12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning?

Definition and Examples

Science, Tech, Math › Social Sciences

What Is Operant Conditioning? De nition

and Examples
Share
SHARE Flipboard
FLIP Email
EMAIL

Microzoa / Getty Images.

by Cynthia Vinney
Updated November 30, 2018

Operant conditioning occurs when an association is made between a particular behavior and a
consequence for that behavior. This association is built upon the use of reinforcement and/or
punishment to encourage or discourage behavior. Operant conditioning was first defined and
studied by behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner, who conducted several well-known operant
conditioning experiments with animal subjects.

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 1/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

Key Takeaways: Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is the process of learning through reinforcement and

punishment.

In operant conditioning, behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the

consequences of that behavior.

Operant conditioning was defined and studied by behavioral psychologist B.F.

Skinner.

Origins
B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist, which means he believed that psychology should be limited to
the study of observable behaviors. While other behaviorists, like John B. Watson, focused on
classical conditioning, Skinner was more interested in the learning that happened through
operant conditioning.

He observed that in classical conditioning responses tend to be triggered by innate reflexes that
occur automatically. He called this kind of behavior respondent. He distinguished respondent
behavior from operant behavior. Operant behavior was the term Skinner used to describe a
behavior that is reinforced by the consequences that follow it. Those consequences play an
important role in whether or not a behavior is performed again.

Skinner’s ideas were based on Edward Thorndike’s law of effect, which stated that behavior that
elicits positive consequences will probably be repeated, while behavior that elicits negative
consequences will probably not be repeated. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement
into Thorndike’s ideas, specifying that behavior that is reinforced will probably be repeated (or
strengthened).

To study operant conditioning, Skinner conducted experiments using a “Skinner Box,” a small
box that had a lever at one end that would provide food or water when pressed. An animal, like
a pigeon or rat, was placed in the box where it was free to move around. Eventually the animal
would press the lever and be rewarded. Skinner found that this process resulted in the animal
pressing the lever more frequently. Skinner would measure learning by tracking the rate of the
animal’s responses when those responses were reinforced.

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 2/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

Reinforcement and Punishment

Through his experiments, Skinner identified the different kinds of reinforcement and
punishment that encourage or discourage behavior.

Reinforcement
Reinforcement that closely follows a behavior will encourage and strengthen that behavior.
There are two types of reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in a favorable outcome, e.g. a

dog receiving a treat after obeying a command, or a student receiving a compliment from
the teacher after behaving well in class. These techniques increase the likelihood that the
individual will repeat the desired behavior in order to receive the reward again.

Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in the removal of an

unfavorable experience, e.g. an experimenter ceasing to give a monkey electric shocks
when the monkey presses a certain lever. In this case, the lever-pressing behavior is
reinforced because the monkey will want to remove the unfavorable electric shocks again.

In addition, Skinner identified two different kinds of reinforcers.

Primary reinforcers naturally reinforce behavior because they are innately desirable,
e.g. food.

Conditioned reinforcers reinforce behavior not because they are innately desirable,
but because we learn to associate them with primary reinforcers. For example, Paper
money is not innately desirable, but it can be used to acquire innately desirable goods,
such as food and shelter.

Punishment
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. When punishment follows a behavior, it
discourages and weakens that behavior. There are two kinds of punishment.

Positive punishment (or punishment by application) occurs when a behavior is

followed by an unfavorable outcome, e.g. a parent spanking a child after the child uses a
curse word.

Negative punishment (or punishment by removal) occurs when a behavior leads to the
removal of something favorable, e.g. a parent who denies a child their weekly allowance
because the child has misbehaved.

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 3/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

Although punishment is still widely used, Skinner and many other researchers found that
punishment is not always effective. Punishment can suppress a behavior for a time, but the
undesired behavior tends to come back in the long run. Punishment can also have unwanted
side effects. For example, a child who is punished by a teacher may become uncertain and
fearful because they don’t know exactly what to do to avoid future punishments.

Instead of punishment, Skinner and others suggested reinforcing desired behaviors and
ignoring unwanted behaviors. Reinforcement tells an individual what behavior is desired, while
punishment only tells the individual what behavior isn’t desired.

Behavior Shaping
Operant conditioning can lead to increasingly complex behaviors through shaping, also referred
to as the “method of approximations.” Shaping happens in a step-by-step fashion as each part of
a more intricate behavior is reinforced. Shaping starts by reinforcing the first part of the
behavior. Once that piece of the behavior is mastered, reinforcement only happens when the
second part of the behavior occurs. This pattern of reinforcement is continued until the entire
behavior is mastered.

For example, when a child is taught to swim, she may initially be praised just for getting in the
water. She is praised again when she learns to kick, and again when she learns specific arm
strokes. Finally, she is praised for propelling herself through the water by performing a specific
stroke and kicking at the same time. Through this process, an entire behavior has been shaped.

Schedules of Reinforcement
In the real world, behavior is not constantly reinforced. Skinner found that the frequency of
reinforcement can impact how quickly and how successfully one learns a new behavior. He
specified several reinforcement schedules, each with different timing and frequencies.

