Cognition and Instruction

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Contents

1 Preface 3
1.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Theories of Learning & Development 5

2.1 Origins in Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Behaviourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Cognitive psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Influences from Humanistic Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Cognitive Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.7 Neuroscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.8 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 Learning and Memory 15

3.1 Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Working Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Multimedia Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Information Process Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 Memory Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6 Cognitive development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7 Cognitive Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.8 Relationship between learning and memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.9 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.10 Autism Spectrum Disorder and Working Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.11 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.12 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Working Memory . . . . . . 44
3.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.14 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.15 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4 Long-Term Memory 51
4.1 Framework for Long-Term Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3 Long-Term Memory and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4 Implications for Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5 Building Blocks of Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.6 Changing and Growing Theories of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

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4.7 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5 Encoding and Retrieval 69

5.1 Encoding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2 Retrieval Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3 KWL Comprehension Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4 READS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.5 Highlighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.6 Concept Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.7 Classroom Contexts/Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.8 Studying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.9 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.10 Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6 Encoding Processes 95

7 Reconstruction of Memories and Information 97

7.1 Definition and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.2 Bartlett’s Research on Memory Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.3 Errors in Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

8 Recalling Specific Events 101

8.1 The Role of Episodic Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.2 Flashbulb Memories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

9 Relearning 105
9.1 History of Research on Relearning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.2 Distributed versus Massed Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.3 Relearning after Brain Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

10 Testing as Retrieval Practice 109

10.1 Testing Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10.2 Research on Testing for Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

11 Glossary 111

12 Suggested Readings 113

12.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

13 Sociocognitive Learning 115

13.1 Social Cognitive Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
13.2 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
13.3 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.4 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.5 Social Contexts of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
13.6 Self-Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
13.7 Self-Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
13.8 Social Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

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13.9 Relationship Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

13.10 Responsible Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
13.11 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
13.12 Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
13.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

14 Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning 177

15 Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning 179

15.1 The Concept of Metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
15.2 The Concept of Self-Regulated Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
15.3 Critical Review of Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning . . . . . . . 194
15.4 Metacognition Through a Developmental Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
15.5 From Theory to Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
15.6 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
15.7 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
15.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

16 Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning 211

16.1 Self-Determination Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
16.2 Expectancy Value Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
16.3 Goal Orientation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
16.4 Summary of Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
16.5 Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
16.6 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
16.7 Attribution Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
16.8 Importance of Attributions as a Predictor of How People Cope with Failure 240
16.9 The Four Stages of the Attributional Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
16.10 Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
16.11 Attributions and Emotions in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
16.12 Implications for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
16.13 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
16.14 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
16.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
16.16 Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
16.17 Beliefs about Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
16.18 Hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
16.19 Beliefs about Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
16.20 Application to Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
16.21 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
16.22 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
16.23 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

17 Technologies and Designs for Learning 281

17.1 Cognitive Load Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
17.2 Four-Component Instructional Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
17.3 Collaborative Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
17.4 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

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17.5 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

17.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
17.7 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

18 Problem Solving, Critical Thinking and Argumentation 303

19 Learning Science and Conceptual Change 305

19.1 The Development of Naive Scientific Preconceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
19.2 Identifying and Changing Naive Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
19.3 Teaching Science Effectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
19.4 Assessing and Monitoring Students’ Level of Science Understanding . . . . 314
19.5 Essential Elements of Science Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
19.6 Unique Challenges In Teaching Science at Different Stages . . . . . . . . . 316
19.7 Suggested readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
19.8 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
19.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

20 Learning to Read 321

20.1 Cognitive Factors of Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
20.2 Reading Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
20.3 Stages of Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
20.4 Teaching to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
20.5 Assessing Reading Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
20.6 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
20.7 Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
20.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

21 Learning Mathematics 351

21.1 What is Mathematics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
21.2 Cognitive Theory and Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
21.3 Factors that Affect Learning and Teaching Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . 358
21.4 Implications for Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
21.5 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
21.6 Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
21.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

22 Contributors 379

List of Figures 381

23 Licenses 387
23.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
23.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
23.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

1
1 Preface

There is a significant body of research and theory on how cognitive psychology can inform
teaching, learning, instructional design and educational technology. This book is for anyone
with an interest in that topic, especially teachers, designers and students planning careers in
education or educational research. It is intended for use in a 13-week undergraduate course
and is structured so students can study one chapter per week. The book is more brief
and concise than other textbooks about cognition and instruction because it is intended to
represent only knowledge that can be mastered by all students in a course of that duration.
The book prepares students who wish to pursue specialized interests in the field of cognition
and learning but is not a comprehensive or encyclopedic resource.
The need for brevity has forced difficult decisions about what topics to include. We have
chosen to exclude giftedness, special education, learning disabilities, autism spectrum disor-
der, and related topics. These aspects of educational psychology, so important for teachers,
deserve fuller treatment than can be given here. For similar reasons we have mostly excluded
the important topics of classroom management and assessment of learning. The book has
no coverage of Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development (or any other stage theory)
as decades of research have qualified and limited its reach to the point where it contributes
little to our current understanding of cognitive learning processes in educational contexts.1
The later chapters in the book are dedicated to cognitive aspects of learning in the subjects of
reading, mathematics and science. There are plans to add another chapter on writing. These
chapters are intended for all students of cognition and instruction, not only those who will
specialize in these subjects. Each subject-oriented chapter deals with cognitive phenomena
that are particularly salient in one subject but also play a role in other subjects. For
example, the barriers to learning presented by persistent, alternative conceptions acquired
from prior experience have most often been studied in the context of science education but
appear in many other contexts. Although there is no chapter on history and social studies,
theory and research relevant to that subject is introduced in the chapters that deal with
critical thinking, argumentation and learning from text and multimedia.

1.1 References

1 American Psychological Association, Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education. (2015). Top 20
principles from psychology for preK-12 teaching and learning. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ed/
schools/cpse/top-twenty-principles.pdf (PDF, 662KB).

3
2 Theories of Learning & Development

This chapter is about the origins of and influences on cognitive psychology.

2.1 Origins in Philosophy

2.1.1 Nature Vs Nurture

Nature versus nurture has been the debate on psychological development between theorists
for over 2000 years and is commonly seen as rival factors. The debate is whether children
develop their psychological characteristics based on genetics, which is nature, or how they
were raised and their environment, which is nurture. It is difficult to say whether one theory
has more influence over the other but “as of now, we know that both nature and nature
play important roles in human development.”1
To break down each theory for a better understanding, nature refers to an individual’s
heredity, genetics, biological processes, and maturation. The coding of genes in each human
cell determines the different physical traits humans possess. For example, height, hair
colour, eye colour, etc, are gene-codes in a human’s DNA. The theory of nurture refers to
environmental contexts that influences development such as education, parenting, culture,
and social policies.2 . Examples of nurture are more abstract attributes such as personality,
behaviour, and intelligence.
Genetic characteristics are not always obvious, however, they become conspicuous through
the course of maturation. Maturation can only occur with the support of a healthy envi-
ronment. The theory of nurture “holds that genetic influence over abstract traits may exist;
however, the environmental factors are the real origins of our behavior”3 . Nature’s partner
is nurture and nature never works independently4 . A good example is in the comparison
of fraternal twins who were raised apart from one another, they will most likely have a
significant amount of similarities in their behaviour. However, the environment each twin
was raised in will greatly influence their behavior as well. Today, the environment and the
biological factors are seen as critical and emphasized as complex co-actions.

1 Sarah Mae Sincero (2012). Nature and Nurture Debate. Retrieved Apr 05, 2016 from Ex-
plorable.com: https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate
2 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
3 Sarah Mae Sincero (2012). Nature and Nurture Debate. Retrieved Apr 05, 2016 from Ex-
plorable.com: https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate
4 McDevitt, T.M., & Ormrod, J.E.(2010). Nature and Nurture. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/nature-nurture.html ˆ{http://www.education.com/reference/
article/nature-nurture.html}

5
Theories of Learning & Development

2.2 Behaviourism

Behaviourism is a psychological approach directed towards the individual‘s behaviour; many

of these behaviours are learned through conditioning and modeling5 . Through experience,
people develop their language, emotions, and personalities. Some theories that are relevant
toward the behavioural development of people are operant conditioning, classical condition-
ing, and modeling.

2.2.1 Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is the type of learning that is determined and influenced by con-
sequences. The consequences can be both positive and negative, as well as rewarding and
punishing6 . In the context of operant conditioning, positive does not necessarily mean a
good thing; it means the addition of something following an action. For example, a child
does not make it home before their nightly curfew so their parents punish them with re-
quiring them to complete more house chores. In opposition, a negative consequence is the
removal of something following an action. An example of negative reward is when a child
does significantly well in school, receiving high report card grades, resulting in their par-
ents removing the amount of house chores the child have to complete that day. Rewards
influence the increase of certain behaviours while punishment should reduce the amount of
the behaviours.
One of the most well-known researchers in this field is B. F. Skinner7 . Skinner did work
with several animal species and was very successful in his research. His perspectives were
simple, but he believed that human beings were too complex for the classical conditioning
approach (explained in the following section). One of his main studies was called the
Skinner‘s Box, and found consistent results in rats, cats, and pigeons. The animals were
put in the box with a button or lever to press, while hungry. The animals were rewarded
intermittently whenever they pressed the button or lever. As a result, there was an increase
in the behaviour (pushing the button) as they were rewarded. This has been proven in
many studies, as well as in our daily lives. For example, look at how parents raise their
children.

2.2.2 Role of Models

Modeling is one of the most commonly used form of teaching and is one of the most
successful forms of learning. This type of learning works by imitation alone. Many people
might also know of this by the term of vicarious learning; learning and developing behaviours
by observing other people8 . When we enter new situations, for example the first time in

5 https://www.google.ca/?gws_rd=ssl#q=define+behaviourism
6 McLeod, S. A. (2015). Skinner - Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from
www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
7 http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
8 McLeod, S. A. (2016). Bandura - Social Learning Theory. Retrieved from
www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html

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 Cognitive psychology

a formal restaurant, we follow the cues of the people around us. This is just one form of
modeling seen easily in everyday situations.
Children are the best at this, even when we do not always want them to be. Children
will mimic their peers and parents, things they watch on TV and hear in songs. Alberta
Bandura was one of the first major researchers in this field of study9 . He was working
with children in an experiment called the Bobo Doll; in which children watched a model
play with this doll, some in an aggressive way and others were neutral. After watching the
video, the children were put in a room with a Bobo Doll and other decoy objects. More
children were aggressive towards the doll and added novel actions into their play; such as
using weapons and adding verbal aggression.
Conditioning and modeling are a few different approaches to the development of learning in
the field of psychology. They have been studied for hundreds of years and are continually
being explored for their accuracy and truths.

2.3 Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology focuses on mental activities and processes. This encompasses areas
of mental activity such as learning, remembering, problem solving, and perception and
attention.

2.3.1 Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology

2.3.2 Vygotsky’s Dialectical Epistemology

2.3.3 Attention

Attention is a cognitive function that is fundamental for the human behavior. It is the
ability of selectively concentrating on external or internal information. Attention “is the
prerequisite to learning and a basic element in classroom motivation and management”10 .
For years, attention has been a subject of examination and there has been curiosity towards
finding out where the origin of the sensory cues, signals, and the functions relate to attention.
Attention is a valuable skill most people possess, however it is a skill that oscillates. At-
tention can be performed unconsciously or voluntary. The level of concentrating is affected
by one’s surroundings and environment. There are also differences in attention such as se-
lective attention: meaning one will select the most important information out of the given
context. Also, there is divided attention: meaning separating ones focus in situations where
two tasks are performing at the same time, in other words multi tasking11 .

9 http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_bandura.htm
10 http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/dec92/vol50/num04/
What-Brain-Research-Says-About-Paying-Attention.aspx%C2%A0   
11 http://www.happy-neuron.com/brain-and-training/attention    

7
Theories of Learning & Development

Although paying attention may seem as easy as getting rid of distractions, focusing, orga-
nizing, and prioritizing ones thoughts, it is not that easy for everyone. Children who are
affected by attention disorders such as dyslexia or attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) experience symptoms that cause difficulty in their learning development.
Early signs of attention disorder in children can make their daily lives and learning more
challenging than the average child.

2.3.4 Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is “reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do.” It is

the ability to think rationally and surely12 . When thinking critically, the goal is not to
solve the problem but to obtain more knowledge and better understand the problem. The
purpose of critical thinking allows people to evaluate information and authorizes them to
make informed choices and decisions. Someone who possesses critical thinking skills are
able to gather, interpret, and evaluate information to make informed decisions. They can
construct arguments, solve problems systematically, see and understand the importance of
ideas and the connections, and they can reflect on their own beliefs and values13 .
Critical thinking should not be mistaken for problem solving because it differs in two ways.
When problem solving, the process involves solving well-defined problems from a specific
domain. However, critical thinking usually involves better understanding of ill-defined
problems in several domains. Lastly, critical thinking differs from how it is being evalu-
ated. Most problems that involve problem solving are external states, while critical thinking
involves internal states14 .

2.3.5 Information Processing Theory

In the early 1950s, researchers developed a model called the Information-processing model to
understand how the human mind processes information.  Although there are other models
such as the Modal Model, the Information-processing model is known to be the best and
most researched. This model consists of three main branches: sensory memory, working
memory and long-term memory15 .
Sensory memory processes information for a very short period of time from about 0.5-3
seconds. The process is so short; one can only remember five to nine discrete elements. An
example of sensory memory is when one tries to remember a phone number for a brief period
of time, just enough time to write it down. There is only a limited amount of information
that can be processed in sensory memory because its main purpose is to screen the most
relevant incoming stimuli at the given time.
After the process of sensory memory, the information will either be transmitted into work-
ing memory or be forgotten. In the process of working memory, “information is assigned

12 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
13 Lau, J., & Chan, J. (2004-2016). What is critical thinking. Retrieved from
http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/critical/ct.php
14 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
15 Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013), Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory.html

8
 Cognitive psychology

meaning, linked to other information, and essential mental operations such as inferences
are performed”16 . An example is when one is learning to drive a car; one must perform the
task repeatedly until it become automatic, which leads to long-term memory.
Working memory and sensory memory are limited capacity for information, whereas long-
term memory has no limitations. The purpose of long-term memory is to “provide a seem-
ingly unlimited repository for all the facts and knowledge in memory”17 and is said to have
the capability to hold millions of pieces of information at a time.

2.3.6 Constructivism

Constructivist theories revolve around the belief that learning is a constructive process.
Humans generate knowledge and meaning from the interaction between their experiences
and their ideas. New information is built upon prior knowledge, and people are construct-
ing their own representations of knowledge based off that prior knowledge as well as new
information.

Individual and Social Learning

Individual learning places the emphasis on learning in a more independent manner, while
social learning shifts the focus to learning on a wider scale, through the social interaction
between both peers and teachers. A large part of constructivist learning is that it acknowl-
edges the uniqueness of each individual18 .
Social learning helps individuals learn in a way that individual learning cannot. Vygot-
skian theory includes the notion of collaborative learning among individuals, to share
understanding of material. The zone of proximal development, according to Vygotsky, is
”the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent prob-
lem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers”19 . By using peer-to-peer
interactions, students may better understand material through the support of classmates
or those who are on the same learning ‘level’, than that of someone who has a higher skill
level20 . An example of this would be that of a typical math classroom, where one student
who is performing poorly in class, asks for clarification on certain methods and formulas
from a fellow student who is performing better. The higher performing student understands
how to communicate ideas more to the level of a typical student, hence the zone of proximal
development.

16 Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013), Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory.html
17 Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013), Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory.html
18 Salomon, G., & Perkins, D. N.. (1998). Individual and Social Aspects of Learning. Review of Research in
Education, 23, 1–24. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/stable/1167286    
19 http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
20 McLeod, S. (2010, December 25). Zone of Proximal Development - Scaffolding | Simply Psychology. Re-
trieved February 27, 2016, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html 

9
Theories of Learning & Development

Nature of Learning (Responsibility and Motivation)

The learners themselves hold a certain amount of responsibility when it comes to learning
and understanding material. They must be involved with the learning process, even more
so than the instructor. Acquiring and comprehending the material in their own terms is
the responsibility of the student, not simply rote memorizing what they have learned. The
only person that can pin point the strengths and weaknesses of a student, is the student
themselves. The responsibility of making sense of information and trying to find sources
of motivation ultimately falls on the shoulders of the student. In regards to the classroom
environment, the concept of shared responsibility is a good way to encourage students to
perform to the best of their ability. Focusing in a certain direction to give a clear purpose,
and giving students the chance to reflect on themselves as well as to colaborate helps students
in accomplishing their goals21 .
Motivation also builds upon the learner’s responsibility, affecting their potential for learn-
ing and confidence of self. Hard-to-grasp, extremely challenging work has shown to often
discourage the learner from understanding new information and work that is too easy often
bores the learner. For this reason, it is important for teachers to find that sweet spot that
challenges the learner just enough, and provides the buffer and motivation to learn new
material.

Role Of Facilitators

Following a constructivist view, the role of facilitator is not the same as a teacher. Avoiding
the lecture style of most teachers, the role of a facilitator is to encourage discussion and ask
questions. The main difference here for the student, is to take part in the active learning
process and not sit idly as the teacher speaks22 . Encouraging peers to interact with each
other, take part in class discussion, and giving guided questions as well as other methods,
all fall under the role of the facilitator. Creating rapport with the students and knowing
when to give and when to stop scaffolding is essential in aiding the student to think for
themselves without giving them too much assistance. For example, instead of blatantly
giving away the answer to a math problem, a possible means of scaffolding could include
asking the student to try a method they went over in an earlier class or possibly guide the
student slowly through the problem and letting them solve a certain part before going onto
the next.
To a certain degree, it is also important for the teacher to create a positive teacher-student
relationship, as this can impact the learner’s belief of self, which is especially critical for
high-risk students23 . Frequent negative feedback from the teacher can often give the student
a negative view of themselves, and as such, it is important to show the student what they
did right, rather than what they did wrong.

