyptian proverb "You beat
my back; your teachings entered my ear" was probably that one should ap-
preciate a strict instructor. Some proverbs used ridiculous situations to
make their point, as in the Sumerian proverb "Would you pay cash for a
pig's squeal?"
Many ancient Near Eastern proverbs were written in the form of a fa-
ther (or teacher) speaking to his son (or student). It is not surprising, then,
that the lessons taught often involved such subjects as respect for one's el-
ders and the gods, the value of modesty and caution, the importance of
financial responsibility, and the avoidance of the "wrong" types of peo-
ple. The earliest known proverbs of this type were Egyptian sayings in
pharaoh king of ancient Egypt which a pharaoh* gave advice to his son. The subject matter of these
proverbs was essentially directed toward preparing Egyptian princes and
their high officials for later responsibilities in government.
The most famous proverbs are found in the Book of Proverbs in the
Hebrew BIBLE. These biblical proverbs—intended to help individuals
make sensible choices in their lives—deal with a range of sacred and secu-
* secular nonreligious; connected with lar* themes that have universal appeal. Some portions of the Book of
everyday life Proverbs share similarities with earlier works of wisdom literature, includ-
ing an ancient Egyptian text called The Instruction ofAmenemope.
Ancient Sumer, Babylonia, Egypt, and Assyria also had collections of
proverbs. The oldest Mesopotamian proverbs are contained in a work
called Instructions ofShuruppak. Another collection—Sayings ofAhiqar—
probably put together in Assyria in the 600s B.C., deals with themes simi-
lar to earlier proverbs, such as devotion and submission to the gods, the
value of discipline, and respect for superiors. This collection is remarkable
for its fablelike comparisons involving animals. (See also Books and Man-
uscripts; Education; Religion.)

PSALMS
P salms are ancient Hebrew songs that address or call on the god YAH-
WEH. The word psalm originally came from a Greek translation of the
Hebrew word mizmor, which literally means "song accompanied by a
stringed instrument/' This indicates that psalms were used as HYMNS, or
religious songs, in ancient Israel. Many psalms are pleas or songs of praise,
thanksgiving, and mourning. It is also clear that some psalms were
chanted or used as prayers. Some psalms were written for specific reli-
gious occasions, such as the Sabbath, the day of worship and rest. The
majority of psalms were written in terms that made them suitable for var-
ious occasions. Most psalms were written during the first millennium
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 B.C.* and were later adopted for use in the Jewish and Christian religions,
tO 1 B.C. in which they continue to play an important role.
* canonical included in the canon, the The best-known psalms are the 150 canonical* psalms that appear in
officially recognized books of the Bible the Book of Psalms in the Hebrew BIBLE. The canonical psalms were said
18
 Ptolemy I
to have been written by King DAVID, who took the throne of Israel just af-
ter 1000 B.C. However, scholars no longer think that David wrote many, if
any, of these psalms. Instead, they believe that the psalms were written by
a number of people. In fact, some scholars believe that Psalm 104 bor-
rowed phrases and ideas from an Egyptian hymn written in the 1340s B.C.
called the Hymn to Aten.
Besides the canonical psalms, the Psalms of Solomon is also well
known. These 18 psalms were said to have been written by King SOLOMON
of Israel, David's son and successor. Although Solomon's psalms are simi-
lar to many of the canonical psalms in their subjects and forms, they are
not included in the Bible.
Other psalms are recorded in the Dead Sea Scrolls, which were com-
* sect group of people with a common posed by members of a Jewish sect* between 200 B.C. and A.D. 100. These
leadership who share a distinctive set of scrolls were recovered in the A.D. 1940s and 1950s from caves bordering
religious views and opinion the Dead Sea, between present-day Israel and Jordan. Hymns found in the
Dead Sea Scrolls borrow phrases from the canonical psalms, indicating
that the writers of later Jewish hymns based their work on ancient He-
brew psalms. Psalms continued to be produced in medieval times by
European and Middle Eastern Jews. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Ju-
daism and Jews; Religion.)

PTOLEMY I
P tolemy I (TAH»luh«mee) was a highly decorated general under
ALEXANDER THE GREAT of MACEDONIA. He went on to become one of the
most famous kings of Egypt. He also founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, a
long line of rulers from the Ptolemy family that governed Egypt for al-
most 300 years and led it through its last great period of empire and
ruled 305-282 B.C. grandeur.
King of Egypt Born into a Macedonian noble family around 366 B.C., Ptolemy prob-
ably started his career at an early age as a page in the royal court. When
Alexander took the throne in 336 B.C., Ptolemy became his bodyguard.
He was later promoted to the position of general in command of the navy
and proved to be one of Alexander's most capable officers. When Alexan-
der died in 323 B.C., Ptolemy convinced Alexander's other generals to di-
vide up the empire with him. Each former general became a governor of a
different province. Ptolemy governed Egypt until 305 B.C., when he
* coronation act or ceremony of crowing named himself king of Egypt. His coronation* marked the beginning of
a leader the Ptolemaic dynasty.
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- Ptolemy worked hard to make Egypt a great Hellenistic* power. Us-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean ing diplomacy* as well as military might, he first stabilized and then ex-
world and western Asia during the three panded his kingdom. Under his rule, Egypt became the supreme NAVAL
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
POWER in the Mediterranean. Although he brought Hellenistic culture to
Egypt, especially to its royal court, he won the loyalty of the Egyptian
* diplomacy practice of conducting
negotiations between kingdoms, states,
people by adopting their religion, building temples to the Egyptian
or nations gods, and restoring the temples of their earlier kings. In addition,
Ptolemy introduced coins to Egypt, founded a famous library at the city
of Alexandria, and wrote a history of Alexander the Great, which is now
lost. After he died in 282 B.C., Ptolemy was designated a god by the
Egyptian people.
19
Pyramids
Ptolemy's first few successors were strong and able kings who main-
tained the overseas holdings and wealth of the empire. However, later
Ptolemaic rulers were both weak and corrupt. By 200 B.C., they had lost
many of the empire's overseas lands and faced revolts by the Egyptian peo-
ple. The last rulers of the dynasty were Ptolemy XV and his mother, the fa-
mous Egyptian queen CLEOPATRA. Their rule and the Ptolemaic dynasty
both came to an end in 30 B.C., when the Romans conquered Egypt. (See
also Dynasties; Egypt and the Egyptians; Pharaohs; Seleucid Empire.)

PYRAMIDS
T he pyramids are tombs that were built for Egyptian kings between
about 2650 and 1650 B.C. Most of the pyramids were built during the
Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-2130 B.C.), which is why that period is
sometimes referred to as the pyramid age.
In addition to many smaller pyramids, 35 major pyramids still stand
in Egypt today. The most famous are three giant pyramids at GIZA, on the
west bank of the NILE RIVER, not far from Cairo. These three pyramids are
among the best-known monuments of ancient Egypt. The biggest of the
three, called the Great Pyramid, is the largest all-stone structure ever built.
Because of their preservation and significance, the pyramids are one of
the most important sources of information about ancient Egypt.

How the Pyramids Originated. Because the ancient Egyptians be-

lieved in an AFTERLIFE (life after death), they tried to protect the bodies of
the dead by burying them in tombs. These tombs could hold provisions
and guides to help the soul in the afterlife. Before the pyramids, tombs of
kings and other important people took the form of mastabas. These were
long, low rectangular structures with a gently curving roof and slightly
sloping sides or with a flat roof and sides that had numerous false doors.
Pyramid Robbery These moundlike structures, often made of sand and rubble, covered a pit
From the very beginning of the in the ground in which the dead body was placed. Over time, mastabas be-
pyramid age, many pyramids were
came bigger and more solidly built. The sides were covered in bricks and
broken into and robbed of their
valuable contents. This often oc- arranged in steps to make the tomb stronger and more durable.
curred soon after a king's body was The shape of the mastabas and pyramids had religious significance
entombed. As a result, builders of for the ancient Egyptians. The mastabas symbolized the creation of the
later pyramids introduced architec- world, which the ancient Egyptians believed occurred when a hill
tural features to prevent robbers emerged from the waters of chaos. Scholars also believe that the sloped
from gaining easy access to the
tombs' interiors. These features in-
sides of the mastabas and pyramids represented the rays of the sun, re-
cluded passages with dead ends, flecting the Egyptians' relationship with the sun god AMUN. Egyptians be-
large granite rock plugs for en- lieved that the sun god was the king of the gods and that he had created
tranceways, and hidden trapdoors. the universe.
Despite these attempts to block
robbers' efforts, the pyramids con-
Builders of the Pyramids. The first pyramid in ancient Egypt was
tinued to be robbed of their trea-
sures, leading later Egyptian kings built for King DJOSER (ruled ca. 2630-2611 B.C.) by his chief architect,
to abandon pyramids altogether Imhotep. The pyramid started out as a mastaba, but Imhotep enlarged it
and to adopt less obvious rock-cut and then added five layers of rocks and bricks above the first, each layer
tombs for burial. somewhat smaller than the one below. The result was a six-stepped pyra-
mid rising more than 200 feet and covering almost 150,000 square feet
at the base.
20
 Pyramids
Most ofDjoser's successors followedhisleadandbuilt pyramids for
themselves. Someof the earliest pyramids were never completed,perhaps
because the kings died prematurely. Inthose cases, theworkers appar-
ently abandoned the building site andbegan work on a newpyramid for
the dead king's successor.
The first true pyramid—with straight sides insteadof steps—wasbuilt
by KingSneferu (ruledca. 2625-2585B.C.).
Sneferualso builttwoother
large pyramids aswellas twosmaller pyramids, makinghim themost pro-
ductive builder in ancient times.One Sneferu's
of pyramidsiscalledthe
Bent Pyramid because its sides aresteeper at thebottom than at thetop.
Some scholars believe that followingthecollapseof oneSneferu's
of earlier
steep-sided pyramids, the architects correctedtheangleof theslope.
Sneferu's son and successor,
KHUFU
King
(ruled 2585-2560
B.C.),
was
probably the most famous pyramid builderofancient times.Hebuiltthe
Great Pyramid at Giza, which towered more thanfeet 480in theair. Not
far from the GreatPyramid, Khufu built three smaller pyramids astombs
for his mother and two principal queens. Khufu'sson andsuccessor,
King
Khafre, also built a huge pyramidatGiza.Heintendedit tomatchhis fa-
ther's pyramid in height, but itturned out to beslightly Khafre
smaller.
was succeeded by his sonMenkaure, whobuilt the thirdlargest pyramid
at Giza. Although considerably smaller thantheother two,it isstill very
impressive.
After about 2500B.C., kings continued tobuild pyramidsbut on a
smaller scale.Larger pyramids were built once again starting around
1900B.C., but they werelesssolidly constructed thanearlier pyramidshad
been. Instead of being builtofsolid stone, they were builtof mudbricks*
and had stone outer walls.Thelast pyramids builtforEgyptian kings were
constructed duringthe Second Intermediate period (ca. B.C.), 1630-1539
but none of these has survived intact. After thistime, most Egyptian
kings were buried in tombscut into cliffs.
rock

Structure of the Pyramids. Most pyramids were built with asquare

base andfour triangular sides thatsloped inward form
to apeakat the
top. Inside they usually contained severalrooms—burialchambersfor
members of the royalfamilyand areas forstoring provisions neededfor
the afterlife. The most important room was thecentral chamber, where
the king's body wasplaced. In the earliest pyramids, this chamberwas lo-
cated deep underground at the bottom of ashaft.By thetimeofKing
* mud brick brick made from mud, Khufu, however, the king's burial chamber wasplaced high up in the
straw, and water mixed together and pyramid. The later positionreflected thebelief that theking became one
baked in the sun with the sun god after his death. Theinside wallsof thepyramids were
* relief sculpture in which material is cut decorated with paintings and reliefs*.
away to show figures raised from the Most pyramids were surroundedby alarge complexofother struc-
background tures. Mostoften, these includedachapeland funerary*
a temple, which
* funerary having to do withfunerals or were joined by a passageway,and asmall pyramid, whichmayhave been
with the handling of the dead intended for the dead king's soul.Theinteriorsof allthese structures were
elaborately decorated aswell. In addition, acovered trench waslocated
on one or more sides of the pyramid. This trench contained funerary
the
boats that the king would use tomeet the sungod. Usually, thewhole
complex was surroundedby alarge brick wall.
21
Pyramids
How the Pyramids Were Built. Building the pyramids required
sion, planning, organization, and skills. Their construction reflects
strong central governments and powerful kings who had control over
both people and resources.
The exact position of a pyramid may have been determinedbyastro-
nomical observations, and the site wasleveled with precision. Forexam-
ple, the 13-acre base of the Great Pyramid is only about half an inch
higher on one side than on the opposite MEASURE-
side.Allother typesof
MENT also were made with incredible accuracy.
* quarry to excavate pieces of stone by Quarrying* the limestone blocks usedforbuildingthe pyramidswas a
cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) major undertaking. Stones werenot just broken
offand dragged away ran-
blasting domly. Instead, each stone block wasmarked in the quarry, cut to the ex-
act shape desired, and then removed. As aresult, the massive stoneblocks
fit tightly together without any gaps. For the Great Pyramid, more than 2
million stone blocks, weighing an average of 2.5 tons, were quarried in
this way. Although most of the limestone quarries were relatively closeto
the building sites, moving the huge stone blocks still required great plan-
ning andeffort. Paths were leveled,and rollersand heavy sleds were used
to make dragging the stone blocks easier. Some stones, such as the granite
that was used for columns and chambers inside the pyramids, came from
as far away as 500 miles. These stones had to be carried down the Nile
River by ship or barge.
After the stone blocks were transported to the building site, they were
carefully fitted into place.The stones werelifted intoplacebymeansof
giant ramps, which were built against the sides of the growing pyramid,
and levers, which made it easier to move the blocks up the ramps and

22
 Queens
into their settings. One of the most impressive achievements in the con-
struction of the pyramids was the positioning of 40-ton granite blocks al-
most 200 feet high in the roof of the king's burial chamber inside the
Great Pyramid.
In the 400s B.C., the Greek historian HERODOTUS wrote that more than
100,000 workers labored for up to 20 years to build each pyramid. How-
ever, modern historians believe that as few as 20,000 laborers may have
been involved and that construction may have been completed in as few
as 6 years. However, this is still a very large workforce, especially consider-
ing that the laborers were provided with housing, food, and medical care
while they worked on the pyramids. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians;
Pharaohs.)

Qanat See Irrigation.

QUEENS
T he highest-ranking women of the ancient Near East were queens.
These women were either the principal wives or the mothers of KINGS.
Although these royal women were necessary for the continuation of king-
ships and they sometimes had considerable responsibility and influence,
queens rarely played a direct role in the GOVERNMENT of their land. Very
few of them ruled in their own right. Many queens did, however, fulfill
diplomacy practice of conducting important duties in diplomacy* and religion, and some have emerged
negotiations between kingdoms, states, from the pages of history as forceful and distinctive women.
or nations
Sumer. Little is really known about many of the earliest rulers of Sumer
beyond their names—and even less is known about their wives. The
tomb of Pu-abi, the wife of a king of UR, dating to around 2600 B.C., pro-
vides an exception. Buried in a tomb next to that of the king, she lay on a
lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious bed wearing jewelry made of gold, silver, lapis lazuli*, and carnelian. Also
stone buried nearby were a wooden wardrobe, two ox-drawn wagons, and the
bodies of 59 attendants and soldiers, all sacrificed to accompany the king
and his wife in their AFTERLIFE.

Assyria. In the Assyrian empire of northern MESOPOTAMIA, the king's

* concubine mistress to a married man wives and concubines*, along with their young children, lived in a
* harem section of a household harem* ruled by the queen mother (mother of the king). This arrange-
designated for women ment gave the queen mother tremendous power in the royal household.
It also led to much plotting and competition, as various women tried to
get their sons named heir to the throne.
An Assyrian king's wife possessed estates occupied by large house-
holds. A female official called a shakintu administered her household,
* scribe person of a learned class who which also included a scribe*, a cook, and makers of sweets. The identities
served as a writer, editor, or teacher of the Assyrian queens are, for the most part, unknown. Few of them ap-
pear in sculptures or texts. Even when their names remain, their origins
23
Queens
are not always clear, although it seems that some Assyrian kings married
women from Assyrian and foreign noble families.

Egypt. The status of royal women in Egypt depended on their relation-

ship to the king, as revealed in such titles as "king's daughter," "king's
wife," "king's mother," and "king's sister." Kings in Egypt were believed
to be descended from the gods and to have divine aspects themselves.
Egyptian tradition also associated queenship with the divine. Conse-
quently, queens were frequently portrayed wearing or carrying symbols
associated with such goddesses as HATHOR, the universal mother goddess
of ancient Egypt.
By the 1500s B.C., if not earlier, Egyptian kings had begun taking two
'The Buried or more wives. One wife was identified as the principal wife, although it
is not clear how the king chose her. A principal wife could be of royal or
Queens of Kalkhu nonroyal birth. Some kings married their sisters, half sisters, or daugh-
Modern archaeologists have ters and had children with them, a tradition that may have developed
found the tombs of several
Assyrian queens in the to mirror the relationships among Egyptian deities*, who also intermar-
palace at Kalkhu (present-day ried. After Egypt became a leading power in the ancient Near East, its
Nimrud). It was the Assyrians7 kings sometimes married foreign princesses. In some cases, defeated
custom to send their dead into rulers may have sent their daughters to the Egyptian kings as signs of
the afterlife with the finest items submission. Other marriages to foreign women may have been diplo-
their family could afford. The royal
" family was especially expected to
matic alliances.
spend lavishly on grave goods. The Egyptian queens and queen mothers owned independent estates
queens' graves at Kalkhu contained run by officials who only served the royal women. As partners of the di-
some of the finest known examples vine kings, the royal women occupied an important place in rituals, but
of Mesopotamian metalwork and they did not have any officially recognized political positions. Still,
jewelry, including heavy gold cuffs some of them managed to attain considerable power. Ahmose Nefertari,
inlaid with semiprecious stones and
decorated with images of stars and mother of Amenhotep I, was so highly honored that a cult* worshiped
figures—finery that told of a queen's her for centuries after her death. Tiy, the nonroyal principal wife of
high status, living or dead. Amenhotep III, appears in sculpture on an equal scale with her husband
rather than on the usual, smaller scale. A few Egyptian queens, includ-
ing NITOKRIS, HATSHEPSUT, and CLEOPATRA, even ruled Egypt in their own
names.

* deity god or goddess Anatolia. Among the HITTITES of ancient ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey),
* cult system of religious beliefs and royal women had significant status and responsibilities. In the Hittite
rituals; group following these beliefs kingdom of KHATTI, the king maintained a harem of numerous women,
but only one woman held the title of queen. In addition to bearing the
king's highest-ranking children, including the son who would inherit the
throne, the queen was responsible for supervising much of the king's
household. Groups of officials helped her oversee the complex adminis-
tration of the royal establishment.
Some Hittite queens were also involved in diplomatic communica-
tion with other states and in governing the empire. Queen Pudukhepa,
wife of KHATTUSHILI HI, wrote letters to the Egyptian court and appeared
on royal SEALS with her husband and her son. Many of the queens of
Khatti were foreigners whose marriages to Hittite kings were arranged by
diplomats to seal alliances or reflect relationships between states. In the
same way, Hittite princesses were given in marriage to foreign kings or
princes.
24
 Queens

The mostpowerful royal woman inKhatti held the title and position
of Tawananna,after the nameof first
the Hittite queen.The queenbe-
came Tawananna after the death of the previousTawananna,who was
usually the queen mother. The Tawananna had much influence in the
empire, even if her husband died and a new king cameto the throne. Hit-
tite history records several power struggles between widowed queens and
their sons or stepsons.King MurshiliII, for example, removed
Baby-
his
lonian stepmotherfrom her position asTawananna.

Israel. The queen mother was the most powerful woman in the Is-
raelite kingdom. Her titlewas
gebirah, meaning ''mighty lady/'Shewore
a crown, and her throne could be set alongside that of the king,her son.
Among the Israelites and Judeans, who sometimes worshiped agoddess
named Asherah,the wifeof
YAHWEH,
the godthe queen mother played
an important role in Asherah's cult.
The queen mother's duties werenot simply religious. Passages
from
the Hebrew
BIBLE show that her positionwas thatof adviserto the king,
and her political role may have been even greater than those passages sug-
gest. She was most likely also involvedin the administrationof the harem
and the femaleworkers within the palace.Theking's
wife,in contrast,had
less of a public role. Althoughshe may havehad some influenceon the
king or the court, she had noofficial position or responsibilities
— until
25
Ra
her son became king and she became queen mother in her turn. (See
also Athaliah; Nefertiti; Semiramis; Valley of the Queens; Women,
Role of.)

Ra See Amun.

RAMSES II
R i amses II (RAM»seez) was one of the most celebrated Egyptian kings.
His unusually long reign of nearly 70 years was a time of prosperity
and stability in Egypt, marked by an extraordinary number of monumen-
tal building projects that included some of the most famous structures of
the ancient world.
ruled ca. 1279-1213 B.C. Ramses was the son of the dynamic pharaoh* SETY I. Although Sety
King of Egypt reigned for less than 15 years, he not only led several military campaigns
to secure Egyptian control over CANAAN, but he also built lavish temples
pharaoh king of ancient Egypt to the main Egyptian gods. Ramses actively participated in many of these
ventures, and Sety eventually named him heir to the throne. Ramses was
in his 20s when Sety died, leaving the young pharaoh a large kingdom to
run and many temples and buildings to complete.
After burying his father in a huge underground tomb in the elaborate
cemetery known as the VALLEY OF THE KINGS near THEBES, Ramses turned his
attention to matters of state. He speeded completion of Sety's temple at
the Egyptian city of ABYDOS and drew up plans for his new capital, Pi-
* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed Ramsese, on the delta* of the NILE RIVER. To finance these works, he in-
of soil deposited by a river creased production of gold from mines in the kingdom of Nubia.
Ramses next set out to strengthen Egypt's military position in Canaan.
In the fourth year of his reign, he conquered the Syrian kingdom of
Amurru, which had been controlled by the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-
day Turkey). He then attempted to retake the nearby city of Qadesh, which
had been seized by the Hittites during the reign of the Egyptian king AKHEN-
ATEN, around 100 years earlier. However, the Hittites laid a trap for Ramses
that nearly destroyed the Egyptian army. Only his bold action and the well-
timed arrival of reinforcements allowed him to fight the Hittites to a draw.
For several years, the two powers clashed in Canaan before finally signing a
peace treaty. Ramses also acknowledged KHATTUSHILI III as the rightful Hit-
tite ruler and later married two of his daughters.
At home, Ramses' construction projects spread along the length of
the Nile. His capital featured a magnificent palace and temples and was
linked with the Nile to create a port for ships from the Mediterranean Sea.
At KARNAK, he completed the great columned hall that was begun by Seti.
He also finished the huge temple of Abydos and his own colossal temple,
called the Ramesseum, in the city of Thebes. At ABU SIMBEL in Nubia, he
built two spectacular temples, one for himself and the sun god, the other
for his queen, Nefertari, and the goddess HATHOR.
Ramses outlived several of his sons, and his successor, Merneptah,
was at least 60 years old when he came to the throne. Merneptah ruled
26
 Record Keeping
for ten years and was followed by a series of undistinguished kings until
RAMSES III inherited the throne in the 1180s B.C. (See also Egypt and the
Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians; Palaces and Temples.)

RAMSES III
T he reign of Ramses III (RAM^seez), second ruler of the Twentieth Dy-
nasty of Egypt, was marked by a series of invasions that he success-
fully fought off and by internal difficulties. At the time he assumed
power, Egypt had just recovered from a series of civil wars.
Within five years of becoming king, Ramses faced an invasion by
ruled ca. 1187-1156 B.C. tribes from Libya, which lies just west of Egypt. He defeated the LIBYANS
King of Egypt and their allies, whom he brought back to Egypt as slaves. Two years later,
however, a dangerous coalition of invaders known as the SEA PEOPLES
began to threaten Ramses' kingdom. Perhaps originating in ANATOLIA
(present-day Turkey) and islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea Peo-
ples advanced against Egypt by both land and sea. However, Egypt
Levant lands bordering the eastern crushed their land army in the Levant* and destroyed their fleet by draw-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- ing it into the narrow channels of the NILE RIVER delta*. Some of the de-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West feated Sea Peoples settled on the Levantine coast and eventually forced
Bank, and Jordan
Egypt to abandon the territory it controlled in that region.
delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed Despite these military successes, Ramses' later years were plagued
of soil deposited by a river
with internal problems. Difficulty in the delivery of food rations led to
the first recorded strike by workers at the royal tombs in the ancient city
of THEBES. Then one of Ramses' wives plotted to kill him and put her son
on the throne. This plan was foiled, but Ramses died soon afterward and
was succeeded as king by his son Ramses IV. (See also Egypt and the
Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

RECORD KEEPING
T he oldest known communication code before the invention of WRIT-
ING emerged in the ancient Near East around 8000 B.C. It was a form
of record keeping that used small clay objects called tokens to represent
the items being recorded. This simple method of accounting remained in
use for more than 5,000 years and was directly related to two of the major
milestones in Near Eastern civilization: the beginning of AGRICULTURE and
city-state independent state consisting the growth of city-states*. The token system of record keeping also opened
of a city and its surrounding territory the way to new forms of communication. It gave rise to the earliest known
system of writing and led to the invention of abstract numerals, which be-
came the basis of all MATHEMATICS.

archaeologist scientist who studies past Tokens and Their Use. Archaeologists* have found record-keeping
human cultures, usually by excavating tokens in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and the Levant*, but the greatest
material remains of human activity numbers of them were found in MESOPOTAMIA and IRAN. Ranging in color
Levant lands bordering the eastern from brownish-pink to green and black, the tokens are small, handmade
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- objects of baked clay that measure up to one inch across.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
Bank, and Jordan
The first tokens consisted of simple geometric shapes, such as cones,
spheres, disks, and cylinders. A few were shaped like objects, such as oil
27
Record Keeping
jars and animals.Each token shape representeda particular item.For
instance, a cone and a sphere each represented different measuresof
grain. Tokens added an element of abstractionto the simpleact of count-
ing. By using tokens, people could not only count things without actually
handling or even looking at them, but they could add and subtract num-
bers of things as well.Tokens also providedapermanent, mobile record of
counting calculations and transactions.
The token system represented a great leap forwardin record keeping,
but it had some drawbacks. The counters conveyed only simple eco-
nomic quantities, and they provided no information about thequality of
goods or the kinds of transactions involved. Moreover, large numbersof
tokens weredifficult to store and keep together.
To keep the tokens together, people developed the idea of placing
groups of them inside hollow clay balls, which served as atype of enve-
lope. Once a ball was sealed, however, the tokens wereno longer visible
and could not be counted. Tosolve this problem, record keepers devised a
system of markingthe clay envelopes. They SEALS,pressed
the tokens,like
on the outersurface of the envelopes whilethe claywas soft.
still
The re-
sulting impressions represented the tokens inside the balls,just as the to-
kens themselves stoodforreal items.

Why Keep Records? Human communication evolved to keep pace

with other cultural developments. The token system appeared at about

28
 Record Keeping
the same time that people began farming. Once their survival started to
depend on harvesting and storing grains and other crops, people needed
a way to count and keep records of their goods. Although a single family
did not need to keep such records, larger units of society did. Record
keeping may therefore be related to the development of new and more
complex political and social structures, such as an urban economy and
an elite class that oversaw the distribution of goods.
Between about 4000 and 3500 B.C., complex tokens appeared, al-
though the simple ones remained in use. The complex tokens featured
more realistic forms, such as miniature tools, fruit, and people. Markings
also began to appear on tokens at around this time. The new variety and
complexity of tokens was probably related to the growth of city-states.
This resulted in an increase in workshops and products, a varied urban
economy, and centralized institutions, such as palace and temple bureau-
* bureaucracy system consisting of cracies*, all of which needed accurate and detailed accounting.
officials and clerks who perform Record keeping became the glue that held the increasingly complex
government functions states of the Near East together. It allowed those in power to know how
much grain a farmer produced or how many animals he owned—and
* scribe person of a learned class who therefore how much he should be taxed. Scribes* used the token system
served as a writer, editor, or teacher to record gifts given to temples, the number of people who lived in a dis-
trict or city, and the amount of grain sent from one district to another.
This method of accounting became the key to controlling the goods
themselves. Archaeologists have found tokens in tombs of wealthy indi-
viduals, which suggests that counting and record keeping were the privi-
lege of an elite segment of society and a sign of authority.

From Record Keeping to Writing. During the next 400 years, ac-
countants went from placing the tokens inside hollow clay balls to draw-
ing diagrams of the tokens on CLAY TABLETS. The illustrations were
scratched into the tablets and ranged from realistic to abstract drawings
of the objects they represented.
Soon scribes began to use a stylus—a reed with a triangular-shaped
tip—to press the shape of the symbol into the surface of the clay. Once
the principle of communicating by these symbols and pictures was estab-
lished, people applied it to things other than tokens, such as personal
names, words, and phrases. This marked the beginning of CUNEIFORM writ-
ing, which developed in Sumer before 3000 B.C.
The invention of writing allowed for more extensive record keeping in
the ancient Near East. Scribes in the city-state of URUK, where writing may
have been invented, kept records of transactions and inventories for the
temple there, which had vast economic interests. This type of record keep-
ing, for both the government and the temple, was one of the main duties
of many scribes in the ancient Near East. Additionally, they gathered and
recorded information for tax collection purposes.
Writing as a method of record keeping was also important to private
individuals who engaged in trade. Writing allowed them to maintain
cuneiform records of their business transactions in the form of contracts,
bills of sale, letters of credit, and debt statements. These records were cru-
cial because they could be referred to if a dispute arose between the two
parties concerning their agreement after it had taken place.
29
Red Sea
From Record Keeping to Mathematics. In addition to paving the
way for writing, the token system also led to the invention of abstract
numerals and thus to the development of mathematics. The record
keeping of prehistoric cultures suggests that people did not possess
knowledge of abstract numbers. In other words, they had no concept of
"sixness" aside from six actual things possessed or being counted. To rep-
resent six oil jars, for example, the token system used six tokens, not one
token for oil jar and another representing the number 6.
Around the time that the practice of impressing or scratching symbols
into clay envelopes or tablets was developing into the earliest form of writ-
ing, a new kind of symbol came into use: abstract numbers. A numeral
stood for a number as an idea apart from any particular object. For exam-
ple, a tablet from ancient Iran records 33 jars of oil—but not as 33 repeti-
tions of the token symbol for jar of oil. Instead, the symbols are a single jar
of oil sign accompanied by three circles, each representing ten, and three
wedges, each representing one, for a total of 33. Over time, the symbols for
numerals became even more abstract, and people began combining and
manipulating them in new ways. In this manner, the ancient counting
technology that the farmers had used for simple record keeping gave rise
to mathematics.
The Near Eastern practice of the use of clay as a medium for recording
transactions has allowed modern scholars and archaeologists to see
records made thousands of years ago. Because baked clay is durable,
records have survived—often in archives—allowing historians to track
the evolution of record keeping from a token-based system to the inven-
tion and continued use of writing and mathematics. (See also Communi-
cation; Libraries and Archives; Numbers and Numerals.)

RED SEA
T he Red Sea is a narrow body of water that separates the western shore
of Arabia from the eastern shore of North Africa. Its northernmost
point lies some 100 miles south of the Mediterranean Sea, and at its south-
ern end, it connects to the Arabian Sea by way of the Gulf of Aden. The
Red Sea stretches about 1,200 miles from north to south, but its widest
point is no more than about 190 miles across. Parts of the sea are quite
deep, dropping to nearly 10,000 feet below sea level. Although the water
of the sea is generally colored a brilliant bluish green, the sea sometimes
turns red when a particular type of algae dies. This phenomenon is be-
lieved to be the source of its name.
See map in Arabia and the Arabs The sea has been an important waterway for thousands of years. It is
(vol.1).
the subject of some of the earliest recorded references to large bodies of
water. By around 2000 B.C., Egyptian ships had begun to use the Red Sea as
a major trade route, despite the fact that it is difficult to navigate. Egypt-
ian navigators had probably compiled accurate charts of the sea by about
1500 B.C. Queen HATSHEPSUT sailed on the sea at that time, and it is un-
likely she would have risked the journey if its currents and other dangers
were not well known.
Around 600 B.C., Phoenician ships traveled through the Red Sea as
part of a journey in which they circumnavigated (sailed entirely around)
30
 Religion

Africa. In 497 B.C., the Persian king DARIUS I recut a canal begun by the
pharaoh* NECHO II that joined the Red Sea and the NILE RIVER, anticipat-
* pharaoh ruler of ancient Egypt ing the present-day Suez Canal by nearly 2,400 years.
Because of a misinterpretation of the Hebrew BIBLE, the Red Sea is fre-
quently thought to be the sea that YAHWEH parted during the Israelites'
flight from slavery in Egypt to Canaan. The Bible, as it was written in an-
cient Hebrew, stated that the Israelites crossed the ''Sea of Reeds/' which
could refer to three separate bodies of water. The misinterpretation oc-
curred in the 200s B.C., when Greek writers translated all three bodies of
water as simply the Red Sea. This mistake was carried into later Latin and
English translations, each culture adding its own nuances. Modern schol-
ars have restored the translation to its original wording and do not believe
that the sea mentioned in the Bible refers to the Red Sea. (See also Econ-
omy and Trade; Shipping Routes; Ships and Boats; Trade Routes;
Transportation and Travel.)

RELIGION
RR eligion is the belief in and worship of one or more deities*. Histori-
ans know about the religions of the ancient Near East from archaeo-
logical* remains of temples and tombs, from religious artifacts* such as
statues and amulets*, and from ancient religious writings such as myths
and HYMNS. Although these sources reveal a great deal about the state
cults* of ancient Near Eastern religions, far less is known about the reli-
deity god or goddess gious practices of the common people.
archaeological referring to the study Religions of the ancient Near East shared certain basic features. Most
of past human cultures, usually by were polytheistic, meaning that they were based on the worship of many
excavating material remains of human deities. Each pantheon* usually included a chief god and a number of
activity other gods and goddesses, each responsible for different aspects of the uni-
artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or verse or human existence. As regions became large states as a result of uni-
other object made by humans fication or conquest, local pantheons, which often had similar gods,
amulet small object thought to have merged to form larger national pantheons.
supernatural or magical powers Religion was not a separate facet of life in the ancient Near East but an
cult system of religious beliefs and essential part of both governments and economies. Priests were often bene-
rituals; group following these beliefs ficiaries of kings and governors, and many temples were involved in com-
pantheon all the gods of a particular merce and trade. Religious practice also included MAGIC and MEDICINE—all
culture three were seen as ways to influence the supernatural world for the benefit
of humankind.

Mesopotamia. Some of the most important deities in ancient Sumer

and Akkad were ANU, ENLIL, Enki (EA), Inanna (ISHTAR), Utu (Shamash),
and ADAD. Anu, the god of heaven, presided over the other gods. Enlil
was the god of the atmosphere and winds, whom Sumerians believed
separated heaven and earth. Enki (Ea) was the god of water and the pro-
tector of humanity. Inanna (Ishtar), the goddess of love, was the most
important goddess in ancient MESOPOTAMIA. Utu (Shamash) was the sun
* city-state independent state consisting god and the god of justice. Adad was the storm god, responsible for rain
of a city and its surrounding territory and thunder.
* patron special guardian, protector, or Each city and city-state* in ancient Mesopotamia had a main temple
supporter for its patron* deity and smaller temples for lesser deities. The gods were
31
Religion

* sanctuary most sacred part of a represented by statues, which were kept in the sanctuaries* of the tem-
religious building ples. The temples were equipped like palaces, with a kitchen for preparing
the deity's meals, a reception suite for receiving visitors, and bedrooms
for the deity's divine family and servants. PRIESTS AND PRIESTESSES carried out
the many tasks involved in worshiping the deity at the temple. The chief
priest managed the temple and its practical affairs, while a priestess
served as the spouse of the deity. Several priests performed the daily ritu-
als, which included offering the deity two daily meals, music, and burn-
* incense fragrant spice or resin burned ing incense*. On certain occasions, the statue was taken out of the temple
as an offering so that the deity could meet with the gods of other cities or attend public
festivals, during which the common people could make offerings. The
practices of the Mesopotamian priests and people reflected their belief
that their survival depended on their ability to honor the gods and fulfill
their needs.

Egypt. Major deities of the Egyptian pantheon included Ra, AMUN,

HATHOR, HORUS, Isis, and OSIRIS. Amun was the creator god of THEBES, who
later became the chief god of Egypt. Hathor was goddess of women and
dance. Horus was god of the sky and of kingship. He was identified with
the Egyptian king, who was considered a living manifestation of the god.
Isis was the mother of Horus and the goddess of magic. Osiris was the fa-
ther of Horus and the god of the netherworld, or the world of the dead.
Although temples were built for worshiping one god, the god was not
the only divine being there. Usually, temples housed divine families of fa-
Feeding the Gods ther, mother, and son. Statues representing these family members were
A common feature of ancient Near kept in the temple's sanctuary. In principle, only the king was allowed to
Eastern religions was the offering of approach directly and worship the deities, because he was considered a
food to statues of the gods* Obvi- god or a son of a god. In practice, however, most of the temple responsi-
ously, the statues did not actually
bilities fell to priests and priestesses acting on the king's behalf. Each day,
eat the food. Instead, the food was
eaten by the temple's staff and thei the temple priests bathed the statues, and dressed and perfumed them.
families. For temples with very Ian They offered the gods food and drink and entertained them with songs
staffs, this could be an enormous and dance. On special occasions, they performed additional rituals,
amount of food. An ancient text which might include the recitation of prayers and incantations* to
from Mesopotamia lists the follow* gain the deities' attention and favor. The Egyptians feared that the gods
ing daily food offering at one major
temple: 40 sheep, 3 bulk, 8 Iambs,
would become angry if not worshiped properly, and then Egypt would be
70 birds and ducks, 4 wild boars, 3 destroyed.
ostrich eggs, dates, figs, raisins, 54 During the frequent religious festivals, statues of the deities were car-
containers of beer and wine, and ried outside the temples and through the streets of the city in a procession.
more than 1,000 pounds of bread. On these occasions, the common people could ask questions of the
deities, and priests would convey the deities' responses. Although the
common people were barred from entering the temples, during and after
the Middle Kingdom period (ca. 1980-1630 B.C.), they were allowed to set
* incantation written or recited formula up a statue or stela* outside a temple to establish a link between them-
of words designed to produce a given selves and the deity within. Some families also had altars in their homes,
effect where they prayed and made offerings.
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been The religion of ancient Egypt had a number of unique features. The
carved or engraved and serves as a Egyptian king was believed to be Horus, hence divine. After his death, he
monument; pi. stelae
was Osiris and was worshiped as a god. The ancient Egyptians also had a
strong belief in the AFTERLIFE, which greatly influenced their religious prac-
tices. Bodies of the dead were preserved as MUMMIES and buried in tombs,
32
 Religion

and their descendants regularly brought them offeringsoffoodtomeet

their needs in the
afterlife. Towardthe end ofancient
Egypt's civilization,
certain animals, includingbulls, cats, andsnakes, were increasingly wor-
shiped as gods. Manyofthese sacred animals were also mummified and
buried in tombs.

Iran. The Elamites, early inhabitants IRAN,worshiped

ofancient many
different deities.Kirishawasgoddessof the sky andmother of theother
Elamite deities. Khumbanwas god ofstormsandruled overtheheavens.
Napirisha was god ofwisdom andruled overtheearth.Ishushinak—
originally the city god ofSusa—becamethemost importantgod of the
Elamites and wasresponsiblefortheir peaceandsecurity.
See In Elam, the king was the chief priest. Next inrank was the high
[colorplate13' priest, who always accompanied theking, even intimesofwar. Other
vol. 1.
priests served the deities intheir city temples and ingroves thatwerebe-
lieved to be sacred. Musicwasalways partofworship, as was the
fire use of
and alcoholic beverages. However,themost important partofworship
was the sacrificeofanimals, most often rams. During some religious festi-
vals, greatfeasts were heldfor thepublic, during which large numbers of
rams were sacrificed and thenroasted andshared among thepeople in
attendance.
* dynasty succession ofrulers from the After the Elamite kingdom ended B.C.,in
Iranians
the600sbeganto
same family or group worship other deities, including Mithra,god of the sun and of war;
* prophet one who claims tohave AHURA MAZDA,god of goodness;
AHRIMAN,
and
god ofAfter
evil.
the
received divinemessages or insights Achaemenid dynasty* took over B.C.,the
Iran
state
in 522 religion
ofIran
* monotheistic referring to thebelief in was based on the teachings of theprophet* Zoroaster,whotaught that
only one god Ahura Mazda was the only true god. Inthis monotheistic* religion,
33
Religion

called Zoroastrianism, animal sacrifice was condemned, and an offering

of flour and wine to Ahura Mazda became the most important aspect of
worship. Later Ahura Mazda was seen as the chief god among others.

Anatolia. The HITTITES of ancient Anatolia (present-day Turkey) had a

very complex pantheon because they adopted many gods and goddesses
from other Near Eastern peoples. Most of these deities came from the HUR-
RIANS who heavily influenced the Hittites around the 1400s B.C. The Hur-
rian pantheon was headed by the storm god TESHUB, who ruled the
heavens, and his wife, the sun goddess KHEPAT. Among the other gods wor-
shiped by the Hurrians were KUMARBI, god of fertility and grain, and
Shimegi, god of the moon.
Many deities had their own temples, where they were represented by
statues. Worship at outdoor sites, such as groves, was common. The high-
Gods Galore est-ranking priest was the king, whose most important duty as head of
In the ancient Near East, each com-
state was performing religious rituals. The state paid a hierarchy* of other
munrty had its own local pantheon
containing many deities. As a result religious personnel, including many types of priests, who were involved
as kingdoms, regions, and nations in worshiping the deities or managing the temples. The people of Anato-
developed, they had an astonishing lia also celebrated numerous religious festivals throughout the year, some
number of deities, At one time, lasting more than a month. The festivals involved processions of the king
scribes in ancient Sumer attempted \ and statues of the deities, feasts, and entertainment, such as gymnastics
to list Sumerian and other deities*
The list they produced contained a
and mock battles. The common people could attend the festivals, as well
total of 3,600 gods and goddesses. as pray to deities on their own.
Of course, only a small fraction of
these deities were actually wor- Syria and the Levant. Some of the most important deities of Syria
shiped in any one place at a given and the Levant* included EL, BAAL, and ANAT. In the religion of the Syrian
time.
city UGARIT, El was considered the creator of earth and the father of hu-
manity. He presided over the other gods. In the Canaanite and Phoeni-
cian religions, Baal was the storm god and god of war. Anat was Baal's
sister and guardian of the king.
In the countryside, deities were worshiped at thousands of outdoor
sites that were believed to be sacred. In the cities, temples were built as
* hierarchy division of society or an places of worship and homes for the deities. The deities were represented
institution into groups with higher and in the temples by statues kept in the sanctuaries. Although kings were not
lower ranks usually priests, they played an important religious role because they had
* Levant lands bordering the eastern the power to appoint priests. The chief priest managed the temple, and ad-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- ditional priests were responsible for the daily sacrifices, hymns, and other
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
Bank, and Jordan
aspects of worship. The main role of women in the temples was as wives or
mistresses of temple gods. Common people could come to the temple to
* oracle priest or priestess through whom
a god is believed to speak; also, the
pray to the deities or seek an oracle*. They could also pray in the privacy of
location (such as a shrine) where such their own homes.
utterances are made Another important god in ancient times was YAHWEH, the Hebrew de-
ity associated with storms and thunder, who became the national deity of
Israel and Judah. Yahweh came to be worshiped as the one and only god of
the Israelites, and their religion, which eventually led to Judaism, was one
of the first major religions to be based on monotheism. (See also Ashur
(deity); Aten; Cults; Gods and Goddesses; Israel and the Israelites; Mar-
duk; Monotheism; Mythology; Oracles and Prophecy; Palaces and
Temples; Priests and Priestesses; Psalms; Rituals and Sacrifice; Seth;
Theology; Witchcraft.)
34
 Rhodes

RHODES
T he largest island of the Dodecanese (Greek for ''twelve islands''),
Rhodes is located in the AEGEAN SEA near the southwestern coast of
present-day Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA). According to Greek mythology,
the island was named for Rhodos, the daughter of the goddess Aphrodite
and wife of the sun god Helios. Some believe that Rhodes got its name
from the Phoenician word for snake, erod, because the island was known
to have many snakes.
* maritime related to the sea or shipping Rhodes prospered in ancient times as one of the major maritime* and
trading powers of the eastern Mediterranean. Throughout its history, the
island earned its living from the sea and from trade, and it developed a
powerful navy to defend its TRADE ROUTES in the Mediterranean and Aegean
See map in Phoenicia and the Seas. By the late 200s B.C., the island had become one of the most impor-
Phoenicians (vol. 3).
tant NAVAL POWERS in the region. Its navy played a significant role in keep-
ing the region free of pirates.
Among the early inhabitants of Rhodes were Minoans from CRETE,
who may have established a colony there before 1500 B.C. Between about
1200 and 1000 B.C., a people from mainland Greece known as the Dori-
* city-state independent state consisting ans settled on the island and established three city-states*: Lindus, laly-
of a city and its surrounding territory sus, and Camirus. These city-states became very prosperous from trade,
and by the 500s B.C., they had established colonies in Anatolia, Sicily, and
northeastern Spain.
After the PERSIAN WARS in the early 400s B.C., Rhodes became a mem-
ber of the Delian League, a group of Greek city states allied against the
PERSIAN EMPIRE. It remained in the league until the late 400s B.C., when the
Peloponnesian Wars broke out between the Greek city-states of Athens
and Sparta. Around 408 B.C., the three major city-states of Rhodes united
confederacy group of cities or states in a confederacy*, whose capital was a newly founded city also called
joined together for a purpose; an Rhodes.
alliance Dominated by Caria on the Anatolian mainland in the mid-300s B.C.,
island of Rhodes was occupied by ALEXANDER THE GREAT in about 332 B.C. It
regained its independence after Alexander's death in 323 B.C. and entered
the period of its greatest power, prosperity, and cultural achievements.
Hellenistic referring to the Greek- During the Hellenistic* period, Rhodes was home to a famous school of
influenced culture of the Mediterranean Greek philosophy. More famous, however, was a gigantic statue of the
world and western Asia during the three god Helios that stood at the entrance to the harbor of the capital city.
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
Known as the Colossus of Rhodes, this immense statue was built in the
early 300s B.C. to celebrate a victory over Demetrius I, ruler of the Mace-
siege long and persistent effort to force donians, who had laid siege* to the city. The statue, destroyed by an
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or earthquake in 227 B.C., is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the An-
city with armed troops, cutting it off cient World.
from supplies and aid
Between 215 and 148 B.C., Rhodes became involved in a series of con-
flicts between Macedonia and the Roman Empire. At first, Rhodes cooper-
ated with the Romans against the Macedonian king Philip V and the
Seleucid king Antiochus III, but it later withdrew much of its support for
the Romans. In turn, the Romans shifted their support of Rhodes to the
Aegean island of Delos, which became a tax-free port. This caused Rhodes
to lose much of its trade, wealth, and power in the Mediterranean. The
* sack to loot a captured city Romans conquered the island and sacked* its capital in the middle of the
first century B.C. (See also Greece and the Greeks; Mediterranean Sea,
Trade on; Minoan Civilization.)
35
Rituals and Sacrifice

RITUALS
A ritual is a series of formal actions and words that have special
meaning when performed and spoken. Usually found within the
context of religious worship, rituals also accompany important secular*
AND SACRIFICE events, such as birth, passage into adulthood, MARRIAGE, and death. Sacri-
fices are ritual OFFERINGS of food, drink, and animals to the gods. Rituals
and sacrifices played an important role in RELIGION throughout the an-
cient Near East.

* secular nonreligious; connected with Rituals. Most rituals in the ancient Near East were connected to reli-
everyday life gious beliefs. In ancient temples throughout the region, PRIESTS AND PRIEST-
ESSES enacted various rituals as part of daily worship. Most of these rituals
involved taking care of the needs of the gods, whose presence on earth was
represented by statues. The priests fed, clothed, washed, and entertained
these statues just as if they were alive. Priests also performed special
monthly and yearly rituals, which were among the only times that the
statue of a god was seen in public. Other important rituals included those
that accompanied the construction of temples.
Religious rituals generally involved PRAYER, offerings, and purification
ceremonies, all of which played a crucial role in gaining the attention of
Substitute Kings the gods and in preparing people to honor and serve them. Purification,
of Mesopotamia which often involved washing oneself with water, had a very significant
In ancient Mesopotamia, an eclipse \ purpose and meaning in religious rituals. Anything connected to the
or other heavenly event was a terri- gods had to be pure. Not only was dirt an impurity but so were physical
ble omen, or sign, that meant that deformities and illegal or immoral acts. Ritual purification symbolized
the king would soon die a violent
death. To protect their ruler,
the removal of all impurities, making humans worthy of serving and con-
Mesopotamians chose a substitute necting with their gods. In ancient MESOPOTAMIA, priests ritually washed
king who dressed in royal robes and their hands before approaching the gods in the temples. During the Ro-
played the part of the king. If this man period, Jews purified themselves through immersion in a special rit-
substitute king did not die of nat- ual bath called a miqveh.
ural causes within a certain period
of time, he was killed. One substi-
In addition to prayers and offerings, rituals often involved specific
tute king of Isin actually continued movements of the body, sometimes in a repetitive manner. Prayer was
to rule after the real king died. generally accompanied by such ritual movements as raising the hands to
Some historians believe that King the mouth or standing with the arms at the sides. Ritual movements per-
Esarhaddon used the substitute formed during Hittite religious ceremonies often included running and
king ritual at least seven times dur- kneeling. Among the Israelites, the word for worship literally meant ''to
ing his reign.
bow down" or "to bend over/' and during worship, people often expressed
their submission to god by lying flat on their stomachs with their faces
touching the ground.
Ancient Near Eastern societies also practiced many rituals that were
not connected directly to religious worship. In Mesopotamia, for exam-
ple, people were concerned about ignorance of the gods' rules. Through
such ignorance, people could offend the gods, which could result in dire
consequences. To protect themselves from committing a sin of igno-
* atonement repayment for an offense or rance, Mesopotamians performed general rituals of atonement* that
injury would cover or correct any sin that they might have committed know-
ingly or otherwise. The ancient HITTITES also had rituals for correcting
* oracle priest or priestess through whom mistakes caused by ignorance of the gods' rules.
a god is believed to speak; also, the The people of the ancient Near East also performed rituals to ask for
location (such as a shrine) where such assistance from the gods, such as protection in battle and help in combat-
utterances are made
ing evil or seeking guidance from oracles*. Many situations in daily life,
36
 Rituals and Sacrifice
such as marriage, childbirth, and illness, called for rituals as well. Death
rituals were also very important, especially in ancient Egypt. The Egyp-
tians performed various rituals to prepare the dead for the AFTERLIFE, and
Egyptian funeral ceremonies consisted of several ritual activities.

Sacrifice. Sacrifices in the ancient Near East often served simply as

food for the gods. This was not their only purpose, however. They might
also have been intended as a gift for the gods — often a form of thanks for
* deity god or goddess divine help— or as a means of honoring the deities*. Sacrifices might
also have been performed to get the attention of the gods, to earn their
goodwill, or to ask a favor.
Sacrifices consisted of offerings such as grain, wine, oil, and other
items of food or drink. The daily offerings were intended for the gods, but
priests and worshipers who presented them partook from the food once it
* consecrate to declare sacred or holy by was consecrated*. In fact, ritual offerings were an important source of food
means of a religious rite for temple staff. Ritually slaughtered animals were also a common sacrifice
in the ancient Near East. The animals most commonly sacrificed included
lambs, SHEEP, and GOATS, although bulls, CATTLE, dogs, and other animals
were sometimes offered as sacrifices as well. In ancient Greece, for exam-
ple, dogs were sacrificed to the goddess Hecate because it was believed that
* underworld world of the dead she traveled with dogs through the underworld*. In SYRIA during the sec-
* second millennium B.C. years from ond millennium B.C.*, donkeys were sacrificed at the conclusion of treaty-
2000 to 1001 B.C. making ceremonies.
Eating meat was relatively rare in the ancient Near East and a blood
sacrifice — an offering of a ritually slaughtered animal—was usually fol-
See lowed by a feast. Among the Elamites of southwestern IRAN, rams were the
[color plate 12/ most common sacrificial animal, and the most important sacrificial feast
vol. 1.
was one for the "Lady of the City." During the Israelite sacrificial feast
called zebah shelamim, the person offering the blood sacrifice would in-
vite family members to the temple to share the rare treat of a meal with
meat. Israelites were allowed to sacrifice ruminants, that is, animals that

This bronze plate was made for the

Elamite king Shilkhak-lnshushinak, who
ruled during the 1150s B.C. It depicts a
sacrificial ceremony called "rising of the
sun." Two naked priests are shown squat-
ting, one about to pour water over the
hands of the other as part of the purifica-
tion ceremonies that took place at the be-
ginning of the day. Also shown on the
plate are a table for offerings, temples,
and a holy grove.

37
Rivers
chew their cud, such as goats, sheep, and cattle. Nonruminants, such as
pigs and camels, were forbidden as sacrificial animals; hence, they could
not be eaten.
Although human sacrifice was rare, there is evidence that a few adults
may have been sacrificed at UR in Mesopotamia and also in Egypt. Other
evidence suggests that child sacrifice was performed in ancient CARTHAGE,
Phoenicia, and Israel. The Hebrew BIBLE contains a story about the leader
Abraham and the near-sacrifice of his son Isaac. Some biblical scholars be-
lieve that this story signifies the end of child sacrifice among the ancient
Israelites. (See also Death and Burial; Feasts and Festivals; Oracles and
Prophecy; Palaces and Temples.)

RIVERS
T he history of civilization in the Near East is intimately connected to
the rivers that flow through the region. The rise of complex urban
societies in the region was possible only because of the development of
large-scale AGRICULTURE. This development would not have been possible
without the reliable sources of WATER provided by such rivers as the Nile
and the Euphrates. In the dry Near East, rivers supplied water not only for
IRRIGATION but also for drinking, bathing, watering livestock, and the
many other needs of a growing population. Rivers also served as principal
routes for travel and trade and for connecting cities and kingdoms across
long distances.

The Main Rivers. The three most important rivers in the Near East are
the Nile, the Euphrates, and the Tigris. It was on the banks of these rivers
that the greatest early civilizations of the region arose. The Nile River
rises near the equator, flows northward through northeastern Africa, and
passes through Egypt before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. In
late summer, the river floods, covering the area along its banks with wa-
See map on inside covers. ter containing rich sediments. The water recedes after six to ten weeks,
leaving a narrow strip of fertile land amidst the barren Egyptian desert.
Long before the rise of complex civilizations, small bands of people ex-
ploited the fertile soil near the Nile for growing crops and raising livestock.
By about 3000 B.C., the earliest kings of Egypt united the people living
along the Nile into a single country. The regular flooding ensured the pros-
perity of the land that formed the basis for the wealth of ancient Egypt.
The Nile also served as the highway of ancient Egypt, connecting the
northern and southern sections of the country. Because the distances be-
tween these two regions was great, the river served as a means of trans-
portation and communication between them and helped unify the
kingdom politically. The Nile's importance to transportation is reflected
hieroglyphic referring to a system of in the Egyptian language. The hieroglyphic* sign for north was a ship
writing that uses pictorial characters, or with its sail folded down, while the sign for south was a boat with its sail
hieroglyphs, to represent words or ideas full of wind.
The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers originate in present-day Turkey (an-
cient ANATOLIA) and flow southeastward through modern Iraq (ancient
MESOPOTAMIA) until they reach the Persian Gulf. Because the regions along
38
 Roads
the northern reaches of the rivers receive enough rainfall, small-scale
farming and livestock and early civilizations were able to thrive. In the
south, the early peoples were dependent on the river's annual floods.
The earliest civilizations of Mesopotamia arose on the banks of the
southern Euphrates. These included Sumer, Akkad, and later Babylonia, all
of which constructed canal networks to store and use the water more effi-
ciently. Early peoples did not establish settlements along the Tigris until
the third millennium B.C. (3000-2001 B.C.), because that river runs a steep
and swift course that is prone to cause devastating floods. However, by the
second millennium B.C. years from second millennium B.C.*, several important kingdoms, such as Assyria and
2000 to 1001 B.C. Mitanni, had emerged along the banks of the Tigris. These kingdoms also
made use of canals to tap the Tigris waters.
The Tigris and Euphrates were just as important to travel in Mesopota-
mia as the Nile was in Egypt. The rivers connected Mesopotamia to king-
doms in Anatolia and SYRIA, and the major TRADE ROUTES of the region
closely followed the rivers. The Assyrians in particular carried on a major
trade with cities in Anatolia that were located along the rivers.

Other Important Rivers. In addition to the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates,

the Near East contains a few other important rivers. Two other major rivers
* tributary river that flows Into another in Iraq are the Diyala and the Khabur. The Diyala, a tributary* of the Tigris
river River, was the site of many early settlements, including the city-state* of ESH-
* city-state independent state consisting NUNNA. The area around the Khabur River, in northern Mesopotamia, was
of a city and its surrounding territory heavily settled in the late third and early second millennia B.C. However, the
number of settlements along the river declined after about 1500 B.C. This
may have been because the region was unsuited to intensive agriculture and
because it lay between kingdoms that often engaged in combat.
Levant lands bordering the eastern In the Levant* and IRAN, the climate is very dry, and few rivers run
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- throughout the year. Besides the Jordan River in Canaan and the Karun
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West River in Iran, most other rivers in those regions flow only during the
Bank, and Jordan
rainy season.
Turkey contains several large rivers, but dangerous rapids make almost
all of them unsuited to navigation. The Turkish river that was perhaps the
most famous in ancient times was the Meander, which contained many
bends along its wandering route through the Turkish countryside, giving
rise to the English term meander, meaning "to wander/' (See also Eu-
phrates River; Geography; Nile River; Shipping Routes; Tigris River;
Transportation and Travel.)

ROADS
I n the ancient Near East, roads were land routes that were cleared,
marked, and maintained. Where roads existed, they often offered the
best and fastest route of travel for traders and merchants, messengers,
armies, and ordinary individuals. They also shaped settlement patterns,
because towns and cities developed along roads or where roads crossed.
However, only well-organized societies could afford the resources to build
and maintain roads. Consequently, as ancient states grew into large and
powerful empires, their road-building activities expanded.
39
Roads
Road Building. In MESOPOTAMIA, most roads were several feet across,
and some were wide enough to allow wagons and chariots to pass. The
streets in the city of BABYLON varied from 9 to 18 feet in width, while a ma-
jor route through NINEVEH was nearly 90 feet wide. Some of these ancient
roads were paved with a foundation layer of bricks held in place by as-
* Levant lands bordering the eastern phalt and topped by a layer of larger limestone slabs. In the Levant*, rem-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- nants of cobbled streets, or streets paved with round or irregular stones,
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West have been excavated by archaeologists*. They have also found a road
Bank, and Jordan
leading to the gate of the city of MEGIDDO consisting of a layer of hard
* archaeologist scientist who studies past plaster atop a base layer of crushed stone.
human cultures, usually by excavating
material remains of human activity
Archaeologists have found no evidence of road signs but have found
some roads with markers along the way to keep travelers from losing their
way. Cairns, or rocks that have been piled up, lined some Egyptian roads.
The Israelites may have used the same method to mark their roads.

Obstacles to Road Building. Although most longer roads were un-

paved, they had to be planned, measured, and leveled so that their sur-
faces would be clear and smooth. The Hebrew BIBLE contains references
See map in Economy and Trade to Israelite road builders smoothing and leveling the roadways. Road
(vol.2). building in Egypt also consisted mostly of scraping a smooth surface.
Some roads required more effort, however.
In many regions in the ancient Near East, road builders had to deal
with obstacles such as forests and mountains. Building a road wide,
smooth, and level enough to carry heavy wagonloads of timber out of
mountain ranges usually required workers to use pickaxes to clear a path.
In other regions, such as the plains of southern Mesopotamia, road
builders had to contend with swamps and marshes. They also had to build
roads and bridges to cross canals, streams, and rivers. Floods often washed
away wooden bridges, which had to be replaced. This duty, like most as-
pects of road maintenance, was the responsibility of the local people, who
* provincial having to do with the were supervised by provincial* governors or local leaders.
provinces, outlying districts,
administrative divisions, or conquered
territories of a country or empire Imperial Roads. The most ambitious road system of the ancient Near
East was that of the Neo-Assyrian empire, which dominated northern
Mesopotamia and some surrounding regions from 911 to 609 B.C. The
Assyrians created history's first huge, well-administered, and highly cen-
tralized empire. Because controlling such a territory required rapid com-
munication between the capital and outlying centers and speedy troop
movement, the Assyrians built a large network of roads stretching
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or throughout their empire. The imperial* government controlled the en-
an empire tire road network to ensure that roads existed where needed and were
kept in good repair.
Major highways were called royal roads and were measured with
great precision so that distances would be accurately known. Segments of
the royal roads close to capital cities were paved with stone slabs and
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been lined with stone markers or stelae*, a practice that the Romans would
carved or engraved and serves as a later adopt in their own empire. Road stations were built along the royal
monument; pi. stelae roads to serve as stopping places for couriers, marching troops, and civil-
ian travelers.
40
 Rosetta Stone
Less than a century after the fall of the Assyrian empire, the Persians
came to dominate the ancient Near East for the next several hundred
years. They took over the Assyrian system of royal roads and extended the
network to stretch across their empire. The most famous Persian royal
road linked the city of SARDIS in Anatolia (present-day Turkey) with Susa,
the Persian capital in IRAN. This road was approximately 1,600 miles long,
and it took three months to travel it from end to end. The Greek traveler
and historian HERODOTUS wrote that he was much impressed by this Per-
sian road, with its stations, inns, swift messenger service, and ferryboats
across rivers. (See also Trade Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

ROSETTA STONE
T he Rosetta Stone is a slab of black basalt* bearing INSCRIPTIONS that
helped scholars decipher* the ancient form of Egyptian writing
known as HIEROGLYPHICS. The inscriptions appear in three different scripts:
Egyptian hieroglyphics, Greek, and demotic—a popular form of cursive
script that was widely used to write the Egyptian language by the 600s B.C.
The efforts of those who studied the Rosetta Stone unlocked the secrets of
* basalt black or gray stone, often with a hieroglyphic writing and provided the basis for the decipherment of thou-
glassy surface sands of hieroglyphic texts.
* decipher to decode and interpret the
meaning of
Discovery and Early Study. The Rosetta Stone was inscribed in 196
B.C. by priests in the Egyptian city of MEMPHIS. The inscription lists the
many benefits bestowed on Egypt by King Ptolemy V Epiphanes, who
reigned from 205 to 180 B.C. The stone was discovered by members of
Napoleon Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt in A.D. 1799. However, the
British claimed the stone after the French army in Egypt surrendered to
the British shortly thereafter.
Around 1814, the English physicist Thomas Young made the first
breakthrough in deciphering the inscriptions. He made a major discovery
when he proved that certain hieroglyphs enclosed by oval circles, known
as cartouches, indicated the proper name of King Ptolemy. Young's dis-
covery proved other scholars' assumptions that similar cartouches in
other inscriptions were royal names. Furthermore, by noting the direc-
tion in which animal and bird characters in the hieroglyphs faced, Young
determined the direction in which the hieroglyphic script was to be read.
Despite Young's pioneering work, he was unable to fully decipher the hi-
eroglyphs. That feat was accomplished a few years later by the French
scholar Jean-Francois Champollion.

Champollion's Triumph. It is fitting that Champollion was the one

to break the code of the Rosetta Stone. As a boy, he was fascinated by hi-
eroglyphics, and he studied ancient languages in the hope that one day
he would be able to decipher the Egyptian characters found in so many
inscriptions and tomb paintings.
Champollion built on the work of previous scholars, especially that
of Young. Working from Young's discovery that the cartouches on the
41
Rosetta Stone

stone contained the name of Ptolemy, Champollion studied cartouches

in other inscriptions. On another monument, he found an inscription in
two languages that contained a cartouche bearing the name of CLEOPATRA.
He determined that the hieroglyphs in the cartouches were not symbols
that stood for ideas or words, as many scholars of the time believed, but
instead phonetic elements. Thatis, they represented consonants and syl-
lables that recorded the sounds of the names in the cartouches.
In 1822, Champollion published his first paper about the stone. In it,
he explained his theory and examined many other names from the same
period of Egyptian history. However, many scholars maintained that the
phonetic elements in the cartouches were only used for Greek and Ro-
man names and that they had no direct equivalent in hieroglyphic
Egyptian. In an 1824 paper, Champollion successfully demonstrated that
Egyptian words and names could also be written phonetically in the hi-
eroglyphic script.
Champollion also made other important discoveries in his work with
the stone. He realized that the Egyptians used different types of hiero-
glyphic signs. Some were phonetic, some were determinatives (signs fol-
lowing words that placed them in certain categories—for example,proper
42
 Sahara Desert
names, animals, and so on), and some were logograms (signs that con-
veyed a complete word rather than its pronunciation). He also deter-
mined that the Greek inscription had been recorded first, and the
hieroglyphic text was a translation from the Greek. Over time, he com-
piled a full list of hieroglyphic signs and their Greek equivalents. (See also
Alphabets; Egypt and the Egyptians; Writing.)

Sacrifice See Rituals and Sacrifice.

SAHARA DESERT
T he Sahara is the largest desert in the world, covering almost all of
northern Africa. Its name comes from the Arabic word sahra', which
means "desert/' The desert stretches 3,000 miles from east to west and be-
tween 800 and 1,200 miles from north to south. Bordered on the north
by the Mediterranean Sea, the Sahara stretches east to the Red Sea and
west to the Atlantic Ocean. To the south, the Sahara is bordered by the Sa-
hel, a region that stretches from Senegal to southern SUDAN.
The landscape of the Sahara includes huge plateaus covered with
gravel, called serirs or regs; mountains; and areas below sea level, called
chotts and day as. Almost one-fourth of the Sahara is made up of enor-
mous sand dunes and sand seas called ergs. The ergs contain huge sand
mountains called draa, which can rise to a height of 1,000 feet.
See map in Geography (vol. 2). Several rivers run through the Sahara. The largest of these is the Nile,
which runs along the eastern edge of the desert. In the southwest, the
Niger River wanders into the Sahara, and in the south, several rivers
empty into Lake Chad. However, the most significant sources of water in
the Sahara are not rivers and lakes but wadis, which are the beds of sea-
sonal rivers. Although these riverbeds are normally dry, they run with wa-
ter, often violently, after a rainstorm or the seasonal melting of highland
snow and ice.
The desert, which has existed for more than 5 million years, experi-
enced greater variations in climate in prehistoric times than it does today.
However, the grazing of CATTLE during the last 7,000 years has ended these
variations and made the region arid. There is evidence that in late prehis-
tory, the Sahara was narrower than it is today and had more water holes
* oasis fertile area in a desert made and oases*. Consequently, for a short period after the rainy season, large
possible by the presence of a spring or tracts of the desert became pastureland.
well; pi. oases The growth of the Sahara is most apparent in the south, where it bor-
ders the Sahel. The Sahara began to take over the northern Sahel in an-
cient times, and the process continues today. This is largely due to
overpopulation and excessive farming in the area. The sands of the Sa-
hara continue to expand southward, taking in as much as five miles in
drought long period of dry weather years when the region experiences severe droughts*.
during which crop yields are lower than There are two main climate zones in the Sahara: the northern dry-
usual subtropical zone and the southern dry-tropical zone. In both zones, the
winters can be cold and the summers extremely hot. The hottest temper-
ature ever recorded in the Sahara is 136° Fahrenheit. The change in desert
43
Samaria
temperatures from day into night can also be extreme, with nighttime
temperatures sometimes dropping to near freezing. During the rainy sea-
son, the northern sections of the desert average about three inches of
rain, while the south receives about five inches per year.
Plant life in the Sahara is sparse, but shrubs and grasses do grow there,
as do trees in some of the highland areas. Not surprisingly, the region sup-
ports few animals. Among the animals that have learned to survive the
desert are gerbils, hares, hedgehogs, lizards, hyenas, gazelles, and in the
past, elephants. More than 300 different species of birds live in or migrate
through the Sahara.
Humans have lived in the Sahara from at least 9000 B.C. Among the
* nomadic referring to people who travel people who lived there, the earliest were probably nomadic* hunters,
from place to place to find food and who later became cattle herders. However, by around 1250 B.C., most of
pasture the inhabitants from the interior of the Sahara had migrated elsewhere.
The most famous civilizations of the ancient Saharan world emerged
along the banks of the Nile River, where early refugees from the Sahara
* indigenous referring to the original came to live alongside the indigenous* people of the Nile Valley. The cul-
inhabitants of a region tures that developed among the descendants of these people became the
Egyptian and Nubian civilizations. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians;
Geography; Libyans; Nile River; Nubia and the Nubians.)

SAMARIA
S amaria was the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel from the
early 800s B.C. until the late 700s B.C. Samaria was established by
King Omri of Israel, who moved the capital from Tirzah. Before that
time, according to the Hebrew Bible, JERUSALEM was the capital of a united
Israel and Judah. The people of Jerusalem in Judah felt threatened by
Samaria's position as a political and cultural center. This is evident from
sections of the Bible in which Samaria and its people are described in a
negative light.
The city of Samaria, which also gave its name to the surrounding re-
gion, was located about 35 miles north of Jerusalem. It occupied an im-
See map in Israel and judah (vol. 3). portant strategic site—overlooking the main trade routes between Egypt,
Judah, Phoenicia, and southern SYRIA. To make the new capital a royal
city, Kings Omri and his son and successor, AHAB, built city walls, a palace,
public buildings, storerooms, and large courtyards.
When Ahab married a Phoenician princess named Jezebel, Samaria
came under the influence of Phoenician religion and culture. In fact,
Jezebel brought the worship of the Phoenician god BAAL to Israel, and
Ahab built a temple to Baal in Samaria. Although this association with
Phoenicia helped make Israel a major power, it also brought Ahab under
* prophet one who claims to have much criticism from prophets* who felt Israel was moving away from the
received divine messages or insights worship of the Israelite god YAHWEH. As a result, Omri's dynasty* was over-
* dynasty succession of rulers from the thrown by Jehu in 842 B.C. King Jehu ended the alliance with Phoenicia,
same family or group and Israel's power subsequently declined.
By the late 700s B.C., the Assyrians had emerged as a major power, and
they were expanding their territory. In 722 B.C., Samaria and Israel were
conquered by the Assyrians, and many Israelites were sent into captivity
in other Assyrian provinces. The Assyrians resettled Israel with peoples
44
 Samaritans
from southern Babylonia and Syria. According to their own traditions,
the Samaritans believe that they are the descendants of those Israelites
who were not sent into captivity. According to Jewish tradition, however,
the Samaritans descended from the Israelites who remained behind but
intermarried with the people who were resettled in the region from else-
where in the Assyrian empire.
After the Assyrian conquest, Israel continued to be occupied by the
various empires that took control of the ancient Near East. After the As-
syrians came the short-lived Neo-Babylonian empire. After the Babyloni-
ans, Israel and Samaria were occupied by the Persians, the Macedonians
under the Ptolemies and Seleucids, and finally the Romans. During these
successive occupations, the city of Samaria remained an important ad-
ministrative site. (See also Canaan; Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and
Judah; Judaism and Jews; Samaritans.)

SAMARITANS
T he Samaritans are a small sect who separated from traditional Ju-
daism. Their name is derived from the region of SAMARIA in present-
day Israel and the West Bank, where they have lived since at least the
middle of the first millennium B.C.* The history of the Samaritans as a re-
ligious group is as unique as it is disputed.
The Samaritans, the Jews, and modern historians each have different
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 versions of the Samaritans' origins. The Samaritan tradition says that they
tO 1 B.C. separated from the rest of the Jewish community when the priest Eli set-
tled the group near Shiloh. They also believe that they are the direct de-
scendants of those Israelites who were not deported after the Assyrian
conquest of Israel and who remained faithful in their worship of YAHWEH.
Jewish history, on the other hand, says that the Samaritans were the de-
scendants of the Israelites who were not deported by the Assyrians but
had intermarried with the foreigners who were resettled in the region.
Some modern historians believe that the Samaritans were a northern Is-
sect group of people with a common raelite Judaic sect* who split from traditional Judaism much later, possi-
leadership who share a distinctive set of bly as late as 150 B.C.
religious views and opinions According to the Hebrew BIBLE, the Samaritans came into conflict
with the Jews in the 530s B.C. In 587 B.C., the Babylonians destroyed
JERUSALEM and the Temple of Solomon, the religious center of the Jews.
Many Jews were exiled to Babylon, where they maintained a strong Jew-
ish community. When the Persians conquered Babylonia, they allowed
those Jews to return to Jerusalem in 538 B.C. to rebuild the temple. The
Samaritans wanted to help them, but the Jews refused their offer because
they did not consider the Samaritans Jewish. In the 300s B.C., the Samari-
tans built their own temple on Mount Gerizim in Samaria.
Over the centuries, Samaritans established colonies in DAMASCUS,
Egypt, Athens, Rome, Corinth, Delos, and Syracuse. Today the Samaritans
are a small sect of about 600 people who live in two communities in Israel
and the West Bank. Their main religious text is the TORAH (or Pentateuch).
Unlike Jews, they do not recognize the other books of the Hebrew Bible as
sacred texts. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Judaism
and Jews.)
45
Samsu-iluiia

SAMSU-ILUNA
S amsu-iluna (SAM»su*i«LOO»nuh) was the son of King HAMMURABI,
whom he succeeded to the Babylonian throne. When he came to
power, Babylonia was master of southern MESOPOTAMIA. Shortly thereafter,
city-states* on the kingdom's northern and southern frontiers began to
revolt, forcing Samsu-iluna to spend much of his reign suppressing these
ruled ca. 1749-1712 B.C. rebellions.
King of Babylon In about 1740 B.C., Samsu-iluna defeated the KASSITES on Babylonia's
northeastern frontier. The following year, several city-states in southern
Mesopotamia banded together under the leadership of Rim-Sin, king of
* city-state independent state consisting the city of Larsa. Samsu-iluna put down this revolt by changing the
of a city and its surrounding territory course of the EUPHRATES RIVER to deny water to Rim-Sin.
* dynasty succession of rulers from the By 1738 B.C., a new dynasty* named Sealand had established itself in
same family or group southern Mesopotamia. Samsu-iluna twice attacked the Sealanders with-
out success. Meanwhile, the city of ESHNUNNA rebelled but was recon-
quered in 1730 B.C. Because of the constant threats to his rule,
Samsu-iluna built many fortresses along Babylonia's borders. Still, by the
end of his reign, Babylonia had lost the entire southern portion of its em-
pire. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

SARDINIA
T he second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, Sardinia is located
west of Italy and north of Tunisia. Its closest neighbor is the island of
Corsica, which lies seven miles to the north. Sardinia has been inhabited
longer than any other Mediterranean island except CYPRUS.
Not much is known about the Sardinians. Some scholars believe that
these people were the Sherden, or Shardanu, one of the mysterious SEA
* Levant lands bordering the eastern PEOPLES who attacked Egypt and the Levant* in the 1100s B.C. Others be-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- lieve that the Sherden were not indigenous* Sardinians but simply
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Phoenicians who had settled on Sardinia.
Bank, and Jordan
Whoever the Sardinians were, there is archaeological* evidence that
* indigenous referring to the original they were involved in obsidian* trade as early as the sixth millennium B.C.*
inhabitants of a region
Other evidence suggests that early Sardinian society consisted of small
* archaeological referring to the study groups who supported themselves through agriculture. The island was also
of past human cultures, usually by
excavating material remains of human
an important source of various metals, including silver and copper, and the
activity site of several metalworking industries.
* obsidian black glass, formed from
During the late fifth millennium B.C., Sardinians began to settle more
hardened lava, useful for making sharp widely, and there are indications that they had contact with the Balkans in
blades and tools southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Although they ex-
* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 panded their trade in the early fourth millennium B.C., it appears to have
to 5001 B.C. stopped by the early third millennium B.C. However, by about 1400 B.C.,
the island had again become an important part of the commercial life of
the Mediterranean and the ancient Near East.
Phoenician traders arrived on Sardinia around 1000 B.C., and by about
700 B.C., they had established permanent settlements along the coast of
the island. Around 200 years later, the Carthaginians, themselves Phoeni-
* basalt black or gray stone, often with a cian colonists from northern Africa, began to settle the interior of the is-
glassy surface land. In 238 B.C., the Romans took over Sardinia and made it a province of
* fortification structure built to their growing empire. Sardinia remained part of the Roman Empire for the
strengthen or protect against attack next 700 years and was one of Rome's main suppliers of grain.
46
 Sardis

The most famous ancient remainsonSardiniaare the island's7,000

stone towers. Callednuraghi, these towers were madeofbasalt* blocks
and were built between 1500
B.C.For
and
years,
500
many archaeologists
believed that thenuraghi were used onlyasdefense
fortifications*.How-
ever, they have recently discovered that the mayhave been used
nuraghi
as homes, either on a permanent basisorspecifically intimesofdanger.
(See also Mediterranean Sea, Trade on.)

SARDIS
S ardis was the capitalof the kingdomANATOLIA
(present-dayTurkey).
546B.C., Sardis becamethe western PERSIAN
capital
ofLydia

EMPIRE.
of the
Italso
inwestern
After the Persians conqueredtheLydiansin

marked the westernend of the Persian royal road thatledeastto thePer-

sian capitalofSusa.
Sardis was located on the Hermos River (present-day Gediz), which
flows west intoAEGEAN
the SEA.The river provided Sardis with one of its
* tributary river that flows into another major resources—gold.The Pactolus River,atributary* of theHermos,
river carriedflakes of gold downfrom Mount Tmolus, into Sardis.
* archaeologist scientist who studies past Archaeologists*have traced human habitation atSardis back toaround
human cultures, usually by excavating 1500B.C. The city's history
after
B.C.isabout
better
680known, however.
material remains of human activity This is when the Mermnad dynasty* came topower inLydia. Under the
* dynasty succession of rulers from the Mermnads,Sardis became the capitalof the Lydian empire. Although
same family or group Sardis was capturedby theCimmerians—warriors fromsouthern
Russia—
47
Sargon I
during the early Mermnad reign, the Lydians had regained the city by
626 B.C. The Persians conquered Sardis when they overcame Croesus, the
* siege long and persistent effort to force last Mermnad king, in a siege* at Sardis. As part of the Persian empire,
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or Sardis became the capital of a satrapy*.
city with armed troops, cutting it off In the early 400s B.C., Sardis played a part in the PERSIAN WARS between
from supplies and aid
the Persians and the Greeks. The Greeks seized and burned part of the city
* satrapy portion of Persian-controlled in 498 B.C. Sardis was then rebuilt and remained part of Persian territory
territory under the rule of a satrap, or
provincial governor
until 334 B.C., when its people surrendered to ALEXANDER THE GREAT, con-
queror of the Persian empire. (See also Lydia and the Lydians; Roads.)

