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10.5W ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS

PEARLITE (PRINT)
BAINITE (DETAILED VERSION)
From the discussion of the preceding section, it would seem reasonable to expect
the alternating ferrite and cementite lamellae to become thinner and thinner as the
isothermal transformation temperature is lowered to below that at which fine
pearlite forms. Such is not the case; other microconstituents that are products of
the austenitic transformation are found to exist at these lower temperatures. One
of these microconstituents is called bainite. Furthermore, depending on transfor-
mation temperature, two general types of bainite have been observed: upper and
lower bainite. Like pearlite, the microstructure of each of these bainites consists of
ferrite and cementite phases; however, their arrangements are different from the
alternating lamellar structure found in pearlite.
For temperatures between approximately 300 and 540C, bainite forms as a se-
ries of parallel laths (i.e., thin narrow strips) or needles of ferrite that are separated
by elongated particles of the cementite phase. Such is termed upper bainite, and its
microstructural details are so fine that their resolution is possible only using elec-
tron microscopy. Figure 10.12aW is an electron micrograph that shows a grain of
upper bainite (positioned diagonally from lower left to upper right); the various
phases in this micrograph have been labeled. In addition, the phase that surrounds
the bainite is martensite, which is a topic addressed in a subsequent section.
Furthermore, no proeutectoid phase forms with bainite.
At lower temperatures between about 200 and 300C lower bainite is the trans-
formation product. For lower bainite, the ferrite phase exists as thin plates (instead
of laths as with upper bainite), and narrow cementite particles (as very fine rods or
blades) form within these ferrite plates. Figure 10.12bW is an electron micrograph
of lower bainite; in this micrograph, the plates of bainite appear as needle-like struc-
tures, whereas the phase that surrounds them is martensite. Furthermore, the ce-
mentite particles within these bainite plates are so small as not to be resolvable; the
schematic inset shown with this micrograph represents the detailed structure of
these plates.
The time–temperature dependence of the bainite transformation may also
be represented on the isothermal transformation diagram. The transformation
occurs at temperatures below those at which pearlite forms; begin-, end-, and
half-reaction curves are just extensions of those for the pearlitic transforma-
tion, as shown in Figure 10.13W, the isothermal transformation diagram for an
iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition that has been extended to lower
temperatures. All three curves are C-shaped and have a “nose” at point N, where
the rate of transformation is a maximum. As may be noted, whereas pearlite
forms above the nose—that is, over the temperature range of about 540 to 727C
(1000 to 1341F)—for isothermal treatments at temperatures between about
215 and 540C (420 and 1000F), bainite is the transformation product. Temper-
ature regimes over which upper and lower bainites form are indicated on
Figure 10.13W.
Note also that pearlitic and bainitic transformations are really competitive with
each other, and once some portion of an alloy has transformed to either pearlite
or bainite, transformation to the other microconstituent is not possible without
reheating to form austenite.
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FIGURE 10.12W (a) Transmission electron

micrograph showing the structure of upper
bainite. A grain of bainite passes from lower
left to upper right-hand corners, which con-
sists of elongated and needle-shaped parti-
cles of Fe3C within a ferrite matrix. The Martensite
phase surrounding the bainite is martensite.
15,000. (Reproduced with permission from
Metals Handbook, Vol. 8, 8th edition, Metall-
ography, Structures and Phase Diagrams,
American Society for Metals, Materials
Park, OH, 1973.) (b) Scanning electron
micrograph showing lower bainite in a
martensite matrix for an AISI steel that was Cementite
transformed isothermally at 300C. The inset
shows the detail of a lower bainite grain.
2300. (From John D. Verhoeven,
Fundamentals of Physical Metallurgy, p. 502.
Copyright © 1975 by John Wiley & Sons, Ferrite
New York. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
(a)

Martensite

Cementite

Ferrite

(b)

SPHEROIDITE (PRINT)

MARTENSITE (DETAILED VERSION)

Yet another microconstituent or phase called martensite is formed when austeni-
tized iron–carbon alloys are rapidly cooled (or quenched) to a relatively low
temperature (in the vicinity of the ambient). Martensite is a nonequilibrium single-
phase structure that results from a diffusionless transformation of austenite. It may
be thought of as a transformation product that is competitive with pearlite and bai-
nite. The martensitic transformation occurs when the quenching rate is rapid enough
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FIGURE 10.13W 800

Isothermal A Eutectoid temperature
1400
transformation diagram
for an iron–carbon 700
A
alloy of eutectoid 1200
composition, including A
+ P
austenite-to-pearlite 600
P
(A–P) and austenite-to-
1000
bainite (A–B) Temperature (°C) N

Temperature (°F)
Upper
transformations. 500 bainite
[Adapted from
H. Boyer (Editor), A+B B 800
400
Atlas of Isothermal
Transformation and
Cooling Transformation A Lower 600
300 bainite
Diagrams, American
Society for Metals,
1977, p. 28.] 50% 400
200

100
10–1 1 10 102 103 104 105
Time (s)

to prevent carbon diffusion. Any diffusion whatsoever will result in the formation
of ferrite and cementite phases.
The martensitic transformation is not well understood. However, large num-
bers of atoms experience cooperative movements, in that there is only a slight dis-
placement of each atom relative to its neighbors. This occurs in such a way that
the FCC austenite experiences a polymorphic transformation to a body-centered
tetragonal (BCT) martensite. A unit cell of this crystal structure (Figure 10.14W)
is simply a body-centered cube that has been elongated along one of its dimen-
sions; this structure is distinctly different from that for BCC ferrite. All the car-
bon atoms remain as interstitial impurities in martensite; as such, they constitute
a supersaturated solid solution that is capable of rapidly transforming to other
structures if heated to temperatures at which diffusion rates become appreciable.
Many steels, however, retain their martensitic structure almost indefinitely at room
temperature.