21 http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/101039/chapters/A-Framework-for-Building-Shared-Responsibility.
aspx
22 Education Theory/Constructivism and Social Constructivism in the Classroom. (n.d.). Retrieved Febru-
ary 27, 2016, from http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Education_Theory/Constructivism_and_Social_Constructivism_in_th
23 https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/scmsAdmin/uploads/007/642/McClowry%20et%20al%202013%
20Cluster%20article%20.pdf

10
 Influences from Humanistic Psychology

2.3.7 Constructivism In The Classroom

Constructivism in classroom settings, usually follows the pattern of switching focus from
the instructor to the students. The main value that constructivism follows is problem solv-
ing. The teacher acts as a guide to provide the students with the opportunities needed to
understand material. There is an emphasis placed on the cultural backgrounds of students
and the social interaction or collaborative learning among each other. Interaction discus-
sions are usually facilitated and directed by the teacher, clarifying confusing concepts and
materials to the students by acting as the overseer. Situated learning can also follow
this form of facilitation, which can be defined as learning being applied within the context
it is learned. For example, culinary students cooking in the kitchen as they listen to the
instructor who oversees their work, rather than sitting in a classroom taking notes on the
culinary arts24 .
Some methods of utilizing constructivism in classrooms are reciprocal teaching, cooperative
learning, anchored instruction as well as encouraging group discussion and teamwork25 .
Reciprocal teaching involves the creation of a collaborative group among 2-3 students, plus
a teacher, and take turns discussing the topic at hand. This creates a zone of proximal
development. Cooperative learning is similar in that higher skilled students help other
students by working in their zone of proximal development. Anchored instruction involves
creating lessons revolved around a topic of interest to the students. Doing this engages the
student and encourages more thoughtful engagement in discussions when discussing a topic
students feel strongly about.

2.4 Influences from Humanistic Psychology

Humanism is a more personal approach to learning which focuses on the learner’s ability to
self-actualize, as well as, their own natural desire to fulfill their potential.

2.4.1 Facilitation Theory

The facilitation theory was coined by Carl Rogers. His beliefs were that humans were
naturally curious and that every human being is ‘good’ by nature. Learning is a process
that is done through experimenting and interacting through activity. His facilitation theory
views the teacher as the facilitator and not as a walking textbook. As a result of this, it
is important that the teacher has the proper rapport and attitude when teaching students.
Rogers states that there are three qualities, also known as core conditions, that are needed
for proper facilitation26 . The first condition is called realness, which is the teachers’ ability
to act as themselves and not another persona. The second is trust, and the teacher’s ability
to actually care for the student. The final requirement is the teachers’ ability to empathize
and visualize themselves in another person’s shoes.

24 http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/situated-learning.html
25 Education Theory/Constructivism and Social Constructivism in the Classroom. (n.d.). Retrieved Febru-
ary 27, 2016, from http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Education_Theory/Constructivism_and_Social_Constructivism_in_the_
26 Facilitation Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved February 27, 2016, from http://teorije-
ucenja.zesoi.fer.hr/doku.php?id=instructional_design:facilitation_theory 

11
Theories of Learning & Development

2.4.2 Self-Determination Theory

2.5 Conclusion

There are many different types of theories involved in the learning and development process
that all focus on different beliefs and views. These theories are primarily explained by the
interactions of learners, the building of knowledge upon prior experiences, and the ability to
construct understanding in an attempt to realize and accomplish learning within a classroom
environment.

2.6 Cognitive Science

2.7 Neuroscience

2.8 Glossary

Attention - the act or faculty of attending, especially by directing the mind to an object.
Behaviourism - A school of psychology that regards the objective observation of the be-
haviour of organisms (usually by means of automatic recording devices) as the only proper
subject for study and that often refuses to postulate any intervening mechanisms between
the stimulus and the response
Cognitive load - Refers to the total amount of mental effort being used in the working
memory.
Collaborative learning - A situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to
learn something together.
Constructivism - A theory of knowledge that argues that humans generate knowledge
and meaning from an interaction between their ideas and experiences.
Modeling - A standard or example for imitation or comparison
Object permanence - knowing that an object still exists, even if the object is not in sight.
Operant conditioning - A process of behaviour modification in which a subject is en-
couraged to behave in a desired manner through positive or negative reinforcement, so that
the subject comes to associate the pleasure or displeasure of the reinforcement with the
behaviour.
Situated learning - Learning that takes place in the same context it can be applied in,
such as workshops, kitchens, field trips to archaeological digs, etc .
Zone of Proximal Development - is the difference between what a learner can do without
help and what he or she can do with help

12
 Suggested Readings

2.9 Suggested Readings

• Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction, 2nd ed, Chapter 10

• Hartley, P., Hilsdon, J., Keenan, C., Sinfield, S., & Verity, M. (2011). Learning develop-
ment in higher education. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Salomon, G., & Perkins, D. N.. (1998). Individual and Social Aspects of Learning.
Review of Research in Education, 23, 1–24.

2.10 References

13
3 Learning and Memory

Learning and memory are fundamental behind understanding cognitive processing, but are
often confused for one another. Although the relationship between the two are clearly related
and very much dependent on each other, learning and memory are still two distinct topics
that require appropriate attention in order to comprehend them. The following chapters
will examine the concepts behind learning and memory, from the approach of cognitive
psychology. In other words, our focus will be placed on how humans process information,
through series of approaches, such as perception, attention, thinking, and memory. We first
begin by presenting the theory of multimedia learning as a way to introduce and identify
a link between learning and memory. We then move on to discussing how human thoughts
work, by using the idea of information processing. The next chapters will examine in detail
how memories are structured, as well as the cognitive processes associated with them. We
believe that these concepts are imperative in understanding how to achieve meaningful
learning. Finally, the chapter assesses the relationship between learning and memory as a
means of improving the quality of learning and teaching.

3.1 Learning

Many theorists and psychologists attempts to determine the definition of learning and its
processes. Three perspectives in particular have been widely recognized to view learning
through a western outlook and have been major contributions to the study of learning and
educational practices. The three are the behaviourist, constructivist, and the cognitive
perspectives 1 . The focus of this chapter will be to examine learning through a cognitive
psychologist’s view, and in close association with the memory process. The human expe-
rience of learning becomes one that involves the active construction of meaning. But in
order to construct meanings, human cognition first needs to understand how information
is acquired and processed in memory. Researchers describes learning as how information is
processed, encoded, and stored 2 . In other words these three processes, are performed in
sequence with how one perceives, learns, thinks, understands, and retains information. In-
formation on these three processes will be presented in much more detail as we move further
along this chapter. However, as an introduction, it is under the assumption of cognitive
researchers that learning is first obtained through the senses, such as sight, hearing, and
touch. This chapter will begin with Richard Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning in order
to determine how sensory inputs work hand in hand with learning and memory.

1 Resnick, L. B., Greeno, J. G., & Collins, A. M. (1996). Cognition and instruction.Handbook of Educational
Psychology, 15-46.
2 Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive Psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA, America:
Wadsworth.

15
Learning and Memory

3.2 Working Memory

Figure 1 Figure 1. This is a FMRI scan of a brain during

working memory task.

Many types of developmental disabilities can be traced at least partially to problems with the
memory. Problems with working memory subsystems seem to lie behind the way in which
patients with autism become confused over large amounts of information, and deficiencies in
working memory are also implicated in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A number of
other developmental disabilities, such as Williams Syndrome, Down syndrome, and dyslexia
can also be connected with improper functioning of memory3 . Below we focus on autism
spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) because the
role of memory in these two disorders has been studied in detail, allowing us to use them
to shed light on how the memory functions in practice.

3.2.1 Information Processing Theory

The traditional concept of memory saw it as a simple container that stored what the senses
dumped into it for later use by the brain. With the advent of electronic data processing sys-
tems, the metaphors drawn from these have become the most popular ways to conceptualize
memory. These metaphors are powerful and suggestive, but they can also be misleading,
since the brain differs in many ways from a computer4 .
One of the main reasons for the use of data processing metaphors is that memory is a
function that cannot be easily linked with specific parts of the brain. Thought is seen
as information processing, and a key component of information processing is storage and
retrieval. Information that is to be stored for the long term has to be encoded, processed to
make it suitable for storage. The efficiency of this encoding can be enhanced by emotional

3 Gathercole & Alloway, 2006, Practitioner Review: Short-term and working memory impair-ments in neu-
rodevelopmental disorders: diagnosis and remedial support. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
47(1), 4–15.
4 Watson, A. (1997). Why can’t a computer be more like a brain? Science, 277(5334), 1934-1936.

16
 Working Memory

arousal.5 The concept of encoding and decoding of memories suggests that they are not
simply raw information but are constructed by the brain when recalled, and the construction
may be influenced by the circumstances under which they were recalled.
Again reflecting the metaphor of an electronic computer, information processing theory saw
memory as the interaction of several subsystems, each devoted to one specific task, that
passed information one to the other as needed. The requirement for conscious attention
by some processes means these systems have a limited capacity6 . The limited amount of
memory affect learning and it caused the learning disabilities. The disabilities of grabbing
on to memory is associated with autism and ADHD.

Figure 2 Figure 2. Modal model.

3.2.2 The Modal Model and Disability

The modal model (Figure 2), also known as the multi-store or Atkinson-Shiffrin model (from
the researchers who first put it forward in 1968) is assumed by all varieties of information
processing theory. It postulates different mental subsystems, each with a distinct function,
that support and feed information to each other. The basically modal structure of the
memory was supported by cases of brain damage that affected different parts of the memory
unequally7 . Most versions of the modal model were divided into three major sections:
sensory memory or sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory8 . As noted
below, the concept of “short-term memory” is now obsolete. The unequal part of memory
challenges students’ ability to learn simultaneously, ability to grasp the knowledge.

5 Leventon & Bauer, 2016.

6 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Fifth
Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson.
7 Howes, M. B. (2006). Human memory: structures and functions. SAGE Publishing.
8 Howes, M. B. (2006). Human memory: structures and functions. SAGE Publishing.

17
Learning and Memory

3.2.3 Three-part Working Memory Model

Figure 3 Figure 3. The three- part working memory model.

It was obvious that something had to be carrying out the processes assigned to short-term
memory. However, researchers gradually became frustrated with the concept’s inability
to provide a model of how these processes took place9 . Thus, beginning in the 1970’s,
the “short-term memory” model was supported or replaced by a function labeled “working
memory.” The “working memory” holds the information and images that the person in
question is engaged with at the moment10 . Figure 3 presents the three-part working memory
model.
There are many variations of this model, reflecting the uncertainty researchers have about
how exactly it functions. However, it is generally agreed that the working memory is
tightly linked with the long-term memory, since past knowledge has a very strong influence
on conceptions in the present. It is also agreed that unlike the concept of short-term
memory, which was thought to store information passively in an average of seven “slots”
and transmit it unchanged, the working memory is active, not passive, making it central to
the construction of meaning1112 .

9 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Fifth
Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson.
10 Howes, M. B. (2006). Human memory: structures and functions. SAGE Publishing.
11 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Fifth
Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson.
12 Swanson, H. L. & Ashbaker, M. H. (2000). Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word
recognition, and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: Does the executive system have a
role? Intelligence, 28(1), 1-30.

18
 Working Memory

The most influential scheme for the working memory was put forward by Baddeley13 . This
divided the working memory into three components: an executive control system, an artic-
ulatory loop, and a visuo-spatial sketch pad1415 . This multi-component scheme is supported
by a number of pieces of experimental evidence, such as the KF Case Study, where an acci-
dent severely impaired verbal processing while leaving visual processing almost intact. This
strongly implies that verbal and visual processing are controlled by two different systems16 .
It is also supported by the observation that visual and phonemic tasks can be carried out
at the same time with relatively little impairment, showing that they do not depend on
the same mental resources17 .

Central Executive

The central executive or executive control system has been compared to a director control-
ling the activities of two subordinates, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketch-
pad. It oversees the functions of the working memory, selects information and strategies,
and decides what the working memory will concentrate on. It coordinates performance on
different tasks, decides among retrieval strategies, switches focus among different inputs,
and interacts with the long-term memory to retrieve and work with information18 .
Despite its critical importance, little is known about the detailed working of the central
executive. It has been criticized as “little more than a homunculus,” a humanoid “boss”
that coordinates all the other functions of the system19 . Whether it carries out its various
functions as a single coordinated system or a collection of independent subsystems is not
clear20 .

Phonological loop

The phonological loop deals with spoken and written information. It is a passive short-
term storage system for information that is received by reading or hearing21 . Information

13 McLean, J. F. & Hitch, G. J. (1999) Working memory impairments in children with specific arithmetic
learning difficulties. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 74, 240–260.
14 McLean, J. F. & Hitch, G. J. (1999) Working memory impairments in children with specific arithmetic
learning difficulties. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 74, 240–260.
15 Swanson, H. L. & Ashbaker, M. H. (2000). Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word
recognition, and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: Does the executive system have a
role? Intelligence, 28(1), 1-30.
16 McLeod, S. (2012). Working memory. SimplyPsychology. Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html
17 Howes, M. B. (2006). Human memory: structures and functions. SAGE Publishing.
18 Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
49A(1), 5-28.
19 Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
49A(1), 5-28.
20 Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
49A(1), 5-28.
21 Swanson, H. L. & Ashbaker, M. H. (2000). Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word
recognition, and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: Does the executive system have a
role? Intelligence, 28(1), 1-30.

19
Learning and Memory

is stored in an articulation code, which means that written data must be converted before
it can be retained. Aural data goes directly into the store22 .
The phonological loop is divided into two parts. The first is the phonological store or “inner
ear,” governing speech perception, which can hold aural information (spoken words) for
several seconds. The second is the articulation control process, or “inner voice,” which is in
charge of producing speech, and which can rehearse and store input from the phonological
store23 .

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

The visuo-spatial sketchpad or the “inner eye” deals with visual information and spatial
concepts. It is a passive short-term storage system for visual and spatial information received
through the eyes. It is responsible for situating a person in space, so that s/he can move
through other objects without constantly colliding with them. Information is stored as
images, which must be interpreted to retrieve specific details. It also creates and manipulates
mental images, and turns material in the long-term memory back into usable information
on spatial arrangement24 .
The visuo-spatial sketchpad appears to function even in individuals that have never enjoyed
the power of sight, since such individuals have clear concepts of spatial distribution. This
indicates that concepts of spatial distribution are independent of visual input. It has thus
been suggested that the visuo-spatial sketchpad be split into two independent functions,
one concerned with purely visual data, and another with spatial concepts.

3.3 Multimedia Learning

Developed by Richard Mayer, the multimedia learning derives from the concept that
learning works effectively with the use of words and images. Multimedia learning draws
upon three major assumptions: our working memory can only process a limited amount
of received information at a given time; the way we process verbal and visual stimuli in
working memory are independent of each other; information needs to be actively processed
to make sense of the presented information 25 .

22 McLeod, S. (2012). Working memory. SimplyPsychology. Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html
23 McLeod, S. (2012). Working memory. SimplyPsychology. Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html
24 Swanson, H. L. & Ashbaker, M. H. (2000). Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word
recognition, and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: Does the executive system have a
role? Intelligence, 28(1), 1-30.
25 Reed, S. K. (2006). Cognitive Architectures for Multimedia Learning. Educational Psychologist, 41(2),
87-98.

20
 Multimedia Learning

Figure 4 Acquired from

http://www.laval.k12.nf.ca/pub/?n=MUN6615.LearningEffects

http://

3.3.1 Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive load is a concept proposed by John Sweller who states that having a high
amount of information at a given time, will exceed the capacity of the working memory 26 ,
which composes of articulatory and acoustic components. A human’s working memory, is
assumed to only have a limited capacity at a given moment, as it is continuously processing
information. If the information received by the human brain exceeds the limit of what the
working memory can temporarily hold, then it cannot be retained into storage27 . Because
the working memory acts as a system for storing and processing new information, we face
the challenge of transferring acquired information for long term memory, ultimately placing
strain on learning, when there are exceeding amounts of incoming stimuli.

26 Schweppe, J., & Rummer, R. (2013). Attention, Working Memory, and Long-Term Memory in Multi-
media Learning: An Integrated Perspective Based on Process Models of Working Memory. Educational
Psychology Review Educ Psychol Rev,26(2), 285-306.
27 Schweppe, J., & Rummer, R. (2013). Attention, Working Memory, and Long-Term Memory in Multi-
media Learning: An Integrated Perspective Based on Process Models of Working Memory. Educational
Psychology Review Educ Psychol Rev,26(2), 285-306.

21
Learning and Memory

3.3.2 Dual-Coding Theory

Figure 5 Acquired from https://thinkypictures.files.wordpress.com/

2015/08/tesskou_paivio_dualcoding1.jpg

https://
Allan Paivio’s Dual-Coding theory separates audio and visual information, stating a hu-
man’s mind analyzes visual and verbal responses in separate independent codes 28 . Ac-
cording to Mayer’s multimedia model, learning, primarily enters the human brain through
words and images. In fact, visual imagery, when compared to verbal texts that require a
person to generate a kind of imagery in one’s mind, provided a more reliable and retention
in memory 29 . Mayer’s research indicates that through the simultaneous use of images and
words, learning becomes much more meaningful. In order to test this statement, many re-
searchers conducted studies to find correlations for improved performance though the use of
multimedia learning principles. A brief review of the research conducted by Billie Eilam and
his colleagues will be examined as an example. Eilam conducted an experiment involving
150 college students, whereby participants were evenly divided into two groups. Each indi-
viduals received the same amount of cards required to perform a given homework. Group
one received cards that were printed in texts, while the second group received information
in both text and images, such as graphs. Results indicated that the latter group performed
much more accurately compared to the first group 30 . Experiments performed by Eilam

28 Reed, S. K. (2006). Cognitive Architectures for Multimedia Learning. Educational Psychologist, 41(2),
87-98.
29 Reed, S. K. (2006). Cognitive Architectures for Multimedia Learning. Educational Psychologist, 41(2),
87-98.
30 Eilam, B., & Poyas, Y. (2008). Learning with multiple representations: Extending multimedia learning
beyond the lab. Learning and Instruction, 18(4), 368-378.

22
 Multimedia Learning

and his colleagues, as well as other studies, were designed to determine and assess learning
strategies as a means to improving student’s learning, in relation to how information is
processed through the human’s memory system.

3.3.3 Active Processing

Active processing, is the last assumption that is based on the cognitive theory of mul-
timedia learning. It states that the human mind processes information actively, in order
to construct meaningful learning and retention of memories, through three main cognitive
measurements: selection, organization, and integration 31 . More specifically, humans are
active learners because of their ability to process received input. How well people process
incoming information however, depends on their ability to make sense of the materials they
draw from and to make connections with information gathered, in order for meaningful
learning to take place. This idea draws from Wittrock’s theory of generative learning,
which states that humans make connections between prior knowledge and new incoming
knowledge, leading to the creation of new understanding 32 . It may be helpful then, to
examine strategies or methods that help to foster active learning in people through paying
attention, filtering, and organizing selected materials into coherent representations, thereby
integrating it with previous and new information.

31 Mayer, R.E. (2005). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. (2nd Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of
multimedia learning. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.
32 Mayer, R.E. (2005). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. (2nd Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of
multimedia learning. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.