SARGON I
S argon I of Akkad created Mesopotamia's first large, organized state.
During his 56-year reign, Sargon conquered southern Mesopotamia
and parts of Syria, Anatolia (present-day Turkey), and Elam (present-day
western Iran). The Akkadian empire that Sargon founded served as a
model for later Mesopotamian rulers building their own kingdoms.
ruled ca. 2334-2278 B.C.
King of Akkad Sargon's Rise to Power. Almost no records from the late third millen-
nium B.C.* mention Sargon, so his birth and early life are known mostly
through legends written many centuries later. The most famous story
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 says that, shortly after his birth, Sargon was set adrift in a basket on the
to 2001 B.C. EUPHRATES RIVER. He was found and raised by a gardener and later rose to
* city-state Independent state consisting an influential position in the court of King Ur-Zababa of the Sumerian
of a city and its surrounding territory city-state* of KISH. Around 2350 B.C., Ur-Zababa was killed or dethroned
by Lugalzagesi, king of the city-state of UMMA. Sargon took the throne and
became lugal—king— of Kish after attacking Lugalzagesi's capital at URUK
in about 2334 B.C. It might have been around this time that he took the
name Sargon—in Akkadian (Sharrum-kin) it means "the true king"—to
convince his subjects that he was the legitimate ruler.

The Growth of Akkad. During his reign, Sargon expanded the em-
pire across the Near East. He captured several cities first conquered by Lu-
galzagesi before turning to the east and defeating the Elamites. He then
extended the empire to the north and west, taking the city-states of MARI
and EBLA. Some inscriptions indicate that he pushed the borders of the
See map in Akkad and the Akkadians empire into present-day Lebanon and the Taurus Mountains of south-
(vol.1).
eastern Turkey.
Sargon adopted several new policies to deal with the lands he con-
quered. After defeating a city, he would destroy its walls to ensure that his
rivals could not use it as a fortress. If the local city officials swore loyalty
to him, Sargon allowed them to keep their positions. If not, he brought in
his own subjects to rule. In this way, he ensured that power remained
centrally controlled by Akkad. To retain military control of his empire,
Sargon established the world's first permanent army. He also set up mili-
tary outposts throughout the kingdom. As a reward to his troops (and to
ensure their loyalty), he seized or bought large tracts of land and distrib-
uted them among the SOLDIERS. Sargon also established a wide-ranging
trade network. MERCHANTS came from as far away as the OMAN PENINSULA,
Afghanistan, and India, to Akkad, the capital city Sargon founded.
48
 Sargon II
Sargon, however, did not completely do away with the old traditions
of the places he conquered. For example, he made his daughter Enkhedu-
patron special guardian, protector, or anna a high priestess of the patron* god in the city of UR. In this way, Sar-
supporter gon showed that he recognized and accepted the power of the existing
local deities and beliefs. By the end of Sargon's reign, many of the areas he
conquered had begun to rebel against Akkadian control. As a result, Sar-
gon's successors had to spend much time and energy struggling to main-
tain control over the empire he had built. (See also Akkad and the
Akkadians; Elam and the Elamites.)

SARGON II
O ne of Assyria's greatest kings, Sargon II ruled the Assyrian empire
during the last century of its history. The son of TIGLATH-PILESER III
and the brother of SHALMANESER V, Sargon consolidated the conquests of
his predecessors, extended Assyrian power, and founded the last great As-
syrian dynasty*. He also built a new capital city at Khorsabad.
ruled 721-705 B.C. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser on the throne in 721 B.C., either because
King of Assyria the king died or was overthrown in a revolt. Sargon faced several problems
during the early years of his reign. The most pressing threats were from the
kingdom of URARTU in the north, the rebellious Chaldeans and ARAMAEANS
dynasty succession of rulers from the in Babylonia to the south, and the regions of SYRIA and the Levant* in the
same family or group west. Although these territories and peoples had been conquered earlier
Levant lands bordering the eastern by his father, it was up to Sargon II to consolidate his conquests, improve
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- imperial* administration, and increase the stability of the empire.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West During the first year of his reign, Sargon moved against Syria and the
Bank, and Jordan
Levant. He completed a siege* of SAMARIA and destroyed that northern Is-
imperial pertaining to an emperor or raelite kingdom, deporting many of its inhabitants. Having secured con-
an empire
trol and stability in the Levant, Sargon opened a harbor near the SINAI
siege long and persistent effort to force PENINSULA and established a commercial settlement to facilitate trade with
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or
city with armed troops, cutting it off
Egypt. In 717 B.C., he incorporated the Syrian city-state* of KARKAMISH as a
from supplies and aid province of the Assyrian empire.
city-state independent state consisting
Three years later, Sargon began to deal with the problems in Urartu by
of a city and its surrounding territory raiding that kingdom. Despite the difficult mountainous terrain, his
sack to loot a captured city
troops defeated the Urartians, forced King Rusa of Urartu and his armies
to flee the capital, and sacked* the city of Musasir and its temples. This
victory removed much of the threat from Urartu and allowed Sargon to
concentrate his energies on Babylonia.
See In Babylonia, Sargon faced problems with the rebellious Chaldeans.
^ color plate 7, jb Their leader, Marduk-apla-iddina II, had earlier joined forces with the
vol.3.
Elamites and become king of Babylonia in 721 B.C. Sargon seized control
of the TIGRIS RIVER, driving a wedge between the Chaldeans and the
Elamites. He then gained the support of cities in northern Babylonia, over-
threw the Chaldean leader, and named himself king of BABYLON. To further
ensure the stability of the region, Sargon deported thousands of Chal-
deans and Aramaeans from the region. Meanwhile, Marduk-apla-iddina
* tribute payment made by a smaller or fled farther south and agreed to pay tribute* to Assyria in exchange for
weaker party to a more powerful one, control of his tribal territory there.
often under the threat of force With these conquests behind him, Sargon looked toward ANATOLIA
(present-day Turkey), where the Cimmerians had begun to wield great
49
Satraps
power. When Sargon led his armies into that region, the Cimmerians
moved into interior Anatolia ahead of the Assyrian advance. Thereafter,
Sargon's main enemy in the region became the Phrygians, led by King
Midas. Perhaps threatened by the Cimmerians, the Phrygians proposed a
peace settlement with Sargon, who decided to meet King Midas in per-
son. During this trip, Sargon was killed in battle, probably while fighting
the Cimmerians. His death ended the Assyrian hope of extending power
into Anatolia. Furthermore, Sargon's body could not be found after the
battle and given a proper burial, which was a terrible blow to Assyrian
morale. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylo-
nians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans.)

SATRAPS
T he term satraps refers to governors appointed by the king during the
PERSIAN EMPIRE (ca. 550-330 B.C.). The regions that satraps governed—
satrapies—were the largest administrative units of the empire. The orga-
nization of the Persian empire into satrapies was initiated in the 500s B.C.
by CYRUS THE GREAT and was completed later in that century by DARIUS I.
The number of satrapies during Darius's reign varied between 20 and 28.
Satraps were generally members of the royal family or of the noble
classes, and the position was sometimes inherited. They had extensive
* provincial having to do with the powers and ruled almost as local kings. As head of the provincial* admin-
provinces, outlying districts, istration, a satrap was responsible for collecting taxes, defending the
administrative divisions, or conquered satrapy, and providing troops for the Persian army and navy. Satraps also
territories of a country or empire
served as the supreme judges and law enforcers of their provinces.
The satraps were directly responsible to the king and governed on his
behalf. Periodic inspections by various royal officials—known as the
king's "eyes and ears"—helped ensure that the satraps remained loyal and
were fulfilling their responsibilities. This system of inspections also pre-
vented satraps from gaining too much power.
After the mid-400s B.C., the authority of the Persian empire began to
weaken. During this time, the satraps enjoyed a great deal of indepen-
dence. When ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered the Persian empire in the
330s B.C., he kept the system of satrapies but reformed it by replacing Per-
sian satraps with Macedonian officials and by limiting their powers. (See
also Government.)

Scarabs See Seals.

SCHOOLS
S chools in the ancient Near East helped students prepare for a useful,
respected, and financially comfortable future, just as schools do to-
day. Unlike the modem world, however, the ancient Near East had no
concept of schooling for all. Although some boys from humble back-
grounds attended school, the students were generally male children of
50
 Schools
* scribe person of a learned class who the elite, privileged classes, who would go on to serve the state as scribes*,
served as a writer, editor, or teacher priests, or other skilled professionals.
Schools were concerned chiefly with improving the reading and writ-
ing skills of their students. Other kinds of education—including appren-
* apprenticeship system of training in ticeship* training in practical fields, such as building and crafts—took
which an individual learns skills or a place outside the schools. The best-documented schools were in MESOPO-
profession from an experienced person TAMIA and Egypt. There is also some evidence of formal training of scribes
in that field
among the HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and among the Is-
raelites. Literary texts found in the city of Bogazkoy suggest that scribal
* second millennium B.C. years from schools existed in Anatolia as early as the second millennium B.C.* In the
2000 to 1001 B.C. kingdoms of ISRAEL AND JUDAH, young boys were trained in scribal schools,
but girls remained at home with their mothers, who taught them to be-
come good wives and housekeepers.

Mesopotamia. In the remains of ancient Mesopotamian cities such as

* archaeologist scientist who studies past UR and NIPPUR, archaeologists* have identified several rooms as schools
human cultures, usually by excavating because they contain cuneiform* tablets. Called tablet houses, these
material remains of human activity schools taught reading and writing (including how to prepare clay
* cuneiform world's oldest form of tablets), LITERATURE, MATHEMATICS, and music. Students learned by copying
writing, which takes its name from the documents, lists, and literary works in Sumerian and Akkadian. Sumer-
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
into clay tablets
ian was the language of religion, literature, and education even after it
passed out of everyday use. In fact, this is one of the main reasons such a
great number of Sumerian texts have survived.
An experienced scribe, called an expert or professor, headed a school
and could physically punish a student for tardiness or bad behavior. Ad-
vanced students, or ''big brothers/' assisted the teacher. The youngest stu-
dents were called sons of the tablet house. Students did not live at the
schools but attended them each day, bringing their midday meal from
home. The scribal academies reached their greatest importance during
the first half of the second millennium B.C. After that time, they died out,
and students began to study in scholars' homes or in smaller schools that
were attached to temples or governmental offices.

Egypt. The first organized schools, called chambers or departments of

* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 instruction, appeared in Egypt in the late third millennium B.C.* The
to 2001 B.C. teachers were local scribes, officials of the civil administration, and
priests.
When a boy approached the age of ten, his parents might decide to
send him to elementary school, which was usually open to the air and at-
tached to a temple or palace. There he would learn to read and write by
studying literary classics. When the boy was a partly trained scribe in his
teens, he chose how to continue his education, selecting the appropriate
school for a career in the military, the civil government, or the priesthood.
The advanced phase of his education could last as long as 12 years. In addi-
tion to continued language and literary study, the student was exposed to
mathematics, accounting, geometry, surveying, and simple engineering.
At a temple school, or House of Life, a student not only studied reli-
gious and magical texts but also learned to manage temple lands and per-
sonnel. The Houses of Life were Egypt's intellectual centers, where future
physicians, astronomers, and magicians were also educated. Some scribes
51
Science and Technology

were chosen to be educated at a site outside Egypt, where they would study
such LANGUAGES as Akkadian, Hittite, or Canaanite, which then enabled
them to participate in and contribute to Egypt's increasing foreign rela-
tions. (See also Education; Scribes; Writing.)

SCIENCE AND T he physical remains of cultures of the ancient Near East testify to the
scientific and technological knowledge of these early civilizations.
The PYRAMIDS of Egypt, the CANALS of Mesopotamia, and the astronomical
TECHNOLOGY records of Babylonia and Assyria are just a few products of that knowl-
edge. Although these cultures left an extensive written record of their sci-
entific knowledge, archaeologists* and historians have also gained much
information from artifacts* and ruins.

* archaeologist scientist who studies past Foundations of Ancient Science. Both ancient Egyptian and Mesopo
human cultures, usually by excavating tamian texts deal with matters of science. Scribes* in both societies care-
material remains of human activity fully observed the world around them and made detailed records and lists
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or of what they saw. In Mesopotamia, these included catalogs of different
other object made by humans types of plants, animals, stones and minerals, and parts of the body. These
* scribe person of a learned class who lists formed the main body of knowledge on which ancient scholars based
served as a writer, editor, or teacher their scientific theories and practices. In Egypt, the experiments were
* apprenticeship system of training in based on observations. The results of these investigations were recorded
which an individual learns skills or a and later consulted and revised in the light of new information.
profession from an experienced person
in that field
Unlike modern scientific enterprise, the goal of these inquiries was
not the advancement of knowledge for its own sake. For instance, the
Egyptians believed that the gods created a perfect balance in nature,
called maat Their science was an attempt to understand maat by observ-
ing and understanding the world. When scientific knowledge disagreed
with religious belief, religion prevailed.
Science was generally the province of scribes, who preserved and
passed along their knowledge. However, they were only interested in the
Mapping the pure sciences, such as MATHEMATICS and astronomy, and the natural sci-
Ancient World ences, such as zoology and botany. Many of the innovations that pro-
The ancient Babylonians pioneered | foundly changed civilization, such as metalworking and ARCHITECTURE, are
the technology of mapmaking, ere* almost completely absent from the scribal records. Such knowledge was
ating detailed maps on different
scales. They range from local maps transmitted by skilled crafts workers through apprenticeships* and not by
of fields to the earliest map ol the scribes on their tablets. This was partly because scribes were solely inter-
world. Most local maps were survey ested in sciences that could only be mastered by scholarly study.
maps used to show the size of a
field, probably for tax purposes. Mathematics and Astronomy. CLAY TABLETS from Mesopotamia dat-
Larger maps often depicted disti ing to about 2200 B.C. contain the earliest references to instruction in
of the country and individual cities
Some of these maps were amaz- mathematics. However, the Mesopotamians clearly developed mathe-
ingly accurate, A map of the city of matical principles at a much earlier date. Mesopotamian mathematics
Nippur drawn sometime in the sec- employed a sexagesimal system, that is, one based on the number 60.
ond millennium e,c. was nearly as This system formed the basis of the modern system of timekeeping,
precise as that drawn by an Ameri- which divides each hour into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 sec-
can archaeological team thousands
of years later, onds. It was also adapted to geometry, in which circles are divided into
360° (6 x 60). Hieroglyphic INSCRIPTIONS indicate that well before 2000 B.C.,
Egyptian mathematicians employed the decimal (base 10) system that is
commonly used today. They were also well versed in the use of fractions.
52
 Science and Technology
The mastery of mathematics facilitatedthe advancementof thesci-
ence of astronomy. Byapplying mathematical knowledgetotheir obser-
vations of the heavens, ancient astronomers were able tocalculate the
movements STARS
of
PLANETS,
and predict the appearance
ofeclipses,
and
precisely time the changing of the seasons. This knowledgewasessential
for planning religiousand agriculturalCALENDARS
activities.
Theearliest
and clocks also owe their invention to theastronomical observationsof
the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians.

Building Technology. There can be nodoubt that both theEgyptians

and the Mesopotamians mastered practical architecture, surveying,and
various forms of engineering. TheSumerians were clearly familiar with
the dome, the arch, and other architectural techniques. They also built
* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a massive ziggurats*of sun-dried brickand constructed firstthe
large
multistory tower with steps leading to WALLED
a CITIES.The extensive canal systemofsouthern Mesopotamia also
temple on the top shows theirskill in hydraulic* engineering.
* hydraulic having to do with the The pyramids and impressive temple complexes bear witness to the
movement of fluids under pressure architectural and engineering prowess of theEgyptians. However, both
societiesleft later generations withthe enduring mysteryof howsuch
monumental structures were constructed.InMesopotamia, some illustra-
tions of tax collectors surveying
fieldsaswellasland survey records have
survived. However, these only provide clues to themethods involved and
do not contain any detailed description of theprocesses they illustrate.
Neither the Egyptians nor the Mesopotamians committed thisknowl-
edge to writing, and modern scholars canonly guessat theskillsem-
ployed to create these ancient wonders.

Other Technologies. Metalworking was one of themost important

technological developmentsof the ancient
Near
East.Theabilitytowork

53
Scribes
with metal and shape it into tools, weapons, and other objects was de-
veloped before 3000 B.C. Alloying, the process of combining two or more
metals to create a new metal that is superior to the original metals, was
invented shortly thereafter. The first practical alloy was bronze, a mix-
ture of copper and one of several other metals, most commonly tin. By
1000 B.C., metalworkers had mastered ironworking.
MEDICINE was another field pioneered by Near Easterners. In Egypt,
medicine was a prestigious profession, and the ranks included specialists,
such as dentists and surgeons. Knowledge of the body was crude, but doc-
tors were quite skilled at healing fractures, treating wounds, and perform-
ing some operations. Both the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians were
aware of the medicinal properties of many plants, from which they cre-
ated a variety of drugs, potions, and ointments. Their ability to combine
natural elements to form new substances indicates a knowledge of basic
chemistry that was also applied to the creation of PERFUME, glass, and even
imitation gemstones. (See also Astronomy and Astronomers; Glass and
Glassmaking; Irrigation; Metals and Metalworking; Mining; Textiles;
Wheel; Wood and Woodworking.)

SCRIBES
I n the ancient Near East, scribes were educated individuals specially
trained in the art of writing. Because most people were illiterate*,
scribes served an essential function in society and were highly respected.
Their main responsibility was to write documents for governments, tem-
ples, and individuals. Scribes also recorded business transactions and
taxes and copied literary and religious texts.

* illiterate unable to read or write Scribal Education. Most surviving information about scribal EDUCA-
TION comes from Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although scribal education
differed in some ways from culture to culture, the training of scribes in
all ancient societies generally shared many common features.
Scribal education was largely restricted to males and to the upper
classes of society. While there are some records of female scribes, these
were exceptional cases. Sons from poorer families rarely received scribal
education, reflecting the social and economic realities of the ancient
world. The scribal profession was considered a proper calling for members
of the elite, while most poor families simply could not afford to educate
their children. For those who could, a scribal education offered a path to
greater wealth and social status. Many ancient texts praise the virtues of
the scribal profession compared to the difficult life of those in most other
occupations.
Students began their education around age six in Mesopotamia and a
few years later in Egypt. Formal scribal schools appeared in UR and other
Mesopotamian cities as early as 3000 B.C. However, shortly after 2000 B.C.,
this system of education broke down, and students began to receive
scribal training from individual masters. In Egypt, the pattern was re-
* apprentice individual who learns skills versed. Young scribes originally were trained as apprentices*, either by
or a profession from an experienced their fathers or by trained officials, and the state had a great deal of con-
person in that field trol over scribal education. After about 2100 B.C., however, local officials
54
 Scribes
took over the education of scribes, and scribal SCHOOLS emerged in many
towns and cities. In both Mesopotamia and Egypt, scribal schools were at-
Scribal Titles and Dutic tached to palaces and temples.
Official scribes employed by the Standard courses of study for scribes in Mesopotamia and Egypt in-
state or temple generally had titles cluded language, LITERATURE, and MATHEMATICS. Mesopotamian students
that reflected either the material on \
which they wrote or some aspect of
also studied music, while Egyptian students could take advanced courses
their duties. Among the titles of in specialized subjects after completing their basic education. Scribal
Sumerian and Akkadian scribes are training began with learning the meanings of the symbols of the writing
the following: field scribe, inscriber system and mastering vocabulary lists. Students later progressed to copy-
of stone, military scribe, scribe of ing passages written by instructors, taking dictation, and writing material
the property of the temple, judge's
from memory. Advanced students learned technical vocabulary associ-
scribe, and scribe of the naditu
(cloistered) women. In Egypt, the ated with various disciplines and professions. These students also learned
word for scribe, zakhau, meant how to prepare writing tools and materials. After they had completed
"one who uses the brush," not only their education, scribes either entered private practice or served in official
to write but also to draw and paint state positions.
Thus, a "scribe of contours" re-
ferred to a draftsman skilled at
drawing outlines on walls, whereas
The Scribe's Tools. Because pencils and paper were unknown in an-
a "column scribe" was skilled at cient times, scribes used materials readily available to them. Mesopo-
painting columns or pillars. tamian scribes used a reed tool called a stylus to press wedge-shaped
CUNEIFORM characters into soft clay tablets. Mistakes were rubbed out by
hand while the clay was still soft. Writing boards made of wood or ivory
covered with wax also served as notepads as well as student practice
papyrus writing material made by tablets. Scribes wrote on the boards by impressing or scratching charac-
pressing together thin strips of the inner ters into the wax. The wax could be melted or removed, allowing the
stem of the papyrus plant; pi. papyri board to be used repeatedly.
Levant lands bordering the eastern In Egypt, scribes generally wrote on papyrus*, using a reed brush and
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- ink made from natural substances, such as charcoal or red ocher (impure
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
Bank, and Jordan
iron used as pigment). Scribes mixed dried cakes of ink with water to pro-
duce liquid ink that was handled much like present-day watercolors. Era-
sures were made by washing away the mistake with a damp rag, and a
smooth pebble or special tool of wood or ivory was used to polish the
A Month at School writing surface and make it smooth. After 1200 B.C., scribes in Syria, the
Scribal students in Mesopota- Levant*, and Mesopotamia scratched inscriptions in clay or stone with a
mia generally attended classes \ stylus or wrote on papyrus or prepared animal skins with a brush and ink.
each day from sunrise to sun- Often these scribes, as well as those in Egypt, made notes or recorded less
set. Scholars have discovered little
information about vacations or time
important documents with a brush and ink on pieces of broken pottery
off. One ancient Sumerian school called ostraca or on plaster-coated wooden writing boards.
text, however, contains writing in
which a pupil explains his monthly Scribal Duties. Scribes worked for the state, the temple, and private
schedule: enterprise, and they played a crucial role in many aspects of society.
The reckoning of my monthly stay When engaged in business and legal activities, they wrote all contracts,
in the tablet house is [as follows]: bills of sale, loans, and other documents. Occasionally, they served as
My days of freedom are three
witnesses to these documents.
per month,
Its festivals are three days per Duties of scribes employed by the state included surveying land and
month. estimating the production of farmers' fields. This latter duty was very im-
Within it, twenty-four days per portant because taxes—generally paid in grain or other produce—were
month based on estimated crop yields. Scribes collected and recorded the taxes
[Is the time of] my living in the as well. Scribes also served as secretaries to kings and other high officials,
tablet house. They are long days.
recording state correspondence, including laws and treaties. They also
supervised the activities of public workers and the operation of certain
55
Sculpture
public institutions, such as granaries. Scribes who knew more than one
language acted as interpreters and translators.
Many scribes worked for temples, where they served primarily as
administrators. Their responsibilities included receiving and recording re-
ligious offerings, classifying temple records, and supervising the con-
struction of temples, tombs, and shrines. They also copied texts and
occasionally wrote HYMNS and other religious works.
Using their skills, scribes helped preserve knowledge of specialized
fields such as astrology, astronomy, MEDICINE, and MAGIC. Some scribes
even wrote literature and POETRY, although this was more common in
Mesopotamia than in Egypt, where most surviving works deal with reli-
gion and funeral practices. (See also Alphabets; Books and Manuscripts;
Clay Tablets; Hieroglyphics; Inscriptions; Libraries and Archives;
Record Keeping; Writing.)

SCULPTURE
I n the ancient Near East, sculpture, with its stylized* poses, faces, and
themes, whether carved in relief* or in the round, served mainly polit-
ical, social, and religious functions. Sculpture was not displayed in muse-
ums. Instead, most sculpture appeared in temples, palaces, tombs, or on
such structures as city GATES.
The subject and method of representation of ancient Near Eastern
stylized referring to art style in which sculpture were in accordance with artistic canons* set by a society's elite.
figures are portrayed in simplified ways Images were idealized in sculpture—they showed their subjects the way
that exaggerate certain features, not society expected them to be, rather than as they really were. For exam-
realistically
ple, the face on a statue of a king might be emotionless and stern to show
relief sculpture in which material is cut that the king was strict but fair. Whether the king himself actually pos-
away to show figures raised from the
background
sessed those qualities or even looked like the statue was irrelevant.
f Rather, sculpture was meant to convey the values of the ruling classes
canon set of approved standards or
criteria
and to reinforce the existing order of society. Thus, kings were usually
portrayed in a regal manner, gods were pictured bestowing blessings on
the ruler and the country, and workers were shown dutifully performing
their tasks. The size of the subjects also represented how important they
were in relation to the other subjects portrayed, not their actual sizes.

Mesopotamia!! Sculpture. Idealized figures and themes were com-

mon in Mesopotamian sculpture, but differences existed among the cul-
tures that occupied the region. Before the emergence of the earliest
* literate able to read and write literate* city-states* in Mesopotamia (ca. 3300 B.C.), the most common
* city-state independent state consisting sculptures produced throughout the Near East were small figurines of
of a city and its surrounding territory nude women, made of clay, bone, ivory, or stone. Such figurines, usually
associated with fertility, remained popular even into the Roman period.
During the period from 3300 to 2900 B.C., when the Sumerians and their
neighbors, the Elamites of Iran, were forming the first literate urban cul-
* artisan skilled craftsperson tures, artisans* produced sculptures depicting kings, priests, heroes, god-
desses, worshipers, workers, and domestic and wild animals.
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 During the third millennium B.C.*, relief sculpture in Mesopotamia
to 2001 B.C. consisted of scenes with members of royalty and gods. Statues in Sumer
were usually figures of men and women, most of whom are shown
56
 Sculpture

dressed intufted skirts. These statues were small because stonehad to be

imported into southern Mesopotamia. Many ofthese figures have
clasped hands, a sign of respectto the LIONS,
gods.
Bulls
animalsandsa-
cred to the Mesopotamians, were also commonly sculpted figures.
With the riseof the Akkadian empire around B.C.,larger
2300 pieces
of stone became available, and larger statues gained popularity.Ablack
stone calleddiorite—possiblyimported fromanislandin thePersian Gulf
called Magan(in present-dayOman)—became favorite
a material. Statues
of gods were commonin Mesopotamia after
B.C.,
and
2000they typically
are shown wearing miters (headdresses) withone ormore pairsofhorns.
The horns symbolized the divinity of thegods. Lifelike lionstatuesin
baked clay were also common. They servedasguardiansof thetemples
and palaces.
After 1000B.C.,Assyrian powerwas on the rise and sculpture there
was intended to convey that messageto theviewer.Theinterior wallsof
See Assyrian palaces were covered with reliefs. Some depicted theking with
color plate
7, his gods or displayed hisbravery incombat with wild animals and on the
vol.3.
battlefield. Thereliefs also depictedthe mightof theAssyrian armyand
the terror it inspired through itscruelty andviolence. Thepalace en-
trances were guarded by colossal figures ofwinged bulls with human
heads, winged gods, and heroes. These guardian figureswere attachedto
the walls, but they were carved in such high reliefthat they appearto be
stepping out to confront theviewer.
Reliefs also figured prominently in Babylonianartduring firstthe
millennium B.C.(years
from 1000
B.C.).
toFor1example, inB.C.,
the 500s
the Ishtar Gatein Babylonwasconstructedandcontained reliefsofbulls
57
Sculpture
and dragons. Reliefs of lions lined the walls on either side of the main
processional road leading from the gate.

Egyptian Sculpture. Art in Egypt was created in accordance with

canons set by members of the elite. As a result, people, gods, animals,
and other subjects were portrayed in the same manner whether painted
or sculpted.
The ancient Egyptians carved reliefs on stelae*, sarcophagi*, and
tomb and temple walls. These carvings showed scenes of royalty, the
Egyptian gods, and daily life. The earliest examples of Egyptian sculpture are clay
Puzzle Sculptures and stone figurines from the late fifth millennium B.C.* From the late
Egyptian sculpture often included fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.), many qualities in
hieroglyphic symbols, and some- Egyptian sculpture became standardized, emphasizing certain features
times the symbols were arranged to over others. In nearly all Egyptian reliefs, the king and the gods are usu-
form puns. By using hieroglyphs in
this manner, sculptors created works ally much taller than anyone else in the scene. The king is usually shown
that could be interpreted in different as youthful and vigorous, without the signs of old age seen in statues of
ways. A good example is a statue of other nobles. In statues where the figures are standing, a man's left foot is
the sculptor Senenrnut, who is placed ahead of his right foot as if he is striding forward; women usually
shown kneeling and offering an im- stand with their feet together. Other statues might show people seated,
age of the cobra goddess Renenutet
to the god Montu. Several elements' kneeling, or squatting on their heels.
of the offering are also hieroglyphs. At several points in Egyptian history, artisans were permitted to vary the
When viewed from the front, they representations. During the 1900s B.C., kings were depicted more realisti-
spell out one of the names of the cally—they might show signs of aging. During the 1400s B.C., naturalism in
former ruler Hapshetsut—suggest- the representation of the king and royal family became almost caricature.
ing that Senenmut wanted to affirm A form of sculpture common during the New Kingdom (ca. 1539-
his loyalty to her rather than express
devotion to Montu. 1075 B.C.) was the standard-bearing statue, which often showed the king
holding a religious object. Later, during the Third Intermediate period (ca.
1075-606 B.C.), block statues—sculptures featuring seated figures who seem
to emerge from the block of stone—were common. After about 1000 B.C.,
images of local officials presenting small statues of gods became popular.
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been This reflects the fact that, by that time, most areas of Egypt were ruled lo-
carved or engraved and serves as a cally, not controlled by the pharaohs*.
monument; pi. stelae Egyptian sculpture was not limited to human and divine subjects,
* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually however. The pillars at the temple of LUXOR, constructed around 1375 B.C.,
made of stone; pi. sarcophagi were sculpted in the shape of the buds of the papyrus plant. Also, one of
* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 the most famous Egyptian statues is that of the Great Sphinx* located near
to 4001 B.C. the PYRAMIDS at GIZA, dating to the 2500s B.C.
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt
* sphinx imaginary creature with a lion's Anatolia. Very few sculpted works from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) be-
body and a human head fore the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.) are known.
Early Anatolian of humans and animals a
large breasts, buttocks, and thighs that were probably fertility images.
ee Much more sculpture, in the form of reliefs, is known from the period
color plate 12 of the Hittite empire (ca. 1400-1200 B.C.). Figures carved in very high re-
oL
lief—gods, lions, sphinxes—guarded the entrances to palaces. One of the
best known examples of Hittite sculpture comes from reliefs carved in the
rock at Yazilikaya, near ancient KHATTUSHA. The reliefs in these chambers
* deity god or goddess portray the Hittite gods and goddesses, and the chief deities* are shown
standing on animals that represent them. Rock reliefs are quite common
throughout Anatolia, both in the Hittite and Neo-Hittite periods.
58
 Scythia and the Scythians
Syria and the Levant. As in Anatolia, few freestanding sculptures from
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Syria and the Levant* have survived. During the fourth millennium B.C.,
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- ivory was used, although limestone and basalt* were also sometimes used.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West The art of the Levant borrowed from other ancient Near Eastern regions.
Bank, and Jordan
Sculpture in Syria before 2000 B.C. shows strong Mesopotamian influ-
* basalt black or gray stone, often with a ences, featuring people worshiping gods or carrying OFFERINGS.
glassy surface
After 2000 B.C., Egyptian artistic traditions became dominant, and
statues of kings, local rulers, and national gods appear with more regular-
ity. Perhaps the most characteristic sculptures of the Levant were bronze
See statues of gods and goddesses to which offerings were made. Images in-
color plate 4, cluded both male and female gods dressed in a variety of costumes, as well
vol 1.
as figures of bulls representing the storm god BAAL. The rarity of sculpture
in Israel may be due in part to the religion of the Israelites, which forbade
images of their god and any other living things.

Iran. From the late fourth millennium B.C. (years from 4000 to 3001 B.C.)
through the middle of the first millennium B.C., Iranian art, especially in
the southwest in Elam, strongly resembled that of its western neighbor,
Mesopotamia. However, when the Persians, who were newcomers to Iran,
formed their empire in the 500s B.C., they borrowed styles from regions
throughout the ancient Near East. For example, a guardian figure carved
for the site of Cyrus the Great's palace has four wings in the Assyrian fash-
ion and wears an Egyptian crown, an Elamite robe, and a Persian beard. A
statue of Persian king Darius I discovered at the city of SUSA shows him
wearing a Greek-style garment and standing in a pose typical of Egyptian
hieroglyphics system of writing that sculpture. The type of stone used and the Egyptian hieroglyphics* carved
uses pictorial characters, or hieroglyphs, on the base suggest that the statue of Darius was manufactured in Egypt
to represent words or ideas and later sent to Susa.
Perhaps the most famous example of Persian sculpture is the BEHISTUN
INSCRIPTION—a relief and inscription carved into a mountainside in west-
ern Iran. The relief celebrates Darius's victory over rebels and depicts the
Persian god AHURA MAZDA holding out the ring of kingship toward Darius.
Other famous reliefs are found on the walls of the palaces at PERSEPOLIS, a
city founded by Darius. (See also Animals in Art; Art, Artisans, and
Artists; Bas-Reliefs; Human Form in Art.)

SCYTHIA AND
A nomadic* people of CENTRAL ASIA, the Scythians (S>thee«uhnz) mi-
grated to present-day southern Russia in the 700s and 600s B.C. There
they founded a powerful empire called Scythia (SMheemh). Located north
HE SCYTHIANS of the Black Sea and centered on the Crimean peninsula, Scythia flourished
from the 700s to the 300s B.C. During this time, the Scythians often came
into conflict with the peoples of the ancient Near East.

nomadic referring to people who travel

HISTORY
from place to place to find food and Much of what is known about the history of Scythia and the Scythians
pasture comes from the ancient Greek historian HERODOTUS, who visited Scythia
59
Scythia and the Scythians
* archaeologist scientist who studies past in the 400s B.C. Modern archaeologists* have also discovered clues to
human cultures, usually by excavating Scythian history from various BURIAL SITES AND TOMBS they have excavated
material remains of human activity in regions once inhabited by the Scythians.

Migration and Settlement of Scythia. The origin of the Scythians is

a subject of controversy. Most scholars believe that they arrived in Cen-
Legendary Origins tral Asia early in the second millennium B.C.*, probably from the east.
According to the Greek historian From that time until the 700s B.C., little is known about their activities.
Herodotus, two ancient legends ex- Large-scale migrations of Central Asian peoples probably began
plained the mysterious origin of the around 800 B.C. in response to events in China, where the Chinese em-
Scythians. Both stories claimed that
the Royal Scyths were descended peror drove warlike peoples from the borders of his empire. This set in
from a man named Skythes. in one motion a chain reaction as, one after another, nomadic tribes moved
story, Skythes was a son of Targi- westward and pushed other groups before them. In the late 700s B.C., a
taos, the first man (whose father people known as the Massagetae attacked the Scythians, forcing them
was the god Zeus and mother was westward into the region around the Black and Caspian Seas that had
the daughter of a river in Central
Asia), Skythes had two older broth- been controlled by the Cimmerians.
ers, but only he had the power to In a series of wars that lasted about 30 years, the Scythians drove the
touch four golden objects that had Cimmerians into ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and established them-
fallen from the sky. In the other leg- \ selves in the territories that became Scythia. From their centers north of
end, Skythes and his brothers were the Black Sea, the Scythians then began pushing south through the CAU-
the sons of the great hero Hercules, j CASUS region, which brought them into contact with both the Assyrian
Because only Skythes could success
fully handle his father's great bow, empire and the kingdom of URARTU. In the late 700s B.C., the Scythians al-
it was he who became the ancestor \ lied with the Cimmerians against King SARGON II of Assyria.
of the Royal Scyths.
Rise of Scythian Power. Numerous conflicts erupted between Scythia,
Assyria, and Urartu in the early 600s B.C. However, in 673 B.C., Assyrian king
* second millennium B.C. years from ESARHADDON arranged a marriage between his daughter and Bartatua, the
2000 to 1001 B.C. Scythian king, to form an alliance with Scythia against Urartu and the
MEDES of IRAN.
Scythia reached the height of its power by about 630 B.C. Taking advan-
tage of a decline in Assyrian power at that time, the Scythians launched
* Levant lands bordering the eastern devastating invasions of SYRIA and the Levant* and plundered* these re-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- gions. They even led raids into Egypt. The savagery of Scythian raids in the
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Levant made a great impact on the ancient Judeans, and images of these
Bank, and Jordan
campaigns appeared in the visions of Jewish prophets,* such as ISAIAH and
* plunder to steal property by force, JEREMIAH.
usually after a conquest
In the late 600s B.C., the Assyrians were attacked by the allied forces
* prophet one who claims to have of the Medes and Babylonians. At first, the Scythians helped Assyria de-
received divine messages or insights
fend itself, but they soon switched sides and joined in the attack against
their former ally. These attacks led to the collapse of the Assyrian em-
pire. The Scythians also played a role in the fall of Urartu in the early
500s B.C.
After the collapse of Assyria and Urartu, the Scythians began to expe-
rience trouble from the Medes, whose power was increasing. Attacks by
the Medes in the early 500s B.C. forced most Scythians out of Assyrian ter-
ritory and back into the Caucasus and Scythia, which remained the core
of their empire. Blocked from further expansion in the south, the Scythi-
ans launched raids westward into Europe in the 500s B.C., reaching as far
as present-day Austria and Poland.
60
 Scythia and the Scythians

Decline and Fall of Scythia.By B.C.,

thethe
late
Scythians
500s began
to lose someof their power. B.C.,Still,
they
in 512
were able torepel
an at-
tack by the Persians
DARIUS
under
I.During
B.C.,thetheScythians
400s re-
mained a relatively strong military power. Their power increased again in
See map on inside covers. the next century, reachingapeak duringthereign King
Ateas,
of who ex-
panded Scythian power intothe BalkanB.C.,
King
region
ofEurope.In 339
Ateas was killedin battle while fightingthearmies King
of PhilipII of
MACEDONIA,the ALEXANDER
father
GREAT.ofTHE
Although the Scythians
managed to resist another attackby theMacedonians several years later,
their power had begun todecline dramatically.
During the B.C.,
200sthe Scythians lost mostoftheir territory inRus-
sia to a people known as theSarmatians.TheScythian kingdomwas con-
fined to part of the Crimean peninsulaand anarrow coastal strip along
the Black Sea.The Scythians maintainedagradually weakening presence
in these regions A.D.
until200s,
the when they disappeared fromthehis-
torical record.

PEOPLE
AND
CULTURE
A group of closely related nomadic tribes,theScythians spoke anIndo-
Iranian language related toPersian, but they had nosystem ofwriting.
Some evidence suggests that,different
at timesintheir history, they inter-
mingled with other Central Asianpeoples, suchas theMongolsand the
Huns. Some aspectsofScythian culture were similar tothose
of theCim-
merians, another nomadic peopleofCentral Asia.However,theScythi-
ans also developedadistinct cultureoftheir own.

Horsemanship and Warfare. Feared andrespectedfortheir

skillin
warfare, the Scythians were famousin theancient worldfortheir horse-
manship. They were among theearliest peoples tomaster theskillof
horseback riding, and they applied that
skillto the art ofwar. Mounted
archersformedthe coreofScythian military
forces,and themobility
of
Scythianwarriors astonished their neighborsandopponents.
The Scythians were also knownfortheir ferocity. They sometimes
scalped and beheaded enemies killedinbattleandcarvedout theskulls
for use as drinking cups. Scythian armies were made upfreemen
of who
shared in the loot taken
from defeated opponents. They received food
and clothing fortheir servicebut nowages. Some evidence suggests that
Scythian women mayhave fought alongsidethemen.

Economy, Government, and Society.Scythian society and

econ-
omy were basedon the CATTLE
AGRICULTURE,
grazing
andofon which in-
cluded the cultivation ofwheat. True nomads, most Scythians followed
their herds of cattlein seasonal migrations across thevast grasslands
of
southernRussia, travelinginhorse-drawn wagons.
As they conquered newterritories, some Scythians settled downto
farm, and permanent settlements developed near cultivated lands. Many
Scythian settlements were heavily fortified,including that
Kamenka
of
on the DnieperRiver inpresent-dayRussia,whichwasestablishedin the
400sB.C. and which becamethecenterof aScythian kingdom.
61
Scythia and the Scythians
Scythian society was headed by a group of powerful and wealthy tribal
chieftains known as the Royal Scyths. This group of chieftains came from
the warrior tribes of Scythian society. Other tribes were subject to their
rule. The Royal Scyths were led by a king, and the kingship passed from fa-
ther to son. Territories under the control of the Royal Scyths frequently
* tribute payment made by a smaller or paid tribute* to the king.
weaker party to a more powerful one, The Scythians practiced polygamy, and it was a common custom for
often under the threat of force sons to inherit the wives of their fathers when they died. However, the fa-
vorite wife of a man generally was killed and buried along with her hus-
band, in a ceremony that was often very elaborate. Kings and other men
of high rank often were buried in large tombs with several rooms filled
with food, wine, clothing, jewels, and spectacular gold and silver objects.
Sometimes, horses and servants were sacrificed and buried as well as part
of funeral rituals.

Metalworking and Art. Many of the objects found in Scythian

tombs reveal that the Scythians were highly skilled metalworkers. This is
also evident from Scythian swords and various iron and bronze
weaponry and other implements discovered by archaeologists.
In addition to their metalwork, the Scythians produced decorative
objects from a variety of other materials, many of which display superb
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or skill and workmanship. Artifacts* from Scythian tombs include items
other object made by humans made of wood, leather, bone, felt, and other textiles. Scythian wall hang-
ings and rugs often featured intricate and colorful designs. Pictorial repre-
sentations of Scythian men show them wearing very distinctive CLOTHING
that included tight trousers, high boots, and hooded jackets. Women
may have worn long robes and headdresses with veils. Many garments
had colorful, embroidered designs.
Scythian art is essentially realistic in its representation of people, ani-
mals, and objects. Much of the art features real and imaginary animals,
alone or in combat. Scythian art shows strong Greek influences, and
artisan skilled craftsperson some artworks may actually have been made by Greek artisans*. Some
scholars believe that pieces from the golden age of Scythian art, which oc-
curred in the 300s B.C., were created by Scythian artists trained in Mace-
city-state Independent state consisting donia and the Greek city-state* of Athens. The quality of Scythian art
of a city and Its surrounding territory from that period was unsurpassed in Central Asia. Most Scythian decora-
tive objects were small in size, which was typical of a nomadic people
who moved about frequently.

Religion. The Scythians worshiped many gods. However, they did not
build temples or establish elaborate systems of ritual and worship. One
deity god or goddess of their chief deities* was the fire goddess Tabiti. Often depicted in art
with wild animals, she may also have been worshiped as a fertility or
mother goddess. Another important deity was the god Papoeus, whom
ancient Greek historians associated with their god Zeus. The Scythians
also had gods of the earth, sun, and moon, as well as a god of war to
whom they sacrificed humans captured in battle. (See also Armies; As-
syria and the Assyrians; Burial Sites and Tombs; Metals and Metal-
working; Nomads and Nomadism; Persian Empire.)
62
 Sea Peoples

SEA PEOPLES
A ncient Egyptian reliefs* depict in spectacular detail an attempted in-
vasion of Egypt by an alliance of peoples in the eighth year of the
reign of Ramses III (ca. 1187-1156 B.C.). The reliefs show two dramatic bat-
tles. One battle shows the Egyptian army defeating the invaders on land,
while the other shows them destroying the enemy navy. In the latter battle,
Ramses is depicted standing on the shore leading his archers as they rain ar-
relief sculpture in which material is cut rows on the enemy ships. Although these are some of the most detailed bat-
away to show figures raised from the tle scenes known from ancient Egypt, the identity of the invaders remains
background mysterious. For convenience they are generally called the "Sea Peoples/' a
Egyptologist person who studies term coined by the French Egyptologist* Gaston Maspero in A.D. 1873.
ancient Egypt The texts accompanying these reliefs appear to state that the in-
vaders, before attacking Egypt, had defeated the Hittites, who had domi-
nated ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and SYRIA during the Late Bronze Age
* archaeological referring to the study (ca. 1600-1200 B.C.). In fact, many archaeological* sites in this region
of past human cultures, usually by show signs of destruction (such as burning) that date to about 1200 B.C.
excavating material remains of human Moreover, some of the Sea Peoples' names, as given by the Egyptians,
activity
sound like tribal or place-names from farther west in the Mediterranean.
For instance, the Denyen mentioned in the Ramses reliefs have been
identified with the Danaoi, a name used for the Greek warriors who
fought at TROY; the Shekelesh have been linked with the island of Sicily;
and the Shardana with SARDINIA. Using such comparisons, many archaeol-
ogists concluded that Ramses was describing a massive migration of "bar-
barian" peoples from the Mediterranean, who had marched through
Levant lands bordering the eastern Anatolia and the Levant*, destroying everything in their path.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- Best known of all the Sea Peoples are the Peleset, the leaders of the at-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West tempted invasion. They appear to be the PHILISTINES, who, according to
Bank, and Jordan
the Hebrew BIBLE and Assyrian texts, inhabited the coastal regions of the
southern Levant during the Iron Age (ca. 1200-500 B.C.). In fact, the Iron
Age pottery from these cities is a locally made version of the Mycenaean
(Late Bronze Age) pottery of Greece— a fact that appears to reinforce the
theory of the Sea Peoples' migration from the Mediterranean.
In recent years, archaeologists have begun to exercise more caution
about the idea of a large-scale Sea Peoples invasion. It is possible that
some scholars who were seeking a convenient explanation for the col-
lapse of Late Bronze Age civilization in the Eastern Mediterranean may
have exaggerated the whole episode.
In reexamining the records, modern archaeologists have found that
Ramses described the Philistines and their allies as "Asiatics," a term that
the Egyptians had always used to refer to the peoples of the Levant. More-
over, Ramses claimed to have destroyed the towns and orchards of the
Philistines and conquered their land. All of this would be very unlikely if
the Philistines had just arrived from the Mediterranean. Moreover, no
records describe the Philistines as a seafaring people.
Many Egyptian sources show that other Sea Peoples, including the
Lukka and the Shardana, were present in the region even before Ramses
III came to the throne. According to the Amarna letters, the Lukka, a peo-
ple well known as sea-raiders from Lycia, in southwestern Anatolia, were
already raiding the coasts of Cyprus in the mid-1300s B.C. The Shardana,
* mercenary soldier who is hired to fight, who almost certainly had some connection with Sardinia, were friendly
often for a foreign country mercenaries* in Phoenicia. These early Sea Peoples had allied with the
63
Seals

Libyans in their war with pharaoh* MerneptahB.C. in the

Con-
late 1200s
sequently, they were present in the region much earlier than the time of
Ramses III.
In light of the limited evidence, there remainsa controversy overthe
Sea Peoplesand their origins.One new viewisthatthe Philistinesmay al-
ready have been present in the Levant when they attempted to invade
the bordersof Egypt.Tohelp them launcha seaattack they took assis-
the
tance of alliesand mercenariesfromthe Mediterranean. However, their
pharaoh king of ancient Egypt invasion failed, and Ramses claims that he captured the invaders, reset-
tling them as mercenariesin Egypt.As for the destroyed cities throughout
the Near East aroundB.C.,1200
scholars believe there could have been
many causes, including local wars and rebellions. They arealso increas-
ingly considering earthquakes, rather than a SeaPeoples invasion, as the
cause of some Late BronzeAgedestruction in(See
also the region.
Lycia
and the Lycians; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans; Phoenicia and the
Phoenicians.)

SEALS
A seal is a device with an engravedor raised design, symbol,orword
that is used to makea unique markon other materials.
Sealsaretyp-
ically used tocertify that a document is authenticor has been approved
by some authority. They are also sometimes usedto physically closeor
seal an object, such as an envelope. In the ancient world, seals were ex-
tremely important. Avarietyof people ownedand used seals,from kings
and courtofficials to priests,scribes*, craftsmen,and even servants. Both
64
 Seals
* scribe person of a learned class who men and women owned seals, although it was rarer for women to own
served as a writer, editor, or teacher them. Seals also had an importance apart from their official functions —
* amulet small object thought to have they were used as charms or amulets*. Some seals were kept in a family for
supernatural or magical powers generations, and some people collected them because of their beauty and
value.
Many thousands of seals have survived because they were generally
small, hard, and durable objects manufactured in large numbers. Because
seals were used so often in ancient times, many thousands of seal impres-
sions on CLAY TABLETS as well as on other clay objects have also survived.
However, there are only about half a dozen examples of ancient seal im-
pressions where the original seals have also been recovered.

USES OF SEALS
Seals had several uses in the ancient Near East. In a practical sense, they
served to authenticate documents and to seal rooms or objects, such as
jars, restricting access to their contents. They also served a spiritual pur-
pose when used as charms and as religious OFFERINGS.

Seals as Security. By 5000 B.C., people in the Near East were using
seals to restrict access to rooms or objects. For example, they secured
doors by tying a rope around the handle and impressing a seal into a
lump of clay surrounding a knot in the rope. Seals were used in the same
way to securely close jars, pots, or other objects. Because each seal was
unique, its impression could serve to identify the sealer personally, or
the authority he represented. More importantly, the presence of the seal
impression on the clay served to show that the contents sealed had not
been tampered with. Seal impressions were also set on the clay balls (bul-
lae) that contained the tokens used in early RECORD KEEPING.

Seals as Authentication. Soon, sealed bullae and tokens gave way to

* cuneiform world's oldest form of the use of clay tablets and cuneiform* writing. In the late fourth millen-
writing, which takes its name from the nium B.C.*, seals were mainly used to certify documents inscribed on clay
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed tablets. They were created to make a recognizable mark that could be as-
into clay tablets
sociated with a particular person or an office. The presence of seals on a
* fourth millennium B.C. years from document assured anyone who looked at it that the owners of the seals
4000 to 3001 B.C.
had approved its contents.
Sealing practices—what types of documents were sealed and by whom
they were sealed—varied greatly throughout the ancient Near East. Never-
theless, the most commonly sealed items were receipts and legal docu-
ments. When goods were sold, the buyer might place his seal on a
See document to acknowledge that he had received the items listed in the doc-
color plate 5, ument. When ownership of property was legally transferred to another
vol. 2.
person, the original owner sealed the document to indicate that she was
willingly giving up her right of ownership to the receiving party. Loans
were sealed by the borrower or by a third person who guaranteed payment
of the loan if the borrower did not repay it on time. If a legal agreement in-
volved obligations by several parties (such as a marriage or the division of
shared property), each affixed their seals to it. Occasionally, the scribe who
65
Seals

recorded the transaction also sealed the documents. Many types of trans-
actions required the presence of witnesses, any or all of whom might seal
the document. Their seal impressions were intended to serve as a visual re-
minder of the fact that they had witnessed the agreement should they be
called to court to testify.
Sealed documents were placed in a clay envelope. The outside of the
envelope contained either all or part of the text of the document inside,
Killer Seats as well as the seals of the parties involved. If a dispute over the document
According to an ancient text, there arose, the envelope was broken, and it was taken to a judge along with
were two Akkadian kings who were|
the document inside. Witnesses were required to be present to answer
killed with cylinder seals. Although
there is no way to verily this story, any questions, after which the judge made his ruling. By about 500 B.C.,
modern scholars believe that the irb envelopes were generally no longer used. Instead, copies of the document
strument of death was not the seal were made and one was given to each party. A similar system is used to-
itseli Ancient Near Easterners often j day for contracts and other legal agreements.
wore seals like jewelry, and these
particular kings might have been
killed by large pins that were used
Religious Uses. Seals, often made from the same types of stones used
to attach seals to their wearers' for amulets and charms, were considered to have magical or special pow-
garments. ers. Many people wore them as charms, much as a person today might
wear a religious medal. Many ancient tombs contain seals that belonged
to their inhabitants, emphasizing their importance and suggesting that
seals were considered valuable to a person in the AFTERLIFE. Such seals
might be inscribed with a prayer, typically intended to ensure long life or
health for the seal owner or the king. Unlike other images on seals,
prayers were not usually carved in reverse writing so that they could be
read when impressed onto a surface. Instead, they were carved so that
they could be read by looking at the seal itself. Known as votive (devo-
tional) seals, they were often presented as temple offerings to local
* deity god or goddess deities*. By presenting the seal, the owner aimed to ensure that the
prayer would be offered to the god forever.

TYPES OF SEALS
The two basic types of seals are the stamp seal and the cylinder seal, and
both types were used throughout the ancient Near East. The type of seal a
particular culture preferred depended on how its people planned to use it
as well as on their system of WRITING.

See Stamp Seals. A stamp seal has a flat or slightly convex surface into
(colorplate 14,' which a design is carved. When pressed into a soft material, such as clay
vol. 2.
or wax, it leaves a reverse impression of the carved design. The earliest ex-
amples of ancient Near Eastern stamp seals—by far the oldest type of
seal—were found in present-day northern Iraq (ancient MESOPOTAMIA) and
date to about 5500 B.C. The images carved on these early stamp seals were
simple patterns of fine, closely placed lines. By about 4500 B.C., simple
compositions of animal and human figures were carved into stamp seals.
The seals themselves came in a variety of shapes including hands, feet,
crescents, and geometric patterns, such as circles or squares. Stamp seals
were used in southern Mesopotamia until about 3300 B.C., after which
they were largely replaced by cylinder seals.
66
 Seals
Cylinder Seals. As its name implies, acylinder seal is acylinder-
shaped object containing acarved impression.Theimageiscarved along
the curvedface of the cylinder. Although more challenging to the en-
graver, a cylinder sealhas aunique capability
— whenrolled acrossthe
face of a document,itleavesacontinuous impression thatrepeats itself
after eachfull rotation. In thismanner, theseal cancover the entire
width of a document, rather than justoccupying asmall spaceon it.
Moreover, engraverscan fitmore imagesorcharactersoncylinder seals,
* Levant lands bordering theeastern making them more elaborate thanstamp seals. Thiswasparticularlyad-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea(present- vantageous for cultures thatusedacuneiform systemofwriting, inpart
day Syria, Lebanon, andIsrael), theWest because cylinder sealshad more roomfor INSCRIPTIONS
long cuneiform
Bank, and Jordan
than did stamp seals.
* papyrus writing material made by The earliest evidenceofcylinderIRAN seals
dating
comes
from
asite
in
pressing together thinstrips of the inner
stem of the papyrus plant;pi. papyri
to about 3700
B.C. Shortly thereafter,
EGYPT
they
and
appear
in the
inLev-
ant*, where they seem tohave been used only todecorate clay vessels.In
general, most societies that hadadopted thecuneiform writing system
preferred cylinder sealstostamp seals.Asalphabetic scripts writtenon
prepared animal skins orpapyrus* began toreplace cuneiform around
1000B.C., cylinder seals gradually
fellout ofuse. OnlyinMesopotamia,
where the AssyriansandBabylonians retained thecuneiform system,did
cylinder seals remainin useafterthis time. Cylinder seals,
aswell
asstone
stamp seals, wereno longer producedorused duringtheearly yearsof the
SELEUCID EMPIRE (312-64B.C.),when Greek-style engraved metal finger
rings came intowidespread use.
Although cylinder seals hadbecome the dominant formthrough-
out much of the NearEast,severalcultures—suchas the Anatolians
—

67
Seals
continued to prefer stamp seals. In Egypt, cylinder seals were replaced
* scarab representation of the dung by the scarab* seal—originally an amulet—shortly after 2000 B.C. When
beetle, held as sacred by Egyptians Egypt was under Hellenistic* and Roman rule (305 B.C.-A.D. 642), stone
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- stamp seals were replaced by engraved metal finger rings that bore the
influenced culture of the Mediterranean owner's personal stamp.
world and western Asia during the three
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
SEAL MAKING AND SEAL IMAGERY
Seals were made from many different materials, including clay, wood,
IVORY, bone, and metal. Most often, however, they were made from STONE.
* archaeological referring to the study The thousands of seals recovered from archaeological* sites in the Near
of past human cultures, usually by East give some insight into how seals were made and the range of images
excavating material remains of human they bore. So far, however, archaeologists have uncovered few clues as to
activity
why a certain image was chosen for a particular seal.

Seal Making. The fact that so many seals share similar styles and im-
agery suggests that many of them were made in workshops that pro-
artisan skilled craftsperson duced standard designs. Like other artisans*, seal cutters may have
occasionally traveled from place to place to practice their craft.
Seal cutters used different tools depending on the material being
carved. For softer stones such as limestone, they used stone chips or cop-
per tools; by around 2000 B.C., bronze tools had also come into use. One
specialized seal-cutting instrument was the bow drill, which consisted of a
bow similar to that used by archers. The bowstring was wrapped around
thin posts, or spindles, which had drill bits mounted on their cutting ends.
By moving the bow back and forth, the spindles rotated horizontally, en-
abling the drill bits to cut into the stone, which was placed on a flat sur-
face. By using a bow drill, the seal cutter could make several cuts in the seal
simultaneously.
Early Mesopotamian seals were made mostly from dark green or gray
stones, such as steatite or serpentine. White, pink, and green limestones
An Early Writing and calcites were also popular materials. LAPIS LAZULI became popular
Before the development of writing, around 2500 B.C. because of its beautiful deep blue color and associated
people in the ancient Near East magical properties. During the Akkadian empire (ca. 2350-2193 B.C.),
used smal^ hollow balls of clay hard stones of green and red jasper or striped agate were favorites. From
called bultae to record economic about 2100 to 1600 B.C., the most common material used was a hard gray
transactions. These clay balls con-
tained small tokens that were stone called hematite, which is found in the Zagros Mountains of Iran.
marked and had specific shapes for j While these types of stones were the most popular in ancient times,
representing units of goods. After many others were also used.
the tokens were enclosed within
the bufla, cylinder seals were rolled Seal Images. Early seal images on Mesopotamian cylinder seals might
across the soft clay. Other tokens include scenes of food or textile production. Between 2900 and 2400 B.C.,
were then pressed into the surface
of the bulla. This told anyone han- combat and banquet scenes dominated seal imagery. Gods first appeared
dling a bulla that it was secure, 1 on seals after about 2400 B.C. They were sometimes depicted in scenes
many tokens were inside, and what showing the building of structures or in presentation scenes, where a mi-
they represented. nor deity is seen introducing the king to a god or goddess seated on a
throne. The latter image remained popular for many years and was modi-
fied over time. After 2000 B.C., the person on the seal might be shown be-
ing presented to a deified* king rather than to a god or goddess. The
68
 Seleucid Empire
* deified transformed into a god or presentation scene was eventually replaced during the Old Babylonian
goddess period (ca. 1900-1600 B.C.) by images of standing deities accompanied by
different divine symbols.
In Anatolia, seals contained many of the same images found in Meso-
potamia, as well as images of local gods, animals, and hunting and ban-
quet scenes. Persian seals also show hunting scenes as well as scenes of
court life, human and animal figures, and abstract designs. In Egypt, a
collection of large scarab seals, made from about 1400 to 1350 B.C., cele-
brated important events in the reign of King AMENHOTEP III. After about
1800 B.C., heart scarabs, which were used as amulets for the dead, ap-
peared. They contained an inscription from the BOOK OF THE DEAD, in
* erotic related to sexual excitement or structing the heart of the deceased how to behave after death. Erotic*
pleasure scenes were also found on ancient Near Eastern seals. Some scholars have
suggested that these seals refer to the Mesopotamian New Year's festival
in which the king and the high priestess engaged in ritual sexual inter-
course—the "sacred marriage" ceremony—to ensure the fertility of the
kingdom in the coming year. Generally, however, it is difficult for schol-
ars to determine why a particular image was chosen for a seal. (See also
Amulets and Charms; Art, Artisans, and Artists.)

SELEUCID EMPIRE
S tretching from western ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) to the border
of present-day India, the Seleucid empire was an important center
of the Hellenistic* world. From 312 to 64 B.C., the empire sought to blend
Greek-style culture and traditions with older native Near Eastern tradi-
tions. It dominated commerce and trade throughout the region.
The Seleucid empire was formed from the remains of the vast empire
Hellenistic referring to the Greek- of ALEXANDER THE GREAT. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., a power strug-
influenced culture of the Mediterranean gle erupted among his Macedonian generals for control of his empire.
world and western Asia during the three One of these men, Seleucus, gained control of Babylonia and founded the
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
Seleucid empire. He then consolidated his power and expanded Seleucid
territory. By the end of his rule in 281 B.C., the empire stretched from
present-day India in the east to SYRIA, Anatolia, and southern Thrace, east
of Greece, in the west.
Although Seleucid kings ruled the largest empire in the ancient Near
East, their power did not go unchallenged. In the 200s B.C., the Seleucids
competed with Egypt—primarily for control of Syria—in a series of con-
flicts known as the Syrian Wars. They also faced internal struggles, includ-
ing uprisings in Judah. Beginning in the 200s B.C., the size and power of
the empire declined steadily as outlying regions gained independence or
* cede to yield or surrender, usually by were ceded* to other Hellenistic rulers. In the east, the Parthians first
treaty seized Iran from the Seleucids around 260 B.C. and later, in the 140s B.C.,
all of southern Mesopotamia. Continual warfare eventually weakened
the empire, and the remaining Syrian portion of the kingdom was finally
conquered by the Romans in 64 B.C.
See map in Alexander the Great The Seleucids blended Hellenistic culture with Near Eastern, but Greek-
(vol. 1). speaking nobles tended to dominate the ruling classes. Initially, the Seleu-
cids were tolerant of the indigenous cultures and generally allowed the local
people to maintain their own traditions, customs, and religious beliefs.
69
Semiramis
Later, when the Romans began to enter the Near East, they became less tol-
erant and forcefully imposed Hellenistic culture on the Near Easterners.
(See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Parthia; Ptolemy I.)

SEMIRAMIS
S emiramis (si»MIR»uh*mis) was a mythical Assyrian queen cele-
brated for her great wisdom and beauty. She is said to have con-
quered many lands and is also credited with founding the city of BABYLON.
According to legend, she had a lengthy and prosperous reign. At her
death, she was believed to have left earth in the form of a dove. There-
lived 800s B.C. after, she was worshiped as a goddess, with many of the same characteris-
Legendary queen of Assyria tics as the goddess ISHTAR. The legend of Semiramis was shaped primarily
by the Greek historians HERODOTUS and Diodorus Siculus.
Although the story of Semiramis is legend, her character was probably
based on a historical figure named Shammu-ramat. The wife of Assyrian
* regent person appointed to govern king Shamshi-Adad V, Shammu-ramat served briefly as regent* after the
while the rightful monarch is too young death of her husband in about 811 B.C. She ruled Assyria for four years un-
or unable to rule til her son, Adad-nirari III, was old enough to take the throne. A stone
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been stela* dedicated to Shammu-ramat from the city of ASHUR and INSCRIPTIONS
carved or engraved and serves as a at the city of Nimrud provide evidence of her reign. The fact that
monument; pi. stelae Shammu-ramat wielded considerable power was perhaps a factor in the
development of the legend of Semiramis, because women rarely played
such a major role in any Mesopotamian government.
The first known mention of Semiramis was by Herodotus in the 400s
B.C. About 300 years later, Diodorus Siculus wrote about her in his history
of the world and created an entire legend about her. The legend of Semi-
ramis inspired a number of later writers and composers, including the
French writer Voltaire, who wrote a play called Semiramis (1748), and the
Italian composer Gioacchino Rossini, whose opera Semiramide (1823) was
based on the legendary queen. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians;
Mythology; Queens.)

SEMITES
T he term Semites refers to members of any of a number of groups in
the ancient Near East, including the Akkadians, Arabs, Amorites,
Aramaeans, Canaanites, Israelites (Hebrews), and Phoenicians. No one
knows their exact origins, but the most common theory is that the Semi-
tes were nomadic* tribesmen who, over the millennia*, migrated to and
settled most of Mesopotamia, Syria, and the Levant*.

nomadic referring to people who travel Mesopotamia. Scholars have speculated on who the first Semites in
from place to place to find food and Mesopotamia were and whether they were indigenous*. There is evidence
pasture that during the third millennium B.C.*, there were Semitic groups with a
millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. common culture living in Mesopotamia. Some of these people lived in
millennia the city of EBLA in Syria, others in the kingdom of MARI on the northern
Euphrates River, and still others in the city-state* of KISH located on the
southern Euphrates. In fact, the Sumerian KING LIST records Semitic names
70
 Semites
* Levant lands bordering the eastern for the early rulers of Kish. Semites may have even lived in Assyria to the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- north and along the banks of the Diyala River to the east.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West With the exception of the Sumerians, ancient Mesopotamia was domi-
Bank, and Jordan
nated by Semitic people. The most famous of the early Semitic tribes were
* indigenous referring to the original the Akkadians in southern Mesopotamia. Led by King SARGON I, they in-
inhabitants of a region
vaded northern Mesopotamia and northern Syria around 2350 B.C. and es-
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 tablished the Akkadian empire, which lasted about 200 years. By about
to 2001 B.C.
2000 B.C., another Semitic group, the AMORITES from northern Syria, had
* city-state independent state consisting settled throughout Mesopotamia. During the next 200 years, they assumed
of a city and its surrounding territory
power over much of Syria and Mesopotamia, founding several small king-
doms and city-states. In Mesopotamia, Akkadian-speaking dynasties ruled
Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south until the coming of the
Medes and Persians from Iran.

Syria and the Levant. Throughout their histories, Syria and the
Levant have been dominated by Semitic peoples. Ancient Ebla, which
thrived between 2400 and 2250 B.C., was a powerful Syrian Semitic
kingdom. Following the destruction of Ebla by the Akkadians and the
collapse of the Akkadian empire, the Amorites rose to power in Syria
and migrated into Mesopotamia. By around 1200 B.C., the Aramaeans,
members of nomadic tribes that lived on the edges of Syria, had started
forming small kingdoms in Syria and began taking over more territo-
ries and coming into conflict with the Assyrians. In terms of the spread
of language, the Aramaeans may have had the farthest-reaching influ-
ence in the ancient Near East. By 600 B.C., Aramaic was accepted as the
common language of the Neo-Assyrian empire, and later, it became the
official language of the PERSIAN EMPIRE.
Almost all the tribes of CANAAN were Semitic, including the Phoeni-
cians, the Moabites, and the Israelites (the PHILISTINES, however, were not
Semites). No one knows the specific origins of the Israelites. According to
the Hebrew BIBLE, their ancestor, Abraham, migrated to Canaan from
Mesopotamia. His descendants then traveled to Egypt, where they re-
mained enslaved until MOSES led them to freedom. They then returned to
Canaan, the Promised Land. No one knows whether this biblical version
of events is historically true. However, most historians believe that the Is-
raelites entered Canaan around 1200 B.C.

Egypt. Egypt had less Semitic influence in ancient times than either
Mesopotamia or the Levant. There is some evidence, however, of a very
early Semitic presence in Egypt. Similarities between Levantine and
Egyptian pottery and tools dating from the fourth millennium B.C. (years
from 4000 to 3001 B.C.) suggest that Semites may have entered Egypt.
During the 1800s B.C., Canaanites began to travel to Egypt for trade,
many eventually settling down in the eastern Nile Delta, where they be-
came a powerful presence. In the 1630s B.C., the HYKSOS invaded Egypt
* dynasty succession of rulers from the and established a dynasty* there. Some historians believe the Hyksos
same family or group were Amorites who came from the Levant. (See also Akkad and the
Akkadians; Arabia and the Arabs; Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylo-
nia and the Babylonians; Ethnic and Language Groups; Phoenicia
and the Phoenicians; Semitic Languages.)
71
Semitic Languages

SEMITIC
S ome languages spoken in North Africa and the Near East belong to
the Afro-Asiatic family of languages. This family, also known as the
Hamito-Semitic or Semito-Hamitic languages, consists of five branches,
LANGUAGES the largest of which contains the Semitic languages. Language experts di-
vide Semitic languages into two subbranches: East Semitic and West Se-
mitic. These subbranches include such languages as Akkadian, Arabic,
Aramaean, Hebrew, Phoenician, and Ugaritic.
In ancient times, Semitic languages were spoken by the members of
* nomadic referring to people who travel various nomadic* tribes that spread across the region. Over time, these
from place to place to find food and languages were adopted by the peoples they came into contact with or
pasture conquered in regions such as Mesopotamia and the Levant*.
* Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West East Semitic Languages. The various dialects* of Akkadian were the
Bank, and Jordan most widely spoken of the East Semitic languages. The first written evi-
* dialect regional form of a spoken dence of Akkadian dates to the 2500s B.C. Use of the old Akkadian dialect
language with distinct pronunciation, expanded with the formation of the Akkadian empire (ca. 2350-2193 B.C.).
vocabulary, and grammar Thereafter, Akkadian dialects became the lingua franca—a language that is
widely used for communication among speakers of different languages—
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 in the ancient Near East. After the third millennium B.C.*, there were two
to 2001 B.C. distinct Akkadian dialects: Assyrian and Babylonian.
Some scholars consider Eblaite an East Semitic language related to
Akkadian. Eblaite tablets dating back to the 2300s B.C. were discovered in
* city-state independent state consisting the A.D. 1970s at the site of the ancient city-state* of EBLA in SYRIA.
of a city and its surrounding territory

West Semitic Languages. The languages that belong to the West Se-
mitic subbranch can be divided into Central Semitic and South Semitic
languages. Central Semitic includes the Northwest Semitic (Amorite,
Canaanite, Aramaic) and North Arabian languages. Amorite is one of the
oldest known West Semitic languages. It was spoken in present-day
northern Syria. The language spread into Mesopotamia with the Amorite
invasions beginning in the 2100s B.C. However, no Amorite texts have
been found—the language is only known from personal names—and its
place within Semitic languages has been debated.
The oldest examples of Canaanite date from around 1400 B.C. Later
examples of Canaanite include the Moabite, Phoenician, and Hebrew
archaeologist scientist who studies past languages. So far, archaeologists* have found only one major example of
human cultures, usually by excavating Moabite writing, which they believe was written around 850 B.C. The
material remains of human activity Canaanite aleph-beth (a writing system that contains symbols for conso-
nants but not for vowels) was also adopted by many cultures of the an-
cient Near East and formed the basis for the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman
alphabets and, therefore, the modern European alphabets.
The oldest evidence of Phoenician writing is usually dated around
1000 B.C. Because Phoenicians were among the most powerful traders in
the Mediterranean, several Phoenician words were adopted by the
Greeks, the Romans, the Akkadians, and the Egyptians.
Hebrew is the best-known Canaanite language, and its development
can be divided into four stages. The first is called Classical Hebrew or Bibli-
cal Hebrew, which is the language of the Hebrew BIBLE. Classical Hebrew
was spoken by the Israelites and Judeans until the 500s B.C., when it began
72
 Sennacherib
to be replaced in everyday life by Aramaic. Hebrew was still used for reli-
gious rituals, however.
The next stage of the Hebrew language was Rabbinic (or Mishnaic)
Hebrew, which was used for writing. Its name is taken from the Mishna, a
book of the oral traditions and laws of Judaism, written in the A.D. 100s.
The third stage is called Medieval Hebrew, which lasted from about the
A.D. 500s to the 1200s. The final stage is Modern Hebrew, which is the na-
tional language of present-day Israel.
Aramaic is one of the most important of the ancient Semitic lan-
guages. The first written evidence of Aramaic comes from Syria and dates
to the 800s B.C. Within the next 100 years, when the Assyrians conquered
Syria, they encountered the Syrian version of the simple 22-letter aleph-
beth that was first developed by the Canaanites. The Assyrians adopted
the script, along with Aramaic, the language of Syria, and both spread
throughout the Assyrian empire, becoming second in use only to Assyr-
ian. By the 500s B.C., Aramaean had been accepted as the lingua franca of
the ancient Near East. It became the official language of the PERSIAN EMPIRE
and was the main language of the Jews from the 500s B.C. Some parts of
the Hebrew Bible are written in Aramaic.
Another major Central Semitic language is Arabic, a North Arabian
language that scholars believe originated in the Syrian and northern Ara-
bian deserts. The earliest Arabic writings date to the 500s B.C. This early
Arabic is called Old Northern Arabic. The next period in the development
of the language produced Classical Arabic. This is the language of the Mus-
lim holy book, the Koran, which was written in the A.D. 600s. Modern Ara-
bic dialects are spoken today throughout the Near East and North Africa.
The two main divisions of the South Semitic languages are South Ara-
bian and Ethiopian. South Arabian was spoken in the region that com-
prised present-day Yemen and Oman. The oldest writing in South Arabian
is from the 700s B.C. The oldest evidence of an Ethiopian Semitic language,
called Geez, dates from around the A.D. 300s. Some modern languages of
the region, such as Amharic and Tigrinya, belong to the Ethiopian sub-
branch of the Semitic language family. Amharic is an official language of
Ethiopia, and Tigrinya is one of the official languages of Eritrea. (See also
Alphabets; Ethnic and Language Groups; Languages; Semites; Ugarit.)

SENNACHERIB
T he son and successor of King SARGON II, Sennacherib (suh»NAK«er«ib)
ruled Assyria for almost a quarter of a century. His reign is noted pri-
marily for numerous military campaigns to put down uprisings and con-
solidate power in Babylonia and the Levant*. Yet Sennacherib's most
enduring accomplishment was rebuilding the ancient city of NINEVEH.
ruled 704-681 B.C. Throughout his reign, Sennacherib was plagued by political instability
King of Assyria in Babylonia, caused largely by the growing power of the ARAMAEANS and
Chaldeans and by the interference of the Elamites of Iran. At one point, he
placed his eldest son on the Babylonian throne, but the Elamites captured
Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- and killed him. Infuriated at the death of his son, Sennacherib finally de-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West feated his enemies in 689 B.C. and destroyed the city of BABYLON. During
Bank, and Jordan his campaign to put down uprisings in the Levant, he destroyed many
73
Servants
* siege long and persistent effort to force cities in the region. After a long siege* of the city of JERUSALEM, Sennacherib
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or also forced King Hezekiah of Judah to pay tribute* to Assyria.
city with armed troops, cutting it off During his reign, Sennacherib moved the capital of Assyria from Dur-
from supplies and aid
Sharrukin to Nineveh. He enlarged and beautified the city, widened and
* tribute payment made by a smaller or paved the streets, built aqueducts and canals, and constructed a magnifi-
weaker party to a more powerful one,
often under the threat of force
cent new palace and imposing city walls. Toward the end of his reign, Sen-
nacherib chose his son ESARHADDON as his heir. This decision angered
Esarhaddon's older brothers, who led a conspiracy against their father that
led to his assassination in 681 B.C. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians;
Babylonia and the Babylonians; Chaldea and the Chaldeans; Elam
and the Elamites; Kings.)

SERVANTS
T exts and artworks from the ancient Near East contain many refer-
ences to servants, the men and women who waited on banquet
guests, cleaned temples, and performed all the many tasks of elite estates.
It is unclear whether the servants were free and working for pay, semifree,
unfree and bound to their employers, or perhaps even enslaved.
Although the terms servant and slave mean very different things in
the modern world, it is not always easy for historians to draw a clear dis-
tinction between them in the context of the Near East. Egyptian texts, for
example, mention many groups of people whose freedom was limited to
some degree: dependents, forced laborers, workers, servants, royal ser-
vants, prisoners of war, and slaves. However, these texts generally do not
provide exact definitions for such classifications. Even when descriptions
exist, they do not always reflect the servants' title. For example, the label
"royal servant" referred not to a high-ranking servant of the king but to
an Egyptian who had become a foreign slave.
Undoubtedly, many of the individuals called servants in texts from
Egypt and other places were hired workers, while others were actually
Instructions for slaves. Their identification as servants had more to do with the work they
Hittite Servants did than with their precise legal status. In Egypt, the term also referred to
In Hittite Anatolia, servants people who had given up their rights, probably due to personal and eco-
working in the palaces and
temples were expected to follow spe
nomic constraints or legal problems. Whatever their status, servants
cif ic instructions that were inscribed played an important role in the everyday life of ancient Near Eastern soci-
i on tablets. One such tablet reads: eties and performed several functions that were indispensable in both
When a servant 1$ to stand before public and private life.
his master, he is bathed and
clothed In dean [garments]; he ei- Servants in Public Life. Documents from ancient Egypt and MESOPO-
ther gives him his food, or he gives TAMIA contain references to servants' roles in the smooth operation of
him his bevewge. And because such institutions as palaces and temples. Some of these individuals were
he, his master, mis [and] drinks,
he is relaxed in spirit and feels one officials or administrators, servants in the same sense that people who
with him. But if he [the servant] is work for the government today are called civil servants. For example,
ever remiss, [if] he is inattentive, The Story ofSinuhe is an account of a palace servant who fled from Eygpt
his mind is alien to him. to the Levant* for fear of getting involved in a revolt. Sinuhe could also
be described as a courtier (member of the royal court).
In ancient times, Egyptian society consisted of a large number of peo-
ple who were dependent workers performing tasks on land owned by the
king or the state. Most of their work was agricultural, but sometimes they
74
 Servants

Levant lands bordering theeastern performedforced laborofothersorts,suchasbuildingthepyramids or

shores of the Mediterranean Sea(present- serving as soldiers. Although they werenotentirely
free,these workers
day Syria, Lebanon, andIsrael), theWest were distinguishedfrom slaves.
Bank, and Jordan
Mesopotamia, like Egypt,had aclassofpeople whosefellstatus
some-
where between free workersandslaves. These dependent workers, who
were notfree to leave theirjobsbutsometimes escaped, provided much
of the agricultural labor neededtosustain society.
Asimilar class
ofbound
workers also existed in ancient Israel. Babylonian society includeda
group known astemple servants, bound toservicein the cities'temples.
Although they could notleave their jobs, they could marry, have families,
and leave property totheir heirs.

Servants in Private Life. Throughout theancient Near East, the

comfortable, even luxurious, livesof therichandnoble dependedon the
labor of servants. Some performed personal services, acting asmaids
or
attendants to membersof thehousehold. Others workedatsuch tasks as
cooking, baking, brewing beer, laundering, cleaning, manufacturing tex-
tiles, and sewing. On acountry estate, servants labored
fields,
ingardens,
and workshops.
75
Seth
Many servants had highly specialized duties. Individuals with the
scribe person of a learned class who proper training served as scribes*, healers, midwives, musicians, or
served as a writer, editor, or teacher dancers. However, it is unclear whether such individuals were paid em-
ployees, bound workers who received some pay, or slaves. (See also Labor
and Laborers; Slaves and Slavery.)