Continuous reinforcement occurs when a particular response follows each and every
performance of a given behavior. Learning happens rapidly with continuous
reinforcement. However, if reinforcement is stopped, the behavior will quickly decline and
ultimately stop altogether, which is referred to as extinction.

Fixed-ratio schedules reward behavior after a specified number of responses. For

example, a child may get a star after every fifth chore they complete. On this schedule, the
response rate slows right after the reward is delivered.

Variable-ratio schedules vary the number of behaviors required to get a reward. This
schedule leads to a high rate of responses and is also hard to extinguish because its
https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 4/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

variability maintains the behavior. Slot machines use this kind of reinforcement schedule.

Fixed-interval schedules provide a reward after a specific amount of time passes.

Getting paid by the hour is one example of this kind of reinforcement schedule. Much like
the fixed-ratio schedule, the response rate increases as the reward approaches but slows
down right after the reward is received.

Variable-interval schedules vary the amount of time between rewards. For example, a
child who receives an allowance at various times during the week as long as they’ve
exhibited some positive behaviors is on a variable-interval schedule. The child will
continue to exhibit positive behavior in anticipation of eventually receiving their
allowance.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

If you’ve ever trained a pet or taught a child, you have likely used operant conditioning in your
own life. Operant conditioning is still frequently used in various real-world circumstances,
including in the classroom and in therapeutic settings.

For example, a teacher might reinforce students doing their homework regularly by periodically
giving pop quizzes that ask questions similar to recent homework assignments. Also, if a child
throws a temper tantrum to get attention, the parent can ignore the behavior and then
acknowledge the child again once the tantrum has ended.

Operant conditioning is also used in behavior modification, an approach to the treatment of

numerous issues in adults and children, including phobias, anxiety, bedwetting, and many
others. One way behavior modification can be implemented is through a token economy, in
which desired behaviors are reinforced by tokens in the form of digital badges, buttons, chips,
stickers, or other objects. Eventually these tokens can be exchanged for real rewards.

Critiques
While operant conditioning can explain many behaviors and is still widely used, there are
several criticisms of the process. First, operant conditioning is accused of being an incomplete
explanation for learning because it neglects the role of biological and cognitive elements.

In addition, operant conditioning is reliant upon an authority figure to reinforce behavior and
ignores the role of curiosity and an individual's ability to make his or her own discoveries.
Critics object to operant conditioning's emphasis on controlling and manipulating behavior,
arguing that they can lead to authoritarian practices. Skinner believed that environments

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 5/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

naturally control behavior, however, and that people can choose to use that knowledge for good
or ill.

Finally, because Skinner’s observations about operant conditioning relied on experiments with
animals, he is criticized for extrapolating from his animal studies to make predictions about
human behavior. Some psychologists believe this kind of generalization is flawed because
humans and non-human animals are physically and cognitively different.

Sources
Cherry, Kendra. “What is Operant Conditioning and How Does it Work?” Verywell Mind, 2 October 2018.
https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863

Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.

Goldman, Jason G. “What is Operant Conditioning? (And How Does It Explain Driving Dogs?)” Scientific American,
13 December 2012. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtful-animal/what-is-operant-conditioning-and-how-
does-it-explain-driving-dogs/

McLeod, Saul. “Skinner – Operant Conditioning.” Simply Psychology, 21 January 2018.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html#class

Cite this Article

Article Article
Behaviorism: The Psychological ABC: Antecedent, Behavior,
Theory of Stimulus-Response Consequence

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 6/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

Article
Children Can Be Guided With Shaping
Tips From Skinnerian Behaviorism

Article
Behavior Management versus
Classroom Management

Article Article
What Is the Premack Principle? How Response Cost Is Used in
De nition and Examples Behavior Management

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 7/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

Article
How to Help a Student Perform and Article
Behave at Their Best Can Verbal Behavior Analysis (VBA)
Help Children with Language
De cits?

Article List
Improving Academic Performance A Home Note Program to Support
with Positive Reinforcement Positive Student Behavior and
Outcomes

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 8/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

Article
How to Overcome Behavior
Article
Problems in the Classroom
How Discrete Trial Teaching Works in
ABA

Article
Article How to Write and Use Operational
Consequences vs Punishment in De nitions of Behavior for Students
Classroom Discipline

Article
Attending or Attention is the First
Article Preacademic Skill
Three Psychological Explanations for
Deviant Behavior

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 9/10
12/1/2019 What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

Learn Something New Every Day

Enter Your Email SIGN UP

Follow Us

TRUSTe

Science, Tech, Math Humanities

Languages Resources

About Us Advertise

Privacy Policy Cookie Policy

Careers Editorial Guidelines

Contact Terms of Use

ThoughtCo is part of the Dotdash publishing family.

Verywell Family | Verywell Mind | The Balance
Lifewire and more

https://www.thoughtco.com/operant-conditioning-definition-examples-4491210 10/10