23
Learning and Memory

3.4 Information Process Model

Figure 6 acquired from http://www.slideshare.net/

Snowfairy007/aqa-as-psychology-unit-1-memory

http://
Cognitive psychology at its core carries the fundamental idea of information processing.
More specifically, cognitive psychology compares how the human mind processes, much
in the same way a computer processes. With the development of computers, the study
of cognitive psychology adopted a concept behind computer simulations, which became a
fundamental tool for understanding how cognitive processing in humans worked 33 . The
computer model is one that imitates the cognitive functions of a human mind. The sim-
ilarities include receiving information from an exterior stimulus, organizing and encoding
input in various ways, transferring data to storage systems, and retrieving of output when
needed. Through the analogy of information processing approach, psychologists determined
that human thoughts could only process a limited amount of information at a given time 34 .
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed that human memories (like a computer) are formed
through a series of channels. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s information processing model is
divided into three central components that break down how human memory works: the sen-
sory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory (which will be further examined
in the later chapters below). Similar to a keyboard entering information onto a computer,
the human mind initially receives information through what is called the sensory register,
or in other words, sensory organs. Inputted information is then processed by the Central

33 Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive Psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA, America:
Wadsworth.
34 Ruisel, I. (2010). Human Knowledge in the Context of Cognitive Psychology.Studia Psychologica, 52(4),
267-284.

24
 Memory Structure

Processing Unit of a computer, equivalent to a human’s working or short-term memory. By

then, information is either transferred for use, discarded or stored into long-term memory.
For a computer, this stage of processing would take place on a hard disk in a computer
35 . To begin with, the human mind transforms multiple forms of sensory information (e.g.,

visual and auditory stimulus) received from the environment.

3.5 Memory Structure

Figure 7 thumbnail

Memory structure is first introduced by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968.
They created the modal model, which was also known as information processing model,
to distinguish control processes and memory structures. Control processes are basically
the specific processes that information stored, such as, encoding, retrieval processing. The
human memory structure is consisted of three separate components, sensory memory, short-
term memory and long term memory.36 Each component has a specific function, on the
whole, memory structures allow us to process and move information around in our brain.
One criticism that worthy to mention is that the modal model maybe not just a unidirec-
tional flow, the actual information processing is more complex.37 Next, let’s look at how
sensory memory, working memory and long term memory interact and influence each other.

35 Atkinson, R. C. (1967). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. Stanford, CA:
Institute for Mathematical Studies in Social Sciences.
36 Hockley, W. (2002). The Modal Model Then and Now. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, Volume 44,
336–345. doi:10.1006/jmps.2000.1306
37 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., Norby, M., & Ronning, R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th
ed.). Pearson Education.

25
Learning and Memory

3.5.1 Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is a system that holds environment input in sensory registers so that
perceptual analyses can work before that information fade away. Unfortunately, perceptual
analyses take time and effort and the environment may change rapidly. The duration of
holding information in our sensory memory is extremely short.38 In 1960, George Sperling
first demonstrated the existence of sensory memory. In his experiment, participants were
showed a slide of arrays of letters. The first study result illustrated that the length of time
exposed to participants directly influenced their performance. Base on this result, he made
two assumptions, first, subjects only saw limited amount of letter within the short period.
Second, all the letters were registered, but lost. He then developed partial report method
to test his assumptions 39 . Participants only reported one of the rows letters after hearing
a tone. If the tone appears immediately, participants recalled 3 of the 4 letters. The fewer
letter were recalled with the delayed tone appeared. The result showed us that sensory
memory storage and duration is very limited, although information were registered in our
memory, they lost rapidly. 40

3.5.2 Working Memory

In The Magic Seven Study, George Miller argued that people can hold no more than 7
chunks in memory at one time. The only way for people to memorize more information is
increasing the size of chunks and implementing information with meaning. It is interesting
to mention that in Cowan’s embedded processes theory, Cowan argued that ”the magic
seven” is not true, the real capacity of working memory is about four chunks, although
each of the chunk may contain more than one item.41 Baddeley’s working memory model
is consist of executive control system, articulatory loop and visual-spatial sketch pad.
The executive control system has the similar role as brain in our body, it controls the
other two systems and decides what kind of the information enters memory. Articula-
tory loop and visual-spatial sketch pad holds acoustic information and visual spatial
information respectively.42

Factors that influence working memory performance

Cognitive load theory is influenced and extended by Baddeley’s working memory model. It
is worthy to mention that several factors may influence the working memory performance.

38 Garcia, R., Mammarella, I., Pancera, A., Galera, C., & Cornoldi, C. (2015). Deficits in visual short-
term memory binding in children at risk of non-verbal learning disabilities. Research in Developmen-
tal Disabilities, 45-46. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/science/
article/pii/S0891422215001213
39 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., Norby, M., & Ronning, R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th
ed.). Pearson Education.
40 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., Norby, M., & Ronning, R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th
ed.). Pearson Education.
41 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., Norby, M., & Ronning, R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th
ed.). Pearson Education.
42 Baddeley, A. (2012). Working Memory: Theories, Models and Controversies. Annual Review of Psychol-
ogy,63, 1-29.

26
 Cognitive development

Firstly, individuals have different background knowledge and capacity of working memory. If
individuals are knowledgeable in certain domain, then they are more able to use the working
memory efficiently. Secondly, the complexity of information is another constraint. Last
but not least, the instructional approach is another factor, working memory performance
is improvable if helpful and appropriate instruction is available. For example, learning
to chunk information, or dividing the learning task. Furthermore, the amount of studies
suggested that working memory maintenance is a critical step for long term encoding. As
Baddeley once said, his attitude on this issue is that working memory activate many areas
of the brain that include long term memory.43

3.5.3 Long-Term Memory

Long term memory is different from working memory because it can maintain information
for a long period of time. It could be days, weeks, months and years. Examples of long
term memory include remembering the graduation day, or the experience of your first day
at working. Theoretically, long term memory has unlimited capacity of storage, but people
still lose memory due to unsuccessful long term encoding. Generally, long term memory
is divided into 2 components: explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memory is
known as memories that are available in our heads, the past events pop out in our mind
sometimes.44 . It usually refers to the facts and declarative knowledge. The example would
be that Vancouver is a city in Canada. While implicit memory is an unawareness memory
that influence our actions and performance in daily life. This unconscious memory is about
procedural knowledge, which is not just knowing about the facts, but knowing the process
of performing the task. For instance, you are driving a car. Since we prior learned about
the skill, we knew how to perform but we were not consciousness remembering it.45

3.6 Cognitive development

3.6.1 physical development of brain

Human development had various aspects, physical development, personal development, so-
cial development and cognitive development. Development refers to certain changes that
occur in different stages over the lifespan, here we are going to take a deep look of cogni-
tive development. Cognitive development refers to our mental processes are gradually
changing and becoming more and more advanced over the lifespan. People do not become
mature once they reached a certain age, development takes time and happens gradually.
Inside our brain, there are billions of neurons. Neurons are grey colour nerve cells that
function in accumulating and transmitting information in the brain. These neuron cells are
so tiny, they are about 30000 fit on the head of a pin.46 Each nerve cell includes dendrites

43 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., Norby, M., & Ronning, R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th
ed.). Pearson Education.
44 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., Norby, M., & Ronning, R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th
ed.). Pearson Education.
45 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., Norby, M., & Ronning, R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th
ed.). Pearson Education.
46 Woolfolk, A., Winne, P., & Perry, N. (2016). Educational Psychology. Ontario: Pearson Education.

27
Learning and Memory

and axon to make connections with the other nerve cells. A tiny gap, which called synapse,
exist between each cell’s dendrite. Neurons transmit and share information by releasing
chemical substances through these synapses. The numbers of neurons will be decreased if
some neurons not serve as main function. Magically, if a child are deaf from birth, the
auditory processing brain area will expect to process visual information rather than the
auditory stimulation. 47

Figure 8 thumbnail

The cerebral cortex is the largest area of the brain which contains numbers of neurons, and
it is covered under the outer. The cerebral cortex allows us to do the abstract thinking and
complex problem solving. Every part of the cortex also has different function and different
mature periods. The region of the cortex that control our physical movement usually
matures first, then comes with our vision and auditory cortex. The Frontal lobe which
takes charge of the high order abstract thinking processes always mature at last. Moreover,
the temporal lobes which is responsible for the emotion development, language acquisitions
and judgement will not completely mature until human body become physically mature48 .
Although each part of the brain has its own function, they have to work collaboratively
in order to complete complex functions, for example, Alice is reading a story. Her vision
cortex is the first part to be stimulated and then sends the visual information to the other
cortexes in her brain, finally, she is able to memorize and retell the story. 49

47 Woolfolk, A., Winne, P., & Perry, N. (2016). Educational Psychology. Ontario: Pearson Education.
48 Woolfolk, A., Winne, P., & Perry, N. (2016). Educational Psychology. Ontario: Pearson Education.
49 Woolfolk, A., Winne, P., & Perry, N. (2016). Educational Psychology. Ontario: Pearson Education.

28
 Cognitive Process

3.7 Cognitive Process

Figure 9 thumbnail

Cognition is a process of acquiring and understanding knowledge through people’s thoughts,

experiences and senses. Memorization is a key cognitive process of brain at the metacog-
nitive, as well as the cognitive process reveals how memory is created in long-term memory
(LTM) 50 . The logical model of the cognitive process of memorization can be described
as shown in the diagram:
(1) Encoding process, which convert information to a form that can be stored in LTM; (2)
Retention, this step stored the information in LTM; (3) Rehearsal test, this step checks
if the memorization result in LTM needs to be rehearsed. (4) Retrieval process, which
recalls the information from LTM; (5) Decoding process, this step is about information

50 Yingxu,W. (2009). Formal Description of the Cognitive Process of Memorization. M.L. Gavrila et al.
(Eds): Trans. on Comput. Sci. V, LNCS 5540, 81-98.

29
Learning and Memory

reconstruction; (6) Repetitive memory test, which tests if the memorization process was
succeed or not by comparing the recovered concept with the original concept.

3.7.1 Encoding Process

Encoding allows information stored in the brain to be converted into a construction, which
can be recall from long-term memory. Memory encoding process is like hitting “save” on
a computer file, once file is saved, it can be retrieved as long as the hard drive is undam-
aged. The process of encoding begins with the identification, organization of any sensory
information in order to understand it. Stimuli are perceived by the senses, and related
signals travel to the thalamus of the human brain, where they are synthesized into one
experience 51 . There are four types of encoding: visual, acoustic, elaborative and semantic.
Visual encoding is the processing of encoding images and visual sensory information. The
creation of mental pictures is one example of how people use visual encoding. Acoustic
encoding is that people use auditory stimuli or hearing to implant memories. Elaborative
encoding uses information that is already known and connects them to the new informa-
tion experienced. Semantic encoding involves the use of sensory input that has a specific
meaning or be applied to a context. For instance, you might remember a particular phone
number based on a person’s name or a particular food by its color.

3.7.2 Retrieval Process

Retrieval is a process of re-accessing of information previously stored in the brain in the

past. In other words, it is the process of getting information out storage. When people are
asked to retrieve something from memory, the information will be retrieved from short-term
memory (STM) and long-term (LTM) memory. STM is stored and retrieved sequentially,
while LTM is stored and retrieved by association. There are two types of memory retrieval:
recall and recognition. In recall, the information must be retrieved from memories. In
recognition, a familiar stimulation will provide a cue to let people feel that the informa-
tion has been seen before. A cue might be an object, a word, a scene, or any stimulus that
reminds a person of something related, and individuals recall the information in memory
quickly according to the cue. Decision-making requires retrieval of memory, which con-
tains two fundamental retrieval aspects during decision-making: automatic and controlled
activation of memory representations. Take-the-best (TTB) is a strategy typically employed
for decision from memory 52 .TTB requires the sequential retrieval of attributes by the order
of importance and stops information search as soon as a given attribute was allowed for
making a decision. This sequential processing requires controlled retrieval from long-term
memory, consequently, a repeated updating of working memory content 53 . Manipulating

51 Michael,C. C. Kuo, Karen, P. Y. Liu, Michelle, B., Jacqueline, W., Nikki, T., Rosalind,B., & Leung-
Wing,C. (2014).Memory Encoding Processes in Young and Old Adults. Arch Neurosci, 2 (1): ei19813
52 Gigerenzer, G., & Goldstein, D. G. (1996). Reasoning the fast frugal way: Models of bounded rationality.
Psychological Review, 103, 650-669
53 Patrick, H. , Thorsten, P., Lilian, A. E. W., & Kerstin, J. (2015). Neural Signatures of Controlled and
Automatic Retrieval Process in Memory-based Decision-making. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28;1,
69-83

30
 Cognitive Process

automatic memory activation, which is the number of association with a retrieval cue, by
varying the number of attributes to which a decision potion is associated 54 .

3.7.3 Limitations of Memory

The limitation of memory means the brain’s storage capacity for memory is limited. This
is similar to the space in an iPod or a USB flash drive. However, the capability of brain
is difficult to calculate. First, people do not know how to measure the size of a memory.
Like no one will know a 10 digits phone number will take how much space of people’s mind.
Secondly, some memories involve more details and then take up more space; other memories
are forgotten and that helps free up space. For instance, working memory refers to the
temporary storage of information; it is also associated with conscious processing information
within the focus of attention. Working memory and attention interact in a way that enables
people to focus on relevant items and maintain current goals. However, working memory
processing capacity and duration are severely limited when dealing with novel information.
The importance of the learner organized knowledge base is primarily determined by its
ability to effectively reduce the capacity limitation of working memory by encapsulating
many elements of information into higher-level chunks that could be treated as single units
in working memory 55 . It shows the processing limitation of working memory significantly
affect learning processes.

3.7.4 Metacognition

Metacognition can be defined as cognition about cognition, thinking about thinking. It

refers to how people learn and processes information, and individuals’ knowledge of their
own learning processes. There are two components of metacognition: metacognitive knowl-
edge and metacognitive experience. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquire knowl-
edge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive process
56 . While metacognitive experiences can refer to use of metacognitive strategy, which

is the process of using cognitive activities to ensure a cognitive goal. Self-questioning is

a common metacognitive strategy. For example, after students read an article, they will
question themselves about the main ideas or concepts about the article. Their cognitive
goal is to understand the article. Therefore, self-questioning is used to ensure that the
cognitive goal of comprehension is met. Additionally, metacognitive strategy often occurs
when cognitions fail, such as the recognition that students did not understand what they
just read. Such an impasse is believed to activate metacognitive processes as the learner
attempt to correct the situation.

54 Anderson,J. R. (1974). Retrieval of propositional information from long-term memory. Cognitive Psy-
chology, 6, 451-474.
55 Ericsson, K. a., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102, 211-245.
56 Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental
inquiry. American Psychologist, 34 (10): 906-911

31
Learning and Memory

3.8 Relationship between learning and memory

Compare to previous section, this section is about the relationship between memory and
learning. There is an interaction between learning and memory, they depend on each
other. Therefore, this section focus more on how memory processes interact with learning.
Based on memory processes, people learn new information or knowledge and put them
into their memory. Also, people recall their already known information from memory to
relate with new information, to make new information meaningful, and in order to learn it
effectively. Further more, based on knowing how memory works, this section also addresses
the implementations of some strategies (such as chunking) on designing learning activities.

3.8.1 Interaction of Learning and Memory

First of all, defining of learning and memory would help us to understand their relationship
better. Learning is the process of gaining new and relatively lasting information and
behaviours57 . Memory refers to the process of recording and retrieving experiences and
information58 .
Information Processing Model is a basis for the interaction of memory and learning.
And the process of learning is quite similar to this model, people perceive new knowledge,
identify and memorize it, and then encoding it into personal knowledge as encoding it into
long-term memory 59 . Also, the information processing model includes every components
of how memory works. There are three main memory types in this model, which are sen-
sory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory60 . In sensory memory,
information is stored shortly, also only 5-9 chunks can be hold for about 15-30 seconds in
short-term memory. However, once the information transfers to long-term memory, it would
be last yearly61 . There are two processes that happen between short-term/working memory
and long-term memory, one is called encoding processes that refers to the process of
moving information from short-term memory to long-term memory, and the other one is
retrieval processes which is the process of information is delivered to working memory
from long-term memory62 . Both of the processes play a significant role in learning.
Learning process is following the steps of information processing model, it also works
as a mental process63 . To relate learning process with the information processing model,
using learning how to drive a car as an example. First of all, a learner has to memory basic

57 Passer, M., Smith, R., & Atkinson, M. (2011). Psychology: Frontiers and Applications, McGraw-Hill
Ryerson; 4th edition. ISB-13: 978-0-07-000526-6
58 Passer, M., Smith, R., & Atkinson, M. (2011). Psychology: Frontiers and Applications, McGraw-Hill
Ryerson; 4th edition. ISB-13: 978-0-07-000526-6
59 Passer, M., Smith, R., & Atkinson, M. (2011). Psychology: Frontiers and Applications, McGraw-Hill
Ryerson; 4th edition. ISB-13: 978-0-07-000526-6
60 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Bostom,
MA, Allyn & Bacon. ISB-13: 9780132368971
61 Passer, M., Smith, R., & Atkinson, M. (2011). Psychology: Frontiers and Applications, McGraw-Hill
Ryerson; 4th edition. ISB-13: 978-0-07-000526-6
62 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Bostom,
MA, Allyn & Bacon. ISB-13: 9780132368971
63 Passer, M., Smith, R., & Atkinson, M. (2011). Psychology: Frontiers and Applications, McGraw-Hill
Ryerson; 4th edition. ISB-13: 978-0-07-000526-6

32
 Relationship between learning and memory

knowledge about driving, either road rules or names of car devices. The learner perceives
knowledge of driving and car devices, then he encodes it into long-term memory. When the
time the learner actually sits in a car and try to drive it, the basic knowledge of driving
he encoded is retrieved into working memory to help him knows what he needs to do for
driving a car. After he practices driving many times, he would turn the driving skill as a
procedural knowledge which means knowing “how”64 into his long-term memory. As long
as the learner’s driving skill gets more and more mature, the driving skill can be recalled
unconsciously.

3.8.2 Memory limitations affecting Learning

Limited Attention in capacity

People require attention to learn65 . As mentioned in the previous section, human

attention is limited in capacity. Hence, without attentions, people cannot learn effectively,
which means learning without attentions is wasting time. For example, when a person is
reviewing a history lecture while he is thinking what stuffs he needs to buy for holding a
home party. For sure this person’s attention is allocated into two totally different fields,
and he will not review the history lecture effectively because the limitation of attention in
capacity. However, there are some strategies that can help people in general to deal with
the limitations of attention, and they will be addressed lately in this section.