SETH
S eth was the Egyptian god of chaos, storms, and war. Throughout
ancient Egyptian history, he was also associated with foreigners
and foreign aggression. In art, Seth was most often depicted with a hu-
man body and an animal-like head resembling that of an anteater, with
square ears and a long, almost beaklike snout. Most archaeologists* be-
lieve that Seth's head was not based on a real animal but was a mythical
* archaeologist scientist who studies past creation.
human cultures, usually by excavating Seth was the son of the sky goddess Nut. He was the brother of OSIRIS,
material remains of human activity the king of the gods, and Isis, the mother goddess. According to Egyptian
mythology, Seth is believed to have killed Osiris in order to become king.
After Osiris died, Isis, who was Osiris's wife, bore him a son named HORUS.
Horus then battled Seth many times to avenge his father's death and ulti-
mately triumphed over Seth.
Despite Seth;s reputation for evil, he was worshiped by many Egyp-
* cult system of religious beliefs and tians. The center of the cult* devoted to him was at Naqada, a city near
rituals; group following these beliefs THEBES. He was also worshiped as a predominant god in northeastern
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Egypt. The HYKSOS, who invaded Egypt from SYRIA or the Levant* adopted
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- the worship of Seth when they established their dynasty* at Avaris in
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West northern Egypt in the 1600s B.C. This may have been because Seth closely
Bank, and Jordan
resembled the Canaanite god BAAL.
* dynasty succession of rulers from the Seth's name was adopted by pharaohs* such as Seth Peribsen of the
same family or group
Second Dynasty and Sety I and Sethnakhte of the Nineteenth and Twen-
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt tieth Dynasties. However, by the time of the Twenty-first Dynasty (ca.
* pantheon all the gods of a particular 1075-945 B.C.), Seth's position in the pantheon* changed, and he came to
culture be considered an evil and dangerous figure. (See also Egypt and the Egyp-
tians; Gods and Goddesses; Mythology; Religion.)

SETY I
T he son of Ramses I, Sety I ruled Egypt alongside his father, who also
founded the Nineteenth Dynasty. Because he began his reign as a co-
regent, his succession to the throne was secure. Sometimes considered
the greatest king of his dynasty*, Sety was named after the god SETH.
Sety was a successful military leader. During his reign, he fought the
ruled ca. 1294-1279 B.C. Libyans and the HITTITES of Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and maintained
Egyptian pharaoh Egypt's domination of the Levant*. For a brief period, he ruled the city of
Qadesh in southern SYRIA.
* dynasty succession of rulers from the Notwithstanding his military abilities, Sety is better known for his do-
same family or group mestic policies. He secured Egypt's frontiers, established mines and quar-
ries, and repaired many temples and sacred places. He also continued
work on the monuments at Karnak that were begun by his father. His
76
 Shalmaneser V
Levant lands bordering the eastern own tomb is one of the largest and most beautiful in the VALLEY OF THE
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- KINGS. Sety's mortuary temple at ABYDOS is considered his greatest memor-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West ial. It is decorated with many WALL PAINTINGS and reliefs* that are consid-
Bank, and Jordan
ered among the finest examples of ancient Egyptian art.
relief sculpture in which material is cut Although Sety's reign lasted only about 14 years, he left behind a sta-
away to show figures raised from the
background
ble and healthy kingdom. He was succeeded by his son RAMSES II. (See also
Egypt and the Egyptians; Pharaohs; Ramses II.)

SHALMANESER III
T he son of King ASHURBANIPAL II, Shalmaneser HI (shal«man»E»ser)
took the throne of Assyria when the empire's power was on the rise.
He continued his father's efforts to expand Assyrian rule in the Near East
and to gain control over vital trade routes in the region.
In 858 B.C., Shalmaneser defeated the city-state* of KARKAMISH near the
ruled 858-823 B.C. Syrian border and conquered several other small states in the area. Five
King of Assyria years later, he launched a major campaign against the united forces of the
cities of DAMASCUS and Hamath and against the kingdom of Israel.
Although he claimed victory at the battle of Qarqar, the outcome was in-
* city-state independent state consisting decisive. Other campaigns in the region followed, but no significant terri-
of a city and its surrounding territory torial gains were made.
Shalmaneser had greater success elsewhere. In 841 B.C., he marched
armies to the Mediterranean coast and forced the Israelite city of SAMARIA
tribute payment made by a smaller or and the Phoenician cities of TYRE and SIDON to pay him tribute*. By 832
weaker party to a more powerful one, B.C., he had invaded and conquered Cilicia in ANATOLIA (present-day
often under the threat of force Turkey) and made that region an Assyrian province.
During his reign, Shalmaneser also concluded a number of building
projects begun by his father. This included construction of a new capital
at KALKHU (present-day Nimrud), with massive city walls, a magnificent
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or palace, and several temples. One of the best-known artifacts* from his
other object made by humans reign is the Black Obelisk, a monument excavated at Nimrud that con-
tains various scenes of the king receiving tribute and INSCRIPTIONS describ-
ing the extent of his empire. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Hebrews
and Israelites; Kings.)

SHALMANESER V
T he son of King TIGLATH-PILESER HI, Shalmaneser V (shal»man»E»ser)
took the throne of Assyria after the death of his father in 726 B.C. He
also ruled as king of Babylonia, which was controlled by Assyria at that
time. Shalmaneser ruled for only five years, and little is known about him
or his reign. There are no known royal INSCRIPTIONS from his reign, and the
ruled 726-722 B.C. Babylonian Chronicle makes little mention of his activities.
King of Assyria Shalmaneser is mentioned, however, in the Hebrew BIBLE in the Book
of 2 Kings. The text tells how he marched Assyrian troops into the Lev-
Levant lands bordering the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-
ant* to put down a rebellion led by King Hoshea of Israel. He also attacked
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West the Phoenician city of TYRE and began a long siege* of the city of SAMARIA,
Bank, and Jordan the capital of Israel. Shalmaneser died before the siege of Samaria ended,
77
Shamshi-Adad I

* siege long and persistent effort to force and his successor, SARGON II, claimed credit for the capture of the city.
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or Nevertheless, the military campaigns of Shalmaneser led to the end of the
city with armed troops, cutting it off northern kingdom of Israel, which became a province of Assyria. (See also
from supplies and aid
Assyria and the Assyrians.)

SHAMSHI-ADAD I
S hamshi-Adad I (SHAM*shi»A«dad) was an Amorite ruler who
gained control of a number of cities and states in northern MESOPO-
TAMIA. A contemporary of King HAMMURABI of Babylon, Shamshi-Adad
achieved enormous prestige.
In about 1836 B.C., Shamshi-Adad succeeded his father and brother as
ruled ca. 1830-1776 B.C. king of Ekallatum, a city located on the TIGRIS RIVER in northern Mesopo-
First king of Assyria tamia. However, around 1818 B.C., he was forced to flee to Babylon when
Naram-Sin, the king of ESHNUNNA, captured Ekallatum and the city of
ASHUR. Shamshi-Adad remained in exile in Babylon until the death of
Naram-Sin in about 1811 B.C., after which he returned to Ekallatum.
Three years later, he conquered Ashur and then began to expand his terri-
city-state independent state consisting tory, capturing MARI and other kingdoms and city-states* in Mesoptamia.
of a city and its surrounding territory At the height of his power, Shamshi-Adad controlled most of north-
ern Mesopotamia. He governed his kingdom as a collection of city-states.
Although he united them all under a single kingship, he also allowed
each to maintain its local traditions. In his old age, Shamshi-Adad di-
vided control of his kingdom among himself and his two sons. While he
lived, this system of government functioned quite well. After his death,
however, his sons allowed the kingdom to collapse, and all the areas ab-
sorbed by Shamshi-Adad regained their independence. (See also Amor-
ites; Assyria and the Assyrians; Kings.)

SHEEP
S heep and GOATS were the first grazing ANIMALS to be domesticated* in
the ancient Near East, probably around 7000 B.C. Domesticated
sheep were descended from wild sheep, which were abundant in ANATOLIA
(present-day Turkey), MESOPOTAMIA, and IRAN.
Sheep were ideal grazing animals for settled societies that practiced AGRI-
CULTURE. Sheep could graze on the plants that grew naturally in fallow*
* domesticated adapted or tamed for fields, and their droppings fertilized the ground for the next growing season.
human use They could also graze on vegetation on land just outside cultivated areas.
* fallow plowed but not planted, so that During the summer, shepherds had to herd sheep across long distances so
moisture and organic processes can that the sheep could find enough food to sustain themselves. These shep-
replenish the soil's nutrients herds were often members of a farmer's family or were hired professionals.
In ancient times, sheep may have been slaughtered for meat or as OF-
FERINGS or raised to provide milk. More importantly, they were also kept
for their wool, the most common TEXTILE used for clothing in the ancient
city-state independent state consisting Near East. In the Syrian city-state* of EBLA, which had a large textile indus-
of a city and its surrounding territory try, the palace owned large flocks of sheep. The Mesopotamian city-state
of UR also had a textile industry. There the wool from the sheep was
brought to temple workshops where it was woven into fabric to clothe
the population. Textiles were also important exports and were sent to for-
78
 Shipping Routes
eign lands in exchange for metals and other resources not available in
Mesopotamia. Records from Ur show that the temples not only raised
sheep but also practiced selective breeding to produce traits such as finer
wool. (See also Animals, Domestication of.)

SHIPPING ROUTES
I n ancient times, the RIVERS and seas of the Near East served as the re-
gion's highways, allowing distant cultures to communicate and trade
with each other. River travel probably occurred long before the rise of set-
tled civilizations. In fact, archaeologists* have found evidence of sea
travel that predates the fourth millennium B.C.*
The primary inland shipping routes in MESOPOTAMIA followed the TIGRIS
* archaeologist scientist who studies past RIVER or the EUPHRATES RIVER. Because of strong southerly currents, most of
human cultures, usually by excavating the ships on these rivers traveled south from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey)
material remains of human activity to Mesopotamia. Small boats were sometimes towed upstream against the
* fourth millennium B.C. years from current, but the journey took about four times as long as the same trip go-
4000 to 3001 B.C. ing downstream. River travel was particularly useful for shipping heavy or
bulky cargoes, such as timber or stone. The Mesopotamians also built an
extensive series of CANALS, which further aided them in commerce.
The NILE RIVER was the main water artery linking Upper and Lower
Egypt. Unlike the Tigris and Euphrates, the Nile permitted easy travel in
both directions. Boats traveling north rode the current to the Mediter-
ranean, while southbound craft were driven by winds that blew in from
* cataract steep waterfall the sea. The main obstacle to southward travel was the cataracts* near the
southern city of Aswan. However, a series of channels dug just after 2300
B.C. enabled ships to sail around the cataracts.
Archaeological sites throughout the Near East indicate that coastal
and open sea travel both developed around 3000 B.C. A sea route from
Mesopotamia around Arabia and into the RED SEA was navigated at about
this time. Shortly thereafter, records show that the Sumerians conducted
active seaborne trade with states along the coast of the Persian Gulf. Re-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or mains of some artifacts* in the region have been traced to early Indian
other object made by humans civilizations along the Arabian Sea.
Farther west, the most important shipping routes crossed the eastern
Mediterranean Sea between SYRIA, Egypt, Anatolia, and the islands of
CYPRUS and CRETE. The northern Syrian city of UGARIT, which was the con-
necting point for many land routes from Anatolia, Syria, and Mesopo-
tamia, was also an important seaport in the Mediterranean, with close ties
with the island of Cyprus.
When the Hittite empire fell in about 1200 B.C., Ugarit and other north
Syrian and Anatolian seaports declined, and Phoenician ports in the south
—TYRE, SIDON, and BYBLOS—came to dominate Mediterranean shipping.
The Phoenicians were the greatest seafarers in the ancient world, car-
rying trade goods throughout the Mediterranean and establishing
colonies as far away as Spain and Morocco. According to the Greek histo-
rian HERODOTUS, a Phoenician fleet even sailed around Africa and returned
through the Strait of Gibraltar after a three-year voyage.
Egypt was one of the most important destinations for Mediterranean
* commodity article of trade shipping. The land was rich in grain, a particularly valuable commodity* in
79
Ships and Boats

such places as Greece and Anatolia, which lacked good farmland. Ships
from Egypt carried grain and precious items such as jewelry, gold, and in-
cense to ports in Syria and Phoenicia. In return, ships bound for Egypt
brought back much-needed timber as well as olive oil and wine. Egypt de-
veloped sea trade with not only its northern neighbors but also those to the
south. Egyptian ships sailed down the Red Sea to the land of Punt, believed
to have been on the eastern African coast. However, the Egyptians were
much more cautious sailors than the Phoenicians, Greeks, and other
peoples of the Mediterranean, rarely sailing out of sight of land. (See also
Economy and Trade; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Phoenicia and the
Phoenicians; Ships and Boats; Trade Routes; Transportation and Travel.)

SHIPS AND BOATS

T he peoples of the ancient Near East often relied on water transport to
move goods and establish communications over long distances.
From an early date, their ships and boats turned the rivers and seas of the
region into watery highways.

River Craft. Among the earliest watercraft in Mesopotamia and Egypt

were simple reed rafts propelled by paddles or by poles pushed against
the bottom of rivers or marshes. The Mesopotamians also used inflated
animal skins as flotation devices. The Assyrian king SHAMSHI-ADAD I is-
sued such skins to his soldiers for use in crossing rivers.
A Mesopotamian river craft called the kelek combined these two tech-
nologies. It consisted of between four and several hundred inflated animal
Boats of the Gods skins fastened together beneath a framework of poles and reeds to form a
The ancient Mesopotamians built raft. Well suited to shallows and rapids along rivers, the kelek could float
boats to carry statues representing even if several skins were lost or deflated. Cargo-carrying keleks traveled
their gods. These boats of the gods ; downstream with the current. Once they reached their destination, they
were generally full-sized vessels
with a crew of rowers to propel
were taken apart, the wood was sold, and the skins were carried back up-
them over rivers and canals. During stream for use on future trips.
religious festivals, the statues of Another early Mesopotamian river craft was a type of coracle, a
gods made ritual journeys aboard round, flat-bottomed basket with a frame of twigs and reeds covered with
their boats to visit each other. animal hides. Such craft were used by many ancient cultures at different
When not being used to carry a
god's statue, a boat was stored in a
periods. In Mesopotamia, the coracles were paddled or rowed by a crew of
temple dedicated to the deity, and two to four men. River craft similar to both keleks and coracles are still
the god's statue and some treasures used in parts of the Near East today.
from the temple might be placed in Boats made from wooden planks were also used on the TIGRIS RIVER
the boat to display to worshipers. and the EUPHRATES RIVER of Mesopotamia and on the NILE RIVER of Egypt.
Each boat had a name, and the ves Ancient clay models show that early Mesopotamian wooden vessels had
sels were an important part of Mes-
opotamian culture.
high sides, upturned bows (fronts) and sterns (rears), and deep keels
(wooden frameworks running the length of the ship at the base of the
hull, or body, of the vessel). These boats were paddled or rowed. Sailboats
were rarely used on Mesopotamian rivers because the wind generally
blows in the same direction as the currents flow.
Early wooden boats in Egypt were shallow vessels with hulls that
curved upward at both bow and stern. Unlike their Mesopotamian coun-
terparts, many Egyptian river craft had sails to catch the wind and propel
them south on the Nile River against the current. When ships flowed with
80
 Ships and Boats
the current on northbound journeys,thesails were lowered,and theboats
were paddled or rowed. Early Egyptian sailboatshad asingle tall, narrow
sail roughly triangularin shape;byabout
B.C.,the2000
sails were squarer.
Egyptiancraft usuallyhad a movable cabinofcloth stretched over a
wooden framework. Alargeoar at the stern connectedto apole,ortiller,
was used to steerthe
craft.The shipshad crewsof up to 20men, most of
whom were rowers.The recordsof oneship indicate thatitheld between
26 and 40 people, someofwhom were probably passengers.

Seagoing Vessels. Scholars know that theMesopotamians sailed on

third millennium
B.C. years from 3000 the PersianGulfand ArabianSea asearly as the thirdB.C.*,
millennium
to 2001 B.C. but no detailed descriptionsoftheir seagoing vessels survive. However,
there is ample evidenceof seagoing shipsfrom
SYRIA,
and
ancient Egypt,
CANAAN that sailedon the Mediterranean Sea.
Although larger than rivercraft, Egyptian seagoing vessels were simi-
lar in many ways. They usedthesametypesofsailsandwere steered by
means of three oars (rather thanone)at thestern.Thevessels had athick
rope that ranfrom one end of the ship to theother abovethehull, which
prevented the bow and stern from sagging when theship passed over
large wavesat sea.
Seagoing shipsfromSyriaand Canaan were short, wide vessels with
broad sailsand wood orreedfencingalongthesidesof thehulltoprevent
water from spraying onto the deck. These ships were firstthe
tohave
crow's nests, or observation platforms mounted high on themasts.
The sails on early seagoing vessels could not beadjustedtochange
the amount of sail that caughtthe wind.Ifwind conditions required less
sail, the crew had to remove the sailentirelyandreplaceitwithasmaller
one. Around 1200B.C., Mediterranean ships begantofitted be withan
improved sail designbywhich crews could adjustsize
theof thesail using
a seriesof ropesand lines.
Seagoing sailing ships generally were equipped with oars so thatthey
could travel against the wind orwhen thewinds were calm. Such ships
became known as galleys. Earlygalleyshad asingleset ofoarsmen who
sat inside the ship's hull.
Later galleyshad several setsofoarsmen, one of

81
81
Shulgi

which would often be seated on deck. On early Phoenician ships, a row of

shields was mounted along the rail to protect the rowers and other crew
members on deck.
Most seagoing vessels were cargo ships, but ships also became impor-
tant for military purposes. The earliest naval ships were used solely to
transport troops. Naval combat tactics involved sailing close enough to
an enemy craft so that soldiers could board it. The soldiers then fought
what was essentially a land battle aboard ship.
Se By the 700s B.C., many naval vessels were equipped with rams—metal
color plate 12, or wooden projections mounted at the waterline on the bows of ships—
ol. 4
which turned the ships into weapons. When a ship was rowed into an en-
emy vessel at high speed, the ram would strike its hull and open a hole,
enabling water to enter and sink the ship or make it inoperable.

Shipbuilding Techniques. Because of the importance of ships and

boats for trade, transportation, and warfare, shipbuilding became an im-
portant industry in the ancient Near East. Almost all ancient wooden
ships were constructed using a so-called "shell-first" construction, in
which a shipbuilder first laid the keel and then attached planks to it to
form the hull. Supporting frames were then placed inside the completed
hull. By contrast, modern shipbuilders attach the frame to the keel and
then build the hull around it.
The planking of ancient ships was held together with a series of mortise-
and-tenon joints. These joints consisted of mortises, or notches, cut into the
edge of planks and tenons, or pegs, driven into the mortises. Planks set on
top of each other were joined by fitting the mortises of one plank over the
tenons of another and pounding the planks together with a hammer. Addi-
tional wooden pegs were often driven into the joints from inside the hull to
lock them firmly in place.
When the wooden planks came in contact with water, they ex-
panded, sealing the seams between them. Ancient records show that the
Mesopotamians also used a tarlike substance called bitumen to seal the
seams between planks. In addition to mortise-and-tenon construction,
the planks on some ships were lashed together with ropes or fibers.
These ancient designs remained in use for thousands of years. In fact,
the basic river craft of ancient times is in use in some parts of the world
today. (See also Naval Power; Transportation and Travel.)

SHULGI
S hulgi was the son of King UR-NAMMU, founder of the Third Dynasty
of the city-state* of UR. As the most important ruler of the dynasty,
Shulgi not only expanded his empire but also launched extensive reforms
within his kingdom.
Shulgi was most likely quite young when he assumed the throne fol-
ruled ca. 2094-2047 B.C. lowing his father's unexpected death in battle against the Gutians, a group
King of Ur of nomads from the Zagros Mountains region of present-day Iran. The first
20 or so years of his reign were uneventful. However, in his twentieth year
* city-state independent state consisting as king, he began a massive reorganization of the empire. He divided the
of a city and its surrounding territory lands of southern and northern Babylonia into provinces and placed
82
 Shuppiluliuma I

them under the control of members of the local elite. To ensure central
control, he also assigned a military commander to each province. Areas
outside the ''core" provinces were settled and run by military officers. Both
the core and the outer areas paid taxes consisting of agricultural goods,
livestock, and other items of value. These goods were then redistributed to
the royal household, temples, and other provinces as needed.
* scribe person of a learned class who Shulgi also established schools to standardize the training of scribes*
served as a writer, editor, or teacher and other royal officials. He created a uniform system of weights and
measures and a new calendar. About halfway through his reign, Shulgi
declared himself a god. He then built a large standing army and used it to
greatly expand the empire into present-day southwestern Iran. During
Shulgi's nearly 50-year reign, Ur became the dominant power in MESOPO-
TAMIA. After his death, Shulgi was succeeded by his sons Amar-Sin, then
Shu-Sin. It was not long after the deaths of these two rulers that the Third
Dynasty of Ur finally collapsed during an Elamite invasion. (See also
Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

SHUPPILULIUMA I
S huppiluliuma I (suh»pi»loo«lee»l>mah) was the son of the HITTITE
king Tudkhaliya III. A skillful military leader, Shuppiluliuma strength-
ened the Hittite kingdom in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), used his skills to
expand his territory, and founded the Hittite empire.
In the early 1300s B.C., Shuppiluliuma served as a general in his fa-
ruled ca. 1370-1330 B.C. ther's army during campaigns against Mittani, a HURRIAN kingdom in
Hittite king northern SYRIA. Although the campaigns were largely unsuccessful, Shup-
piluliuma gained several minor victories, which earned him a reputation
as a leader. When Tudkhaliya died, senior officials murdered his succes-
sor, enabling Shuppiluliuma to take the throne.
During the early years of his reign, Shuppiluliuma focused on securing
his position, consolidating the kingdom, and establishing a hold on territo-
ries to the north and west. Thereafter, he turned his attention to Mitanni.
He led his armies as far south as the Lebanon Mountains and subdued sev-
eral Mitannian territories in Syria. Later he conquered the city of KARKAMISH,
an important trade center on the western bank of the Euphrates River. This
vassal individual or state that swears was a final defeat for Mitanni, which then became a Hittite vassal*.
loyalty and obedience to a greater power During his expeditions into Syria, Shuppiluliuma came into conflict
with the Egyptians, who had vassals and allies there. However, to Shup-
piluliuma's surprise, the widow of the Egyptian king TUTANKHAMEN asked
him to send one of his sons to marry her and become Egypt's ruler. When
presented with the opportunity to take over his main rival and become
the leading power in the Near East, Shuppiluliuma hesitated, thinking
the message was a trick. When the Egyptian queen confirmed that the of-
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt fer was real, Shuppiluliuma sent a son to Egypt to be pharaoh*. However,
his son was murdered on his journey, probably by Egyptians opposed to a
foreign leader, and Shuppiluliuma lost the chance to expand his territory
into Egypt.
Shuppiluliuma sent his troops to subdue minor uprisings in Syria and
Anatolia. He also sent an expedition to face Egyptian troops to the south.
There the Hittites emerged victorious, but in the end, the campaign was a
83
Sidoii

disaster because the Egyptian prisoners brought a plague into Hittite terri-
tory. The plague killed both Shuppiluliuma and his son and successor.
Thereafter, Shuppiluliuma's younger son, Murshili II, inherited the throne.
The Hittite empire survived until the late 1200s B.C., when it fell after years
of unrest and an invasion.

SlDON
S idon (SY*duhn) was a city-state* in ancient Phoenicia. The present-
day city of Saida still exists on the site. It is located on the Mediter-
ranean coast about 27 miles south of present-day Beirut, Lebanon. It is
believed that the name Sidon is derived from the Semitic* word sayd,
which means "fishing." Founded sometime between 3000 and 2001 B.C.,
Sidon, along with the other Phoenician city-states of TYRE and BYBLOS,
* city-state independent state consisting soon became a successful trading and manufacturing city. Starting in the
of a city and its surrounding territory 600s B.C., Sidon was a vassal* to several ancient Near Eastern empires, includ-
* Semitic of or relating to a language ing Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. After the Persian empire fell in 330 B.C.,
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, the city was ruled by the Macedonian king ALEXANDER THE GREAT, the
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician Ptolemies, the Seleucids, and the Roman Empire.
* vassal individual or state that swears Sidon is perhaps best known for its famous purple dye, which was ex-
loyalty and obedience to a greater power tracted from mollusks, a type of shellfish. In fact, a huge mound of these
* archaeologist scientist who studies past shells can still be found south of the city. Archeologists* believe that this
human cultures, usually by excavating was where ancient dye manufacturers dumped the shells after the dye
material remains of human activity
had been removed.
Archeologists have found very little evidence of the ancient city be-
cause the modern city still exists on top of it. However, an elaborate
* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually cemetery containing sarcophagi* from the Phoenician period has been
made of stone; pi. sarcophagi discovered. Also, a temple dedicated to Eshmun—the Phoenician god of
healing—has been uncovered. By far the most famous archeological dis-
covery from Sidon is the Alexander Sarcophagus, apparently carved for
relief sculpture in which material is cut Alexander's vassal king in Sidon. The reliefs* on the stone sarcophagus
away to show figures raised from the show Alexander hunting and fishing. (See also Cities and City-States;
background Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

Siege Warfare See Wars and Warfare.

Silver See Metals and Metalworking.

SINAI, MOUNT
A ccording to the Hebrew BIBLE, Mount Sinai was where the Hebrew
god YAHWEH revealed the set of laws known as the TEN COMMAND-
MENTS to MOSES. In addition, Moses received numerous other laws and in-
structions from Yahweh concerning the priesthood and rules for worship,
celebration, and sacrifices. Mount Sinai is also where the Israelites entered
into their covenant, or solemn agreement, with Yahweh. The Israelites
84
 Slaves and Slavery
agreed to obey Yahweh's laws and worship him as their only God. Moses
exodus migration by a large group of and the Israelites came to Mount Sinai during the period of their exodus*
people, usually to escape something from Egypt to CANAAN.
unpleasant The first reference to Mount Sinai occurs in the Book of Exodus, where
the mountain is called Mount Horeb. Its exact location is unknown. Begin-
ning in the A.D. 300s, Christian tradition has identified Mount Sinai with a
mountain known in Arabic as Jebel Musa (Mountain of Moses). It is located
in the southern SINAI PENINSULA between the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of
Aqaba. This location for Mount Sinai is accepted not only by followers of
Judaism but also by those who follow Islam and Christianity. Some modern
scholars have proposed other possible locations for Mount Sinai, including
sites in Arabia and mountains in the Sinai peninsula but closer to the
Mediterranean Sea. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews.)

SINAI PENINSULA
T he Sinai peninsula is a triangle-shaped landmass that lies between
Egypt and present-day Israel. The southern part of the peninsula is
bordered by the Gulf of Suez on the west and the Gulf of Aqaba on the east.
These two bodies of water meet at the southern tip of the peninsula, in the
RED SEA. To the north, the peninsula is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea.
Archaeologists* have found evidence of seasonal campsites in the
archaeologist scientist who studies past Sinai peninsula dating from prehistoric times. However, the earliest writ-
human cultures, usually by excavating ten information about the region comes from Egyptian texts that date
material remains of human activity from about 3000 B.C. These texts describe Egyptian expeditions that went
to the region in search of copper and turquoise. Later the northern Sinai
was an important trade route between Egypt and the rest of the ancient
Near East. The region was controlled at various times by the Egyptians
and later by the Assyrians, Persians, Nabataeans, and Romans. Many of
these civilizations established trading posts in the region.
The Sinai is most famous, however, because of references to it in the
Hebrew BIBLE. According to the Bible, the Israelites crossed the Sinai penin-
exodus migration by a large group of sula during their exodus* from Egypt to CANAAN. The Sinai is also famous
people, usually to escape something as the site at which the Hebrew god YAHWEH gave MOSES the TEN COMMAND-
unpleasant MENTS. Although most scholars do not doubt that the Israelites traveled
across the region, no one knows the route they took or on what mountain
Moses received the commandments. However, most Christians, Jews, and
See map on inside covers. Muslims believe that the Israelites traveled through the southern part of
the peninsula and that Moses received the commandments on Mount
Sinai. (See also Sinai, Mount.)

SLAVES
S laves and slavery existed throughout the ancient Near East, al-
though their conditions varied. The ancient attitude toward slavery
was quite different from that of today, in which it is condemned as a vio-
AND SLAVERY lation of human rights. The concept of human rights was unknown to
the ancients, who accepted slavery as a natural part of an existence in
which no one was completely free of control by the gods, kings, the state,
temples, the elite, or a social class above one's own. Although the fate of
85
Slaves and Slavery
slaves was often considered unfortunate, there was little outcry against
slavery on moral grounds.
The distinction between free and unfree seems clear today, but the
* serf peasant required to work land boundaries between slaves, serfs*, and SERVANTS were often blurred in an-
that he lives on but does not own cient times. Many slaves were foreigners captured in war or raids. Others
were citizens of a state who had become slaves because of debt or crime.
Some individuals even sold themselves into slavery—perhaps for a lim-
ited time—when they could not pay their debts. A parent could sell a
child into slavery, and many parents did so. The definition of a slave in
ancient times was that he or she was property that could be bought or
* commodity article of trade sold much like any other commodity*.
Slavery did not play a significant economic role in any Near Eastern
culture. Slave populations were not immense, partly because most Near
Eastern cultures did not have the resources to buy and guard them. Out-
side the palaces, even the richest households probably did not own more
than 15 slaves, and 1 to 5 slaves in a household was more common.
Slaves tended to be used for indoor or craft work rather than for agricul-
tural labor because it was too easy for them to run away while working in
the fields.
The life of a slave was not necessarily miserable, although the major-
ity of slaves probably led difficult lives. Some slaves, especially those with
* literacy ability to read and write valuable skills, such as literacy* or knowledge of MEDICINE, gained wealth
and status. In some circumstances, slaves could marry, raise families, and
gain their freedom. Some acquired political power as advisers to kings
and queens. However, this was not the case with most slaves.

Mesopotamia. Slaves were part of Mesopotamian society, although

their numbers and economic importance were less in earlier periods
than during the Greek and Roman eras. Most slaves were originally pris-
oners of war. They wore special haircuts, tattoos, or brands to distinguish
them from free people. A significant number of slaves were not foreign-
indigenous referring to the original ers but indigenous* residents forced into slavery by economic misfor-
inhabitants of a region tune, such as debt or poverty. Sometimes such slaves were freed by royal
decrees that canceled all private debts.
Most slave owners in Mesopotamia were upper-class families who used
their slaves in domestic service. Skilled slaves might either work at crafts
for their masters or be hired out for profit. Slave owners sometimes en-
trusted their slaves with managing estates or operating businesses. Success-
ful or talented slaves belonging to wealthy families might even have been
allowed to accumulate their own wealth and spend or invest as they wished.
It was not uncommon for slave owners to give slaves their freedom,
and some freed slaves were adopted into the families of their former mas-
ters. Female slaves might have borne children to either freemen or slaves,
but all such children became the property of their mothers' owners. Some
childless slave owners adopted their slaves' children.

Egypt. The lowest social class in ancient Egypt consisted of slaves who
worked on royal building projects, in private workshops, and as domes-
tic servants. Slavery was rare in Egypt between about 2700 and 1500 B.C.,
but it increased significantly after that period.
86
 Slaves and Slavery
Foreign slaves entered Egypt through a private slave trade, and some
Egyptians sold themselves into slavery. Most slaves, however, were for-
eign captives, either soldiers taken prisoner in battle or civilians seized
during raids of foreign territory. One Egyptian king, Sneferu, claimed to
have brought back 7,000 captives from the land of Nubia, south of Egypt.
On various occasions, Egyptians raided the deserts west of the Nile River
and brought back LIBYANS to serve as slaves.
Egypt's kings did not hesitate to uproot large groups of people under
the system of slavery. For example, King RAMSES II sent Nubians to work in
* Levant lands bordering the eastern the Levant* and Asians to Nubia. The biblical story of the captivity of the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- Israelites in Egypt and their forced labor is an example of such a policy.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Slaves often labored in Egyptian mines and quarries and helped construct
Bank, and Jordan
the PYRAMIDS, tombs, and temples connected with royal burial sites.
Although many slaves toiled in dreadful conditions, those lucky
enough to become domestic slaves had better lives, sometimes becoming
Carried Into Slavery trusted family servants. The king controlled all foreign prisoners and
An Egyptian text—possibly could decide to "give" them to individuals. Citizens could also buy slaves
simply a boastful inscription— j
paints a woeful picture of the from traders.
fate of war captives: The Egyptian legal system gave slaves some rights. For example, own-
/ have brought back in great ers did not have a legal right to have sexual intercourse with their slaves,
numbers those that my $word although many undoubtedly did so. However, children born to slaves out
has spared, with their hands of these relations belonged to the slave owners.
tied behind their backs before
my horses, and their wives and Hittite Anatolia. The HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) bought
children in tens of thousands. and sold slaves just like other commodities. One ancient text lists the price
,,. / have imprisoned their lead-
ers in fortresses bearing my of a slave artisan (such as a potter, carpenter, or weaver) as ten shekels of
name, and I have added to silver, about what it cost to keep a slave alive during a year of famine*.
them chief archers and tribal Some wealthy slave owners probably trained their slaves as skilled craft
chiefs, branded and enslaved, workers, which increased their usefulness and worth.
tattooed with my name, and Hittite law spelled out the rights and obligations of slaves. For example,
their wives and children have
been treated the same way. runaway slaves could be captured and returned to their masters even if they
fled to another country. Slaves could marry free people, but the free indi-
viduals became slaves for as long as the marriage lasted. Like free people,
slaves could collect damages for personal injuries, but unlike free individu-
als, slaves were not exempt from physical punishments for certain offenses.
* famine severe lack of food due to failed For example, a slave caught breaking into a free person's house would have
crops his nose and ears slashed and possibly removed. Hittite law ordered an es-
pecially gruesome death for any slave who attacked his master.

Israel. The ancient Israelites developed a complex system of rules to de-

fine and govern slaves, most of whom worked for private households rather
than for the state. They divided slaves into Israelites and non-Israelites.
Non-Israelite slaves were either war captives or people who had sold
themselves into slavery (or had been sold by others) because of debt.
Such slaves were considered property to be sold and inherited.
Like some non-Israelites, Israelites also sold themselves into slavery to
pay off debt. These individuals were often more like hired servants than
slaves, and they generally were supposed to serve for only a set number of
years. When masters treated Israelite slaves more harshly than the law al-
lowed, the slaves and their free relatives sometimes rebelled. The treatment
87
Social Institutions

of slaves occasionally led to crises involving the king, the wealthy and pow-
erful masters, and the angry slaves. (See also Eunuchs; Labor and Laborers;
Property and Property Rights; Wars and Warfare.)

SOCIAL P eople who live together develop rules that define their rights and re-
sponsibilities and determine how they will interact with one an-
other. In every society of the ancient Near East, people existed within a
INSTITUTIONS framework, or institutions, that both supported and limited their individ-
ual actions. Some of these institutions were direct expressions of RELIGION,
GOVERNMENT, and LAW. Others involved the structure of society and aspects
of social and private life.

Mesopotamia. The social institutions of the Sumerians and Akkadians

who lived in towns and cities of ancient MESOPOTAMIA were based on an
urban way of life. City dwellers identified more strongly with the com-
munities where they lived than with relatives by blood or MARRIAGE. The
* nomad person who travels from place nomads* or partly nomadic livestock herders who lived outside urban ar-
to place to find food and pasture eas, however, placed greater importance on clan* and kinship. In the late
* clan group of people descended from a second millennium B.C.*, many cities began to shrink in size, and vil-
common ancestor or united by a lages became the typical settlements. People again began to identify
common interest more strongly with tribes or clans.
* second millennium B.C. years from Mesopotamia was a class-based society. While most people were free,
2000 to 1001 B.C. each class had obligations and duties to family, community, and state.
The property-owning elite held positions in government, palace adminis-
tration, military leadership, trade, or the priesthood. One could enter
these ranks by birth or by appointment. Other free people who did not
own property might work as crafts workers or hired agricultural laborers,
for whom there was always a demand. A class called subordinates lived
on and worked lands owned by the king. Most slaves were foreign prison-
ers of war, although Mesopotamians could sell themselves into slavery if
they fell into debt.
Justice was one of the fundamental ideas around which Mesopo-
tamian society was organized. Kings presented themselves as serving the
gods by enforcing justice and ensuring fairness under the law. They pub-
lished laws indicating that justice was a public matter, not something left
to the whims of kings. Closely linked to justice was religion. In fact,
judges often held hearings and swore oaths in a temple. In all classes,
from kings to peasants, social institutions reflected the idea that a divine
order operated in the universe.

Egypt. The basic social unit of ancient Egyptian society was the nuclear
family consisting of parents and children rather than the extended family
or clan. One sign of the focus on the nuclear family was that the words
for father, mother, brother, and sister were the most common terms for
other relationships both inside and outside the family. For example, a stu-
dent might address his teacher as "Father."
Egyptians lived in communities that varied in size from small vil-
lages to large cities. Privacy and individuality—prized by many modern
88
 Social Institutions

societies—had little place in the culture and everyday life of ancient

Egypt. Not only did crowded living quarters offer little physical privacy
for most people, but individuals also were generally defined by their
roles in larger family and communal groups, such as people working to-
gether at the same task.
Egyptian society was divided into three main traditional classes. The
nobility consisted of the elite members of the priesthood, the govern-
ment administration, and the upper ranks of the army. Most members of
this class, which probably accounted for less than 5 percent of the total
population, were born into it. Commoners called citizens were ordinary
free people. Within this large social group, special terms identified indi-
viduals who worked on royal, temple, and nonroyal estates. The unfree
class included both slaves and peasants compelled to work on land they
did not own. The great majority of Egyptians, whether free or unfree,
were farmers.
Many social institutions and values of ancient Egyptian culture
stemmed from the fact that Egypt was a theocracy—a state in which the
The Wisdom government was run by people believed to be guided by or descended
of Experience from the gods. Whether in temple worship, religious festivals, or public
The Instruction of Ptahhotep, ceremonies, religion played a major role in the lives of people in all social
an Egyptian text written in the
2400$ s»c, reflects the importance
classes. Although Egyptians were united in their devotion to religion,
that Egyptians placed on values and Egypt was an ethnically diverse society. Foreigners frequently entered
social institutions. In the text, an of* Egypt and absorbed its culture. Some even rose to high positions in the
r ficial asks the king's permission to elite class of society.
write instructions on proper con-
\ duct for the son who will succee Hittite Anatolia. Like most other ancient Near Eastern peoples, the
him in his post
HITTITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) lived in a state based on king-
May this servant be ordered to ship. The king was not only the head of government but also the chief
make a staff of old age,
So as to tetl him the words of priest of the national religion. As the main link between the human and
those wfto heard, divine worlds, the king was responsible for organizing his people to de-
The ways of the ancestors, fend and work the land for the benefit of the gods, who depended on the
Who have listened to the gods. toil of their human servants. These principles were the basis of Hittite
May such be done for you, government, law, and religion.
So that strife may be banned
from the people,
The highest level of Hittite society consisted of the "Great Family"—
And the Two Shores may serve the king and his extended family. Most major offices of the state were
you! held by individuals from this group. Many members of the landowning
elite class belonged to the "Great Family" and had some relationship to
the king. Those members of the elite outside the royal family belonged to
the upper class simply because they were rich and powerful. The basis of
wealth in Hittite society was always land and livestock. Wealthy individu-
als sometimes paid for entire religious festivals or built, furnished, and
staffed village temples.
The lowest rank in Hittite society consisted of slaves, who were
* commodity article of trade bought and sold as commodities*. While many individuals were enslaved
for life, some entered into slavery or servitude for a specific period of time
in order to pay off debts. Occasionally, rulers demonstrated their godli-
provincial having to do with the ness by releasing their subjects from debt slavery.
provinces, outlying districts, Much of the Hittite population lived in the countryside and worked in
administrative divisions, or conquered AGRICULTURE. These people had to deliver part of their produce to their
territories of a country or empire
provincial* governments, which passed it on to the central state authority.
89
Social Institutions

The central government used these goods to maintain the people who
lived and worked within its sphere, to support activities that strengthened
royal power (such as military campaigns or the building of palaces), and to
distribute to subjects in times of need.

The Canaanites and Israelites. The Canaanites and Israelites were

* Levant lands bordering the eastern neighbors in the Levant*. Their cultures were similar in many respects,
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- and they shared some social institutions. Both groups divided society
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West into indigenous* inhabitants and foreigners. In Israel, however, there
Bank, and Jordan
were further categories, such as resident aliens—foreigners who had set-
* indigenous referring to the original tled in Israel but were not full citizens. The Israelites also made careful
inhabitants of a region
distinctions between free people and slaves.
* bureaucracy system consisting of The king and his bureaucracy* formed the highest level of society in
officials and clerks who perform the Levant. In Israel, the king was thought to have been appointed by Yah-
government functions weh as the shepherd of the people. Although kings were supposed to pro-
mote the stability of society, kingship sometimes disrupted social
institutions. For example, the establishment of monarchies and the execu-
tion of state projects required a central authority to control all resources
that had previously been controlled by kinship groups. Still, tribal and
clan identity remained very important in Israelite society. People identi-
fied themselves first as Israelites, second as members of 1 of 12 tribes, and
third as belonging to a clan or extended family called the Father's House.
Members of a clan had certain responsibilities toward each other, includ-
ing avenging murders and buying back land and clan members sold into
slavery because of debt.
* hierarchy division of society or an Both the Canaanites and the Israelites had complex hierarchies* of
institution into groups with higher and priests. In Israel, where priests inherited their positions, the structure of
lower rank the priesthood was thought to mirror the structure of society, with some
groups having higher status than others. Status was reflected in such mat-
ters as how far into the temple a member of a particular class would be al-
lowed to enter. Yet Israelite religion was never fixed or unified. Different
priestly groups often disagreed on practices and organizational principles.

Iran. Much of what is known about the ancient PERSIAN EMPIRE centered
in IRAN comes from the writings of the Greek historian HERODOTUS. Ac-
cording to Herodotus, Persian society was divided into tribes of nomads
and tribes of farmers. Within each of these categories, some tribes had
higher status than others. Tribes were further subdivided into clans. One
* cult system of religious beliefs and group in Persian society, the Magians, consisted of specialists in cult* rit-
rituals; group following these beliefs uals. As with a clan or tribe, status as a Magian was hereditary.
Persian society was also described in economic terms. The Persian
king DARIUS III referred to the powerful and the poor, and he considered
himself the peacemaker between the two groups. The powerful were aris-
* aristocrat member of the privileged tocrats*, while the poor were free peasants. Within each category were
upper class various subcategories and status rankings. There was also a class of people
called kurtash, whose status was close to that of slaves. The kurtash were
workers from many parts of the empire who toiled on royal lands and in
royal workshops.
The parental authority of fathers set the tone for Persian family life.
Families worked together, shared high offices, and passed privileges from
90
 Soldiers
generation to generation, but family members could also be punished for
another member's crime. Despite such family closeness, young men of the
noble class generally spent the time between ages 5 and 20 undergoing
tough physical and moral training organized by the king's men. The goal
of this training was to make them worthy and faithful subjects of the king.
Persian social values are well expressed in two terms: aria, which
meant justice and truth, and drauga, a lie. In religious terms, aria meant
worship of the god AHURA MAZDA. In political terms, it meant loyalty to
the king. In moral terms, it meant honorable behavior. All these values
were intertwined in the Persian understanding of religious, state, and so-
cial institutions.
Woven together from laws, rules, customs, and preferences, social in-
stitutions of Near Eastern societies gave daily life in each culture its dis-
tinctive flavor. (See also Education; Family and Social Life; Priests and
Priestesses; Slaves and Slavery; Women, Role of.)

SOLDIERS
T he fates of cities, states, and empires in the ancient Near East were
determined in part by their ARMIES. The soldiers who served in these
armies ranged from peasants to highly trained and specialized profes-
sional troops. While top-ranking officers in Near Eastern armies could
achieve wealth, power, and prestige, most ordinary soldiers fared less
splendidly. Military service could offer security, but it also offered hard-
* scribe person of a learned class who ship, discomfort, and danger. An Egyptian scribe* knew well the poten-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher tially rough life of the army when he described an infantryman, or
common foot soldier, as the "much tormented one" who marches over
hills, carries his rations on his shoulders, drinks foul-tasting water, and af-
ter facing the enemy in battle is lucky to return to Egypt "full of sickness''
and tied to the back of a donkey.

Fighting on Demand. The first armies of the Near East existed only
when needed. They consisted of people who came together to fight in a
specific campaign, either to defend their homeland or to wage war on
foreign soil. These soldiers were either volunteers or citizens required to
provide military service to leaders and who therefore had no choice
about fighting. In some cases, they were mercenaries—paid soldiers who
fought not out of loyalty to king or country but for payment in cash,
* plunder to steal property by force, goods, or items they plundered*.
usually after a conquest In MESOPOTAMIA during the third millennium B.C.*, armies grew larger
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 and better organized. One image from the city of LAGASH, dating from
to 2001 B.C. about 2500 B.C., portrays a tightly formed phalanx, or rectangular-shaped
formation, of foot soldiers with overlapping spears. Such an orderly for-
mation suggests a trained and disciplined fighting force.
For the most part, however, being a soldier was not a full-time profes-
sion in Mesopotamia. The terms used to refer to soldiers came from words
that described their peacetime activities, such as fisherman, animal
herder, or civic official. Many workers had the right to farm state-owned
land and to keep a share of the produce, but that right also imposed a cer-
tain number of days of military duty.
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Soldiers
The earliest recorded Egyptian soldiers were local followers of nobles
or officials who fought in time of need. However, as early as the third mil-
A Soldier's Promise lennium B.C., the Egyptians preferred to have others do their fighting for
When soldiers joined the Hit-
them. Their armed forces consisted of captured opponents who were
tite army they took an oath.
They swore to be loyal, fear- made to fight for Egypt and of hired mercenaries. In early times, soldiers
ing dreadful curses if they were not: from the region of Nubia south of Egypt comprised a significant portion
As this wax melts and fat fries, so of the Egyptian army. Nubians remained an important element in Egypt-
may he who breaks the oath and ian armies throughout ancient times.
deceives the Hitttte king melt like
wax and fry like fat... Whoever Professional Soldiers. During the second millennium B.C.*, warfare in
breaks these oaths and does evil the Near East became more international, and a new kind of fighting force
to the king and the queen and
the royal princes, let these oath-
appeared in various Near Eastern states to meet the needs of such conflict.
gods change him from a man This was the permanent, standing army. The rise of such armies marked
into a woman See the man the appearance of full-time professional soldiers. The rise of professional
who previously took his oath be- soldiers was accompanied by increasing differentiation in rank and func-
fore the gods and then broke it. tion. New levels of officers formed a chain of command between the kings
The oath-gods seized him. His in-
who led the armies and the soldiers who did most of the fighting. More-
nards are swollen May the
oath-gods seize whoever breaks over, groups of people within the armies began to specialize in certain
these oaths. types of fighting. In northern Mesopotamia, for example, a chariot-own-
ing aristocracy arose. Charioteers were based in palace lands, and the titles
of their officers were identical to those of the court officials. Training and
equipping the chariotry was time-consuming and expensive, and the posi-
tion of charioteer became hereditary, passing from father to son.
Another specialized group was the royal bodyguard, called by a name
* second millennium B.C. years from meaning "men at the king's feet." Other members included archers who
2000 to 1001 B.C. used the bow and arrow, shield bearers, engineers who designed and built
* siege long and persistent effort to force FORTIFICATIONS and equipment for sieges*, and horsemen who served as
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or messengers and later on the battlefield as CAVALRY. All armies contained
city with armed troops, cutting it off large numbers of infantrymen, the backbone of the fighting forces. Pro-
from supplies and aid
fessional soldiers might have received pay, goods, or small plots of land in
return for their service.
The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) maintained an army of
professional soldiers who campaigned from spring through fall. They
spent the winter in quarters, where they were fed by the government and
expected to be ready to march at a moment's notice. If the enemy was a
major power or if the Hittites faced several conflicts simultaneously, the
king would draft additional soldiers from the general population. The
king also had agreements with semi-independent outlying districts to
supply soldiers and junior officers for the army. Small units of such men
were stationed at key points throughout the empire, generally far from
their own homes. The Hittites also encouraged their allies to contribute
* tribute payment made by a smaller or soldiers to their army, and states that paid tribute* were often required to
weaker party to a more powerful one, provide troops as well.
often under the threat of force During the years from 1000 to 500 B.C., Assyrian professional soldiers
established themselves as a highly organized and fierce fighting force.
They used new technologies to improve their weapons and armor, chari-
ots, and horse riding equipment. These advances enabled them to suc-
cessfully expand their empire. Assyrian soldiers were cruel in dealing with
their prisoners of war, many of whom were killed, blinded, or mutilated
to set an example for other potential Assyrian enemies. Although much
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 Solomon

of the information about the Assyrians' treatment of enemies comes from

exaggerated accounts in Assyrian royal INSCRIPTIONS, historians believe the
Assyrian army was especially fearsome in the ancient Near East.
A permanent, professional army came into existence in Egypt between
about 1500 and 1000 B.C. It included two combat forces, the infantry and
the chariotry. Soldiers from western Asia, Nubia, and Libya appear in vari-
ous WALL PAINTINGS from that period, proving that the Egyptians continued
to use foreign soldiers whenever possible. Although foreign-born merce-
naries probably fought in all or most ancient Near Eastern armies, they
were especially numerous in Egyptian forces. After about 664 B.C., merce-
naries from Greece and from Caria in western Anatolia arrived in Egypt to
serve as soldiers of fortune. Their military skills made these mercenaries an
important element in the Egyptian army that resisted the Assyrians, Baby-
lonians, and Persians. The Carians became so numerous that a Carian
colony took root around the Egyptian city of MEMPHIS. The Greek historian
HERODOTUS, who may have been part Carian, left a description of the
achievements of Carian and Greek mercenaries who fought in the Lev-
Levant lands bordering the eastern ant*, Mesopotamia, and Persia as well as in Egypt.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- Jewish mercenaries also may have served in Egyptian armies. The Per-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West sians were known to have employed Jewish soldiers as well. When the
Bank, and Jordan
Persians conquered Egypt in 525 B.C., they established a base of Jewish
troops at the Egyptian city of Elephantine, which marked the southern
frontier of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. Herodotus also wrote that the Persian army
often used large numbers of foreign captives as soldiers. He maintained
that these foreigners were driven into battle, ahead of the regular Persian
troops, by Persians using whips. (See also Caria and the Carians; Chari-
ots; Libyans; Wars and Warfare; Weapons and Armor.)

SOLOMON
K ing Solomon is among the most famous of the ancient kings of Is-
rael. Solomon was the son of King DAVID, who united the 12 Israelite
tribes and their territories into the kingdom of Israel around 1000 B.C. Al-
most all that is known of Solomon's life and reign comes from the He-
brew BIBLE. There is no mention of Solomon, David, or Israel in any
ruled ca. 960-932 B.C. sources surviving from their own time.
King of Israel Although he was not David's oldest son, Solomon rose to the throne
largely through the efforts of his mother, Bathsheba, and a prophet*
prophet one who claims to have called Nathan. Once he became king, Solomon eliminated his opponents
received divine messages or insights and placed men loyal to him in important positions in the military, the
government, and the temples.
Solomon also gained stability and power through his marriages. The
* concubine mistress to a married man Bible reports that he had 700 wives and 300 concubines*. Although these
numbers are almost certainly exaggerated, it is probable that he made al-
liances with a number of powerful leaders of the Near East by marrying
their female relatives.
One of the famous women with whom Solomon was connected was
frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree the queen of Sheba. Sheba was probably a kingdom in southern Arabia
resins used to make incense and that was rich with gold and frankincense and myrrh*. Later legends
perfumes suggest that the queen and Solomon may have had a child together.
93
Sphinx

Whether or not this was true, the two leaders had powerful political rea-
sons to work together. Solomon wanted Sheba's products and needed to
be able to use trade routes through the queen's land. In turn, the queen of
Sheba needed Israel's ports and merchants.
diplomacy practice of conducting In addition to marriage and diplomacy*, Solomon also used forced la-
negotiations between kingdoms, states, bor to develop the wealth of his kingdom. He continued to improve Is-
or nations rael's military, which had already been strengthened by his father.
Solomon fortified cities and towns on important trade routes and made
changes within Israel. He divided the territory of Israel into 12 adminis-
trative regions. Each region was responsible for providing taxes and orga-
nizing labor forces to support the central government.
Solomon put the money and labor force to use when he began build-
ing his palace and the famous Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, which
became the Israelites' religious center. The men of Israel were required to
work for the government for one out of every three months in order to
finish these huge projects.
Solomon is famous for his wisdom and goodness. He is credited with
writing the Books of Ecclesiastes, Proverbs, and the Song of Solomon in
the Hebrew Bible. He is traditionally said to have written many other
proverbs and songs. However, most of the sections of the Bible that are
credited to him were probably not written by him.
Solomon's son and successor, Rehoboam, not did achieve the amount
of success his father had. This was due in part to events that had occurred
during Solomon's reign. Solomon had spent much of his country's
wealth and may also have angered the people of the northern Israelite
tribes by favoring those in the south. These conditions made it difficult
for Rehoboam, who only made matters worse when he treated the north-
ern tribes even more severely. As a result, the northern tribes rebelled and
formed their own kingdom, which they called Israel. The southern king-
dom then became known as Judah, which was the name of Solomon's
tribe. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Israel and Judah; Kings.)

SPHINX
T he sphinx (SFINKS) is an ancient mythical being with the body of an
animal—usually a lion, but sometimes a ram or a hawk—and the
head of a man, who may wear a royal head cloth. The word sphinx proba-
bly comes from the Egyptian term shesep ankh, which means "living im-
age." Some language scholars believe that the term derives from the Greek
word sphinx, which means "strangler," but others doubt that the mythical
figure of the sphinx is related to this term.
The ancient Egyptians were the first to make stone statues of sphin-
xes, which they associated with both the king and the god Amun. The
most famous sphinx in the world is the Great Sphinx located near the
PYRAMIDS at GIZA. With the body of a lion and the head of a king, the Great
Sphinx is thought to represent the Fourth Dynasty ruler Khufu, who
* Egyptologist person who studies ruled Egypt from around 2585 to 2560 B.C. However, some Egyptologists*
ancient Egypt believe that the face of the sphinx is that of Chephren, Khufu's son.
The Great Sphinx is more than 240 feet long and about 65 feet high.
It has been covered by the sands of the SAHARA DESERT many times in its
94
 Stamp Seals

The Great Sphinx at Giza, shown here, is

the most famous example of a sphinx. An-
other famous, although imaginary, sphinx
exists in Greek mythology. According to
the myth, the people of the Greek city of
Thebes were being terrorized by a sphinx
who posed a riddle to all passersby and
devoured those who were unable to an-
swer. When Prince Oedipus arrived in
Thebes, he defeated the sphinx by an-
swering correctly.

See long life. It has also been repaired several times over the centuries. As it
[color plate 14, ] stands today, the Great Sphinx is missing its nose, beard, and part of its
vol. 4.
crown. It continues to be worn down by erosion and pollution, but ef-
forts are being made to protect the great statue.
Some Egyptian sphinxes, such as those at the Temple of Amun at
KARNAK, do not have human heads. The temple is guarded by rows of
funerary having to do with funerals or sphinxes with the heads of rams. A sphinx at the funerary* temple of
with the handling of the dead Amenhotep III (ca. 1390-1353) was given the tail of a crocodile. What-
ever animals they incorporated, Egyptian sphinxes were usually male.
pharaoh king of ancient Egypt Even when a female pharaoh* such as Queen HATSHEPSUT was depicted as
a sphinx, she was in her male role as king. The first female sphinxes were
depicted in the 1400s B.C., outside Egypt.
From Egypt, the idea of the sphinx traveled to other parts of the an-
Levant lands bordering the eastern cient Near East, including the Levant*, Anatolia, Greece, and Mesopo-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- tamia. In the Levant and Greece, the lion's body of the sphinx was often
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West given wings. In Greek mythology, sphinxes played important parts in the
Bank, and Jordan
tales of Oedipus and Perseus. Sphinxes did not appear in Mesopotamia
until the 1500s B.C., when they were imported from the Levant. (See also
Animals in Art; Human Form in Art.)

Stamp Seals See Seals.

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Stars

STARS
L ong before the establishment of the first settled civilizations, people
looked in wonder at the night sky and attempted to understand the
meaning of the stars they saw. By around 3000 B.C., the founders of the
first cities in MESOPOTAMIA had probably acquired a basic knowledge of as-
tronomy. However, the first recorded systematic observations of the night
sky did not occur until after 1800 B.C. These observations were tied to the
Mesopotamian religious belief that events in the heavens directly affected
events on earth. The Mesopotamians believed that they could determine
what would happen on earth by interpreting the signs they saw in the
sky. Although knowledge of the stars was originally used to predict the fu-
ture, it later came to exert a powerful influence over the development of
CALENDARS and timekeeping in the Near East.

The Stars and Fate. As early as 3000 B.C., the Babylonians had begun
to combine careful observation of the sky with the prediction of earthly
occurrences. Thus, in Babylonia, there was no difference between astron-
omy and astrology. Those who recorded the movements of the stars and
PLANETS also interpreted their significance to human affairs.
At first, the signs they saw in the heavens were believed only to be re-
lated to the welfare of the state or its ruler. Examples of this can be found
in a series of tablets called Enuma Ann Enlil, the oldest of which date to be-
* constellation group of stars that is fore 1200 B.C. One tablet states that if the constellation* Aries is faint, mis-
thought to resemble, and is named ery or misfortune will befall the king of Subartu. Other predictions relate
after, an object, animal, or mythological the color or appearance of certain stars to weather phenomena, peace or
character
war, or the rise and fall of dynasties*.
* dynasty succession of rulers from the As astronomical observation became more sophisticated, Mesopo-
same family or group
tamian astrologers and astronomers refined their system of prediction. By
noting the position of constellations throughout the night, they devel-
oped the ZODIAC, which divided the sky into 12 equal portions, or houses.
Each house was named for the constellation that occupied it. Astrologers
began to base their predictions on the arrangement of the planets within
each of the houses of the zodiac at a particular date and time. This ulti-
mately led to the casting of individual horoscopes, which related a per-
son's fate to the position of the stars and planets at the time of his or her
birth. The observational records used to make these predictions formed
the basis of all later scientific astronomy.

Calendars and Timekeeping. Stargazing had practical as well as reli-

gious significance to Near Eastern cultures. All civilizations at this time
used a calendar based on the phases of the moon, because the time be-
tween one full moon and the next is constant. However, 12 lunar
months of 29.5 days produce a lunar year of only 354 days instead of the
365-day solar year. This was a problem for agricultural societies, which
needed to be able to predict when the planting season began each year.
Because they could not calculate this using a lunar calendar, the Egyp-
tians solved the problem through observation of the star Sirius.
In ancient Egypt, there were three basic agricultural seasons of approx-
imately four lunar months each. The first season began when the NILE
RIVER started to rise and flood the surrounding land. The second season be-
gan when the waters had receded enough to allow planting, and the final
96
 Stone
season lasted from the harvest to the beginning of the next flood. The
Egyptians noted that, for part of the year, Sirius was aligned with the SUN
and was invisible. However, shortly before the beginning of the annual
flood, Sirius became visible just before sunrise. They used this event—
called the heliacal rising of Sirius—to mark the beginning of their new
year. By counting the days between heliacal risings of Sirius, they deter-
mined the length of a solar year to be 365 days. They then divided the year
into 12 equal months of 30 days, with 5 extra days added between the end
of one year and the beginning of the next. With this solar calendar, they
could accurately predict the cycle of the seasons.
Using other stars that rise heliacally as Sirius does, the Egyptians cre-
ated star clocks to measure time at night. They divided each month into
three 10-day periods called decades. They then identified which stars or
constellations rose heliacally on the first day of each decade as well as 11
others that rose after the first one and passed across the sky from sun-
down to sunrise. These observations allowed the Egyptians to divide the
night into 12 units of time. If one looked at the sky and noted how many
of these stars or constellations were visible, one could determine how
much of the night had passed. Because nights are longer in winter and
shorter in summer, the Egyptians eventually had to calculate the total
hours of daylight and darkness in different months. However, these cal-
culations always assumed there were 24 hours in a day. This was the ori-
gin of the 24-hour day, divided into two 12-hour periods. (See also
Astrology and Astrologers; Astronomy and Astronomers; Oracles and
Prophecy; Science and Technology.)

STONE
S tone was one of the most widely used materials in the ancient Near
East. It was among the primary BUILDING MATERIALS in most Near East-
ern societies, especially in monumental ARCHITECTURE. A great deal of the
SCULPTURE of the region—both relief* and sculpture in the round—was ex-
ecuted in stone, and artisans* in many societies produced magnificently
crafted stone vessels, such as cups, bowls, and vases. Stone was also exten-
relief sculpture in which material is cut sively employed in the manufacture of certain TOOLS, even after metals
away to show figures raised from the such as bronze and iron came into widespread use.
background
artisan skilled craftsperson Building in Stone. The cultures of the Near East relied on stone to
construct their walls and buildings. Before organized societies began to
quarry to excavate pieces of stone by quarry* specific types of stone, people used loose rocks known as field-
cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) stones for building. These were obtained from blocks that had broken off
blasting from cliffs or boulders and had become exposed when a river or stream
dried up. Small rocks and mud were used to fill spaces between the uncut
stones to make the structures sturdy.
The rise of centralized urban cultures around 3000 B.C. made it possible
to assemble workers to exploit stone resources in a more systematic way.
The Egyptians were probably the first to master these skills. Well before
2500 B.C., Egyptian stonemasons had learned how to cut massive blocks of
even the hardest stone and transport them over many miles to building
sites. In Mesopotamia, blocks of stone were cut after being quarried to
97
Stone
make transportationand handling easier.
However, becauseof thescarcity
of stone in Mesopotamia, especiallyin the south, stones were only used for
mud brick brick made from mud, the bases of walls that were regularly madeof mudbrick*.
straw, and water mixed together and Stone construction took several
different
forms. Many structures, such
baked in the sun as thePYRAMIDSof Egypt, were built with
a core
of rough, unfinished stone
of poorer quality thatwas then covered witha casing finely
of worked
blocks of granite or limestone. Some city walls consisted entirely of
dressed stone, or stones whose edges werecut sosmoothly that they could
be fitted together very preciselyand requiredno mortar to hold them to-
gether. Moreoften, however, walls were constructed from rubbleand un-
cut rock, supportedat intervalsby piersofpreciselycut and dressed stones.
Often thin slabsof finished stone called orthostats were usedto coverthe
lower portion of walls madeof rubbleor mud bricks.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern Stone Sculpture and Vessels. Besides its practical use as abuilding
shores of the Mediterranean Sea(present- material, stone was afavorite mediumfor sculptorsand artisansin the
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West ancient NearEast.The Egyptians fashioned many colossal figuresand
Bank, and Jordan
obelisks (tall,four-sided
shaftsof stone that taperat the top to apyrami-
dal point)from stone, a large numberof which have survived intomod-
ern times.
Many buildings throughout the Near East incorporated stone relief
sculpture as partof their decoration. Sometimes sculptors would combine
relief and sculpturein the roundin the same GATESpiece.
Forexample, the
of the city
KHATTUSHA
of ANATOLIA
in (present-day Turkey)
fig- feature lion
ures whose bodies are carvedin reliefbut whose headsand front paws
emergefrom the wallin three dimensions.Asimilar lion motifcan also
be found throughout the Levant*. However, muchof the stone available
in the Levantwas eithertoo hardorsoft tooforcarving,and as aresult,
sculpture in the round is generally rare. Eventhe Mesopotamians used
stone extensivelyfor sculpture,often importingfromit distant lands.

98
 Sudan
Sculptors were not the only artisans who employed stone in their
work. Even before the rise of urban culture, Egyptian stone carvers were
* basalt black or gray stone, often with a fashioning bowls from an extremely hard stone called basalt*. Some of the
glassy surface finest examples of such work date to before 3000 B.C., hundreds of years
before the building of the pyramids. Egyptian artisans crafted basalt bowls,
vases, jars, and other vessels featuring unbelievably thin walls and com-
plex designs. However, for reasons unknown, this art declined dramati-
cally toward the end of the Old Kingdom period, around 2130 B.C. The
hard stones that had been used earlier gave way to softer materials, and
the designs became simpler. Evidence of stone vessels has also been found
at other sites throughout the Near East, but none of these pieces shows the
quality and craftsmanship exhibited by the early Egyptian artisans.

Stone Tools. Stone was widely used in the manufacture of blades for
sickles (handheld tools used to harvest grain). Other common stone
tools used during this time included scrapers for preparing animal hides,
borers or drills to cut holes in hard stone, and grinding stones used to
crush grain in order to make flour.
Stone tools were also a basic part of the stonemason's tool kit. Remov-
ing hard stones from quarries required the use of tools made of even
harder stone. After cutting the stones, masons used stone pounders and
grinders to shape and smooth them. Drills with stone bits were used to
cut INSCRIPTIONS and create delicate details in sculpture. Sand was used for
the final polishing of stones for buildings or artwork. (See also Art, Arti-
sans, and Artists; Bas-Reliefs; Fortifications; Palaces and Temples;
Walled Cities.)

SUDAN
T he Sudan is a region that stretches across north central Africa south of
the Libyan and Sahara Deserts. The term Sudan, which also refers to a
present-day country in Africa that lies directly south of Egypt, derives from
the Arabic term bilad as-sudan, which means "land of the black peoples/'
The Sudan extends from the western coast of Africa across the conti-
nent to the mountains of Ethiopia. The northernmost part of the Sudan,
a region known as the Sahel, borders the Sahara. South of the Sahel, the
Sudan extends southward into the rain forests near the equator. The re-
gion consists of tropical or subtropical grasslands and high plateaus,
which extend across the continent. Temperatures are high throughout
the year, and the region experiences a long dry season. However, the
southern Sudan receives more rainfall than the north and contains
forests with small trees that grow among tall grasses. In the north, the re-
gion is arid and desertlike.
Humans have occupied the Sudan since prehistoric times, particu-
archaeological referring to the study larly along the NILE RIVER. Archaeological* expeditions have provided ev-
of past human cultures, usually by idence that people in the region were hunting, gathering, and fishing as
excavating material remains of human early as 9000 B.C. In the desert regions of the northwestern Sudan, there
activity
is evidence that from around 9500 B.C. until around 3500 B.C., the cli-
mate was wetter than it is today. During that period, the predominant
99
Sumer and the Sumerians
mode of subsistence in the region was fishing, supplemented by hunting
hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and buffalo.
In ancient times, the Sudan was part of ancient Nubia and home to
the Nubians, a people whose history is closely linked with that of ancient
* fourth millennium B.C. years from Egypt. During the fourth millennium B.C.*, the Egyptians took control of
4000 to 3001 B.C. the northern Sudan, a region they called Wawat. Soon the Egyptian
armies began to move farther south into the Sudan, conquering a region
known as Kush. The Egyptians valued Kush because it was located along
TRADE ROUTES that ran to the Red Sea. Around 1000 B.C., the rulers of Kush
and the Nubian armies joined forces and regained their independence
from Egypt. The Kushites retained control of much of the Sudan until the
A.D. 350s, when they were overthrown by invaders from the Ethiopian
highlands.
Throughout ancient times, the Nubians were influenced by Egyptian
cultural practices, but their local culture continued to flourish. They wor-
* deity god or goddess shiped Egyptian gods but continued to worship their own deities* as well.
Like the Egyptians, they constructed PYRAMIDS for their royal tombs but
modified the design. After the Assyrians drove them out of Egypt, the Nu-
bians had far less contact with Egypt. Over time, the Sudan was more in-
fluenced by the African cultures to its south. (See also Kush and Meroe;
Nubia and the Nubians.)

SUMER AND S cholars credit the Sumerians with creating the world's first true civi-
lization, and indeed the list of their accomplishments is impressive.
Sumer, located in the southernmost region of MESOPOTAMIA (present-day
THE SUMERIANS Iraq), is considered the birthplace of WRITING, CITIES AND CITY-STATES,
SCHOOLS, the WHEEL, large-scale ARCHITECTURE, and the earliest system of
numbers. Sumerian civilization had a major impact on the political and
cultural development of the entire Near East.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF SUMER

Sumer's origins are largely lost to history and can only be guessed at on
* archaeologist scientist who studies past the basis of the work of archaeologists*. It is clear that an advanced cul-
human cultures, usually by excavating ture was well established in southern Mesopotamia long before the time
material remains of human activity of the earliest surviving written records (ca. 3300 B.C.). Most theorie
about the organization of that society are based on knowledge of later
Sumerian civilization. While this provides a general picture of the devel-
opment of Sumerian culture, many gaps remain.

Earliest Roots. The Sumerians probably included people who mi-

grated to Mesopotamia from various places and had different origins.
The earliest known settlement in Sumer was established before 5000 B.C.
at Tell el-Oueili. Although the oldest remains found at the settlement are
unlike other sites excavated in Sumer, the remains of later buildings at
the site show strong similarities to architecture at the cities of UR and
ERIDU. This suggests that a common culture developed and eventually
100
 Sumer and the Sumeriaiis

spread throughout the region. During thisearly period,agricultural set-

tlements were established along the banks of theEuphrates andTigris
Rivers, and these became the earliest cities.fact,In scholars believe that
URUK, in Sumer,was the world's first city.
As the cities grew, they required more agricultural land tosupport
* city-state independent state consisting their populations.After a time, larger cities became city-states*
bytaking
of a city and its surrounding land control of surrounding territories. This eventuallyled toconflicts between
neighboring city-states competing forterritory,andmany cities builtde-
fensive walls.Byaround B.C.,3000
Sumer contained about 30separate
city-states that remained independently ruled centersformany years.

Early Dynastic Period. Political conditions in Sumer began to

changeafter aboutB.C. 2900
The
first serious attemptsbylocal rulers
to
extend their control over neighboring city-states occurred during this
period. Accordingto Sumerian KISHwas
texts,
the seat
of
first
the
Sumer-
ian kings.The Sumerian
KING LIST credits Etana, ruler
Kish,
of with being
the first king to unitethe Sumerian city-states B.C.However,
around 2800
the first king on the listforwhom thereisdocumentationisEnmebara-
gesi, who ruledKishin aboutB.C. 2700
Kish remained an important Sumerian city-stateforseveral hundred
years, although the rulers of the other city-states competedforpower.
This continued for several centuries untilLugalzagesi,therulerofUmma,
101
Sumer and the Sumerians
conquered LAGASH and secured control over northern Sumer in the 2300s
B.C. He then turned south, capturing Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. Lugalzagesi be-
came the first leader to unite all of Sumer. However, his achievement
proved short-lived.

Sargon and the Akkadian Empire. In about 2334 B.C., SARGON I be-
came the king of Kish and set out to take control of Sumer. Sargon, a
SEMITE rather than a Sumerian, whose origins are the subject of legend
and fable, had held an important position at the court of the king of
Kish. When the king died, Sargon succeeded him and moved the capital
to the city of Akkad. Sargon first conquered the Elamites, a people living
to the east of Mesopotamia in present-day Iran. He then turned south,
capturing Lugalzagesi's capital at Uruk and destroying its walls. Sargon
next conquered the remaining cities formerly ruled by Lugalzagesi. Hav-
ing established himself as ruler of Sumer, he then turned his attention
north and extended the empire as far as ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey).
In the west, his forces captured city-states in SYRIA and present-day
Lebanon, eventually reaching the Mediterranean Sea. Sargon became
the first ruler to exert control over all of Mesopotamia, and his empire
encompassed a large part of the ancient Near East.
Sargon died in about 2279 B.C., after a reign of 56 years. His succes-
sors, who remained in power for nearly 200 years, continued to expand
Shulgi the Proud the empire, although most of their efforts were aimed at securing TRADE
King Shulgi of Ur was trained ROUTES rather than conquering enemies. Despite the glories of the Akka-
as a scribe. One Sumerian
royal hymn describes Shulgi's dian empire, during most of its existence, it was engaged in warfare with
education: cities that challenged Akkadian rule. During the mid-2100s B.C., the em-
4s a youth, I studied the scribal pire was weakened by disputes over succession to the throne. This was
art in the E&UB8A [the scribal followed by a series of invasions by the nomadic* Gutians from the
schooll... northeast. The Akkadians were toppled, and the Gutians controlled
Of the nobility, no one was able much of Sumer for about the next 100 years. Although the Gutians did
to write a tablet like me, not settle in Sumer, they ruled the region from outside.
In the place where the people
attend to learn the scribal artf
Toward the end of Gutian rule, Lagash became a prominent city-state
Adding, subtracting, counting, in Sumer. Its governor, GUDEA (ruled ca. 2144-2124 B.C.), was one of the
and accounting—I completed most notable leaders in Sumerian history. He undertook extensive building
&n (of their courses]; projects and engaged in trade with such far-off lands as Magan in present-
The fair Nanibgal-Nisaba (god- day Oman.
dess of scribes)
Mowed me generously with
wisdom and intelligence. The Third Dynasty of Ur. Around 2120 B.C., the king of Ur, Utu-khe-
gal, defeated the Gutian general Tiriqan and ended Gutian control over
Sumer. In doing so, he established the Third Dynasty of Ur. This series of
kings, who ruled for more than 100 years, was the last native dynasty* to
* nomadic referring to people who travel exercise control over Sumer. Utu-khegal was succeeded by his son UR-
from place to place to find food and NAMMU, who ruled a region extending from the Persian Gulf to central
pasture Mesopotamia. During his reign, Ur-Nammu rebuilt many of Sumer's
* dynasty succession of rulers from the temples and palaces and repaired canals and other important structures
same family or group that had fallen into disrepair under the Gutians.
After Ur-Nammu's death, the throne passed to his son SHULGI, who
completed his father's conquest of the Gutians and continued Ur-
Nammu's program of building and restoration. In the twentieth year of
his rule, Shulgi undertook a massive reorganization of the kingdom. He
102
 Sumer and the Sumerians
restructured the tax system by collecting goods at central points and re-
distributing them throughout the empire. He also established schools to
* scribe person of a learned class who train the scribes* needed to run this complex system. Shulgi established a
served as a writer, editor, or teacher permanent army to extend Ur's influence and protect its trading interests.
After his almost 50-year reign, however, his successors could not hold the
kingdom together. Ur was threatened from two sides: by the nomadic
Amorites from the west and the Elamites from the east. Around 2000 B.C.,
in the twenty-fourth year of the reign of King Ibbi-Sin, the city fell to the
Elamites.
After the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Sumer was loosely held to-
gether by a series of rulers from the cities of Isin and Larsa. For about the
* famine severe lack of food due to failed next 100 years, Sumer suffered from famines* and further invasions by
crops the Elamites and other peoples from Iran. The Amorite ruler of the city-
state of Larsa captured both Ur and Uruk, and the Elamites captured Isin.
For the next 200 years, Sumer remained a patchwork of rival cities with
no strong central authority. This marked the end of Sumerian control
over southern Mesopotamia.

SUMERIAN SOCIETY
Sumerian government, economics, and religion were woven closely.
Rulers held political power by controlling goods produced in fields and in
workshops that were owned and managed by the temples. Many kings
served as priests of the temple, and a few, such as Shulgi, even declared
themselves gods. Most of the people of the Sumerian city-states were thus
bound to the king by ties of both religion and economics.

Government. Sumerian city-states were probably originally governed

by citizen assemblies rather than kings. The assemblies resolved disputes,
authorized construction projects, and dealt with threats from neighboring
city-states. They elected leaders who were responsible for ensuring that
their decisions were carried out. Over time, these leaders became the most
important people in their respective city-states. Political leadership also
* cult system of religious beliefs and became associated with the local religious cult*, and rulers claimed to be
rituals; group following these beliefs chosen specifically by their city's deity*. Whether a leader called himself
* deity god or goddess governor or king, he maintained legitimate authority through his ties to
the local cult. If a leader was overthrown or defeated by his enemies, the
Sumerians believed that he was no longer favored by the city's deity.

Religion. Political and religious power in Sumer were associated in

other ways as well. According to Sumerian beliefs, each deity made his or
* patron special guardian, protector, or her home in a different city, becoming the patron* god or goddess there.
supporter Each city was thus the home of a religious cult dedicated to a local god or
goddess.
* pantheon all the gods of a particular The Sumerians had a large pantheon* led by ANU, the supreme deity
culture who called Uruk home. Other deities included ENLIL, who was both a god
of plenty and a god of harsh justice, and Enki, the god of wisdom and of
the sea. Ur was home to Nanna, the moon god; and Utu, the sun god, was
worshiped in both Larsa and Sippar. The most important female deity was
103
Sunier and the Sumerians
See Inanna, a goddess whose many associations included
fertilityandwar.
N'colorplate Myths about these and other Sumerian gods makeup an important part
(vol. 1).
of the literatureofSumer.

Economy. The temple was the focus of not only the religious
life of a
Sumerian city but also its economic life. Temples controlled large
amounts of agricultural land outside the city and ran workshops and
warehouses within its walls. Temples employed farmers, shepherds,and
artisan skilled craftsperson artisans* in addition to priestsand other religious officials.
Workersin
temple workshops created pottery, wove fabric, produced leather goods,
and created sculpture,jewelry, and other worksof art. Someof these
goods were used insacrifices to the local deity, while most were distrib-
uted to the royal household aswell as to ordinary citizens. Many of the
finer materials produced were usedas trade goods.The Sumerian city-
states actively engagedin long-distance trade, establishing colonies as far
away as Iran,Syria,and Anatolia. They tradedfor goods such astimber,
metals, and precious stones thatwere not available locally.
Through the temples, the city provided itsinhabitants with thebasic
necessities oflife. In return, the people were requiredto work everyday of
the week and to honor the local deity with sacrifices andobedience to the
city's ruler. The temple did not control the entire economy, however.
There is evidence that some land surrounding each city-statewasowned
and worked by private individuals.The cities themselves were also cen-
ters of private economic production. Pottery making, textile production,
metalworking, shipbuilding, carpentry, and other specialized activities
flourished in the cities.