FIGURE 10.14W The body-centered tetragonal unit cell for

martensitic steel showing iron atoms (circles) and sites that
may be occupied by carbon atoms (crosses). For this
tetragonal unit cell, c  a.

a
a
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FIGURE 10.15W Schematic diagram

showing the microstructural features of lath
Laths or massive martensite. [Adapted from A. R.
Marder and J. I. Goldstein (Editors), Phase
Blocks Transformations in Ferrous Alloys, The
Metallurgical Society of AIME, 1984.]

The martensitic transformation is not, however, unique to iron–carbon alloys.

It is found in other systems and is characterized, in part, by the diffusionless trans-
formation.
Since the martensitic transformation does not involve diffusion, it occurs al-
most instantaneously; the martensite grains nucleate and grow at a very rapid rate—
the velocity of sound within the austenite matrix. Thus the martensitic transforma-
tion rate, for all practical purposes, is time independent.
Two distinctly different martensitic microstructures are found in iron–carbon
alloys: lath and lenticular. For alloys containing less than about 0.6 wt% C, the
martensite grains form as laths (i.e., long and thin plates, like blades of grass) that
form side by side and are aligned parallel to one another. Furthermore, these laths
are grouped into larger structural entities, called blocks; the morphology of this lath
(or massive) martensite is represented schematically in Figure 10.15W. Microstruc-
tural details of this type of martensite are too fine to be revealed by optical mi-
croscopy, and, therefore, electron micrographic techniques must be employed.
Lenticular (or plate) martensite is typically found in iron–carbon alloys
containing greater than approximately 0.6 wt% C. With this structure the marten-
site grains take on a needle-like (i.e., lenticular) or plate-like appearance, as
indicated in the photomicrograph of Figure 10.16W. Here the lenticular martensite

FIGURE 10.16W Photomicrograph showing

the lenticular or plate martensitic
microstructure. The needle-shaped grains are
the martensite phase, and the white regions
are austenite that failed to transform during
the rapid quench. 1220. (Photomicrograph
courtesy of United States Steel
Corporation.)
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grains are the dark regions, whereas the white phase is retained austenite that did
not transform during the rapid quench.
Note that, as has already been mentioned, both of these types of martensite as
well as other microconstituents (e.g., pearlite and bainite) can coexist.
Being a nonequilibrium phase, martensite does not appear on the iron–iron
carbide phase diagram (Figure 9.21). The austenite-to-martensite transformation
is, however, represented on the isothermal transformation diagram. Since the
martensitic transformation is diffusionless and instantaneous, it is not depicted in
this diagram like the pearlitic and bainitic reactions. The beginning of this trans-
formation is represented by a horizontal line designated M (start) (Figure 10.17W).
Two other horizontal and dashed lines, labeled M(50%) and M(90%), indicate per-
centages of the austenite-to-martensite transformation. The temperatures at which
these lines are located vary with alloy composition but, nevertheless, must be rel-
atively low because carbon diffusion must be virtually nonexistent. The horizontal
and linear character of these lines indicates that the martensitic transformation is
independent of time; it is a function only of the temperature to which the alloy is
quenched or rapidly cooled. A transformation of this type is termed an athermal
transformation.
Consider an alloy of eutectoid composition that is very rapidly cooled from
a temperature above 727C (1341F) to, say, 165C (330F). From the isothermal
transformation diagram (Figure 10.17W) it may be noted that 50% of the austenite
will immediately transform to martensite; as long as this temperature is maintained,
there will be no further transformation.
The presence of alloying elements other than carbon (e.g., Cr, Ni, Mo, and W)
may cause significant changes in the positions and shapes of the curves in the

FIGURE 10.17W The 800

complete isothermal A
Eutectoid temperature 1400
transformation diagram
for an iron–carbon alloy 700
of eutectoid A
1200
composition: A, A
600 + P
austenite; B, bainite; M, P
martensite; P, pearlite.
1000
500
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°F)

A 800
400 +
B

A 600
300

M(start)
200 50% 400
M+A
M(50%)
M(90%)

100
200

0
10–1 1 10 102 103 104 105
Time (s)
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FIGURE 10.18W 800

Isothermal A
1400
transformation diagram Eutectoid temperature
for an alloy steel (type 700
4340): A, austenite;
B, bainite; P, pearlite; A+F F+P 1200
A+F
M, martensite; A +P
600
F, proeutectoid ferrite.
[Adapted from
1000
H. Boyer (Editor),
Atlas of Isothermal 500
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°F)
Transformation and
Cooling Transformation 800
Diagrams, American 400
A+B
Society for Metals, 1977,
p. 181.] 50%
B
600
300 M(start)

M(50%) M+A

M(90%)
200 400

100 M
200

0 0
1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Time (s)

isothermal transformation diagrams. These changes include (1) shifting to longer

times the nose of the austenite-to-pearlite transformation (and also a proeutectoid
phase nose, if such exists), and (2) the formation of a separate bainite nose. These
alterations may be observed by comparing Figures 10.17W and 10.18W, which are
isothermal transformation diagrams for carbon and alloy steels, respectively.