Forgetting Curve

Ebbinghaus identified the forgetting curve (Figure 1) idea in 188566 . This curve ad-
dresses the regular pattern of people’s forgetting. The curve shows that we start to forget
immediately and rapidly right after we learn, then the speed of forgetting slows down. To
roughly talk about the bases of it, the curve shows that people can forget 50 percent of
the knowledge’s content they just learned in an hour. Then, 8 hours, 24 hours, 6 days and
31 days are also the forgetting time points people generally have, and the percentage of
the content people hold gets decreasing along with the forgetting time points6768 . Conse-
quently, people would totally forget the knowledge. Then, learning a knowledge is meaning
less because it will be forgotten after all. Whereas, as long as we know the regular pattern
and the certain time points of forgetting, we would have an appropriate strategy which will
be addressed lately to deal with forgetting.

64 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Bostom,
MA, Allyn & Bacon. ISB-13: 9780132368971
65 Dosher, B. A., Han, S., & Lu, Z. (2010). Perceptual learning and attention: Reduction of object attention
limitations with practice. Vision Research, 50(4), 402-415. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2009.09.010
66 Wherry, R. J. (1932). The curve of forgetting: its statistical application. Journal Of Educational Psychol-
ogy, 23(8), 621-624. doi:10.1037/h0070645
67 Easley, H. (1937). The curve of forgetting and the distribution of practice. Journal Of Educational Psy-
chology, 28(6), 474-478. doi:10.1037/h0057409
68 Wherry, R. J. (1932). The curve of forgetting: its statistical application. Journal Of Educational Psychol-
ogy, 23(8), 621-624. doi:10.1037/h0070645

33
Learning and Memory

Figure 10 Acquired from

http://www.laval.k12.nf.ca/pub/?n=MUN6615.LearningEffects

http://

34
 Relationship between learning and memory

3.8.3 Implementations of teaching and learning

Chunking

Figure 11 Acquired from

http://presentationswithresults.com/are-you-chunking-your-content

http:// As being mentioned previously, short-term memory can hold about 9 chunks for
around 30 seconds69 , which limits information to be processing; also, attention is limited in
capacity. In order to deal with these limitations, chunking is one of the best strategies. In
1956, Miller talked about people’s short-term memory is not sensitive to the chunks’ size,

69 Passer, M., Smith, R., & Atkinson, M. (2011). Psychology: Frontiers and Applications, McGraw-Hill
Ryerson; 4th edition. ISB-13: 978-0-07-000526-6

35
Learning and Memory

but the number of them7071 . Chunks are defined as units of information that are related
and partakes traits appears as a group7273 .
As Collins and Quilian (1970)74 defined that the lowest level of the class of category’s name
conforms to the smaller categories, such as dog; and the highest level conforms to the larger
categories, such as animal. Similar to the lowest level of the class of category, one view of
chunking is to cut a big amount of information into couple of small groups. Taking memory
numbers as an example. 5616289938, they may be meaning less to you. Let us put a dash
line between them, 56-16-28-99-38, then we get five small groups of number instead of some
random numbers. We can also think 56, 28,99 and 38 as ages, while 16 as a year. To make
these number more meaningful, we can make a sentence like “my father is 56 year-old in
2016, I will be 28, and my grandmother is 99, my cousin is 38.” Now, these numbers are
meaningful, and easy to remember and recall.
The other view is similar to the highest level of the class of category, which is to put and
relate pieces of small information into couple of groups. For example, “concert”, “February”,
“strawberry”, “Starbucks”, “mailbox”, “short-term”, “learning”, and “chunking”. To memory
these words are not easy because they are meaningless to you; hence, it is hard to recall
them after 30 seconds. However, by using chunking, we can put these words into two big
groups, one is the words start with an ”s”, and the other one is the words start without
an ”s”. Additionally, to make a relation between these words would help to memory them
easier because they become meaningful, such as “I went to a concert in February. Before
going, I had a strawberry frappuccino in Starbucks. When I went back home, there was a
mail in my mailbox, it talked about how people using chunking to enhance their short-term
memory and the quality of learning.”
Therefore, when students receive a big amount of new information or knowledge, they can
cut them into groups, and make them relate to something is already known or meaningful.
Consequently, students can learn effectively because the new knowledge is cut into appro-
priate units and put into a group with meaning. As an instructor, for example, instead
of just giving random vocabulary, teachers can ask students to put vocabulary into differ-
ent groups and make meanings for these groups. Additionally, asking them to use these
vocabulary to make a logical sentence, in order to learn and memory them.

70 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Bostom,
MA, Allyn & Bacon. ISB-13: 9780132368971
71 Miller, G. A. ( 1956 ) The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for
processing information . Psychological Review , 101 ( 2 ), 343-352.
72 Miller, G. A. ( 1956 ) The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for
processing information . Psychological Review , 101 ( 2 ), 343-352.
73 Obaidellah, U. H., & Cheng, P. C. (2015). The role of chunking in drawing Rey complex figure. Perceptual
And Motor Skills,120(2), 535-555. doi:10.2466/24.PMS.120v17x6
74 Collins, A.M., & Quillian, M. R. (1970). Does category size affect categorization time? Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9(4), 432-438. doi: 10.1016/S00225371(70)80084-6

36
 Relationship between learning and memory

Reviewing of learned materials

After knowing the regular forgetting pattern, we come to find out doing review practices that
follows along with the forgetting curve is an appropriate method to reduce forgetting75 . To
extend this suggestion specifically, according to the forgetting curve, people start to forget
immediately after they learn. Therefore, a quick reviewing can decrease the percentage
of content we would forget. Thus, students better to review right after they learn the
knowledge, for instance, reviewing the lecture content in an hour after the lecture. And
before go to sleep, reviewing the content again. After around 24 hours, do the content
review again, and try to come up some questions about it or do some practice assignments.
Then, reviewing the content every week but not every day, in order to know it quite well
and be available to retrieve it quickly when you need it.

Tests of learned knowledge

Recalling can help students to reduce forgetting76 . As an instructor, tests is a common

strategy that asks students to recall the knowledge they have learned. Based on the forget-
ting curve, at certain time to give an either small test (such as quiz) or a big test (such as
midterm) can effectively enhance recalling and reducing forgetting77 . For example, to give
a quiz at the end of the lecture class, which helps students to quick review and restudy the
lecture content. Also leaving a small practice assignment about the lecture taught today,
and asking students to submit it the following day. After one week, to give another quiz
about the lecture, which helps students to recall their knowledge of this content. After a
month, to give a midterm which covers the lecture content to students, in order to test their
understanding78 and recall their knowledge about this content.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) it estimated 1 in every 160 children
will be diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and currently 39 million individ-
uals are living with an Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) diagnoses 7980 .
Working Memory is a system used to implicate the process of encoding, decoding and main-
tenance of our memory (Figure 1)(specifically short-term memory) while , at the same time
maintaining activity and accessibility 8182 . Research suggests developmental disabilities

75 Easley, H. (1937). The curve of forgetting and the distribution of practice. Journal Of Educational Psy-
chology, 28(6), 474-478. doi:10.1037/h0057409
76 Carpenter, S. K., Pashler, H., Wixted, J. T., & Vul, E. (2008). The effects of tests on learning and
forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 36(2), 438-448. doi:10.3758/MC.36.2.438
77 Carpenter, S. K., Pashler, H., Wixted, J. T., & Vul, E. (2008). The effects of tests on learning and
forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 36(2), 438-448. doi:10.3758/MC.36.2.438
78 Obaidellah, U. H., & Cheng, P. C. (2015). The role of chunking in drawing Rey complex figure. Perceptual
And Motor Skills,120(2), 535-555. doi:10.2466/24.PMS.120v17x6
79 World Health Organization. (2016). Autism spectrum disorders. Retrieved from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/autism-spectrum-disorders/en/
80 Vos, T., Barber, R. M., Bell, B., Bertozzi-Villa, A., Biryukov, S., Bolliger, I., & ... Atkins, e. S. (2015).
Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and
chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of
Disease Study 2013. The Lancet, 386(9995), 743-800. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692-4
81 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and
instruction (5th ed). Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
ISBN: 978-0132368971
82 Gluck, M. A., Mercado, E., & Myers, C. E. (2014). Learning and Memory: From

37
Learning and Memory

such as those as defined in the Diagnostic Statistics Manual of ASD and ADHD impact
working memory. This chapter, within the framework of Baddely’s working memory model
attempts to understand the inner workings of these prevalent disorders.

3.9 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and autism are both general terms for a group of complex
disorders of brain development and such classified as intellectual and developmental
disability. These disorders are characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social
interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, repetitive behaviors and difficulties in
motor coordination and attention. Because of overlap and variability in symptoms, The
DSM IV introduced the concept of autism spectrum disorder as opposed to a stand alone
disorder.83

Figure 12

While ASD occurs more often in boys than girls, early detection nonetheless is critical in
diagnosis because proactive interventions have shown considerable improvements in areas
such as language and social skills. Often this early detection is a result of statistically
significant diminished capacities often referred to as impairments. Some early signs of im-
pairment include: Communication (social), behaviors (verbal and non-verbal) and interests.
While each pattern is unique, most common symptom is diminished capacity of language.
DSM IV suggests three main types of ASD:
• Asperger’s syndrome (AS)
• Pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS)
• Autistic disorder (AD)

Brain to Behavior. (2nd Edition). Worth Publishing

83 Sarah Mae Sincero (2012). Nature and Nurture Debate. Retrieved Apr 05, 2016 from Ex-
plorable.com: https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate

38
 Autism Spectrum Disorder and Working Memory

The DSM V while it made changes to ASD descriptions, further research should be consid-
ered when assessing the changes. Listed below are some of the common autism disorders.
Asperger’s Syndrome (AS)
The mildest form of autism, Asperger’s syndrome (AS), involves repeated interest, discus-
sion on a specific topic. Children with AS often show great impairment in social skills and
uncoordinated; however, above average intelligence has also been reported. High function-
ing Asperger syndrome (HFAS) if left unsupported can lead to depression and anxiety in
later life.84

Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS)

Because of the generalized description, captures most children and is considered more severe
than AS (but less severe as ASD). PDD-NOS symptoms include (but not exclusive) im-
paired language skills, social interaction and later age of onset. Difference of PDD-NOS
from AS and Autism disorder (AD) include fewer repetitive behavior and variability of
symptoms offers a challenge to diagnosis.85
Autism Disorder
Children who meet more rigid criteria for a diagnosis of autism have autistic disorder.
They have more severe impairments involving social and language functioning, as well as
repetitive behaviors. Often, they also have mental retardation and seizures. Common
symptoms while similar to AS and PDD-NOS also include absences of name recognition
and use of single or two word phrases.
While ASD includes many subtypes and often the numbers can be underestimated because
of variability, Figure 4 gives an overview of prevalence and incidence rates in the United
States (1993-2003). This suggests ASD continues to be persuasive and increasing exponen-
tially (compared to other disabilities). While ASD is the most common of the developmental
disabilities, the second most prevalence learning disability is attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder.

3.10 Autism Spectrum Disorder and Working Memory

Approximately seven percent of children suffer with literacy disorders such as Autism
Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and ADHD86 Working memory is a fundamental function for
the developmental process which is known to impact the neuro-cognitive domain with
impairments8788 Widely held beliefs on ASD and working memory suggest deficits in

84 Sarah Mae Sincero (2012). Nature and Nurture Debate. Retrieved Apr 05, 2016 from Ex-
plorable.com: https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate
85 Sarah Mae Sincero (2012). Nature and Nurture Debate. Retrieved Apr 05, 2016 from Ex-
plorable.com: https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate
86 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
87 Bordignon, S., Giulini, E., Trentini, C.M., & Bosa, C.A. (2015). Memory in children and adolescents with
autism spectrum disorder: a systematic literature review. Psychology and Neuroscience, 8, 211-245.
88 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.

39
Learning and Memory

phonological loop processing, visuo- spatial challenges and inability to regulate executive
functioning 89 90 Controversial debate related to heterogeneity of ASD subjects and the
various components of working memory function continue today. For example, a child with
ASD may show attention to a specific object (e.g. zippers) while another child with similar
diagnosis would not react to the same object (zipper). The second child may show interest
in a bike instead. This suggests an impairment with the phonological loop. While ASD
and working memory are complex, current research continues to focus on identifying spe-
cific impairments and its relationship to the different components of working memory when
considering solutions in the instructional environment.

3.10.1 ASD and Central Executive

The central executive is the ”most important component of working memory” because it is
responsible for monitoring and coordinating the operation of the slave system (phonological
loop, visuo-spatial sketch pad) and relates to long term memory 91
ASD’s impairments in social interaction, verbal, non-verbal communication, and restrictive
behaviors appear in early childhood and persist in later life. Hill & Frith (2004) (as cited
by Cui et al.) suggest this is a result of executive dysfunction. 92 Conflicting research
suggests ASD dispute a relationship to central functioning because working memory may
also be influenced by factors such as age, IQ, task measured 93 which is often not accounted
for in research literature. However, since Hill & Frith were able to use a battery of working
memory tasks which aimed to isolate to Asperger syndrome in early-school-age children,
(thereby removing the variables) were able to address these concerns and therefore it can
be concluded there is a partial deficit in central executive.

3.10.2 ASD and Phonological Loop

The phonological loop is assumed to be responsible for the manipulation of speech based
information94 It may be extremely difficult to study ASD and its relationship with the
phonological loop because, as was mentioned, the heterogeneity of ASD subjects. Dif-
ferences in each ASD individual with how they utilize the spoken and written language is
unique; yet often when considering working memory and the phonological loop, non ASD
individuals show similarities in learning. In spite of this variability, language impair-
ments include decreased communication, phonology, semantics, and syntax.95 Fischbach et

89 Bordignon, S., Giulini, E., Trentini, C.M., & Bosa, C.A. (2015). Memory in children and adolescents with
autism spectrum disorder: a systematic literature review. Psychology and Neuroscience, 8, 211-245.
90 Vries, M.D., & Geurts H.M. (2014). Beyond individual differences: are working memory and inhibition
informative specifiers with ASD? Journal of Neural Transmission, 121,1183-1198.
91 Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
49A(1), 5-28.
92 Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013), Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory.html
93 Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013), Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory.html
94 Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: looking and looking forward. Neuroscience, 4, 829-839
95 Loucas, T., Riches, N.G., Charman, T., Pickles, A., Simonoff, E., Chandler, S., & Baird, G. (2010).
Speech perception and phonological short-term memory capacity in language impairment: preliminary

40
 Autism Spectrum Disorder and Working Memory

al (2013)96 conclude because of left-hemisphere brain deficits commonly found with ASD
this may impact the ability of processing language. They add because of these deficits,
compensatory effects in right hemisphere could lead to strengths in visuo-spatial processing
(discussed below). While his compensation is important in that memory can adapt to brain
disruptions, the challenge is that the left hemisphere does not advance functioning. It is
important to note, as most research on ASD suggests, because of the changes in early de-
velopment, phonological store is greatly impacted in reaction time among adolescents when
studying speech in phonological short term memory (PSTM). Comparisons with typically
developing (TD) subjects, the level of cognitive load during the phonological loop pro-
cessing for ASD is significantly associated with reaction time and accuracy. This suggests
perception of speech impacts access to speech. Controversy remains with this assertion
when Williams et al (2014)97 while studying visuo-spatial memory argue no association
with impairment of verbal storage and ASD. 98

3.10.3 ASD and Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad

In working memory, the visuo-spatial sketch pad is assumed to be responsible for manipu-
lating visual images. Prospective memory (PM) are highly prevalent in daily life and range
from relatively simple tasks to extreme life-or-death situations. Examples include remem-
bering to pick up milk at the grocery store after work or remembering to attach the safety
harness when climbing buildings. This ability of the PM to remember to carry out a task
(Williams et al, 2014)99 conclude that when considering time based tasks, ASD subjects
because they show ”diminished capacity have difficulty with processing visual storage”, an
important component of working memory and the visuo-spatial sketch pad (Sachse et al.,
2013)100 , when considering high functioning ASD (HFASD) such as Asperger syndrome
while they did not find verbal memory impairment, conclude because visual motor infor-
mation is impaired spatial working memory (SWM) ”was impaired because of differences
in cortical networks which led to higher number of working memory errors”. 101 Combin-
ing all aspects of working memory (central executive, phonological loop and visuo-spatial
sketchpad), Because of the variability in ASD, researchers looked at various tasks specific
to the working memory components with specific age populations (early school aged). Be-

evidence from adolescents with specific language impairment (SLI) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD).
International Journal of language and Communication Disorders, 45, 275-286.
96 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
97 Williams, D.M., Jarrold C., Grainger, C., & Lind, S.E. (2014). Diminished time-based, but undiminished
event-based, prospective memory among intellectually high functioning adults with autism spectrum dis-
order: relation to working memory ability. Neuropsychology, 28, 30-42.
98 Williams, D.M., Jarrold C., Grainger, C., & Lind, S.E. (2014). Diminished time-based, but undiminished
event-based, prospective memory among intellectually high functioning adults with autism spectrum dis-
order: relation to working memory ability. Neuropsychology, 28, 30-42.
99 Williams, D.M., Jarrold C., Grainger, C., & Lind, S.E. (2014). Diminished time-based, but undiminished
event-based, prospective memory among intellectually high functioning adults with autism spectrum dis-
order: relation to working memory ability. Neuropsychology, 28, 30-42.
100 Sache, M., Schlitt, S., Hainz, D., Ciaramidaro, A., Schirman, S., Walter, H., Poustka, F., Bolte, S., &
Freitg., C.M. (2013). Executive and visuo-motor function in adolescents and adults with Autism spectrum
disorder. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 43, 1222-1235.
101 Sache, M., Schlitt, S., Hainz, D., Ciaramidaro, A., Schirman, S., Walter, H., Poustka, F., Bolte, S., &
Freitg., C.M. (2013). Executive and visuo-motor function in adolescents and adults with Autism spectrum
disorder. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 43, 1222-1235.

41
Learning and Memory

cause of matched IQ, HFASD had significant disadvantages around visuo-spatial sketchpad
implicated by partial deficits in central executive.102
Unlike ASD and working memory implications, ADHD has very different etiology on working
memory.