ARCHITECTURE,
LITERATURE
AND
ART,
The Sumerians were accomplished architects who built the world'searli-
est monumental structures. Fewidentifiable remains still stand because

104
 Sumerian Language
buildings in Sumer were not made of stone (a scarce resource there) but of
* mud brick brick made from mud, dried mud bricks*, which did not last. The most important buildings were
straw, and water mixed together and the temples, which were built following a basic plan. Temples sat on
baked in the sun raised platforms and their large outside walls were supported with but-
* buttress brick or stone structure built tresses*. The interiors might be decorated with clay cones set into the wall
against a wall to support or reinforce it in patterns. The cones were painted in bright colors, and their tips were
often covered in bronze. Murals were sometimes painted on the walls as
well. Around 2100 B.C., King Ur-Nammu of Ur constructed the first true
See ziggurat, or stepped pyramid that supports a temple at the top. Ziggurats
[color plate 14,^ are the most famous large Mesopotamian buildings. The largest ziggurats
vol. 3.
rose some 300 feet high. Scholars know less about ordinary buildings,
such as workshops and HOUSES, because few of them remain intact today.
Sumerian art is largely represented by SCULPTURE, which served mainly
religious purposes. These works were often beautifully executed and
* inlay fine layer of a substance set into richly decorated with inlays* of precious metals or stones. Carved relief*
wood, metal, or other material as a form sculptures were another favored form of decoration on buildings. Sumeri-
of decoration ans also produced beautifully carved cylinder SEALS containing both deco-
* relief sculpture in which material is cut rative patterns and scenes of animals, humans, and gods. These seals were
away to show figures raised from the used to make impressions in clay bands used to secure doors and storage
background
jars. The patterns were also impressed in CLAY TABLETS containing business
transactions perhaps as a form of personal identification similar to a sig-
nature.
The Sumerians' most important cultural contribution was the inven-
tion of writing and the SUMERIAN LANGUAGE, which was rarely spoken after
about 2000 B.C. The Sumerian script, called CUNEIFORM, consisted of
wedge-shaped marks impressed in clay with a reed pen, or stylus. The
symbols were originally developed for RECORD KEEPING and evolved into
symbols to represent different syllables. The flexibility of this system
made it ideal for recording the business of running a city-state. Tens of
thousands of clay tablets have been recovered from Sumer, most of which
are records of temple business transactions and palace archives.
Many works of Sumerian literature have also survived, including
* epic long poem about a legendary or royal HYMNS and epics* celebrating the deeds of a ruler. The best-known
historical hero, written in a grand style Sumerian literature features GILGAMESH, a legendary ruler of Uruk. Among
the earliest tales known about Gilgamesh are several Sumerian poems
that were probably composed around 2100 B.C. However, the version of
Gilgamesh's story that survives today is a rewrite of a version written in
the Akkadian language. (See also Languages; Religion; Ziggurats.)

SUMERIAN
T he early inhabitants of southern MESOPOTAMIA, known as the Sumeri-
ans, developed the world's first WRITING sometime before 3000 B.C.
Sumerian was written in a CUNEIFORM script, which consisted of wedge-
LANGUAGE shaped characters that had specific word meanings, and these were
pressed into CLAY TABLETS. The written form of the language was based on
the spoken form. Although spoken Sumerian faded away as a "living"
language by about 1800 B.C., written Sumerian continued to be used by
scribes* and priests perhaps as late as the A.D. 200s.
105
Sumeriaii Language
* scribe person of a learned class who History of the Language. The oldest evidence of written Sumerian,
served as a writer, editor, or teacher called Archaic Sumerian, dates from about 3100 to 2500 B.C. and consists
largely of governmental and business documents and also some school
exercises. Scholars do not have a good understanding of this language,
and the number of texts from this era is quite small. More documents ex-
ist in Old or Classical Sumerian, which dates from about 2500 to 2300
B.C. Most examples of Old Sumerian come from the official records of the
* city-state independent state consisting city-state* of LAGASH. A fairly large number of private letters and INSCRIP-
of a city and its surrounding territory TIONS written in Old Sumerian have also been found. The greater quantity
of samples has made it easier for scholars to understand Old Sumerian
than Archaic Sumerian.
From about 2350 to 2193 B.C., the Akkadians ruled southern Mesopota-
* Semitic of or relating to a language mia, and their Semitic* language—Akkadian—replaced Sumerian as the
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, main spoken language throughout most of the region. Sumerian was again
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician used as the written language after the Akkadian empire collapsed and the
Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2112-2004 B.C.) was established. By 2000 B.C.,
* dynasty succession of rulers from the however, this dynasty* was destroyed by invasions by the Elamites, peoples
same family or group from the east of Mesopotamia. Within the next 200 years, spoken Sumer-
ian vanished completely. The new rulers of Mesopotamia continued to use
written Sumerian alongside Akkadian.
Among those who employed written Sumerian were the Babylonians,
who established an empire that extended across much of the Near East.
They and the empires that succeeded them brought written Sumerian
with them into the regions they controlled. This stage of the language's
development is called Post-Sumerian because it occurred after the disap-
pearance of spoken Sumerian. As in the earlier stages of its development,
Sumerian was used for government and business documents as well as
royal inscriptions. It was during this period that most of the great Sumer-
ian works of LITERATURE were recorded in writing. Because written Sumerian
was so important as the language of business and government, schools
that trained scribes continued to teach it until about A.D. 200. After that
time, it was replaced by more modern languages, such as Greek and Latin,
and its use—even in written form—ceased altogether.

Characteristics of the Language. Scholars have tried without suc-

cess to place Sumerian within one of the existing language families. Some
* linguist person who studies languages linguists* have attempted to relate it to modern languages based on broad
similarities between the sounds and meanings of some words. However,
these attempts have failed, and most scholars now consider Sumerian a
unique language with no close relatives.
The form of written Sumerian most familiar to modern scholars had 4
vowels (a, e, i, and u) and 16 consonants, but it is thought that the language
was originally more complex. Based on the information available about
written Sumerian, linguists have tried to reconstruct the sound and pro-
nunciation of spoken Sumerian. However, much of this work is based on
knowledge of the Akkadian language, which itself depends on knowledge
of modern Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Arabic. Given this fact,
any modern pronunciation of Sumerian would most likely be vastly differ-
ent from the original. An ancient Sumerian hearing a modern person speak
the language would probably not be able to understand it.
106
 Sun
Close study of the existing documents has revealed much about
the structure and style of the Sumerian language. Nouns were not classi-
fied as masculine or feminine, but were divided into personal and nonper-
sonal types. Personal nouns included those referring to humans, gods, or
(in literature) creatures that had human characteristics. There was no
fixed way to indicate amount or the plural form of an inanimate noun.
Sometimes a noun was repeated twice to indicate all of one class of ob-
jects. For instance kur meant "land," while kur-kur meant "all the lands."
Otherwise, amount could only be determined from the way a word was
used. Similarly, verbs had just one form, which might be modified by a
prefix, suffix, or infix (an affix appearing in the body of a word) to indicate
who was performing an action or when the action occurred.
There were several styles of written Sumerian, depending on the type
of material being composed. The writers of business and government doc-
uments used certain words and phrases, while the authors of POETRY, prose
literature, or HYMNS used different ones. Sumerian even had a separate
style called emesal used to quote female speech. However, it remains un-
clear why this variant of the language developed or in what situations it
was used. (See also Alphabets; Books and Manuscripts; Decipherment;
Ethnic and Language Groups; Languages; Record Keeping; Sumer and
the Sumerians.)

SUN
T hroughout the ancient Near East, the sun occupied a particularly im-
portant place in RELIGION and MYTHOLOGY because of its connection
with life, death, and rebirth. It provided the light and warmth that plants,
animals, and people needed to survive. Each day it died, sinking below
the horizon as it was conquered by the night. However, every morning it
was reborn to once again bring light and life to the universe. As the sym-
bol of light and day, the sun represented goodness and life, while night
and darkness represented evil and death.
In Mesopotamian society, eclipses of the sun were considered OMENS,
or signs that something bad was about to happen. The Mesopotamians
worshiped a sun god named Shamash, who represented justice. In this ca-
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been pacity, he is portrayed on a stela* giving the symbols of rulership to King
carved or engraved and serves as a HAMMURABI. Sun gods also held important places in other ancient Near
monument; pi. stelae Eastern societies. The Hittites worshiped the sun god of Heaven and the
sun goddess of Arinna.
* deity god or goddess Some of the most powerful Egyptian deities* were sun gods whose
names corresponded to their many forms, or manifestations. These names
included Ra, ATEN, and HORUS, the falcon god whose eye was associated
with the sun. The rising and setting of the sun had profound significance
for the Egyptians. Each night the sun god journeyed below the horizon to
the underworld on a sacred barge, or raft. His soul traveled along a river
that was the underworld's counterpart to the NILE RIVER in Egypt. There his
soul was reunited with his body, symbolizing the rebirth of all the souls of
the dead. This also signified the joining of Ra and OSIRIS, god of the dead,
into a new deity containing aspects of both gods. As morning approached,
the sun began its journey back to the sky, signaling the return of life to the
107
Suva and Susiaiia
land. Each morning at dawn, a priest lit a ritual torch to signify the sun's
triumph over death and its importance to Egypt's welfare and future suc-
cess. The Egyptians developed a complex series of rituals to ensure the con-
tinued order of the universe, represented by the regular reappearance of
the sun each day.
The worship of the sun god in Egypt reached its peak during the reign
pharaoh king of ancient Egypt of the pharaoh* Amenhotep IV (ca. 1353-1336 B.C.), also known as
AKHENATEN. Amenhotep outlawed the worship of all other gods besides
the sun god Aten. He even changed his own name to Akhenaten, which
means "he who serves Aten," to signify his devotion to the god. This re-
form was not accepted by many Egyptians, and Egypt returned to poly-
theism, or the worship of many gods, after Akhenaten's death. (See also
Gods and Goddesses; Rituals and Sacrifice; Theology.)

SUSA AND SUSIANA

S usiana was an ancient region in southwestern IRAN. Its major city,
Susa, had a long and illustrious history, serving at one time as a cap-
ital of Elam and later as a capital of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. Both the region and
the city played a significant role in the history of Iran.
By about 7000 B.C., permanent settlements began to be established in
many parts of Susiana, and the city of Susa was founded around 4200 B.C.
* fourth millennium B.C. years from During the late fourth millennium B.C.*, Susa's culture began to resemble
4000 to 3001 B.C. that of Sumer, with the use of cylinder seals, counting tokens enclosed in
hollow clay balls (bullae), and a cuneiform-like accounting and writing
system called Proto-Elamite, which was written on clay tablets. In the late
third millennium B.C., Susa and Susiana were dominated both culturally
and politically by the Akkadians, who also dominated MESOPOTAMIA.
See map on inside covers. After the collapse of the Akkadian empire around 2193 B.C., Susa and
Susiana fell under the control of the Mesopotamian kingdom of UR.
Around 2004 B.C., the Susians allied themselves with the neighboring
Elamites, invaded Mesopotamia, and reasserted their independence.
Thereafter, the Susians became closely tied to the Elamites, who took con-
trol of and ruled Susa and Susiana. For the next 1,400 years, Susiana was
an integral part of the Elamite civilization.
As a royal capital and center of commerce, Susa developed into a large
and important international city. Around 1500 B.C., for reasons unknown,
the city entered a period of decline and was abandoned by most of its oc-
cupants. However, Susa regained prominence about 300 years later, when
the Elamite empire reached the peak of its power and supremacy.
Around 1110 B.C., Susa was conquered by the Babylonians, marking
the beginning of another period of decline. Little is known about Susa or
Susiana for the next 300 years except that political unrest and economic
disaster plagued the region. In the late 700s B.C., Elamite power
reemerged. At that time, Elam and Susiana became allies of the Babyloni-
ans and engaged in frequent conflicts with the Assyrians. Thereafter, Susa
served primarily as a ceremonial and cultural center rather than a politi-
cal or economic one.
In about 646 B.C., King ASHURBANIPAL of Assyria renewed attacks on
* sack to loot a captured city Susiana. He conquered and sacked* the city of Susa and relocated the
108
 Syria

Levant lands bordering the eastern survivors to the Levant*. Thiseffectively ended the history of the Elamite
shores of the MediterraneanSea (present- state. Susa and Susiana remained in Assyrian control until Ashurbanipal's
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), theWest death in 630 B.C.Thereafter,Assyrian powerin the region beganto decline.
Bank, and Jordan
By 550B.C., the Persianshad gained controlSusa of and Susiana,and
satrapy portion of Persian-controlled the region became a satrapy* of the Persian empire. DAR- The Persian king
territory under the rule of a satrap, or IUS I fortified Susaand madeit one of his capitals. Susa prospered under
provincial governor Persian rule and became one of the most important cities of the empire.It
had magnificent palaces and temples and once again served as a great cul-
tural, political, and economic center.
After the conquestof theGREATPersian
in
ALEXANDER
THEempire by
331B.C., Susa lost much of its powerand dominance,and the citywas re-
named Seluciaon the Eulaeus.PARTHIAWithafter
the
B.C.,
250
Susa
riseof
regained itsformer name and prospered yet again. Although it never re-
gained itsformer greatness, Susa continued to flourish as a regional center
for many centuriesafterward. also Assyria and the
(See Assyrians; Baby-
lonia and the Babylonians; Elam and the Elamites; Seleucid Em

Syllabaries See Writing.

SYRIA
T hroughout ancient times,Syria was an object of conquest and was
often dominated by foreign powers. Along with Mesopotamia and
Egypt, Syria was an early center of civilization in the ancient Near East.
However, the civilization that developed there was somewhat different
from that of the other two regions. Instead of large, unified kingdoms
and empires, Syria consisted of small kingdoms and city-states*, many of
* city-state independent state consisting which were based on loyalty within tribes rather than territory. Conse-
of a city and its surrounding territory quently, the inhabitants ofSyria were never able to achieve any kind of
political unity except in smallareas of the total region.
109
Syria

GEOGRAPHY
EARLY
AND
DEVELOPMENT
* Levant lands bordering the eastern Located in the Levant*, ancient Syria was home to many natural land
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- routes that connect western Asia with Africa
both and Europe. Although
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West protected by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Anatolian plateau
Bank, and Jordan
to the north, ancientSyria lay exposed to the plains of Mesopotamia to
* arable suitable for growing crops the east andArabia to the south. These geographic left
factors
Syria open
* domesticated adapted or tamed for to invasion and the target of many conquests.
human use The Syrian landscape consistsof mountains, plateaus, fertile grass-
lands, and desert. The westernmost part is a coastal plain, whichin an-
cient times containeda numberof important UGARIT
cities,
and including
the Phoenician city-states
BYBLOS,
TYRE.
SIDON,
and
Although
of Syria
had
limited natural resources, muchof the landwas arable*.
Inhabited for thousands of yearsby peoplewho were huntersand
gatherers,Syria later playeda significant rolein the early development of
AGRICULTURE.A numberof plantsand animals were first domesticated*in
Syria—including wheat,SHEEP,barley,
CATTLE,
rye, PIGS—and
GOATS,
and
their domestication contributed to the development of farming in the re-
gion as earlyasB.C.
8300

no
 Syria

The development of agriculture supported an increase in population

and the spread of village life in Syria. This led, in turn, to the emergence
of towns as settlements grew larger and became centers of manufacture
and trade. Some of the earliest towns in the ancient Near East were estab-
lished in Syria, and towns and cities remained the focus of political devel-
opment throughout much of the region's later history.
Even with the development of larger settlements, many people in
Syria continued to live in small villages scattered across the region. In ad-
* nomad person who travels from place dition, groups of nomads* traveled the area in search of grazing land for
to place to find food and pasture their herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. This mix of lifestyles contributed to
the development of two different political systems in ancient Syria: cen-
tralized states that developed around large cities and decentralized tribal
societies that were characteristic of villages and nomadic groups.

HISTORY
Although distinct cultures emerged in Syria, the numerous invasions that
occurred in its history left their mark on its people. The people of Syria
found themselves under foreign rule many times.

Early History. By the 2500s B.C., an urban culture similar to that of Mes-
opotamia had emerged in Syria. One of the most important Syrian city-
states of this period was EBLA, which dominated much of northern Syria
for about 200 years. A number of port cities on Syria's Mediterranean coast
traded with Ebla, but they were not politically dependent on it.
In about 2320 B.C., the Sumerian city-state of URUK in Mesopotamia ex-
Out of Africa tended its power westward across Syria to the Mediterranean Sea. Uruk's in-
fluence over Syria was short-lived, however. Within the next few decades,
Evidence suggests that the
ancestors of modern hu- SARGON I of Akkad and his grandson NARAM-SIN invaded Syria, sacked Ebla,
rnans migrated out of Africa and incorporated the region into the Akkadian empire. Following the col-
more than a million years lapse of the Akkadian empire, city life in Syria almost disappeared, and
ago. Because of Syria's loca- most people returned to living in small, temporary settlements. This de-
tion at the crossroads of Africa, cline of urban culture in Syria lasted for about a century.
Asia, and Europe, these ancient Between about 2100 and 1800 B.C., groups of nomadic peoples known
ancestors no doubt traveled
through the region on their way to as the AMORITES appeared in Syria and established a number of small king-
other lands. The discovery of primi- doms and city-states. By about 1800 B.C., urban culture was once again
tive stone axes and other tools dat- flourishing, and many cities had become the centers of small, independent
ing from at least 250,000 years ago states. One of the most powerful states during this period was Yamkhad,
provides evidence of early habita- which had its capital at Halab (present-day Aleppo). The kings of Yamkhad
tion in Syria. Scholars also have evi-
dence that early Neanderthal dominated a number of minor rulers and tribal leaders in northern Syria,
peoples inhabited Syria almost con- but a few cities remained independent, including KARKAMISH and Qatna.
tinuously between about 100,000 Various tribal societies also continued to exist, and their unruliness and de-
and 35,000 years ago. mands for freedom from interference by centralized powers often caused
problems for Syrian rulers.

Invasion and Foreign Rule. Around 1600 B.C., parts of northern

Syria suffered great destruction at the hands of the invading HITTITES
from ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey). Hittite control of northern Syria was
short-lived, however. In its wake, a new power—the HURRIANS—gained
control of the region.

Ill
Syria
For some time, Hurrian tribes from the mountains of eastern Anatolia
and western IRAN migrated to northern Syria and established settlements
throughout that region. In many places, they comprised the majority of
the population. Soon they gained political control over the Amorites and
established Hurrian kingdoms throughout Syria.
The most important Hurrian kingdom was Mitanni, located in upper
Mesopotamia and eastern Syria. At the peak of its power, the kingdom of
Mitanni ruled almost all of northern and central Syria. Its presence in the
region effectively blocked other foreign intruders from entering Syria, at
least until Mitanni clashed with Egypt in the mid-1400s B.C.
Conflicts between Mitanni and Egypt ended peacefully when the two
powers decided to divide Syria between them. They reached this agree-
ment because of the Hittites, whose renewed strength posed a serious
threat to the interests of Egypt and Mitanni. In the mid-1300s B.C., the
Hittites defeated Mitanni and pushed the Egyptians back to southern
Syria. Ultimately, the Hittites and Egyptians agreed to divide Syria just as
Egypt and Mitanni had done earlier.
Under both the Egyptians and the Hittites, most of the small kingdoms
* vassal individual or state that swears and city-states in Syria served as vassals*. Although they had little power to
loyalty and obedience to a greater pursue independent foreign policies, local rulers often had significant au-
power thority to deal with their internal affairs. However, rivalries among the var-
ious Syrian states made it difficult for them to act in unison on any issues.

A PERIOD OF CHANGE
Syria's history continued to be marked by foreign conquests. Sometimes
the invaders were large empires acquiring more territories and resources. At
other times, migrating peoples and nomadic tribes came to settle in Syria.

Upheaval and Change. In the late 1200s B.C., invasions by the SEA
PEOPLES appear to have caused great change and upheaval in Syria and the
Levant. In many parts of Syria, urban life declined dramatically as people
moved away from cities to the countryside. Some cities, such as Ugarit,
disappeared forever. Meanwhile, large numbers of people from Anatolia
fled ahead of the invaders and migrated to Syria. These migrants, who be-
came known as NEO-HITTITES, established a number of small states in
northern Syria.
* Semitic of or relating to people of the In the 1100s B.C., the ARAMAEANS—a group of Semitic* peoples—
Near East or northern Africa, including appeared in Syria. Over the next few centuries, they spread throughout the
the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, region and came to play an important role in Syrian history. The rise of Ara-
Jews, and Arabs
maean civilization led to the reintroduction of tribal rule. In time, however,
* dynasty succession of rulers from the the Aramaeans established centralized states with ruling dynasties* of tribal
same family or group origin. The principal Aramaean kingdom in Syria was DAMASCUS.
Beginning in the 800s B.C., the fate of Syria became linked with em-
pires to the east: Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. During the 800s B.C., the
Assyrians launched repeated military campaigns against Syria, and by the
next century, the entire region had been conquered. Some Syrian king-
doms became vassal states ruled by local kings. Others, including Damas-
cus, were incorporated into the Assyrian empire as provinces governed by
Assyrian officials.
112
 Syria

Although the Assyrians'dominationofSyria lastedforless than 150

years, the regionforever bore their Syria
name,
is for
ashortened
form
of
Assyria.Before the endB.C.,
of the
invasions
700s of northernMesopo-
tamia by the CimmeriansandScythians from
Russiaweakenedthe As-
syrians, and in the late 600s B.C., Assyria fell toattacks from the
BabyloniansandMEDESthe ofIran.
After
fall
the
of theAssyrian empire,
Syria became abattleground in astruggle between EgyptandBabylonia
for control of the Levant.In theend, fell
Syria
underBabylonia'scontrol
for about 50years.

Later History.B.C.,In the

539Persians
BABYLON
conquered
andtook
control of Syria, which becameasatrapy,PERSIAN
orprovince,
of the
EMPIRE. While local dynasties continuedtoruleinsome coastal cities,
most ofSyria was governedbyloyal Persian
officialsappointedby the
satrap, or provincial governor.
113
Taharqa
Persian rule of Syria was mostly peaceful, although the Persians occa-
sionally had to put down local revolts. The Persians did not allow politi-
cal independence, but they permitted the local cultures of Syria to
develop with little interference. Syrians could practice their own religion
and carry out their own trading activities. Syrian coastal cities were even
free to establish colonies along other parts of the Mediterranean coast. As
a result of such policies, Persia had little influence on Syrian culture dur-
ing the 200 years of its rule.
In 331 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT of MACEDONIA conquered the Persian
empire and gained control of Syria. After his death in 323 B.C., the region
was divided between Alexander's generals and their successors, the Seleu-
cids and the Ptolemies. These two dynasties often competed for control of
Syria, and conflicts erupted between them a number of times.
The occupation of Syria by the Seleucids, ruling from Antioch,
marked a significant change in Syria's history. For the next several cen-
turies, the fate of the region became increasingly linked to the West in-
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- stead of the Near East. During the Hellenistic* period, Syrian society was
influenced culture of the Mediterranean strongly influenced by Greek-style culture. The region also became in-
world and western Asia during the three volved in international political and economic affairs, which brought
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
Syria prosperity and led to urbanization*. Hellenistic culture, prosperity,
and urbanization continued under the Romans, who took control of
* urbanization formation and growth of
cities
Syria in 64 B.C. and incorporated it as a province of the Roman Empire.
(See also Akkad and the Akkadians; Animals, Domestication of;
Assyria and the Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Cities
and City-States; Egypt and the Egyptians; Hellenistic World; Migra-
tion and Deportation; Nomads and Nomadism; Phoenicia and the
Phoenicians; Scythia and the Scythians; Sumer and the Sumerians;
Trade Routes.)

TAHARQA
T aharqa (tuh«HAHR»kuh) was the fifth Nubian king in Egypt's
Twenty-fifth Dynasty. He is best known as the king who lost Egypt to
the Assyrians. Despite his unsuccessful military leadership, Taharqa is
considered the greatest of builders.
Taharqa inherited the thrones of Nubia and Egypt at the age of 32 af-
ruled 690-664 B.C. ter the death of his cousin (or nephew) Shebitku. Around 674 B.C.,
Egyptian pharaoh Taharqa fought off the invading Assyrians, led by King ESARHADDON. Three
years later, Esarhaddon returned and successfully conquered northern
Egypt, including the capital at MEMPHIS. However, Esarhaddon foolishly
left the conquered territory in the hands of a few Assyrian military offi-
cers, and Taharqa was able to reconquer the region. Nevertheless, in 669
B.C., Esarhaddon's son and successor, ASHURBANIPAL, returned to Egypt and
drove Taharqa into Nubia. Taharqa, who was never able to reconquer
Egypt, died in Nubia and was buried in a pyramid in the cemetery of Nuri.
He was succeeded by his nephew Tantamani.
During his reign, Taharqa sponsored more building projects than any
other Nubian ruler. He adorned the Great Temple of Amun at KARNAK
with new processional ways and commissioned other buildings nearby.
In Nubia, he commissioned several new temples in the Egyptian style in
114
 Taxation
the cities of Sanam, Kawa, and Pnuba. He also built several small temples
in the northern province of Kush. (See also Egypt and the Egyptians; Nu-
bia and the Nubians; Sudan.)

TAXATION
T he rise of centralized states in the ancient Near East required sources of
income for GOVERNMENTS, which had to pay for ARMIES and the con-
struction of public works and to supply food to the people in times of need.
Loot seized during military campaigns on foreign soil did not provide an
income large enough or regular enough to support governments, and nei-
ther did tribute* collected from conquered territories or vassal* states. From
* tribute payment made by a smaller or the earliest days of centralized states, the solution to the financial needs of
weaker party to a more powerful one, governments was some form of taxation in which people living in a state
often under the threat of force paid set amounts to the government. The government then determined
* vassal individual or state that swears how the income from taxes was to be spent or redistributed.
loyalty and obedience to a greater
power
Payment and Collection of Taxes. Throughout much of the ancient
period, people paid their taxes in kind, that is, in some form of goods
rather than cash. The most direct form of taxation involved giving the
government or its representatives a share of one's agricultural or craft pro-
duction. Such taxes might consist of items such as grain, CATTLE, cloth, or
other goods. In MESOPOTAMIA during the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca.
2112-2004 B.C.), the Sumerians maintained a large government animal
pen near the city of NIPPUR. This place served as a clearinghouse for all sorts
of in-kind payments, from GOATS to JEWELRY. The Mesopotamians also im-
posed a tax payment called ishkaru at Nuzi in the 1400s B.C. This consisted
primarily of finished goods, such as garments, arrows, chariots, or armor;
in Assyria in the 800s B.C., it consisted of silver.
Labor was another kind of payment that could be regarded as a tax. In-
dividuals, households, or villages might owe the government a certain
number of days of work each year. Records from throughout Mesopotamia
refer to a tax called the ilku, which was a labor tax owed by those who
worked land owned by a higher authority. A tenant could assign someone
else, such as a laborer on his property, to perform the ilku. As exchanges of
precious metals become more common, some taxes were paid in such
metals. For example, as early as the 2300s B.C., one ruler of the Sumerian
city-state independent state consisting city-state* of LAGASH required some taxes and fines to be paid in silver.
of a city and its surrounding territory Governments collected taxes through various means. In some soci-
eties, the temples or the army were responsible for gathering or receiving
tax payments. Eventually, the office of tax collector emerged and became
an important administrative division in all governments. In outlying dis-
tricts, provincial governors often were responsible for making the appro-
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 priate payments to the central government. By the first millennium B.C.*,
tO 1 B.C. a practice called tax farming—in which the government sold to the high-
est bidder the right to collect taxes in a region—had become a basic fea-
ture of the Babylonian and Persian administrations. Having paid the tax
required by the government, the tax farmer or collector often tried to col-
lect an additional amount from the individuals or communities within
his territory and keep it as profit.
115
Technology
Types of Taxes. Because most ancient Near Eastern economies were
based on AGRICULTURE, taxes on land and its products remained a key part
of every state's overall income. According to the Hebrew BIBLE, for exam-
ple, the prophet Samuel warned those Israelites who wanted a king that
such a ruler would take a tenth of their crops and orchards.
Some of the most detailed accounts of land taxes come from Egypt,
where land was valued and taxed according to the amount of benefit it re-
ceived from the annual flooding of the NILE RIVER, which enriched the
soil. Officials measured each parcel of land carefully to determine how
much tax—in the form of grain—its owner owed to the temples or to the
government. Priests, however, did not have to pay taxes on the land they
owned, and this was true in early Mesopotamia as well.
Taxes paid by those who worked on or rented royal lands comprised a
significant part of the income of the Mesopotamian state. One such tax,
during the 2100s B.C., was the gunmada, a provincial tax owed by military
men living on state-owned land on the outskirts of the kingdom. The gun-
mada was paid in cattle, delivered to the livestock pens near Nippur. Land
taxes were commonly paid with grain, which served as a medium of ex-
change similar to money.
Land taxes were not the only taxes paid in the ancient Near East. Trade
and commerce were taxed as well. For example, MERCHANTS carrying goods
into or out of a state had to pay import or export taxes, or customs duties,
on them. Governments also charged fees, tolls, or taxes for the use of canals
and roads or for the privilege of traveling through a place or using a harbor.
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek- By the Hellenistic* period, Near Eastern governments had developed many
influenced culture of the Mediterranean forms of taxation. The Babylonians, for example, had a salt tax, a tax on the
world and western Asia during the three sale of slaves, a canal tax, and a sort of sales tax that consumers paid when
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
they bought certain other products. The collection of these and other taxes
was crucial to the administration of the state. (See also Economy and
Trade; Land Use and Ownership; Property and Property Rights; Record
Keeping; Scribes.)

Technology See Science and Technology.

Temples See Palaces and Temples.

TEN
T he Ten Commandments, which are recorded in the Hebrew BIBLE,
form the ethical basis for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Accord-
ing to the Bible, these commandments were revealed to MOSES when YAH-
COMMANDMENTS WEH spoke to him on Mount SINAI during the Israelites' journey from
Egypt to Canaan. The Ten Commandments are also called the Decalogue,
from the Greek words deka and logoi, which mean "ten words/' and form
the core of the contract between Yahweh and the Israelite people.
116
 Teshub
The Ten Commandments are recorded twice in the Hebrew Bible.
They are listed in the Books of Exodus (Chapter 20) and Deuteronomy
(Chapter 5). Although the circumstances of how Moses received these
laws are slightly different depending on which book reports the event, the
laws are essentially the same.
In the first two commandments, Yahweh tells the Israelites that he is
their only God and that they should not worship other gods. The third
and fourth rules state that the Israelites should not use Yahweh's name in a
disrespectful manner and should observe the Sabbath (the day of rest and
worship). The fifth commandment states that the Israelites should honor
their parents. The last five commandments deal with ethics, saying that
* adultery sexual relations between a the Israelites should not murder, steal, commit adultery*, give false testi-
married person and someone other than mony, or desire their neighbors' possessions.
his or her spouse No one is certain when the Ten Commandments were written. Some
scholars believe that they were composed between the 1500s and 1200s B.C.
Others believe that they were written around 750 B.C. It is also possible that
they were written even later as a summary of the ancient religious and legal
traditions of the Israelites. The Ten Commandments did not carry new
ideas except for statements about the uniqueness of God and the holiness
of the Sabbath. Similar laws existed in almost all other ancient Near Eastern
cultures. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Law; Mosaic
Law; Torah.)

TESHUB
T eshub (TE»shub) was the storm god of the HURRIANS, a group who
lived in northern MESOPOTAMIA and SYRIA during the second millen-
nium B.C.* The HITTITES adopted him, as well as his wife KHEPAT, into their
large and complex pantheon* and merged him with the traditional Hit-
tite weather god, Tarkhun. During the Hittite imperial* period, which
lasted from 1350 to 1200 B.C., Teshub was considered the ruler of the
* second millennium B.C. years from heavens and head of the Hittite pantheon. He was usually portrayed
2000 to 1001 B.C. holding a mace (a clublike weapon with a pear-shaped end for striking)
* pantheon all the gods of a particular and sometimes a lightning bolt as well.
culture In a group of Hittite myths called the Kumarbi Cycle, Teshub appears
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or as the son and enemy of KUMARBI, king of the Hittite gods. The Hittites
an empire adopted the mythology of the Kumarbi Cycle, like Teshub himself, from
the Hurrians. The first tale in the cycle, titled Theogony (or Heavenly King-
ship), tells how a series of four gods held the heavenly throne, each over-
throwing the one before him. Finally, Teshub rises to power and prepares
to overthrow the third king, Kumarbi. Unfortunately, the description of
the battle has been lost. In the second tale, titled Song ofUllikummi, Ku-
marbi creates a stone monster named Ullikummi to destroy Teshub, but
Teshub descends into the sea in his chariot to defeat the monster. A re-
lated myth, called the Myth of Khedammu, says that Kumarbi created a
dragon named Khedammu, again to challenge Teshub. The dragon be-
gins devouring humanity so that the people can no longer serve the gods.
For a time it appears that "Teshub, the powerful king of Kummiya, will
have to hold the plow himself/' Because the rest of the myth is lost, the
117
Textiles
ending remains unknown. A later fragment of myth hints that Teshub's
pride and violent nature were sources of trouble among the gods. (See also
Gods and Goddesses; Mythology.)

TEXTILES
T extiles are fabrics of fiber or yarn that are made by hand or by ma-
chine. The production of textiles—for personal use and as articles of
trade—was one of the most important activities in the ancient Near East.
Documents from MESOPOTAMIA describe textile workshops that employed
thousands of individuals, and textile manufacturing was often depicted
in the WALL PAINTINGS and bas-reliefs* of ancient Egyptian tombs.
Despite the importance and extent of textile production in the Near
Beautiful Old East, few examples of ancient textiles have survived to the present day. Un-
like durable materials, such as STONE, metal, and POTTERY, textiles rarely sur-
Rugs and Carpets vived thousands of years of burial or exposure to the elements. Only in
Perhaps the best-known
very dry regions, such as Egypt, have archaeologists* discovered remains of
textile products from the
Near East today are beauti- ancient textiles. Nevertheless, from ancient texts, artworks, and remains of
fully woven rugs and carpets* weaving equipment from ancient workshops, scholars have gained some
The finest of these intricately insight into the production and uses of textiles in the ancient Near East.
patterned textiles were not wo-
ven on a loom but by hand, one Origins and Use of Textiles. The earliest evidence of textile produc-
knot at a time, In fact, archaeolo-
gists have found evidence of such
tion in the Near East is a fragment of woven cloth from a site in ANATOLIA
carpets and the tools used to man- (present-day Turkey) dating from about 7000 B.C. Clay balls found in
ufacture them in graves in Central northeastern Mesopotamia dating from about the same time contain im-
Asia dating from about 2000 B.C. pressions of cloth that show the patterns of weaving. The quality of the
The earliest existing example of a workmanship evident from those impressions leaves little doubt that
pile carpet came from a tomb in
weaving was practiced long before that time. Scraps of fabric found at
Siberia dating from about 450 B.C.
Unlike other decorative textiles £ATAL HUYUK in Anatolia show that mechanical weaving machines, or
from the ancient Near East, people looms, were in use in that region by at least 6000 B.C. Evidence of textile
from alt levels of society probably production in Egypt suggests that it may have developed later there, per-
used carpets. haps around 4500 B.C.
The earliest textiles were made from linen, a fabric composed of fibers
derived from FLAX. Flax grows naturally in many places throughout the re-
material is cut away to leave figures gion and was first domesticated* around 6000 B.C. Linen fabrics woven
projecting slightly from the background earlier than that must have been produced from wild flax. Although flax
* archaeologist scientist who studies past was the first fiber used for making textiles, wool eventually became the
human cultures, usually by excavating most widely used material in textile production. SHEEP were domesticated
material remains of human activity
around 7000 B.C., but their coats were short and had little usable wool.
* domesticate to adapt or tame for Around 4000 B.C., breeders began to produce sheep with long woolly
human use
coats suitable for textile production.
Other natural textile fabrics were unknown in the Near East until
much later. Hemp, used for textiles in northern and central Europe and
Asia as early as 5000 B.C., did not reach the Near East until about 1000 B.C.
Cotton was probably introduced to the region from India around the
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 same time. Silk, first developed in China in the third millennium B.C.*,
to 2001 B.C. did not reach the ancient Near East until about 650 B.C.
Textiles served many functions. CLOTHING, tents, and similar items
provided shelter and protection from the elements. Cloth sails helped pro-
pel ships, while burial shrouds covered the bodies of the dead. Colorful
118
 Textiles
rugs, furniture coverings,wall hangings,andother textile items beautified
palaces, temples, and homes, while textile containers were used tohold
and carry everything fromfoodsandpersonal belongingstoweaponsand
tools. Textiles also servedas ameansofcommunicating values, status,and
roles. For example, certain patterns, colors,anddesigns distinguished dif-
ferent groupsor individuals.

Weaving and Dyeing. Toproduce textiles, ancient textile workers

first stripped individual fibers
from
flaxorwoolandtied their ends to-
gether. Thefibers were thensoakedandsoftened. These softened fibers
were spun intoyarn that could bewoven into cloth.
The earliest looms in the ancient Near Eastconsistedof twowooden
beams placed horizontally abovethe ground.Aseries ofyarns were
stretched between these beams.Aweaver thenpassed bundles ofyarn
back andforth through those yarnsatright anglestothemtocreatea wo-
ven fabric of verticaland horizontal threads.Byvaryingthecolorand
arrangement of the yarns, theweaver could create differentdesigns and
patterns in the cloth.
Another type ofloom, thevertical loom, appearedinAnatoliain the
early third millenniumB.C. This loom stood uprightandrelied onsmall
weights of clay, stone, ormetaltokeepthevertical yarns tight.Aneven
more advanced typeofloomwas thetapestry loom, which hadspread
from
theCAUCASUSregion
SYRIAbytothe middle
of thethird
B.C.Both
millennium
vertical and tapestry looms allowed weaverstoproduce complex patterns
and more typesofweaves than horizontal looms. Althoughdifficult more
to operate, they were less tiring physically because theweaver did nothave
to squat orbend over to usethem.
The earliest evidenceoftextile dyeingin theNear Eastdates
from
about 3000 B.C. The most commonly used coloring agents were natural
dyes extractedfrom plantsoranimal-based dyes.Themost famousand
expensive dye was apurpledyeobtained fromatype of seasnail. Known
as Tyrianpurple—fromthe Phoenician TYREwhere itcity
was
of pro-
duced—the dye was sopopular among kings thatitbecameasymbol of

119
Thebes

royalty. During Roman times its production was a state secret, and only
members of the elite were allowed to own or use the dye.

Textile Industries. Textile production was probably the most impor-

tant industry in ancient Mesopotamia. Records from the late third millen-
nium B.C. indicate that tens of thousands of people worked in state-run
textile workshops in the city of UR. These workshops used the wool from
enormous herds of sheep to produce millions of pounds of woolen fabric
each year. The palace and temples used some of this, but most was ex-
ported to other lands in exchange for goods not available locally.
* second millennium B.C. years from During the first half of the second millennium B.C.*, the Assyrians
2000 to 1001 B.C. traded tin from IRAN and textiles from southern Mesopotamia for pre-
cious metals from Anatolia. They produced their own textiles, but these
were considered inferior to the high-quality cloth woven in the south.
Mesopotamian governments often used wool as a form of payment for
workers, and households were expected to weave the clothes they needed
and perhaps make extra cloth to meet commercial demand.
Linen was the main textile produced in Egypt because woolly sheep
were not raised there until after about 1000 B.C. The Egyptians also orga-
nized textile production in workshops, but the industry was less extensive
than in Mesopotamia. In Egypt, Mesopotamia, and elsewhere in the an-
cient Near East, women did most of the spinning and weaving. However,
whereas men supervised textile work in Mesopotamia, female overseers
predominated in Egypt. After the vertical loom was introduced in Egypt
around 1500 B.C., men become more actively involved in textile produc-
tion. As in Mesopotamia, most Egyptian households wove their own cloth
and made their own clothing. (See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Econ-
omy and Trade; Labor and Laborers; Women, Role of.)

THEBES
T he ancient Egyptian city of Thebes was located on the NILE RIVER,
about 400 miles south of present-day Cairo. The city and its sur-
rounding area included the temples of KARNAK and LUXOR, numerous
royal burial sites across the river, and the VALLEY OF THE KINGS and the VAL-
LEY OF THE QUEENS. The ancient Egyptians called the city Nowe or Nuwe,
which indicates that it was dedicated to the sun god AMUR
The main part of Thebes was located almost entirely on the east bank
of the Nile River, while the burial sites of the kings and queens were lo-
cated on the west bank. Also located on the west bank were the villages
See map in Egypt and the Egyptians that housed the workers who built the temples and tombs and the houses
(vol. 2).
of the priests who maintained the religious sites.
The oldest monuments in Thebes date from the Eleventh Dynasty
(ca. 2081-1938 B.C.). It was during this period that Upper and Lower
Egypt were unified and the city became the capital of Egypt. During the
Twelfth Dynasty (ca. 1938-1759 B.C.), the royal capital was moved from
Thebes to LISHT, closer to Lower Egypt. However, Thebes remained an im-
* nomadic referring to people who travel portant site, particularly for temples that honored Amun.
from place to place to find food and Around 1630 B.C., a nomadic* group from western Asia known as the
.pasture
HYKSOS conquered Egypt, but they were unable to subdue Thebes. The
120
 Theology
leaders of the city finally succeeded in driving the Hyksos from power in
about 1523 B.C. This success marked the beginning of Thebes' greatest pe-
riod. Grand estates for the country's elite and huge temples in honor of
the gods were built in Thebes. On the west bank of the Nile, temples and
elaborate tombs were built for the dead. Between 1100 and 950 B.C., the
government was controlled by the high priest of Amun in Thebes, as well
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt as a pharaoh* who ruled from the city of Tanis in the Nile Delta. During
the early 600s B.C., Nubian pharaohs ruled Egypt from Thebes. In 663 B.C.,
however, the city was destroyed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, and it
never regained its former glory. (See also Cities and City-States; Egypt
and the Egyptians; Nubia and the Nubians.)

THEOLOGY
T he term theology refers to the systematic study of a religious faith. In
ancient times, people did not question or study their beliefs. They
were accepted as true, inherited traditions. Priests and temple workers did
learn about their religions, but they generally focused on the correct per-
formance of religious rituals. In terms of the ancient Near East, the word
theology will be used to refer to the people's system of beliefs about the su-
pernatural and their knowledge of the gods and the world.
Modern scholars know about theology in the ancient Near East from
several sources, including myths, HYMNS, PRAYERS, and other religious writ-
ings. Artifacts, such as religious statues and architectural remains of tem-
ples and tombs, also provide insights into the beliefs the peoples of the
ancient Near East held about their gods.

Nature of the Supernatural. In many ancient Near Eastern societies,

the supernatural — existence beyond what can be seen—was first thought
of as living forces. For instance, people felt that living forces permeated the
rivers, lakes, wind, and animals. In more sophisticated cultures, the people
came to believe that these forces were controlled by supernatural beings —
gods. Gods could have animal forms, such as bulls or birds, but more com-
monly they were presented in human forms, both male and female,
although larger and more powerful than normal beings.
Once supernatural powers were given human form, there was a ten-
deity god or goddess dency to model the behaviors and existences of the deities* on the hu-
man world. For example, people assumed that deities had spouses,
children, and servants and that they had the same emotions— jealousy,
fear, anger, joy— as humans. Some gods, however, exhibited mixed hu-
man and animal forms.
Deities were not the only supernatural powers believed to exist in the
ancient Near East, however. In some sophisticated theologies, powers, such
as "fate" or "norms" (me in Sumerian, ma' aim Egyptian), gave stability to
the cosmos and order to the divine realms. People also believed that some
forces became DEMONS, generally evil and irrational beings who caused
harm to people for no reason. The dead were also believed to have super-
natural powers. The spirits of parents, grandparents, and other ancestors
could be either helpful or harmful, depending on how they were treated
by their descendants. Because of this belief, the dead were feared and
121
Theology
appeased. The Israelites, Mesopotamians, Canaanites, and Egyptians all
made offerings to their dead ancestors to gain their favor and support and
* cult system of religious beliefs and to avoid their anger. The cult* of the dead was especially important in an-
rituals; group following these beliefs cient Egypt.

Regional Theologies. The Mesopotamians, Hittites, Egyptians, and

* Levant lands bordering the eastern peoples of the Levant* had many gods. According to their theologies, the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- deities were present in the world in the form of small statues that were
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West kept in temple sanctuaries*. Serving the deities centered on offering their
Bank, and Jordan
statues food and drink. Failing to serve the deities properly was believed to
* sanctuary most sacred part of a lead to illness or some other misfortune. It was believed that the gods had
religious building
created humans to serve them, and as long as the proper rituals, OFFERINGS,
and other aspects of worship were carried out, the deities would be satis-
fied and act kindly toward their human servants.
The theology of the Israelites was at first similar to the theologies of
other Near Eastern cultures, with their many deities. However, over time,
the Israelites came to believe in one deity, called YAHWEH. The Israelites
* prophet one who claims to have viewed their place in the universe as a result of a covenant, or agreement,
received divine messages or insights Yahweh had made with them. The covenant was that, in return for proper
observance of Yahweh's laws, the Israelites would have a strong nation
and just laws.
Most of what is known about Iranian theology comes from the Zoro-
astrian religion. As taught by the prophet* Zoroaster in the 600s B.C.,
The Memphite there was only one god. This god—AHURA MAZDA—created twin brothers,
Theology one of whom followed the path of goodness and truth, while the other
One of the few theological writings: pursued evil and lies. Over time, Zoroastrianism included other gods, and
from ancient times Is the Memphite Ahura Mazda came to be identified with the good twin, while AHRIMAN
Theology, which was inscribed on a represented the evil one. Ahura Mazda and Ahriman were believed to be
monument in the Egyptian city of engaged in a battle over the universe, a battle that Ahura Mazda would
Memphis around 700 B.C. This the-
ological work was at first said to be one day win.
a copy of a more ancient Egyptian
creation myth. It describes how Theology and Government. The theological beliefs of the ancient
Ptah, the great city god of Mem- Near Eastern peoples were reflected in the structures of their govern-
phis, created everything else in ments. Rulers in the ancient Near East were considered chief representa-
the universe simply through his tives of the gods. As such, they were responsible for overseeing their
thoughts and words. The Mem-
phite Theology is now thought to communities in accordance with the gods; wishes and for ensuring that
be a fake, written in a deliberate at- \ the gods were worshiped properly. A community's favor with the gods
tempt to establish Memphis as an and its prosperity depended on how well its ruler fulfilled his duties to the
Important religious center. gods. The gods had also appointed the king to protect the people of his
kingdom. Therefore, it was his responsibility to oversee the administra-
tion of the laws the gods had entrusted to him.

Myths. Part of the theology of ancient Near Eastern cultures was com-
municated through their mythology. Most of the questions ancient peo-
ple had about their origins and existence were answered in their
myths—stories that explained how supernatural forces created and con-
trolled the heavens and earth. All ancient myths were developed to
resolve a problem or answer a question. For example, a myth might pro-
vide reassurance against a potential disaster, such as a flood, or explain
some unknown part of life, such as conception. Myths were a way of
122
 Thera
making sense of the world, and they provided ancient people with a
sense of stability and security.
Most people in the ancient Near East had theogonies—stories about
how gods came to be. They also had CREATION MYTHS that answered the ques-
tion of how the world began. Creation myths from different regions shared
certain similarities. For example, all the myths began with some substance
that was presumed to have always existed and required no explanation. In
Egyptian and Mesopotamian myths, this substance was water. According
to Zoroastrianism, the world was created from fire. According to the Is-
raelite religion, before creation there was water, earth, wind, and darkness.
In another Israelite story, the universe before creation was a rainless desert.
Judaism and Zoroastrianism are unusual in that their theologies in-
cluded myths pertaining to the end of the world. According to their be-
liefs, the immortal human soul receives punishment or reward based on a
person's actions in life. There will be a day of judgment at the end of the
world when the soul's fate will be decided. (See also Iconography; Ju-
daism and Jews; Mythology; Religion; Rituals and Sacrifice; Zoroaster
and Zoroastrianism.)

THERA
T he island of Thera, also called Santorini, is part of a group of islands
known as the Cyclades, which are located in the AEGEAN SEA, an arm
of the Mediterranean Sea. Thera was famous for its wine, and in ancient
times, it provided an important stop between CRETE and the rest of the
Cyclades. Thera is perhaps best known for the enormous volcanic erup-
tion that occurred there. This eruption affected the entire Aegean region.
Humans have lived on Thera since at least 2000 B.C., when the town of
Akrotiri was the main settlement on the island. The Minoan civilization
archaeologist scientist who studies past was Thera's most important influence. Archaeologists* have uncovered
human cultures, usually by excavating pottery, frescoes*, and other items at Akrotiri exhibiting this influence.
material remains of human activity Unique multistoried houses have also been found at Thera. Archaeologists
fresco method of painting in which believe that the settlement was a major center for the seatrade among the
color is applied to moist plaster so that it Aegean islands.
becomes chemically bonded to the
plaster as it dries; also, a painting done
History's largest volcanic eruption occurred on the island in about
in this manner 1500 B.C. (Some scholars date the eruption somewhat earlier, others
somewhat later.) The eruption literally blew most of the island away. In
fact, the entire Aegean region, especially the southern Aegean and Crete,
* tsunami large sea wave caused by a was affected by the tsunamis*, ash fallout, and EARTHQUAKES caused by the
volcanic eruption or earthquake violent eruption. Akrotiri was buried under almost 100 feet of ash, and
scientists have even found ash from the volcano as far away as Egypt and
Israel. Some scholars believe that the eruption gave rise to the myth of the
lost island of Atlantis. Others believe that it was the source for stories in
* drought long period of dry weather the biblical Book of Exodus.
during which crop yields are lower than In about 1000 B.C., the island was resettled by Dorians from the Greek
usual mainland. A drought*, as well as a command from the oracle* at Delphi,
* oracle priest or priestess through whom prompted many of the citizens of Thera to found a colony on the north-
a god is believed to speak; also, the ern coast of Africa in about 630 B.C. This colony, Gyrene, became one of
location (such as a shrine) where such
utterances are made
the islanders' most important achievements. (See also Greece and the
Greeks; Mediterranean Sea, Trade on; Volcanoes.)
123
Thutmose III

THUTMOSE III
T hutmose III (thoot»MOH»suh) was a pharaoh* during the Eigh-
teenth Dynasty and is considered one of Egypt's greatest rulers.
When his father, Thutmose II, died around 1479 B.C., his young son and
heir was not old enough to become king. Therefore, HATSHEPSUT, both wife
and half sister of Thutmose II, became regent*. Eventually, however,
ruled ca. 1479-1425 B.C. strong-minded and ambitious Hatshepsut declared herself pharaoh and
Egyptian king ruled together with Thutmose III until her death in about 1458 B.C.
When Thutmose finally gained sole power over the Egyptian throne,
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt he began to reestablish the empire that his grandfather Thutmose I had
* regent person appointed to govern created. First, he marched into the Levant* and subdued a rebellion of lo-
while the rightful monarch is too young cal princes. However, he understood the power of diplomacy* far better
or unable to rule than his predecessors had; instead of killing his conquered enemies, he
* Levant lands bordering the eastern took the princes' heirs back to Egypt as hostages. Once a prince died, his
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- heir was returned to assume the throne, having been trained to be an obe-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West dient vassal*.
Bank, and Jordan
In just 20 years, Thutmose successfully conquered much of the Lev-
* diplomacy practice of conducting ant and southern SYRIA. Like his grandfather Thutmose I, he reached the
negotiations between kingdoms, states,
or nations
EUPHRATES RIVER, but he was unable to go any farther because of the Mitan-
nians. Thutmose III died around 1425 B.C. and was buried in the VALLEY OF
* vassal individual or state that swears
loyalty and obedience to a greater power
THE KINGS. He was succeeded by his son Amenhotep II. (See also Egypt and
the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

TIGLATH-PILESER I I I
C onsidered one of the most capable rulers in Assyrian history,
Tiglath-pileser III (TIG»lath»pi»LAY»zuhr) was the first king of the
Neo-Assyrian empire. He led a series of brilliant military campaigns that
rapidly expanded the empire and restored it to greatness after decades of
decline.
ruled 745-727 B.C. In 745 B.C., while serving as governer of the city of KALKHY, Tiglath-
King of Assyria pileser usurped* the throne of Assyria during a rebellion against the weak
ruler Ashur-nirari V. After taking power, Tiglath-pileser launched an ag-
* usurp to wrongfully occupy a position gressive policy in the north and west, conquering the kingdom of URARTU,
* city-state independent state consisting a number of Neo-Hittite kingdoms, and several Phoenician city-states* in
of a city and its surrounding territory SYRIA and CANAAN. He also campaigned against the MEDES in the northeast
* nomad person who travels from place and helped Babylonia defeat the Aramaean nomads*, who were threaten-
to place to find food and pasture ing its borders.
Following these conquests, Tiglath-pileser began to consolidate Assyr-
* tribute payment made by a smaller or ian control. Instead of just demanding tribute*, he turned conquered re-
weaker party to a more powerful one, gions into Assyrian provinces*. He also renewed a policy of forced
often under the threat of force migrations, or deportations, removing thousands of people from con-
* province region that forms part of a quered territories and replacing them with loyal groups from other parts
larger state or empire of the empire.
In 729 B.C., Tiglath-pileser took advantage of unrest in Babylonia and
seized the city of BABYLON. He then declared himself king of Babylonia,
thus linking the two kingdoms. He died soon afterward, having regained
much of Assyria's former greatness and leaving an enormous empire to his
son and successor, SHALMANESER V. (See also Aramaeans; Assyria and the
Assyrians; Babylonia and the Babylonians; Kings.)
124
 Tools

TIGRIS RIVER
S ince ancient times, the Tigris River has been one of the most impor-
tant waterways in the Near East. The earliest civilizations in the re-
gion developed between the Tigris and the EUPHRATES RIVER, in a region
that was known as MESOPOTAMIA (a Greek word meaning ''land between
the rivers''). Both rivers originate in the mountains of eastern Turkey and
run in a southeasterly direction, emptying into the Persian Gulf.
From its source in Hazar Lake, the Tigris flows steeply downhill through
mountainous territory. Most of the water in the river is supplied by winter
rains and melting snows from mountains in Turkey. Its upper reaches are
* tributary river that flows into another fed by four main tributaries* that drain much of eastern Turkey. When the
river winter rains and spring snow melts are heavy, the Tigris is prone to devas-
tating floods. During these times, because of its steep course, the Tigris is
much swifter and deeper than the Euphrates. This makes it more difficult
to draw water from the Tigris for use in irrigating fields downstream.
Although most of the early Mesopotamian cities were founded on the
banks of the Euphrates, some cities were also built along the Tigris, includ-
See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). ing NINEVEH, perhaps as early as 7000 B.C., and ASHUR, around 2500 B.C. Both
of these cities eventually became part of the Assyrian empire. The Assyrians
also built other cities, including KALKHU and Khorsabad, along the Tigris.
Among the important cultures that arose in the lands surrounding the
Tigris were those of the HURRIANS, the people of Mitanni, and the Urartians.
The city of Seleucia, one of the capital cities of the SELEUCID EMPIRE, was built
on the Tigris around 300 B.C. After the Parthians captured Mesopotamia in
the 140s B.C., they built their capital, Ctesiphon, across the river from Se-
leucia. (See also Floods; Geography; Rivers; Water.)

Tin See Metals and Metalworking.

Tombs See Burial Sites and Tombs.

TOOLS
T he laborers and artisans* of the ancient Near East used a wide variety
of tools, many of which resemble those used by people today. With
their simple tools and implements, ancient workers were able to produce
a variety of artifacts* used in everyday life. Their tools—made from wood,
stone, copper, bronze, and iron—built the ancient world and allowed the
people to take care of themselves.

* artisan skilled craftsperson Tools of Farming and Industry. The earliest tools were stone ob-
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or jects, such as knife blades, spearheads, and arrow points used for hunt-
other object made by humans ing. Once an animal was killed, stone blades, choppers, and scrapers
were used to cut it up and to remove and process its hide for CLOTHING or
shelter. Early farmers used wooden plows to prepare soil for planting and
stone sickles to harvest grain. They also used stone grinders to crush the
125
Tools

grain to makeflour for bread.Eventually,copper, bronze,andlater, iron

tools replaced many ofthoseofstoneandwood.However,stonewasstill
used for tools many hundredsofyears afterthe use ofmetals became
widespread.
Ancient carpenters used saws, hammers, chisels, planes (for shaving
wood), and awls (for punching holes).Tobore holesinhard substances,
workers used bow drills.Thestringof the bow(like that usedby anarcher)
was wrapped around one ormore thinposts, each tipped with astone or
metal bit at its cutting end. Movingthebowbackandforth horizontallyro-
tated the posts, allowing the bit topress down and cut into thematerial be-
ing worked. Builders also used several implements for planningandlaying
out their projects.Theplumb bob, aweighted string from hungthecenter
of one side of a triangularframe, servedas the earliest type
oflevel.
The
frame was placed pointed side down betweentwobeamsorother objects
on the ground. If the string aligned precisely with the point,thearchitect
knew thesurface waslevel. Other surveyingandmeasuring tools included
rulers called cubit sticksand squares that were usedtodetermine whether
the corners of a building formed true right angles.
The metalworkerswho created manyofthese measuring tools relied
on specific tools of their own.Thehammer, tongs,andanvil were part of
the metalworking trade from avery early date. first
Themetalworkers
* smelt to heat ore for the purpose of blew through a metal tube to makefireshotterforsmelting* metals. This
extracting pure material eventually gave way to the bellows, ahandheld device thatcould pump
much more air and dramatically increasetheheatof a fire.

Tools of Artists and Scientists. Sculptors used many of thesam

tools employed bybuilders—hammers,chisels,andadzes (cutting tools)—
* cuneiform world's oldest form of to shape stone into statues orstone bowls. Artisans used the bowdrill to
writing, which takes itsname from the bore holes
JEWELRY,
in SEALS,
and other decorative objects.
WRIT- Scribes used
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed ING implements fashioned from reeds.
In Mesopotamia, wedge-shaped
into clay tablets
cuneiform* symbols wereCLAY pressed
TABLETS
into
wet
with
astylus (writ-
* scribe person of a learned
class who ing tool) madefroma reed called sedge. Egyptian scribes*
stiffhollow
used
served as a writer, editor,or teacher
reeds for pens.
126
 Trade Routes
Ancient physicians had access to surgical and dental instruments, in-
cluding scalpels, retractors (instruments for holding open edges of a
wound), and needles. Remains of corpses from Egypt show that surgeons
often achieved successful results using these very basic devices. Although
tools had developed as a means to kill animals, they had also become a
means of prolonging and enriching human lives. (See also Art, Artisans,
and Artists; Measurement; Metals and Metalworking; Sculpture; Stone;
Wood and Woodworking.)

TORAH
T he Hebrew word torah, which means "instruction/' refers to the first
five books, also called the Pentateuch, of the Hebrew BIBLE. The term
also came to refer to the oral tradition of laws and customs that interprets
the written Torah.
According to Jewish tradition, YAHWEH revealed the Torah and the TEN
COMMANDMENTS to the leader MOSES on Mount SINAI. This event occurred
* exodus migration by a large group of during the Israelites' exodus* from Egypt. Modern scholars, however, be-
people, usually to escape something lieve that the Torah was written by different people, possibly under differ-
unpleasant ent circumstances and during different times.
The names for the books come from the first line of each book, and
the English names summarize the events in each book. Bereisheet (Gene-
sis), meaning "In the Beginning/' discusses the origins of humankind and
the selection of the Israelites as God's chosen people. Shemot (Exodus),
which means "Names," as in "Now these are the names of the sons of Is-
rael," describes the journey of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt to
Canaan. Va-yikra (Leviticus), which means "He called," as in "And the
Lord called unto Moses," discusses priestly regulations and laws. Ba-midbar
(Numbers) which means "In the Wilderness," refers to a census or descrip-
tion of the 12 Israelite tribes. Devarim (Deuteronomy) which means
"Words," as in "These are the words of Moses," is a summary of the laws
stated earlier.
The written Torah is the most sacred religious text in Judaism, and parts
of it are read weekly during most Jewish services. Today every synagogue
houses at least two Torah scrolls, each handwritten on leather. These scrolls
are kept in a special box called the ark of the Law. Special ceremonies are
performed each time the Torah is removed from and returned to the ark.
(See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism and Jews; Mosaic Law.)

Trade See Economy and Trade.

TRADE ROUTES
T rade between distant regions of the ancient Near East was common
by the early third millennium B.C.* By studying records and ruins of
ancient civilizations, archaeologists* and historians have been able to
trace the main routes over which trade was conducted. Despite the dan-
ger of bandits and wild animals, most trade goods were carried overland
127
Trade Routes
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 on ROADS by donkey CARAVANS. Traders also used water routes. Water travel
to 2001 B.C. was faster, safer, and more efficient than overland travel, and large car-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past goes were sent by boat or ship whenever possible.
human cultures, usually by excavating
material remains of human activity Mesopotamia!! Trade Routes. As early as the late fourth millennium
* fourth millennium B.C. years from B.C.*, the city-states* of URUK and Susa had networks of trade routes. One
4000 to 3001 B.C. such route was used to bring lapis lazuli* to Sumer and Elam from present-
* city-state independent state consisting day Afghanistan. Lapis lazuli was then traded along the Great Khorasan
of a city and its surrounding territory Road that ran southwest from IRAN to MESOPOTAMIA.
* lapis lazuli dark blue semiprecious Another extensive trade network developed along the Tigris and Eu-
stone phrates Rivers, connecting southern Mesopotamia to ANATOLIA (present-day
Turkey) through northern SYRIA. Most of the trade routes in this region fol-
lowed the rivers closely where possible. Farther north and west, the routes
ran through passes in the rugged mountains of southeastern Anatolia.
The Assyrians opened up trade into central Anatolia, where they had
established trading colonies by about 1900 B.C. Two major roads ran west
from the Assyrian capital of ASHUR to the important trading colony of
* first millennium B.C. years from 1000 Kanesh. During the first millennium B.C.*, the Assyrians constructed and
tO 1 B.C. maintained an extensive road system that stretched from northwestern
Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf and east into Iran. After the collapse of
the Assyrian empire, the Persians took over and extended the Assyrian road
system. Under the Persians, the "royal roads" as they were known reached
to the westernmost portions of Anatolia. They eventually linked the cities
of the Aegean seacoast to the rest of the Near East.
* domestication process of adapting or The domestication* of camels around 1100 B.C. opened new caravan
taming for human use routes across the Syrian Desert between Mesopotamia and the Mediter-
ranean Sea. Tin and precious stones from Iran and Afghanistan and TEX-
TILES from Mesopotamia were the main goods carried north and west along
these routes. The Mesopotamians brought back copper, silver, wool, dyes,
and timber. Much of the southbound trade moved via rivers, especially
See map in Economy and Trade large cargoes such as timber from the Mediterranean region. CANALS in
(vol.2). southern Mesopotamia carried most of the trade goods from the northwest
that entered Babylonia.
Mesopotamia developed seaborne trade with its southern neighbors of
the Persian Gulf by the middle of the third millennium B.C. Sumerian
records report a brisk copper trade with the country of Magan, in the pre-
sent-day OMAN PENINSULA. In the 2200 B.C., the Akkadians imported copper,
ivory, turquoise, and exotic animals from MELUKKHA in present-day north-
western India, through the Persian Gulf. Many of these goods were bought
and sold on the Persian Gulf island of Dilmun (present-day BAHRAIN). This
small kingdom became an important trading center for MERCHANTS from
Arabia, southern Mesopotamia, and India.

Egyptian Trade Routes. Egypt had begun to trade with the island of
CRETE by at least 2000 B.C. Ships from Egypt sailed the Mediterranean Sea
delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed on a current that flowed from the delta* of the NILE RIVER northward to
of soil deposited by a river Crete. In summer, a wind from the northwest aided ships on their way
back to Egypt. However, seaborne trade in the eastern Mediterranean took
place along the coastal cities in Syria. Egypt had a serious need for timber,
which it obtained from Syria, along with olive oil and wine.
128
 Transportation and Travel
Egypt also traded with African states to the south, such as Nubia and
Punt. Nubia was easily reached by sailing up the Nile (the Nile flows from
south to north). Scholars are unsure of the precise location of Punt, but
Egyptian records indicate that expeditions to that region traveled on the
RED SEA. Punt probably lay along the African coast where the Red Sea
flows into the Indian Ocean at present-day Somalia.

Levant lands bordering the eastern The Levant and Arabia. The people of the Levant* played a large role
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- in trade because the region was centrally located in the ancient Near
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West East. Several roads ran in a north-south direction, with crossroads con-
Bank, and Jordan
necting where the terrain allowed.
By 1000 B.C., the main trading cities on the eastern Mediterranean
coast had come under the control of the Phoenicians. These seafaring
people had developed ships that were able to make sea voyages to places
as far away as Spain and possibly England. By the 700s B.C., the Phoeni-
cians were trading with Egypt, Anatolia, Greece, and other locations
throughout the Mediterranean.
The people of ancient Arabia used the camel for trade. In fact, these
animals were especially important in the opening of trade routes to south-
ern Arabia. Trade goods here included such luxury items as frankincense
frankincense and myrrh fragrant tree and myrrh*. Trade routes were also dictated by where traders could stop
resins used to make incense and for water on their journey. (See also Economy and Trade; Mediterranean
perfumes Sea, Trade on; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians; Shipping Routes; Trans-
portation and Travel.)

TRANSPORTATION
T he people of the ancient Near East lived in a world that was smaller
than today's in many ways. First, they had little or no contact with
the peoples of northern Europe, eastern Asia, and southern Africa, which
lay beyond their world. Second, traveling long distances for pleasure—as
AND TRAVEL vacationers do today—was probably not done. People traveled only when
they had to: to take goods to market, to flee an invading army, to visit a
temple in another city, or to lead livestock to new pastures.
diplomat person who conducts MERCHANTS, SOLDIERS, MESSENGERS, and diplomats* were among the best-
negotiations or relations with foreign traveled people of ancient times. Some of them made frequent and long
kingdoms, states, or nations journeys as part of their jobs and responsibilities. However, the great ma-
jority of people probably never traveled far from home, although written
records suggest that short local journeys—as people visited each other, at-
tended festivals, and engaged in commerce—were common in all periods.
Much of what is known about transportation and travel in the ancient
Near East comes from royal records concerned mainly with military mat-
ters. However, this material sometimes contains general information about
routes and methods of travel. It sheds light on how the people of the an-
cient Near East moved themselves and their goods from place to place.

Historical Importance of Travel. Three types of long-distance

travel helped shape the history and culture of the ancient Near East—
those concerned with war, trade, and COMMUNICATION.
129
Transportation and Travel
Much of the traffic that moved along the ROADS and waterways of the
ancient Near East consisted of ARMIES on the move. Invasions, conquests,
retreats, and similar events of long-lasting political and historical signifi-
cance took place to the drumbeat of soldiers' marching feet and the
sound of water lapping the sides of SHIPS AND BOATS.
Traveling merchants comprised the second important category of
long-distance travelers. The process of buying goods in one place and sell-
Praise for ing them in another led to the growth of a network of TRADE ROUTES and a
Road Builders system of organized commercial travel, much of which took place in CAR-
One of the biggest engineer- AVANS. Many of the contacts that allowed languages, foods, customs, be-
ing challenges of the ancient liefs, and technology to spread among ancient cultures occurred in the
Near East was building and main-
gaining roads that allowed wagon context of trade.
crews to transport huge fogs from The third significant group of travelers consisted of messengers. Al-
;f orests high in the mountains to though the ancient Near East lacked formal public postal services, com-
jwhera they were used to construct munications could and did travel over great distances. While some
^palaces and temples. Hie £pic of G//* messengers traveled on royal or government business, there were also pri-
Igamesh says of a mythical mountain j
""guardian, "Where Khumbaba was vate services that carried messages for a fee. Messengers helped weave a
wont to walk, a trail was set down, network of cross-cultural connections, as shown by a series of tablets
roads were straightened, and the found in the Egyptian city of AMARNA. Dating from the 1300s B.C., these
going was made good/ King Neb- CLAY TABLETS consist of correspondence between Egypt and other states
uchadnezzar ft of Babylonia, who throughout the Near East, all carried by messengers. Similar evidence of
.wanted some erf the credit for him- communication by messengers exists throughout the region.
fself, boasted of his road-building
f achievements in$iat region; "I cut
f through steep mountains, I split Transportation and Travel by Water. The easiest and cheapest
frocks, opened passages, constructe way to move large quantities of goods in ancient times was by water. The
i straight road for the cedars/' NILE RIVER in Egypt and the TIGRIS RIVER and EUPHRATES RIVER in Mesopo-
tamia served as vital transportation arteries from very early times.
The oldest known evidence of water transportation in Mesopo-
tamia—a clay model of a sailboat found in a grave in the ancient city of
ERIDU—dates from before 4000 B.C. For thousands of years, RIVERS gave the
Sumerians, and later the Babylonians, of southern Mesopotamia access to
their northern neighbors, Assyria on the Tigris and Syria on the Eu-
phrates. In the flatlands of central and southern Mesopotamia, the rivers
flowed slowly enough to allow easy boat travel in both directions. In the
north, however, the rivers flowed down out of the hills and mountains,
and the current was too swift for upstream travel. Boats could be towed
against the current, but this was costly and done only for especially im-
portant missions. Usually people sailed downstream only and then re-
turned upstream by land.
In addition to the large rivers, Mesopotamia had an elaborate net-
work of primary and secondary CANALS fed by the rivers. Riverboats could
navigate these canals. Waterways were vitally important to the well-being
of Mesopotamian states, as King HAMMURABI of BABYLON pointed out in a
message to the king of MARI, explaining why he wanted to control the
city of Id and its wells of asphalt, a tarlike substance used to make boats
watertight. Hammurabi wrote, 'The strength of your country consists of
donkeys and wagons, but the strength of this country consists of boats/'

Transportation and Travel by Land. Although transportation by

water was economical, not everyone had access to boats or waterways,
130
 Transportation and Travel
nor were all waterways navigable. Consequently,walkingwas themost
common form of transportation in the ancient world, although women,
children, the elderly,and the sickmight rideadonkey. Records
fromthe
* first millennium B.C. period between first millennium
B.C.* show people
CAMELS,
HORSES,
but
riding
and mules,
1000 and 1 B.C. such means of transportation remainedless far common thanwalking.
Thefirst wheeled vehiclesin the Near
EastappearedinMesopotamia
around 3000
B.C.Before that time, peopleand animalshadhauled goods
on sleds. One common type ofearly wheeled vehiclewas theox-drawn
wagon for carrying goodsand sometimes passengers (such ashigh-ranking
men and women). There were also two-wheeled andfour-wheeled carts
andCHARIOTS pulledby donkeys or horses. Although
firstused
forpassen-
gers, chariots quickly acquired military uses throughout theancient
world.
Even with wheeled vehicles, however, most overland transport relied
on pack animals. Donkeys were among firstthe
animals usedfreight
as
carriers, and they remained themost common pack animal inmountain-
ous regions, where they were prizedfortheir sure footingonnarrow
paths.After about 1100 B.C., camels also became pack animals. Their abil-
ity to endure long stretches without water made themespecially valuable
in desert areas.
Whether onfoot, in a wagon, or on the backof ananimal, people
who ventured out of familiar territory required roads with clear land-
marks because
MAPSfor travelersdid not yet exist.
Theimportance ofrec-
ognizable points alongarouteisillustratedin theMesopotamian story of

131
Trojan War

GILGAMESH when the hero asks, "Where is the road to Utnapishtim, what
are its landmarks?" Magical spells from ancient Mesopotamia speak of an-
gry ghosts who removed landmarks and made travelers go astray. Then as
now, getting lost was one of the hazards of a road trip. (See also Migration
and Deportation; Nomads and Nomadism; Shipping Routes; Wheel.)

Trojan War See Troy.

TROY
T roy is one of the most famous cities in history, yet until recently,
most people did not believe that it was real place. Located in present-
day Turkey (ancient ANATOLIA), the city gained its fame from the Greek
poet Homer's epics* the Iliad and the Odyssey.
The ancient city of Troy was located in northwestern Anatolia near
the AEGEAN SEA. Throughout ancient times, Troy was essentially a fort that
epic long poem about a legendary or housed the Trojan king and his court. The city was rebuilt nine times dur-
historical hero, written in a grand style ing its 3,000 years of inhabitation. Each time the city was destroyed, the
Trojans would level the ruins and build on top of them.
Located along major trade routes in the ancient Near East, Troy quickly
grew rich and prosperous. Little else of the city's early history is known. Ar-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past chaeologists* believe that around 1260 B.C., Troy was destroyed by fire, per-
human cultures, usually by excavating haps during the legendary Trojan War as described in Homer's poems. The
material remains of human activity survivors of the fire rebuilt the city, but not to its former glory. During the
next few hundred years, the city was destroyed and rebuilt several times
until the 700s B.C., when the Greeks colonized the area.
The Greeks resettled Troy, which they called Ilion. There they built a
temple to Athena, which attracted many visitors and great rulers, includ-
ing the Persian king XERXES and the Macedonian ruler ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
In 85 B.C., the Romans attacked and destroyed Ilion. Shortly thereafter, the
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or city was rebuilt. Over the years, Roman emperors added many imperial*
an empire buildings to the city, which they called Ilium. The city continued to flour-
ish until the A.D. 300s, when the Romans founded Constantinople in
Turkey. Thereafter, Ilium ceased to be an important city, and ultimately it
was abandoned.
The location of Troy was unknown until the early A.D. 1800s, when
German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann identified a place in Turkey as
the site of the ancient city. In excavating its ruins, archaeologists discov-
ered ten levels of settlements occupied over a period of more than 3,000
See map in Anatolia (vol. 1). years. Archaeologists found massive walls, citadels, gateways, and towers at
several levels, indicating that the city was wealthy in ancient times. Other
items unearthed during the excavations included jewelry and ornaments
of gold, Mycenaean pottery, tools, vessels made of copper and bronze, and
weapons.
Although many scholars are unsure whether Homer's account of the
Trojan War is based on actual events, archaeological excavations have
132
 Tutankhamen

provided evidence that thecityofTroywasdestroyed aroundthe same

time as the war isbelievedtohave occurred. Some historians think that
the
destruction wascausedby anearthquake fire,
and
while others maintain
that the city wasdestroyed becauseof theeventsof Trojan
the War.Al-
though archaeology cannot prove whetherandwhere Trojan
theWar
took
place, it providesframe
a of referencefor theevents described
in
Homer's
epics.(Seealso Greece and theGreeks; Mycenae and the Mycenaeans.)

Turkey See Anatolia.

TUTANKHAMEN
T utankhamen(too-tehng-KAH-muhn),anEighteenth Dynasty
is one of the mostfamous
comes notfrom alongand
rulersinEgyptian history.
successfulreignorbecause
However,
fame
his
he hadgreat military
pharaoh*,

victories. Instead, Tutankhamen famous

is because his is the
best-preserved
tomb everfoundKINGS,
VALLEY
THE
inOF
acemetery
the located near ancient
ruled ca. 1332-1322
B.C. THEBES.
Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen succeededthepharaohs AKHENATEN.
Smenkhkare and
These rulers were considered heretics* because theyhad triedto
make
* pharaoh king ofancient Egypt ATEN the sole Egyptian god, whereastheEgyptians worshiped many
* heretic person whogoes against the deities* of whom
AMUNwas thechief god. Akhenaten hadeven estab-
established beliefs of a religion lished a new capital AKHETATEN
called inAten's honor.
* deity god orgoddess Scholars areuncertain about Tutankhamen'sancestry. Some histori-
ans believe that Smenkhkarewas hisbrother. Texts fromtemple
a at
133
Tyre
LUXOR state that Amenhotep III was his father, but it is possible that the
word father was used to mean ancestor. Notwithstanding the controversy
regarding his ancestry, scholars know that Tutankhamen was first named
Tutankhaten, meaning "living image of the Aten./;
Tutankhamen inherited the throne when he was 9 years old. His main
regent person appointed to govern advisers were his regent*, Ay, and the general of the Egyptian armies,
while the rightful monarch is too young Horemheb. These two men advised the young king to distance himself
or unable to rule from his Aten-worshiping predecessors. He therefore changed his name to
Tutankhamen (in honor of Amun), returned the capital of Egypt to
Thebes, and repaired temples and statues dedicated to the old Egyptian
pantheon all the gods of a particular pantheon*. He married one of Akhenaten's daughters, Ankhesenpaaten,
culture who also distanced herself from her father by changing her name to
Ankhesenamen.
Tutankhamen died when he was about 18 years old and was buried in a
tomb in the Valley of the Kings. This tomb was probably originally meant
for a minor official, for it did not have the long corridor typical of royal
See tombs and it only had four small rooms. It is most likely that the tomb ac-
[color plate 10,^ tually designed for Tutankhamen was used instead by his regent and ad-
vol. 4.
viser, Ay. After Ay died, Tutankhamen's other main adviser, Horemheb,
became pharaoh. Although he had made changes favorable to Amun, Tu-
tankhamen later fell into disgrace for being associated with the Aten-
worshiping rulers. Consequently, most references to the young king were
removed from monuments and temples, and his tomb was forgotten.
During the 1100s B.C., the tomb of Ramses VI was unknowingly con-
structed above Tutankhamen's tomb. During the construction of this
tomb, tons of stone chips fell over the entrance of Tutankhamen's tomb,
hiding it for thousands of years.
As a result of his short reign, his later disgrace, and the burial of his
* archaeologist scientist who studies past tomb, Tutankhamen was forgotten until A.D. 1922, when archaeologist*
human cultures, usually by excavating Howard Carter uncovered his tomb and its treasures, which were totally
material remains of human activity intact. Tutankhamen's mummy lay inside a sarcophagus* that held a nest
* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually of three coffins. The outer two coffins were made of wood with gold cov-
made of stone; pi. sarcophagi erings. The third coffin was made of solid gold. The king's mummy was
* amulet small object thought to have dressed with jewelry and amulets*, and his head was covered by a gold
supernatural or magical powers mask. The burial chamber also contained four shrines made of wood cov-
ered in gold. The other three rooms of the tomb were filled with furni-
ture, clothes, weapons, statues, and a chariot. (See also Burial Sites and
Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs.)

TYRE
A n important city-state* in ancient Phoenicia, Tyre was built on an
island and on its neighboring mainland off the coast of present-day
southern Lebanon. According to traditional stories, Tyrian king Hiram I
(ruled ca. 969-936 B.C.) enlarged the city by joining two islands with a
landfill. Later rulers of the city expanded it even farther to include the
mainland portion, which was often known by a different name—Ushu.
* city-state independent state consisting Some historians believe that Tyre may have been founded as a colony of
of a city and its surrounding territory SIDON, another Phoenician city-state.
134
 Ugarit
* archeological referring to the study Archaeological* excavations at Tyre, undertaken since the A.D. 1800s,
of past human cultures, usually by have revealed that it was first inhabited from about 2700 B.C. However,
excavating material remains of human there is a gap in the archaeological evidence from 2000 to 1600 B.C., when
activity
the city may have been abandoned. From then until the city was rebuilt in
the 1400s B.C., the site was used for burials and storage pits. Thereafter, the
city began to thrive as a center of trade and commerce. By the 900s B.C.,
~See map in Phoenicia and the Tyre had become the dominant city-state in Phoenicia and the most im-
Phoenicians (vol. 3).
portant harbor and trading center in the eastern Mediterranean. Tyrians
also established colonies throughout the region, including CARTHAGE in
North Africa.
According to the Hebrew BIBLE, Tyre also maintained a close relation-
ship with the kingdom of Israel. The most famous king of Tyre, Hiram I,
provided SOLOMON of Israel with building materials and plans for his
palace and the first Temple of Solomon in JERUSALEM. Jezebel, the daughter
of the king of Tyre and Sidon, was married to King AHAB of Israel.
* siege long and persistent effort to force In 572 B.C., King NEBUCHADNEZZAR II laid siege* to Tyre during his at-
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or tempt to consolidate Babylonian control in the Levant*. The Tyrians suc-
city with armed troops, cutting it off cessfully held him at bay for 13 years, after which he was forced to
from supplies and aid
withdraw. Although Nebuchadnezzar conquered the mainland portion
* Levant lands bordering the eastern of the city, he never took the city's island fortress. By 538 B.C., the Persians
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West
had driven the Babylonians out of Phoenicia, and Tyre became a Persian
Bank, and Jordan vassal*.
* vassal individual or state that swears
In the 300s B.C., when the Macedonians conquered Persia, ALEXANDER
loyalty and obedience to a greater THE GREAT became the first to conquer the island portion of Tyre. He
power achieved this by destroying the mainland portion of the city and using
the rubble to build a road to the island. Alexander then invaded Tyre,
killed 10,000 of its inhabitants, and sold the rest into slavery. After
Alexander, Tyre came under the control of the SELEUCID EMPIRE and later
the Roman Empire. (See also Byblos; Phoenicia and the Phoenicians.)