3.11 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition,
DSM V, it states the diagnostic features of ADHD. People with ADHD would show a
persistent phenomenon of Inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that affect develop-
ment and/or normal functioning. 103 (Reference table 1)
Inattention: 6 or more symptoms present for children who are below 16 years Hyperactivity and Impulsivity: 6 or more symptoms present for children
of age, or 5 or more symptoms must be presented for adolescents older than 17; who are below 16 years of age, or 5 or more symptoms must be presented for
these symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months, and they adolescents older than 17; these symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have been
are inappropriate for developmental level:104 present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate
for the person’s developmental level:105
• Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in • Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat.• Often leaves seat
schoolwork, at work, or with other activities.• Often has trouble holding in situations when remaining seated is expected.• Often runs about or climbs in
attention on tasks or play activities.• Often does not seem to listen when situations where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may be limited to
spoken to directly.• Often does not follow through on instructions and fails feeling restless).• Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly.•
to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace .• Often has trouble Is often ”on the go” acting as if ”driven by a motor”.• Often talks excessively.•
organizing tasks and activities.• Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed.• Often has
tasks that require mental effort over a long period of time.• Often loses things trouble waiting his/her turn.• Often interrupts or intrudes on others107
necessary for tasks and activities .• Is often easily distracted• Is often forgetful
in daily activities.106

In addition, the following conditions must be met:

• Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.
• Several symptoms are present in two or more setting, (such as at home, school or work;
with friends or relatives; in other activities).
• There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social,
school, or work functioning.
• The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (such as a mood
disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder). The symptoms
do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.108

102 Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013), Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory.html
103 American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th
ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0890425558
104 American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th
ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0890425558
105 American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th
ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0890425558
106 American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th
ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0890425558
107 American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th
ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0890425558
108 American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th
ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 59–65. ISBN 0890425558

42
 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Sub-types of ADHD

There are three sub-types of ADHD that categorized by the different categorize of ADHD.
• Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type: in order to fulfill this sub-type, in the past
six weeks, the person has filled the entire requirement for symptoms of Hyperactivity-
impulsivity, but not the symptoms of inattention
• Predominantly Inattentive Type: In this sub-type, the person has filled the entire require-
ment for symptoms of inattention, but not the symptoms of Hyperactivity-impulsivity.
• Combination Type: In this sub-type, the person has filled both requirement for the
symptoms of Hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention. This is the most common type of
ADHD. 109
With these definitions of ADHD and ASD in mind (including symptoms), it is important
to consider its relationship with working memory.

109 Simon, Harvey. (2013, July 03).Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Retrieved from
umm.edu/health/medical/reports/articles/attention-hyperactivity-disorder

43
Learning and Memory

3.12 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Working

Memory

Figure 13 Figure 5.The above brainscan of brains shows the differences between adult
with and without (Left) ADHD

People with ADHD usually accompany with some difficulties on their working memory,
when we focus on the brain structure of the ADHD children, we could see that their brain
structures are usually differ from children without ADHD, Several brain regions and struc-
tures, such as pre-frontal cortex, striatum, basal ganglia, and cerebellum tend to
be smaller than people without ADHD. The overall brain size from ADHD children is gen-
erally 5% smaller than children without ADHD (Figure 5).These brain regions are closely
related to how our working memory works, especially the pre-frontal cortex110 , thus with
a smaller brain size, ADHD children’s working memory would perform poorly.

3.12.1 ADHD and Central Executive

The central executive seems equally impaired in both subtypes. A research used the Chess-
board Task to test whether the subjects could maintain and reorganize visuospatial infor-

110 Attitude Editors. (2015). ADHD Is Biological, What causes attention deficit disorder? Al-
though researchers know much about ADHD, they can’t pinpoint its cure. Retrieved from
www.additudemag.com/adhd-wed/article/5008.html

44
 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Working Memory

mation, thus the Central Executive has been tested in this research. The result shown that
ADHD children score lower than the normal students, nevertheless, the result of ADHD
children improved when they received high level of reinforcement but not the control group
111 .

In another research, the researchers used The Digits Backward, to test their capacity to
store and manipulate information, and The Dual Task, to test their ability to coordinate
two separate tasks. The result shown that ADHD children repeated fewer digits than the
controls in The Digits Backward task and gain lower score in The Dual Task, these tasks
show that central executive functions are critical for the variance in goal-setting skills in
children with ADHD 112 .

3.12.2 ADHD and Phonological Loop

ADHD children performed similarly in the Phonological loop tests with normal children,
their score in The Digits Forward and The Word Recall tasks are similar. These tasks tested
whether subjects could repeat the digits in a correct order. This result is consistent with
the results of several earlier studies showing that deficits in the phonological loop are not
characteristic of children with ADHD 113 .
There is a research accompanied the ADHD children with Specific language impairment, also
suggested that ADHD children have less impact in phonological loop. ADHD-C children
with SLI scored significantly lower than those without SLI and normal children. Which
support the hypothesis that Phonological loop are not the characteristic of ADHD children
114 .

3.12.3 ADHD and Visuo-spatial Sketchpad

ADHD-I children and ADHD-C children who have motivational deficits, they have a
destructive effect on their visuo-spatial working memory performance, according to The
Chessboard Task, their score are lower than the control group 115 . In Visuo-Spatial Test, it
measures the ability to remember the number filled matrix, the result shown that children

111 Dovis, S., Van der Oord, S., Wiers, R. W., & Prins, P. M. (2015). ADHD subtype differences in reinforce-
ment sensitivity and visuospatial working memory. Journal Of Clinical Child And Adolescent Psychology,
44(5), 859-874. doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.895940
112 Nyman, A., Taskinen, T., Grönroos, M., Haataja, L., Lähdetie, J., & Korhonen, T. (2010). Elements
of working memory as predictors of goal-setting skills in children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity
disorder. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 43(6), 553-562. doi:10.1177/0022219410375001
113 Nyman, A., Taskinen, T., Grönroos, M., Haataja, L., Lähdetie, J., & Korhonen, T. (2010). Elements
of working memory as predictors of goal-setting skills in children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity
disorder. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 43(6), 553-562. doi:10.1177/0022219410375001
114 Jonsdottir, S., Bouma, A., Sergeant, J. A., & Scherder, E. A. (2005). The impact of specific language
impairment on working memory in children with ADHD combined subtype. Archives Of Clinical Neu-
ropsychology, 20(4), 443-456. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.10.004
115 Jonsdottir, S., Bouma, A., Sergeant, J. A., & Scherder, E. A. (2005). The impact of specific language
impairment on working memory in children with ADHD combined subtype. Archives Of Clinical Neu-
ropsychology, 20(4), 443-456. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.10.004

45
Learning and Memory

with ADHD performed more poorly than the control group 116 . Nevertheless, High rein-
forcement can improve the working memory performance in both ADHD groups, but not
the control group 117 .
There are some minor differences between different subtypes ADHD. In the task of the
Hopkins Verbal developmental Test–Revised (HVLT-R), The official Norwegian research
versions, and the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised (BVMT-R), these tasks measure
the performance of Auditory or verbal and visuospatial ability. The results shown that there
are more impairment about developmental and delayed memory in the ADHD-I children
when we compared the result with the ADHD-C children 118 .

3.12.4 ADHD and ASD Developmental Implication

There are several behavioral strategies and treatments could help the ADHD patients, in
order to improve their behaviors. For example a good and effective Classroom management
could change the behavior of ADHD students,a more structured classroom, provide closer
attention to students, and limitations of distractions could help to change the behavior
of ADHD, these modifications may not have an effective assessment, but they usually in-
cluded in the treatment plans.119 Some behavior therapies can be implemented to teachers
and parents through some training programs, like Parent Management Training, Operant-
conditioning usually involved in these programs, a positive reinforcement (consistent re-
wards for achieving goals and idea behavior) and positive punishment ( provide a negative
consequence after the present of an undesired behavior).120 Teachers learn classroom Man-
agement as a technique to change behavior, Token economy ( student earns rewards when
performing desired behaviors and loses the rewards when performing undesired behaviors),
daily feedback and structured classroom activities
However,a research in 2013 shown that working memory training like the Cognitive training
could only provide a short term improvements, and there are only little evidence that
those improvements are permanent.121 Also in 2014, researchers analyzed that the current
evidence for the accuracy of cognitive training for treatment of ADHD symptoms is not
completed.122

116 Nyman, A., Taskinen, T., Grönroos, M., Haataja, L., Lähdetie, J., & Korhonen, T. (2010). Elements
of working memory as predictors of goal-setting skills in children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity
disorder. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 43(6), 553-562. doi:10.1177/0022219410375001
117 Jonsdottir, S., Bouma, A., Sergeant, J. A., & Scherder, E. A. (2005). The impact of specific language
impairment on working memory in children with ADHD combined subtype. Archives Of Clinical Neu-
ropsychology, 20(4), 443-456. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.10.004
118 Andersen, P. N., Egeland, J., & Øie, M. (2013). Learning and memory impairments in children and
adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 46(5), 453-
460.
119 Clinical practice guideline: Treatment of the school-aged child with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disor-
der. (2002). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(5), 537
120 Clinical practice guideline: Treatment of the school-aged child with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disor-
der. (2002). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(5), 537
121 Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review.
Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 270-291. doi:10.1037/a0028228
122 Sonuga-Barke, E., Brandeis, D., Holtmann, M., & Cortese, S. (2014). Computer-based cognitive training
for ADHD: A review of current evidence. Child And Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics Of North America,
23(4), 807-824. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.009

46
 Conclusion

3.13 Conclusion

The purpose of this chapter was to provide insight on appropriate and effective implemen-
tations of learning, through the understanding of the mechanics of memory. This chapter
begins with an introduction to multimedia learning and provides an idea as to how learning
is more effective through the use of words and images. It presents the topics of multime-
dia learning, which includes theories of cognitive load, dual-coding, and active processing.
The next key topic discusses the information processing model, which explores the process
of human memory, usually referred to as the memorization of information. Three main
memory structures are said to be sensory memory, short-term/working memory and long-
term memory. Each structure has specific nerves required in order to function properly.
This processing model also provides a foundation for the learning process. Moving on, the
idea behind cognitive process focuses more on encoding process and retrieval process which
occurs amidst short-term memory and long-term memory. By understanding how these
two processes work, we can then discern how to make information meaningful, and how to
access information when required. Furthermore, by examining the systems of short-term
memory and long-term memory, it provides us with an idea about how we acquire knowl-
edge. Forgetting curve and limited attention capacity tells people the challenges of learning.
By recognizing the challenges faced in learning, use of strategies such as chunking, review-
ing, and tests, as well as teaching strategies (mentioned in this chapter) are ways that can
help people deal with these challenges. Teachers can apply these strategies on students
in order to help them learn to be more efficient and effective, or students can use these
implementations on their own. By the end of this chapter, the hope is to foster a better
understanding and knowledge about memory and the underlying processes behind it, while
providing insight on the appropriate implementation of learning.

3.14 Glossary

Active processing: refers to the idea that meaningful learning takes place only when
humans actively organize, integrate and build connections with prior and new knowledge.
Acoustic: relating to sound or the sense of hearing.
Attention: the capacity of focusing on a stimulus.
Articulatory loop:holds acoustic information
Chunks: defined as units of information that are related and partakes traits appears as a
group
Cognitive load: total amount of load that can be placed on the working memory
Cognitive development:a gradual changes in our mental processes of becoming more and
more advanced over time.
Decoding: convert a code message into intelligible language.
Dual-Coding theory: a theory proposed by Allan Paivio that suggests that the human
memory detects visual and verbal responses as separate systems.

47
Learning and Memory

Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve: a curve presents memory is decreased as time goes by.
Elaborative: worked out with great care and nicety of detail.
Encoding: conver information or an instruction into a particular form.
Executive control system:controls the other two systems and decides what kind of the
information enters memory.
Information processing model: theory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which com-
pares sequence of computer processing to that of humans.
Learning: active process of acquiring new information
Learning process: the journey of learning, works as a mental process
Long term memory: It can maintain information for a long period of time. It could be
days, weeks, months and years.
Memorization: a process of committing something to memory.
Memory: the process of recording and retrieving experiences and information
Metacognition: awareness and understanding of one’s thought processes.
Multimedia learning: a type of learning model based on the belief that materials pre-
sented through images and words improve understanding, than in words or pictures alone.
Recalling: to retrieve the information from long-term memory.
Retention:the continued possession, use , or control of something.
Retrieval: a process of getting something back from somewhere.
Reviewing: to relook at and rememory the knowledge that has been learned.
Self-questioning: examination of one’s own actions and motives.
Semantic: realting to meaning in language or logic.
Sensory memory is a system that holds environment input in sensory registers so that
perceptual analyses can work before that information fade away.
Two views of chunking： One view is to cut a big amount of information into couple of
small groups. The other view is to put and relate pieces of small information into couple of
groups
Visual-spatial sketch pad: holds visual spatial information
Aural data – Data that is relating to or perceived by the ear.
Intellectual disability- A disability characterized by significant limitations in both in-
tellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and
practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18.
Developmental disability- A diverse group of chronic conditions that are due to mental
or physical impairments.
Impaired language skills- A language disorder that delays the mastery of language
skills in children who have no hearing loss or other developmental delays.

48
 Suggested Readings

Variability- How spread out or closely clustered a set of data is.

Impairments- In health, any loss or abnormality of physiological, psychological, or anatom-
ical structure or function, whether permanent or temporary.
Mental retardation- A condition diagnosed before age 18, usually in infancy or prior
to birth, that includes below-average general intellectual function, and a lack of the skills
necessary for daily living. When onset occurs at age 18 or after, it is called dementia, which
can coexist with an MR diagnosis.
Psychotic disorder- Severe mental disorders that cause abnormal thinking and percep-
tions.
Executive dysfunction- A disruption to the efficacy of the executive functions, which is
a group of cognitive processes that regulate, control, and manage other cognitive processes.
Cognitive load- the total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory.
Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM)- The standard classification of mental disorders
used by mental health professionals in the United States. It is intended to be used in all
clinical settings by clinicians of different theoretical orientations
Heterogeneity- A word that signifies diversity.
Pre-frontal cortex- The cerebral cortex which covers the front part of the frontal lobe.
Striatum- Also known as the neostriatum or striate nucleus, is a subcortical part of the
forebrain and a critical component of the reward system.
Basal ganglia- A group of structures linked to the thalamus in the base of the brain and
involved in coordination of movement.
Cerebellum- The part of the brain at the back of the skull in vertebrates. Its function is
to coordinate and regulate muscular activity.
Frontal cortex- Cortex of the frontal lobe of the cerebral hemisphere
Motivational deficits- Motivation is defined as the product of expectancies and values.
Statistically significant- The likelihood that a result or relationship is caused by some-
thing other than mere random chance.
Executive functioning- A set of mental skills that help you get things done. These skills
are controlled by an area of the brain called the frontal lobe.
Cortical-Consisting of cortex,the outer layer of the cerebrum.

3.15 Suggested Readings

Burt, B., & Gennaro, P. (2010). Behavior solutions for the inclusive classroom: a handy
reference guide that explains behaviors associated with Autism, Asperger’s ADHD, sensory
processing and other special needs. Canada: The Donahue Group. • Eysenck, M. W., &
Keane, M. T. (2001). Cognitive psychology (4th ed.). New York: Psychology Press.

49
Learning and Memory

• Mccabe, J. (2010). Metacognitive awareness of learning strategies in undergraduates.

Mem Cogn Memory & Cognition, 39(3), 462-476.
• Miller, M. D. (2011). What College Teachers Should Know About Memory: A Perspective
From Cognitive Psychology. College Teaching, 59(3), 117-122.

3.16 References

50
4 Long-Term Memory

When a student studies for tests and memorizes class material, where does it go? The long-
term memory remains absolutely necessary and important in learning, as all information
that a student learns is remembered, or stored in either short- or long-term memory. While
both short- and long-term memory remain important for storage of all information learned,
a person’s memories can also influence one’s learning, how they perceive things, and how
they build up the meaning or cognition of what they perceive. Learning and memory
constantly influence one another, as one’s memories or prior knowledge of certain concepts,
subjects or items can enhance learning. In this chapter, we will describe first the framework
and functions of the long-term memory, including also the short-term memory, and link this
framework to cognition, and the many methods in how it is formed. Lastly, we will discuss
newer and more developed models which describe how views of memory have evolved over
time.

4.1 Framework for Long-Term Memory

The long-term memory is the supposedly limitless and permanent capacity for all sorts of
information that one experiences within a whole lifetime. Having the long-term memory is
necessary for all learners, but understanding how it works, its makeup and processes within
it, can help learners to better understand their own learning. Below is a description of the
framework of long-term memory, including the lower structures that make up long-term
memory, as well as descriptions of encoding strategies and processes, and their implications
towards instructors.

4.1.1 Structures of Long-term Memory

Many structures make up the long-term memory, each with its own separate function. The
process in how information travels and gains meaning before reaching the LTM will be
detailed below.

4.1.2 Functions

Limitless and permanent, the long-term memory contains endless information comprised
over long periods of time, and unlike the short-term memory, does not require constant
repetition to make it last. Information stored in the LTM is recalled or reconstructed,
rather than rehearsed or repeated. LTM is made up of implicit memory, information that
unconsciously influences attitudes and behaviours, and explicit memory, the memories that
one remembers specifically. LTM is further broken down into categories of knowledge which

51
Long-Term Memory

include procedural knowledge, conditional knowledge and declarative knowledge,

which is then made up of semantic and episodic memory 1 .

Figure 14 A depiction of the modal model, taken from Cognitive Psychology and
Instruction

4.1.3 The Modal Model

Information, when first perceived, travels through a series of cognitive functions before it
reaches the LTM. The modal model 2 is the general depiction that recent research has put
together of the sequence in which information is transferred from the sensory memory to
the short-term memory ending with long-term memory. Based on this model, information
is assumed to be processed through each of the three “lower” memory systems, each its
own separate function 3 . This model provides a significant distinction between each of the
different memory functions, and the processes between each.

Length and Limitations of Short-Term Memory

Extensive research throughout history proves that the short-term memory (also referred
to as working memory) usually holds up to no more than 7 chunks of information at one
time 4 . This limited capacity prevents the short-term memory from overload and requires
different amounts of attention per task. Referring back to the modal model, we see how
sensory information gets pruned and given meaning during its transferral. Each cognitive
function of the modal model is described in more detail below.

1 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
2 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
3 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
4 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education

52
 Framework for Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory

The sensory memory is the initial memory component in which incoming information is
perceived and recognized 5 . Most importantly, this is the memory component in which
information is given assignment of meaning, and then is passed on to the short-term
memory. Each sense (ex. sight, sound, scent, touch and taste) has a sensory register,
a function that allows it to temporarily retain the perceived information after it has dis-
appeared. This function is very limited, as sensory memory rapidly decays once removed
from view 6 . From here, sensory information with a newly assigned meaning passes onto
the short-term memory, more commonly referred to as the working memory.

Working Memory

The second stage of the modal model, the working memory is the function which focusses on
the memory process during learning 7 . There are three separate functions that make up the
working memory. The executive control system is superior of these three components,
controlling and selecting what enters the short-term memory and planning necessary strate-
gies for processing the selected information (such as arranging a given list of numbers in
numerical order) 8 . The remaining systems (sometimes called slave systems) are the visual-
spatial/visuospatial sketchpad and the articulatory/phonological loop, which con-
trol, respectively, visuospatial and acoustic information. The visual-spatial sketchpad is
also responsible for rehearsing the designated information, performing computations on im-
ages (one example is the rotating letter [insert image]) and judging spatial comparisons.
The articulatory loop manages auditory rehearsal, articulation processes and holds acous-
tic information via rehearsal (this information typically lasts from 2-4 seconds) 9 . These
three components of the working memory are theorized to be functionally separate from
one another and having their own limited attentional resources 10 .

4.1.4 Significance for Learning

Though the long-term memory may seem more important towards students’ learning, meth-
ods for improving short-term memory should not be overlooked. Some concepts of the
short-term memory will be discussed, in regards to their significance towards learners and
the possible benefit of using said strategies.

Automaticity

Automaticity is the state of a cognitive process being performed automatically, with need
of fewer cognitive resources, and is only achieved through extended practice. Automatic

5 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
6 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
7 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
8 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
9 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
10 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education

53
Long-Term Memory

processes allow a student to turn more attention towards higher cognitive processes that
require more of their cognitive resources, or that can allow simultaneous performance of
different tasks, since the automatic processes require little to no attention 11 . Students who
are able to practice automatic cognitive tasks in their learning and accrue proceduralized
knowledge tend to have lesser demands on their limited resources 12 . Encouraging practice
in skills such as reading, the multiplication table, or citations in higher-level academic papers
to name a few, can eventually generate automaticity and grant access to more cognitive
resources.

Cognitive Load Theory

Originating from Baddeley’s model of working memory, the cognitive load theory is the belief
that certain learning environments impose greater demands on learners than others, causing
a higher information processing load taxing the working memory 13 . These greater demands
may comprise of intrinsic cognitive load, the task’s necessary cognitive resources which
vary depending on its difficulty, or extraneous cognitive load, the cognitive resources
that are spent on stimuli outside of the task 14 . While extraneous cognitive load can be
changed in various ways, intrinsic cognitive load depends solely on the difficulty of the task.
Students struggling with extraneous cognitive overload may benefit from changing any of
the ways in which the information to be learned is presented, such as by removing oneself
from a distracting environment, properly organizing the to-be-processed information, and
using suitable cognitive tools. Instructors can also diminish extraneous load by providing
detailed and clear learning instruction 15 .

4.1.5 Methods for Improvement and Application

Despite the limitations of the short-term memory, understanding each of its functions be-
comes beneficial towards using strategies for general improvement. Below are some sub-
sequent strategies and concepts that can utilize the short-term memory best to benefit
learners.

Chunking

Because the working memory can only hold up to 7 pieces of information at a time, it is theo-
rized and suggested that to-be-learned information will be remembered better when divided
up into memorable chunks. According to Miller, the short-term memory’s ability to remem-
ber is sensitive only to the amount of chunks and not the size of the chunks themselves—
therefore, increasing the size of chunks helps students to learn more efficiently and can
allow them to remember large amounts of information at a time, with due rehearsal 16

11 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
12 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
13 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
14 Woolfolk, A., Winne, P. H.. & Perry, N. E. (2016). Educational psychology (Custom ed. for Simon Fraser
University). Pearson Education. 169
15 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
16 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education

54
 Framework for Long-Term Memory

. However, information decays rapidly if there is too long a gap between rehearsal and
retention.

Managing Cognitive Demands

Studies done by Mayer and Moreno show additional ways in which learners can benefit
by managing the demands on cognitive load during learning. Having distinguished 3 dif-
ferent types of cognitive demands, Mayer and Moreno suggest that student concentration
on essential learning—the cognitive demands that are necessary for understanding the
information— will benefit them more than concentrating on the demands of incidental
processing and referential holding 17 . Referential holding is when one holds infor-
mation in memory temporarily while other information is being processed (taking notes
while listening to an instructor, for example), and causes attentional resources to become
overtaxed. This study suggests that students focus more of their attention and resources
towards essential learning, as spending more resources on referential holding and unneces-
sary incidental processing tends to lead to cognitive overload and overall poorer learning
performance 18 .

Attentional Filtering

According to studies done by Bengson and Luck, attentional filtering is a high influence upon
storage capacity in the visual working memory 19 . Similarly to Mayer and Moreno, this
study suggests that students who filter out irrelevant information to make more storage
room for the necessary information in the visual working memory perform better than
students who do not 20 . A subsequent experiment was performed in which 3 groups of
students were shown certain visual stimuli and were tested on how well they remembered
them. The first group was asked to remember everything that they saw, the second group
was asked to remember only specific subsets of stimuli, while the last group was simply
told to “do their best.” Results showed that though the “do your best” and subset groups
performed quite similarly, the group remembering everything had a much higher cognitive
task to perform and were easily overwhelmed 21 . When applying the insights of this study
towards instruction and learning, giving instructions that are specific and focus less on the
whole and more on subset goal groups may be more beneficial towards students’ cognitive
loads, keeping them from being overtaxed.

17 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
18 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
19 Bengson, J. & Luck, S.. (February 2016). Effects of strategy on visual working memory capacity.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review Volume 23, Issue 1, 265-270. http://link.springer.com.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/article/10.3758%2Fs13423-015-0891-7
20 Bengson, J. & Luck, S.. (February 2016). Effects of strategy on visual working memory capacity.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review Volume 23, Issue 1, 265-270. http://link.springer.com.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/article/10.3758%2Fs13423-015-0891-7
21 Bengson, J. & Luck, S.. (February 2016). Effects of strategy on visual working memory capacity.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review Volume 23, Issue 1, 265-270. http://link.springer.com.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/article/10.3758%2Fs13423-015-0891-7

55
Long-Term Memory

4.2 Encoding

Encoding is the process of transferring information from the working memory into the long-
term memory, and is highly important due to its significance towards how well something
is remembered. Below are some of the different encoding and processing methods that are
well-known and well-used.

4.2.1 Rehearsal

Referring back to the modal model, rehearsal is the process in which information is kept in
the short-term memory, usually through constant repetition. Maintenance rehearsal usually
employs the process of constant repetition and recycling information, but it is considered a
more shallow method of encoding as the information is usually kept active for only a short
amount of time, and decays quite rapidly once repetition is ceased. Elaborative rehearsal is
a more meaningful mode of encoding, in which to-be-learned information is given meaning
by being related to previously learned information. Though this form of rehearsal uses more
cognitive resources, it is better for long-term retention and makes use of deeper encoding
activities 22 .

4.2.2 Elaboration

Several elaborative encoding strategies exist, all which make new information easier to
process or remember. One well-known and most-used elaborative encoding strategy is the
mnemonic, a process which engages more sophisticated coding by pairing together new
information with well-known information. This strategy typically makes use of rhymes,
hand gestures, acronyms, the first-letter method, and many others 23 . Other strategies
include mediation, a simple strategy of connecting a new piece of information to something
more meaningful, and imagery, which involves tying together a corresponding image to
something to be remembered 24 .

4.2.3 Levels of Processing Theory

Influential constructivist views, especially theories from Craik and Lockhart, remain sig-
nificant to this day. Their levels of processing theory is most reputable. According to
this theory, students benefit most from performing cognitive analyses on the to-be-learned
information— memory of the information is retained naturally after these processes. How-
ever, the retention of the information is highly based on the methods in which it was
processed. According to theory, the more deeply the information is processed and the more
meaning is given to the information, the better it is retained, while shallower processing of
more superficial details tends to make the information forgotten much faster 25 . It is theo-
rized and widely proven that participation in more meaningful, rather than mundane tasks,

22 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
23 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
24 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
25 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education

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 Long-Term Memory and Learning

helps students to better remember the information learned. Providing students agency and
choice is also beneficial towards retention, as studies done by Jacoby and many others show
how having students make decisions (especially difficult ones) recall more of the task than
if they made simpler decisions, or none at all 26 .

4.3 Long-Term Memory and Learning

Most learning goals target the long-term memory, which is supposedly limitless and retains
a significantly higher amount of information than the short-term memory. The text will
now discuss concepts related to the long-term memory and their benefits towards enhancing
the encoding processes of learners.

4.3.1 Higher Encoding Processes

Higher encoding processes are typically activated when one encodes more complex informa-
tion, and higher encoding processes usually help more towards higher educational/learner
goals 27 . As shown above, students tend to perform much better the more elaborately they
encode the to-be-learned information. Through methods such as activating prior knowl-
edge and guided peer questioning, instructors can activate relevant schemata in students
and provide opportunities for comprehension and asking thought-provoking questions. Ac-
tivating prior knowledge helps to prepare learners for new learning activities: a base of
already-known information can help to guide the new to-be-learned information 28 .

4.3.2 Metacognition

Introduced by Flavell in the 1970’s, metacognition remains one of the most important and
most complex cognitive processes today. Generally defined, metacognition means “thinking
about thinking”, but also means the ability to self-regulate, according to the knowledge
of the ways in which one thinks 29 . One of the best examples of metacognition is when
a learner plans, monitors and evaluates different or specific strategies according to the
knowledge of which would work better for them, based on how they think 30 . Having
conditional knowledge, the knowledge of when and why to use particular strategies,
aids in the planning, monitoring and evaluation stages 31 . Metacognition is a skill that is
developed over time, as research shows that younger children and preadolescents tend to
lack these skills, and is different based on each individual 32 .

26 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
27 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
28 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
29 Woolfolk, A., Winne, P. H.. & Perry, N. E. (2016). Educational psychology (Custom ed. for Simon Fraser
University). Pearson Education. 190.
30 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
31 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education
32 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education

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Long-Term Memory

4.4 Implications for Instructors

Enriching students’ long-term memory should be the goal of all instructors. To do that, it
is beneficial for instructors to know the framework of both short and long-term memory and
the best types of encoding processes between each. For short-term retention, instructors
can encourage students to practice certain tasks until they gain automaticity, and can
guide students in learning attention-filtering strategies, such as focussing less on extraneous
information and more on the essential parts of the learning task to avoid cognitive overload
33 . For long-term retention, instructors should begin by teaching students a variety of

strategies, and then encouraging metacognition. As much as possible, instructors should

involve students more in their learning to encourage active, rather than passive learning.

4.5 Building Blocks of Cognition

The “building blocks of cognition” are five mental constructs hypothesized by many theorists
that work together to form the foundation of all of the mental frameworks and information
that is stored in the long-term memory (LTM) 34 . Although many of these concepts may, in
fact, share similar features, each is slightly different than the next. The first three concepts
that we will examine are linked closely to declarative knowledge, and the last two fall closely
in accordance with procedural knowledge 35 .

4.5.1 Concepts

What are Concepts? To begin, we will first examine concepts. Concepts theorized to
be ways of which we break down and categorize mental structures into relatively elemental
chunks and groupings with meaning that then can be used to make sense of any new in-
coming information 36 . They are deemed to be “conceptually coherent chunks of knowledge”
that can be triggered and called upon when one is prompted to retrieve information, and
they are closely related to declarative knowledge 37 . Concepts that are based off highly com-
mon/prominent events are called prototypes 38 . It is believed that concepts, along with
the other four components of the “building blocks of cognition”, work together to formulate
the foundations of what we know to be long-term memory, supporting the acquisition and

33 Woolfolk, A., Winne, P. H.. & Perry, N. E. (2016). Educational psychology (Custom ed. for Simon Fraser
University). Pearson Education. 169.
34 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
35 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
36 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
37 Khajah, M. M., Lindsey, R. V., & Mozer, M. C. (2014). Maximizing students’ retention via spaced
review: Practical guidance from computational models of memory. Topics in Cognitive Science, 6(1),
157-169. doi:10.1111/tops.12077
38 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.

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 Building Blocks of Cognition

development of language functions, factual knowledge, and object recognition; many of the
very core aspects of long-term memory 39 . doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6241-11.2012
What are Concepts composed of? There are two main theories that are considered with
regards to how conceptual development occurs 40 . First, some theorists believe that con-
cepts are abstract, mental structures in the brain, which are formed separately from the
sensory-motor systems from which the information in these structures is received 41 . In
contrast, the other main theory, which has been supported by neuroimaging technologies
(such as the fMRI), is that concepts are formulated in accordance with the sensory-motor
component and that they are stored within long-term memory as multi-modal structures
42 . There are three widely agreed upon categories of which we sort our conceptual infor-

mation into; matter, processes and mental states 43 . Matter refers to just that, matter.
Matter is any physical object in our world that has a mass and occupies space, such as
people, animals, furniture, or objects 44 . Processes are slightly more abstract. The idea
of conceptual processes refers to the idea that we store mental information pertaining to a
series of interrelated events that occur of which we would expect to see a particular result
45 . An example of processes would be understanding that when you drop something from

any height, the forces of gravity will not allow for it to be suspended in space and will act
upon it to bring it back down to the earth. Finally, concepts can be arranged into our
knowledge of mental states, which is a category essentially designated for internal states
and emotions, such as recognizing when you feel upset, happy, or unsure about another
person or a situation.
How do we formulate Concepts? There are also three possible ways accepted by professionals
pertaining as to how we develop and formulate our concepts. First is the conservative
focusing strategy, proposed by Bruner et al. Individuals who use this strategy are able to
select appropriate stimuli according to the relevant attributes surrounding the concept of
which they are confronted with 46 . Other individuals favour the focus gambling strategy,
where it is believed we gain all of the knowledge we need about a stimulus at a single period

39 Bonner, M. F., & Grossman, M. (2012). Gray matter density of auditory association cortex relates
to knowledge of sound concepts in primary progressive aphasia. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(23),
7986-7991.
40 Bonner, M. F., & Grossman, M. (2012). Gray matter density of auditory association cortex relates
to knowledge of sound concepts in primary progressive aphasia. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(23),
7986-7991. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6241-11.2012
41 Bonner, M. F., & Grossman, M. (2012). Gray matter density of auditory association cortex relates
to knowledge of sound concepts in primary progressive aphasia. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(23),
7986-7991. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6241-11.2012
42 Bonner, M. F., & Grossman, M. (2012). Gray matter density of auditory association cortex relates
to knowledge of sound concepts in primary progressive aphasia. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(23),
7986-7991. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6241-11.2012
43 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
44 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
45 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
46 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.

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Long-Term Memory

of time, all at once 47 . Individuals who choose to follow this strategy will, in fact, take less
time to attribute a stimulus than those who chose conservative focusing strategy, however,
they will be more likely to make mistakes as they are making their attributions out of speed,
not thoroughness 48 . The final possible strategy one can utilize is called scanning strategies,
where individuals will attempt to put multiple hypotheses to the test at one given time 49 .
Although this is also a time-efficient strategy for attributing stimuli, the testing of these
multiple hypotheses is ultimately a greater cognitive demand than testing one at a time, and
thus can detrimentally impact an individual’s abilities to process and remember information
50 .

4.5.2 Propositions

Propositions are the mental concepts of which most theorists widely believe that we store
linguistic information and the majority of our declarative knowledge 51 . Propositions are
known to be the absolute shortest statement to of which meaning can be attached, yet
are inherently more complex than concepts as they build upon the preexisting concepts
in order to form meaningful statements and assertions how these particular concepts are
related 52 . In order to be a proposition, the statement made must be able to be judged
to be either true or false (in other words, a declarative statement of knowledge) 53 . It is
believed that propositions sharing common characteristics or qualities are linked together
within propositional networks, that can be activated through the encoding or retrieval of
information related to a specific proposition 54 .

4.5.3 Schemata

What are schemata? Schemata’s are believed to be mental representations of an individual’s

general cause and effect knowledge 55 . Any and all knowledge that we gain is organized
in the schema, which is responsible for the subsequent encoding, storage and retrieval of

47 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
48 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
49 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
50 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
51 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
52 Remue, J., De Houwer, J., Barnes-Holmes, D., Vanderhasselt, M., & De Raedt, R. (2013). Self-
esteem revisited: Performance on the implicit relational assessment procedure as a measure of
self- versus ideal self-related cognitions in dysphoria. Cognition and Emotion, 27(8), 1441-1449.
doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.786681
53 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
54 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
55 Jui-Pi Chien. (2014). Schemata as the primary modelling system of culture: Prospects for the study of
nonverbal communication. Sign Systems Studies, 42(1), 31-41. doi:10.12697/SSS.2014.42.1.02

60
 Building Blocks of Cognition

information 56 . Schemata’s are formed through the interaction of the external conditions
and the individual’s own prior knowledge 57 . They have been compared to the mental
equivalent of scaffolding-meaning the schema that we form will provide supports for us
when we find ourselves in novel situations or learning new information 58 .
How are schemata formed? Possessing pre-existing schematic knowledge on a certain topic
has been linked to improved memory on retaining new information when attempting to recall
newly encoded information 59 . This is believed to occur as it allows for new information
to be more rapidly assimilated into the brain (and thus into the activated schema) 60 .
The information that is encoded in our schema is sorted into what are known as slots;
specific mental “categories” of sorts, into which our knowledge is encoded, stored, retrieved
and ultimately how it is perceived overall 61 . When a schema has developed and has been
proven to be a common occurrence of events or concepts, it will then likely become a part of
our long-term memory where it will continue to serve as the foundation for our recollections
and any future schematic information that may be encoded 62 . This process is termed
schematic instantiation 63 .

4.5.4 Productions

Productions are “if/then” statements that serve as a set of action rules, which govern all of
our procedural knowledge 64 . They are instantaneous, automatic mental concepts that are
learned to be second nature to humans after repetitive exposure to a common sequence of
events 65 . They provide a set of production rules and expectations for these events, and,
like propositions, are organized in interactive groups known as production networks 66 .

56 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
57 Le Grande, M. R., Elliott, P. C., Worcester, M. U. c., Murphy, B. M., Goble, A. J., Kugathasan, V., et
al. (2012). Identifying illness perception schemata and their association with depression and quality of life
in cardiac patients. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 17(6), 709-722. doi:10.1080/13548506.2012.661865
58 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
59 van Kesteren, Marlieke T. R., Rijpkema, M., Ruiter, D. J., Morris, R. G. M., & Fernàndez, G. (2014).
Building on prior knowledge: Schema-dependent encoding processes relate to academic performance. Jour-
nal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26(10), 2250-2261. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00630
60 van Kesteren, Marlieke T. R., Rijpkema, M., Ruiter, D. J., Morris, R. G. M., & Fernàndez, G. (2014).
Building on prior knowledge: Schema-dependent encoding processes relate to academic performance. Jour-
nal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26(10), 2250-2261. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00630
61 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
62 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
63 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
64 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
65 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
66 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.

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Long-Term Memory

Often by activating one production, other productions will be triggered, reacting in a series
of cognitive processes and actions until the ultimate goal is accomplished 67 .