UGARIT
U garit (oo»GAH«rit) was an ancient city-state* located at Ras Shamra
on the Mediterranean coast of northern SYRIA. The capital of a king-
dom of the same name, Ugarit was one of the oldest cities in the ancient
Near East. The city had a good harbor, natural defenses, and access to
TRADE ROUTES. These features helped it become a center of commerce with
extensive trading contacts with Mesopotamia, Anatolia (present-day
* city-state independent state consisting Turkey), the Levant*, Egypt, Cyprus, Greece, and the Minoans of Crete.
of a city and its surrounding territory Settled by at least 6500 B.C., Ugarit experienced a period of expansion
* Levant lands bordering the eastern between 3000 and 2000 B.C., during which it became the center of a pros-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- perous kingdom. Its inhabitants were a mixture of AMORITES, Canaanites,
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West HURRIANS, and other peoples. Ugaritic society consisted of two main groups:
Bank, and Jordan
free citizens and people employed by the king. While most residents of
towns and villages in the kingdom worked as farmers and herders, inhabi-
* artisan skilled craftsperson tants of the city of Ugarit included artisans*, soldiers, priests, scribes*, and
* scribe person of a learned class who other specialized workers.
served as a writer, editor, or teacher Early in the second millennium B.C.*, Ugarit formed an alliance with
* second millennium B.C. years from Egypt as protection against invaders from the north and east. Thereafter,
2000 to 1001 B.C. the city fell under Egyptian. Still, it continued to flourish, and between
135
Ugarit

See map inSyria (vol. 4).

the 1400s and 1200s

B.C., Ugarit reachedthe heightof itsprosperity. Dur-
ing this period, trade grewtremendously, and thecity expanded greatly
in size. Royal palaces, temples, libraries,andother public buildings were
constructed, while art and literature flourished.
Ugarit remained under Egyptian control until B.C., when
about 1330
theHITTITES of Anatolia gained political dominance.Thecity did not be-
gin to decline until theB.C.,1100s
aperiod markedbynumerous pirate
raids. Shortlythereafter,the cityofUgaritwasdestroyed andlargely aban-
doned, leading to the collapseof the kingdomaswell. Many scholarsbe-
lieve that the city was destroyed PEOPLES,
by SEA
the
but the chief
* archaeologist scientist who studies past archaeologist* who excavated Ugarit believed thatthecitywasdestroyed
human cultures, usually by excavating by a violent
EARTHQUAKE.
material remains of human activity Archaeological excavations conducted A.D.in
1900s
theearly
yielded
* cuneiform world's oldest form of information about the city and itscultural heritage. Themost important
writing, which takes itsname from the discoveries include cuneiform* texts written in theAkkadian, Human,
distinctive wedge-shaped signs pressed
into clay tablets
and Hittite languages. Archaeologists also excavated cuneiformaleph-
beth (script that contains symbolsforconsonantsbut notforvowels) texts
136
 Ur

* dialect regional form of a spoken written in the local Ugaritic language, a West Semitic dialect* with many
language with distinct pronunciation, similarities to biblical Hebrew. These texts contain a wealth of information
vocabulary, and grammar about the cultural and religions traditions as well as the mythologies of
* stela stone slab or pillar that has been the people of Ugarit. Other objects found at the site include carved ivory
carved or engraved and serves as a panels, engraved metal vessels, and carved stone stelae* and statues. (See
monument; pi. stelae
also Cities and City-States; Cuneiform; Economy and Trade.)

UMMA
A city-state* in southern MESOPOTAMIA, Umma rose to prominence
sometime before 2500 B.C., largely due to a change in the course of
the EUPHRATES RIVER. The main channel of the river shifted to the east, caus-
ing it to flow away from established cities such as NIPPUR and URUK. Cities
lying on the old channel—especially Uruk—suffered a decline in popula-
tion, while settlements on the new channel—such as Umma—flourished.
* city-state independent state consisting As Umma grew, it began to extend its influence into the regions sur-
of a city and its surrounding territory rounding the city. This brought it into conflict with neighboring city-
states, such as LAGASH to the southeast. Umma clashed with Girsu, the
capital of Lagash, over a boundary dispute as well as rights to the use of wa-
ter from the Euphrates River.
See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). Records indicate that Mesilim, the king of KISH, negotiated a settle-
ment and established a formal border between Umma and Lagash. How-
ever, Umma broke this agreement, and between 2500 and 2400 B.C., the
two city-states engaged in several wars. These battles raged off and on for
many years with neither side seizing a decisive advantage. Ultimately,
Umma emerged victorious, and its king, Lugalzagezi, conquered Lagash.
He then proceeded to attack and subdue major city-states in southern
Mesopotamia and established the first large Sumerian state, with its capital
at Uruk. Around 2340 B.C., King SARGON I of Akkad attacked and defeated
Lugalzagezi and incorporated his former lands, including Umma, into the
Akkadian empire. (See also Cities and City-States.)

UR
L ocated in southern MESOPOTAMIA, the city-state* of Ur was the capital
of several empires as well as a major trading center connected to the
Persian Gulf. Many scholars believe it was also the home of Abraham, one
of the patriarchs* of Israel according to the Hebrew BIBLE.
First settled in the fifth millennium B.C. (years from 5000 to 4001 B.C.)
by people of the Ubaid culture, Ur developed into one of the region's
* city-state independent state consisting largest settlements. According to archaeological* evidence, the Ubaid settle-
of a city and its surrounding territory ment was destroyed by a flood. However, it was resettled in about 3900 B.C.
* patriarch male leader of a family or During the next 1,000 years, Ur grew from a prominent town into a walled
tribe city. By the 2500s B.C., it was a major Sumerian city-state with impressive
* archaeological referring to the study of art and architecture. This is evident from the excavations conducted in the
past human cultures, usually by early A.D. 1900s, which uncovered the Royal Cemetery of Ur. The tombs
excavating material remains of human contained jewelry, weapons, furniture, and other artifacts*, revealing the
activity
existence of a complex and accomplished culture.
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or During the 2400s B.C., the kings of Ur extended their power through-
other object made by humans
out southern Mesopotamia, and Ur became the capital of the region. This
137
Ur

period, known as theFirst Dynasty of Ur,lasted until the city wascon-

queredSARGON
by I ofAkkad around
B.C. Thereafter,
2300Ur remained
under Akkadian rule until that empire collapsed B.C.In thearound 2200
late 2100s
B.C., KingUtu-khegal drove out the Gutians, who had settled in
* dynasty succession of rulers from the the region, and his successor,
UR-NAMMU, establisheda newdynasty*,the
same family or group Third Dynastyof Ur, that lasted more than100years. During this period,
kings undertook several building projects at Ur,including the construc-
* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a tion of several ziggurats*.Ur reachedthe heightof its glory under Ur-
multistory tower with steps leading to a Nammu'sSHULGI.
son Duringhis nearly 50-year reign, Shulgi reorganized
temple on the top the empire and conquered new territory. However, B.C., around 2000
* nomadic referring to people who travel while the AMORITES, a nomadic* people, invaded fromthe west,Ur was
from place to place to find food and
sacked* by the Elamites fromthe east.
pasture
Ur was rebuilt and became RELIGION
a center
andoftrade. During this
* sack to loot a captured city period, which lasted about250 years, fellUr
underthe controlofBaby-
the
lonians. In about B.C.,1740
the Babylonian army destroyedthe walls sur-
rounding Ur as wellas several homesand public buildings as punishment
for the city's participation in a rebellion against Babylonian control. Most
See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). residents stayed in the city and had restored their homes and many of the
religious buildingsbyB.C. theNevertheless,
1400s Ur slowly declined until
about600
B.C., when BabylonianNEBUCHADNEZZAR,
king
NABONIDUS,
and later
undertook an extensive rebuildingof the city. This markedthe last periodof
Ur's greatness.ByEUPHRATES
the
B.C.,the
300s RIVERhad changed course

138
 Urartu
away from the city, leaving it without a ready source of water. Ur was aban-
doned shortly thereafter. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Bur-
ial Sites and Tombs; Walled Cities; Ziggurats.)

UR-NAMMU
U r-Nammu was the founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur, a succession
of kings who ruled southern MESOPOTAMIA for more than 100 years.
Little information exists about Ur-Nammu;s life before he became king.
Some historians speculate that he was the brother of King Utu-khegal,
who ruled UR from around 2119 to 2112 B.C. Others believe that Ur-
ruled ca. 2112-2094 B.C. Nammu was his son. Whatever their relationship, Ur-Nammu served as
King of Ur military governor of Ur under Utu-khegal. When Utu-khegal died, Ur-
Nammu succeeded him as king.
Ur-Nammu assumed several titles including Mighty Man, Lord of
Uruk, Lord of Ur, and King of Sumer and Akkad. He then set out to live up
to those names by extending his influence throughout southern and cen-
* diplomacy practice of conducting tral Mesopotamia. He did this largely by negotiation and diplomacy*
negotiations between kingdoms, states, rather than by military force. The only exception involved the city-state*
or nations of LAGASH, which he apparently eliminated to redirect trade from the Per-
* city-state independent state consisting sian Gulf into Ur. Ur-Nammu also began a large-scale program to rebuild
of a city and its surrounding territory large portions of Ur and repair irrigation CANALS that had been neglected
for years. Among his most notable building accomplishments was the
* ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia, a completion of the first true ziggurats* in Ur and in other cities under his
multistory tower with steps leading to a control. The ziggurat of Ur, which consisted of three platforms topped by
temple on the top a temple, was nearly 50 feet high.
Many scholars consider Ur-Nammu the author of the first recorded set
of law codes. (Some, however, credit them to his son SHULGI, who followed
him as king.) Although these codes were not used to decide court cases at
the time, they were the first attempt to describe various legal situations
and set penalties for those who broke the law.
Ur-Nammu;s reign ended when he died in combat against the
Gutians, a people who had ruled Ur for many years before they were dri-
ven out by Utu-khegal. Ur-Nammu;s son Shulgi took over as king and
during his 50-year reign, greatly expanded the empire to the north and
east. However, Shulgi's successors were weak and unable to hold the
kingdom together. Around 2004 B.C., a combination of internal weak-
nomadic referring to people who travel ness, pressure from a nomadic* people called the AMORITES, and an inva-
from place to place to find food and sion by the Elamites ended the dynasty founded by Ur-Nammu. (See also
pasture Dynasties.)

URARTU
O ne of the more mysterious civilizations of the ancient Near East,
Urartu (u«RAHR»too) was a kingdom in the mountainous CAUCA-
SUS region and flourished for about 600 years, beginning in the 1200s B.C.
In the Hebrew BIBLE, the region of Urartu is called Ararat. During the 700s
and 600s B.C., the kingdom enjoyed considerable political power, domi-
nating eastern ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) and competing with the As-
syrian empire.
139
Urbanization
Little is known about the early history of Urartu, although evidence
suggests that the its cultural heritage was influenced by the HURRIANS of
northern Mesopotamia. First mentioned in Assyrian records from the
See map in Assyria and the Assyrians 1200s B.C. as a region of many lands and cities, Urartu may have been uni-
(vol.1).
fied into a kingdom in the following centuries in response to growing As-
syrian power.
In the late 800s B.C., Urartu entered an era of rapid conquest, and this
expansion continued into the next century. Throughout this period,
Urartu was often at war with Assyria, and the Assyrians exerted a strong
assimilate to adopt the customs of a influence on the kingdom. The Urartians assimilated* many aspects of
society Assyrian civilization while also maintaining a distinctive culture of their
artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or own. Among the best-known artifacts* of Urartian civilization are POT-
other object made by humans TERY, SEALS, and metalworks of decorated bronze.
By the early 700s B.C., Urartu had become the most powerful state in
eastern Anatolia. Its military success was no doubt aided by a decline in
Assyrian power at that time. Within a few decades, however, Assyria began
to reassert its power, leading to a number of dramatic military confronta-
tions between the two kingdoms. One of the most famous of these en-
gagements took place in 714 B.C., when SARGON II of Assyria defeated Rusa
* plunder to steal property by force, I of Urartu and plundered* Urartian temples and much of the kingdom.
usually after a conquest Despite these victories, the Assyrians never succeeded in conquering
Urartu, and it remained powerful and prosperous, dominating the eastern
Anatolian landscape. However, Urartu faced more formidable enemies in
the 600s and 500s B.C., when repeated invasions by the Cimmerians,
Scythians, MEDES, and Persians brought the kingdom to a final, violent
end. (See also Scythia and the Scythians.)

URBANIZATION
T he process of urbanization, the formation and growth of cities, was
under way in the ancient Near East as early as the sixth millennium
B.C.* Urbanization continued as small village settlements grew into towns
and then cities and city-states*. Historians believe that the first large cities
arose in MESOPOTAMIA, although urban centers also developed in ANATOLIA
(present-day Turkey), Egypt, IRAN, and the Levant*.
* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 Urbanization could not occur until after people had started to domes-
to 5001 B.C. ticate* plants and animals instead of obtaining food through hunting
* city-state independent state consisting and gathering. AGRICULTURE provided people with a steady food supply
of a city and its surrounding territory that allowed them to settle in one place, usually a location with useful
* Levant lands bordering the eastern features, such as a good water source. Not all early settlements grew into
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- cities, but those that did became the first political organizations larger
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West than villages.
Bank, and Jordan
The shift to urban life brought lasting changes to the ways people
* domesticate to adapt or tame for
lived, worked, and interacted with one another. Some of those changes
human use
involved resources and labor. Settled urban populations grew because
they could store and stockpile food, sharing and distributing it as needed.
This meant that instead of farming, some people could work full-time in
crafts, in religious or governmental roles, or in professions such as that of
* scribe person of a learned class who scribe*. This greater variety of WORK in urban settings went hand in hand
served as a writer, editor, or teacher with other changes in social organization. First, a ruling class emerged,
140
 Uruk
* bureaucracy system consisting of and then bureaucracies* were established to administer such aspects of
officials and clerks who perform city life as the gathering and distribution of food and the building of tem-
government functions ples, CANALS, and other public structures. The diversification of LABOR also
meant that differences in rank and social class became more pronounced
in urban societies.
Another development that occurred as a result of urbanization was the
appearance of organized, large-scale warfare. Once people began accumu-
lating material goods in central locations, such as the cities, they became
targets of others who banded together to steal from them. The Sumerian
and Akkadian cities in Mesopotamia, for example, were storehouses for
the enormous agricultural wealth produced by the fertile plains around
them. This concentrated wealth brought attacks by nonurban peoples
from the mountainous countries to the north and east and from the semi-
deserts to the west. In addition to defending themselves from attack, cities
launched wars of aggression, usually to gain control of territory or access
to resources.
literacy ability to read and write Literacy*, developments in the arts and in techniques such as metal-
working, and other features associated with the growth of civilization in
the ancient Near East appear to have been linked to urban centers. Not
every ancient civilization was urban, however. The Scythians and other
nomadic referring to people who travel nomadic* peoples of CENTRAL ASIA developed arts, crafts, and high levels of
from place to place in search of food military and political organization without becoming city builders. Al-
and pasture though urbanization was not the only route to civilization, today's scholars
look to the remains of ancient cities for the most complete and best-
preserved records of ancient history, culture, and people. (See also Cities
and City-states; Egypt and the Egyptians; Scythia and the Scythians;
Walled Cities; Wars and Warfare.)

URUK
M any scholars consider the Sumerian settlement of Uruk (OOruk)
in southern MESOPOTAMIA to be the world's first true city. Founded
during the fifth millennium B.C.*, Uruk grew from an agricultural settle-
ment into an influential city-state* by about 3200 B.C. It retained its im-
portance in Mesopotamia until around 2000 B.C., and it remained
occupied for 2,000 years. However, Uruk is not historically significant sim-
* fifth millennium B.C. years from 5000 ply because of its size or the length of time it was occupied. The remains of
to 4001 B.C. the city uncovered by archaeologists* contain the earliest evidence of
* city-state Independent state consisting some of the most important cultural developments in human history. For
of a city and its surrounding territory this reason, Uruk has been called the birthplace of civilization.
* archaeologist scientist who studies past Uruk probably began as two separate settlements, Uruk and Kullaba,
human cultures, usually by excavating that merged to form one city. Each former settlement became a district in
material remains of human activity the city of Uruk. Kullaba was the location of the temple of the sky god
ANU, while the Uruk district (then called Eanna) housed the temple of
Inanna, the goddess of war. The earliest remains of advanced culture were
found in the Eanna district. These include many CLAY TABLETS that provide
evidence of the world's first system of WRITING. Monumental public ARCHI-
TECTURE and works of fine art were also excavated there.
Uruk expanded rapidly, attracting settlers from the surrounding re-
gions. By about 3200 B.C., it was the largest settlement in the Near East. As
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Uruk

See map in Mesopotamia (vol. 3). the populationgrew, the government and economyofUruk also devel-
oped. Texts recovered in Uruk show that the city had textile and metal-
working industriesat a very early date. Because southern Mesopotamia
contains no natural sourcesof metal,it isclear that
Urukhad developedan
active trade network with other regionsof the ancient Near East. Thereis
also evidence that it established colonies in northern Mesopotamia and
western
IRANand thatthe peopleof
Uruk
TRADE
established
ROUTES
to reach
them. These colonies probably servedasplaces where goods producedin
Uruk were tradedfor those itemsnot available locally.
In the mid-2300s
B.C., a king namedLugalzagezi established
firstthe
united kingdom in southern Mesopotamia, with Urukas itscapital. How-
ever, aroundSARGON
B.C.,
2334I of Akkad defeated Lugalzagezi and de-
stroyed Uruk's walls.The citywas revitalized
B.C., when
in about
the 2100
* dynasty succession of rulers from the Sumerian king
UR-NAMMUfoundedthe Third Dynasty of Ur and undertook
same family or group an extensive construction programUruk.in When this dynasty* collapsed
142
 Valley of the Kings
100 years later, Uruk went into another decline, and the city's population
decreased. It did not grow again until about 1450 B.C., when the KASSITES
took control of the city. By this time, however, settlement was confined to
the Eanna district.
After 1000 B.C., Uruk was controlled first by the Assyrians and later by
the Babylonians. Rulers of both empires began new construction in
Eanna, and Uruk once again became an important and prosperous city.
This may well have been because it lay on one of the main trade routes
through the Near East. However, Uruk's prosperity ended when the
Parthians conquered Mesopotamia in the 140s B.C. Uruk gradually faded
into obscurity, and its final residents probably abandoned the city some-
time before A.D. 400. (See also Archaeology and Archaeologists; Cities
and City-States; Urbanization.)

VALLEY OF T he Valley of the Kings is an elaborate cemetery located in the hills on

the western side of the NILE RIVER, near the VALLEY OF THE QUEENS. The
Valley of the Kings, Valley of the Queens, and temples of KARNAK and
THE KINGS LUXOR were all part of the ancient Egyptian city of THEBES.
The Valley of the Kings is split into two main sections: the West Val-
ley, which contains 4 tombs, and the East Valley, which contains 58
tombs. Although almost all the tombs belong to kings, there are also
tombs belonging to two queens, a few important officials, and the many
sons of RAMSES II.
The valley served as the royal cemetery from around 1539 to around
1075 B.C. The first king to be buried there was the Eighteenth Dynasty
* pharaoh king of ancient Egypt pharaoh* Thutmose I. Kings of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties
were also buried there. Ramses XI was the last ruler to be buried at the site.
The tombs at the site were built in a style that had not been used pre-
viously. To protect the tombs from robbery, none of them had any above-
ground decoration or monuments. They were cut into the secluded hills
and their entrances hidden. Also, for the first time since the Early Dynastic
period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were not
built next to mortuary temples. Unfortunately, these attempts at protect-
ing the tombs of the kings were not successful. All the tombs except one
were robbed in the centuries that followed.
Most of the tombs were of similar structure. They began with a long
corridor descending into the hill. This corridor contained deep shafts and,
occasionally, rooms of columns that were built to confuse tomb robbers.
* sarcophagus ornamental coffin, usually At the end of the corridor, the burial chamber housed the sarcophagus* of
made of stone; pi. sarcophagi the king. There were also storage rooms that contained furniture and
other goods for the king to use in the afterlife. Often, the walls of the
* relief sculpture in which material is cut tombs were beautifully painted or carved with reliefs* showing the king
away to show figures raised from the meeting the gods. Some walls contained magical writings that were meant
background to help the king as he journeyed through the life after death. The ceilings
of the tombs were sometimes painted with stars, astronomical figures, and
the sky goddess Nut.
The longest tomb at the site belongs to Queen HATSHEPSUT. The corri-
dor is almost 700 feet long and drops about 320 feet into the rock. The
143
Valley of the Queens

only tomb that was never robbed belonged to King TUTANKHAMEN. The
wealth found in his small tomb gives an indication of the treasure that
was robbed from the more ornate tombs. A more recent excavation is that
of the enormous tomb meant to house almost all of King Ramses IPs
52 sons. This tomb—the largest one found in the Valley of the Kings—
was discovered in the early A.D. 1800s but was never fully excavated
because it was considered unimportant. In 1988, the tomb was rediscov-
ered, and it is still being excavated. (See also Afterlife; Burials Sites and
Tombs; Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Kings; Pharaohs;
Queens.)

VALLEY o\
T he Valley of the Queens is an elaborate cemetery located in the hills
on the west bank of the NILE RIVER. Along with the temples of KARNAK
and LUXOR and the VALLEY OF THE KINGS, the Valley of the Queens was part
THE QUEENS of the ancient city of THEBES.
Around 90 tombs have been uncovered at this site where queens and
royal children of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties (ca. 1292-
1075 B.C.) were buried. Some Seventeenth and Eighteenth Dynasty
queens were also buried there; however, most queens during those dynas-
ties were buried alongside their husbands.
Most of the tombs at this site are smaller than the tombs at the nearby
Valley of the Kings. Each consists of a small room (called an antecham-
ber) that leads into a small passageway. The passageway leads to the burial
chamber. Like the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, the tombs in the Val-
* relief sculpture in which material is cut ley of the Queens were beautifully painted or carved with reliefs*.
away to show figures raised from the The first queen to be buried in the Valley of the Queens was probably
background Satra, a wife of Ramses I. The most notable person buried there is Nefer-
tari, RAMSES H's principal wife. The site also contains the beautiful and
well-preserved tombs of the princes Amenherkhopshef and Khaemwaset
II, two of RAMSES Hi's sons. (See also Afterlife; Burial Sites and Tombs;
Death and Burial; Egypt and the Egyptians; Queens.)

Vegetables See Agriculture; Food and Drink.

M along
of the earth's volcanoes are found in a series of belts located
boundaries between the plates of the earth's crust. Two such
VOLCANOES boundaries run through portions of the Near East. The more prominent
of these, and the one that has produced the most volcanic activity in the
region, runs east and west through the AEGEAN SEA and the northern half
of present-day Turkey (ancient Anatolia). Here two plates collide where
one slides underneath the other. Another such plate boundary runs along
the eastern coast of Africa, through the RED SEA. There the plates are rift-
ing, or pulling apart. The movement of these plates releases molten rock
from deep underground, which then rises to the surface. The pressure
144
 Wall Paintings
forces the surface rock to form a dome- or cone-shaped mountain. When
the pressure becomes too great for the overlying rock surface, the top of
the mountain explodes, spewing ash and lava.
In ancient times, the most spectacular volcanic eruption occurred on
the Aegean island of THERA. Sometime around 1500 B.C. (experts disagree
about the exact date), a volcano on Thera erupted with incredibly destruc-
tive force. The explosion buried the Late Bronze Age city of Akrotiri under a
thick layer of ash and volcanic rock and caused shock waves that were felt
for hundreds of miles. The main settlement on the island was apparently
evacuated before the eruption, but its burial in ash preserved its remains in-
tact until their excavation in the late A.D. 1960s. At one time, scholars be-
lieved that the eruption on Thera was responsible for the destruction of the
MINOAN CIVILIZATION on Crete. However, they have since established that
Minoan Crete did not fall into decline until around 1450 B.C., disproving
their earlier theory. The eruption also may have inspired the legend of the
lost continent of Atlantis.
Another well-known volcano in the Near East is Turkey's Mount
Ararat, which the Hebrew BIBLE identifies as the resting place of Noah's
* archaeologist scientist who studies past ark. A few archaeologists* believed that this story was supported by ship-
human cultures, usually by excavating shaped features on the mountain, but these later turned out to be natural
material remains of human activity formations caused by landslides and lava flows.
Volcanoes exist throughout central Turkey, which is covered with soft
volcanic rock that was used in local construction from the A.D. 300s to the
1200s. Lava and volcanic rock are also found in northwestern Arabia, in a
region known as Harrat Ash-Shamah. Volcanic eruptions have occurred
there as recently as a few hundred years ago. (See also Disasters, Natural;
Obsidian.)

WALL PAINTINGS
W all paintings represent some of the earliest and most important
forms of visual art from the ancient Near East. The earliest wall
paintings featured simple geometric designs done in a single color,
while later works contained complex images of plants, animals, hu-
mans, and deities* in a variety of patterns and colors. Throughout an-
cient times, such works decorated the walls of palaces, temples, and
* deity god or goddess private homes.

Materials and Techniques. Near Eastern wall paintings were done

using paints made from natural pigments, or coloring agents, found in
minerals, plants, and animal sources. The earliest and most basic colors
used were red (made from iron oxide), white (from the mineral gypsum),
and black (from a tarlike substance called bitumen). Other colors, devel-
oped later, included blue (from either copper oxide or the semiprecious
stone LAPIS LAZULI), green (from the stone malachite), and yellow (from
iron oxide mixed with clay or sand).
Ancient painters mixed dry pigments with water and a substance
called a binder, which makes paint adhere, or stick, to a surface. Among
the binders used were egg whites or a substance in milk called casein.
Artists applied paint to a surface with brushes made of reeds, one end of
145
Wall Paintings
which had been split and chewed to make the reed fibers soft enough to
absorb the pigment.
Two basic techniques were used in wall painting: distemper and
* fresco method of painting in which fresco*. Distemper, the earliest and easiest technique, involved painting
color is applied to moist plaster so that it on a wall covered with a layer of plaster, lime, or mud that had been al-
becomes chemically bonded to the lowed to dry. All wall paintings up to about 1500 B.C. were probably done
plaster as it dries; also, a painting done
in this manner
using this technique. In fresco painting, several layers of plaster or a simi-
lar substance were applied to the wall, and the artist painted while the top
layer of plaster was still wet. With the distemper technique, the paint
formed a film on the surface of the wall. In fresco painting, the particles of
pigment were bound to the plaster as it dried. Thus, a fresco actually be-
came a part of the wall itself, which made fresco paintings very durable
and allowed them to retain their color longer. However, fresco was a much
more difficult technique than distemper because the painter had to work
quickly before areas of fresh plaster dried.

Early Wall Paintings. Wall paintings first appeared in the Near East
between 8000 and 5000 B.C. in ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey), IRAN, and
the coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The earliest works
contained simple monochrome (single-color) designs, which remained

This fresco from an Assyrian provincial

palace at Til Barsip in Syria shows two offi-
cials in profile. Although the palace was
decorated with many paintings, stone re-
liefs were more customary for Assyrian
palace art.

146
 Wall Paintings
standard for centuries. Multicolored paintings featuring simple geomet-
ric patterns appeared around 6000 B.C., and more elaborate patterns and
designs began appearing soon afterward. Many such wall paintings have
been discovered in Anatolia.
* sixth millennium B.C. years from 6000 By the early sixth millennium B.C.*, the imagery in wall paintings had
to 5001 B.C. expanded to include hunting scenes, birds, and landscapes that attempted
to reproduce objects and scenes found in the natural world. Among the ear-
liest examples of such wall paintings are ones found at £ATAL HUYUK in Ana-
tolia and in SYRIA. However, geometric patterns remained the most popular
Levant lands bordering the eastern form of wall decoration in Anatolia, Iran, and the Levant* in the fifth and
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- fourth millennia B.C.
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West The first wall paintings in MESOPOTAMIA were associated with the con-
Bank, and Jordan
struction of large temples in the southern region of Sumer between 3500
and 3000 B.C. The walls of Sumerian temples at that time featured primar-
ily geometric designs, although human and animal figures appeared in
some wall paintings. The most widely used colors were black, red, and
white. Wall paintings in houses of this and later periods continued to fea-
ture simple geometric designs done in a single color.

New Images and Colors. Little is known about wall painting during the
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 third millennium B.C.* However, archaeologists* have uncovered many
to 2001 B.C. works dating from the 1800s B.C. and later throughout the Near East.
* archaeologist scientist who studies past Among the new types of images that appeared during the second mil-
human cultures, usually by excavating lennium B.C. (2000-1001 B.C.) were ceremonial scenes, often depicting acts
material remains of human activity of worship or processions of people before a ruler. Humans were repre-
* bas-relief kind of sculpture in which sented according to the same rules used in bas-relief*. That is, faces ap-
material is cut away to leave figures peared in profile, with the fronts of bodies facing outward or turned
projecting slightly from the background slightly to the side. Such scenes were intended to support rulers' claims
that they were divinely chosen leaders.
Wall paintings from this period often included depictions of rich
plant life and plentiful water, suggesting the fertility of the land. Other
popular images included hunting scenes and images of sacred trees.
* stylized referring to art style in which Many paintings also incorporated bands of stylized* flowers and palm
figures are portrayed in simplified ways leaves, as well as groups of the ever popular geometric figures. Some
that exaggerate certain features, not paintings even attempted to imitate the look of materials such as wood or
realistically
stone. Most wall paintings of this period made use of a variety of colors,
including blue, green, yellow, and orange.
Many of the wall paintings that have survived from the second millen-
nium B.C. offer clues to the spread of ideas and influences among the cul-
tures in the Near East. For example, wall paintings from the city of MARI
See reflect influence from the cultures of Sumer and Babylonia. Elements from
[color plate 12, ] the art of the MINOAN CIVILIZATION of CRETE can be seen in wall paintings
vol. 4.
from northern Syria and Egypt. The artistic styles of the Levant influenced
wall paintings in palaces of northern Mesopotamia, while paintings in the
Levant featured images of bulls and masks associated with Egypt. Babylon-
ian wall paintings from the 1100s B.C. provided models that were copied
widely in Assyrian and Persian art several hundred years later.

Later Developments. One of the major developments in wall paint-

ing after 1000 B.C. was the increasing use of glazed BRICKS and tiles, which
147
Walled Cities
helped create a more durable form of art. A single ceramic tile might con-
tain an entire scene, with one or several figures or decorative images.
More often, however, many individual colored bricks or tiles were
arranged together to form larger images and scenes. Artists in Assyria,
* relief sculpture in which material is cut Babylonia, and Iran created magnificent reliefs* made from colored tiles
away to show figures raised from the or molded bricks.
background Glazed brick decorations also were used widely by the Persians from
the 500s to 300s B.C., but there is little evidence of true wall painting in
the PERSIAN EMPIRE. After ALEXANDER THE GREAT conquered the Persian em-
pire in 332 B.C., wall paintings in the westernmost regions of the Near East
reflected a strong Greek influence. Later with the expansion of the Roman
Empire into the region, Roman artistic influences shaped wall painting
styles and techniques. Farther east, artists combined both Western and
Asian styles until the decline of Roman influence in the early centuries
A.D. (See also Animals in Art; Art, Artisans, and Artists; Bas-Reliefs; Birds
in Art; Burial Sites and Tombs; Human Form in Art.)

WALLED CITIES
I n ancient times, many cities in the Near East were surrounded by walls.
Sometimes the walls surrounded an entire city, and as the city grew
over time, its walls were extended to enclose new spaces. In other cases,
the walls surrounded only the older part of a city or perhaps a central core
of special importance, such as a fortress or a district surrounding palaces
and temples.
Although historians assume that cities were walled for defense against
human attackers, other possibilities exist. For example, in the city of URUK
in MESOPOTAMIA, people drove their livestock inside the city's walls each
* epic long poem about a legendary or night. In fact, an early version of the epic* of GILGAMESH speaks of the city
historical hero, written in a grand style as a "sheepfold" or "cattle pen." Other early city dwellers may have built
walls to protect their animals from wild animals or human raiders, turning
their cities into large corrals.
* mud brick brick made from mud, Other city walls originated as flood barriers. Huge walls of mud brick*
straw, and water mixed together and around the Mesopotamian city of Sippar, for example, were intended as
baked in the sun protection from the floodwaters of the Euphrates River. The earliest
* fortification structure built to known city walls are the massive fortifications* built at JERICHO in the
strengthen or protect against attack eighth millennium B.C.* Scholars have long thought their purpose to be
* eighth millennium B.C. years from military defense, but a later interpretation suggests that the Jericho walls
8000 to 7001 B.C. were built to protect the settlement from silt* carried by a brook.
* silt soil or other sediment carried and Walls also served to define areas of settlement and as visible reminders
deposited by moving water of authority. A wall dating from around 7000 B.C. found at the Mesopota-
mian village of Maghzalia, for example, probably functioned more as a
symbol of the identity of the enclosed community than as a defensive for-
tification. Another purpose of city walls was to display the wealth and
power of their builders. To this end, some walls bore rich decorations in-
tended to win admiration for the city's rulers.
Most city walls were probably military structures built for defensive
purposes. In times of war, farmers and people from the countryside
sought safety inside walled cities. Between 3500 and 3000 B.C., the Sume-
rians built a well-planned and fortified colony in northern SYRIA. It was a
148
 Wars and Warfare
rectangular city about 44 acres in area, surrounded by a mud-brick wall
about ten feet thick. The wall contained nearly 50 square towers from
which the people could defend the city during an attack. Uruk, the largest
Sumerian city, was surrounded by a defense wall almost six miles long,
enclosing nearly 1,360 acres of land. This wall's 900 towers offered van-
tage points for lookouts or for soldiers.
Levant lands bordering the eastern Cities built in the Levant* between 2000 and 1600 B.C. had massive
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- fortifications, such as earthen mounds, steep artificial slopes, and moats,
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West in addition to walls of mud brick or stone. Another impressive walled city
Bank, and Jordan
was KHATTUSHA, the capital of the Hittites of ANATOLIA. Its fortifications in-
cluded massive earthen ramps, thick stone walls, and gates with guard
chambers and heavy wooden doors. In Egypt, walls were used as fortifica-
tion as long ago as the Early Dynastic period (ca. 3000-2675 B.C.), al-
though no remains have been found.
Even heavily walled cities, however, could fall to determined attack-
ers and foes. The Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia became expert at
siege long and persistent effort to force conquering walled cities. They laid siege* to the cities surrounding the As-
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or syrian empire and starved out their populations. They also assaulted city
city with armed troops, cutting it off walls with battering rams (large logs mounted on wheeled frames), lad-
from supplies and aid
ders, and axes and undermined them with tunnels. JERUSALEM, with stone
walls 23 feet thick and at least as high, was one of the few walled cities in
the ancient Near East that was able to hold off the Assyrian army. (See also
Cities and City-States; Fortifications; Wars and Warfare.)

WARS AND
W ars and warfare played an important role in the societies of the
ancient Near East. The peoples of the region waged war for three
main reasons. They fought defensive wars to protect their territories from
aggression and offensive wars to conquer new lands. They also fought
WARFARE civil wars, which involved internal rebellions or uprisings.
The earliest wars were disputes between small, loosely organized
forces wielding hunting tools such as clubs, spears, and bows and arrows.
* nomad person who travels from place Nomads* raided the fields and pastures of settled communities, whose in-
to place to find food and pasture habitants fought to protect their crops and livestock. City-states* fought
* city-state independent state consisting for control of land and water resources. Over the course of several thou-
of a city and its surrounding territory sand years, the states of the Near East grew larger, stronger, and more cen-
* imperial pertaining to an emperor or trally organized. In some cases, they developed into imperial* powers
an empire controlling vast territories. The fighting forces of these states and empires
also grew larger and more organized, becoming ARMIES consisting of pro-
fessional SOLDIERS with an array of WEAPONS AND ARMOR and commanded by
ranks of officers.
With the development of large states and empires, wars were fought
* siege long and persistent effort to force on a larger scale, and sieges*, fighting at sea, and multiyear campaigns in
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or distant lands became commonplace. The centerpiece of warfare, though,
city with armed troops, cutting it off remained the pitched battle, in which land armies maneuvered for posi-
from supplies and aid
tion and then clashed on the battlefield.

Reconstructing Ancient Battles. Modern historians have a difficult

time reconstructing ancient battles. Surviving information about even the
149
Wars and Warfare
best-documented conflicts is often vague and incomplete. An example
* Levant lands bordering the eastern is a battle fought at MEGIDDO in the Levant*, which took place around
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- 1456 B.C. This is the earliest Near Eastern battle for which detailed de-
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West scriptions survive. Yet even the fullest account of the battle, which was
Bank, and Jordan
recorded on the walls of the great temple of the god AMUN at KARNAK in
Egypt, has many missing sections of text. Moreover, scholars realize that
it was written in a literary style intended to glorify the achievements of
the king. Many ancient accounts of battles were written for a similar
* propaganda communication purpose—to serve as propaganda*—making the accuracy of their infor-
deliberately shaped or slanted toward a mation highly questionable.
particular viewpoint The battle at Megiddo pitted THUTMOSE III, the ruler of Egypt, against a
coalition of Canaanite forces. The surviving record gives many details of
the Egyptian army's long march to the city of Megiddo and its position
on the day of battle on the Plain of Jezreel facing the city. However, it in-
cludes no details about the size or position of the Canaanite forces or
about the actual fight. It says only that when Thutmose appeared on the
battlefield, the enemy fled in great disorder.
The battle of Qadesh, in which the Egyptians fought against the HIT-
TITES of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) around 1274 B.C., is known in
Holy Wars greater detail because pictorial records accompany written accounts in
The ancient Mesopotamians justi- Egypt. However, these pictures and texts fail to reveal that the Egyptians
fied warfare on religious grounds,
claiming that their enemies had
lost the battle. Instead, they focus on the bravery and heroism of the
sinned against the gods. Conse- Egyptian king, RAMSES II.
quently, victory in war was more Nearly all accounts of warfare in the ancient Near East contain no re-
than military triumph; it was the 1 liable information about such things as the location of battlefields, the
umph of divine justice, backed by weather and terrain in which a battle took place, the size and position of
the gods. Invaders who seized troops, the duration of the fighting, and how armies coordinated the
thrones could also be viewed in a
religious context. For instance,
movement of people and supplies. In short, information gathered from
when Cyrus of Persia defeated surviving official accounts of military encounters gives a broad picture of
Nabonidus of Babylonia, people I ancient warfare, but it lacks the details that would allow historians to re-
lieved that the Babylonian ruler had construct those battles.
sinned against the gods, who had
chosen the outsider Cyrus to re-
place him. So deep were such be-
Siege Warfare. According to ancient texts, the battle of Megiddo was
liefs that when King Sargon II of followed by a siege of that city. The ancient armies of the Egyptians, Hit-
Assyria was killed in battle, his son tites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians often employed siege warfare,
Sennacherib agonized over the sin which developed into a highly specialized form of combat with its own
that his father must have commit- tools and weapons.
ted to arouse the terrible anger of Siege warfare was a way of capturing cities or fortresses that could not
the gods.
be taken quickly in battle. Fortresses and many ancient Near Eastern cities
had strong walls and other fortifications* to help them withstand direct
attacks by an enemy. During a siege, however, such protective barriers
could become like the walls of a prison, trapping the defenders inside the
* fortification structure built to city or fort.
strengthen or protect against attack An attacking army laid siege to a city by surrounding it with troops
to make sure that no one could enter or leave. The defenders inside the
city could neither send messages to allies asking for help nor obtain fresh
supplies or reinforcements. Their ability to endure a siege depended on
the quality of their fortifications and the soldiers who operated them,
their stockpiles of food, and their access to freshwater from wells or
streams.
150
 Wars and Warfare

The attackers in a siege had three ways to assault abesieged city or

fortress. They could dig tunnels under the walls, climb over them,orsmash
and burn theirway through them.Ifthese methods failed, they couldseal
off the city and try to starveits inhabitants until they surrendered. Usually,
attackers used someor all of these methodsat the same time.
Tunneling under city walls required no special equipment other than
shovels. Climbing overthe walls requiredthe constructionofladders or
towers. The attackers might also build huge rampsofearth leading up to
the top of the enemy walls. Sometimes these rampshad to cross streams
or water-filled ditches that helped protect the approach to thewalls.
Attempts to break through walls usually centeredon gates, often made
of wood, whichwere the weakest pointsin the walls. Attackersmighttry
to set the gatesonfire or break through them withabattering ram,ahuge
log or wooden beam mounted in a wheeled frame. Using ropesor chains,
the attackers drove the ram ashard aspossible against the gatesorpossibly
the walls themselves.If the ram succeededin makingaholein the de-
fenses, soldiers would charge throughto attackthe defenders inside. An-
other tactic involved shooting flaming arrows intoabesieged fortorcity,
hoping to start fires that would cause the inhabitants toflee, panic,and
surrender.
It was not easytocarryout siege operations underthe watchful eyes of
the defenders, who could shoot arrowsor hurl stones,hot fireliquids,or
from the top of the walls onto the enemy below. Moreover, sieges took
time, during which the attacking force also neededfoodand other sup-
plies. When these ran short,the attackers suffer
from
couldhungerand
disease almost as muchas thedefenders insidethe besieged city. Thecap-
ture of an enemy capital or sacred city had great psychological impact on
both the victors and the vanquished. Because siege warfarewas
difficult
so
and costly,it tended to be undertaken onlyas alast resort.
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Wars and Warfare
Bribery, treachery, or trickery occasionally offered attackers a way into
a besieged city. A well-known example of this appears in the Iliad, the
epic long poem about a legendary or epic* by the ancient Greek poet Homer, which tells the story of the long
historical hero, written in a grand style siege of TROY in Anatolia by the Greeks. After many years of siege, the
Greeks built a giant wooden horse and a small band of soldiers hid inside
it. When the Trojans hauled the horse into their city, the Greeks came out
of the horse at night and opened the city gates to their armies.

Military Tactics. Warfare involves strategies, which are overall goals,

and tactics, which are the means used to reach those goals. The societies
of the ancient Near East used different combinations of tactics to achieve
their military strategies.
The military history of Assyria illustrates a shift from defensive to of-
fensive strategies and the use of a wide range of tactics, including psycho-
second millennium B.C. years from logical warfare. At the beginning of the second millennium B.C.*, the
2000 to 1001 B.C. city-state of ASHUR in northern MESOPOTAMIA slowly built a fighting force to
defend itself. The rulers of Ashur, believing that their state had to conquer
or be conquered, raided surrounding regions that threatened to attack.
* plunder property stolen by force, Plunder* proved to be an added advantage to Assyrian raids, and
usually after a conquest greed became a motive for further campaigns. Another motive for warfare
was the growing desire of Assyrian kings to gain prestige through success-
ful military campaigns. By 700 B.C., Assyrian armies had waged offensive
wars from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Persian Gulf in the
south. Campaigns usually began in the spring and lasted through the
summer.
The Assyrians made little use of NAVAL POWER in warfare. Because they
did not have a navy, they usually used Phoenician ships when they had to
go to sea. They made extensive use of pitched battles and siege warfare,
but these tactics consumed much time, energy, and labor. The Assyrians
came to prefer psychological warfare, which involved breaking down the
enemy's will to resist. Once the Assyrians decided to conquer a region,
diplomacy practice of conducting they would try using diplomacy* to get the inhabitants to submit. If diplo-
negotiations between kingdoms, states, macy failed, they surrounded the foreign capital and shouted to its inhab-
or nations itants, urging them to surrender. The next step was to attack small, weak
cities and commit extreme acts of destruction and cruelty as a warning to
all who did not submit. Using such methods of psychological warfare, the
much-feared Assyrians made some conquests with minimal effort.
During the second millennium B.C., the Hittites of Anatolia had a well-
organized and efficient military force that protected their borders and
earned them a place among the great powers of the day. The Hittites used
sentries, outposts, and spies to gather information about enemy move-
ments. Sometimes Hittite agents disguised as deserters or fugitives deliber-
ately passed false information to the enemy, a tactic that contributed to
the victory of the Hittite king Muwattalli II over Ramses II of Egypt at the
battle of Qadesh in about 1274 B.C.
The Hittites, just like others in the ancient Near East, believed in seek-
ing guidance from the gods on military matters. The king might ask the
gods if they approved of a campaign and if the king would win. He might
even ask the gods to approve specific tactics and plans of action. The Hit-
tites favored direct attacks and pitched battles. One favorite tactic was to
152
 Water
burn crops and villages in an area until the men of the district were forced
to fight the Hittite army. Another was to destroy one town in the hope
that neighboring towns would submit without a fight. If a city did not
submit and could not be taken by storm, the Hittites mounted a siege. Ev-
idence suggests that, on occasion, a duel between two champions, one
representing each side—for example, between David, the Israelite, and
the Philistine Goliath; or between Achilles, the Greek, and Hector, the
Trojan—might settle an issue. Such contests represented warfare in its
most basic form. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians; Cavalry; Chariots;
Egypt and the Egyptians; Persian Wars.)

WATER
M any peoples of the ancient Near East considered water sacred, a
symbol of fertility, and the source of life. Access to reliable sources
of water was essential for survival, especially in places such as Egypt and
Mesopotamia, where rainfall alone did not provide sufficient water to
sustain large-scale settlements and AGRICULTURE. The ancient Near Eastern-
ers realized the importance of managing their resources so that they
could make the most use of the water available to them. How well they
were able to do so meant the difference between prosperity and starva-
tion for many farming communities, cities, and even entire empires of
the ancient Near East. As a consequence, water became an important re-
source to safeguard or control.

Climate. About 15,000 years ago, during the most recent Ice Age, the
climate of the Near East was cool and dry. There was little precipitation
because a large amount of moisture was trapped in large ice sheets. As the
earth warmed and the ice melted, the climate became warmer and more
humid. Wetter conditions peaked around 7500 B.C. and again in about
4000 B.C., corresponding to times of increased population growth in
Egypt and Mesopotamia. By the time the first cities in the Near East were
founded, however, somewhat drier conditions had returned. Despite gen-
* urbanization formation and growth of erally less favorable climatic conditions, rapid urbanization* and popula-
cities tion growth occurred in the ancient Near East.

Water Sources and Irrigation. Because most parts of the ancient

Near East received little rainfall, the societies there had to rely on other
sources of water. Both the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians depended
on the annual flooding of local RIVERS to provide the water they needed.
Every year, summer rains steadily increased the water levels of rivers
emptying into Egypt's NILE RIVER. These rivers lay far south of Egypt, so
the floodwaters traveled a great distance before spilling into low-lying
* silt soil or other sediment carried and basins adjacent to the Nile, soaking the ground, and depositing silt* rich
deposited by moving water in nutrients. After the waters receded, farmers plowed and planted the
moist soil that was left behind. Consequently, there was little need for
man-made IRRIGATION.
The main water sources in ancient Mesopotamia, the EUPHRATES
RIVER and the TIGRIS RIVER, originated in the mountains of Anatolia
(present-day Turkey) and were fed by rapidly melting spring snows. The
153
Water
floodwaters traveled a shorter distance over steeper terrain, resulting in
floods that were difficult to control for purposes of irrigation. Moreover,
the timing of the flood was such that it occurred when crops were in the
fields. Consequently, unlike those of the Nile, the floodwaters of the
See Tigris and Euphrates needed not only to be controlled but also to be
color plate 6 stored for use prior to the planting. In order to use the floodwaters, the
vol.4.
ancient Mesopotamians constructed an elaborate series of CANALS that
allowed them to hold the water and channel it to the fields where it was
needed.
Another problem in ancient Mesopotamia was that the Tigris and Eu-
phrates carried sediments containing salts that built up in the soil over
time, making it unsuitable for farming. The soil in the Tigris and Eu-
phrates Delta became so salty after about 1850 B.C. that the population
eventually migrated to more fertile regions where agriculture was still
possible.
Outside the main river valleys, people used other sources of water,
such as brooks or natural springs into which water flowed by the force of
gravity. The earliest permanent settlement in the world was at JERICHO in
Canaan, which was located near the Jordan River and a spring.

Protection of Water Resources. In the ancient cities of Canaan, in-

habitants constructed public works to tap and protect valuable water
sources. They built covered galleries to allow residents access to the
streams or pools and to exclude their use by outsiders. In some cities such
as MEGIDDO, tunnels were built so that water from a nearby spring flowed
into a pool constructed under the city. Bringing the water to the city in
this manner was not only more convenient, but it also ensured access to
* siege long and persistent effort to force water if the city were attacked or placed under siege*.
a surrender by surrounding a fortress or
city with armed troops, cutting it off Water and Politics. Water had the potential to be used as a tool for
from supplies and aid
destruction. For instance, cities along a river could ruin the economy of
neighboring rivals by not maintaining their water-controlling devices or
by diverting the water away from other cities, either causing a flood or a
* drought long period of dry weather drought*. Several early Sumerian texts suggest that this was a cause or re-
during which crop yields are lower than sult of conflicts between cities. Mesopotamians also fought wars to
usual defend themselves from invaders who wanted to conquer their well-
watered land.
Access to water and construction and maintenance of water-controlling
devices were important issues in the ancient Near East, because every-
one had to share this essential resource. Records of wills and land sales
from Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the region show that people care-
fully defined the water rights associated with their property. Mainte-
nance of canals was crucial, and each city appointed officials who were
* regulator gate or valve to control responsible for this task. Other large-scale projects, such as the con-
amount of water passing through a struction of regulators* to control the flow of water from the rivers, re-
channel quired the efforts of several villages or even cities working together.
These projects were considered so important that several Mesopota-
mian kings left INSCRIPTIONS celebrating the construction of canals and
other steps they took to manage water resources. (See also Drought; En-
vironmental Change; Floods; Geography.)
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 Weapons and Armor

WEAPONS I n the history of the ancient Near East, many battles were fought over
territory and resources. The SOLDIERS fighting these battles relied on
weapons to attack their foes and on protective armor to escape harm.
AND ARMOR Over the course of several thousand years, the weapons and armor used
by the ARMIES of the region underwent many changes as people developed
new materials, new technologies, and new ways of waging war.

Weapons. The first weapons used for war were those used in hunting:
spears, bows and arrows, axes, nets, and maces. Most weapons were made
of stone or wood, but after about 3000 B.C., advances in metalworking led
to the introduction of bronze weapons, with blades that were easier to
keep sharp. After about 1200 B.C., bronze was replaced by iron.
The number and variety of weapons increased as people developed
* artifact ornament, tool, weapon, or implements specifically for combat. Texts, illustrations, and artifacts* of
other object made by humans the Egyptians show the array of their weaponry. These weapons fell into
two groups: weapons intended to serve as an extension of the arm and
used at short range and weapons designed for long-range use. At times,
short-range weapons were adapted for long-range use.
Short-range weapons were meant to kill or disable opponents with
* cudgel short, heavy club bone-crushing blows. Maces, clubs, and cudgels* had weighted ends that
could strike an opponent with terrific force. Thrusting and stabbing
weapons were intended to pierce the body and penetrate vital organs.
They included daggers, straight swords, and lances (stabbing spears).
Slashing and cutting weapons, such as the battle-ax and single- and dou-
ble-edged swords combined the qualities of the other two types. That is,
they delivered cutting blows over a wide area of the body and, at the same
time, struck like clubs and could lop off limbs.
Ancient long-range weapons were missiles (objects that are thrown
through the air) launched either by hand or by a launching device. Hand-
launched missiles included stones, throwing sticks, throwing axes, and
javelins (spears for throwing). The longest-range missiles were those driven
by the energy of a launching device. Slingshots could be used to hurl stones
with accuracy and force. An example of this is described in the Hebrew
BIBLE, when the Israelite David uses a slingshot to kill the Philistine Goliath
(1 Kings 17:50). The longest-range weapon, however, was the bow and ar-
row. Early bows in Egypt consisted of a single long piece of wood bent into
a curved shape. The bows that developed later, called composite bows,
* sinew tough cord of tissue that were shorter and consisted of layers of wood, animal horn, and sinew*.
attaches muscles to bones Such bows were more powerful and more accurate than the earlier ones.
Similar weapons came into use across the Near East, but various re-
gions and cultures developed distinctive variations. In MESOPOTAMIA dur-
* third millennium B.C. period from ing the third millennium B.C.*, for example, the large number of words
3000 to 2001 B.C. for different kinds of axes, such as single-bladed and double-bladed, indi-
cates that axes were widely used not just as weapons but also in cere-
nomad person who travels from place monies and as a form of currency. The Scythians and other nomads* of
to place in search of food and pasture CENTRAL ASIA, who were among the most skilled horsemen and archers of
the ancient world, had bows that were small enough to handle on horse-
back but that could shoot powerfully over a long range. The Scythian ar-
rowheads had thorn-shaped projections that prevented an arrow from
being removed from a wound without causing more damage.
155
Weapons and Armor
Armor. Weaponrywas only partof asoldier's equipment. Warriors also
needed protection
from their enemy's attacks. Twomain types ofprotective
equipment came into use in the ancient Near
East: shieldsand protective
armor. Shields were portablebarriers, usually strappedto forearm,
one that
a soldier could position to block blows aimed at him. Most shields were
made of wood or of leather on a wooden frame. Because metalwas both
heavy and expensive, whole shields were rarely madeofmetal. However,
metal bands, studs, or spikes were usedon shields madeofother materials.
Egyptian wall paintings illustrating
ANA-HITTITES
a battle
of with
the
TOLIA (present-dayTurkey) show that they favoreda tall shield with
in-
dentations on its sides. This shield wasprobably intended to protect the

156
 Wheel
entire body. By the end of the second millennium B.C. (years from 2000 to
1001 B.C.), smaller, round shields were coming into use.
Ancient armies employed shields in several ways. One widely used
Uncovering tactic was to march infantry, or foot soldiers, forward in a solid block
called a phalanx. The soldiers were trained to march in rhythm and close
Ancient Armor enough together that their shields overlapped, presenting a solid wall to
The ancient Greeks believed
their enemy's arrows or spears. Another important use of shields was to
that the Saka people of the
Central Asian plains had in- protect the drivers of chariots and the archers who rode in the chariots.
vented several forms of battle The Hittites used three-man chariots, with one soldier who carried the
armor, including a large shield. shield to protect both the driver and the fighter.
The Greek historian Herodotus In addition to shields, soldiers sometimes wore protective clothing,
wrote that the Saka horses wore ar- such as helmets or body armor. Helmets were generally made of leather,
mored coats, Modern archaeolo-
gists have found evidence that the although metal plates might be attached to them. In Hittite Anatolia, hel-
Saka were skilled armorers. The ru- mets had pointed tops and flaps that protected the wearer's cheeks and
ins of the Temple of the Oxus, built neck. The Assyrians made helmets of hammered iron with bronze rivets.
in the 300s B.C. in present-day Crests and plumes often adorned warrior's helmets. These were some-
Afghanistan, contain many iron times symbols of rank but also may have helped identify members of a
plates from defensive armor. The
major part of a complete suit of ar-
particular force during the confusion of battle.
mor has also survived. Its plates are The earliest armor consisted of garments of leather or perhaps heavy
fastened together in overlapping felt, a dense woolen cloth. In the later part of the second millennium B.C.,
rows. Those plates may have been as swords and arrows became more powerful and lethal, people began
the best protection from the haz- wearing metal plates as armor. Scale armor, which consisted of many small
ards of ancient warfare. overlapping discs or plates, offered some protection from the enemy's
weapons, especially the supreme weapon, long-distance arrows. A soldier
portrayed on the King's Gate in the ruins of the ancient Hittite capital of
KHATTUSHA wears a sleeveless jacket that may have been made of leather.
Underneath it is what looks like a shirt of scale armor. Hittites and other
ancient soldiers may also have worn protective garments of chain mail,
many small metal rings sewn together in a flexible sheet.
The quest for more powerful weapons was paralleled by a drive to de-
velop lightweight, effective protection from them. For the people of the
ancient Near East, improved techniques of weapon and armor making
could make the difference between life and death. (See also Cavalry;
Chariots; Egypt and the Egyptians; Metals and Metalworking; Wars
and Warfare.)

Weaving See Textiles.

Wheat See Cereal Grains.

WHEEL
H istorians, archaeologists*, and other scholars consider the inven-
tion of the wheel one of the most important technological ad-
vances that occurred in the ancient Near East. The wheel made the
transport of people and goods easier and faster. It also led to develop-
ments in many aspects of life, particularly in trade and war.
157
Wine
* archaeologist scientist who studies past Archaeologists believe that the wheel used for transport was adapted
human cultures, usually by excavating from the potter's wheel, which was invented around 4000 B.C. The pot-
material remains of human activity
ter's wheel was set on an axle, which in turn was set within a bearing that
enabled the wheel to rotate freely. This freely rotating wheel enabled an-
* artisan skilled craftsperson cient Near Eastern artisans* to mass-produce pottery, which became a ne-
cessity with the establishment of cities. The first evidence of wheeled
vehicles—depictions in pictographs from URUK—date from the late
* fourth millennium B.C. years from fourth millennium B.C.* Most archaeological evidence of wheels, how-
4000 to 3001 B.C. ever, dates from after 3000 B.C. Before that time, sledges, or sleighs, and
pack animals were used to transport people and goods.
The earliest wheels in Mesopotamia were made using three planks of
wood that were cut to form a circle and held together by a thin strip of
lumber. These disk wheels were then fixed to an axle that was attached to
a cart. This type of wheel was soon adopted by the other cultures of the
ancient Near East. However, these wheels were heavy and clumsy, making
vehicles slow, and people continued to use sledges and animals for trans-
port. When wheeled vehicles were used, they were ox-drawn wagons,
two-wheeled or four-wheeled carts, or CHARIOTS, pulled by donkeys or
HORSES. These were used for passengers or for carrying goods.
* millennium period of 1000 years; pi. Over the millennia*, ancient Near Easterners improved the wheel in
millennia several ways, including the addition of a tire by which the wheel wore
down evenly. Eventually, tires of leather, and later, metal were used. The
most significant improvement was the creation of openings in the disks.
These eventually led to the invention of spokes, which were first por-
trayed in Hittite and Syrian carvings in the early second millennium B.C.
(years between 2000 and 1001 B.C.).
Wheels with spokes were lighter than disk wheels, and they could
carry their loads at faster speeds. Because their speed and lightness made
them more maneuverable, the spoked wheels were used in chariots to
transport soldiers. Around 400 B.C., the Persians turned chariot wheels
into weapons by mounting sharp, curved blades on them. When driven
into an enemy infantry formation, these blades could cut down troops.
Scholars are unsure of the extent of the impact the invention of the
wheel had on ancient Near Eastern society. Some believe that improved
TRANSPORTATION enabled people to move into cities even though they were
farther away from food sources and supplies because these could now be
easily imported. The invention of the wheel also stimulated the economy
because it created new professions, such as jobs for people who made
wheels and carriages. (See also Science and Technology.)

WINE
T he earliest evidence of wine making in the ancient Near East—dating
to about 3500 B.C.—was found in sediments inside a large pottery jar
at a site in IRAN. However, it is most likely that wine was produced much
earlier than that. In addition to grapes, wine was also made from other
fruits, including dates, figs, pomegranates, and plums.
Wine was a rare and valuable commodity* in southern MESOPOTAMIA,
* commodity article of trade which contains few regions suitable for the cultivation of grapes. De-
scribed as ''mountain beer" or "bright wine like the uncountable waters
158
 Witchcraft
of the river," wine was never plentiful in Babylonia. Wine consumption
was limited to the wealthiest classes, and wine was often presented as an
OFFERING to the deities. An expensive luxury item of trade, wine reached
BABYLON in the form of taxes from northern and western lands or as trib-
* tribute payment made by a smaller or ute* from defeated enemies.
weaker party to more powerful one, Vineyards were more commonly found in northern Mesopotamia,
often under the threat of force where the terrain was mountainous and the rainfall was sufficient for grape
cultivation. For instance, Assyria enjoyed favorable conditions for growing
grapes, with the best vineyards in the regions east of the city of NINEVEH.
The royal palace at KALKHU contained space for the storage of up to 528 gal-
lons of wine. Several clay tablets found in the palace describe the allocation
of wine rations to the members of the royal household, indicating that
wine was not as rare a commodity in Assyria as it was in Babylonia.
In Egypt, the cultivation of grapes was easier, and therefore the con-
sumption of wine was greater. However, because the cultivation of grapes
required IRRIGATION, wine was still largely a drink of the upper classes. Ar-
archaeologist scientist who studies past chaeologists* have found sealed wine jars with labels indicating where and
human cultures, usually by excavating when the wine was made, the name of the vintner (the person in charge of
material remains of human activity the vineyard), and the quality of the wine inside. The quality listed could
vary from simply "wine" to "very good" or "genuine" and, in at least one
case, "for merrymaking."
Depictions in tomb paintings as well as INSCRIPTIONS and texts have
also yielded considerable information on wine making and consumption
* Levant lands bordering the eastern in ancient Egypt. As in Mesopotamia, wine was often used to pay taxes
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- and as an offering to the gods. Wine was also well known SYRIA and in the
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West Levant*, as indicated by the many references to it in the Hebrew BIBLE.
Bank, and Jordan
(See also Food and Drink.)

WITCHCRAFT
T he use of MAGIC was widespread in the ancient Near East. Both white
magic, or helpful magic, and witchcraft, or black magic, were prac-
ticed. Magicians used incantations*, other special words, and objects such
as amulets* to control the supernatural world for specific purposes.
White magic, practiced openly in the ancient Near East, was closely re-
lated to both religion and medicine. It was generally used to protect peo-
incantation written or recited formula ple from harm. For example, it might have been used to cure someone by
of words designed to produce a given turning away the evil DEMONS who were believed to be causing the person's
effect illness. In contrast, witchcraft was used to deliberately harm others for the
amulet small object thought to have benefit of the witch or the witch's client. For instance, it might have been
supernatural or magical powers used to cause illness in someone the witch or warlock (male witch) dis-
liked. Because witchcraft was prohibited by law, it was practiced in secret.
People believed that witches were frequent and unpredictable causes of
harm, and they lived in constant dread of their black magic.
Many written sources from the ancient Near East describe white
magic, but little has been found about witchcraft. What is known about
witchcraft comes primarily from texts describing the white magic that was
used to combat it. Counterspells—spells designed to fight witchcraft—
dealing with almost every facet of life have been found, indicating that the
practice of witchcraft was common and widespread.
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Witchcraft
Methods of Witchcraft. Although their aims were different, witches
and people who practiced white magic usedthe sameor similar methods.
Of the two techniques most commonlyused,one was basedon analogy,
or similarity,and the other was basedon contiguity,or closeness.
In witchcraft based on analogy, an object that bore some resemblance
to a person was manipulated by the witch. The assumption was that
whatever happened to the object would happen to the person the object
represented. For example, a witch might prepare a doll so that it th
looked like a particular person. Then the witch would pierce the doll with
needles to cause pain orinjury to the person the doll resembled.
In witchcraft based on contiguity, an objector objects that had be-
longed to or been touched by a particular person were manipulated by
the witch. The assumption here, as in witchcraft basedon analogy, was
* divination art or practice of foretelling that whatever happened to the objects would also happen to the people
the future the objects had touched. For instance,a lockof hairor pieceof clothing
belonging to a person might be damaged or destroyed by a witch to
cause harm or death to the person from whom the hair or clothing had
been taken.
A special category ofwitchcraft thatwas commonin the ancient Near
East, especiallyin Mesopotamia,was the "evil eye." Thiswas a cursedi-
rected at another person to cause that person harm.Egypt, In ancient texts
mention people who were "red of eye/; which may be related to the Meso-
potamian evil eye. These people were believedtoSETH, be worshipersof
the god of chaos.The Hebrew Bible describesthe evileye as well,
but here
it was not a curse.Rather, it was the idea thatan enviousjealous
or person
could injure another with a look.
The spirits of dead people were believedto have supernatural powers
and knowledge, including thatof the future. Necromancywas a method
of divination* in which a magician tried to learn about future the by
communicating with spirits of the dead. Although necromancy was
practiced in many regions in the ancient Near
East, it was considereda
bad form of magic, practiced onlyby witches. Consequently,it was pun-
ishable by death.

Detecting and Punishing Witchcraft. Witchcraft was ill

throughout the ancient NearEast. Several law codes banned it and set
procedures to be followedin cases whereit was suspected.For example,
the law code issuedby the Babylonian
HAMMURABIking
B.C.
around 1750
states that bothwitchcraftand
false accusationsof
witchcraft were pun-
ishable by death. The Code of Hammurabi also spelled out how to deter-
mine if the person accusedof witchcraftwas actuallya witch.The
accused person was to be put through a test called the river ordeal in
which he, or more commonly she, plunged intothe watersof a river.If
the person drowned, he or she was presumedto be guiltyof witchcraft.If
the person survived,the presumptionwas of innocence.
Another way of dealing withwitchcraftwas spelledout in an ancient
Mesopotamian ritual calledMaqlu, meaning "burning/' This ritual,
which always took place at night, did not require that the witch's iden-
tity be known. Instead,effigy,
an or model,was usedin placeof the un-
known witch. Much of the ritual and its accompanying incantations
160
 Women, Role of
were aimed at associating the effigy with the real witch. At the end of the
ritual, the effigy was burned to punish the witch, whose true identity re-
mained unknown.
Although it is likely that witchcraft was practiced widely in the ancient
Near East, it is unlikely that many people were actually accused and put
through the river ordeal or some other type of trial. Because witchcraft was
always practiced in secret, the identity of a witch usually was not known.
Moreover, because a false accusation of witchcraft could mean death for
the accuser, people probably avoided accusations of witchcraft whenever
possible. (See also Amulets and Charms; Oracles and Prophecy; Rituals
and Sacrifice.)

WOMEN, ROLE OF
I n every major civilization of the ancient Near East, men dominated
the government, religion, and economy. Women did not enjoy equal
status with men although they had more rights in some places and times
than in others. Women's legal rights, both within the family and in soci-
ety as a whole, were generally defined and limited by men.
Although history does not tell of any organized resistance by women
to male authority, some individual women achieved considerable status
and power. These women usually came from elite, often royal, families.
Several were QUEENS who governed their states in their own right. Al-
though most women of the ancient world occupied humbler levels of so-
ciety, they filled numerous vital roles in addition to those of wives and
mothers. Their activities and responsibilities may have been viewed as
separate from men's, but they were essential to the functioning of society.

Mesopotamia. Women of the Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cul-

tures of MESOPOTAMIA could own property in their own names, even when
* third millennium B.C. years from 3000 married. As early as the third millennium B.C.*, their names appeared in
to 2001 B.C. records as property buyers. In the time of the Old Babylonian empire (ca.
1900-1600 B.C.), women could serve as witnesses to legal transactions, al-
* scribe person of a learned class who though they later lost this right. Women also served as scribes*, physi-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher cians, diviners*, artists, and performers, although in all of these roles they
* diviner person who foretells the future were outnumbered and overshadowed by men.
Information about the status of some Mesopotamian women comes
from the ruins of Nuzi, a Mitannian town in northeastern Mesopotamia.
Free women (as opposed to slaves) in Nuzi were active in the town's econ-
omy and in its courts, particularly in connection with the ownership of
land, which they acquired by purchase, inheritance, and grants from
rulers. They bought and sold goods, lent money, and made investments
alone or in partnership with other women and men. Although such activ-
ities show that women's legal status was equal to that of men, women par-
ticipated in economic activities outside the household only when there
were no men in their families to do so.
Babylonians developed the custom of sending a rich young woman
away to become a naditum. She lived apart from the world in an institu-
tion called a gagum, which was associated with a temple. As a naditum, a
woman was forbidden to marry and was expected to devote her life to
161
Women, Role of
prayer and religious worship. She controlled some private, portable prop-
* dowry money or property that a erty from her dowry*, such as money and jewelry, and with these goods
woman brings to the man she marries she could engage in business activities and investments. Because she was
free from the responsibilities of marriage and motherhood, a naditum was
able to become an important businessperson.
Mesopotamian women of the merchant class sometimes became
alewives, or owners and operators of taverns who also lent money to
farmers. Lower-class women had fewer opportunities to control their own
destinies. Those without men to provide for them sometimes performed
forced labor in dire conditions and received smaller rations than their
male counterparts. Such women worked in the wool-processing and
weaving industries.

Egypt. Ancient Egypt was a male-dominated society that made sharp

distinctions between men's and women's roles and occupations. Never-
theless, women enjoyed significant legal rights. They could inherit prop-
erty, own real estate, and on their deaths, leave it to whomever they
pleased. They could own slaves and free them. They could also conduct
economic and legal transactions, including lawsuits. Records even tell of
one woman who sued her father over ownership of some possessions.
A woman's work in ancient Egypt depended largely on her social sta-
tus or that of her husband. The titles given to women in Egyptian texts of-
Paying for fer clues about their roles. During the Old Kingdom period (ca. 2675-
a Man's Mistakes 2130 B.C.), elite and noble women bore such titles as "She-who-is-known-
Although women without to-the-king," the female version of a high-ranking male official's title.
male relatives faced many dif-
ficulties in the ancient Near East, a
Other descriptive titles, such as "inspector of treasure," reveal that women
husband or father was no guarantee worked in administrative positions as stewards for other powerful women.
of protection. A man's wife and chil- \ Some were in charge of state or temple storehouses of food and textiles,
dren were likely to suffer if he had while others worked in private households. Female weavers, wigmakers,
unpaid debts or other legal prob- singers, dancers, and doctors also appear in the records. As in Mesopota-
lems, A tetter from the Old Babylon-j mia, however, women formed a minority in most professions.
fan period describes just such a
situation: Women also had roles, although limited ones, in the temple cults* of
Egyptian religion. Texts contain accounts of priestesses of the goddess
Immediately after you left for
the trip, Imgur-Sin arrived here HATHOR and of female singers and dancers in the temples. During the New
and claimed: "He owes me Kingdom period (ca. 1539-1075 B.C.), a royal wife or daughter headed the
twenty shekels of silver/'He priesthood at the temple of AMUN at THEBES.
took your wife and daughter as Married Egyptian women generally ran their households. One Egypt-
pledges. Come back before your ian text even recommended to men that they let their wives run the
wife and daughter die from. ,.
constantly grinding barley while
house without male interference. In addition to overseeing the house-
in detention. Please get your hold, a wife might also have performed textile work for a temple or other
wife and daughter out of this. state institution or increased family income by selling or trading garden
produce, cakes, clothing, or pottery.
Female servants worked in houses and in the tasks of food and textile
preparation, but most skilled crafts were limited to men. It is possible that
some women worked outdoors as forced laborers as a form of punish-
ment. Generally however, there was a division of labor in Egypt between
cult system of religious beliefs and men's and women's work.
rituals; group following these beliefs
pantheon all the gods of a particular Anatolia. Although the pantheon* of the HITTITES of central ANATOLIA
culture (present-day Turkey) consisted of almost as many goddesses as gods who
162
 Women, Role of

received equal space and prominence in shrines and temples, the status
of women wasless equalin everyday life.An exampleof thiscan be
found in one Hittite story featuringa husband telling wife,
his "Youare a
woman and of a womanly nature:you know nothingat all."
A Hittite woman's activities were usually limited to her home. Her
roles were daughter,
wife, mother,and widow. Her power,if she had any,
was determined by her husband's statusand wealth.A king's daughteror
sister, for example, could become queenof a neighboring state. A rich
man'swife could command many servantsand have timefor leisure activ-
ities. She supervisedthe preparationof the family's
foodand clothing,
while ordinary womenperformed these tasks themselves.
Some women, however, had roles outside the home, although they
earned abouthalf as muchas men did. Thosefromthe poorer ranks of so-
ciety performed manual labor for wages. Some women workedin the
palace, and temple personnel included priestessesand female singers.
Midwives aided in birth, and women skilled in the magic arts werein de-
mand to help people suffering
from both physicalills suchas headaches
and supernatural ones such as attacks by witches.
The most powerful women in Hittite society were queens, someof
whom exercised considerable power and conducted official business in
their own names. Widowed queens held their power until death, which
meant that their influence overlapped with the reigns of their husband's
sons or stepsons, resulting in many strugglesfor powerin the palace.
Queens were able to strengthen their positions and to influence others by
using funds they controlled, their knowledgeof state secrets,and even
their supposedskills in spellsand magic.
163
Wood and Woodworking
Iran. Women in the Elamite civilization of western IRAN had higher status
than those in neighboring Mesopotamia. This may be reflected in the fact
* patron special guardian, protector, or that many cities in Elam had a goddess as their patron* deity. Some schol-
supporter ars also believe that the Elamites had a matrilineal system of inheritance
(one that ran from mother to daughter rather than from father to son). Ev-
idence for this comes from a letter from an Elamite king who claimed he
should rule Babylon because he was married to the oldest daughter of its
king. Other Elamite records show that women could serve as witnesses to
the swearing of oaths in legal transactions.
In contrast to the state of Elam, the PERSIAN EMPIRE, which dominated
* patrilineal descending through the Iran from 550 to 330 B.C., was organized along patrilineal* lines of de-
male line, from father to son scent and inheritance. Although women could not inherit their father's
goods, they could and sometimes did occupy positions of higher rank
than men. Records reveal that women sometimes supervised groups of
male workers and received equal or larger shares of rations.

* Levant lands bordering the eastern Syria and the Levant. In Syria and the Levant*, as elsewhere in the an-
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- cient Near East, women's status and roles depended largely on their male
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West connections. In the third millennium B.C., women of the royal household
Bank, and Jordan
held a significant place in the society of the Syrian city-state* of EBLA. The
* city-state independent state consisting king's mother and his primary wife had full access to the palace goods and
of a city and its surrounding territory
their management, a privilege they retained in the Canaanite and Israelite
cultures that later emerged in the region. The royal harem, or the ''women
of the king/' lived in their own building and were assisted by a group of of-
ficials. Sometimes these women were placed in charge of important parts
of palace work, especially textile manufacturing.
See Among the Israelites, many families raised livestock or engaged in
[color plate 13, farming. In such households, women and girls shared the work. Al-
vol. 2.
though women were raised primarily to be wives and mothers, the Book
of Samuel in the Hebrew BIBLE lists jobs that women performed outside
the home, including those of performer, cook, and baker. Some women
participated actively in trade. Israelite women had few legal rights, how-
ever. They could not divorce their husbands, and only rarely could they
inherit property. Unlike most Near Eastern societies, Israel barred women
from holding religious offices. Although this prohibition set Israelite
women apart, the existence of rules that established what roles women
could have in society was common in the ancient Near East. (See also
Childbirth; Children; Divorce; Egypt and the Egyptians; Family and
Social Life; Marriage; Pregnancy.)

WOOD AND
T he natural abundance of wood, together with its structural qualities
and the ease with which it can be worked, has made wood one of the
most widely used BUILDING MATERIALS for many millennia*. Throughout
WOODWORKING history, wood has remained popular not only for building but also for
crafts and necessities. Although the Near East is not noted for its exten-
sive timber resources, the inhabitants of the region have made use of
wood for a variety of purposes since ancient times.
164
 Wood and Woodworking
millennium period of 1,000 years; pi. Construction and Building. Circular huts dating to around 8000 B.C.
millennia were among the earliest wooden structures built in the ancient Near East.
These mud-covered HOUSES consisted of a timber frame with gaps filled
with twigs, reeds, and branches. As buildings became larger and more so-
* mud brick brick made from mud, phisticated, STONE or mud brick* often replaced wood as the primary
straw, and water mixed together and building material. However, builders did not abandon the use of wood for
baked in the sun construction. The remains of early stone houses indicate that wooden
posts were used as structural supports on the insides of walls.
Throughout the history of the Near East, certain parts of most struc-
tures continued to be made of wood. These included doors, door and win-
Building the dow frames, and roof beams. Sometimes roofs also contained twigs and
Tabernacle branches that were typically covered with mud or plaster. The roofs on
The Hebrew Bible describes some Greek buildings were made of baked clay tiles set over supporting
the construction of the taber-
nacle, a makeshift woodeivframed
wooden beams. In larger structures, such as palaces and great halls, tree
tent used for worship by the ancient j trunks often served as pillars to support the weight of the roof. Also, the
Israelites during their journey to the outer walls of many large buildings contained horizontal timber beams laid
Promised land: between layers of stone or masonry. The wooden beams added a measure
He [the craftsman] made up- of flexibility, which was especially important in the many EARTHQUAKE-
right frames, too, ofacada prone regions of the ancient Near East.
wood to support the tabernacle. Particularly fine ancient buildings contained wooden floors and walls
Each board was ten cubits high,
and had a width of a cubit and
that were decorated elaborately. Exotic and expensive woods such as cedar
a half; and at the sides of it, two were often used for the massive doors of temples and palaces.
tenon»piece$ jutted out, so that The type and amount of wood used for construction depended on the
each might be mortised to the resources available to each region. In ancient times, ANATOLIA (present-day
next; all the frame work of the Turkey), IRAN, and the Levant* contained large forests that provided local
tabernacle he made in this way. builders a ready supply of sturdy wood. The cedars of Lebanon were fa-
(Exodus 36:20-23) mous for their majestic size and their strength as building materials. Be-
cause it was difficult to cut and transport these huge trees across long
distances, only empires with substantial financial resources could afford to
use them. Pine, oak, and poplar trees provided most of the wood used for
Levant lands bordering the eastern building in the Near East.
shores of the Mediterranean Sea (present- In contrast to other areas of the region, Egypt and MESOPOTAMIA boasted
day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel), the West few timber resources. Those trees that were available, such as sycamore,
Bank, and Jordan
acacia, and date palms, were often not suited to large-scale construction
because they were smaller and their wood was of a lower quality. Societies
without access to substantial sources of timber either used the inferior-
quality local woods or imported what they needed from other regions.
Egypt imported cedar and other conifers (cone-bearing trees such as pine)
* ebony dark, heavy, and highly prized from Lebanon, as well as ebony* from the Sudan. Mesopotamians also
wood from certain tropical trees used Lebanese cedar as well as juniper wood from SYRIA and Anatolia. Be-
cause of the expense of transporting wood from so far away, imported
timber was used primarily in monumental ARCHITECTURE, such as PALACES
AND TEMPLES.

Woodworking. Besides its use as a building material, wood was widely

employed in the making of FURNISHINGS AND FURNITURE, such as tables,
stools, chairs, cabinets, chests, and beds. Woodworkers also created a
wide range of items, including screens, coffins, small statues and fig-
urines, utensils, musical instruments, TOOLS, and game boards. One of
the more interesting items fashioned from wood in Mesopotamia was an
165
Wood and Woodworking
early form of writing tablet consistingof two wooden boards joined with
a hinge.
Ancient Egyptian woodworkers achievedahigh degree ofskill
anddis-
played mastery over many artistic techniques. Some ofthese
skills
areevi-
dent from remainsoffurniture foundin royal tombs suchasthatof the
* veneer thin layer of material bonded pharaoh
to TUTANKHAMEN.One chest fromhis tomb contains aveneer*
of
the surface of an object IVORY and is inlaid with more than 30,000 piecesofivoryand ebony.The
* relief sculpture in which material is cut Phrygians of Anatolia were knownfor the beautyand quality of their
away to show figures raised from the wooden furniture. Archaeologists have recovered numerous tables, stands,
background and beds withbeautiful inlayed designs. HERODOTUS
TheGreek historian
described a wooden throne donated by the Phrygian king Midas to the
temple at Delphi in Greeceas"well worth seeing/'
Ancient carpenters' tools usedforwoodworking resembled their mod-
ern counterparts. These included saws, axes, chisels, planes,and wooden
rulers called cubit sticks.Early carpenters' tools were typically fashioned
from copper.AfterB.C.,
4000bronze becamethe most widely used material
for these tools,and iron tools became common
B.C. after
only1200

Wood in Shipbuilding. In ancient times, many ships werefrombuilt

wood, and constructing them required skilled woodworkers.
Reliefs*

166
 Work
from Egypt depict the process of building a ship, from preparing the
trees to be used to putting on the finishing touches. The various reliefs
show woodcutters chopping down acacia trees and splitting open the
* artisan skilled craftsperson trunks with axes. They also depict artisans* called joiners making planks
from the wood from which they constructed the ship's hull. These
planks were held together by wooden pegs (called tenons) fitted into
holes cut into the edge of each plank (called mortises). This was the basic
technique for shipbuilding in the ancient Near East.
Timber was also essential for making other forms of TRANSPORTATION. All
wheeled vehicles, from carts and wagons to CHARIOTS, were constructed of
wood. Most bridges in the ancient Near East were also wooden structures.
(See also Art, Artisans, and Artists; Ships and Boats; Wheel.)

Wool See Clothing; Sheep; Textiles.

WORK
I n the ancient Near East, as in the modern world, most people had to
work for their living. As the economy and way of life of the people of
the ancient Near East changed over thousands of years, the nature of
work also changed. By the end of the ancient period, Near Easterners were
engaged in many different types of work and occupations.
Before the development of AGRICULTURE, most people in a given com-
munity spent their time performing very similar tasks. The only real dif-
ferences, perhaps, were between men's and women's responsibilities.
However, the role of work in a person's life depended not just on that per-
son's gender but also on his or her social status. The class structure and
the economy also shaped the nature of work within each culture.

From Subsistence to Occupation. Before the development of agri-

* nomadic referring to people who travel culture, nomadic* groups lived by hunting and gathering wild foods.
from place to place in search of food or They lived in what economists call a subsistence economy, where indi-
pasture viduals or family groups each produce what they need to subsist, or stay
alive. Although there may have been some division of duties within
bands or communities in ancient subsistence economies, everyone basi-
cally had the same "job," which was the daily business of survival—of
obtaining food, clothing, and shelter.
See The shift from obtaining food by hunting and gathering to agricul-
(color plate 12,1 ture, which began around 9000 B.C., allowed people to occupy permanent
vol. 2.
settlements and to accumulate, store, and redistribute food. For the first
time, not everyone had to obtain each day's or each week's food for him-
self or his family. Some people could work at other tasks—specializing in
craft production, for example—and exchange the products of their labor
for food that other people cultivated and harvested. This was the begin-
ning of occupational diversity.

Society and Employment. The development of settled communities

was closely linked to other trends that affected work. One of these
167
Work
processes was URBANIZATION, the formation of urban centers as some set-
* city-state independent state consisting tlements grew into cities and city-states*. The people living in urban cen-
of a city and its surrounding territory ters were able to store large quantities of food for distribution among the
population. This allowed some people to work at other occupations or to
work at new specialized jobs to meet the needs of large communities.
As these sweeping changes took place in settled states, new social
classes emerged. A ruling class developed, and the growth of govern-
A fob With ments led to the rise of bureaucracies* that employed administrators and
Good Benefits later, scribes*. In the same way, the growth of large religious institutions
Between 1539 and 1075 a.c, the created work not only for priests and priestesses but also for those who
Egyptian workers who built and served the priesthoods and temples as servants, scribes, stewards, singers,
decorated the tombs at the Valley dancers, and diviners*.
of the Kings near Thebes lived at a
village called Dayr-al Madina, Be- A result of these changes was that society became increasingly hierar-
cause these workers were doing im- chical*, and the kind of work people did had much to do with their sta-
portant work for the king, they tus. Those in the royal and noble classes perhaps did nothing that a poor,
received many benefits that were hard-laboring peasant would consider "work/' but they had their own
not typical for workers of the an- obligations, such as administering justice and conducting diplomacy*.
cient Near East. Not only were the As ruling institutions, the state and the temple influenced other peo-
workers paid generously with differ^
ent foodstuffs, but they also had ple's work with forced labor. In many ancient Near Eastern societies, peo-
people to do their laundry and ser- ple owed the state or the temple a certain number of days of labor each
vants to help them with other daily j year in exchange for the food and clothing rations they received. Much of
tasks. Moreover, the workers' chil- that labor was devoted to agricultural production, although it might also
dren were educated and taught be directed toward the construction or repair of roads, bridges, irrigation
how to read and write, a privilege
usually reserved for nobility. canals, or public buildings. Some laborers worked on royal or temple es-
tates year-round.
Trade generated much work for people in the ancient world. For in-
stance, MERCHANTS bought and sold goods for long-distance exchange,
scribes kept records of their transactions, and handlers and boatmen
* bureaucracy system consisting of loaded and moved the goods by ship or animal CARAVAN.
officials and clerks who perform As members of society acquired wealth, they wanted to purchase fine,
government functions luxury goods as symbols of their status. Painters, jewelers, sculptors, and
* scribe person of a learned class who crafts workers such as potters and textile weavers worked to supply the de-
served as a writer, editor, or teacher mand for such goods. Large numbers of other artisans* were occupied pro-
* diviner person who foretells the future ducing everyday textiles, furniture, metalwork, POTTERY, SEALS, TOOLS, and
* hierarchical referring to a society or an household utensils for the general market.
institution divided into groups with People in the ancient Near East worked at occupations dealing with
higher and lower ranks many aspects of life. People working on farms might be shepherds, sheep
* diplomacy practice of conducting shearers, cattle fatteners, or managers, to name a few possibilities. There
negotiations between kingdoms, states, were doctors to attend to the sick and people to care for the dead. People
or nations
were needed to quarry* stones and to mine and process gems and metals.
* artisan skilled craftsperson Women worked as grain grinders, weavers, oil pressers, and nurses for ba-
* quarry to excavate pieces of stone by bies. Prostitution was also a known occupation, especially for women,
cutting, splitting, or (in modern times) some of whom worked for temples.
blasting

The Worker's Life. The majority of people in the ancient Near East al-
most never faced the dilemma of deciding what to do with their lives or
what kind of work to pursue. Those lucky enough to be born into a family
* apprentice individual who learns skills of artisans, priests, or scribes generally acquired the skills and education
or a profession from an experienced to work in these high-status fields. Such opportunities were rarely open
person in that field to individuals from the lower or peasant classes. Sometimes, however,
168
 Writing

experts took peasant or slave boys intotheir householdsasapprentices*

to whom they would teach atradeinexchangefor acertain numberof
years of labor.
Highly skilledor talented
free laborers received wages
fortheir
work,
sometimes in theform of silverand sometimesingrain. Such workers
probably had some degreeofcontrol over their lives. Theymayhave been
able to move aroundfreely and choose whenand forwhom they worked.
The same was probably trueofthosewhooperated theirownbusinesses.
At any given time, however, more people worked forced
as
semifree
or la-
* creditor someone to whom a debtis borers under the controlof apublic institutionor acreditor*. These people
owed did not receive wagesbut were paid only their rations,theamountfood
of
needed to keep them(Seealive.
also Art, Artisans,and Artists; Economy
and Trade; Labor and Laborers;Slaves andSlavery.)

Worship SeePrayer;Religion;Ritualsand
Sacrifice.

W byritingthewas one of the most important cultural contributions made

people of the ancient Near
East.
Beforethe inventionof
WRITING writing, most information had to becommunicated orally andcommitted
to memory. Writing, however, enabled detailed andprecise communica-
tion between people hundredsofmiles away.Italso permitted knowledge
to be accurately recorded and stored, and theneasily retrieved,
aftereven
hundreds of years.The abilityto record information through writingen-
abled the developmentofSOCIAL
advanced
INSTITUTIONS
in the early urban
societies of the NearEast.

The Development of Writing. Theearliest existing evidence ofwrit-

ing consistsofTABLETS
inscribed
CLAYfrom
the Sumerian
URUK thatof
city
date to aroundB.C.3300
Like most written records
MESOPO-
fromancient
TAMIA, theseare accounting lists thatrecord inventoriesofgoods.
Atthat
169
Writing
* urbanization formation and growth of early stage, writing mainly served the administrative function of RECORD
cities KEEPING. However, the need to keep accurate accounting records was not
* deity god or goddess the only inspiration for the invention of writing. Instead, writing was de-
veloped as a result of urbanization*. As societies of the ancient Near East
became increasingly urbanized, the temples began to take over many of a
city's productive activities. In Uruk, the temple of the city's deity* owned
The invention of writing in the ancient
Near East was a direct consequence of the
not only large tracts of agricultural land but also workshops that produced
demands of developing economies in the POTTERY, TEXTILES, SCULPTURE, metalwork, and other goods. The temple was
region. As early as 3500 B.C., clay tokens also responsible for coordinating the work of thousands of employees and
and bullae (balls) were used for record making sure they were paid by means of food and clothing rations. The
keeping and accounting purposes. As needs of administering such a complex enterprise necessitated a system
cities and city-state emerged, govern-
ments became centralized, and trade and
for recording all this information, leading to the invention of writing.
administration became more complex, ac- The earliest form of writing is called logographic because it used sym-
countants and scribes could no longer de- bols, or logograms (derived from the Greek words for word and writing) to
pend on this simple method of record communicate words and ideas. For example, the symbol for ox was a pic-
keeping. Their needs led to the invention ture of an ox's head. The early Sumerian writing system contained more
of writing, the aleph-beth, and later the
than 1,200 different logograms.
alphabet.

BBflEiOPMENT OF WRITING
Tokens and clay balls are used to record and store information.
Writing is invented at Uruk.
ca. 4000-3001 B.C. Sumerian scribes develop cuneiform writing.
Egyptians develop hieroglyphic script
Proto-Elamite script developed in Iran.

Egyptians develop hieratic, a cursive form of hieroglyphics*

ca. 3000-2001 B.C. Sumerian cuneiform spreads to northern Syria.
Elamites develop Elamite cuneiform system.
Akkadians adopt the cuneiform script.

Akkadian cuneiform spreads to Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt

Minoans develop hieroglyphic and Linear A scripts.
ca. 2000-1001 B.C. People of Syria and the Levant develop the first examples of the linear aleph-beth.
Semitic-speaking northern Syrians create cuneiform-type signs for aleph-beth.
Mycenean Greeks develop Linear 8 script.
Hittites develop hieroglyphics.

Phoenician traders transmit the aleph-beth to Greeks.

Greeks develop vowels for alphabet.
South-Semitic aleph-beth is developed in Arabia*
Aramaic language and aleph-beth spread throughout ancient Near East.
ca. 1000-1 B.C.
Egyptians develop demotic script.
Persians adapt the cuneiform script.
Following the Invasions of Alexander the Great, Creek is introduced throughout
the ancient Near East.

170
 Writing
Shortly after writing was invented in Mesopotamia, a logographic type
of writing known as HIEROGLYPHICS appeared in EGYPT. Most scholars believe
that the Egyptians borrowed the idea of writing from the Mesopotamians.
Others claim that the Egyptians developed it independently. In either
case, logographic writing systems were established in both societies by
about 3000 B.C., but they were used for quite different purposes. In Meso-
potamia, writing served primarily administrative functions, while the
Egyptians used it for INSCRIPTIONS and for religious texts.
* scribe person of a learned class who The earliest Mesopotamian scribes* used a pointed tool called a stylus
served as a writer, editor, or teacher to scratch signs on their clay tablets. However, they soon began to use a
stylus with a triangular-shaped tip to press the shape of the symbol into
the clay. The stylus made a wedge-shaped mark; consequently, logograms
were transformed into symbols composed of one or more variously ori-
ented wedge-shaped strokes. Over time, these symbols, called CUNEIFORM
writing, became more abstract and bore less resemblance to the original
logograms.
Meanwhile, scribes also invented symbols that stood for the syllables
Which Way Is Up? that formed a word rather than objects representing it. This made it easier
to express abstract ideas in writing. For instance, they took the logograms
One of the challenges an-
cient writing posed for
for the noun "water" (a), and the verb "to strike" (ra), and combined them
modern scholars who first to produce the Sumerian word ara, which translates as "to the." Before
attempted to decode and they began using syllables, such words as ara could not be written.
interpret it was figuring out The move away from a purely logographic system was a significant step
in which direction it should be in the evolution of writing. The early logograms had meaning irrespective
read. Early Sumerian writing was
of language. Cuneiform symbols that represented syllables could be used to
originally read top to bottom, start-
ing in the upper right hand corner write words in any language that contained similar syllables. Once a word
of the tablet Later, the symbols in a particular language was spelled out, it could be sounded out by anyone
were written and read left to right who could read the script, but it made sense only to a speaker of that lan-
In some cultures the writing had no guage. Compared to fully logographic systems, this method of writing,
fixed direction—sometimes it was called a syllabary, was easier to learn and use because it required fewer signs.
read right to left, and at other times
it was read left to right. One partic-
As Sumerian cuneiform spread across the Near East, local peoples adapted it
ularly interesting method was to write their own languages. They added symbols for syllables in their lan-
calW boustrophedon, which liter- guages that did not exist in Sumerian. Most of these writing systems, how-
ally means "turning like oxen in ever, continued to use logograms as well as syllables.
plowing/' Here, one line is read left In Egypt, hieroglyphics remained in use for more than 3,000 years. Like
to right, while the next is read right
cuneiform, it consisted of syllabic signs as well as logographic signs. During
to left, alternating in this way
throughout the entire document or its long history, two cursive forms of Egyptian hieroglyphics—hieratic and
inscription. demotic—were adopted for use in writing in everyday practical matters.
The Hittites of ANATOLIA (present-day Turkey) also developed a hiero-
glyphic writing system of their own during the second millennium B.C.
(years from 2000 to 1001 B.C.). This script remained in use in the Neo-
city-state independent state consisting Hittite city-states* of northern Syria until about 700 B.C. Hittite hiero-
of a city and its surrounding territory glyphs were generally used for royal seals and inscriptions on buildings
and sculptures.

Further Developments. The next step in the development of writing

was the use of symbols to represent just the individual consonants. This
Semitic of or relating to a language occurred among Canaanite speakers sometime before 1500 B.C. Early Se-
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, mitic* writing used a system known as the aleph-beth, which had no sym-
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician bols for vowels. The reader had to supply the proper vowel depending on
171
Xerxes
the context of the writing. For example, it is easy to determine the mean-
ing of the following sentence even without vowels—"Th mn grbs th
bttl." The Phoenicians, who traded extensively across the Mediterranean
Sea, were probably responsible for the transmission of the aleph-beth
writing to the Greeks during the 800s B.C. The Greeks added symbols for
their vowels, creating the first true alphabet. Later, the Romans adopted a
modified version of the Greek alphabet, which continues to be in use for
almost all Western languages.

Literacy. In Mesopotamia and Egypt, only a small segment of the pop-

ulation was literate—able to read and write. Even the majority of kings in
the ancient Near East were illiterate. Only three Mesopotamian kings are
known to have been trained as scribes—SHULGI of UR, Lipit-Ishtar of Isin,
and ASHURBANIPAL of Assyria. In contrast, Egyptian princes were appar-
ently regularly trained as scribes during their youth.
The rate of literacy was low because very few people in the ancient
Near East received an EDUCATION. Because schools were controlled by the
state or by temples, the political and religious elites effectively controlled
a society's knowledge. For instance, it was in the interest of the scribal
class to limit the spread of literacy. This enabled them to maintain their
high social position, which they gained from their ability to read, write,
and keep society functioning smoothly. On the other hand, societies that
lacked an established scribal class, such as the ancient Aramaeans, had
less reason to restrict literacy and more incentive to adopt new forms of
writing that were easier to master.
The development of an alphabetic system made writing and learning
more accessible to the people of the ancient Near East. Instead of a confus-
ing system of many hundreds of symbols that took years to master, alpha-
bets had fewer than 30 characters that could be learned in a matter of days
or weeks. In Syria, Canaan, Phoenicia, and Israel during the first millen-
nium B.C. (years from 1000 to 1 B.C.), many people learned to read and
write well enough to conduct their daily business. Some scholars estimate
the literacy rate in classical Greece (ca. 500 B.C.) at about 30 percent, which
was dramatically higher than in Mesopotamia or Egypt. (See also Books
and Manuscripts; Communication; Epic Literature; Languages; Litera-
ture; Schools; Scribes; Semitic Languages; Sumer and the Sumerians;
Sumerian Language.)

B was
est known for his campaigns against Greece, Xerxes (ZUHRK^seez)
one of the most famous kings of the PERSIAN EMPIRE. He was the
XERXES son of the Persian ruler DARIUS I and Atossa, the daughter of CYRUS THE
GREAT. Named heir to the throne instead of his elder brother, Artabazanes,
Xerxes became ruler of Persia after the death of his father in 486 B.C. By
ruled 486-465 B.C. that time, Xerxes had had a great deal of administrative experience, hav-
Persian king ing governed the province of Babylonia for more than a decade.
When Xerxes ascended the throne, one of his first concerns was to re-
gain control of Egypt, where a local ruler had usurped* power. In 484 B.C.,
172
 Yahweh
* usurp to wrongfully occupy a position Xerxes and his armies invaded the delta* region of Egypt and put down
* delta fan-shaped, lowland plain formed the revolt, regaining control of the country.
of soil deposited by a river When Xerxes learned of a rebellion in BABYLON, he sent his son-in-law
to reconquer the city in 482 B.C. This reconquest was followed by violent
* fortification structure built to repression during which temples and fortifications* were plundered* and
strengthen or protect against attack destroyed. Xerxes also canceled the special status that Babylon had en-
* plunder to steal property by force, joyed since its incorporation into the Persian empire.
usually after a conquest After Xerxes had resolved the difficulties in Egypt and Babylon, he
planned an invasion of Greece. Responding to pressure from his advisers,
he became determined to avenge the defeat that his father, Darius, had
suffered at the hands of the Greeks nearly a decade before. After three
years of preparation, Xerxes was ready to invade Greece.
In 480 B.C., Xerxes led a force of at least 300,000 soldiers and hun-
dreds of ships across the Hellespont (present-day Dardanelles), the nar-
* strait narrow channel that connects row strait* separating Europe and Asia, and entered Greece. The Persians
two bodies of water enjoyed a few early successes, including victory over a small band of
Greeks at a mountain pass called Thermopylae and the capture and plun-
der of the city of Athens. However, the tide of war changed when the
Greeks destroyed the Persian fleet at the battle of Salamis. Without a fleet
to bring supplies, Xerxes and his armies were forced to retreat into ANATO-
LIA (present-day Turkey). The following year, a Greek victory at a battle
near Plataea in central Greece forced the Persian troops to withdraw from
the region.
Little is known of Xerxes' last 14 years except that he launched a vast
building program at PERSEPOLIS. Xerxes and the crown prince were assassi-
nated by a member of his bodyguard in 497 B.C. He was succeeded by his
son ARTAXERXES I. (See also Babylonia and the Babylonians; Persian
Wars; Susa and Susiana.)

Ythe
ahweh is the God of the Hebrews (or Israelites) whose worship led to
development of Judaism, the first monotheistic* religion. The
YAHWEH early Israelites often referred to Yahweh as EL, a Semitic* term meaning
"god," and also as Elohim, a Semitic term for "gods" that was understood
to apply to the one God. The name Yahweh, which comes from the He-
brew root word hay ah, "to be," is often interpreted to mean "I am that I
* monotheistic referring to the belief in am"; "He was, He is, He ever will be"; or "He causes [things] to be."
only one god According to the Hebrew BIBLE, the sacred book of Judaism, Yahweh is
* Semitic of or relating to a language the creator of the universe and everything in it. Jews trace the foundation
family that includes Akkadian, Aramaic, of their religion to the time when Yahweh made a covenant, or solemn
Arabic, Hebrew, and Phoenician agreement, with the patriarch* Abraham (also called Abram). Yahweh
* patriarch male leader of a family or promised Abraham that he would have an heir and many descendants
tribe and that the land of CANAAN (known as the Promised Land) would belong
to them.
Yahweh first revealed his true name to the Israelite leader MOSES dur-
* exodus migration by a large group of ing the exodus* of the Israelites from Egypt. At that time, Yahweh made a
people, usually to escape something new covenant with the Israelites and gave them the TEN COMMANDMENTS,
unpleasant a set of laws to observe.
173
Ziggurats
Some scholars believe that worship of Yahweh developed from wor-
ship of the Canaanite god El, who was the king of the gods and the cre-
ator of the earth. Eventually, the Israelites began to identify El with
Yahweh, a storm god. Although Yahweh could be portrayed as a warlike
god, he eventually came to be seen as a benevolent father who had cho-
sen the Jews to fulfill a special destiny.
While it is possible that the early Israelites believed that Yahweh had
a human form, they certainly later believed that he did not have a specific
form and therefore could not be represented. As a result, Yahweh is not
depicted in art or sculpture. (See also Hebrews and Israelites; Judaism
and Jews; Mosaic Law; Sinai, Mount.)

F
ound mainly in ancient Mesopotamia, ziggurats were large, multi-
story structures with steps leading to a temple at the top. Although
ZIGGURATS their general shape resembled that of the Egyptian pyramids, there
were many differences between the two structures. While most later pyra-
mids had smooth, sloping walls, ziggurats, like the earlier stepped pyra-
mids, resembled a series of rectangular boxes, set one atop the next. Also,
the pyramids were built as tombs and funeral shrines for deceased kings,
whereas ziggurats served as temples for the local gods of the cities in which
they were located. Although no intact ziggurat exists today, archaeolo-
* archaeologist scientist who studies past gists* have been able to reconstruct them by studying their ruins and an-
human cultures, usually by excavating cient descriptions that have survived.
material remains of human activity

HISTORY OF ZIGGURAT CONSTRUCTION

The first ziggurats, built in SUMER sometime before 3000 B.C., were simply a
single, large platform on top of which sat a temple. The temple was
reached by climbing a stairway or ramp. Over time, the ziggurat changed
to include additional platforms stacked on top of one another. The earliest
See "true" ziggurat, consisting of more than one level, was probably con-
[color plate 14, structed by King UR-NAMMU, founder of the Third Dynasty of UR, around
vol. 3.
2100 B.C. Its base is believed to have measured 210 by 160 feet, and the
completed building might have been nearly 50 feet high. A reconstructed
version of this early ziggurat, which was dedicated to the moon god
Nanna, remains at the site of the ancient city. Like many early ziggurats, it
consisted of three platforms, topped by a temple. The basic design soon
evolved to consist of four stories, and later ziggurats were built with as
many as seven levels. Moreover, some earlier ziggurats were expanded to
include additional stories.
The most famous ziggurat was a seven-story structure built in the city
of BABYLON in the early 500s B.C. by King Nebuchadnezzar II, on a founda-
tion that possibly dates back to King HAMMURABI, who ruled in the early
1700s B.C. According to some ancient sources, the ziggurat rose some 300
feet above the ground and might have been the inspiration for the story
of the Tower of Babel in the Hebrew BIBLE. The largest surviving ziggurat,
174
 Ziggurats
built in the 1200s
B.C., is at Chogha Zambil in Elam. Rising more than 78
feet from the ground, the ziggurat still stands at half its original height.

STRUCTURE
AND
FUNCTION
ZIGGURATS
OF
Although they all originatedfrom the same basic plan, ziggurats were
constructed indifferentforms indifferent regions of Mesopotamia. De-
spite the differences in architecture, all ziggurats were designed to serve as
a platform for the temple of the city's god.

Southern Ziggurats. The civilizations of southern Mesopotamia—

Sumer and Babylonia—built ziggurats in what is considered the classic
form. The ziggurat was situated in a walled courtyard that was entered by
means of gateways. A large platform coveringan areaof aboutan acre
formed the base of the structure. The corners of the platform were aligned
with the four major points of the compass. This lower platform, like the
* mud brick brick made from mud, ones above it, was a solid structure made of clay and sun-dried mud brick*.
straw, and water mixed together and Unlike the pyramids, ziggurats had no interior passageways or chambers.
baked in the sun Most ziggurats had three staircases that led from the ground to the
lower level. All the staircases were on one side of the building. Two of
them ran along the outside wall, and the third was perpendicular to the
wall face and extended some distance away from the base of the ziggurat.
Remains of a ziggurat at Ur indicate that only one staircase led to the top
of the building. At the top of the ziggurat was a ''high temple" to the local
god. A "lower temple" for other gods was usually located at the baseof the
ziggurat.
Although impressively designed and built, ziggurats were not very
durable. During heavy rain, water penetrated the mud brick interiors and
caused them to soften. Over time, the weight of the upper levels would

175
Zimri-Lim
cause the lower walls to bulge and eventually collapse. Several texts from
ancient Mesopotamia indicate that the rulers expected this to happen. To
The Tower of Babel try to preserve the structure as long as possible, all ziggurats incorporated
The ancient Mesopotamians be* features such as internal drainpipes to drain water away from the building.
lieved that the temple on top of a
ziggurat was a place where their
Some ziggurats also contained layers of reeds and bitumen (tarlike sub-
god might come down to earth. stance used for waterproofing) between each level to absorb extra mois-
However, according to the Hebrew ture. Notwithstanding these precautions, many ziggurats had to be rebuilt
Bible, its purpose was quite differ- every 100 years or less.
ent. According to the story of the
Toweraf Babelln the Book of Gene- Northern Ziggurats. The ziggurats in northern Mesopotamia were
sis 11:1 *9, Noah's descendants at-
tempted to build a tower that they
similar in design and construction to southern ones, but with a few differ-
hoped would reach heaven. How- ences. Assyrian ziggurats were typically square, not rectangular like the
ever, to prevent them from com- ones in the south. The four corners were not always aligned to the points of
pleting construction, their god the compass, nor were the external stairways the only means of reaching
made them speak different lan- the temple at the top. However, the most important difference between the
guages so they could not under-
stand one another. The tower was
two types of ziggurats was their physical surroundings. Sumerian and Baby-
never completed, and Noah's de- lonian ziggurats stood alone on a site, while the Assyrians incorporated
scendants scattered over the face o their ziggurats into larger temple complexes that contained other build-
the earth. This story is said to ac- ings. These temple complexes were constructed on three platforms. The
count for the origin of the world's first, or lowest, platform was simply a courtyard surrounding the buildings
different languages. on the site. The second platform contained the main temple of the god.
The ziggurat was the third, and highest, platform in the group.

Function of Ziggurats. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that the

ziggurats served as a link between humans and the gods. Every important
city contained a ziggurat dedicated to its local god. The structure rose to
* deity god or goddess the sky, enabling the deities* to descend from heaven to visit their sub-
jects. The high temple on top of the ziggurat received the god when he or
she first descended from the sky. The lower temple at the base received
the deity upon reaching the earth. The names given to many ziggurats ex-
press the idea that ziggurats were the stairways of the gods. The name of
the ziggurat in the city of Sippar meant "the staircase to holy heaven/'
while the great ziggurat in Babylon was called "the temple which is the
foundation of heaven and earth." In some ziggurats, the high temple had
a bedchamber in which sacred marriage ceremonies took place. In these
ceremonies, the king would enact a ritual with a priestess of the temple to
ensure the fertility and prosperity of the kingdom. (See also Architecture;
Assyria and the Assyrians; Palaces and Temples.)

Zimri-Lim was the king of MARI, a city-state* located on the upper EU-
PHRATES RIVER in present-day Syria. Historians know more about sec-
ZlMRI-LlM ond millennium B.C.* Mari than about any other Near Eastern culture of
this period because official records and many of the king's personal letters
have survived. These sources have enabled historians to reconstruct a de-
ruled ca. 1776-1761 B.C. tailed picture of Mari society during Zimri-Lim's reign.
King of Mari Zimri-Lim was the son of a former king of Mari who had been de-
feated and removed from power by the Assyrian king SHAMSHI-ADAD I.
176
 Zodiac
* city-state independent state consisting Around 1776 B.C., shortly after Shamshi-Adad's death, Zimri-Lim re-
of a city and its surrounding territory claimed his father's throne. When the city-state of ESHNUNNA allied itself
* second millennium B.C. years from with his enemies and attacked Mari, Zimri-Lim joined forces with the
2000 to 1001 B.C. neighboring Syrian city-state of Aleppo. He successfully defeated his ri-
vals and increased his power by forcing the rulers of several cities near
Mari to swear loyalty to him.
Zimri-Lim had a friendly political relationship with the great Baby-
lonian king HAMMURABI. He sent troops to aid Hammurabi's attack on the
city-state of LARSA. Still, Zimri-Lim did not trust his more powerful neigh-
bor, and his suspicions were soon justified. After the siege of Larsa, the
Babylonians entered Mari. Over the next two years, they recorded the
city's valuables, seized them, and then burned Mari to the ground. Zimri-
Lim's fate is unknown, and scholars are still unsure why Hammurabi de-
cided to destroy his ally's capital. (See also Assyria and the Assyrians;
Babylonia and the Babylonians.)

B abylonian astronomers were the first to observe that the SUN, moon,
and PLANETS move across the sky within a narrow, imaginary band.
ZODIAC This band, called the zodiac, extends about nine degrees on either side of
the ecliptic—the path in which the sun appears to travel during the
course of a year. The astronomers also identified constellations* on the
ecliptic. By about 1100 B.C. they had named 17 such constellations and
* constellation group of stars that is used them to mark the locations of the moon and planets.
thought to resemble, and is named Around 500 B.C., Babylonian astronomers divided the band of the zo-
after, an object, animal, or mythological diac into 12 equal sections, each named for a prominent constellation con-
character
tained within the section. The name of each constellation became the
name of that segment, or sign, of the zodiac. The 12 signs of the zodiac in
modern astrology are direct descendants of the signs of the Babylonian zo-
diac. Their modern names—Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Li-
bra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces—are nearly direct
translations of the original names given to the constellations by the Greeks
when they borrowed the zodiac from the Babylonians during the late Hel-
Hellenistic referring to the Greek- lenistic* period.
influenced culture of the Mediterranean Over a period of many hundreds of years, Babylonian astronomers,
world and western Asia during the three using the zodiac, compiled enormous amounts of data about the posi-
centuries after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C.
tions of planets and STARS. They were eventually able to use MATHEMATICS to
determine the location of planets. Using these data, they could predict
where the heavenly bodies would be on any given date, even if the sky
was too overcast for direct observation. The Babylonians were able to use
this information in their practice of astrology—the interpretation of the
movement and relationships of the sun, moon, visible planets, and stars
in order to predict eclipses as well as human affairs and events. Because
astrologers could refer to the zodiac to determine exactly where each
planet was when a person was born, they could draw a horoscope—a map
of the heavens at the moment of birth. Astrologers then interpreted that
map, determining what the positions of the planets at birth meant for a
given person's life. At first, horoscopes related only to the king or to the
state as a whole. However, by the 300s B.C., astrologers had begun to draw
177
Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism

Dating from the third millennium B.C., this

clay tablet from Uruk is inscribed with the
drawings of several constellations, or
groups of stars. On the left, Corvus, a
raven, pecks at the tail of a serpent,
Hydra. The star (center) represents the
planet Mercury, and the figure holding a
spike (right) symbolizes Virgo.

horoscopes for individuals as well. Beginning in the 200s B.C., Babyloni-

ans, especially at Uruk, began to use images of the signs of the zodiac, ei-
ther individually or in groups of twos or threes, as decorations on finger
rings that could be used as seals. (See also Astrology and Astrologers; As-
tronomy and Astronomers; Lunar Theory; Oracles and Prophecy.)

ZOROASTER AND F ounded by a Persian prophet* and religious reformer named

Zoroaster (ZOH»ruh»as«tuhr) in the late 600s B.C., Zoroastrianism
(zoh»ruh»AS«tree»uh»ni»zuhm) is a Persian religion that still sur-
vives in some parts of IRAN and India. One of its notable features is a belief
ZOROASTRIANISM in monotheism*, and some scholars believe that this aspect of Zoroastri-
anism may have influenced other monotheistic faiths, including Ju-
daism, Christianity, and Islam.
* prophet one who claims to have Little is known about Zoroaster, who was also known as Zarathustra.
received divine messages or insights According to tradition, he was born in eastern Iran in about 628 B.C. Per-
* monotheism belief in only one god haps a member of a family of knights, he was credited with having
knowledge of magical practices. When Zoroaster became a priest, how-
ever, local religious and civil authorities opposed his teachings. This was
largely because Zoroaster focused his teachings on one god, AHURA
MAZDA, or ''Wise Lord", whom he considered the highest god and the
only one worthy of worship. Zoroaster believed that he had received a vi-
sion from Ahura Mazda in which the god told him to teach the truth. At
that time, however, most religions were polytheistic, or based on a belief
in many gods.
According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda was the creator of heaven and
earth, the supreme lawgiver, the center of nature, and the originator of
order in the universe. Although supreme, Ahura Mazda was not the only
178
 Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism

Fire is a sacred symbol to the Zoroastrians,

who keep their altars, shown here, perpet-
ually lit. The importance that ancient Per-
sians accorded fire is evident from a relief
in the tomb of Darius I, which shows the
king praying before a blazing fire altar.

spirit, however. He was surrounded by several immortal beings called

amesha spentas, whom he had also created. These beings represented such
The Magi qualities as truth, justice, righteousness, devotion, and salvation. Because
Before the establishment of Zoroas- \ Zoroaster maintained that the world was divided into good and evil, he
trianism, the priests of Persia were also believed that there were evil spirits—daevas—ruled by a being
known as Magi or Magians. Famed
for their skills in astrology, they
named Angra Mainyu, or AHRIMAN, the source of darkness and lies. Ac-
adopted the religion of Zoroaster a cording to Zoroaster, there was a great war in progress, both on earth and
their own. In fact, it is possible that in the heavens, between the forces of good and evil. He believed that
Zoroaster himself was a Magi. The Ahura Mazda allowed humans to choose between good and evil and to
Magi acquired great power be- decide which side to serve.
cause of their knowledge of sacred
Because humans were free to determine their own fate, those who
rituals, and at times, they exerted
great influence on the Persian gov-
chose good and proved their worth through good words, thoughts, and
ernment. Many ancient writers deeds would be rewarded. Those who chose evil would be punished.
revered them as wise men, and Zoroaster taught that after death, the soul of every human received judg-
their supposed power over demons j ment from Ahura Mazda. The good entered the kingdom of everlasting
gave rise to the word magic. The joy and light, while the evil fell into the kingdom of misery and darkness.
Magi also appear in the Christian
religion as the three wise men who
Zoroaster also taught that, in the end, good would triumph over evil, Ah-
followed a star and brought gifts to j riman would be destroyed, and the world would be renewed and inhab-
the infant Jesus at Bethlehem. ited by the good.
Zoroaster's teachings are compiled in the Gathas, which form part of
the Zoroastrians' holy book, the Avesta. The Gathas include early HYMNS
believed to have been written by Zoroaster. These hymns contain many
179
Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism
references to the basic beliefs of Zoroaster and are the only evidence of
what the prophet actually taught. In addition to hymns, the Avesta also
12,000 Years contains sections dealing with ritual and sacrifice that were to be fol-
of Existence lowed by Zoroastrian priests during worship.
According to Zoroastrianism, the According to tradition, Zoroaster lived for 77 years and died in about
history of the universe is divided 551 B.C. Many legends about him arose after his death, including stories
into four periods of 3,000 years
each. During the first three periods,
that credited him with being a skilled healer, artisan, astrologer, and ma-
totaling 9,000 years, a great battle gician. He also was said to have founded sacred fires. This idea may have
rages between Ahura Mazda and been associated with the ancient Persian respect for fire, which was later
Ahriman—the forces of good and incorporated into Zoroastrianism. The Zoroastrians believed that fire was
evil—for dominance. In the fourth a symbol of Ahura Mazda, and a fire was always kept burning in Zoroas-
3,000-year period, however, a sav-
trian temples.
ior, known as Saoshyant, is ex-
pected to appear and help forces of The early Persian kings were among the first followers of Zoroaster, al-
good triumph over evil. The dead though other Persians soon adopted Zoroastrianism as well. By the early
will then rise for a final judgment, 500s B.C., Zoroastrianism had become the major religion of the PERSIAN
and good will reign forever after. EMPIRE, and it was made the official state religion of Persia in the A.D. 200s.
When the Muslims took over Persia in the 600s, many Zoroastrians
sought refuge in India, where they became known as Parsis. (See also Gods
and Goddesses; Magic; Monotheism; Mythology; Religion.)

180
 SUGGESTED READINGS

ATLASES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS

Aharoni, Yohanan, and Michael Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Leick, Gwendolyn. Who's Who in the Ancient Near East.
Bible Atlas. Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1977. London and New York: Routledge, 1999.
Raines, John, and Jaromir Malek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Manley, Bill. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient
New York: Facts on File, 1980. Egypt. New York and London: Penguin Books,
Bienkowski, Piotr, and A. R. Millard. Dictionary of the 1996.
Ancient Near East. Philadelphia: University of McEvedy, Colin. The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History.
Pennsylvania Press, 2000. London: Penguin Books, 1967.
Branigan, K., ed. The Atlas of Archaeology. New York: St. Pritchard, James B., ed. The Ancient Near East; Supplementary
Martin's Press, 1982. Texts and Pictures Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton,
Freedman, David Noel, ed. Anchor Bible Dictionary. New N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969.
York: Doubleday, 1992. Radice, Betty. The Penguin Who's Who in the Ancient World.
Grant, Michael. Ancient History Atlas. New York: Macmil- New York: Penguin Books, 1973.
lan, 1971. Roaf, Michael. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the
. From Alexander to Cleopatra: The Hellenistic World. Ancient Near East. Oxfordshire, England: Andromeda
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1982. Oxford Ltd., 1996.
*Haywood, John. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations Sasson, JackM., ed. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East.
of the Near East and Mediterranean. Library Reference ed. 4 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995.
Armonk, N.Y.: Sharpe Reference, 1997. Speake, Graham, ed. The Penguin Dictionary of Ancient
Kuhrt, Amelie, and Susan Sherwin-White, eds. Hellenism in History. New York: Penguin Books, 1995.
the East: Interaction of Greek and Non-Greek Civilizations Whitehouse, Ruth D., ed. The Facts on File Dictionary of
from Syria to Central Asia After Alexander. London: Duck- Archaeology. New York: Facts on File, 1983.
worth, 1987.

HISTORY
Bright, John. A History of Israel. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: West- Kuhrt, Amelie. The Ancient Near East. 2 vols. London and
minster Press, 1981. New York: Routledge, 1995.
The Cambridge Ancient History. 3rd ed. 12 vols. New York: Nissen, Hans J. The Early History of the Ancient Near East,
Cambridge University Press, 1970-1998. 9000-2000 B.C. Translated by Elizabeth Lutzeier and
The Cambridge History of Iran. 7 vols. Cambridge, England: Kenneth J. Northcott. Chicago: University of Chicago
Cambridge University Press, 1968-1991. Press, 1988.
Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Oates, Joan. Babylon. London: Thames and Hudson, 1986.
Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. New Potts, Timothy. Mesopotamia and the East: An Archaeological
York: Thames and Hudson, 1994. Study of Foreign Relations ca. 3400-2000 B.C. Oxford, En-
*Corbishley, M. J. The Near East. The Legacy of the Ancient gland: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, 1994.
World Series. Kernel Hempstead, England: Macdonald Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating
Young Books, 1995. to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
*Currah, Ann. From Cities to Empires. This Is Our World University Press, 1969.
Series. Glasgow, Scotland: Collins, 1975. Reade, Julian. Mesopotamia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
Dunstan, William E. The Ancient Near East. Fort Worth, University Press, 1991.
Tex.: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1998. Saggs, H. W. F. Civilization Before Greece and Rome. New
Herodotus of Halicamassus. The Histories. Edited by Carolyn Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989.
Dewald. Translated by Robin Waterfield. New York: Oxford Starr, Chester G. A History of the Ancient World. New York:
University Press, 1998. Oxford University Press, 1991.

*Asterisk denotes book for young readers 181

Suggested Readings

CULTURE AND SOCIETY

*Anatolia: Cauldron of Cultures. Lost Civilizations Maisels, Charles Keith. The Emergence of Civilization: From
Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture, Cities, and
1995. the State in the Near East. London and New York:
*Bianchi, Robert Steven. The Nubians: People of the Routledge, 1993.
Ancient Nile. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, *Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings. Lost Civilizations
1994. Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1995.
*Church, Alfred]., and Arthur Oilman. The Story of Moscati, Sabatino, ed. The Phoenicians. New York: Rizzoli
Carthage. Austin, Tex.: BookLab, 1996. Bookstore, 1991.
Crawford, Harriet E. W. Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbors. Murnane, William]. The Penguin Guide to Ancient Egypt.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. London: Penguin Books, 1983.
Curtis, John. Ancient Persia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard *Odijk, Pamela. The Phoenicians. The Ancient World
University Press, 1990. Series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Silver Burdett Press,
David, A. Rosalie. Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. New 1989.
York: Facts on File, 1998. * . The Sumerians. Ancient World Series. Englewood
Dicks, Brian. The Ancient Persians. How They Lived Cliffs, N.J.: Silver Burdett Press, 1990.
and Worked Series. North Pomfret, Vt: David and *Perl, Lila, and Erica Weihs. Mummies, Tombs, and
Charles, 1975. Treasure: Secrets of Ancient Egypt. New York: Clarion
Dothan, Trude Krakauer, and M. Dothan. People of the Books, 1987.
Sea: The Search for the Philistines. New York: Macmillan, *Persians: Masters of Empire. Lost Civilizations Collection.
1992. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1995.
Dumbrill, Richard]. The Music of the Ancient Near East. Postgate, J. Nicholas. Early Mesopotamia: Society and
London: Athlone, 1999. Economy at the Dawn of History. London: Routledge,
*Egypt: Land of the Pharaohs. Lost Civilizations Collection. 1994.
Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1992. Potts, D. T. The Archaeology ofElam: Formation and
Frankel, David. The Ancient Kingdom of Urartu. London: Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge,
British Museum Publications, 1979. England: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
*The Holy Land. Lost Civilizations Collection. Alexandria, . Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations.
Va.: Time-Life Books, 1992. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997.
Hoerth, Alfred]., Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq. New York: Penguin, 1992.
Yamauchi, eds. Peoples of the Old Testament World. Schulz, Regine, and Matthais Seidel, eds. Egypt: The
Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1994. World of the Pharoahs. Cologne, Germany: Kone-
Kramer, Samuel Noah. History Begins atSumer: Thirty- mann, 1998.
Nine Firsts in Man's Recorded History. 3rd ed., rev. *Sumer: Cities of Eden. Lost Civilizations Collection.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1994.
1981. Welsby, Derek. The Kingdom ofKush: The Napatan and
Macqueen, J. G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries Meroitic Empire. London: British Museum Press, 1996.
in Asia Minor. Rev. ed. New York: Thames and * Wondrous Realms of the Aegean. Lost Civilizations Collection.
Hudson, 1986. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1993.

MYTHS AND LEGENDS

Curtis, Vesta Sarkosh. The Legendary Past: Persian Myths. Leick, Gwendolyn. A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern
Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993. Mythology. London and New York: Routledge,
*Epics of Early Civilization: Middle Eastern Myth. Myth and 1991.
Mankind Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, McCall, Henrietta. The Legendary Past: Mesopotamian
2000. Myths. Legendary Past Series. Austin: University of
Gray, John. Near Eastern Mythology. London: Hamlyn Texas Press, 1990.
Publishing Group, 1969. Skinner, Fred Gladstone. Myths and Legends of the
Hamilton, Virginia. In the Beginning: Creation Stories Ancient Near East. New York: Barnes & Noble
from Around the World. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Books, 1993.
Jovanovich, 1988. *The Way to Eternity: Egyptian Myth. Myth and
Harris, Geraldine, David O'Connor, and John Sibbick. Mankind Collection. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life
Gods and Pharaohs from Egyptian Mythology. New York: Books, 1998.
Peter Bedrick Books, 1982.

182
 Suggested Readings

RELIGION
Black, Jeremy, and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and Jakobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of
Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Austin: University of Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univer-
Texas Press, 1992. sity Press, 1976.
Clark, Peter. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to Ancient Pinch, Geraldine. Magic in Ancient Egypt. Austin: University
Faith. Sussex Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices of Texas Press, 1994.
Series. Porland, Oreg.: Sussex Academic Press, 1998. Quirke, Stephen. Ancient Egyptian Religion. New York:
Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Revealing Antiquity Dover Publications, 1997.
Series. London and Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer- Ringgren, Helmer. Religions of the Ancient Near East. Translated
sity Press, 1998. by John Sturdy. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1973.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Amiet, Pierre. Art of the Ancient Near East. Translated by *Leacock, Helen, and Richard Leacock. The Buildings of Ancient
John Shepley and Claude Choquet. New York: Harry N. Mesopotamia. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1974.
Abrams, 1980. Leick, Gwendolyn. A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern
Aruz, Joan, Prudence Oliver Harper, and Fran^oise Tallon, Architecture. London: Routledge, 1988.
eds. The Royal City ofSusa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in Lloyd, Seton. The Art of the Ancient Near East. New York:
the Louvre. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1992. Frederick A. Praeger Publisher, 1961.
Cadogan, Gerald. Palaces ofMinoan Crete. University Paper- Lundquist, John M. The Temple: Meeting Place of Heaven
backs Series. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. and Earth. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1993.
Caubet, Annie, and Patrick Pouyssegur. The Ancient Near Perrot, Georges. History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and
East: The Origins of Civilization. Translated by Peter Lycia. Boston: Longwood Press, 1977.
Snowdon. Paris: Terrail, 1998. Polin, Claire C. J. Music of the Ancient Near East. New York:
Collon, Dominique. Ancient Near Eastern Art. Berkeley: Vintage Press, 1954.
University of California Press, 1995. Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Mass.:
Doumas, Christos. The Wall-Paintings of Them. Translated Harvard University Press, 1997.
by Alex Doumas. Athens: Thera Foundation, 1992. . Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art. Austin:
Downey, Susan B. Mesopotamian Religious Architecture: University of Texas Press, 1994.
Alexander Through the Parthians. Princeton, N.J.: Prince- Weiss, Harvey, ed. Ebla to Damascus: Art and Archaeology of An-
ton University Press, 1988. cient Syria: And Exhibition from the Directorate-General of Antiq-
Frankfort, Henri. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient uities andMuseums, Syrian Arab Republic. Washington, D.C.:
Orient. 4th ed., rev. impression. Harmondsworth, Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, 1985.
England: Penguin Books, 1970. Woolley, Leonard. The Art of the Middle East Including Per-
Klengel, Horst. The Art of Ancient Syria. Translated by Joan sia, Mesopotamia and Palestine. New York, Crown Pub-
Becker. Cranbury, N.J.: A. S. Barnes, 1971. lishers, 1961.

THE JEWISH WORLD

Barclay, John M. G. Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: Modrzejewski, Joseph. The Jews of Egypt: From Ramses II to
From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE). Berkeley: Emperor Hadrian. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
University of California Press, 1996. Press, 1997.
Crenshaw, James L. Education in Ancient Israel: Across the Niditch, Susan. Ancient Israelite Religion. New York: Oxford
Deadening Silence. New York: Doubleday, 1998. University Press, 1998.
Galil, Gershon. The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Pixley, Jorge V. Biblical Israel: A People's History. Minneapolis,
Judah. Vol. 9 of Studies in the History and Culture of the Minn.: Fortress Press, 1992.
Ancient Near East. New York: E. J. Brill, 1998. Shanks, Hershel. Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Destruc-
Gordon, Cyrus H., and Gary A. Rendsburg. The Bible and the tion of the Temple. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology
Ancient Near East. 4th ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1998. Society, 1999.
Jaffee, Martin S. Early Judaism. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Tcherikover, Victor. Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews.
Prentice Hall, 1996. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1959.
Josephus, Flavius. The Jewish War. Edited by Mary E. Smalley. Uffenheimer, Benjamin. Early Prophecy in Israel. Translated
Translated by G. A. Williamson. New York: Penguin by David Louvish. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1999.
Books, 1984. Weber, Max. Ancient Judaism. New York: Free Press, 1967.

183
Suggested Readings

DAILY LIFE
Countenau, George. Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria. Saggs, H. W. R, Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria. New
New York: W. W. Norton, 1966. York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1965.
Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Snell, Daniel C. Life in the Ancient Near East. New Haven,
Daily Life Through History Series. Westport, Conn.: Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997.
Greenwood Press, 1998. Time Frame 3000-1500 B.C.: The Age of God Kings. Time
Oppenheim, Adolf Leo, trans. Letters from Mesopotamia: Of- Frame Series. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books,
ficial Business and Private Letters on Clay Tablets from Two 1987.
Millennia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. What Life Was Like on the Banks of the Nile: Egypt 3050-30
Poliakoff, Michael. Contact Sports in the Ancient World. New B.C. What Life Was Like Series. Alexandria, Va.: Time-
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987. Life Books, 1997.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Bobula, Ida Miriam. Sumerian Technology: A Survey of Early Moss, Carol. Science in Ancient Mesopotamia. New York:
Material Achievements in Mesopotamia. Washington, Franklin Watts, 1989.
D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1960. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Cuneiform Mathematical Texts
*Gonen, Rivka. Fired Up! Making Pottery in Ancient Times. as a Reflection of Every day Life in Mesopotamia. American
Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 1993. Oriental Series, Vol. 75. New Haven, Conn.: American
Hodges, Henry. Technology in the Ancient World. New York: Oriental Society, 1993.
Barnes & Noble Books, 1992. Neugebauer, Otto. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity. 2nd ed.
James, Peter, and Nick Thorpe. Ancient Inventions. New Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1957.
York: Ballantine Books, 1995.

WRITING AND RECORD KEEPING

Ben-Tor, Daphna. The Scarab: A Reflection of Ancient Egypt. Gelb, Ignace J. A Study of Writing. 2nd ed. Chicago: Univer-
Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1989. sity of Chicago Press, 1963.
Cohen, Mark E. The Cultic Calendars of the Ancient Near Pedersen, Olof. Archives and Libraries in the Ancient Near
East. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1993. East 1500-300 B.C. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1998.
Collon, Dominique. First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the An- Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the
cient Near East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Alphabet. Berkeley: University of California Press,
. Near Eastern Seals. Interpreting the Past Series. 1990.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Robinson, Andrew. The Story of Writing. London: Thames
Damerow, Peter, R. K. Englund, and Hans J. Nissen. Archaic and Hudson, 1995.
Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of Economic Ad- Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. Before Writing. Vol. 1 of From
ministration in the Ancient Near East. Translated by Paul Counting to Cuneiform. Austin: University of Texas Press,
Larsen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. 1992.
Daniels, Peter T, and William Bright, eds. The World's Writ- *Woods, Geraldine. Science in Ancient Egypt. New York:
ing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Franklin Watts, 1998.

LITERATURE
Andrews, Carol, ed. The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. Reiner, Erica. Your Thwarts in Pieces, Your Mooring Rope Cut:
Translated by R. O. Faulkner. New York: Macmillan, 1985. Poetry from Babylonia and Assyria. Ann Arbor: Horace H.
Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Rackham School of Graduate Studies at the University
Literature. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 1996. of Michigan, 1985.
Kovacs, Maureen Gallery, trans. TheEpicofGilgamesh. Roth, Martha. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia
Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989. Minor. Vol. 6 of Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta:
lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings. Scholars Press, 1995.
3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973-1980. Schiffman, Lawrence H., and James C. VanderKam, eds.
Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Oxford
to the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.
University Press, 1955.

184
 Suggested Readings

ARCHAEOLOGY
Ben-Tor, Amnon, ed. The Archaeology of Ancient Israel. Foreman, Laura. Cleopatra's Palace: In Search of a Legend.
Translated by R. Greenberg. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Del Mar, Calif.: Discovery Books, 1999.
University Press, 1994. Maisels, Charles Keith. The Near East: Archaeology in
Bibby, Geoffrey. Looking for Dilmun. London: Stacey Inter- the Cradle of Civilization. Experiences of Archaeology
national, 1996. Series. London and New York, Routledge, 1993.
Clapp, Nicholas. The Road to Ubar: Finding the Atlantis of Mclntosh, Jane. The Practical Archaeologist: How We Know
the Sands. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1998. What We Know About the Past. London: Facts on File,
Dineen, Jacquelin, and Philip Wilkinson. The Lands of the Paul Press, 1986.
Bible. New York: Chelsea House, 1994. Meyers, Eric M. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in
Duchene, Herve. Golden Treasures of Troy: The Dream of the Near East. 5 vols. New York: Oxford University Press,
Heinrich Schliemann. Translated by Jeremy Legatt. New 1997.
York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. Wood, Michael. In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley:
Farnoux, Alexandre. Knossos: Searching for the Legendary University of California Press, 1985.
Palace of King Minos. Translated by David J. Baker. New
York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996.

WOMEN
Bach, Alice, ed. Women in the Hebrew Bible: A Reader. New *Nardo, Don. Cleopatra. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1994.
York: Routledge, 1999. Robins, Gay. Women in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Mass.:
Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. Women's Work: The First 20,000 Harvard University Press, 1993.
Years. New York: W. W. Norton, 1994. Tyldesley, Joyce. Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh. London:
Ide, Arthur Frederick. Women in the Ancient Near East. 2nd Penguin Books, 1998.
ed. Mesquite, Tex.: Ide House, 1982. . Nefertiti: Egypt's Sim Queen. New York: Viking Press, 1999.
Lesko, Barbara S. The Remarkable Women of Ancient Egypt 3rd ed., Vivante, Bella, ed. Women's Roles in Ancient Civilizations.
rev. and enl. Providence, R.I.: B. C. Scribe Publications, 1996. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999.

ECONOMY
Aberbach, M. Labor, Crafts, and Commerce in Ancient Israel. Pastor, Jack. Land and Economy in Ancient Palestine. London
Jerusalem: Magnes, 1984. and New York: Routledge, 1997.
Aubet, Maria Eugenia. The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Powell, Marvin A. Labor in the Ancient Near East. New
Colonies and Trade. New York: Cambridge University Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1987.
Press, 1997. Price, B. B. Ancient Economic Thought. Routledge Studies in
Finley, M. I. The Ancient Economy. Sather Classical Lectures Series. the History of Economics, Vol. 1. London: Routledge,
Updated ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. 1997.
Groom, Nigel. Frankincense and Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Wright, Christopher J. H. God's People in God's Land: Family,
Incense Trade. New York: Longman, 1981. Land, and Property in the Old Testament. Grand Rapids,
Parkins, Helen, and Christopher John Smith, eds. Trade, Traders, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans, 1990.
and the Ancient City. London and New York: Routledge, 1998.

WARS AND WARFARE

*Brewer, Paul. Warfare in the Ancient World. Austin, Tex.: Stillman, Nigel, and Nigel Tallis. Armies of the Ancient Near
Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, 1998. East, 3000 B.C. to 539 B.C.: Organisation, Tactics, Dress,
Briant, Pierre. Alexander the Great: Man of Action, Man of Spirit Trans- and Equipment. Devizes, England: Wargames Research
lated by Jeremy Leggatt. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996. Group Publications, 1984.
*Gonen, Rivka. Charge! Weapons and Warfare in Ancient Time Frame: Barbarian Tides, 1500-600 B.C. Alexandria,
Times. Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 1993. Va.: Time-Life Books, 1987.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The Persian Wars. Translated *Woods, Michael, and Mary B. Woods. Ancient Warfare.
by George Rawlinson. New York: Modern Library, 1942. Minneapolis, Minn.: Runestone Press, 2000.
*Nardo, Don. The Battle of Marathon. San Diego: Lucent Yadin, Yigael. Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands. 2 vols. New
Books, 1996. York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.

185
Suggested Readings

ON-LINE RESOURCES
Abzu: Guide to Resources for the Study of the Ancient Near Lost City of Arabia. Contains information about the discovery and
East. Contains information about the study of the ancient Near excavation of the site of ancient Ubar, a "lost city" in Arabia.
East. Provides links to other sites about the ancient Near East. http://www3.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ubar
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/default.html
The Louvre Museum. Contains information about the Lou-
Ancient Persia. Contains a historical overview and a gallery of vre's ancient Near Eastern collections, with photographs of art
art and artifacts from ancient Persia. and artifacts from ancient Mesopotamia, Iran, Anatolia, the
http://dolphin.upenn.edu/~pps/ Levant, and Arabia.
http://www.louvre.fr/anglais/collec/coll_f.htm
Architecture in the Ancient Near East. Discusses building
techniques used in ancient structures, with images and Metropolitan Museum of Art. Contains information and pho-
descriptions. tographs of the museum's ancient Near Eastern art collection.
http://www-lib.haifa.ac.il/www/art/archimedia.html Also provides an introduction to ancient Near Eastern art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/
Canaan and Ancient Israel. Contains information about the department.asp?dep=3
University of Pennsylvania's Museum of Archeology and
Anthropology's permanent exhibit on Canaan and ancient Is- National Archaeological Museum of Athens. Provides images
rael. Provides links to its galleries on Mesopotamia, Egypt, and and information on the museum's collections of ancient Greek
the Mediterranean world. and Egyptian art.
http://www.upenn.edu/museum/Collections/ http://www.culture.gr
canaanframedocl .html
Near East—Cradle of Civilization. Contains information
The Hermitage Museum. Provides information about and about the peoples and contributions of ancient Near Eastern
examples of art from ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Central civilizations.
Asia, and the Caucasus. http://www.emory.edu/CARLOS/ODYSSEY/NEAREAST/
http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/ homepg.html
hm3_5.html
Oriental Institute. Provides information on the ancient Near
Hittite Home Page. Provides information about resources for East. Also contains a video tour of the University of Chicago's
Hittite and ancient Anatolian studies and information about collection of Near Eastern art.
other regions of the ancient Near East. http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
http://www.asor.org/HITTITE/HittiteHP.html http://www.oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/OLMuseum.html

The Iraklion Archaeological Museum. Contains information Science Museum of Minnesota: Mysteries of £atalh6yiik.
about exhibits on ancient Minoan art and artifacts from Crete. Contains information about archaeological excavations and ar-
Also provides information about the history of Crete and ar- tifacts from fatal Huytik.
chaeological sites. http://www.sci.mus.mn.us/catal
http://www.interkriti.org/museums/hermus.htm
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Provides information
The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Provides information about about the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including the
archaeological and historical discoveries in Israel and presents vi- Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Great Pyramid ofGiza.
sual images of artifacts. http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/list.html
http://www.imj.org.il/archaeology/index.html
Smith College History of Science: Museum of Ancient
Learning Sites, Inc. Contains information on archaeological Inventions. Provides an on-line exhibit of ancient inventions,
sites in Greece and the ancient Near East, including Anatolian, with photographs and accompanying text.
Assyrian, and Egyptian sites. http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/
http://www.learningsites.com hsclist.htm

186
 PHOTO CREDITS

VOLUME 1
Co/or P/crtes for Religion Granger Collection, New York; 36: Ekrem Akurgal, Die Kunst
1: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 2: Corbis/Gianni derHethiter; 42: Werner Forman/Art Resource, New York;
Dagli Orti; 3: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York/Gift 46: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University
of Norbert Schimmel Trust/Schecter Lee; 4: Erich Lessing/Art of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 55: Oriental Division, New
Resource, New York; 5: British Museum, London/Bridgeman York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations;
Art Library; 6: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Li- 58: French Archaeological Expedition in Abu Dhabi Emirate;
brary; 7: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 8: Courtesy 67: The Granger Collection, New York; 72: Corbis/Bettmann;
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 9: Israel Museum; 77: The Granger Collection, New York; 85: British Museum,
10: Louvre Museum, Paris/Explorer/SuperStock; 11: Erich London; 86: British Museum, London; 101: Corbis/Michael
Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 12: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Nicholson; 105: Louvre Museum, Paris; 106: Pierpont Mor-
Orti; 13: SEF/Art Resource, New York; 14: Archaeological gan Library, New York; 114: Brooklyn Museum, New York;
Museum, Iraklion, Crete/Bridgeman Art Library; 15: Erich 116: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of Michi-
Lessing/Art Resource, New York gan, Ann Arbor; 120: Corbis/Archivo Iconografico, S.A.;
120: Louvre Museum, Paris/SuperStock; 129: Courtesy
Black-and-White Photographs Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 139: Louvre Mu-
1: SuperStock; 4: Corbis/Werner Forman; 7: Egyptian Na- seum, Paris; 149: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Li-
tional Museum, Cairo/ET Archive, London/SuperStock; brary; 152: Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 154: Courtesy
15: Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/Index, Barcelona/ B.A. Litvinsky; 156: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
Bridgeman Art Library; 17: Louvre Museum, Paris; 21: Iraq York; 161: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library;
Museum, Baghdad; 25: Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 171: Friedrich Schiller University, Jena; 172: Erich Lessing/
32: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; 34: The Art Resource, New York

VOLUME 2
Color Plates for Daily Life Paris; 51: Louvre Museum, Paris; 55: British Museum, Lon-
1: Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/Bridgeman Art Library; don; 60: Hirmer Archives, Munich; 62: SuperStock; 68: Lou-
2: Werner Forman/Art Resource, New York; 3: Christie's vre Museum, Paris; 71: Louvre Museum, Paris; 82: H. Von
Images/SuperStock; 4: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; Minutoli, Reise zum Tempel des Jupiter Ammon in derLibyschen
5: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; 6: Corbis/Chris Hellier; 7: Erich Wuste; 85: Louvre Museum, Paris; 86: Courtesy Oriental In-
Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 8: Scala/Art Resource, New stitute, University of Chicago; 93: Corbis; 102: SuperStock;
York; 9: Louvre Museum, Paris/Bridgeman Art Library; 106: Adapted from Peter R. S. Moore and P. E. Newberry Beni
10: Corbis/Gianni Dalgi Orti; 11: Corbis/Gianni Dagli Orti; Hasan; 108: Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; 111: Art Re-
12: World Photo Service Ltd./SuperStock; 13: Erich Lessing/ source; 122: British Museum, London; 125: Art Resource;
Art Resource, New York; 14: Corbis/Adam Woolfitt; 127: National Museum of the Syrian Arab Republic, Aleppo;
15: Scala/Art Resource, New York 128: Art Resource; 135: Art Resource; 145: Art Resource;
147: Louvre Museum, Paris; 152: Metropolitan Museum of
Black-and-White Photographs Art, New York; 161: Hieroglyphic text from Alan Gardiner,
2: Corbis; 4: Corbis; 8: British Museum, London; 10: Ar- Egyptian Grammar; 163: British Museum, London; 167: Mu-
chaeological Museum, Teheran; 12: Egyptian Museum, seum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara; 172: Corbis;
Cairo; 14: Bridgeman Art Library; 17: J.D.S. Pendlebury, 173: French Archaeological Expedition in Abu Dhabi Emi-
A Handbook to the Palace of Minos atKnossos; 25: After M. rate; 176: British Museum, London; 179: British Museum,
Matousova-Rajmova, Archiv Orientalni; 27: Kelsey Mu- London; 180: The Granger Collection, New York; 181: Metro-
seum of Archaeology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; politan Museum of Art, New York; 185: J. Black and A. Green,
31: Minneapolis Institute of Arts; 37: Louvre Museum, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia

187
Photo Credits

VOLUME
Co/or P/ates for Architecture and Tombs University of Chicago; 70: British Museum, London/
I: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 2: Erich Lessing/Art Re- Bridgeman Art Library; 74: Museum of Anatolian Civi-
source, New York; 3: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; lizations, Ankara; 76: British Museum, London; 81: Cor-
4: Corbis/Michael Nicholson; 5: Israel Museum/Nachum bis/Adam Woolfitt; 84: Corbis/Bettmann; 89: Courtesy
Slapak; 6: Corbis/Michael Nicholson; 7: Scala/Art Re- Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 92: Courtesy
source, New York; 8: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; Klaas R. Veenhof; 97: British Museum, London; 102:
9: Art Resource, New York; 10: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, Hirmer Archives, Munich; 110: Christos G. Doumas, The
New York; 11: SuperStock; 12: Vanni/Art Resource, New Wall-Paintmgs of Them; 112: N. Angell, The Story of Money;
York; 13: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 14: Cor- 118: The Granger Collection, New York; 120: British
bis/Charles & Josette Lenars; 15: SuperStock Museum, London; 122: National Museum of Athens;
124: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago;
Black-and-White Photographs 131: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library;
3: Louvre Museum, Paris; 7: Museum of Archaeology and 134: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; 139:
Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Courtesy Elizabeth C. Stone; 142: Courtesy Frank Hole;
16: Louvre Museum, Paris; 22: Museum of Archaeology 145: Courtesy Frank Hole; 146: Fritz Hintze and Ursula
and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- Hintze, Alte Kulturen Im Sudan; 150: Richard F. S. Starr,
phia; 25: Biblical Archaeology Review; 34: Ashmolean Nuzi, Vol. 2; 152: Phoebe Hearst Museum of Anthropol-
Museum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 36: British Mu- ogy, University of California at Berkeley; 154: British Mu-
seum, London; 40: Fritz Hintze and Ursula Hintze, Alte seum, London; 160: Helen Leacroft and Richard Leacroft,
Kulturen Im Sudan; 43: Louvre Museum, Paris; 52: Erich The Buildings of Ancient Mesopotamia; 165: Giraudon/Art
Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 55: Erich Lessing/Art Re- Resource, New York; 170: Ernst Herzfeld, Iran in the An-
source, New York; 60: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New cient Near East; 175: Courtesy Oriental Institute, Univer-
York; 64: Courtesy Trevor R. Bryce; 66: Courtesy Craw- sity of Chicago; 182: Israel Department of Antiquities,
ford M. Greenwalt, Jr.; 69: Courtesy Oriental Institute, Jerusalem; 187: Private Collection

VOLUME 4
Color Plates for Arts and Culture Nuragica; 53: British Museum, London; 57: Ekrem Akurgal,
1: Scala/Art Resource, New York; 2: Courtesy Oriental Ed., The Art and Architecture of Turkey; 64: British Museum,
Institute, University of Chicago; 3: Erich Lessing/Art London; 67: Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of
Resource, New York; 4: Scala/Art Resource, New York; Chicago; 75: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York;
5: British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library; 81: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh;
6: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 7: Museum of 95: SEF/Art Resource, New York; 98: Archaeology in the
Baghdad/Silvio Fiore/SuperStock; 8: Ashmolean Mu- United Arab Emirates, Vol. 4; 104: State Museum, Berlin;
seum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 9: Erich Lessing/ 109: Courtesy Francois Vallat; 113: National Museum of
Art Lessing, New York; 10: Scala/Art Resource, New York; the Syrian Arab Republic, Damascus; 119: Sergei I.
11: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 12: Scala/Art Rudenko, The World's Most Ancient Artistic Carpets and Tex-
Resource, New York; 13: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, tiles; 126: Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; 131: Ash-
New York; 14: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; molean Museum, Oxford/Bridgeman Art Library; 133:
15: Scala/Art Resource, New York Courtesy Hans G. Jansen; 136: Louvre Museum, Paris;
138: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Univer-
Black-and-White Photographs sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 142: Hirmer Archives,
2: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Univer- Munich; 146: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York;
sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 8: Arnaldo Monda- 151: British Museum, London; 156: Giraudon/Art Resource,
dor, Ed., Anatolia: Immagini di Civilita; 15: Erich Lessing/ New York; 160: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York;
Art Resource, New York; 22: Courtesy John Ruffle; 163: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 166: British
25: NY Carlsberg Glyptothek, Copenhagen; 28: Louvre Museum, London; 169: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
Museum, Paris.; 33: Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, York; 175: Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
Ankara; 37: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 42: University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; 178: Giraudon/
British Museum, London; 47: Giovanni Lilliu, La Civilta Art Resource, New York; 179: Corbis/Roger Wood

188
 INDEX

A Agriculture, 1:6-11. See also Gardens

of Akkadians, 1:20-21
government of, 2:132
history of, 3:96
Aba-Enlil-dari, 1:53 in Babylonia, 1:108 language of, 1:16-17, 109, 2:34, 35,
Abortion, 4:13 calendars and, 1:135 3:47, 4:72
Abraham (Abram), 2:155, 3:24, in Canaan, 1:138 literature of, 3:60
166-67 at Qatal Huyiik, 1:148 naming in, 3:128
Absolute chronology, 1:166 cereal grains, 1:154-57 Naram-Sin, 1:18, 3:129-30
Absolute dating (archaeological), development of, 4:167 poetry in, 3:59
1:58-59 as economic foundation, 2:47 political organization, 1:20
Abu Simbel, 1:1 (illus.) in Egypt, 1:9-10,2:61-62 religion of, 1:21
Abydos, 1:1-2, 3:157 farming methods, 1:8-10 royal inscriptions, 1:164
Achaemenes, 3:171 farmworkers, 1:10-11 Sargon I, 1:17-18, 4:48-49
Adad, 1:2-3 and flooding, 2:38, 98-99 sculpture of, 4:57
in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 impact of, 1:11 social institutions of, 4:88
Canaanite worship of, 1:139 irrigation, 3:8-11 Akrotiri, 4:123, 145
in Eblan pantheon, 2:130 in the Levant, 1:8-9 Alaca Huyiik, 1:38,39
in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 main crops, 1:7-8 Alalakh, 1:22-23
Adad-nirari, 1:86, 87 in Mesopotamia, 1:9, 3:94, 95 Albright, William E, 1:64
Adad-nirari III, 1:88 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:116 Aleph-beths, 1:27-30, 4:171-72
Addu. See Adad Nile River's impact on, 3:138 Alexander IV, King, 1:26
Addu-yisci, 4:113 (illus.) nomadism and, 3:141, 142 Alexander the Great, 1:23-27 (illus.)
Adoption, 2:87 olive growing, 3:152 army of, 1:74-75
Aegean Sea, 1:3 origin of, 1:6 and Darius III, 2:27
earthquake belt in, 2:46 peasants' role in, 3:168 empire of, 1:24 (map), 3:67
Greek islands in, 2:139 in Persian empire, 3:175 and the Gordian knot, 1:26
Mycenaean colonization of islands state-run (in Akkad), 1:20 Lycian invasion by, 3:63
in, 3:122 in Syria, 4:110-11 Macedonia and Greece united by,
Thera, 4:123 Ahab, 1:11-12, 3:15, 4:44 2:141
volcanic belt through, 4:144 Ahhotep, Queen (Egypt), 1:12 Ptolemy I and, 4:19
Aethiopia. See Nubia and the Nubians Ahmose, 1:12-13, 2:183 Tyre conquered by, 4:135
Afro-Asiatic languages, 3:47-48. See Ahriman, 1:6,1:13, 2:130, 4:179 use of cavalry by, 1:152
also Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic) Ahura Mazda, 1:14 Alexandria, library in, 3:55
languages on Behistun inscription, 1:116 Alliance of the twelve kings, 1:52
Afterlife, 1:3-6. See also Burial sites (illus.) Alloys and alloying, 3:101, 108, 4:54
and tombs; Death and burial earth as battleground of, 1:13 Alluvial plains, 2:118, 3:9
and Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 as Zoroastrian one true god, 1:6, Alphabetic numeration, 3:149
cosmetics for use in, 2:11 2:130,3:114,4:178-80 Alphabets, 1:27-30, 4:172
Egyptian beliefs about, 1:120-21, Akhenaten, 1:14-15 Greek, 2:142-43
2:63 monotheism ordered by, 1:97, Hebrew, 2:157-58
Hittite beliefs about, 2:170 3:113-1:114 Phoenician, 3:188
inscriptions as guide to, 3:4 Nefertiti and, 3:133 Alyattes, King, 3:65
and letters to the dead, 1:4, 2:41 temple of, 1:15 (illus.) Amamet, 1:5
Mesopotamian beliefs about, 2:29 wives of, 4:25 Amarna, 1:31-32. See also Akhetaten
netherworld, 1:5 Akhetaten, 1:16, 1:31, 2:174 Amarna letters, 1:31
offerings for the dead, 1:5, 3:151-52 Akkad and the Akkadians, 1:16-22, Ambassadors. See Messengers
Osiris and, 3:157 1:19 (map), 2:79 Amenemhet I, 3:156
of pharaohs, 3:180 agriculture and trade, 1:20-21 Amenemhet III, 3:36
pyramids and, 4:20 arts of, 1:21-22 Amenhotep III, 3:160-61
resurrection in, 1:6 attack on Magan by, 3:153 Amenhotep IV. See Akhenaten
and roles of dead in lives of the liv- in Babylonian history, 1:102-3 Amharic language, 4:73
ing, 2:86 barus, 3:153-54 Amorites, 1:32-33
soul (portrayal of), 1:4 (illus.) cuneiform adopted by, 2:20-21 in Babylonian history, 1:103
underworld, 1:1 and Elamites, 2:67-68 in Canaan, 1:138
Agade. See Akkad and the Akkadians fall of, 1:19 dynasties of, 2:44

Page numbers of articles in these volumes appear in boldface type. 189

Index
Hammurabi, 2:147-48 Neo-Hittites, 3:134-36 merchants in, 3:93
history of, 3:96 Neolithic settlements in, 1:37 nomadism of, 3:143
migration of, 3:105 omens in, 3:154 number systems of, 3:149
nomadism of, 3:143 Phrygia and the Phrygians, 4:1-3 Oman Peninsula, 3:153
Phoenicians and, 3:184 queens of, 4:24-25 trade routes of, 4:129
Amulets and charms, 1:34-35 (illus.) religions of, 4:34 Arabic language, 4:73
animal carvings as, 1:46 sculpture of, 4:58 Arabic numerals, 3:148
for childbirth, 1:162 temples in, 3:163 Aramaean language, 4:73
and magic, 3:68, 69 trade in, 3:92 Aramaeans, 1:51-54
worn during pregnancy, 4:13 Troy, 4:132-33 in Babylonia, 1:105-6
Amun, 1:35 Urartu, 4:139-40 and Chaldeans, 1:158
in afterlife beliefs, 1:5 wall paintings in, 4:147 Damascus and, 2:24
Akhenaten's discrediting of, 1:97 women's role in, 4:162-63 deportation of, 3:106-7
Amenhotep and, 1:14 Anaximander, 3:70 migration of, 3:106
combined with Ra, 2:128 Ancestor worship, 1:5-6 Neo-Hittites and, 3:135
in creation myths, 2:14 Animal husbandry, systems of, 1:43 nomadism of, 3:143
Great Temple of, 3:63 Animals, 1:39-41 Aramaic, 1:52, 53, 3:49, 4:73
rams or geese as representative of, in art, 1:45-48 Assyrian use of, 1:85, 3:143
1:47 birds, 1:40-41 in Babylonia, 1:109
temples to, 3:162 burial of, 1:130 as language of Persian empire, 3:176
Amun-Ra, 2:128, 135 as burial offerings, 1:132 and Phoenician alphabet, 3:188
Amun-Re, 2:14 camels, 1:136-37 replacement of cuneiform by, 1:122
Analogic magic, 3:68 for caravans, 1:144 study of, and names, 3:129
Analogic witchcraft, 4:160 cats, 1:40, 1:149 Ararat, Mount, 2:119, 4:145
Anat, 1:35-36 cattle, 1:42 (illus.)t 1:150 Ararat (kingdom). See Urartu
in Baal cycle, 1:99 cemeteries for, 1:2 Archaeological sites, 1:55-57
Canaanite worship of, 1:139 chickens, 1:44 Abydos, 1:2
displaced by Astarte, 2:130 domestication of, 1:7, 1:41-45, Akhetaten, 1:16
Anatolia, 1:36-39 1:149, 150, 2:5, 179, 4:110, 140 Alalakh, 1:22-23
animals in art of, 1:45-46 Ethiopian, 1:39 AliKosh, 3:173
archaeology and archaeologists in, figurines of, 1:36 (illus.) Amarna, 1:31-32
1:61 goats, 1:40, 2:126 Azatiwadiya, 3:135
architecture in, 1:70 gods and goddesses associated with, Bahariya Oasis, 2:59
building materials in, 1:126 2:129, 185-86 bird skeletons in, 1:41
Caria and the Carians, 1:145-46 golden calf, 1:139 (illus.) gatalHiiylik, 1:148-49
qatal Huyiik, 1:37,1:148-49 herding of, 3:141-42, 144 in the Caucasus, 1:151
cities in, 1:173 horses, 1:40,2:170-71 in Central Asia, 1:153
climate of, 2:6, 120 humor in art depicting, 2:178, 179 copper-working sites, 3:108
clothing of, 2:8 (illus.) in Crete, 2:16
Crete settled by, 2:15 hunting of, 2:179-80 Eridu, 2:76-77
dance in, 2:26 lions, 1:39, 3:57-58 evidence from, 1:55-56
death and burial in, 2:31-32 mammals, 1:40 houses at, 2:172-75
domesticated animals in, 1:42 Palearctic, 1:39 Jericho, 3:17-18
earthquake belt in, 2:46 pigs, 1:40,4:3-4 Kalkhu, 3:28
ethnic and language groups in, 2:82 as sacrifices, 1:5, 3:151, 153-54, Khattusha, 2:168, 3:31
family and social life in, 2:87 4:37 at Kish, 3:38
feasts and festivals in, 2:93 sea animals, 1:41 Knosses, 3:39
funerary offerings in, 3:151 sheep, 1:40, 4:78-79 kurgans, 1:151
furnishings in, 2:107-8 as tax payment, 4:115 libraries and archives at, 3:158
geography of, 1:36, 2:119-20 for transportation, 4:131 locating, 1:56
gods and goddesses of, 2:129-30, worship of, 2:63, 4:33 Median, 3:80-81
4:34 Annals of Thutmose III, 1:165 Midas Mound, 2:32
government of, 2:136-37 Antigonus Gonatas, 3:67 Mycenaean, 3:123
Hittites, 2:167-70 Anti-Lebanon Mountains, 2:120 Nineveh, 3:21, 139, 140
houses in, 2:173 Antony, Mark, 2:4 nomad tent camp discovery by,
labor and laborers in, 3:42-43 Anu, 1:48, 1:110,2:127 3:142, 143
land use or ownership in, 3:46-47 Anubis, 1:47,2:129 Nuzi, 3:149-50
languages of, 2:188, 3:48 Apology of Khattushili III, 3:32, 60 Royal Cemetery of Ur, 3:21, 102
location of, 1:37 (map) Apprenticeships, 2:55 (illus.)f 4:137
Luwians, 3:62 Arabia and the Arabs, 1:49-51 Rumeilah, 2:173 (illus.)
Lycia and the Lycians, 3:63-65 archaeological discoveries in, 1:62, on Sardinia, 4:47 (illus.)
Lydia and the Lydians, 3:65-67 63 Sidon, 4:84
medicine in, 3:86-87 ethnic and language groups in, 2:83 Susa, 4:108 (illus.)
metal objects found in, 3:100 geography of, 2:120-21 Tel Dan, 2:28
mining in, 3:107-8 languages in, 3:47 Tell Asmar (Eshnunna), 2:78
mythology of, 3:126 location of, 1:50 (map) Tell el-'Oueili, 4:100