4.5.5 Scripts

Scripts are the mental concepts that work as the underlying framework for all our procedural
knowledge 68 . It is commonly agreed that scripts are vital to our social understanding of
the world around us, and largely work to provide information governing social situations
and events, specifically who does what, when do they do it, to whom do they do it to and
why 69 . Scripts develop over time and with continuous exposure to reoccurring events that
are all essentially similar in nature 70

4.5.6 Implications for Instruction

It is incredibly important for all educators (currently employed and future alike) to ensure
that they are knowledgeable about each individual component of the building blocks of cog-
nition, and how all of these mental concepts work together to facilitate learning, acclimation
of knowledge and development, in addition to retrieval and the retrieval processes. By doing
so, they can ensure that all of their students are fully utilizing these metal processes (such
as by teaching “review lessons” prior to the new curriculum in order to activate pre-existing
productions, schemata propositions to facilitate the encoding of the new information, as well
as prepping for an easier retrieval later on) in order to reap all of the benefits out of their
education. By obtaining knowledge about the inner workings of these mental processes,
educators will be able to better understand how learning occurs and how best to assist their
students while encoding novel stimuli and information.

4.6 Changing and Growing Theories of Memory

4.6.1 Modal Model

Before other models were developed, the Modal Model was the primary model used for
understanding memory. This understanding compares human memory to the processing
performance of a computer in its simplicity and step interpretation of memory. Under-
standing this model of how memories are absorbed, understood, retained and regurgitated
helps to understand alternative models, as this emphasis is common among the majority
of theories. Another main difference in theories will be showcased in the understanding of

67 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
68 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.
69 Trillingsgaard, A. (1999). The script model in relation to autism. European Child & Adolescent Psychi-
atry, 8(1), 45. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=
4689586&site=ehost-live
70 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.

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 Changing and Growing Theories of Memory

short-term and/or working memory in comparison to long-term memory; primarily in areas

of storage and understanding.
The idea of short-term memory, as it is understood as memories or bits of information
that is stored for a short period of time, has evolved into the idea of working memory, “the
ability to internally maintain and manipulate information” 71 . This is not to say that items
considered ‘working memory’ can not be held in long-term storage. A good example of this
would be your ability to ride a bike; despite this being a working, functional knowledge
after years of not riding bike, it would be uncommon for someone to hop on a bike again
and simply tip over. Some obvious exceptions to this may be in the case of mental illnesses,
including those that can develop like Alzheimer’s and dementia, mental trauma; PTSD,
and physical trauma; specifically, but not limited, to brain damage and also serious injuries
including amputation.
The modal model would have you believe that everything flows neatly together, with sensory
and working memory flowing neatly into long-term memories, though as we do not remember
everything we have come to contact with, (seen, smelt, done, etc) it is clear that there
is more going on that contributes to memory retention. Some of the other models that
will be discussed in this section contain a more dynamic understanding of the memory
input/output processes, though all understanding will evolve as new information is gathered
and comprehended. Due to this fact, models of memory and how learning takes places are
constantly being adapted and amended to new knowledge, becoming more comprehensive
and flexible as concepts become more inclusive. As a note to the reader, it is important to
also consider the backgrounds of the participants of any research study as this can affect
what knowledge will be viewed as important but also what pre-existing schemas are involved
in their learning.

4.6.2 ACT Model

Where the network model can be taken visually, the ACT Model is much more compre-
hensive. This broad framework encompasses declarative and procedural knowledge into its
outline; building off the standard model of the modal model framework. The ACT model’s
latest revision, ACT-R uses schema and categorization structures to represent declarative
knowledge, whereas procedural knowledge is categorized by ‘production’. These ‘production
rules’ specify the actions needed to complete the given goal; like an electrician who fixes a
light and uses practical application along with their textbook knowledge to explain how it
works. These two areas are closely related as declarative knowledge provides the situation
or context and procedural knowledge provides the rules to solve it.
Some key terms to know under the ACT model are spreading activation and focus
units; where spreading activation refers to activity in long-term memory, and focus units
are where this activation starts, either with perception, or working memory which then
activates elements that would be chunked together with that first focus unit. An example
of this could be watching a weather report: despite the forecast saying sunny, related items
like rain, snow and the seasons may also be activated in your memory. This functions on

71 Wei, Ziqiang, Xiao-Jing Wang, and Da-Hui Wang. ”From Distributed Resources To Limited Slots In
Multiple-Item Working Memory: A Spiking Network Model With Normalization.” The Journal Of Neuro-
science 32.33 (2012): 11228-11240. PsycINFO. Web. 1 Mar. 2016.

63
Long-Term Memory

the basis of prior knowledge, so the more prior knowledge one has to reference could lead
to more items being activated with the initial focus unit. This prior knowledge can come
from long-term memories or working memory, as they have a great deal of overlap.
With this theory, Nodes are references as points of information, so, back to the weather
example, if a student was asked about ‘sunshine’ this information could easily connect to a
second node containing ‘summer’, but the connection to ‘sleet’ may not be immediate. To
reach this node the teacher could rephrase the question or offer hints like sensory information
to aid the information retrieval processes as those pathways are forming. Information that
the student knows well will have more available pathways tying information together than
a new subject. The stronger the node is and the more prior knowledge that exists, will lead
to superior recall than without the connections made. Due to the broad scope that this
model has to offer, it has been used and adapted to be used in accordance to problem solver,
cognitive processing and decision making; meaning it has a greater validity that just with
ideas of memory and its future application possibilities in cognitive research are varied.

Figure 15 An example of a network model, taken from Cognitive Psychology and

Instruction

4.6.3 Network Models

To start off the discussion of models, Network Models could be compared to mind mapping
or a brain-storming web as information is represented by a web-like pattern, generally
moving from the general to more specific information or categories. This would be similar
to the way in which a small child would slowly differentiate between different animals that
have four legs and fur, learning that a dog and cat have different classifications. Networking
models are one of the more simple ways to organize small units of information when they
related within the topic to other pieces. This model has been used directly in teaching,
finding that “Mind mapping directed the students’ attention to plan, monitor, and evaluate

64
 Changing and Growing Theories of Memory

their learning processes, which helped them to obtain metacognitive knowledge and transfer
their understanding to solve novel problems and situations” 72

Figure 16 A general model of what a connectionist model might look like

4.6.4 The Connectionist Model

The Connectionist Model is a ‘brain metaphor’ taking on the traditional computer

metaphor used for information processing, storage, and retrieval model; also referred to as
the parallel distributed processing model. This model includes the concept of understanding
based on context; an example of this would be having a shape with a straight line on the
left, with a ‘3’ shape on the right. In the series ‘12 |3 14’ this would be seen as the number

72 Ismail, M. N., Ngah, N. A., & Umar, I. N. (2010). The effects of mind mapping with cooperative learning
on programming performance, problem solving skill and metacognitive knowledge among computer science
students. Journal Of Educational Computing Research, 42(1), 35-61. doi:10.2190/EC.42.1.b

65
Long-Term Memory

thirteen, but in the sequence ‘ A |3 C’ it can be read as the letter ‘B’. It is because of the
adaptability to context and ability to combined cognitive tasks with a physical attribution
that the connectionist model was developed to better encompass these dynamics. This
theory looks at the human thought processes from a multitude of parallels as the human
brain is able to consider multiple thought directions in a time in a way that a computer
wouldn’t think to compare of connect. As mentioned previously, other models have a store-
retrieval aspect of recovering information where the pattern of information connections is
stored and recovered when needed. Alternatively, the connectionist model theorizes that
the elements of the pattern or connections are stored as their single units, along with the
strength of their connections, to be retrieved and reconnected. On this topic Vickers and Lee
had an important point, that “ connectionist accounts of semantic or meaningful information
are based on conceiving of meaning as activation of a limited number of features, at least
at the input layer” 73 , stating that this theory works best if the information has depth over
just memorizing facts.

4.6.5 Assessment of the functions of Long-Term Memory

Just to re-cap, long-term memories can be broken into semantic and episodic memory
systems. Semantic memory is described as “memory for general concepts and principles and
the associations among them” 74 . This area of memory contains simple working knowledge,
like how to operate the appliances in your home, as well as how concepts and words connect.
Knowing what a word means or how to get to school is all carried out by semantic memory.
Episodic memory is more personal in function, as it is involved in remembering events and
past experiences. These memories are associated with a specific time and/or place and are
unique to the individual, meaning that even though two people were at the same party, at
the same time, in the same place, they could leave with very different episodic memories of
the event.
Memories gathered over a longer period of time have a greater chance of being retained
long-term, but the quality of the memory is just as important as quantity. Quality can refer
to sensory information being gathered by the individual during the experience, like smelling
popcorn at the movie theatre, and can have a bidirectional relationship between quality
components, like smelling popcorn and thinking of the movies or being at the movies and
remembering the taste of popcorn. Although perceptuo-motor mechanisms have been found
to be connected the quality of memory, as they are typically associated with the activation
of neuronal systems that emerge from knowledge 75 . This mechanism refers to how far back
centres of the brain search into prior knowledge for an answer: so, when shown a picture of
tools, the brain has been proven to also activate sections containing the premotor cortex 76

73 Vickers, Douglas, and Lee, Michael D. (1997). Towards a dynamic connectionist model of memory. Be-
havioral and Brain Sciences, 20, pp 40-41 doi:10.1017/S0140525X97460016
74 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011) by Bruning and Shaw. Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Pearson Education.
75 Versace, R., Vallet, G. T., Riou, B., Lesourd, M., Labeye, E., & Brunel, L. (2014) “Act-In: An inte-
grated view of memory mechanisms.” Journal of Cognitive Psychology Online, Volume 26, Issue 3. DOI:
10.1080/20445911.2014.89211
76 Versace, R., Vallet, G. T., Riou, B., Lesourd, M., Labeye, E., & Brunel, L. (2014) “Act-In: An inte-
grated view of memory mechanisms.” Journal of Cognitive Psychology Online, Volume 26, Issue 3. DOI:
10.1080/20445911.2014.89211

66
 Glossary

The majority of research done in this field has to focus on self-evaluation or individual
memory testing, both of which have fair parameters of error, though functional magnetic
resonance imaging devices have been used to noninvasively view the activity of an indi-
vidual’s brain. An experiment was done, using this technique, by Anderson et al. to find
the link between procedural execution, goal setting, controlled retrieval from declarative
memory and image representation construct, and the brain’s cortical regions. The findings
of this experiment showed that each of these four areas lit up a different cortical region on
the imaging device. This evidence seems to show that different areas of the brain handle
these different areas, but critiques on the technique highlight that we still do not know why
this activity occurs and what connections are being formed in the mind to cause the array
of activity. Despite critique, experiments of this variety do give us greater insight into our
brain activity than we previously had, and show just how different areas of information can
stimulate different areas of the brain, so we know that it is not all active all the time.

4.7 Glossary

Assignment of meaning: When meaning is assigned to a perceived stimulus

Concepts: A way of sorting mental information into meaningful categories and structures;
A “building block of cognition”
Conditional knowledge: Knowledge of different strategies and when and why to use them;
The knowledge of “knowing why”
Declarative knowledge: Factual knowledge such as knowing capital cities and algebra
formulas; The knowledge of “knowing what”
Episodic memory: Memory that is specific to each individual’s personal experiences
Essential learning: Cognitive demands that are necessary for understanding the to-be-
processed information
Extraneous cognitive load: Anything that causes cognitive load outside of the original
cognitive task
fMRI: Functional magnetic resonance imaging. A neuroimaging technology that is able to
monitor brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow to activated areas of the brain
Incidental processing: Cognitive demands that are useful for understanding the to-be-
processed information, but not entirely necessary
Intrinsic cognitive load: The cognitive load required of any given task
Long-term memory: Memory that is developed over days, months, years and/or decades
of time. The permanent accumulation of memory developed over a lifetime
Matter: Any physical object in our world that has a mass and occupies space, such as
people, animals, furniture, or objects
Procedural knowledge: Knowledge of how to complete daily tasks, such as driving a car,
skiing, or making coffee; The knowledge of “knowing how”
Prototype: An extremely common/prominent concept

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Long-Term Memory

Recall: When information previously stored in short- or long-term memory is remembered

Reconstruction: When information previously stored in short- or long-term memory is
reconstructed at recall, but not remembered exactly
Referential holding: When one holds information temporarily within working memory
while other information is simultaneously being processed
Rehearsal: Cognitive repetition which allows information to remain active in short- or
long-term memory
Retrieval: The act of transferring information out of long-term memory and into working
memory
Scaffolding: A temporary framework of supports while an object (or schemata) is “under
construction” that is taken away when completed and the support is no longer needed
Schema or Schemata: Cognitive structure(s) that help organize knowledge and guide
thinking, perceptions and attention
Semantic memory: Nonspecific memory of general concepts and procedures; Not related
to specific individual events or experiences
Sensory register: A cognitive function within the working memory in which perceived
input is stored to receive meaning
UNKNOWN TEMPLATE Bookcat

4.8 References

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5 Encoding and Retrieval

Although learning is constantly happening in a multitude of settings, this text will focus on
how learning can be improved in an educational context. Learning strategies are planned
activities that a learner can engage in to learn more deeply and with better retention. Gen-
erally, a strategy is a plan of action to achieve a goal, and a learning strategy is a plan
to enhance learning. In order for learning strategies to be successfully implemented, the
learner must encode information in long-term memory. Encoding refers to the process of
converting information in working memory to knowledge in long-term memory 1 Learning
strategies can affect how well the learner encodes or constructs new knowledge and subse-
quently retrieves and uses it. In this chapter we will look at the process of encoding as well
as a variety of learning strategies such as rehearsal, mnemonics, and the activation of prior
knowledge.

5.1 Encoding Processes

We will discuss two key aspects of encoding. Firstly, we will look into the processes from
which information is translated into memory, and secondly, the strategies which can be
used to aid this process. A portion of information we attempt to learn is automatically
encoded; the rest of the information (in order to be learned and stored) involves a conscious
effort to transfer the information to the long-term memory. The way in which we remember
information, and recall it from our memory, depends greatly on the way it was originally
encoded.

5.1.1 Encoding Simple Information

The information we attempt to learn varies in complexity. Some information is simple

(e.g., ’Sandra is 10 years old’) while other information is more complex and requires critical
thinking to be fully understood (e.g., a newspaper article about a political event). In most
cases the complexity of the to-be-learned information will affect how the learner attempts to
learn. Not all strategies are suitable for learning all types of information so it is important
for the learner to be able to choose the right strategy. In the next section we will discuss
strategies which can be used to remember simple information.

1 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

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Encoding and Retrieval

5.1.2 Rehearsal

The first strategy, which can be applied to simple encoding, is rehearsal. There are several
different types of rehearsal, which can be applied to different learning tasks. This concept
can be perceived as students attempt to study for a test. Maintenance rehearsal is
considered to be a shallow form of processing and is most beneficial in simple tasks such
as remembering a phone number, but is generally not sufficient for remembering complex
information. 2 . Maintenance rehearsal involves repeatedly focusing on a piece of information
in order to keep in short term memory. It is not the most beneficial form of remembering
information because during maintenance rehearsal information can be lost easily when the
rehearsal process is interrupted. Since the information rehearsed often does not make it into
long-term memory storage, the information cannot be recalled later on making it insufficient
for encoding complex information. If the information only needs to be remembered in the
present moment, maintenance rehearsal is an appropriate tactic but if the information is
more complex or needs to be recalled later on, an elaborative rehearsal approach should
be taken. Elaborative rehearsal involves relating the to be learned information to other
information. Elaborative rehearsal is more successful in the encoding of complex information
because it requires the learner to relate the new information to their existing knowledge,
which helps build connections and strengthens understanding. Learners who relate new
information to prior knowledge are more likely to remember information and be able to
retrieve it later on 3

5.1.3 Mnemonics

Mnemonics are strategies that can be applied when learning unfamiliar concepts; they can
increase the probability that unfamiliar information will be encoded. Mnemonics involve
pairing unfamiliar concepts with familiar concepts in an attempt to increase the chance
a concept will be remembered. It involves recording information into a more easily re-
membered or more meaningful format. 4 Bruning et. al describes mnemonics as memory
strategies that help people remember information by creating more elaborate coding of new
information and stronger memory traces 5 Mnemonics can include familiar strategies such as
stories, rhymes, and songs; many students have been taught to use mnemonics in their work
without even being aware they are engaging in a mnemonic strategy. Common examples of
mnemonics we use and learn in society include using the letters BEDMAS to remember the
order of operations in completing a math equation, and ROYGBIV to remember the colours
of the rainbow. These tactics are called acronyms and if you have ever used these words
to cue your memory, you have engaged in a mnemonic strategy to aid the encoding and
retrieval of simple information. Other mnemonic techniques, described in the next section,
are the keyword method, the pegword method, and acrostics.
Although research suggests that mnemonics are widely used, theorists have questioned their
value. A common criticism is that they only encourage rote memorization and do not help

2 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
3 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
4 Putnam, A. L. (2015). Mnemonics in education: Current research and applications. Translational Issues
In Psychological Science, 1(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/tps0000023
5 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

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 Encoding Processes

with higher order skills such as comprehension or transfer order of skills. 6 There are also
varying views about whether mnemonics promote long-term learning. Mnemonics prove to
be useful in the memorization of simple information such as fact learning but have con-
tradicting results whether they are useful in higher order learning skills. It is useful to
note that mnemonics are purely designed to enhance recall and not facilitate higher order
learning so criticisms surrounding their ability to assist in higher order learning my be ir-
relevant. 7 Mnemonics are designed to assist in remembering unfamiliar concepts and they
are especially useful in lower level learning such as fact learning. Lower level learning in
turn affects higher order concepts. Higher order learning can only be facilitated if an under-
standing of basic concepts is previously attained, so it is arguable that mnemonics in fact
do affect higher order thinking. It can be argued that mnemonic strategies also promote
long-term learning as most people remember the acronym for the colours of the rainbow
for the majority or their life. Carney and Levin conducted a study to test the usefulness
of mnemonic strategies through tests such as matching, recognizing and comprehension
analysis measures. The results showed that the participants who used mnemonic strate-
gies had significantly better results than students who used their own preferred methods.8
Finally, mnemonics may have some positive non-memory side effects, such as increasing
motivation to study. In one study, students reported on a survey that having acronyms on
a review sheet made it easier for them to remember course content and made them start
studying earlier. Other studies show that students think that some mnemonics are easier,
faster, more enjoyable, and more useful than rote rehearsal and that mnemonics can reduce
test anxiety. 9 Whether mnemonics strategies can be implemented to assist with long-term
learning or learning past rote-memorization or not, they have some clear benefits. The next
section will outline some mnemonic strategies, which can be used to aid in memory benefits.