190
 Index
Tell Hariri (Mari), 3:71, 72 of Israelites, 2:158 ivory for, 1:153 (illus.)f 3:16-17,
temple Eshumesha, 3:159 in the Levant, 1:68-70 4:13607/115.;
textiles from, 4:118 of Lydia, 3:66 jewelry, 3:20-23
on Thera, 4:123 in Mesopotamia, 1:64-65 lions in, 3:57
Troy, 4:132-33 (illus.) of Minoans, 2:16 Lydian vessel, 3:66 (illus.)
Tutankhamen's tomb, 3:21 monumental, 1:66-67 in Mesopotamia, 1:78-79
Tyre, 4:135 Neo-Hittite, 3:136 metal figurines (Bronze Age), 1:36
Ugarit, 4:136 (illus.) Oman peninsula towers, 1:58 (illus.) (illus.)
working, 1:56-57 palaces, 1:65, 66, 68-70, 3:157-61 metals and metalworking,
in Zagros Mountains, 3:6 in Persian empire, 1:69-70, 3:176 3:100-104
Ziwiye, 3:6 pyramids, 1:66, 2:63-64, 4:20-23 of Minoan civilization, 3:111-12
Archaeology and archaeologists, 1:54-64. Sumerian, 4:104-5 Neo-Hittite, 3:136
See also names of specific people temples, 1:65-67, 69, 70, 2:63-64, Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.)
in Anatolia, 1:61 3:157-59, 3:161-63 of Persian empire, 1:153 (illus.),
in Arabia, 1:62 tombs, 1:66, 69-70 3:176
and Aswan High Dam threat, 1:57 ziggurats, 4:104, 4:174-76 pharaohs portrayed in, 3:181
Babylonian puzzle and, 1:100 Area, measurement of, 3:79 Philistine, 3:182 (illus.)f 184
chronology for, 1:167-68 Arinna, 2:129 of Phoenicians, 3:187
Dead Sea Scrolls discovery, 1:62 Aristotle, 1:94, 2:142 pottery, 4:6-11
in Egypt, 1:59-60 Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71, 3:19, purposes of art, 1:76
environmental change studied by, 24, 115 relief in, high vs. bas-, 1:113
2:73-74 Armageddon, 3:90 religious, 1:46-48, 118-19
ethnoarchaeology, 1:59 Armies, 1:71-75 sculpture, 4:56-59
evidence and sites, 1:55-59 Assyrian, 1:91 Scythian, 4:62
and evidence for biblical stories, cavalry, 1:74,1:152 secular, 1:45-46,119-20
2:155-56 early, 1:71-72 Sethin, 4:76
farming resources for, 1:11 of empires, 1:73-75 specialization of, 3:42
flood evidence in, 2:98 engineers in, 1:74, 75 stela of the Vulture, 1:71-72, 119
importance of serendipity to, 1:56 of Hittites, 1:72-73 stone used by, 4:98-99
in Iran, 1:62-63 of Persian Empire, 3:174-75 Sumerian, 4:105
in the Levant, 1:61-62 professional, 1:73 textiles, 4:118-20
in Mesopotamia, 1:60 soldiers, 4:91-93 tools for, 4:126
metal objects found by, 3:100-102, travel by, 4:130 Victory Stela of Naram-Sin, 1:17
104 Armor. See Weapons and armor (illus.), 21
methods used by, 1:56-57, 59 Arranged marriages, 3:74-75 wall paintings, 4:145-48
mummies studies by, 3:119 ArsacesI, 3:166 woodworking, 3:43 (illus.)
nomadic campsites and, 3:142, 143, Arses, 3:174 workshops for, 1:77, 78
145 (illus.) Art, artists, and artisans, 1:75-79 ArtabanusII, 3:166
palaces and temples, 3:157-58 (illus.). See also Tools; specific topics Artaxerxes I, II and III, 1:79-80,
Persian Gulf coastline change evi- of Akkad, 1:21-22 3:173-74
dence of, 3:94 of Amarna, 1:31-32 (illus.) Artifact typology, 1:168
pottery as source of information for, animals in art, 1:45-48 Aryans, 1:80-81, 3:7,106
4:9 in Assyria, 1:93 Ashdod, 3:183
roads found by, 4:40 in Babylonia, 1:111 Asherah, 1:139, 3:25 (illus.)
Rosetta Stone, 1:59 bas-reliefs, 1:7 (illus.), 1:113-15 Ashur, 2:128
salvage archaeology, 1:57 (illus.) Marduk and, 3:71
search for Hanging Gardens of Baby- birds, 1:118-20 Mitanni's domination of, 1:85
lon by, 2:150 bricks as "canvas" for, 1:124 Shamshi-Adad's rule of, 1:85
theft of artifacts from, 1:62, 127-28, at gatal Hiiyiik, 1:148-49 as trade center, 3:92
131 chariots, 3:7 (illus.) Ashurbanipal, 1:82-83
and tomb robbing, 1:127-28 comic art, 1:40, 47 art in palace of, 1:46
trade studied by, 2:48-49 demons represented in, 1:47-48, 2:36 construction and building by, 3:140
Archimedes, 2:142 in Egypt, 1:77-78, 2:63-64 dream of, 2:41
Architecture, 1:64-70. See also Build- faience, 2:85-86 library of, 3:55, 140
ing materials gems used by, 2:114 reign of, 1:90
in Anatolia, 1:70 and gender roles/attitudes, 2:116-17 Ashurbanipal II, 1:83-84, 1:87
in Assyria, 1:93 glass and glassmaking, 2:124-25 Ashur (city), 1:81-82
in Babylonia, 1:111 gods and goddesses in, 2:128 Ashur (deity), 1:82
in Egypt, 1:65-68, 2:63-64 of Greece, 2:142 Ashurnasirpal, 2:92
engineering of, 4:53 (illus.) Gudea's influence on, 2:143 Ashurnasirpal II, 1:86 (illus.)f 87,
fortifications, 1:70, 2:104-6 Hittite, 2:169 2:29-30, 3:4
Great Pyramid of Giza, 1:126 horses in, 2:171 Ashur-uballit, 1:85
of Greece, 2:142 human form in art, 2:175-78 Ashur-uballit II, 1:91
of Hittites, 2:170 Human, 2:181 (illus.) Asiatics, 2:80
houses, 1:64-65, 67, 68, 70, iconography in, 2:184-86 Canaanites, 2:80
2:172-75 of Israelites, 2:158 Hyksos, 2:182-83

191
Index
Assyria and the Assyrians, 1:84-93, writing of, 1:122 astrology in, 1:94-95
2:79 ziggurats of, 4:176 astronomy of, 1:95, 96
Arabian trade routes and, 3:143 Astarte, 1:139, 2:130, 3:187 calendars in, 1:134, 3:62
Arabs and, 1:51 Astrology and astrologers, 1:93-95 Chaldea and the Chaldeans, 1:157-59
Aramaean conflict with, 1:52 divination and, 3:155 chronicles of, 1:165
archaeological discoveries of, 1:61 education for, 2:55 cosmetics used by, 2:12
army of, 1:73-74 horoscopes, 1:95 creation myths of, 2:14
art and architecture of, 1:93 omens explained by, 3:153 Dark Age, 1:104-5,3:96
Ashur, 1:81-82 zodiac in, 1:95, 4:177-78 demons and, 2:37
Ashurbanipal, 1:82-83 Astronomy and astronomers, 1:95-97 deportation of, 3:106
Ashurbanipal II, 1:83-84 in Babylonia, 1:111, 166 economy and trade in, 1:102, 108
Ashur (deity), 1:82 and calendars, 1:111, 133, 134 and Elamites, 2:68-69
in Babylonia, 1:100, 105-6 development of, 4:53 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125
bloodthirstiness of, 1:86 lunar theory, 3:62 fall of, 3:97-98
burial of kings and queens in, 1:130 planets, 4:4 family in, 1:109
and Chaldeans, 1:158-59 and pyramid positions, 4:22 geography of, 1:102
chariots in, 1:161 stars, 4:95-97 government of, 1:107-8
chronicles of, 1:165 sun, 4:107-8 Hammurabi, 2:147-48
clothing of, 2:7 zodiac, 4:177-78 history of, 1:102-7, 2:166, 3:96
death and burial in, 2:29 Astyages, 2:23 Jewish exiles in, 3:20, 25-26
deportations by, 3:106-7 Aten, 1:97-98; Kassite rule of, 3:29-30
economy and trade, 1:92 Amenhotep s worship of, 1:14-15 king lists of, 3:34
and Elamites, 2:69-70 hymn to, 1:97 land use or ownership in, 3:46
Esarhaddon, 2:77 as only true god, 3:113-14 language of, 1:109
fall of, 3:97-98 during reign of Akhenaten, 2:129 literature of, 1:110-11, 3:59
geography of, 1:84-85 Athaliah, 1:98 maps from, 3:70 (illus.)
government of, 1:91-92 Athens, 2:140-42 Marduk, 3:71
and Israelites, 3:15 Atlantis, 2:38, 46 mathematics in, 3:76-77
Karkamish, 3:29 Atrakhasis, 1:48 Median alliance of, 3:82
king lists of, 3:34-35 Atum, 2:13-14, 128 merchants in, 3:93
lions in, 3:57 Atum-Re, 2:14 Middle Babylonian Empire, 1:104-5
location of, 1:88 (map) Aurochs, 1:150 monotheism in, 3:114
Medes as vassals of, 3:81 Avestan language, 2:188, 3:48-39 mythology of, 1:110-11
merchant communities (karu) in, Axes, 4:155 Nabonidus, 3:126-27
3:92-93 (illus.) Nabopolassar, 3:127
merchants in, 3:93 Nebuchadnezzar II, 3:131-32
Middle Assyria, 1:85-87 Neo-Babylonian Empire, 1:100, 101,
monotheism in, 3:114 B 103 (map), 106-7, 159
Nabopolassar and, 3:127 Baal, 1:98-99 New Year's festival, 2:94
Neo-Assyria, 1:84, 87-91 andAdad, 1:2 Nippur, 1:171 (illus.), 3:140
Neo-Hittites and, 3:135-36 Ahab's temple to, 1:12 number systems of, 3:148
Nineveh, 3:139-40 Canaanite worship of, 1:139 Old Babylonian Empire, 1:100,
Old Assyria, 1:85 in creation myths, 2:15 103-4, 108-11
palaces of, 3:159 El and, 2:130 Palace of Governors, 3:158-59
Philistines conquered by, 3:183 BaalatGubla, 3:187 Persian and Macedonian conquests
Phoenicians and, 3:186 Baal Cycle, 1:35-36, 1:99, 3:60, 125 in, 1:107
queens of, 4:23-24 Baal Shamem, 3:187 and Persians, 3:172
religion of, 1:92-93 Babylon (city) Philistines conquered by, 3:183
rise of, 3:97 archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 Phoenicians and, 3:186
roads in, 1:91 art depicting animals in, 1:46 religion of, 1:110
Samaria and Israel conquered by, Hanging Gardens of, 1:100, 102, Samsu-iluna, 4:46
4:44-45 2:149-50 science in, 1:111
Sargon II, 4:49-50 historical role of, 1:100 sculpture of, 4:57-58
sculpture of, 4:57 Marduk and, 3:71 social structure of, 1:108-9
Scythians and, 4:60 physical features of, 1:101 Southern Citadel, 1:65
Semiramis, 4:70 Processional Way, 1:101 (illus.) temple servants in, 4:75
Sennacherib, 4:73-74 roads in, 4:40 Tiglath-pileser III and, 4:124
Shalmaneser III, 4:77 Southern Citadel of, 3:159-60 trial records, 3:52
Shalmaneser V, 4:77-78 Babylonia and the Babylonians, Ur and, 4:138
Shamshi-Adad I, 4:78 1:102-11,2:79 women's role in, 4:161-62
social structure of, 1:92 agriculture in, 1:108 Xerxes and, 4:172, 173
soldiers of, 4:92-93 Arabs and, 1:51 ziggurats of, 4:175-76
Tiglath-pileser III, 4:124 Aramaeans and Assyrians in, 1:105-6 zodiac in, 4:177-78
trade routes of, 4:128 artifacts from, 1:55 (illus,) Babyloniaca, 2:166
and Urartu, 4:140 arts in, 1:111 Babylonian Chronicles, 1:169
women's role in, 4:161 Assyria and, 1:86,89 Bactra, 1:154

192
 Index
Bactria, 1:111-12 Masoretic text of, 3:28 in Egypt, 1:67-68, 125-26
and Alexander the Great, 1:25 mathematics in, 3:78 fragrant wood as, 3:169
death and burial in, 2:33 measurement in, 3:79, 80 for houses, 2:173-74 (illus.)
location of, 1:153 Megiddo in, 3:89-90 in Iran, 1:127
Bagoas, 2:84 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 in the Levant, 1:68, 126
Bahrain, 1:50,1:112-13 Moses, 3:116-17 in Mesopotamia, 1:124-25
Ballard, Robert, 3:187 Mount Sinai, 4:84-4:85 mud brick as, 1:64
Barley, 1:155 music and dance in, 2:71-72 of palace at Susa, 3:176
Barter, 2:49, 52-53 Nebuchadnezzar II in, 1:106 for palaces, 3:161
Barthelemy, Jean-Jacques, 2:33 Omriin, 1:11-12 for ships and boats, 4:80-81
Barns, 3:153-54 patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel, stone, 2:40, 4:97-99
Bas-reliefs, 1:113-15 3:166-68 in Syria, 1:126
animals depicted in, 1:46 Philistines in, 3:181, 182 for temples, 3:163
in Assyria, 1:93 pigs in, 4:3 wood and woodworking, 4:164-67
from Egypt, 1:113-14 (illus.), 2:64 poetry in, 3:59-60 Buildings. See Architecture
from Mesopotamia, 1:114-15 prophecies in, 3:156-57 Bulgur (recipe), 2:103
Narmer Palette, 1:113-14 Proverbs in, 4:18 Bull, human-headed, 1:47
Phoenician ships, 3:131 (illus.) Psalms in, 4:11 Bullae, 4:68
on stone stelae, 1:114-15 Red Sea vs. Sea of Reeds in, 4:31 "bull leaping," 3:111-12
Bast/Bastet, 1:149 Samaritans in, 4:45 Burial sites and tombs, 1:127-32
Bauer, Hans, 1:30 7-day week in, 1:134 Abydos, 1:1-2
Beekeeping, 1:44 Shalmaneser V in, 4:77 amulets in, 1:34
Beer, 1:154, 155, 157, 2:101 Sinai Peninsula in, 4:85 of Assyrian queens, 4:24
Behistun Inscription, 1:62,1:115-17, tabernacle construction in, 4:165 bas-relief in, 1:114
3:4, 4:59 Ten Commandments, 4:116-17 at Qatal Hiiyuk, 1:148
Bel. See Enlil Torah, 4:127 for cats, 1:149
Berber languages, 2:146 Tyre in, 4:135 in Central Asia, 1:130-31
Bes, 1:162 use of El in, 2:66 of King Darius I, 3:175 (illus.)
Bessus, 1:25 Yahweh and other gods in, 3:114 in Egypt, 1:66, 128-30
Bible, Hebrew, 1:117-18 Bibliotheca, 2:97 graves, 1:128
alphabetic numeration and, 3:149 Bidu, 1:5 inscriptions in, 3:4
Aramaic used in, 1:52, 3:48 Bietak, Mannfred, 1:63 in Iran, 1:131
archaeological evidence about, Birds in art, 1:118-20 kurgans, 1:151
1:61-62, 2:155-56 Birthplace of civilization, 4:141 in the Levant, 1:131-32
and Ark of the Covenant, 1:71 Bittel, Kurt, 1:64 at Lisht, 3:58
Athaliahin, 1:98 Black magic, 3:68, 4:159 in Mesopotamia, 1:130
Book of Isaiah, 3:12 Black Obelisk, 4:77 of Mycenaeans, 3:123
and Canaanite literature, 1:138 Boats. See Ships and boats near Thebes, 4:120
Chaldeans in, 1:159 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 necropolises, 1:128
Chronicles in, 1:165 Books and manuscripts, 1:121-23. See in Persia, 1:69-70
clothing laws in, 2:8 also Texts and documents Ramses VI's tomb, 4:134
Covenant Code, 3:53 clay tablets as, 1:121-22 robbing of, 1:127-28
creation myths in, 2:15 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 sarcophagi, 1:132
King David, 2:28-29 on omens, 3:154 secondary burial, 1:132
Dead Sea Scrolls discovery, 1:62 papyrus rolls, 1:122 tombs, 1:128
dreams in, 2:41 writing of, 1:122-23 Tutankhamen's tomb, 4:134
droughts in, 2:42-43 Botta, Paul-Emile, 1:60 Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44
earthquakes in, 2:46-47 Bows and arrows, 4:155 Valley of the Queens, 4:144
Eden in, 3:126 Bread, 1:156-57 Byblos, 1:132-33, 2:10
edict of Cyrus the Great in, 2:54 Breads, 2:100-101
Egyptian chronology and, 1:170 Breasted, James Henry, 1:63
Elisha in, 3:86
"evil eye" in, 4:160
famine in, 2:91
Brick(s), 1:123-24
Egyptian use of, 1:125
Mesopotamian use of, 1:125
c
Caesar, Julius, 2:4
feasts and festivals in, 2:92 Persian use of, 1:127 Calendars, 1:133-36, 4:96
flood story in, 2:97 as replacement for wood, 4:165 Babylonian astronomy and, 1:111
Hurriansin, 2:181 Bronze, 3:101, 108, 4:155 civil vs. religious, 1:134, 135
illnesses and diseases in, 2:153 Bronze Age, 1:166,3:101 counting years with, 1:135
Israel and Judah in, 3:13-16 Alalakhin, 1:22-23 Egyptian, 1:134-35
Jeremiah, 3:17 Khatti in, 3:30 and lunar theory, 3:62
Jericho story in, 3:18 metal figurines from, 1:36 (illus.) Mesopotamian, 1:133-34
Jerusalem in, 3:19-20 trade in, 1:3 use of, 1:135-36
Judaism and, 3:23-26, 28 Building materials, 1:124-27 Cambyses II, 1:136, 3:172-74
kingship in, 2:45 in Anatolia, 1:126 Camels, 1:40, 1:136-37
law codes in, 2:149, 3:53, 3:114-16 bricks, 1:123-24 Arabs'use of, 1:49
locust plagues in, 2:38 clay for, 4:6 in art, 1:44-45

193
Index
caravans using, 1:144, 4:128 wall paintings at, 4:147 in Canaan, 1:138
trade using, 3:93, 4:128, 130 Cats, 1:40, 1:149 (illus.), 2:179 Carthage, 1:146-48
Canaan and the Canaanites, 1:137-40 Cattle, 1:42 (illus.), 44, 1:150 Damascus, 2:24
afterlife beliefs of, 1:6 Caucasus, 1:130, 1:150-51 Ebla, 2:47
Baal, 1:98-99 Cavalry, 1:152 (illus.) in Egypt, 1:173
burial practices of, 1:131 Cemeteries. See Burial sites and tombs Eridu, 2:76-77
creation myths of, 2:15 Centaurs, 1:47,2:171 Eshnunna, 2:77-78
El, 2:66 Central Asia, 1:153-54 founded by Philistines, 3:181-82
ethnic and language groups, Bactria, 1:111-12, 1:153-54 gates in, 2:113-14
2:82-83 burial sites and tombs in, 1:130-31 Giza, 2:123-24
geography of, 1:137-38 Margiana, 1:153 Greek, 2:140
government of, 2:137 Central Semitic languages, 4:72 Itjtawy, 3:58
hairstyles in, 2:144, 145 Ceramics. See Pottery Jericho, 1:171, 172, 3:17-18
health in, 2:153 Cereal grains, 1:154-57, 2:100-101 Jerusalem, 3:18-20
Hebrews and Israelites, 2:155-58 Chadic languages, 2:146 Kalkhu, 3:28
history of, 1:138-39 Chaldea and the Chaldeans, Karkamish, 3:28-29
houses of, 2:175 1:157-59, 3:107 Khattusha, 3:31
Israel and Judah, 3:13-16 Champollion, Jean-Frangois, 2:34, Kish, 3:38
Israelites in, 2:83, 156 162, 4:41-43 Knossos, 3:38-39
and Jews, 3:24 Chariots, 1:152 (illus.), 1:160-61 Lagash, 3:44
king lists of, 3:35 (illus.) and land use, 3:45
land ownership in, 3:46 animals used with, 1:44 Larsa, 2:147
languages of, 1:139, 4:72 art depicting, 3:7 (illus.) layout of, 1:175-76
magic in, 3:69 cavalry vs., 1:152 in the Levant, 1:174
marriage in, 3:74-75 in early Mesopotamia, 1:71 location of, 1:174
Megiddo, 3:89 in Hittite army, 1:73 Maracanda, 1:154
merchants in, 3:93 horse-drawn, 2:171 Mari, 3:71-72
mythology of, 3:125-26 as tax payment, 4:115 Memphis, 3:90-91
palaces of, 3:161 wheels for, 4:158 Meroe, 3:39-41
Philistines, 2:83, 3:181-84 Charms. See Amulets and charms in Mesopotamia, 1:171-73
Phoenicia and the Phoenicians, Cheops. See Khufu Mycenae and the Mycenaeans,
2:83, 3:184-88 Chickens, 1:44 3:121-23
poetry of, 3:60 Childbirth, 1:162, 3:85 Nineveh, 3:139-40
religions of, 1:139 Children, 1:163-64. See also Family Nippur, 3:140
resources of, 1:138 and social life nomads and, 3:142
Semites in, 4:71 arranged marriages for, 3:74 Persepolis, 3:170-71
social institutions of, 4:90 burial offerings for, 1:131 Philistine, 3:183
temples of, 3:163 divorce and, 2:39-40 Phoenician, 3:184
Canals, 1:140-42 education for, 2:54 populations of, 1:174
for irrigation, 1:9, 3:9, 11 in Egypt, 2:64 Samaria, 4:44-45
maintenance of, 4:154 hairstyles of, 2:144 Samarkand, 1:154
taxes paid for use of, 4:116 as laborers, 3:42 Sardis, 4:47-48
trade routes along, 4:128 medical treatment of, 3:85 Sidon, 4:84
Capacity, measurement of, 3:79-80 naming of, 3:128 size of, 1:174
Capital punishment, 1:142-43, 3:53 sacrifice of, 1:147, 3:151, 188, 4:38 Sparta, 1:80
Caravans, 1:143-45 sold into slavery, 4:86 Sumerian, 4:101 (map), 103, 104
dangers facing, 3:93 Chogha Mami, 2:172 Susa, 4:108-9
messengers use of, 2:10 Chronicles, 1:164-66, 2:165-66, in Syria, 1:174,4:109
routes, caravan, 4:128 3:130 Thebes, 4:120-21
trade and, 3:92-93 Chronology(-ies), 1:166-70, 2:165 Troy, 4:132-33
Carbon-14 dating, 1:168 Cimmerians, 3:65 Tyre, 4:134-35
Caria and the Carians, 1:145-46 Phrygians and, 4:1 Ugarit, 4:135-37
Carmel, Mount, 2:121 Urartu invasion by, 3:143 Umma, 4:137
Carnelian, 3:90 Cities and city-states, 1:171-76 Ur, 4:137-39
Carpets, 4:118 Akhetaten, 1:16 urbanization and, 4:140-41
Carter, Howard, 1:59, 128, 4:134 Akkad, 1:16-22 Uruk, 4:141-43
Carthage, 1:146-48, 3:88 Alalakh, 1:22-23 walled cities, 4:148-49
Cartography, 3:69, 70 Amarna, 1:31-32 waste disposal in, 1:175
Casting (metal), 3:103 in Anatolia, 1:38, 173 "cities of the dead," 1:128
fatal Hiiyuk, 1:148-49 appearance of, 1:175 Civilization, birthplace of, 4:141
birds in paintings at, 1:118 Ashdod, 3:183 Clapp, Nicholas, 1:62
clothing of, 2:8 Ashur, 1:81-82 Clay tablets, 2:1-3 (illus.)
furnishing at, 2:107 Babylon, 1:100-102 agricultural records on, 1:10
houses at, 2:173 Bactra, 1:154 at Amarna, 1:31
location of, 1:37 building materials for, 1:125 from Ashurbanipal's library, 3:55
rock paintings at, 1:45 Byblos, 1:132-33 (illus.)

194
 Index
of Assyrian kings, 1:92 Contact magic, 3:68 Darius I (Darius the Great), 2:27 (illus.)
astronomy records on, 1:96 Copernicus, 1:94 in art, 2:178
Baal cycle, 1:99 Copper, 2:22, 3:100, 101, 108 and Behistun inscription, 1:115-16
in Crete, 2:16 Coptic language, 2:34 (illus.), 3:4
at Ebla, 2:47 Corvee (forced labor), 3:168 and building of Persepolis, 3:170-71
Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94, 96 Cosmetics, 2:11-13 Cambysesand, 1:136
Farmer's Almanac on, 1:10 perfumes in, 3:170 palace of, 1:69
inscriptions on, 3:3-4 on statue of Lady Nofret, 2:12 (illus.) and Persian Wars, 3:177
as manuscripts, 1:121-22 Cosmogony. See creation myths reign of, 3:173
maps on, 3:69-70 Council of 500, 2:141-42 satrapies originated by, 2:138
fromMari, 3:71 Counting, 3:148 Darius II, 3:173
Mesopotamian, 3:54 Creation myths, 2:13-15 Darius III, 1:23-25, 2:10 (illus.), 2:27,
of Mesopotamian law, 3:52 of Ahriman and Ahura Mazda, 1:13 3:174
messages sent on, 2:10 Anu in, 1:48 Dark Age(s), 1:3
in Nineveh library, 3:140 Ea in, 2:45 in Anatolia, 3:136
numbers expressed on, 3:148 Enuma Elish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, in Babylonia, 1:104-5, 3:96
Plow Star, 1:96 125 in Greece, 2:140
for record keeping, 4:29 EpicofAtrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 3:125 Dark or Gloomy Earth (netherworld),
storage and retrieval of, 3:56 and Hebrew Bible, 1:118 1:5
Three Stars Each, 1:96 similarities among, 4:123 Date palms and dates, 2:27-28
Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon, 1:85 Crete, 2:15-17 Dating, archaeological methods of,
(illus.) earthquakes of, 2:38, 46 1:57-59, 166-68
Cleopatra, 2:3-4 (illus.) geography of, 3:109 David, King of Israel, 2:28-29
Climate, 2:4-6, 4:153. See also Agricul- Greek influence on, 2:139 dynasty of, 2:45
ture; Environmental change Knossos, 3:38-39, 3:110, 111 historical evidence about, 2:156
of Anatolia, 1:36,2:120 Minoan civilization, 2:15-17, Jerusalem and, 3:19, 24
of Arabia, 1:48 3:109-12 sources of information about, 3:14-15
and canals, 1:140 Mycenaean trade and, 3:122 Dead Sea, 2:121
cosmetics and, 2:11 shipping trade in, 3:88 Dead Sea Scrolls, 1:62
and drought, 2:42-43 Crime. See Capital punishment; Death and burial, 2:29-33. See also
of Egypt, 2:119 Law(s) Burial sites and tombs; Capital
and environmental change, Croesus, King, 3:65-66 punishment
2:73-75 Cross-dating (archaeological), 1:58 and afterlife, 1:3-6
herding of animals and, 3:144 Cults, 2:18-19 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21
of Iran, 2:120, 3:6 Cuneiform, 2:19-22 cosmetics used in, 2:11
of the Levant, 2:120 archaeological discoveries of, 1:61 Egyptian practices, 2:63, 3:68-69
of Mesopotamia, 2:118 in Babylonia, 1:109 feasts and festivals associated with,
nomadism necessitated by, 3:144 in Bahrain, 1:113 2:94
rainfall, 4:153 on clay tablets, 1:59, 122, 2:2 (illus.), funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.)
in Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 3:56 incense in funerary rites, 2:186-87
of Sudan, 4:99 decipherment of, 2:34-36 letters to the dead, 1:4, 2:41
Clocks, 1:134,135 as forerunner of alphabet, 1:28-29 mummies, 3:117-19
Clothing, 2:6-9 (illus.). See also mathematical texts in, 3:77 by Mycenaeans, 3:123
Textiles replacement of, 1:122 offerings to the dead, 1:5, 3:151-52
Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 Sumerian language written in, supernatural powers of the dead,
as tax payment, 4:115 4:105 4:121-22
Code of Hammurabi. See Hammurabi, Currency. See Money Decimal system, 3:78, 148, 4:52
Code of The Curse ofAkkad, 1:18 Decipherment, 2:33-36
Codes of Lipit-Ishtar, 3:52 Cushitic languages, 2:146 of Behistun inscription, 1:116-17
Codes of Shulgi, 3:52 Cyaxares, King, 3:81, 127 of hieroglyphics, 2:161-62
Coins, 3:112, 3:113 Cybele, 2:129, 3:67, 4:3 of lost languages, 3:49-50
early, 2:142 Cyclades islands, 1:3 of Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43
as item of exchange, 2:53 Cyprus, 2:22-23, 3:88 Deforestation, 2:39, 42, 75
Lycian, 3:64 (illus.), 112 (illus.) Cyrus the Great, 2:23-24 Deioces, King, 3:81
tetradrachma, 3:187 (illus.) Lydian battle against, 3:66 Deities. See Gods and goddesses;
Colossus of Rhodes, 4:35 and Median Kingdom, 3:82-83 Religion(s)
Comedy. See Humor Persian empire founded by, 3:172 Delian League, 3:178
Commerce. See Economy and trade tomb of, 1:129 (illus.) Lycia in, 3:63
Commercial economies, 2:50 Rhodes as member of, 4:35
Communication, 2:9-11. See also Lan- Democracy (Greece), 2:141
guage^); Writing Democritus, 2:142
with the dead, 1:4-6 D Demons, 2:36-37
iconography, 2:184-86 Dagan, 1:54, 139, 2:130 and afterlife beliefs, 1:5
between kings, 2:137 Dairy products, 2:101-2 exorcisms of, 3:69
messengers for, 3:99 Damascus, 1:12, 2:24 imaginary creatures representing,
prayers as, 4:12 Dance, 2:24-26 (illus.) 1:47-48

195
Index
incense as protection against,
2:186
E nomads' part in, 3:144
of Nubia, 3:145-46
Lamashtu, 1:162, 2:36, 37 (illus.), Ea, 2:45 obsidian in, 3:150-51
3:68 animals depicting, 1:47 with Oman Peninsula, 3:153
magic rituals against, 3:68, 69 in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 of Persian Empire, 3:175
Pazuzu, 3:69 (illus.) in creation myths, 2:14 of Philistines, 3:183
in theology, 4:121 creation of humans by, 2:127 of Phoenicians, 3:185-87 (map)
Demosthenes, 2:142 Eagles in art, 1:119 of Phrygia, 4:2
Demotic script, 2:34 Early Bronze Age, art of, 2:177 reciprocal economies, 2:49
Denyen, 4:63 Earthquakes, 2:46-47 redistributive economies, 2:49-50,
Deondrochronology, 1:168 East Semitic languages, 4:72 62
Deportation, 3:104, 106-7 Ebers, George, 3:164 retail trade, 3:66
Desertification, 2:75 Ebla, 2:47 Rhodes and, 4:35
Deserts Adad (god of weather), 1:2 of Scythians, 4:61
Libyan Desert, 2:120 archaeological discoveries of, shipping routes, 4:79-80
Negev Desert, 2:121 1:61-62 slavery, 4:87
Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 land ownership in, 3:46 staple goods, 2:51-52
Syrian Desert, 2:120 language of, 4:72 subsistence economy, 4:167
Western desert, 2:120 Eclipses, 4:107 of Sumerians, 4:104
Dialogue of a Man With His God, 3:60 Eclipses as omens, 1:94-95 textile industry, 4:120
Digs. See Archaeological sites Economy and trade, 2:47-53 trade routes, 4:127-29
Dilmun, 1:50, 2:52, 3:91, 4:128 of Akkadians, 1:20-21 in Transcaucasia, 1:151
Diplomats in Anatolia, 1:38 work generated by, 4:168
merchants as, 2:49 animals' roles in, 1:44-45 Edict of Ammi-saduqa, 2:53
messengers as, 2:9, 10 in Arabia, 1:49-50 (map) Edict of Khattushili, 2:53-54
Disasters of Aramaeans, 1:52 EdictofKhattushilil, 3:60
on Crete, 2:17 in Ashur, 1:81 Edict of Telipinu, 2:54, 166, 3:60
drought, 2:42-43 in Assyria, 1:92 Edicts, 2:53-54
earthquakes, 2:46-47 in Babylonia, 1:102, 108 Education, 2:54-56
famine, 2:90-91 inBactria, 1:111-12 apprenticeships, 2:55
flood legends and, 2:97 in Bahrain, 1:112-13 clay tablets used in, 2:3
floods, 2:97-100 inByblos, 1:132-33 in Egypt, 1:164
natural, 2:37-39 in Canaan, 1:138 of Israelites, 2:157
as omens, 1:94 caravans for, 1:143-45 Kumarbi Cycle for, 3:39
volcanoes, 4:144-45 Carthage, 1:146-48 literacy restrictions and, 4:172
The Dispute Between Copper and Silver, of Chaldeans, 1:158 schools, 4:50-52
3:101 city gates as centers of, 1:175 of scribes, 4:54-55
Distemper, 4:146 commercial economies, 2:50 Egypt and the Egyptians, 2:56-66
Divination of Crete, 2:16 Abydos burial site, 1:1-2
education for, 2:55 Cyprus as center of, 2:22 agriculture, 1:9-10, 2:61-62
goats for, 2:126 Dilmun civilization (Arabia), 1:50 Akhetaten, 1:16
from incense, 2:186 of Ebla, 2:47 and Alexander the Great, 1:24
necromancy, 1:6, 3:69, 4:160 of Egypt, 2:61-63, 3:133 Amarna, 1:31-32
omens for, 1:94, 3:153-54 essential goods, 2:51 amulets worn by, 1:34
and oracles, 3:155-56 by farmworkers, 1:10-11 apiculture in, 1:44
The Prophecy of Neferti, 3:156 fish in, 2:96 Arabs and Assyrian campaigns
with zodiac, 1:95 and growth of cities, 1:173 against, 3:143
Divine kingship, 3:129 harbors and, 2:150-51 archaeology and archaeologists in,
Divorce, 1:163, 2:39-40 of Hittites, 2:168-69 1:59-60
Diyala River, 4:39 incense in, 2:187 architecture. See Egyptian architecture
Djoser, 2:40, 4:20 in Iran, 3:8 archives and libraries in, 3:54-56
Documents. See Texts and documents of Israelites, 2:156 armies of, 1:72-73, 4:92, 93
Dogs, 2:179 lapis lazuli for, 3:50 art of. See Egyptian art
Donkeys, 1:42, 44 luxury goods, 2:51-52 Asiatics in, 2:80
The Doomed Prince, 2:63 Lydian, 3:66 under Assyria, 1:82-83
Dorians, 2:139 inMari, 3:71 astronomy of, 1:97
Dreams, 2:41, 3:155 maritime, 3:186-87 autobiographies of, 3:60
Drought, 2:42-43 markets, 3:72-73 burial sites and tombs in, 1:128-30
Drums, 3:121 on Mediterranean Sea, 3:87-89 calendars in, 1:134-35
Dyes Melukkha, 3:90 Cambyses II in, 1:136
in cosmetics, 2:12 merchants, 3:91-93 Canaan and, 1:138
for Egyptian clothing, 2:7 of Minoans, 3:109-10 canals in, 1:141-42
hair, 2:12 money, 3:112-13 capital punishment in, 1:142-43
purple, 3:186, 4:84, 119-20 in Mycenae, 3:121-22 Carians in, 1:145
for textiles, 4:119-20 between nomads and city-dwellers, cavalry in, 1:152
Dynasties, 2:43-45 3:142 cereal grains in, 1:155

196
 Index
chariots in, 1:160 roads in, 4:40 sports, 2:72
chronicles of, 1:165 rulers of. See Egyptian rulers use of perfumes, 2:13
chronology of, 1:170 science of, 4:52-54 women's role in, 4:162
cities in, 1:173 Sea People and, 3:106 Egyptian gods, goddesses, and reli-
climate of, 2:5, 119 Semitic influence on, 4:71 gion, 2:63, 2:128-29, 4:32-33
demotic script of, 2:34 servants in, 4:74-75 afterlife beliefs of, 1:4-5
dependence on flooding in, 2:98 shipping and, 3:88, 4:79-80 Amun, 1:35
dreams and, 2:41 Shuppiluliuma I and, 4:83 animal worship, 2:63
economy of, 2:61-63 social life of. See Egyptian family Anubis, 1:47
ethnic and language groups, and social life Aten, 1:97-98
2:80-81 textile industry in, 4:120 Book of the Dead, 1:120-21
Faiyum Depression, 2:57 Thebes, 4:120-21 cats in, 1:149
family life of. See Egyptian family timekeeping by, 4:96-97 in creation myths, 2:13-14
and social life trade in, 2:52, 2:62-63, 3:72 and demons, 2:37
famine in, 2:90 trade routes of, 4:128-29 feasts and festivals in, 2:93
farming in, 1:155, 3:45 wine and, 4:159 funeral practices in, 1:4
funerary papyrus of Djedkhonse- writing of, 4:171 funerary offerings in, 3:151
fankh, 2:31 (illus.) Xerxes and, 4:172-73 Hathor, 2:151
gardens of, 2:112-13 Egyptian architecture, 1:65-68, Horus, 2:171-72
geography of, 2:56-57, 2:118-19 2:63-64 hymns for, 2:183
Giza, 2:123-24 building materials in, 1:125-26 incense for, 2:186
god and goddesses. See Egyptian building techniques in, 1:67-68 Isis, 3:13
gods, goddesses, and religion earthquake protection in, 2:46 Karnak, 3:29
government of, 2:133-36 houses, 2:174 magic in, 3:68
historical periods of. See Egyptian palaces, 3:160-61 medicinal use of myths in, 3:126
historical periods pyramids, 4:20-23 monotheism, 3:113-1:114
Hyksos and, 2:182-83 temples, 3:163 music and, 3:119-21
independence from Persia of, 3:173 Egyptian art, 1:77-78, 2:63-64 in mythology, 3:125
irrigation in, 3:10-11 animals in, 1:40, 46-48 offerings for, 3:151
kings. See Egyptian rulers birds in, 1:118-19 Osiris, 3:157
Kush and, 3:39-40,146-47 deities shown in, 2:129 prayers to, 4:11,12
labor and laborers in, 3:42 faience in, 2:85 priests in, 4:13-16
land use or ownership in, 3:46 human form in, 2:175-77 (illus.) prophecies in, 3:156
languages of, 2:64-65, 2:146, 3:48 jewelry making, 2:115-16 Seth, 4:76
law in, 3:52-53 Nefertiti in, 3:133-34 (illus.) sun worship, 4:107-8
Libyan and, 3:56-57 in Old Kingdom, 1:46 theology, 4:122
literature of, 2:65, 3:60 Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.) Egyptian historical periods, 2:57-61
location of, 2:58 (map) sculpture, 4:58 Early Dynastic, 2:44, 2:57-59
Lower and Upper Egypt, 2:133, 136 Egyptian family and social life, Eleventh Dynasty, 3:63
Luxor, 3:63 2:65-66, 86-87, 2:89 Fifth Dynasty, 1:1
magic in, 3:68 banquets, 2:72 First Dynasty, 1:173, 2:44
maps from, 3:70 childbirth in, 1:162 First Intermediate period, 2:59
mathematics in, 3:76-78 (illus.) children in, 1:163-64 Greco-Roman period, 2:61
measurement in, 3:79, 80 clothing of, 2:7-8 Late Period, 1:2,2:44,2:61
medicine in, 3:85-86 cosmetics used by, 2:11-13 Middle Kingdom, 1:1, 66, 129, 149,
Memphis, 3:90-91 dance in, 2:25-26 165, 2:26, 41, 44, 55, 2:59-60,
merchants in, 3:91 death and burial in, 2:30-31 2:134, 3:11
messengers, treatment of, 2:10 divination and, 3:155 New Kingdom, 1:12, 66, 130,
mining in, 3:108 divorce in, 2:39-40 142-43, 149, 165, 2:26, 44, 2:60,
money in, 3:112, 113 eating practices, 2:62 2:135-36, 3:4, 63
Moses and, 3:116 education, 1:164, 2:55 Old Kingdom, 1:46, 142, 2:38, 40,
mummification by, 3:117-19 (illus.) entertaining, 2:62 42, 44, 2:59, 2:123, 124, 133-34,
navy of, 3:130-31 ethnic diversity in, 2:65 3:4, 33
Nebuchadnezzar and, 3:132 feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 94 Predynastic, 2:57-59
Nile River, 2:38, 56-57, 3:137-38 furnishings in, 2:109-10 Ptolemaic period, 3:11
Nubia and the Nubians, 3:145-47 hairstyles, 2:144, 145 Second Intermediate Period,
number systems of, 3:148 health in, 2:152-54 2:59-60
papyrus rolls from, 1:122 marriage, 1:164, 3:75 Third Intermediate Period, 2:60
peasant labor in, 3:169 music and dance in, 2:71 Twelfth Dynasty, 2:134
pharaohs. See Egyptian rulers naming in, 3:128-29 Twenty-fifth Dynasty, 4:114
Phoenicians and, 3:184-85 polygamy in, 4:6 Twenty-sixth Dynasty, 2:135-36
poetry of, 3:59 schools in, 4:51-52 Egyptian rulers
queens. See Egyptian rulers scribal education in, 4:54-55 Ahmose, 1:12-13
racial beliefs of, 2:80 (illus.) slaves in, 4:86-87 Akhenaten, 1:14-15
religion of. See Egyptian gods, god- social classes, 2:65 Amenemhet III, 3:36
desses, and religion social institutions in, 4:88-89 Cleopatra, 2:3-4 (illus.)

197
Index

Djoser, 2:40 Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94, 96, 3:62, 4:96 shipping routes on, 4:79
dynasties of, 2:44-45 EnumaElish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, trade routes along, 4:128
Hatshepsut, 2:152 125 Evans, Sir Arthur, 2:17, 3:39, 109
Hyksos, 2:182-83 Envelopes, clay, 2:1, 4:28, 66 "evil eye, "4:160
Khufu, 3:33-34 Environmental change, 2:73-75 Excavations. See Archaeological sites
king lists, 3:35 Ephermerides, 1:96 Exorcisms, 1:5
Necho II, 3:132-33 Epic literature, 2:75-76 Extispicy, 3:153-54
Nefertiti, 3:133-34 Aqhat, Epic of, 1:138, 3:126 Eye of Horus, 2:172
Nitokris, 3:141 Atrakhasis, Epic of, 1:48, 110, 3:125 Ezra, 3:26
Pharaohs, 3:178-81 in Babylonia, 1:111
Piye, 3:147 Curse of Akkad, 1:18
Ptolemy I, 4:19-20
queens, 4:24
Ea in, 2:45
EnumaElish, 1:48, 110, 2:14, 3:71, F
Ramses II, 4:26-27 125 Fabrics. See Textiles
Ramses III, 4:27 Gilgamesh, Epic of, 2:122-23 Faience, 2:85-86 (illus.)
Sety I, 4:76-77 Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5 Faiyum Depression, 2:57, 3:137-38
Taharqa, 4:114-15 Iliad, 3:121 Falcons in art, 1:118
Thutmose III, 4:124 Keret, Epic of, 1:138, 3:126 Family and social life, 2:86-89
Tutankhamen, 4:133-34 Odyssey, 3:121 of Anatolians, 2:87
£1,2:66,2:130 poetry as, 4:5 of Babylonians, 1:108-9
in Baal cycle, 1:99 Epic of Aqhat, 1:138, 3:126 burial customs, 1:127
Canaanite worship of, 1:139 Epic of Atrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 2:97, of Chaldeans, 1:158
Elam and the Elamites, 2:66-70, 2:81 3:125 childbirth, 1:162
archaeological discoveries of, 1:63 Epic of Creation. See Enuma Elish children, 1:163-64
in Babylonian history, 1:105 Epic of Gilgamesh, 2:122-23 dance, 2:24-26
dynasties of, 2:45 Anuin, 1:48 divorce, 2:39-40
family and social life of, 2:88 dreams in, 2:41 economy's effect on, 2:49
feasts and festivals of, 2:92-93 Great Flood in, 2:97 of Egyptians, 2:65-66, 86-87, 89
geography of, 2:66-67 Ishtar myth in, 3:12 of Elamites, 2:88
gods and goddesses of, 2:67, 130, netherworld in, 1:5 entertainment, 2:70-73
4:33 title of, 3:59 feasts and festivals, 2:91-94
history of, 2:67-70, 3:6 walls of Uruk in, 1:175 games, 2:110-12
language of, 2:34, 36, 3:49 Epic of Keret, 1:138, 3:126 gender and sex roles in, 2:116-18
priests of, 4:14 Eratosthenes, 3:70 gradual disasters and, 2:39
Proto-Elamites, 2:67 Ereshkigal, queen of the dead, 1:5 of Hittites, 2:87
religions of, 2:67, 3:7-8, 4:33 Eridu, 2:76-77 houses, 2:172-75
Susianaand, 4:108 Erra, 1:110-11 influence of cities on, 1:171
women's role in, 2:67, 4:164 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125 inheritance and, 2:88-89
Elba, 2:47 Esarhaddon, 2:77 Iranian, 2:88
Elburz Mountains, 2:120 and Ashurbanipal, 1:82 of Israelites, 2:87-89
Ellil. See Enlil death omen of, 1:94-95 legal rights in, 3:51
Empire(s) reign of, 1:90 Lycian, 2:87
armies of, 1:73-75 Eshnunna, 2:77-78 marriage, 3:74-75
communication within, 2:11 divorce in, 2:39 merchant families, 3:92
idea of, 1:22 laws of, 3:52, 73 (illus.) Mesopotamian, 2:86, 89
Employment. See Work Palace of Governors, 1:65, 3:158-59 naming, 3:128
Enkheduanna, 1:21, 4:138 (illus.) Eshtan, 2:129 nomadic, 3:145
Enki, 1:110,2:14 Etana, 1:119 of peasants, 3:169
Enki and Ninmakh, 1:110, 3:125 Ethiopia. See Nubia and the Nubians of Persians, 2:88
Enlil, 2:70, 2:127 Ethiopian language, 4:73 polygamy, 4:5-6
in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110 Ethnic and language groups, 2:78-84 pregnancy, 4:12-13
in creation myths, 2:14 Anatolian, 2:82 women, role of, 4:161-64
cult of, at Nippur, 3:140 Arabian, 2:83 Famine, 2:90-91, 3:138
Enmerkar, 2:19-20, 4:5 Canaanite, 2:82-83 Farmer's Almanac, 1:10
Enmerkar and the Lord ofAmtta, 2:75 Egyptian, 2:65, 80-81 Farming. See also Agriculture; Gardens
Entertainment, 2:70-73. See also Iranian, 2:81-82 animal husbandry with, 1:43
Feasts and festivals Mesopotamian, 2:78-79 by Aramaeans, 1:52
banquets, 2:72 Ethnoarchaeology, 1:59 and canals, 1:140-41
dance, 2:24-26, 71-72 Eunuchs, 2:84 cattle, 1:150
feasts and festivals, 2:91-94 Euphrates River, 2:84-85, 2:118, in Crete, 2:15
games, 2:110-12 4:38-39 as economic foundation, 2:47
Kumarbi Cycle for, 3:39 changes in, 2:74, 4:137 effect of, on climate, 2:6
music and musical instruments, flooding of, 1:9, 2:99, 4:153-54 in Egypt, 1:155
2:71-72, 3:119-21 harbors on, 2:150 and irrigation, 3:8-11
sports, 2:72-73 and irrigation, 3:9 of Israelites, 2:157
storytelling, 2:73 Mesopotamian dependence on, 2:98 in the Levant, 1:155

198
 Index
in Mesopotamia, 1:155 olives, 3:152-53 Fertile Crescent, 2:94-95
nomadism and, 3:105, 141 pigs as, 4:3 of Greece, 2:138-39
peasants and, 3:168, 169 preparation of, 2:103 and growth of cities, 1:174
plows for, 1:44 rationing of, 2:101 harbors, 2:150-51
settlements depending on, 3:44-45 sacrifices of, 4:37 of Iran, 2:120, 3:6
sharecropping, 3:45-46 storage and preservation of, 2:103-4 of Israel, 2:121
tools for, 4:125-26 vegetables, 1:8, 2:101 of Lebanon, 2:121
in Transcaucasia, 1:151 wine, 2:101, 102, 4:158-59 of the Levant, 2:120-21
Fashion and grooming Fortifications, 2:104-6 and maps, 3:69-70 (illus.)
clothing, 2:6-9 (illus.) city walls as, 4:148-49 of Mesopotamia, 2:118, 3:94-95
hair, 2:143-45 gates in, 2:113-14 of Nile River, 3:137
jewelry, 3:20-23 inKhattusha, 1:70 of Nubia, 3:145
perfumes, 3:169-70 of Khorsabad citadel, 3:160 (illus.) of Oman Peninsula, 3:153
Fate, 4:121 Fox-Talbot, W. H., 2:35 of Persian Empire, 3:172 (map)
Feasts and festivals, 2:91-94 Frankfort, Henri, 1:47, 63 of Phoenicia, 3:186
Babylonian New Year's festival, 2:94 Frankincense, 2:186, 187 of Syria, 2:120, 4:110
banquets, 2:72 Frescoes, 2:16-17 (illus.), 4:146 (illus.) and trade routes, 2:52
cult festivals, 2:18 Friedrich, Johannes, 1:30 Ghirshman, Roman, 1:63
dance in, 2:26 Fruits, 2:101 Ghosts
of Egyptians, 4:32 Funerals. See Death and burial beliefs about, 1:4, 5
of Elamites, 4:33 Funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.) funerary offerings and, 3:152
following blood sacrifices, 4:37 Funerary offerings, 1:5, 3:151-52 magic rituals against, 3:68, 69
of Hittites, 2:89, 170,4:34 Furnishings and furniture, 2:106-10 as type of demon, 2:36-37
offerings during, 3:151 (illus.) Gilgamesh, 2:121-23
Opet festival, 2:92, 3:63 textiles for, 4:118-19 in epic literature, 2:75. See also Epic
Serf-Festival, 3:179-80 wood for, 4:165-66 of Gilgamesh
Fertile Crescent, 2:94-95 Future, foretelling. See Divination in Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5
Field of Offerings, 1:4-5 war of, with Agga, 1:9
Fires, sacred, 4:179 (illus.), 180 Gilgamesh andKhuwawa, 4:5
Fish, 2:102 Giza, 2:123-24
Fishing, 2:95-96 G Great Sphinx at, 4:94-95 (illus.)
Flax, 2:96-97,4:118 Games, 2:110-12 (illus.) pyramids at, 4:21, 22 (illus.)
Floating chronology, 1:167 Garbage Glaciers, 2:5
Flood legends, 2:97 contamination by, 2:154 Glacis, 2:105
Floods and flooding, 2:97-100 disposal of, 1:175 Glass and glassmaking, 2:124-25
agriculture and water from, 1:9-10 Garden of Eden, 1:13 (illus.)
of Euphrates River, 2:85, 98 Gardens, 2:112-13 Goats, 1:40, 42, 43, 2:126
and irrigation, 3:9-11 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, GodinTepe, 3:80-81
of Nile River, 1:10, 141-42, 2:61-62, 2:149-50 Gods and goddesses, 2:126-30. See
74,3:10-11, 138 irrigation for, 3:11 also Demons
in southern Mesopotamia, 1:9 shade gardens, 1:8 Adad, 1:2-3
of Tigris, 2:98, 4:125 vegetable gardens, 1:8 Ahura Mazda (Persia), 1:14
Flutes, 3:120 Garstand, John, 1:63 Amun (Egypt), 1:35
Food and drink, 2:100-104 Gasur. See Nuzi of Anatolia, 2:129-30
aurochs for, 1:150 Gates, 1:175, 2:105, 2:113-14 Anat (Syria and Levant), 1:35-36
banquets, 2:72 Gathas, 4:179-80 animals associated with, 1:46-48
beer, 1:154, 155, 157, 2:101 Geb, 1:119,2:14, 128 Anubis (Egypt), 1:47
birds as source of, 1:41 Gems, 2:114-16, 3:21 Anu (Mesopotamia), 1:48
bread, 1:156-57, 2:100-101 Gender and sex, 2:116-18 in art, 2:184-85
cattle, 1:150 eunuchs, 2:84 Ashur (Assyria), 1:82
cereal grains, 1:154-57, 2:100-101 hairstyles and, 2:144-45 associated with lions, 3:58
crops raised for, 1:7-8 of potters, 4:7 and astrology, 1:94
dairy products, 2:101-2 property rights and, 4:16 Aten (Egypt), 1:97-98
dates, 1:8, 2:27-28 women, role of, 4:161-64 Baal, 1:98-99
deer and gazelles, 1:40 Geography, 2:118-21 (map). See also in Babylonia, 1:110
domesticated animals for, 1:41-44 Climate; Mountains; Rivers Bast/Bastet (Egypt), 1:149
in Egypt, 2:62 of Anatolia, 1:36, 2:119-20 Bes (Egypt), 1:162
fish, 2:95-96, 2:102 of Arabia, 2:120-21 birds associated with, 1:118-19
fruits, 1:8, 2:101 of Assyria, 1:84-85 boats for, 4:80
goats, 2:126 of Babylonia, 1:102 in Canaan, 1:139
for gods and goddesses, 4:32 of Canaan, 1:137-38 childbirth practices and, 1:162
hunting, 2:179-80 Caucasus mountains, 1:150-51 of cities, 1:171
meat, 2:102 of Central Asia, 1:153 (map) and cults, 2:18-19
Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 of Crete, 3:109 Cybele (Lydia), 3:67
offered to gods, 3:151 of Egypt, 2:56-57, 2:118-19 Cybele (Phrygia), 4:3
oils, condiments, sweeteners, 2:102 of Elam, 2:66-67 Dagan (Aramaea), 1:54

199
Index
dead pharaohs as, 3:180 Taweret (Egypt), 1:162 Great Pyramid, 1:126, 3:33-34, 180,
Ea (Mesopotamia), 2:45 and temple furniture, 2:110 4:23
of Egypt, 2:63,128-29 Teshub (Human), 4:117-18 Great Sphinx, 2:64, 123, 124, 3:33,
of Elamites, 2:67 theogonies of, 4:123 4:94-95 (illus.)
El (Canaan), 2:66 theophoric names and, 3:128 Great Temple of Amun (Luxor), 2:62
Eni mahanahi (Lycia), 3:63-64 Thoth (Egypt), 1:47 (illus.), 3:63
Enlil (Sumeria), 2:70, 3:140 Vulcan (Rome), 3:103 Greece and the Greeks, 2:138-43
Erra (Babylonia), 1:110-11 Yahweh (Israel and Judah), in Aegean Sea area, 1:3
"family" gods, 1:110 4:173-74 and Alexander the Great, 1:23
feasts and festivals and, 2:91-93 ziggurats and, 4:176 alphabet, 1:29-30
in Greece, 2:142 Gold, 3:100, 102 Archaic Age in, 1:3
Hadad (Aramaea), 1:54 as item of exchange, 2:53 art and architecture of, 2:142
hairstyles of, 2:144 mining of, 3:109 Athens, 2:140-42
Hathor (Egypt), 2:151 Gordianknot, 1:26 and Carthage, 1:146-47
Hecate (Greece), 1:145 Gordium, 1:61,4:1-3 Classical period of, 2:140-41
Hephaestus (Greece), 3:103 Government(s), 2:131-38. See also Council of 500, 2:141-42
of Hittites, 2:129-30, 169-70 Edicts; Law(s) Crete, 2:15-17
Horus (Egypt), 2:171-72 of Akkadia, 1:20,2:132 in Dark Age, 1:3
incantations for healing to, 3:69 of Anatolia, 2:136-37 geography of, 2:138-39
of Iran, 2:130 of Assyria, 1:83,91-92 government in, 2:141-42
Ishtar (Mesopotamia), 3:12 of Babylonia, 1:107-8 and Hellenistic world, 2:158-59
Isis (Egypt), 3:13 of Canaan, 2:137 Herodotus, 2:159-60
jewelry of, 3:20 and capital punishment, 1:142-43 history of, 2:139-41
ofKassites, 3:30 in Carthage, 1:147 hymns of, 2:183
Khepat (Hurrians), 3:33 communication and, 2:11 incense in, 2:186
kings and, 3:35-37 edicts of, 2:53-54 influence of, 1:26-27, 3:63-64
in Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39 of Egypt, 2:133-36, 3:138 language of, 2:139, 188, 3:48, 49
Kumarbi (Hittite), 3:126 eunuchs in, 2:84 literature of, 2:142
Kumarbi (Human), 3:39 of Greece, 2:141-42 Lydia and, 3:65
law as established by, 3:51 of Hittites, 2:136-37, 168 Macedonia, 2:141, 3:67
of the Levant, 2:130 of Iran, 2:138 maps from, 3:70
of Lycia, 3:63-64 of Israelites, 2:156 Mesopotamia under, 3:98
Lydian, 3:67 kingship form of, 3:35-38 migration in, 2:42
magic and, 2:67 of the Levant, 2:137-38 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans,
Marduk (Babylon), 3:71 of Mesopotamia, 2:131-33 3:121-23
Matar (Phrygia), 4:3 of Neo-Assyrian Empire, 2:133 mythology and religion of, 2:142
medicine and, 3:83, 84, 86, 87 nomadic tribes and, 3:144 navy of, 3:130-31
of Mesopotamia, 2:127-28, 3:97 palaces as centers of, 3:157, 158 Peloponnesian War, 2:140-41
monotheism and, 3:113-14 of Persian Empire, 2:138, 3:174 Persian invasion of, 3:173
Mot (Canaan), 1:6 of Philistines, 2:137 Persian Wars, 2:140, 3:177-78
music and, 3:119 of Phoenicians, 2:137 philosophy and science in, 2:142
natural disasters and, 2:38 protest literature and, 3:59 Rhodes, 4:35
of Neo-Hittites, 3:136 and religion in Israel, 3:24 shipping trade of, 3:89
Ninurta (Mesopotamia), 3:124 rituals as responsibility of, 2:18 Sparta, 2:140-41
(illus.), 159 of Sumeria, 2:132, 4:103 Troy, 4:132-33 (illus.)
number representing, 3:149 taxation by, 4:115-16 writing in, 2:142-43
offerings to, 3:151 theology and, 4:122 Grooming. See Fashion and grooming
omens from, 3:153-54 Governors and rulers Grotefend, Georg, 2:34
oracles from, 3:154-55 Gudea (Lagash), 2:143 Gudea, 2:143, 3:3 (illus.)
Osiris (Egypt), 3:157 Gyges (Lydia), 3:65 dream of, 2:41
Papsukkal (Mesopotamia), 1:119 kings, 3:35-38 statue of, 2:178
of Phoenicia, 3:187 of Mesopotamian city-states, 2:131 Guide to Geography, 3:70
Ptah (Memphis), 3:90 of Minoan civilization, 3:111 Gutians
sacrifices to, 4:37 Perikles (Lycia), 3:64 attacks of, on Akkadian empire, 1:19
Sahr (Aramaea), 1:54 pharaohs, 3:178-81 migration to Mesopotamia of, 3:105
in sculpture, 4:56-59 queens, 4:23-26 nomadism of, 3:143
of Scythia, 4:62 satraps, 4:50
on seals, 4:68-69 Grain(s)
Sekhmet (Egypt), 1:149, 2:37
Seth (Egypt), 2:37, 4:76
cereal grains, 1:154-57
as money, 3:112-13 H
Shamash (Mesopotamia), 1:5, 21 as source of wealth, 3:45 Hadad, 1:54
Sin (Akkadia), 1:21 as tax payment, 4:115 Haft Tepe, 1:131
in Sumeria, 4:34 Grave robbers, 1:127-28, 131, 4:20, Hair, 2:143-45
of Sumeria, 4:103-4 143 dye for, used by Egyptians, 2:12
sun gods, 4:107-8 Graves. See Burial sites and tombs of slaves, 4:86
of Syria, 2:130 Great Kings, 2:132-33 Halab, 3:31, 33

200
 Index
Hamitic (Hamito-Semitic) languages, family and social life of, 2:87-89 Akkadian language deciphered by,
2:146-47, 3:48 forced labor and, 3:43-44 2:35
Hammering (metal), 3:103 funerary practices of, 2:32-33 Behistun Inscription deciphered by,
Hammurabi, 2:147-48 government of, 2:156 1:62
Babylon's expansion under, 1:100 hairstyles of, 2:144, 145 hieroglyphics deciphered by, 2:35
Code of Hammurabi, 3:52 (illus.) history of, 2:155 Old Persian deciphered by, 2:34
inscriptions about, 3:2 houses of, 2:175 Hinduism, 1:81
reign of, 1:104 kingdoms of Israel and Judah, Hippocrates, 2:142
Zimri-Lim and, 4:177 3:13-16 History and historiography, 2:162-66.
Hammurabi, Code of, 1:104, 2:147 land ownership in, 3:46 See also Creation myths
(illus.), 2:148-49, 3:52 (illus.) language of, 2:157, 4:72-73 battle reconstruction, 4:149-50
canal laws in, 1:140 and magical practices, 3:69 chronicles as, 1:164-66
capital punishment in, 1:142 marriage in, 3:74-75 chronology in, 1:166-70
copy of, 3:52 (illus.) Megiddo controlled by, 3:89 dynasties used in, 2:44
kings' role in, 1:107 monotheism of, 3:114 Egyptian, 2:163-64, 166
respect due to fathers in, 2:86 Moses, 3:116-17 in Hebrew Bible, 2:165, 166
Hanging Gardens of Babylon, mythology and, 3:125-26 Herodotus, 2:159-60
2:149-50 necromancy among, 3:69 of Hittites, 2:164, 166
irrigation for, 3:11 offerings by, 3:151 of Israel and Judah, 2:165
Nebuchadnezzar and, 3:132 patriarchs and matriarchs of, of the Levant, 2:164-66
search for, 1:100 3:166-68 of Mesopotamia, 2:162-63, 165-66
Harappan civilization, 3:90 poetry of, 2:158 of nomadic peoples, 3:144
Harbors, 2:150-51 priests of, 4:16 recent events and, 2:162-65
of Cyprus, 2:22 psalms, 4:18-19 remote past and, 2:165-66
on Mediterranean, 3:88 roads of, 4:40 of Syria, 2:164
taxes paid for use of, 4:116 settlements of, 2:157 Hittites, 2:167-70
Harps, 3:120 (illus.) slavery and, 4:87-88 afterlife beliefs of, 1:5-6
Harvesting, 1:155-56 (illus.) social classes among, 2:157 archaeological discoveries about,
Hathor, 2:128 (illus.), 129, 2:151 social institutions of, 4:90 1:61
and childbirth, 1:162 theology of, 4:122 armies of, 1:72-73,4:92
cow as representative of, 1:47 use of perfumes by, 2:13 in Babylonian history, 1:104
Hatshepsut, 2:152 (illus.) women's role in, 4:164 banquets and, 2:72
aspharaoh, 3:179 Yahweh, 4:173-74 burial practices of, 1:131, 2:31
temple built by, 1:66-67 Hecataeus, 3:70 and capital punishment, 1:143
tomb of, 4:143 Hecate, 1:145 chariot development by, 1:160
Hattic language, 3:49 Hellenistic world, 2:158-59 childbirth in, 1:162
Hazael, 1:52 Herding, 3:141-42, 144, 169 cities of, 1:173
Healing. See Medicine Hermos River, 4:47 clothing of, 2:8
Health, 2:152-54. See also Medicine Herodotus, 2:142, 2:159-60 control of central plateau by, 1:38
and childbirth, 1:162 on Cambyses, 1:136 dance of, 2:26
common diseases, 3:83 and cartography, 3:70 decipherment of inscriptions by, 2:35
Hebrews and Israelites, 2:83, and Hanging Gardens of Babylon, deportations by, 3:107
2:155-58. See also Israel andJu- 2:149 divination and oracles of, 3:155-56
dah; Judaism and Jews History, 2:159 divorce in, 2:40
afterlife beliefs of, 1:6 on marketplaces, 3:72 drought and fall of empire, 2:42
aleph-beth, 1:29 (illus.) on Median kingdom, 3:81 economy of, 2:168-69
alphabetic numeration of, 3:149 on Nile's role in Egypt, 2:99, 100 empire of, 2:167-68
alphabet of, 2:157-58 on Nitokris, 3:141 family and social life of, 2:87
amulets worn by, 1:34 on Nubians, 3:147 famine and, 2:90
archaeological evidence about, on Persian road, 4:41 feasts and festivals of, 2:92-94
2:155-56 on Persian society, 4:90 gods and goddesses of, 2:129-30
architecture of, 2:158 on polygamy, 4:5 government of, 2:136-37, 168
Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71 on pyramid building, 4:23 health of, 2:153
art of, 2:158 on royal messengers, 3:99 hieroglyphic script of, 2:160
Assyrians and, 2:155 and Scythian history, 4:59-60 houses of, 2:173
Athaliah, 1:98 and Semiramis legend, 4:70 inscriptions by, 3:5
Bible, 1:117-18 Hieroglyphics, 1:28, 2:160-62 (illus.), Karkamish, 3:28-29
in Canaan, 1:138-39 4:171 Khattusha, 3:31
and capital punishment, 1:143 on bas-reliefs, 1:113-14 Khattushili I, 3:31-32
clothing of, 2:8 decipherment of, 2:34-35 Khattushili III, 3:32
cosmetics used by, 2:12-13 invention of, 2:64 king lists of, 3:35
deportation of, 3:107 and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39,4:117
divination through dreams by, 3:155 on sculpture, 4:58 labor and laborers, 3:42-43
divorce and, 2:40 on stela, 3:152 (illus.) language of, 2:188
economy of, 2:156 symbols for pharaohs in, 3:181 laws of, 2:168, 3:53
education of, 2:55, 56, 157 Hincks, Edward literature of, 2:170, 3:60

201
Index
location of, 2:170 (map) Greek influence on, 2:142 Assyrian conquests described in,
Luwians and culture of, 3:62 on Narmer Palette, 1:114 1:83
magic and, 3:68, 69 Human rights, 4:85-86 at Azatiwadiya, 3:135
marriage among, 3:74 (illus.), 75 Humor, 2:178-79 in Bahrain, 1:113
military force of, 4:152-53 in animal art, 1:40, 47 Behistun inscription, 1:115-17
Mitanniand, 2:181 in literature, 3:60 bilingual, for decipherment, 2:33
music and dance of, 2:71 Hunter-gatherers, 2:179, 4:167 on clay tablets, 2:2 (illus.)
mythology of, 2:170, 3:126 Hunting, 2:179-80 Egyptian, 3:4
navy of, 3:130 art depicting, 1:45, 46 format of, 3:1-2
Neo-Hittites and, 3:134-36 chariots for, 1:161 as historical records, 2:163-65
Old Kingdom of, 2:167 domestication of animals and, HymntoAten, 1:97
palaces of, 3:161 1:41-42 Iranian, 3:4-5
peasant labor in, 3:169 of lions, 3:57 from the Levant, 3:5-6
poetry of, 3:60 transition to farming from, 1:7 as literature, 3:60
prayers of, 4:12 Hurrians, 2:79, 2:180-81 materials and methods for, 3:2
priests of, 4:13, 14, 16 Khepat, 3:33 Mesopotamian, 3:2-4
queens of, 4:24-25 Kumarbi, 3:39 pillar of Xanthus, 3:5
religions of, 2:169-70, 4:34 language of, 3:49 and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43
sculpture of, 4:58 migration of, 3:105 royal, 1:164-65,2:2,3
servants of, 4:74 Mitanni established by, 3:97 Treaty of Naram-Sin, 3:4
Shuppiluliuma I, 4:83-84 Teshub, 4:117-18 types of, 3:1
slavery of, 4:87 Hyksos, 2:182-83 Insect plagues, 2:38
social institutions of, 4:89-90 Ahmose's defeat of, 1:12-13 Inshushinak, 2:130
sports of, 2:73 in Canaan, 1:138 The Instruction ofAmenemope, 4:18
temples of, 3:163 Phoenicians and, 3:184-85 Instructions ofShuruppak, 4:18
theology of, 4:122 Hymns, 2:183 Instruments, musical, 3:120-21
women's role in, 4:162-63 of Egypt, 3:59 Investment, in trading missions, 3:93
writing of, 4:171 Mesopotamian, 3:59 Iran, 3:6-8
Hogarth, David George, 1:63-64 HymntoAten, 1:97 Achaemenid dynasty, 2:45
Hole, Frank, 3:142, 143 afterlife beliefs in, 1:6
Holy wars, 4:150 AliKosh, 3:173
Homer, 2:140, 142, 4:132 animals in art of, 1:45-46
Honey, 1:44 I archaeology and archaeologists in,
Horoscopes, 1:95, 4:177-78 Ice Ages, 2:5 1:62-63
Horostepe, 1:38 Iconography, 2:184-86 Aryans in, 1:80-81, 3:7, 106
Horses, 1:40, 2:170-71 Idrimi, statue of, 3:5-6 Behistun inscription, 1:115-17
in cavalry, 1:152 Iliad, 2:140, 141, 3:121, 4:5, 132 building materials in, 1:127
domestication of, 1:42 Ilion/Illium. See Troy burial sites and tombs in, 1:131
uses of, 1:44, 4:61 Imdugud, 1:47, 119 climate of, 2:120
Horus, 2:128-29, 2:171-72 (illus.) Imhotep, 2:130, 4:20 clothing of, 2:8-9
birds representing, 1:47, 118 Immortals (Persian army troops), domesticated animals in, 1:42
in creation myths, 2:14 1:74-75 dynasties of, 2:45
Hathor and, 2:151 Inanna, 2:127 early inhabitants of, 3:173
and Ishtar, 3:13 Inar, 2:129 Elam and the Elamites, 2:66-70
priests of, 4:16 Inara, 2:129 Elamites, 2:81
Seth and, 4:76 Incantations, 3:68, 69 ethnic and language groups in,
"house" (family as), 2:86 Incense, 2:186-87 2:81-82
Houses, 2:172-75. See also Palaces; Incubation, 2:41 family and social life in, 2:88
Temple(s) India geography of, 2:120, 3:6
in Anatolia, 1:70 Aryans, 1:81 gods and goddesses of, 2:130,
Aramaean royal compounds, 1:53 number systems of, 3:148-49 4:33-34
burial under floors of, 1:128 Indo-Aryan language, 2:188 government of, 2:138
at gatal Huyiik, 1:70, 148 Indo-European languages, 2:187-88, health in, 2:153
construction of, 4:165 3:48-49 history of, 3:6-7
courtyard houses, 1:65 Indo-Iranian languages, 2:188 houses in, 2:174
in Egypt, 1:67 Indra, 2:129 Manneans, 3:6-7
furnishings and furniture, 2:106-10 Inheritance Medes, 2:82, 3:7, 3:80-83
in Mesopotamia, 1:64-65 family and social customs about, mining in, 3:108
Mosaic Law concerning, 3:115 2:88-89 mythology of, 3:126
of peasants, 3:169 laws concerning, 3:52-54, 4:164 nomads in, 3:143, 145 (illus.)
of Philistines, 3:183 of priesthood, 4:13 Persian Empire, 2:82, 3:7,
inUgarit, 1:68 property rights and, 4:17 3:171-76
Human form in art, 2:175-78 in Scythia, 4:62 religions of, 3:7-8, 4:33-34
combined with animals, 1:47-48 Inscriptions, 3:1-6 sculpture of, 4:59
of Crete, 2:17 alphabet contributions from, 1:28 social institutions in, 4:90-91
Egyptian, 2:64 Anatolian, 3:5 Susa and Susiana, 4:108-9

202
 Index
theology of, 4:122
trade in, 3:8 ] dynasty of, 2:44
and Elamites, 2:68-69
wall paintings in, 4:147 Jacob, 3:167 human form in art of, 2:178
women's role in, 4:164 Jarmo, 2:172 land grants by, 3:46
Iraq, archaeological work in, 1:60 Jeremiah, 3:17 language of, 3:49
Iron, 3:102-3, 108-9 Jericho, 1:171, 172, 3:17-18 migration of, 3:105
Iron Age, 1:166,3:103 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 Kenyon, Kathleen, 1:64, 3:18-19
human form in art of, 2:177 archaeological discoveries in, 1:62 Khabiru, 2:158
Khatti in, 3:30 burial practices in, 1:132 Khabur River, 4:39
Irrigation, 3:8-11 history of, 3:15-16 Khafre, 4:21
canals for, 1:140-42 Nebuchadnezzar's destruction of, Khatti, 3:30, 4:24-25
Euphrates River for, 2:84-85 3:132 Khattusha, 3:31
at Lagash, 3:44 and Samaria, 4:44 art depicting animals in, 1:46
from Nile River, 3:138 Jewelry, 3:20-23. See also Amulets and monuments at, 1:70
quanat system, 3:11 charms reign of, 2:167
Isaac, 3:167 at gatal Hiiyuk, 1:148 Khattushili I, 3:31-32, 3:60
Isaiah, 3:12 gems in, 2:114-16 Khattushili III, 2:168, 3:32, 3:60
Ishkur, 2:127, 128. See also Adad lapis lazuli for, 3:50-51 Khepat, 2:129, 3:33
Ishtar, 1:21, 2:127, 3:12. See also As- metals for, 3:102 Khorsabad citadel, 3:160 (illus.)
tarte obsidian for, 3:150 Khufu, 3:33-34, 4:21, 22 (illus.)
in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 as tax payment, 4:115 Khumban, 2:130
Gate of Babylon dedicated to, 1:101 Jezebel, 1:12, 4:44 King lists, 2:44, 3:34-35 (illus.)
walking bird as representing, 1:119 Jordan, archaeological discoveries in, Great Flood in, 2:97
Isis, 2:128, 3:13 1:62 as literature, 3:60
in art, 1:119 Jordan River, 2:121 Sumerian, 2:76
childbirth and, 1:162 Joseph, 3:167-68 Kings, 3:35-38. See also Dynasties;
Cleopatra in guise of, 2:4 (illus.) Judah. See Israel and Judah Pharaohs
in creation myths, 2:14 Judaism and Jews, 3:23-28. See also Achaemenes (Persia), 3:171
Horus and, 2:171-72 Bible, Hebrew Adad-nirari (Assyria), 1:86, 87
references to, 3:125 and Cyrus the Great, 2:23 Adad-nirari III (Assyria), 1:88
Israel and Judah, 3:13-16. See also He- King David, 2:28-29 Addu-yisci (Aramaean), 4:113 (illus.)
brews and Israelites demons and, 2:37 Ahab (Israel), 3:15
Ahab, 1:11-12 deportation of, 3:107 Ahmose (Egypt), 1:12-13
archaeological discoveries in, 1:62 Diaspora, 3:25 Alexander IV (Macedonia), 1:26
Queen Athaliah, 1:98 exile of Jews, 3:25-26 Alexander the Great (Macedonia),
Baal cult and, 1:99 in Hellenistic period, 3:26-27 1:23-27
burial practices in, 1:132 Holy Land of, 3:13 Alyattes (Lydia), 3:65
children in, 1:164 intermarriage, 3:26 Amenemhet III (Egypt), 3:36
clothing of, 2:8 Isaiah, 3:12 Antigonus Gonatas (Macedonia),
cosmetics in, 2:12 Jeremiah, 3:17 3:67
creation myths of, 2:15 Jerusalem, 3:18-20 Arsaces I (Parthia), 3:166
David, 2:28-29 kingdoms of Israel and Judah, Arses (Persia), 3:174
geography of, 2:121 3:13-16 Artabanus II (Parthia), 3:166
gods worshipped by, 2:130 mathematics of, 3:78 art and, 1:76, 2:184-85
history of, 3:15-16 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 Artaxerxes I, II and HI (Persia),
hymns of, 2:183 rabbis, 3:27-28 1:79-80, 3:173-74
Jerusalem, 3:18-20 Samaritan sect of, 4:45 Ashurbanipal (Assyria), 1:82-83
location of, 3:14 (map) Talmud, 3:27-28 Ashurbanipal II (Assyria), 1:83-84
mathematics in, 3:78 Ten Commandments, 4:116-17 Ashurnasirpal II (Assyria), 1:86
measurement in, 3:79, 80 theologies of, 4:123 (illus.), 87
Omri, 1:11-12 Torah, 4:127 Ashur-uballit (Assyria), 1:85
palaces of, 3:161 Yahweh, 4:173-74 Cambyses II (Persia), 1:136,
patriarchs and matriarchs of, Judicial systems, 3:51-54 3:172-74
3:166-68 as chief priests, 3:161
Philistines and, 3:182-83 Croesus (Lydia), 3:65-66
prophets and prophecies of, Cyaxares (Media), 3:81
3:156-57 K Cyrus the Great (Persia), 2:23-24,
queens of, 4:25-26 Kalkhu, 3:28, 4:24 3:172
revolt against Babylon by, 3:132 Kamose, 2:183, 3:4 Darius I and Darius III (Persia), 2:10
Samaria, 4:44-45 Kanesh, 3:92 (illus.), 2:27, 3:173, 174
Solomon, 4:93-94 Karkamish, 3:28-29, 3:93 Darius II (Persia), 3:173
temples in, 3:163 Karnak, 3:29, 3:163, 135 David (Israel), 2:28-29
tribes of, 3:15 Kassites, 2:79, 3:29-30 Deioces (Media), 3:81
Italic languages, 2:188 Babylonia and, 1:100, 104-5 Djoser (Egypt), 2:40
Itjtawy, 3:58 Babylonian and, 3:96 Egyptian, 2:164
Ivory, 3:16-17, 3:89 (illus.) chronicles of, 1:165 Egyptian titles for, 3:36

203
Index
Enmerkar (Uruk), 2:19-20 Sin-muballit (Babylon), 1:104 Language(s), 3:47-50. See also Ethnic
Esarhaddon (Assyria), 2:77 Solomon (Israel), 4:93-94 and language groups; Writing
funerary offerings to, 3:151 substitute kings, 4:36 Afro-Asiatic family of, 3:47-48
Great Kings, 2:132-33 and succession to throne, 3:37 Akkadian, 1:16-17, 109, 2:34, 3:47
in Greece, 2:141 Sumerian, 2:134 alphabets, 1:27-30
Hammurabi (Babylon), 1:104, Sumu-abum (Babylon), 1:100, 103 Anatolian, 3:48
2:147-48 symbols of, 3:37 Aramaic, 1:52, 53, 109, 3:49
hierarchy among, 3:37 of TaSety, 3:146 Assyrian, 1:85
Hittite, 2:168 Telipinu (Hittites), 2:43 Avestan, 3:48-39
hunting and, 2:179 Tiglath-pileser I (Assyria), 1:86-87 Babylonian, 1:109
inscriptions by, 1:164-65, 3:1-3, 5 Tiglath-pileser III (Assyria), 4:124 and Behistun inscription, 1:115-16
Kamose (Egypt), 3:4 tombs of, 1:129-30 Canaan, 1:139
Kamose (Thebes), 2:183 Tukulti-Ninurta I (Assyria), 1:86 Carian, 1:145
Khattushili I (Hittites), 3:31-32 Ur-Nammu (Ur), 4:139 Coptic, 2:34
Khattushili III (Hittites), 3:32 Xerxes II (Persia), 3:173 decipherment of, 2:33-36, 3:49-50
Khufu (Egypt), 3:33-34 Xerxes (Persia), 3:173, 4:172-73 Egyptian, 2:64-65
killed by cylinder seals, 4:66 Zimri-Lim (Mari), 4:176-77 Elamite, 2:34, 36, 3:49
lion hunting by, 3:57 Kish, 1:17, 3:38 Greek, 2:139, 3:48, 49
in literature, 3:60 Kiya, 4:25 (illus.) Hamitic, 2:146-47, 3:48
Manishtushu (Akkad), 1:18 Knossos, 3:38-39, 3:122 Hattic, 3:49
Merenre II (Egypt), 3:141 Kohl, 2:12 Hebrew, 2:157
Midas (Phrygia), 4:1 Koldewey, Robert, 1:63 Human, 2:180, 3:49
Minos (Crete), 3:109, 111 Korte Brothers, 1:61 Indo-European languages,
Mithradates (Parthia), 3:166 Kubaba, 2:129 2:187-88, 3:48-49
Murshili II and III (Hittites), 3:32 Kudurrus, 1:105 (illus.)t 108, 119, 3:30 Israelite, 2:157, 3:27
Nabonidus (Babylonia), 3:126-27 Kullaba,4:141 Kassite, 3:49
Nabopolassar (Babylonia), 3:127 Kumarbi, 2:129, 3:39, 3:126 Khatti, 3:30
Naram-Sin (Akkad), 3:129-30 Kura-Araxes, 1:151 Koine Greek, 2:139
Nebuchadnezzar II (Babylonia), Kurgans, 1:151 Kushite, 3:40
3:131-32 Kush and Meroe, 3:39-41 learning of, 2:55
offerings to gods by, 3:151 Kushukh, 2:129 Linear A and B, 2:36
Omri (Israel), 3:15 "love" in, 3:61
palaces of, 3:158 Luwian, 2:36, 3:62, 136
Perdikkas I (Macedonia), 3:67
of Persian Empire, 3:171-74 L Lycian, 3:63
major families of, 3:47-49
Philip III (Macedonia), 1:26 Labor and laborers, 3:41-44 Neo-Hittite, 3:136
Philip II (Macedonia), 1:23, 3:67 animals for, 1:44 Old Persian, 2:34, 3:48-39
Phraortes (Media), 3:81 cattle as, 1:150 outside major families, 3:49
Piye (Kushite), 3:147 corvee (forced labor), 3:168 Palmyrene, 2:33
polygamy of, 4:5 farmworkers, 1:7 (illus.)f 10-11 of Persian Empire, 3:176
privileges of, 3:36 (illus.) forced laborers, 3:41, 45, 168 Phrygian, 4:1
Ptolemy I (Egypt), 4:19-20 free laborers, 3:41, 45, 168 Rosetta Stone and, 3:50
pyramids built by, 4:20-21 for ilku (tax), 4:115 Semitic languages, 3:47-48,
Ramses II (Egypt), 4:26-27 landowners' use of, 3:45 4:72-73
Ramses III (Egypt), 4:27 peasants, 3:168-69 Sumerian, 1:109, 3:49, 4:105-7
Rimush (Akkad), 1:18 for pyramids, 4:23 Ugaritic, 2:35-36
rise of, 3:35-36 semifree laborers, 3:41, 45 Lapis lazuli, 3:50-51, 3:90
roles and responsibilities of, servants, 4:74-76 Larsa, 2:147
3:36-37, 174 slaves, 3:41, 45, 4:85-88 Late Bronze Age, 4:63, 64
royal compounds of, 1:53 used by Solomon, 4:94 Law(s), 3:51-54. See also Edicts
Samsu-iluna (Babylonia), 4:46 wages of, 3:41-42 Code of Hammurabi, 2:148-49
Sargon I (Akkad), 4:48-49 work done by, 4:168-69 codes of, 3:51
Sargon II (Assyria), 4:49-50 Lagash, 3:44 Codes of Lipit-Ishtar, 3:52
in sculpture, 4:56-59 Gudea, 2:143 Codes of Shulgi, 3:52
Sennacherib (Assyria), 3:139-40, Ummaand, 4:137 contracts and, 3:51
4:73-74 Lamashtu, 2:36, 37 (illus.) Covenant Code, 3:53
Seqenenre II (Thebes), 2:183 on amulets, 1:34 edicts as, 2:53-54
Shalmaneser I (Assyria), 1:86 childbirth and, 1:162 of Eshnunna, 3:52, 73 (illus.)
Shalmaneser III (Assyria), 4:77 and pregnancy, 4:13 in Hebrew Bible, 3:53
Shalmaneser V (Assyria), 4:77-78 rituals against, 3:68 of Hittites, 2:168, 3:42, 43
Shamshi-Adad I (Assyria), 4:78 Lamellae, 1:34 inheritance, 3:52-54
Shamshi-Adad V (Assyria), 1:88 Land use and ownership, 3:44-47 judicial system, 3:51
Shar-kali-sharri (Akkad), 1:19 inheritance laws and, 3:52, 53 kings as source of, 3:36
Shoshenq I (Egypt), 3:57 Mosaic Law concerning, 3:116 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16
Shulgi (Ur), 4:82-83 taxes on, 4:116 ordeals, 3:52
Shuppiluliuma I (Hittites), 4:83-84 value of, 1:11 in Persian Empire, 3:175

204
 Index
property rights in, 4:16 sculpture of, 4:59 Luxor, 2:62 (illus.), 3:63
Ten Commandments, 3:53 Semites in, 4:71 Lycia and the Lycians, 3:63-65
on wages, 3:42, 43 temples in, 3:163 burial practices of, 1:131
against witchcraft, 4:160 women's role in, 4:164 coins of, 3:63 (illus.)
Layard, Austen Henry, 1:60, 63 Libraries and archives, 3:54-56. See family and social life of, 2:87
Lead, mining of, 3:109 also Books and manuscripts inscriptions by, 3:5
Leah, 3:167 at archaeological sites, 3:158 Lycian League in, 3:63
Lebanon, geography of, 2:121 at Nineveh, 1:83,3:140 Lycian League, 3:63
Lebanon Mountains, 2:121 Libyan Desert, 2:120 Lydia and the Lydians, 3:65-67
Legends Libyans, 2:80-81, 3:56-57 burial practices of, 1:131
Atlantis, 2:38, 46 Life expectancy, 2:154 Cyrus the Great's defeat of, 2:23
flood legends, 2:97 Limmu lists, 1:169-70 money in, 3:113
Gilgamesh, 2:121-23 Linear A and B, 2:16, 36 Sardis, 4:47-48
Mycenaeans in, 3:121 Lions, 1:39 Lyres, 3:120
Naram-Sin in, 3:130 in art, 1:46,3:57-58
netherworld in, 1:5 on Babylon's Processional Way,
of Scythian origins, 4:61
Semiramis, 4:70
1:101 (illus.)
in Egypt, 1:149 M
of Ubar's destruction, 1:63 statuette of, 3:150 (illus.) Macedonia, 3:67
Length, measurement of, 3:78-79 Lisht, 3:58 Alexander the Great, 1:23-27
Lepsius, Carl Richard, 1:121, 2:35 Literature, 3:58-61. See also Libraries Babylonian conquests of, 1:107
Letters and archives cavalry in, 1:152
Amarna letters, 1:31 in Aramaic, 1:53 Greece and, 2:141
to the dead, 1:4,2:41 authorship, 3:59 Judahin, 3:16
to the gods, 2:163 autobiographies, 3:60 King Philip II, 1:23
between kings, 2:137 Babylonian, 1:110-11 Magan, 3:153
the Levant Book of the Dead, 1:120-21 Magi, 4:179
agriculture in, 1:8-9 books and manuscripts, 1:121-23 Magic, 3:68-69
alphabet contributions from, 1:28 Canaanite, and Hebrew Bible, amulets and charms, 1:34-35
Amorites, 1:32-33 1:138 analogic magic, 3:68
archaeology and archaeologists in, education in, 2:55 ashipu (experts), 3:69
1:61-62 of Egypt, 2:65 and capital punishment, 1:143
architecture in, 1:68-70 epic literature, 2:75-76 contact magic, 3:68
building materials in, 1:126 Gilgamesh in, 2:121-23 Ea and, 2:45
burial sites and tombs in, 1:131-32 of Greece, 2:142 Ebers Papyrus, 3:164
Canaan, 1:137-40 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 magicians vs.
cereal grains in, 1:155 of Hittites, 2:170 wizards/sorcerers/witches, 3:69
chariots in, 1:160 humor in, 2:178, 3:60 and medicine, 3:85
chronicles of, 1:165 lions in, 3:57 Metternich Stela and, 4:160 (illus.)
cities in, 1:174 myths in, 3:124 necromancy, 3:69
climate of, 2:6, 120 and oral tradition, 3:58 numbers significant in, 3:149
clothing of, 2:8 papyrus rolls for, 3:165 oracles and prophesy, 3:154
creation myths of, 2:15 poetry, 3:58-60, 4:4-5 during pregnancy, 4:12, 13
dance in, 2:26 The Prince and His Fate, 2:63 white vs. black, 3:68
death and burial in, 2:32-33 prose, 3:60-61 witchcraft, 4:159-61
dynasties of, 2:45 protest, 3:59 Makeup. See Cosmetics
entertainment in, 2:71-73 proverbs, 4:17-18 Mallowan, Max, 1:63
farming in, 1:155, 3:11 Proverbs ofAhiquar, 1:53 Mammals, 1:40
feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 93 Sumerian, 4:105 Manetho, 2:164
fortifications in, 2:105 titles of, 3:59 Egyptian history by, 2:57
furnishings in, 2:108 Lloyd, Seton, 1:63 and Hyksos takeover of Egypt,
geography of, 2:120-21 Logographic writing, 4:170 2:182
gods and goddesses of, 2:130, 4:34 Looms, 4:119 onNitokris, 3:141
government of, 2:137-38 Looting, 1:127-28 Manishtushu, 1:18, 20
houses in, 2:174-75 Lord of Abundance (Adad), 1:2-3 Manneans, 3:6-7
human form in art of, 2:177 Love, 3:61 Maps and mapping, 3:69-70 (illus.),
labor and laborers in, 3:43-44 Lugalbanda, 4:5 4:52
land use or ownership in, 3:46 Lugalbanda and Enmerkar, 2:75 Babylonia, maps from, 3:70 (illus.)
languages in, 3:47 Lugalbanda in Khunumkurra, 2:76 clay tablets, maps on, 3:69-70
law in, 3:53 Lugalzagesi, 1:17 Egypt, maps from, 3:70
magic used in, 3:69 Lukka, 4:63 Greece, maps from, 3:70
medicine in, 3:87 Lunar theory, 3:62 measurements on maps, 3:70
Megiddo, 3:89-90 Lutes, 3:120 Mesopotamia, maps from, 3:69-70
mythology in, 3:125-26 Luwians, 3:62 as occupation, 3:69, 70
Philistines, 3:181-84 inscriptions by, 3:5 by Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaius),
religions of, 4:34 language of, 2:36, 188 3:70

205
Index
star maps, 1:97 Medicine, 3:83-87 chronicles of, 1:164-65
underworld "maps," 3:4 in Anatolia, 3:86-87 chronology of, 1:169-70
Maracanda, 1:25, 154 in Bible, 3:87 cities and city-states in. See
Marduk, 1:90, 2:128, 3:71 Ebers Papyrus, 3:164 Mesopotamian cities, towns, and
animals depicting, 1:47 education for, 2:55 city-states
in Babylonian pantheon, 1:110, in Egypt, 3:85-86 clay tablets, 2:3
3:114 incense as, 2:187 climate of, 2:6, 118
in creation myths, 2:14, 15 in Iran, 3:86 clothing of, 2:6-7
in Enuma Elish, 1:110, 3:125 in the Levant, 3:87 cosmetics used in, 2:12, 13
temple of, 1:101 and magic, 3:68, 69 creation myths in, 2:14, 15
Margiana, 1:153 in Mesopotamia, 3:83-85 dance in, 2:24-25
Mari, 3:71-72 myths for healing, 3:126 death and burial in, 2:29-30
Amoritesin, 1:33 practice of, 4:54 divination in, 3:155
Hammurabi's war against, 2:147-48 tools for, 4:127 divorce in, 2:39
palace at, 3:159 white magic and, 4:159 domesticated animals in, 1:42
prophecies from, 3:156 Mediterranean Sea dynasties in, 2:44
Zimri-Lim, 4:176-77 climate and, 2:6 education in, 2:54-55
Markets, 3:72-73 Crete, 2:15-17 epic literature in, 2:75-76
Marmara, Sea of, 1:3 Cyprus, 2:22-23 ethnic groups in. See Mesopotamian
Marriage, 3:74-75. See also Divorce; earthquake belt in, 2:46 ethnic and language groups
Family and social life harbors on, 2:151 family and social life in, 2:86, 89
adultery and, 2:117 Sardinia, 4:46-47 famine in, 2:90
in Assyria, 1:92 shipping routes on, 4:79 farming in, 1:155
Cleopatra's, 2:4 trade on, 3:87-89, 4:128 feasts and festivals in, 2:91-92
and continuation of dynasties, Medjay, 3:53 flooding in, 2:98
2:43-44, 3:180 Megiddo, 3:89-90 funerary offerings in, 3:151
in Egypt, 1:164,3:180 battle at, 4:150 furnishings in, 2:108
and ghosts of the unmarried, 2:37 roads in, 4:40 gardens of, 2:113
of gods and goddesses, 2:167 (illus.) water tunnels in, 4:154 geography of, 2:118, 3:94-95
legitimacy of, 2:89 Melukkha, 3:90,3:153 gods and goddesses of, 2:127-28,
polygamy, 4:5-6 Memphis, 2:14, 3:90-91 4:31-32
pregnancy and, 4:12 Memphite Theology, 4:122 government of, 2:131-33
slavery and, 4:87 Menes, 2:133 hairstyles in, 2:144, 145
and "son of the sister/' 2:67 Menkaure, 4:21 harbors of, 2:150
Mastabas Merchants, 3:91-93 health in, 2:153, 154
at Lisht, 3:58 dangers facing, 3:93 houses in, 2:172-73
locations of, 4:21 (map) as diplomats, 2:49 irrigation in, 3:9-10
in pyramid construction, 1:126 independent vs. agents, 2:50 Ishtar, 3:12
religious significance of shapes, 4:20 Lydian retail trade and, 3:66 king lists of, 3:34-35
on tombs, 1:129 and nomadic trade routes, 3:144 labor and laborers in, 3:42
Matar, 4:3 taxes paid by, 4:116 land use or ownership in, 3:46
Mathematics, 3:76-78 travel by, 4:130 languages in, 3:47-48
astronomical predictions from, 3:62 Merenre II, King, 3:141 law in, 3:51-52
and body proportions in art, 2:177 Merodach-Baladan, 1:159 literature in, 3:59
(illus.) Meroe, 3:39-41, 3:147 location of, 3:94 (map)
development of, 4:52-53 Mersa Gawasis, 2:150 maps from, 3:69-70
education in, 2:55 Mesopotamia, 3:93-98 marriage in, 3:74
numbers and numerals, 3:148-49 afterlife beliefs in, 1:5 measurement in, 3:78-80
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, 3:76 agriculture in, 1:9 medicine in, 3:83-85
(illus.), 77 Anu, 1:48 merchants in, 3:91
Matriarchs. See Patriarchs and Matri- archaeology and archaeologists in, money in, 3:113
archs of Israel 1:60 monotheism in, 3:114
Matthiae, Paolo, 2:47 architecture of. See Mesopotamian mythology in, 3:125
Mausolus, 1:146 art and architecture naming in, 3:128
Meander River, 4:39 archives and libraries in, 3:54, 55 nomads in, 3:143
Measurement(s), 3:78-80 armies in, 1:71-72,4:91 numbers significant in, 3:149
chronology, 1:166-70 art of. See Mesopotamian art and omens in, 3:153-54 (illus.)
gur (Akkadian), 1:20 architecture palaces in, 3:158-60
on maps, 3:70 Aryans in, 1:81 peasants in, 3:169
tools for, 4:126 burial sites and tombs in, 1:130 poetry of, 4:5
Meat, 2:102 calendars in, 1:133-34 polygamy in, 4:6
Medes, 2:82, 3:80^83 (illus.) canals in, 1:140-41 prayers of, 4:11-12
cavalry in, 1:152 cereal grains in, 1:155 priests in, 4:13, 14
migration of, 3:106 chariots in, 1:160 religions of, 4:31-32
Persia and, 3:171-72 childbirth in, 1:162 roads in, 4:40
settlement of, 3:7 children in, 1:163 salt deposits in, 2:38-39

206
 Index
schools in, 4:51 copper, 3:101 Months. See Calendars
science of, 4:52-54 development of, 4:53-54 Moon
scribal education in, 4:54-55 gold, 3:102 cycles of, and calendars, 1:133, 134
sculpture of, 4:56-58 hammering, 3:100, 103 lunar theory, 3:62
secular rituals in, 4:36-37 iron, 3:102-3 Mosaic Law, 3:114-16
Semites in, 4:70-71 as item of exchange, 2:53 Moses, 3:116-17,4:116
servants in, 4:74-75 for jewelry, 3:21 Mot, 1:6, 99, 2:130
Shamshi-Adad I and, 4:78 local traditions, 3:104 Mountains
slaves in, 4:86 in Lydia, 3:66 Anti-Lebanon, 2:120
social institutions in, 4:88 metallurgy, 3:100-101 Caucasus, 1:150-51
Susianaand, 4:108 mining, 3:107-9 Elburz, 2:120
temple rituals in, 3:151 Minoan, 2:16 Lebanon, 2:121
temples in, 3:162 Phrygians and, 4:1-2 (illus.) Mount Ararat, 2:119
textile industry in, 4:120 Scythian, 4:62 Mount Carmel, 2:121
theology of, 4:122 silver, 3:102 Mount Sinai, 4:84-85
trade in, 2:50, 52, 4:128 smiths (metalworkers), 3:103 Omani, 3:153
wine from, 4:158-59 tin, 3:101 Taurus, 2:119
women's role in, 4:161-62 tools, metal, 4:126 (illus.) Zagros, 2:120
Mesopotamian art and architecture Midas, 4:1 Mud for building, 1:124, 125
architecture, 1:64-65 Migration, 3:104-6. See also Nomads Mules, 1:44
art, 1:78-79, 119 and nomadism Mummies, 3:117-19 (illus.)
building materials in, 1:124-25 of Aramaeans to Mesopotamia, 3:97 amulets in wrappings of, 1:34
depicting animals, 1:45-48 drought as cause of, 2:42 of cats, 1:149 (illus.)
faience of, 2:85 forced (deportation), 3:106-7 information from examination of,
human form in, 2:177 of Gutians to Mesopotamia, 3:105 2:153
wall paintings in, 4:147 horizontal, 3:144 Mutnodjmet, 1:162
Mesopotamian cities, towns, and city- of Hurrians, 2:180-81 perfumes for, 3:170
states, 1:171-73 large-scale, 3:105 process of creating, 2:30
Babylon, 1:100-102 names and study of, 3:129 rituals involving, 2:30
Eridu, 2:76-77 nomadic, 3:144 Murshilil, 2:167
Kalkhu, 3:28 prehistoric, 4:111 Murshili II, 2:167-68, 3:32
Mari, 3:71-72 of Scythians, 4:60 Murshili III, 3:32
Nippur, 3:140 vertical, 3:144 Music and musical instruments,
Nuzi, 3:149-50 Military. See Wars and warfare 3:119-21
origins of, 3:95 Military tactics, 4:152-53 in education, 2:55
Umma, 4:137 Mining, 3:107-9, 3:153 hymns, 2:183
Ur, 4:137-39 Minoan civilization, 2:16-17, 3:109-12 psalms, 4:18-19
Mesopotamian ethnic and language in Aegean Sea area, 1:3 Mutnodjmet, Queen, 1:162
groups, 2:78-79, 3:95 destruction of, 4:145 Muwattalli II, 2:168
Akkadians, 1:16-22, 2:79, 3:96 human form in art of, 2:178 Mycenae and the Mycenaeans,
Amorites, 1:32-33, 3:96, 105 navy of, 3:130 3:121-23
Aramaeans, 1:51-54, 3:97, 106 palace at Knosses, 2:16, 3:39 in Crete, 3:111
Assyrians, 1:84-93, 2:79, 3:97-98, Minos, 3:109, 111 history of, 2:139
106-7 Missiles, 4:155 navy of, 3:130
Babylonians, 1:102-11, 2:79, Mitanni Myrrh, 2:186, 187
3:96-98 Ashur's dominion by, 1:85 Mythology, 3:123-26 (illus.). See also
Chaldeans, 1:157-59 establishment of, 3:97 Creation myths; Gods and god-
Hurrians, 2:79, 2:180-81, 3:105 kingdom of, 2:181 desses
Kassites, 2:79, 3:29-30, 3:105 names in, 1:81 about Ishtar, 3:12
migration of, 3:105 Shuppiluliuma I and, 4:83 Adadin, 1:2
Sumerians, 2:78-79, 3:96, Mithra, 2:129, 130 Anatolian, 3:126
4:100-105 Mithradates, 3:166 Baal cycle, 1:98, 1:99, 3:60, 125
Messengers, 2:10 (illus.), 3:99 Moabite language, 4:72 Babylonian, 1:110-11
cavalry as relayers of, 1:152 Moats, 1:175, 2:105 blacksmiths in, 3:103
classes of, 3:99 Money, 3:112-13 Canaanite, 3:125-26
communication and, 2:9, 10 barter and, 3:112 drought in, 2:42-43
travel by, 4:130 cereal grains as, 1:154, 157 Egyptian, 2:128, 3:125
Metallurgy, 3:100-101 coins, 2:53, 142, 3:63 (illus.), 112 El in, 2:66
Metals and metalworking, 3:100-104 (illus.), 3:113 EnkiandNinmakh, 1:110, 3:125
of Achaemenid dynasty, 3:170 definition of, 3:112 Enlill in, 2:70
(illus.) Lydian, and trade, 3:66 ErraMyth, 1:110,3:125
in Anatolia, 1:38,39 origin of, 2:53 Etanain, 1:119
bronze, 3:101 and price of goods, 3:73 (illus.) famine in, 2:91
casting, 3:103 tetradrachma, 3:187 (illus.) fish in, 2:96
in the Caucasus, 1:151 trade and, 2:142 of good vs. evil, 1:13
in Central Asia, 1:154 Monotheism, 3:113-14 Greek, 2:142

207
Index
Hittite, 2:170 Necropolises, 1:128 Numbers and numerals, 3:148-49
horses in, 2:171 Nefernefruaten, Queen, 1:15 Nut, 2:14 (illus.), US
Iranian, 3:126 Nefertari, Queen, 1:1, 2:111 (illus.), Nuzi, 3:149-50, 4:161
Isis and Osiris, 3:125 4:144
Israelite, 3:125-26 Nefertiti, Queen, 1:15, 3:133-34 (illus.)
King Minos in, 3:111 Nefrusobek, 3:37
Kumarbi Cycle, 3:39, 4:117-18 Negahban, Ezat, 1:131 O
of the Levant, 3:125-26 Negev Desert, 2:121 Oases, 2:120
lions as symbols in, 3:58 Nehemiah, 2:84, 3:26 Obelisk of Manishtushtu, 1:20
Macedonians in, 3:67 Nemrik,2:172 Obsidian, 1:108, 151, 3:150-51
Mardukin, 3:71 Neo-Assyrian empire, 2:133, 4:40 Occupations. See Work
Mesopotamian, 3:125 Neo-Babylonians, 3:159 Octavian, 2:4
Minotaur in, 3:111 Neo-Hittites, 3:134-36 Odyssey, 2:140, 3:121, 4:132
netherworld in, 1:5 Neolithic period Offerings, 3:151-52
Osiris and Isis, 3:157 gatalHiiyuk, 1:148-49 burial, 1:130-32
Poseidon in, 3:111 economy in, 2:49 for the dead, 1:5, 2:29, 3:151-52
role of, 3:124-25 Transcaucasia, 1:151 food and drink, 4:32, 37
sphinx in, 4:94 Nephthys, 2:128 goats for, 2:126
theology in, 4:122-23 Nergal. See Erra to gods and goddesses, 3:151, 4:33
Theseus in, 3:111 Nerik, 2:129 (illus.)
Netherworld, 1:5 of incense, 2:186
Nile River, 2:56-57, 118-19, ritual offerings, 4:37
N 3:137-38, 4:38-39
archaeological sites along, 1:59
wine as, 4:159
Old Persian language, 2:34, 188,
Nabateans, 1:51 farming along, 1:9-10 3:48-39
Nabonidus, 3:126-27 flooding of, 1:10, 141-42, 2:38, 42, Old Testament. See Bible, Hebrew
and Cyrus the Great, 2:23 74,97-100,4:153-54 Olives, 3:152-53
Neo-Babylonian empire under, and irrigation, 2:61-62, 3:10-11 Oman Peninsula, 1:62, 3:153
1:103 (map) as Nubian trade route, 3:145 Omens, 3:153-54
reign of, 1:106 Opet festival at flooding of, 3:63 death omen of Esarhaddon, 1:94-95
Nabopolassar, 3:127 shipping routes on, 4:79 and divination, 3:155
and arranged marriages, 3:74 Nineveh, 3:139-40 eclipses as, 1:94-95
ethnicity of, 1:159 library in, 1:83 for foretelling future, 1:94, 3:153-54
reign of, 1:106 roads in, 4:40 and medicine, 3:84
Names, personal, 3:128-29 Sennacherib and, 4:74 natural events as, 1:94, 3:154
in Babylonia, 1:110 Ninkhursag, 1:110 weather as, 1:94
of Chaldeans, 1:158 Nintu, 4:13 Omri, 1:11-12,3:15
given to babies, 1:162 Ninurta, 2:127, 3:124 (illus.), 159 Onomastics, 3:129
Namma, 2:127 Nippur, 3:140 Opet festival, 2:92, 3:63
Nanna. See Sin (god) magic in, 3:68 Oracles and prophecy, 3:154-57
Naram-Sin, 3:129-30 map of, 3:70 in Hebrew Bible, 1:117
and Enlil's temple, 1:21 orchards and gardens in, 1:175 Isaiah, 3:12
government under, 2:132 plan of, 1:171 (illus.) Jeremiah, 3:17
inscriptions about, 3:2 temple Eshumesha at, 3:159 The Potter's Oracle, 4:10
reign of, 1:18 Nitokris, 3:141 Oral tradition, 3:58
in Sargon's dynasty, 2:44 Nofret, Lady, 2:12 (illus.) Ordeals, 3:52
victory stela of, 1:17 (illus.), 21 Nomads and nomadism, 3:141-45 Osiris, 2:128-29, 3:157
Narmer Palette, 1:113-14 Amorites, 1:33 in creation myths, 2:14
Narunde, 2:130 animal husbandry and, 1:43 cult of, and Abydos, 1:1-2
Natural disasters, 2:37-39 in Arabia, 1:49 and Ishtar, 3:13
Natwatwa twins, 2:129 Aramaeans, 1:51-54 Seth and, 4:76
Naval power, 3:130-31 in Central Asia, 1:154 unrecorded stories of, 3:125
of Assyrians, 4:152 pastoral nomadism, 3:104-5, 141
in Persian Wars, 3:177-78 Scythians, 4:61
Navigation, 3:88
Neanderthal peoples, 4:111
Nearchus, 1:25
tent camp archaeological site, 3:142,
143
"norms," 4:121
p
Paints, 4:145
Nebayot tribe, 1:49 Nubia and the Nubians, 2:81, Palaces, 3:157-61
Nebuchadnezzar I, 1:105 3:145-47 art depicting animals in, 1:46
Nebuchadnezzar II, 3:131-32 AbuSimbel, 1:1 (illus.) in Assyria, 1:93
and Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Rush, 3:39-41, 3:146-47 bas-reliefs in, 1:114-15
2:149-50 Meroe, 3:39-41 in cities, 1:175-76
rebuilding by, 1:100 pyramids of, 3:146 (illus.) of Crete, 2:16, 3:110, 111
reign of, 1:106 in the Sudan, 4:100 at Djoser's burial site, 2:40
Necho II, 3:132-33 Taharqa,4:114-15 in Egypt, 1:66
Necromancy, 1:6, 3:69, 4:160 TaSety, 3:146 functions of, 3:157, 158
208
 Index
Great Palace of Mari, 3:72 Aryan origins of, 1:81 Necho II, 3:132-33
history of, 3:158 Babylonian conquests of, 1:107 role of, 3:179
in Khattusha, 1:70 Bagoas in, 2:84 and Sed-Festival, 3:179-80
at Knosses, 2:16, 3:38-39 building style in, 1:127 Sety I, 4:76-77
in the Levant, 1:68-69 Cambyses II, 1:136 symbols of, 3:181
at Megiddo, 3:89 capture of Babylon by, 3:127 Taharqa, 4:114-15
in Mesopotamia, 1:65 caravansaries in, 1:144-45 Thutmose III, 4:124
Minoan, 2:16 Carianand, 1:145 Tutankhamen, 4:133-34
of Mycenaeans, 3:121, 123 cavalry in, 1:152 Philip II, 1:23, 2:141, 3:67
in Persia, 1:69 in Central Asia, 1:154 Philip III, 1:26
Sennacherib's, 3:139-40 chariots in, 1:161 Philistines, 2:83, 3:181-84
Southern Citadel (Babylon), 1:101 clothing of, 2:8-9 art of, 3:182 (illus.)
Susa, palace at, 3:176 economy of, 3:175 government of, 2:137
inUgarit, 1:69 education in, 2:56 migration of, 3:106
Palaic language, 2:188 establishment of, 3:7 as Peleset, 4:63
Palermo Stone, 2:166 family and social life of, 2:88 Philosophy, Greek, 2:142
Palette of Narmer, 2:60 (illus.) First Persian Empire, 3:172-73 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians, 2:83,
Palmyrene language, 2:33 gardens of, 2:113 3:184-88
Papsukkal, 1:119 gods and goddesses of, 2:130 aleph-beth, 1:29-30 (illus.)
Papyrus, 3:164-65 government of, 2:138, 3:174 art of, 3:187
fromByblos, 1:133 history of, 3:171-74 Byblos, 1:133
funerary papyrus of Djedkhonse- human form in art of, 2:178 Carthage, 1:146-48
fankh, 2:31 (illus.) Judahin, 3:16 coins, 3:187 (illus.)
harvest of, 3:165 (illus.) Judaism and Jews in, 3:26 deportation of, 3:106
parchment in place of, 3:56 king lists of, 3:35 economy and trade of, 3:185-87
rolls, papyrus, 1:122, 3:164-65 languages of, 3:48, 176, 4:73 (map)
Papyrus Anastasi I, 3:77 law in, 3:54, 175 funerary practices of, 2:32
Parchment, 3:56 location of, 3:172 (map) government of, 2:137
Parsa. See Persepolis Lycia in, 3:63 history of, 3:184-86
Parthia and the Parthians, 3:166 Lydia and, 3:65-66 human form in art of, 2:177
Iran and Mesopotamia seized by, marriage in, 3:75 language of, 4:72
3:143 Medes and, 3:82-83 merchants in, 3:93
Mesopotamia under, 3:98 Mesopotamia under, 3:98 navy of, 3:130-31 (illus.)
Patriarchs and matriarchs of Israel, migration of, 3:106 religion of, 3:187-88
3:166-68 military of, 3:174-75 shipping trade of, 3:88, 4:79
Pazuzu, 3:69 (illus.) monotheism in, 3:114 Sidon, 4:84
Peasants, 3:168-69 navy of, 3:131 trade of, 4:129
as farmworkers, 1:10-11 palaces of, 3:161 Tyre, 4:134-35
as laborers, 3:42 Persepolis, 3:170-71 writing of, 3:188
Peleset, 4:63 Persian Wars, 3:177-78 Phraortes, 3:81
Peloponnesian War, 2:140-41 Phoenicians and, 3:186 Phrygia and the Phrygians, 4:1-3
Pentateuch. See Torah polygamy in, 4:5 burial practices of, 1:131, 2:32
Perdikkas I, 3:67 religion of, 3:8, 176 furnishings in, 2:108
Perfume(s), 3:169-70 roads of, 4:41 Phylactery, 1:34
incense as, 2:187 Sardis, 4:47-48 Pigs, 1:40, 42, 44, 4:3-4
manufacture and uses of, 2:13 satrapies and satraps, 3:174, 4:50 Pillar of Xanthus, 3:5
wigs and, 2:145 (illus.) social institutions of, 4:90-91 Pinengir, 2:130
Pergamum, parchment used in, 3:56 trading and merchant activity, 3:93 Piye, King, 3:147
Perikles, 3:63 wall paintings in, 4:148 Place-value system (mathematics),
Persepolis, 3:170-71 women's role in, 4:164 3:77
and Alexander the Great, 1:24 Xerxes, 4:172-73 Planets, 1:94, 96, 4:4
archaeological discoveries of, 1:62 Persian Gulf, trade routes on, 4:128 Plants
art depicting animals in, 1:46 Persian Wars, 2:140, 3:177-78 for cosmetics, 2:11
building of, 3:176 Petra, 1:62 date palms, 2:27-28
palace at, 1:69 Petrie, Sir William Matthew Flinders, domestication of, 2:5, 4:110,140
Persia and Persian Empire, 2:82, 1:31, 63 flax, 2:96-97
3:171-76 Pharaohs, 3:178-81 in gardens, 2:112-13
Achaemenid Dynasty, 3:173-74 Akhenaten, 1:14-15 grown for crops, 1:8
Ahura Mazda, 1:14 animals in art of, 1:47 olive groves, 3:152
and Alexander the Great, 1:23-25 choosing of, 3:180 in Sahara Desert, 4:44
Arabs and, 1:51 and co-regencies, 3:180 until 6000 B.C., 2:5
Aramaic as official language of, 1:52 divine status of, 3:180 Plato, 2:142
architecture of, 1:69-70, 3:176 Egyptian beliefs about, 3:179-80 Pleistocene epoch, 2:5
army of, 1:74-75 Hatshepsut, 2:152, 3:179 Plows, 1:44
Artaxerxes I, II and III, 1:79-80 information sources about, Plow Star, 1:96
art of, 3:176 3:178-79 Plutarch, 1:24, 3:125

209
Index
Poetry, 4:4-5. See also Creation myths Purification, ritual, 4:36, 37 (illus.) Rebecca, 3:167
Baal Cycle, 1:99, 3:60, 125 Pyramid(s), 4:20-23. See also Ziggurats Reciprocal economies, 2:49
epic literature, 2:75-76 architecture of, 1:66 Record keeping, 4:27-30. See also
EpicofAtrakhasis, 1:48, 110, 3:125 building of, 1:126, 2:63-64, 4:22-23 Libraries and archives
in Hebrew Bible, 3:59-60 design of, 1:66 by archaeologists, 1:57
Hittite, 3:60 of Djoser, 2:40 of astronomers, 1:96-97
hymns as, 2:183, 4:5 at Giza, 3:33 chronicles, 1:164-66
of Israelites, 2:89, 158 Great Pyramid at Giza, 1:126, and chronology, 1:168-69
love in, 3:61, 4:5 3:33-34 clay tablets for, 2:2-3
as style of literature, 3:58-60 of Kushites, 3:40, 146 (illus.) of climate, 2:5
in Sumerian language, 3:59 laborers for, 3:42 education needed for, 2:54
Police forces, 3:53 at Lisht, 3:58 of important events, 2:163 (illus.)
Politics. See Government(s) location of, 4:21 (map) influence of, on writing, 4:170
Polygamy, 3:75, 4:5-6, 4:62 origin of, 4:20 of land use, 3:45
The Poor Man From Nippur, 3:60 outfitting of, 3:180 measurement and, 3:78-80
Population, estimating, 1:174 robbery of, 4:20 of merchant activities, 3:91, 92
Potassium-argon dating (archaeologi- Step pyramid, 2:130 on Sumerian clay tablets, 4:105
cal), 1:58 stones for, 1:125-26 of trade, 2:49
The Potter's Oracle, 4:10 structure of, 4:21 Redistributive economies, 2:49-50, 62
Pottery, 4:6-11 (illus.) and tomb robbing, 1:129 Red Sea, 4:30-31
Prayer, 4:11-12, 4:36 Pythagoras, 2:142 shipping routes on, 4:79
Pregnancy, 4:12-13 trade routes on, 4:129
Prehistoric Period, 2:73-74 volcanic belt through, 4:144
Prices of goods, 3:73 (illus.)
Priests and priestesses, 4:13-16
clothing of, 2:6-7
Q
Qedar tribe, 1:49, 50 (map)
Reeds for building, 1:124
Rehoboam, 4:94
Rekhmira, 1:77
cosmetics used by, 2:11 QermezDere, 2:172 Relative chronology, 1:166-67
cult rituals performed by, 2:18 Queens, 4:23-26 Relative dating (archaeological),
of Egypt, 4:32 Ahhotep (Egypt), 1:12 1:57-58
in Elam, 4:33 Athaliah (Judah), 1:98 Religion(s), 4:31-34. See also Creation
hierarchies of, 4:90 Cleopatra (Egypt), 2:3-4 (illus.) myths; Demons; Gods and god-
of Hittites, 4:34 Hatshepsut (Egypt), 2:152, 3:179 desses; Rituals; Sacrifice(s); Tem-
Isaiah, 3:12 Hittite, 2:170, 4:163 ple(s); specific religions
kings and queens as, 3:36, 161, 187 Mutnodjmet (Egypt), 1:162 afterlife beliefs, 1:3-6
and magicians, 3:69 Nefernefruaten (Egypt), 1:15 Ahriman, 1:13
in Mesopotamia, 4:32 Nefertiti (Egypt), 3:133-34 under Akhenaten (Egypt), 1:14-15
omens explained by, 3:153 Nefrusobek (Egypt), 3:37 of Akkadians, 1:21
rituals performed by, 4:36 Nitokris (Egypt), 3:141 of Aramaeans, 1:54
in Syria, 4:34 Pu-abi (Ur), 3:21, 22 art, religious, 1:46-48, 2:184-85
Zoroaster, 4:178-80 Sheba, queen of, 4:93-94 (illus.)
Primogeniture, 4:17 Smenkhkare (Egypt), 1:15 of Assyrians, 1:92-93
The Prince and His Fate, 2:63 of Babylonia, 1:110,3:140
Propaganda, 1:75, 2:23 birds in religious art, 1:118-19
Property and property rights, 4:16-17 calendars and, 1:134,135
concerning slaves, 4:86 R in Canaan, 1:139
divorce and, 2:39-40 Ra, 2:128 in Carthage, 1:147
land use and ownership, 3:44-47 Rabbis, 3:27-28 cats in, 1:149
water included in, 4:154 Rachel, 3:167 cosmetics used in, 2:11
for women, 4:161-62, 164 Radio-carbon dating (archaeological), cults, 2:18-19
The Prophecy ofNeferti, 3:156 1:58 dance and, 2:26
Prophets and prophecies. See Oracles Rainfall. See climate and drought, 2:42
and prophecy Ramman. See Adad education and, 2:55, 56
Proverbs, 4:17-18 Ramses II, 4:26-27 of Egypt, 2:63
Proverbs of Ahiquar, 1:53 and Abu Simbel temples, 1:1 (illus.) of Elamites, 2:67
Psalms, 4:18-19 and Khattushili, 3:32 feasts and festivals and, 2:92-93
Psalms of Solomon, 4:19 tomb for sons of, 4:144 fish in, 2:96
Ptah, 2:14, 129, 3:90 Ramses III, 4:27 and government, 2:131, 133,
Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaius), 3:70 cosmetics and, 2:12 136-38
Ptolemy I, 1:26,4:19-20 and Sea People, 4:63 of Greece, 2:142
Ptolemy's Canon, 3:35 Ramses VI, 4:134 and growth of cities, 1:171-72
Ptolemy XII, 2:3 Rassam, Hormuzd, 1:63 Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18
Ptolemy XIII, 2:3 Rawlinson, Sir Henry of Hittites, 2:169-70
Ptolemy XIV, 2:4 Behistun Inscription decipherment horses in, 2:171
Pu-abi, jewelry of, 3:21, 22 (illus.) by, 1:62, 116 in Iran, 3:7-8
Punic Wars, 1:147 Old Persian decipherment by, 2:34 and Jerusalem, 3:19
Punt, expedition to, 2:150-51 Re, 2:14 Judaism and Jews, 3:23-28

210
 Index
and justice, 4:88 Jordan River, 2:121 Sardinia, 4:46-47
lions as symbols in, 3:58 land use along, 3:45 Sardis, 3:65, 4:47-48
of Lydia, 3:67 in Lebanon, 2:121 Sargon I, 4:48-49
and magicians, 3:69 Nile River, 2:118-19, 3:137-38 Akkad's creation by, 1:16
and medicine, 3:83, 84, 86, 87 Tigris River, 2:118,4:125 army of, 1:72
of Mesopotamia, 3:97 transportation and travel by, 4:130 dynasty established by, 2:44
of Minoan civilization, 3:111 watercraft using, 4:80 government under, 2:132
monotheism, 3:113-14 Roads, 4:39-41 inscriptions about, 3:2
music and, 3:119, 120 economy and trade using, 2:48 rule of, 1:17-18
of Neo-Hittites, 3:136 (map) Sargon II, 2:135 (illus.)f 4:49-50
numbers significant in, 3:149 landmarks on, 4:131-32 appeal to god by, 1:92
offerings in, 3:151 messengers and, 3:99 Khorsabad citadel of, 3:160 (illus.)
Opet festival, 3:63 taxes paid for use of, 4:116 palace of, 1:65, 3:159,160 (illus.)
oracles and prophesy, 3:154-57 traffic on, 4:130 reign of, 1:89
in Persian Empire, 3:176 in Uruk period, 2:48 (map) relief from palace of, 2:51 (illus.)
of Philistines, 3:184 Robbers, grave. See Grave robbers Satrapies and satraps, 4:50
of Phoenicians, 3:187-88 Rock(s) Parthia as, 3:166
prayer, 4:11-12 animals in paintings on, 1:45 of Persian Empire, 3:174
priests and priestesses, 4:13-16 obsidian, 3:150-51 Sayings ofAhiquar, 4:18
purposes of art in, 1:76 temples carved out of, 3:163 Scarabs, 1:34, 2:116
science and, 4:52 Rome and the Roman Empire Schaeffer, Claude, 1:64
of Scythia, 4:62 artistic influences of, 4:148 Schliemann, Heinrich
and shape of mastabas and pyra- and Carthage, 1:147-48 Mycenaean work by, 3:123
mids, 4:20 Cleopatra and Caesar's marriage, 2:4 search for Homer's epic sites by,
of Sumeria, 3:140, 4:103-4 and Jews, 3:27 3:122
sun in, 4:107-8 andjudah, 3:16 Troy identified by, 1:61, 4:132
theology, 4:121-23 Lycia and, 3:63 Schools, 2:54, 4:50-52
use of seals in, 4:66 Macedonian Wars with, 3:67 Science and technology, 4:52-54
white magic and, 4:159 Phoenicians and, 3:186 astronomy, 1:95-97
Zoroastrianism, 4:178-80 Rosetta Stone, 1:59, 2:34, 162, 3:50, in Babylonia, 1:111
Reshef, 2:130 4:41-43 (illus.) cartography as, 3:70
Resurrection, 1:6, 3:157 Royal bodyguards, 4:92 in Greece, 2:142
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, 3:76 Royal Cemetery of Ur, 3:21, 102 (illus.) mapping, 4:52
(illus.), 77 Royal messengers, 3:99 mathematics, 3:76-78
Rhodes, 4:35 Royal orders (misharu), 1:107 metals and metalworking,
Rich, Claudius James, 1:55, 60 Royal Standard of Ur, 1:71, 72 (illus.), 3:100-104
Rimmon. See Adad 2:93 (illus.) mining, 3:107-9
Rim-Sin, 2:147 Rugs, 4:118 wheel, 4:157-58
Rimush, 1:18 Rulers. See Governors and rulers Scribes, 4:54-56
Rituals Rumeilah, 2:173 (illus.) academy for, at Nippur, 3:140
anointing with olive oil, 3:152-53 cuneiform use by, 2:19, 20

s
of Aramaeans, 1:54 education of, 2:54, 55
by cult priests and priestesses, 2:18 Israelite, 2:157
Egyptian funerary rituals, 3:68-69 in Judaism, 3:26
government responsibility for, 2:18 Sacrifice(s), 4:37-38 matrology (measurement) learned
healing, of Jews, 2:37 blood, as part of worship, 3:151 by, 3:78
Hittite funerary practices, 2:31-32 of cattle, 1:150 names of, 3:128
incense in, 2:186 of children, 1:147,3:188 numerals used by, 3:149
involving mummies, 2:30 goats for, 2:126 parchment used by, 1:122-23
magic, 3:68, 69 to gods, 4:33 (illus.) schools headed by, 4:51
Mesopotamian death rituals, 2:30 human, 3:151, 4:38 science as province of, 4:52
Mesopotamia temple rituals, 3:151 of white horses, 2:171 symbols invented by, 4:171
perfumes in, 3:170 Sahara Desert, 4:43-44 tools of, 4:126,171
prayers as, 4:12 Sahr, 1:54 writing on clay tablets by, 2:1-3
and sacrifice, 4:36-38 Saka, 1:154 Sculpture, 4:56-59
at Sed-Festival, 3:179 battle armor of, 4:157 Anatin, 1:35
substitute-king, 2:77, 4:36 death and burial in, 2:33 bas-reliefs, 1:113-15
against witchcraft, 4:160-61 Samaria, 1:12, 3:15, 4:44-45 Behistun Inscription, 4:59
Rivers, 4:38-39 Samaritans, 4:45 bronze head, Akkadian, 1:21 (illus.)
of Anatolia, 2:120 Samarkand, 1:25, 154 Egyptian, 1:77-78, 2:64
canals from, 1:140 Samsu-iluna, 4:46 Great Sphinx, 2:64
environmental changes in, 2:74 Sanitation, 2:154 of Greece, 2:142
Euphrates River, 2:84-85, 2:118 Santorini. See Thera lions in, 3:57
flooding of, 4:153-54 Saoshyant, 4:180 Neo-Hittite, 3:136
Hermos River, 4:47 Sarah, 3:166-67 puzzle sculptures, 4:58
and irrigation, 3:9 Sarcophagi, 1:132, 4:84 relief sculptures, 4:57 (illus.)

211
Index
stone for, 4:98 pyramids at Giza, 2:124 serfs and servants vs., 4:86
Sumerian, 4:105 tomb of Mausolus, 1:146 tax on sale of, 4:116
Syrian, 4:113 (illus.) Sewers, 2:154 Smenkhkare, Queen, 1:15
tools for, 4:126 Sexagesimal system (mathematics), Sneferu, 4:21
of Uruk, 4:124 (illus.) 3:76, 148, 4:52 Social classes
Scythia and the Scythians, 4:59-62 Sexual behavior. See Gender and sex among metalworkers, 3:103
and fall of Assyrian empire, 3:143 Shadow clocks, 1:134 animal ownership and, 1:43
groups identified as, 1:154 Shalmaneser III, 1:12, 87-88, 4:77 of Aramaeans, 1:53
Medes conquered by, 3:81 Shalmaneser V, 1:89, 4:77-78 in Assyria, 1:92
Seals, 4:64-69. See also Amulets and Shamaneserl, 1:86 burial practices and, 1:128-30,2:29-31
charms Shamash, 1:5, 21, 94, 106 (illus.), of Canaanites, 4:90
Adadon, 1:2 4:107 cattle ownership and, 1:150
Akkadian, 1:21 Shamash-shum-ukin, 1:83, 90 in Central Asia, 1:154
animals depicted on, 1:45 Shammu-ramat, 4:70 clothing and, 2:7-8
for clay envelopes, 2:1 Shamshi-Adad I, 1:85, 4:78 in Code of Hammurabi, 2:149
clothing represented on, 2:6, 8 Shamshi-Adad V, 1:88 economy and, 2:49
cylinder seals, 3:97 (illus.), 4:67-68 Shardana, 4:63 and education, 2:54, 4:54
(illus.) Shar-kali-sharri, 1:19 in Egypt, 2:65, 4:89
images on, 4:68-69 Sheba, queen of, 4:93-94 hairstyles and, 2:144
killing by, 4:66 Sheep, 1:40, 42, 43, 4:78-79, 4:118 of Hittites, 4:89
making of seals, 4:68 Shekelesh, 4:63 horse ownership and, 2:171
Old Babylonian, 1:106 (illus.) Sheol, 1:6 hunting and fishing and, 2:95
for papyri, 3:164-65 Shields, 4:156-57 of Israelites, 2:157, 4:90
stamp seals, 4:66 Shiloh,Yigal,3:19 and life expectancy, 2:154
Sumerian, 4:105 Shipping routes, 4:79-80 in Mesopotamia, 4:88
uses of, 4:65-66 Ships and boats, 4:80-82 in Minoan civilization, 3:110
weapons shown on, 1:71 funerary boats, 4:81 (illus.) urbanization and, 4:140-41, 168
Sea Peoples, 4:63-64 (illus.) lost cargoes from, 2:52 and women's roles, 4:161-64
Mediterranean raids of, 2:22 naval vessels, 3:130-31 Social institutions, 4:88-91. See also
migration of, 2:42, 3:106 navigation by, 3:88 Family and social life
Philistines, 3:181-84 of Phoenicians, 3:187 education, 2:54-56
Phoenicians and, 3:185 Royal Ship of Khufu, 3:33 government, 2:131-38
Secondary burial, 1:132 for sea trade, 3:87 schools, 4:50-52
Sedentists, 3:142 warships, 3:130-31 Solar system, 1:94,96
Serf-Festival, 3:179-80 wood for building of, 4:166-67 Solar temples, 3:162
Sekhmet, 1:149, 2:37 Shipwrecks, 3:187 Soldiers, 4:91-93, 4:156 (illus.)
Seleucid Empire, 4:69-70 Shoshenql, 3:57 Solomon, 4:93-94
Phoenicians and, 3:186 Shu, 2:14, 128 historical evidence about, 2:156
Southern Media in, 3:83 Shulgi, 4:82-83 Jerusalem and, 3:19
SeleucusI, 1:26 government under, 2:132 sources of information about, 3:14-15
Semiramis, 4:70 roads built by, 3:99 temple of, 3:24, ;163
Semites, 4:70-71 Shulgi Law Code, 1:142 "son of the sister/ 2:67
Semitic languages, 1:28, 2:146-47, Shuppiluliuma I, 2:167, 4:83-84 Sophocles, 2:142
3:47-48, 4:72-73 Shurpu, 3:68 Soul(s)
Semito-Hamitic languages. See Hamitic Siculus, Diodorus, 4:70 beliefs about. See Afterlife
(Hamito-Semitic) languages Sidon, 4:84 depictions of in art, 1:118
Senenmut, 2:152 Siege warfare, 4:150-52 portrayal of, 1:4 (illus.)
Senet,2:l\\, 112 Silver, 3:100-102 and underworld, 1:1
Sennacherib, 4:73-74 as item of exchange, 2:53 South Arabian language, 4:73
Nineveh and, 3:139-40 mining of, 3:109 South Arabic aleph-beth, 1:29 (illus.)
reign of, 1:88-89 as money, 3:112-13 Southern Citadel, 1:101
Seqenenre II, 2:183 as tax payment, 4:115 South Semitic aleph-beth, 1:30
Servants, 4:74-76 (illus.) Simut, 2:130 South Semitic languages, 4:72
Seth, 2:128, 4:76 Sinai, Mount, 4:84-85 Sparta, 1:80, 2:140-41
Horus and, 2:172 Sinai peninsula, 4:85 Sphinx, 4:94-95
andlshtar, 3:13 Sin (god), 1:21 Sphinxes, 1:47, 2:152 (illus.). See also
perceived as demon, 2:37 in Babylonia, 1:110 Great Sphinx
Sety I, 4:76-77 and childbirth, 1:162 Spirits. See Afterlife
burial site of, at Abydos, 1:2 in Enuma Ann Enlil, 1:94 Sports, 2:72-73. See also Games
with Hathor, 2:128 (illus.) Nabonidus and worship of, 3:126 archery, 2:169
and Ramses II, 4:26 Sin-muballit, 1:104 hunting as, 2:179-80 (illus.)
Seven Wise Men, 2:130 Slaves and slavery, 4:85-88 Star clocks, 4:97
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World divorce of, 2:40 Stars, 4:95-97. See also Astrology and
Colossus of Rhodes, 4:35 hairstyles of, 2:144 astrologers
Hanging Gardens of Babylon, naming of, 3:128 constellations, 1:96, 4:178 (illus.)
2:149-50 property ownership by, 417 Egyptian maps of, 1:97

212
 Index
identification of, 1:96 king list from, 3:34 (illus.) inscriptions in, 3:5
Sothis, 1:170 Lagash, 3:44 land use or ownership in, 3:46
Stelae land use or ownership in, 3:46 languages used in, 3:48
of Aramaean storm god, 2:127 languages, 3:49 location of, 4:110 (map)
bas-reliefs on, 1:114-15 literature of, 3:59, 60, 4:105 nomads in, 3:143
at burial sites, 1:128 location of, 4:101 (map) palaces of, 3:161
Code of Hammurabi, 2:147 (illus.), naming in, 3:128 religions of, 4:34
2:148-49 Nippur and religion of, 3:140 sculpture of, 4:59
as focus of worship, 3:133 number systems of, 3:148 Semites in, 4:71
of King Amanikhabale, 3:40 (illus.) palaces of, 3:158 shipping trade in, 3:88
magic spells on, 3:68 poetry of, 4:5 temples in, 3:163
of Mesha, 3:16 (illus.) priests in, 4:16 Ugarit, 4:135-37
Metternich Stela, 4:160 (illus.) queens of, 4:23 wall paintings in, 4:147
Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 (illus.) religion of, 4:103-4 women's role in, 4:164
table of offerings on, 3:152 (illus.) SargonI, 4:102 Syrian Desert, 2:120, 4:128
fromUruk, 1:46 social institutions of, 4:88
Victory Stela of Naram-Sin, 1:17 Third Dynasty of Ur, 4:102-3
(illus.), 21
of Vulture, 1:71-72, 119
trade in, 3:91
Uruk, 4:141-43 T
Stone, 4:97-99. See also Rock(s) wall paintings in, 4:147 Tabernacle, Mosaic Law concerning,
building with, 1:124-27, 4:165 women's role in, 4:161 3:115
diorite, 4:57 writing from, 4:169-71 Tablet houses, 2:54
gems, 2:114-16 ziggurats of, 4:175-76 Tablets, clay. See clay tablets
kudurrus, 1:105 (illus.), 108, 3:30 Sumerian Flood Story, 2:97 Taharqa, 4:114-15
lapis lazuli, 3:50-51 Sumerian language, 4:105-7 Talmud, 3:27-28
for pyramids, 2:40, 4:22 in Babylonia, 1:109 Aramaic language of, 1:52
for sculpture, 4:57 literature written in, 3:59 mathematics in, 3:78
for tools, 4:125 Sumu-abum, 1:100,103 measurement in, 3:79, 80
Stone Age, 1:166 Sun, 1:133, 134,4:107-8 Tannit, 3:187
Stone towers (Sardinia), 4:47 (illus.) Sundials, 1:134 TaSety (Nubia), 3:146
Storage Supernatural Taurus Mountains, 2:119
canals for, 1:140,142 demons, 2:36-37 Taweret, 1:162
of cereal grains, 1:155 gods and goddesses, 2:126-30 Taxation, 4:115-16
of clay tablets, 2:3 magic, 3:68-69 in Babylonia, 1:107-8
of cosmetics, 2:13 omens and, 3:153-54 and forced labor, 3:45
of food and drink, 2:103-4 oracles and prophesy, 3:154-57 of peasants, 3:169
libraries and archives for, 3:54-56 religion, 4:31-34 wine as payment of, 4:159
of perfumes, 2:13, 3:170 in theology, 4:121 Tax farming, 4:115
of personal possessions, 2:107, 109 witchcraft, 4:159-61 Technology. See Science and technol-
The Story of Sinuhe, 3:60, 4:74 Susa and Susiana, 4:108-9 ogy
Storytelling, 2:73 archaeological discoveries of, 1:62, Tefnut, 2:14
Stratigraphy, 1:168 4:W& (illus.) Tel Dan, 2:28
Sudan, 4:99-100 houses at, 2:174 Telipinu, 2:43, 129
Suicide, 1:142-43 wall relief from, 2:68 (illus.) Tell Arpachiyah, 2:172
Sumer and the Sumerians, 2:78-79, Syria and the Syrians, 4:109-14 TellAsmar, 2:78
4:100-105 Alalakh, 1:22-23 Tell Atchana. See Alalakh
Akkadian Empire, 4:102 Amorites, 1:32-33 Tell el-Amarna. See Amarna
archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 Anat, 1:35-36 Tell el-'Oueili, 4:100
architecture, 4:104-5 Aramaeans, 1:51-54 Tell es-Sawwan, 2:172
art of, 4:105 archaeological discoveries in, Tell Hariri, 3:71
in Babylonian history, 1:102-3 1:61-62 Tell Kuyunjik, 3:139, 140
cosmetics used in, 2:12 building materials in, 1:126 Tell Maghzaliyeh, 2:172
creation myths of, 2:14 cities in, 1:174 Tell NebiYunus, 3:139
cuneiform of, 2:2,19, 4:105 climate of, 2:6 Temperature, 2:5
Early Dynastic period, 4:101-2 clothing of, 2:8 (illus.) Temple(s), 3:157-59, 3:161-63
economy of, 4:104 Damascus, 2:24 atAbuSimbel, 1:1
Enlil, 2:70 Ebla, 2:47 of Akhenaten, 1:15 (illus.)
epic literature in, 2:75-76 entertainment in, 2:71-73 of Aramaeans, 1:54
Eridu, 2:76-77, 2:134 faience in, 2:85 archives in, 3:55
gardens of, 2:113 farming in, 3:11 in Assyria, 1:93
Gilgamesh, 2:121-23 feasts and festivals in, 2:92, 93 building techniques for, 1:126
gods and goddesses of, 4:34, 103-4 geography of, 2:120, 4:110 built by Gudea, 2:143
government of, 2:132, 4:103 gods and goddesses of, 2:130, 4:34 children as workers in, 1:163
history of, 4:100-103 health in, 2:153 in cities, 1:175-76
human form in art of, 2:177 history of, 4:111-14 at Djoser;s burial site, 2:40
hymns from, 2:183 human form in art of, 2:177 in Egypt, 1:66-67, 2:64, 4:32

213
Index
Eshumesha, 3:159 Thebes, 4:120-21 caravan routes, 1:144, 3:71
functions of, 3:161-62 in creation myths, 2:14 and Chaldeans, 1:158
furniture in, 2:110 Hyksos and, 2:182-83 Damascus' control of, 2:24
Great Temple of Amun, 3:63 Kushite control of, 3:147 dependence of economy on,
Great Temple of the Aten (Amarna), palace of Amenhotep III at, 2:47-48
1:31 3:160-61 Karkamish and, 3:28
Greek, 2:142 temples of Karnak, 3:29 Neo-Hittites and, 3:135
and growth of cities, 1:171-72 temples of Luxor, 3:63 Nile River as, 3:145
history of, 3:162 Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44 nomadic control of, 3:144
Innana, Temple of, 2:86 (illus.) Valley of the Queens, 4:144 Parthian control of, 3:166
in Jerusalem, 3:19 Theology, 4:121-23 Red Sea, 4:30-31
in Jewish life, 3:27 Thera, 2:17, 38, 46, 4:123, 4:145 through Megiddo, 3:89
at Karnak, 3:29, 3:29 Thermoluminescent analysis, 1:168 Transcaucasia, 1:150-51
inKhattusha, 1:70 Thoth, 1:47, 119,2:129 Transportation and travel, 4:129-32
at Kish, 3:38 Three Stars Each, 1:96 animals for, 1:44-45
at Lagash, 3:44 Thucydides, 2:142 camels, 1:137
in the Levant, 1:69 Thutmose II, 2:152 canals for, 1:141
libraries in, 3:54, 55 Thutmose III, 3:4, 4:124 caravans, 1:143-45
ofMarduk, 1:101,3:71 Tiglath-pileser I, 1:69, 86-87 chariots, 1:160-61
in Meroe, 3:40-41 Tiglath-pileser III, 1:52, 89, 4:124 and growth of cities, 1:174
in Mesopotamia, 1:65, 4:31-32 Tigrinya language, 4:73 importance of rivers to, 4:38-39
in Nuzi, 3:149-50 Tigris River, 2:118, 4:38-39, 4:125 maps, 3:69-70
professional dancers in, 2:25 changes in, 2:74 messengers, 2:10-11
redistributive economies and role flooding of, 1:9, 2:38, 99, 4:153-54 Nile River's impact on, 3:138
of, 2:49-50 harbors on, 2:150 roads, 1:91,4:39-41
solar temples, 3:162 and irrigation, 3:9 ships and boats, 4:80-82
Solomon's, 3:163 Mesopotamian dependence on, 2:98 of stone for pyramids, 4:22
staff of, 3:159 shipping routes on, 4:79 taxes, travel, 4:116
Sumerian, 4:104 trade routes along, 4:128 through Megiddo, 3:89
Syrian, 4:34 Time and timekeeping, 4:96-97 trade routes, 2:52
ziggurats and, 4:174-76 calendars, 1:133-36, 4:96-97 wheels and, 4:157-58
Ten Commandments, 3:53, 4:116-17 chronology, 1:166-70 wood's importance in, 4:166-67
Moses and, 3:116 shadow clocks, 1:134 Trash, disposal of, 1:175
as part of Mosaic Law, 3:114-16 star clocks, 4:97 Treaty of Naram-Sin, 3:4
Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, 3:15 water clocks, 1:134, 135 Trojan War, 4:132, 133
Tepe Gawra, 1:45, 48, 64 Tin, 3:101, 108 Troy, 1:38,4:132-33
Tepe Ghabristan, 3:108 Tocharian language, 2:188 archaeological discovery of, 1:61
Tepe Nush-I Jan, 3:80 Tokens, 2:1, 4:28 (illus.) battle of, 3:122
Tepe Sialk, 2:174 and bullae, 4:68 earthquake and destruction of, 2:46
Teshub, 2:129,4:117-18 counting with, 3:148 fortifications of, 2:105
Textiles, 4:118-20 (illus.) mathematics and, 3:78, 4:30 Tudkhaliyal, 2:167
from Acemhuyuk, 2:8 record-keeping uses of, 4:27-29 Tudkhaliya IV, 2:168
from flax, 2:96-97 replacement of, by cuneiform, 2:19 Tukulti-Ninurta I, 1:86
household, 2:107, 109 Tombs. See Burial sites and tombs; Tutankhamen, 4:133-34
Phoenician, 3:186 Pyramid(s) and deities, 1:15
purple dye for, 3:186 Tools, 4:125-27 tomb of, 1:59,4:144
wool, 4:78-79 in Central Asia, 1:154 Tyre, 4:134-35
Texts and documents metals for, 3:101, 102 and Alexander the Great, 1:24
on afterlife, 1:4-5 obsidian for, 3:150 and Carthage, 1:146
Apology, 3:32 primitive, 4:111
decipherment of, 2:33-36 of scribes, 4:55, 171
The Disputte Between Copper and Sil-
ver, 3:101
stone, 4:99
for woodworking, 4:166 (illus.) U
Ebers Papyrus, 3:164 for writing inscriptions, 3:2 Ubar, 1:63
Farmer's Almanac, 1:10 Torah, 4:127 Ugarit, 4:135-37
Guide to Geography, 3:70 books of, 1:117 aleph-beth, 1:28-30 (illus.)
historical, 2:162-66 Mosaic Law in, 3:114-16 archaeological discoveries of, 1:61
of Hittite funerary practices, 2:31 Torture, 3:53 communal prayer of, 4:11
on magic, 3:68, 69 Tower of Babel, 4:176 earthquake and destruction of, 2:46
mathematical, 3:77 Toys, 2:110-12 El and, 2:66
medical, 3:83, 85-86 Trade. See Economy and trade forced labor in, 3:43
The Potter's Oracle, 4:10 Trade routes, 2:52, 4:127-29 funerary practices of, 2:32
Shurpu, 3:68 Arab control of, 3:143 houses of, 1:68, 2:175
storage and retrieval of, 3:56 in Arabia, 1:50 (map) language of, 2:35-36
fromUgarit, 1:61 Bahrain as part of, 1:112 merchant protection agreement
Theaters, Greek, 2:142 camels, 1:137 with Karkamish, 3:93

214
 Index
Umma, 3:91, 4:137 Egyptian, 2:64 Weaving, 4:118,119
Underworld of hunting, 2:180 Wedding ceremonies, 3:74 (illus.), 75
Abydos as entrance to, 1:1 Wars and warfare, 4:149-53 Weight, measurement of, 3:79
"maps" of, 3:4 animals' roles in, 1:44 Wepemnofret's stela, 3:152 (illus.)
Osiris and, 3:157 armies, 1:71-75 Western desert, 2:120
spouse-seeking demons in, 2:37 in art, 4:151 (illus.) West Semitic languages, 4:72-73
Ur, 4:137-39 attacks of walled cities, 4:149 Wheat, 1:155
animal figures found at, 1:45-46 cavalry, 1:152 Wheel, 4:157-58
(illus.) chariots in, 1:160-61 White magic, 3:68, 4:159-60
archaeological discoveries in, 1:60 fighting under banner of Amun, Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, 1:31
cosmetics, 2:12 1:35 Winckler, Hugo, 1:64
and Elamites, 2:67-68 fortifications and, 2:104-6 (illus.) Wind rose, 3:88
royal tombs at, 3:21 horses in, 2:171 Wine, 2:101, 4:158-59
Shulgi, 4:82-83 Lagash known for, 3:44 Witchcraft, 3:68, 4:159-61
Ur-Nammu, 4:139 naval power, 3:130-31 Women, role of, 4:161-64 (illus.)
Urartu, 4:139-40 Persian Wars, 3:177-78 in Assyria, 1:92
metalworking in, 3:104 propaganda in, 1:75 divorce and, 2:39
Scythians and, 4:60 Scythians and, 4:61 education for, 2:55-56
Urbanization, 4:140-41, 4:167-68 slaves as war captives, 4:86, 87 in Egypt, 2:64
Ur-Nammu, 3:97 (illus.), 4:139 soldiers, 4:91-93 as Egyptian pharaohs, 3:179
Uruk, 4:141-43 urbanization and, 4:141 in Elam, 2:67
clay tablets, 2:2 water important to, 4:154 gender and sex, 2:116-18
fortifications of, 2:105 weapons and armor for, 4:155-57 as laborers, 3:42, 43
Gilgamesh and, 2:121-23 Waste disposal in cities, 1:175 as landowners, 3:46
rock stela from, 1:46 Water, 4:153-54. See also Floods and in medicine, 3:84 (illus.), 85
trade networks of, 2:51 flooding; Waterways and bodies in Minoan society, 2:16
White Temple at, 1:65 of water occupations, 4:168
Utu, 2:127 agriculture and use of, 1:9-10 property control by naditus, 4:17,
camels and, 1:136-37 161-62
climate and, 2:5 property rights and, 4:16,17
V and drought, 2:42-43
and growth of cities, 1:174
as prophets, 3:156
as rulers, 3:37
Valley of the Kings, 4:143-44 and habitation in Iran, 3:6 Wood and woodworking, 1:125,126,
Tutankhamen's tomb in, 4:134 health and, 2:154 4:164-67
worker benefits in building, 4:168 irrigation, 3:8-11 Woolley, Sir Charles Leonard
Valley of the Queens, 4:143, 4:144 and land use, 3:45 and Noah's flood, 2:98
Varuna, 2:129 protecting supply of, 3:11 and Pu-abi's tomb, 3:21
Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon, 1:85 storage of, 3:10 Ur excavations of, 1:60,128, 130
(illus.) transportation and travel by, 4:130 Work, 4:167-69 (illus.). See also Econ-
Vegetables, 2:101, 103 Water clocks, 1:134, 135 omy and trade; Tools
Vegetation. See Plants Waterways and bodies of water artists and artisans, 1:75-79, 3:42
Vehicles, 4:131, 158 Aegean Sea, 1:3 cartography (mapmaking), 3:69, 70
Virolleaud, Charles, 1:30 canals, 1:140-42 children's training for, 1:163
Volcanoes, 4:144-45 Dead Sea, 2:121 education for, 2:55
earthquakes and, 2:46 harbors, 2:150-51 farm work and methods, 1:8-11
Thera, 2:17, 4:123 for irrigation, 3:9 labor and laborers, 3:41-44
Volume, measurement of, 3:79, 80 linking Aegean and Black Seas, 1:3 magicians, 3:69
Vulture, stela of, 1:71-72, 119 Mediterranean Sea, trade on, mining, 3:109
3:87-89 physicians, 3:83-87
naval power and, 3:130 pottery making, 4:7
W Red Sea, 4:30-31
rivers, 4:38-39. See also specific
of scribes, 4:55-56
temple workers, 3:159, 4:104
Wages, 3:41-42 rivers tenant farmers, 3:168
Walled cities, 1:175, 4:148-49 trade routes using, 2:52 urbanization and, 4:140
fortifications of, 2:104-6 Weapons and armor, 4:155-57 (illus.) women, role of, 4:161-64
gates in, 2:113-14 for charioteers, 1:160 Writing, 4:169-72. See also Books and
Jericho, 3:17-18 in early Mesopotamia, 1:71, 72 manuscripts; Record keeping
Jerusalem, 3:19 ofHittites, 1:72 alphabets, 1:27-30
Khattusha, 3:31 metals for, 3:101, 102 Aramaean influence on, 1:51, 53
Megiddo, 3:89-90 obsidian for, 3:150 Aramaic, 1:85
Wall paintings of Persians, 1:74-75 in Assyria, 1:85
Babylon's Processional Way, 1:101 as tax payment, 4:115 of books and manuscripts,
(illus.) Weather. See also climate 1:122-23
birds on, 1:119, 120 (illus.) Adad (god of), 1:2-3 from Byblos texts, 2:36
brick for, 1:124 and drought, 2:42-43 in Canaan, 1:139
at £atal Hiiyiik, 1:148 as omen, 1:94 on clay tablets, 2:1-2

215
Index
Cretan, 2:16
cuneiform, 2:19-22 Y Ziggurats, 4:174-76 (illus.)
form of, 1:65
decipherment of, 2:33-36 Yadin, Yigael, 1:64 at Kish, 3:38
demotic script, 2:34 Yahweh, 2:130, 4:173-74 ofMarduk,3:71
development of, 4:29 and Ark of the Covenant, 1:70-71 in Mesopotamian temples, 3:162
in Greece, 2:139, 142-43 in creation myths, 2:15 Sumerian, 4:104
hieroglyphics, 1:28, 2:160-62 and El, 2:66 in Ur, 4:139, 174, 17S (illus.)
inscriptions, 3:1-6 gifts to children by, 1:164 Zimri-Lim, 3:156, 4:176-77
Linear A and Linear B, 2:16, 3:123 in Hebrew Bible, 1:117-18 Zippalanda, 2:129
logographic, 4:170 incense offerings to, 2:186 Ziwiye, 3:6
of Mycenaeans, 3:123 and Isaiah, 3:12 Zodiac, 1:95, 4:177-78
of numbers, 3:148 and Israel's patriarchs and matri- development of, 4:96
numerical values of letters, 1:28 archs, 3:166-68 planets and, 4:4
papyrus, 3:164-65 and Judaism, 3:23-26, 28 signs in, 2:45
on parchment, 1:122-23 prophets of, 3:156-57 Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism, 3:8,
of Phoenicians, 3:188 temple of, 3:19 4:178-80
phonemes represented in, 1:27 Ten Commandments given by, afterlife beliefs of, 1:6
and Rosetta Stone, 4:41-43 4:116-17 Ahriman, 1:13
and scribes, 4:54-56 inTorah, 1:117 Ahura Mazda, 1:14
and Semitic languages, 4:72 Yahwism, 1:6 altars of, 4:179 (illus.)
Sumerian, 4:105-7 Years. See Calendars; Chronology(-ies) birthplace of Zoroaster, 1:111
Young, Rodney S., 1:61 healing in, 3:86
Young, Thomas, 2:34, 4:41 mythology and, 3:126
prophecies in, 3:156
X as religion of Achaemenid dynasty,
3:176
Xerxes, 4:172-73
and building of Persepolis, 3:170-71 z rise of, 3:114
and Persian Wars, 3:177-78 Zagros Mountains, 2:120 square towers of, 1:69
reign of, 3:173 Zarathustra. See Zoroaster and as state religion, 4:33-34
Xerxes II, 3:173 Zoroastrianism theologies of, 4:122, 123

216
 ^^^^fe5|g^^^^^^ppp^p;;^F)^:

Plate I
Made of ivory, this Phoenician carving of a female head, which is 6!4 inches tall,
dates from the 700s B.C. It was found at a palace at Kalkhu (present-day Nimrud)
in Assyria, where it was originally attached to a piece of furniture.The Assyrians
prized fine furniture and often took it as booty from lands that they conquered.
Plate 3
Ancient Near Eastern artisans used silver
and other precious metals to make jewelry
and luxury and decorative items, suchas
the vase shown here. Approximately14inches
tall, this silvervase belonging to King Entemena
of Lagash dates from around 2450 B.c.The
copper-basedvase bears engraved figures of
both mythical and real animals.The top of
the vase contains an inscription of devotion
to the city god of Lagash.
Plate 4
The people of the ancient Near
East used amulets as lucky or pro-
tective charms. A wingedscarab
(representation of the dung beetle)
made of precious stone sits at the
center of this amulet, which was
found in the tomb of Eighteenth
Dynasty Egyptian king
Tutankhamen (reigned ca. 1332-
1322 B.c.).The annulet, which is
inlaid with lapis lazuli, carnelian,
glass, and other stones,may have
been worn as a pectoral.
P/afe 6
This round bronze sculpture from an-
cient Luristan (present-day Iran) features
water spirits in the center. Dating from
around 1850B.C., the sculpture measures
13 inches in height. Many bronze objects
have been found at Luristan.
Plate 9
The 7-inch-highclayvase shown here
dates from around 2000 B.C. and was
found atSusa in ancientElam. It resem-
bles a type ofvase found inLagash, re-
flecting the influence Mesopotamia had
on its close neighbor,Elam. Similar
vases have also been found in the re-
gion of the Diyala River and atTello,all
of which appear tohave been made in
the same shop, possiblySusa.
in
Plate 10
The A.D. 1922 discovery of the tomb of ancient
Egyptian king Tutankhamen (ruled ca. 1332-
1322 B.C.) in the Valley of the Kings provided
modern scholars with many examples of Egyptian
art, such as this plastered and painted wooden
chest.The scene on its central panel depicts
Tutankhamen in his chariot, attacking a group of
Nubians. On the ends of the chest,Tutankhamen
is shown as a sphinx trampling Egypt's enemies.

Plate 11
This silver rhyton, or ancient drinking horn,
was found in Central Asia and dates from
theAchaemenid period (538-331 B.c.).The
bottom of the rhyton depicts a mythical
beast called a griffin. A small opening on
the chest of the griffin indicates where the
liquid poured into the rhyton came out.
Plate 12
Ancient Minoan and Cycladic art are known for
their colorful frescoes, many examples of which
were found on the islands of Crete andThera.
The fresco above depicts a galley ship being rowed
through waters where dolphins swim. It comes
fromThera and dates from around 1500 B.C.

Plate 13
Animals were portrayed in ancient Near
Eastern art for both secular and religious
purposes.The gold- and silver-winged ibex
shown here forms the handle of a vase.
Approximately ten inches long, this ibex is
typical of art from theAchaemenid period
(538-331 B.c.).The Persians were especially
skilled in metalworking, and their gold
jewelry is noteworthy for its fine quality.
 Plate 14
Although the sphinx originated in Egypt, its use
in art spread to other cultures in the ancient
Near East, who added their own elements. In
Syria and the Levant, the body of the sphinx
was often portrayed with wings. Dating from
the 700s B.C., this 3-inch-high sphinx was found
at Hadatu in northern Syria.

Plate 15
Glassmaking was an important
industry in the Levant during
ancient times.The Phoenicians
were famous in the ancient
world for their skill in produc-
ing colorful glass beads, such as
those in this necklace, which
dates from the 500s B.C. The
Phoenicians might have learned
some of their glassmaking skills
from the ancient Egyptians.