5.1.4 1. The Keyword Method

The most popular mnemonic method is arguably the keyword method. The keyword method
aids in the retention of vocabulary words, and vocabulary words in foreign languages. The
keyword method involves localizing a keyword, or similar word to the foreign word in order
to simplify it. Seeing the word associated word activates the unfamiliar word and primes
the formation of an image in a learner’s mind. The technique involves the learner focusing
on a native language keyword that sounds similar to the to-be-learned word. For example,
if the to-be-learned word is the Spanish word carta, the English-speaking learner could use
the keyword cart and then construct a meaningful interaction between the keyword and
the definition. The keyword method can be implemented by generating a sentence to link
the keyword with the to-be-learned word, or by using an illustration or a visual image. 10

6 Putnam, A. L. (2015). Mnemonics in education: Current research and applications. Translational Issues
In Psychological Science, 1(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/tps0000023
7 Putnam, A. L. (2015). Mnemonics in education: Current research and applications. Translational Issues
In Psychological Science, 1(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/tps0000023
8 Putnam, A. L. (2015). Mnemonics in education: Current research and applications. Translational Issues
In Psychological Science, 1(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/tps0000023
9 Putnam, A. L. (2015). Mnemonics in education: Current research and applications. Translational Issues
In Psychological Science, 1(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/tps0000023
10 Bakker, J., & Simpson, C. (2011). Mnemonic Strategies: Success for the Young-Adult Learner. Human
Resource and Adult Learning, 7(2).

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Encoding and Retrieval

Some criticisms suggest that the keyword method might not be useful when there is not
an obvious keyword 11 . On the other hand, it has been demonstrated in a study that two
or three hours of training with the keyword method can lead to a 70% increase in recall
with German language vocabulary; as a whole, it appears that the keyword method is very
beneficial. 12

5.1.5 2. The PegWord Method

In the pegword method, a list of concrete objects in a specific order is learned, and then
visual imagery combines the to be remembered items with the peg items. Items can be
retrieved by thinking of a number corresponding to a specific peg; the number can then cue
the target item. An example of a way to implement the pegword method is to use words
that sound like the corresponding number. One might be bun, two could be blue ect. 13
By associating information with each peg word in order, the to be learned information can
be recalled later in the order of the pegs. An additional strategy of the pegword method
involves correlating each letter of the alphabet with a number and using this coing system
as a memory cue. 14

5.1.6 3. Acronyms

Acronyms are a popular mnemonic strategy involving the first letters of a to be learned
words list; the first letters of each word in the set are taken and put together to form a
new word – called an acronym. For example, a commonly used acronym is remembering
the colours of the rainbow as ROYGBIV. Each letter serves as a retrieval cue for the target
items.

5.1.7 4. Acrostics

Acrostics are similar to acronyms but involve using a sentence to help remember a segment
of letters rather than the other way around. The first letters of a list of words serve as the
first letter in a new sentence or phrase. A commonly used acrostic is using the sentence
“every good boy deserves fudge” to remember the lines of the treble clef. (E, G, B, D, F)
(3)

5.1.8 Mnemonics Discussion

Despite some criticism surrounding the usefulness of mnemonics, they appear to be bene-
ficial when applied the correct way. Mnemonics can be applied to help remember difficult
concepts, but they should not be used in replace of primary study tactics. Mnemonics are

11 Putnam, A. L. (2015). Mnemonics in education: Current research and applications. Translational Issues
In Psychological Science, 1(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/tps0000023
12 Putnam, A. L. (2015). Mnemonics in education: Current research and applications. Translational Issues
In Psychological Science, 1(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/tps0000023
13 Spackman, C. (2011). Mnemonics and Research on Using the Keyword Method in the Classroom.
14 Spackman, C. (2011). Mnemonics and Research on Using the Keyword Method in the Classroom.

72
 Encoding Processes

not to be implemented to help overall learning or to enhance comprehension, but strategies

to aid the recall of new or difficult information. Research shows that students, including
secondary and college level, remember two to three times as much factual information,
maintain information over delayed recall periods, and enjoy using them. 15 In addition, the
use of mnemonics with college age students might have enough potential for making learn-
ing easier and possibly more fun. Specific strategies for encoding can help in the retention
of information and can possible lead to more successful comprehension. In order to encode
a level of deep processing should be attained which will be discussed in the next section.

5.1.9 Encoding More Complex Information

Elaborative encoding uses known information and relates it to the new information being
experienced. The nature of a new memory becomes dependent as much on previous infor-
mation as it does on the new information. Studies have shown that the long-term retention
of information is greatly improved through the use of elaborative encoding.16

5.1.10 Levels of Processing and Semantic Encoding

Craik and Lockhart’s popular levels of deep processing theory suggest that the level to which
an item is cognitively processed largely affects its memorability. 17 Their theory suggest
that memory traces could be seen as records of analyses carried out for the purposes of
perception and comprehension, and that deeper, more semantic, processing result in more
durable traces. 18 Semantic encoding refers to encoding the meaning of a concept and
can lead to a deeper level of understanding and a higher chance of successful encoding.
Typically, items encoded using semantic operations are better remembered in a subsequent
memory test than items encoded using shallow operations at any level of depth. 19 On the
one hand if semantic base or meaning of the new information is the focus of processing, then
the information will be stored in a semantic memory code and will be well remembered. On
the other hand, if only superficial or surface aspects of the new information are analyzed, the
information will be less well remembered and not deeply encoded. 20 In Craik and Lockhart’s
terms, memory depends on depth or processing. A typical observation in experimental as
well as everyday life settings is that if we learn an item using semantic or operations, such
as attending to its meaning, memory will be better than if we learn the same item using

15 Putnam, A. L. (2015). Mnemonics in education: Current research and applications. Translational Issues
In Psychological Science, 1(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/tps0000023
16 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
17 Galli, G. (2014). What makes deeply encoded items memorable? Insights into the lev-
els of processing framework from neuroimaging and neuromodulation. Frontiers In Psychiatry,
5doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00061
18 Nyberg L. Imaging episodic memory: Implications for cognitive theories and phenomena. Memory [serial
online]. September 1999;7(5-6):585-597. Available from: PsycINFO, Ipswich, MA. Accessed December 7,
2015.
19 Galli, G. (2014). What makes deeply encoded items memorable? Insights into the lev-
els of processing framework from neuroimaging and neuromodulation. Frontiers In Psychiatry,
5doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00061
20 Galli, G. (2014). What makes deeply encoded items memorable? Insights into the lev-
els of processing framework from neuroimaging and neuromodulation. Frontiers In Psychiatry,
5doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00061

73
Encoding and Retrieval

more “shallow” operations, such as attending to its structural features. 21 Deep processing
is seen as that processing centered on meaning. Shallow processing refers to keying
on superficial aspects of new material. An example of a shallow processing technique is
highlighting words in a passage whereas reading a passage and putting it into your own
words would be practicing deep processing. Putting an essay into one’s own words requires
thinking about the meaning of the content and carefully analyzing and comprehending the
material. In general, theorists agree that deep encoding results in more elaborate memory
traces, and that this in turn affects later memorability. 22

5.1.11 Activating Prior Knowledge

Prior Knowledge includes the pre-existing knowledge a student possesses surrounding a

particular topic. A base of prior knowledge is beneficial for successful learning because
prior knowledge facilitates encoding and guides what students recall from new information.
Van Blankenstein et al. reported that students who activated prior knowledge before self-
study were able to recall more information after the study session was completed compared
to students who did not activate prior knowledge.23 The activation of Prior knowledge
includes various methods which are designed to stimulate student’s relevant knowledge in
preparation for a new learning activity. 24 The activation of prior knowledge allows students
to engage in the material by relating the to-be-learned information to information they are
already familiar with which allows them to make inferences and connections. Students who
active prior knowledge before engaging in learning encode more information than students
who activate irrelevant knowledge showing that the activation of prior knowledge improves
recall of information 25 Prior knowledge is a simple and effective learning strategy because
it involves any teaching procedure that helps students relate what they already to know
what they are to learn. The knowledge activation can take place in the form of group
discussions, experiments, review sessions or personal reflections making is a convenient
and effective learning strategy. The activation of prior knowledge is successful for the
learner because relating information to personal experiences heightens the possibility that
the information will be remembered. Information is more likely to be elaborated or recalled
in the future if the learner has made a connection to it, rather than if the learner has no
previous information or understanding. Students at any age are able to engage in prior
learning which makes it beneficial to the encoding and retrieval of information.

21 Galli, G. (2014). What makes deeply encoded items memorable? Insights into the lev-
els of processing framework from neuroimaging and neuromodulation. Frontiers In Psychiatry,
5doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00061
22 Galli, G. (2014). What makes deeply encoded items memorable? Insights into the lev-
els of processing framework from neuroimaging and neuromodulation. Frontiers In Psychiatry,
5doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00061
23 Van Blankenstein, F. M., Dolmans, D. M., Van der Vleuten, C. M., & Schmidt, H. G. (2013) Relevant prior
knowledge moderates the effect of elaboration during small group discussion on academic achievement.
Instructional Science, 41(4), 729-744. doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9252-3
24 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
25 Van Blankenstein, F. M., Dolmans, D. M., Van der Vleuten, C. M., & Schmidt, H. G. (2013). Relevant prior
knowledge moderates the effect of elaboration during small group discussion on academic achievement.
Instructional Science, 41(4), 729-744. doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9252-3

74
 Retrieval Processes

5.2 Retrieval Processes

Retrieval processes are the means by which memories are recalled from long-term memory.

5.2.1 Retrieval

The process of retrieval is a complex but essential process, which involves converting mem-
ories into conscious experience.26 Many concepts can affect the efficiency of retrieval such
as the environment present at the time of retrieval and the learner’s study tactics. For
example, whether the learner studied information for recognition or recall plays a large part
in how well information is remembered. Empirical evidence suggests that students who
expect recall tests which are primarily essay based focus on the organization of informa-
tion. On the other hand, students who anticipate multiple choice recognition tests focus on
separating concepts from one another. 27 A theory which can improve a students retrieval
efficiency is Roediger et. al’s testing effect. The testing effect involves using tests related
to material being studied to attempt to improve overall learning for a final test.28 A study
conducted on the benefits of retrieval practice, or the testing effect examined whether the
benefits of retrieval practice could transfer to deductive inferences. The results showed that
the testing condition produced better final-test recall of the content but multiple choice
recognition questions showed no enhancement from the application of the testing effect. 29
Most teaching occurs through direct instruction and tests are only implemented to measure
progress and determine grades. The testing effect shows that tests can be used as a learning
strategy to improve encoding and retrieval of information.

5.3 KWL Comprehension Strategy

The Know-Want-Learn (KWL) strategy was first formed by Donna Ogle in 1986. Ogle first
put the program together as a way of helping teachers make learning a more student guided
process. The KWL was originally made to be used to increase reading comprehension, but
has since been found to be helpful in many areas of study 30 .
The KWL relies on constructivist theories of information activation and recall. The differ-
ent steps of the strategy (Know, Want, Learned) activate students prior knowledge, help
students recognize their current schemas, and links newly learned information with old,
solidifying and strengthening this information. The KWL relies on students constructing
their own meanings of what they know 31 , and teaches them to be more interactive in their

26 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
27 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
28 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
29 Tran, R., Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2014). Retrieval Practice: The Lack of Transfer to Deductive
Inferences. Psychonomic Society. Retrieved December 1, 2015.
30 Ogle, D. (1986) K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. Reading
Teacher, 39(6), 564-570. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1598/RT.39.6.11
31 Tok, S. (2013). Effects of the Know-Want-Learn strategy on students’ mathematics achievement, anxiety
and metacognitive skills. Metacognition and Learning, 8(2), 193-212. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/10.1007/s11409-013-9101-z

75
Encoding and Retrieval

learning experience. The KWL also teaches students to recognize what they don’t know
about a topic, which is a beneficial skill for learning. Through the steps of identifying what
they know, what they want to learn, and what they have learned, the KWL teaches students
how to be active and take charge of their own learning.

5.3.1 Know-Want-Learn Chart

Figure 17 Kwlimage2

The KWL strategy is often represented in the form of a KWL chart. This tool is imple-
mented and used in instruction in the form of a three step procedure:
1. “What do I know?”
The first procedure in the KWL is the “Know” phase. Before new information is brought
into the classroom, students are asked to recall what they already know about a specific
subject. This step is a collaborative one between the teacher and the student, in which the
students brainstorm information about what they know as a group, and the teacher records
this information in the first section of the chart 32 . The teacher’s role in this portion of the
strategy is not to correct students if what they believe they know about a subject is wrong,

32 Tok, S. (2013). Effects of the Know-Want-Learn strategy on students’ mathematics achievement, anxiety
and metacognitive skills. Metacognition and Learning, 8(2), 193-212. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/10.1007/s11409-013-9101-z

76
 KWL Comprehension Strategy

but rather to guide the brainstorm and stimulate thinking. This portion of the procedure
works to activate the prior knowledge and any previous schemas students may have.
After what the students know has been recorded in the chart, they are then asked if they
can organize this information into logical categories. This step works to chunk information
and link ideas together. Once students learn to make information categories, this skill can
be applied to all areas, aiding in their formation of schemas and reading comprehension 33 .
2. “What do I want to learn?”
The second procedure in the KWL is the “Want” phase. After prior knowledge is activated,
and what students already believe they know about a subject is recorded in the first section
of the chart, students are then asked what they want to learn about a subject. This step
furthers the brainstorming process because it requires learners to think deeper about what
they know, recognize what they don’t, and identify what interests them. Asking what
students want to learn also acts as a way to get learners personally involved in the process.
This step functions to inspire students, and spark their interest in the subject.
3. “What have I learned?”
The last step in the KWL procedure is the “Learned” phase. After the new information is
presented, students are asked to think about they have learned during the lesson. This step
requires students to reflect and think about the new information they have been presented
with. It is in this step, when the new information that was learned is recorded in the final
column of the chart, that any previous incorrect knowledge that may be contradicted by
the new, is recognized and corrected by the students. By presenting all of the information
visually, students are able to see and link new concepts with their prior knowledge, which
aids in deepening their understanding of what they have just learned.
The KWL strategy has been found to be effective and helpful in all grades and subjects
34 . The strategy is easily adjustable to fit multiple age groups, and works effectively to

reinforce new information with old. Longer, more demanding lessons can be divided and
reflected upon in smaller chunks to minimize cognitive load and difficulty.

5.3.2 Research and Feedback

Although the KWL strategy was originally formatted as a learning comprehension tool,
researchers have found the KWL approach to be beneficial to learning and comprehension in
several different areas of study. After implementing KWL, increased academic achievement
has been reported in areas of learning such as reading, math, science, language, and the
development of metacognitive skills 35 .

33 Ogle, D. (1986) K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. Reading
Teacher, 39(6), 564-570. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1598/RT.39.6.11
34 Ogle, D. (1986) K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. Reading
Teacher, 39(6), 564-570. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1598/RT.39.6.11
35 Tok, S. (2013). Effects of the Know-Want-Learn strategy on students’ mathematics achievement, anxiety
and metacognitive skills. Metacognition and Learning, 8(2), 193-212. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/10.1007/s11409-013-9101-z

77
Encoding and Retrieval

When testing grade 6 math students in a research study, the data found that students who
had undergone mathematic instruction with the KWL format delivered test scores with a
statistically significant increase. This application of the KWL strategy resulted in increasing
the academic achievement in the participants 36 .
Teachers report positive effects when the KWL method is incorporated into their lesson
plan. Teacher reports also include receiving notably positive feedback from the students
who receive this tool 37 . Primary research continues to support the KWL as a learning
comprehension strategy, and reports that it outperforms many other comprehension tools
and it continues to be preferred by learners 38 .

5.4 READS

READS for summer learning is a literacy reform program with the intention of enhancing
child literacy. It is currently being run by the Project for Scaling Effective Literacy Reforms
leader: James S. Kim, who is an Associate Professor at the Harvard Graduate School of
Education.
READS addresses the problem of the literacy gap that children, especially those from lower-
income families, obtain over the summer period while they are not in school 39 . READS
works to minimize the development of this gap by encouraging and providing children with
the opportunity to read over their summer break. READS works to motivate kids to
continue reading, and therefore keep up their literacy comprehension, through the work of
goals and prizes 40 . Another key component to the READS program is the involvement
of parents. READS provides lessons to teach and encourage parents how to successfully
scaffold their child’s summer literacy journey so that positive progress is made during the
program 41 . READS also relies on teachers and other mentors to provide assistance and
literary intervention when they are needed.

5.4.1 READS Summer Program

Lessons
Prior to the summer program, children are provided with lessons on reading comprehension
from a READS professional teacher. In these lessons, children learn how to understand

36 Tok, S. (2013). Effects of the Know-Want-Learn strategy on students’ mathematics achievement, anxiety
and metacognitive skills. Metacognition and Learning, 8(2), 193-212. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/10.1007/s11409-013-9101-z
37 Ogle, D. (1986) K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. Reading
Teacher, 39(6), 564-570. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1598/RT.39.6.11
38 Tok, S. (2013). Effects of the Know-Want-Learn strategy on students’ mathematics achievement, anxiety
and metacognitive skills. Metacognition and Learning, 8(2), 193-212. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/10.1007/s11409-013-9101-z
39 Kim, J. S., & White, T. G. (2008). Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5:
An Experimental Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 1-23.
40 Kim, J. S. (2004). Summer Reading and the Ethnic Achievement Gap. Journal of Education for Students
Placed at Risk, Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 9(2), 169-188.
41 Kim, J. S., & White, T. G. (2008). Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5:
An Experimental Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 1-23.

78
 READS

what they are reading, and also how to find deeper meanings in what they are read. These
skills are crucial for academic success. Children also establish a comprehension routine with
their teacher, which they can implement over the summer.
Motivation
One of the ways READS tackles the issues of literacy among children is by addressing and
inspiring the children’s motivation. READS works to teach children how to have a positive
relationship with books. One of the first, and important ways that children are motivated
to read through the READS program is that their immediate access to books is greatly
increased 42 . Children are provided with further reason to be motivated for reading during
the summer when they are matched by professionals with books that are of their reading
level and of their interest 43 . Supplying kids with books that are topics of interest provides
intrinsic motivation, or personal motivation that comes from within, to continue their
reading44 . This also prevents kids from choosing books that are too easy or not the right
fit for a literacy comprehension program 45 .
The extrinsic motivation, or outside external motivation, to keep up with their summer
reading is prizes. READS sends the participants 10 books to read over the summer, along
with comprehension exercises to complete after the books are read. After the exercises have
been filled out, they can be sent in for prizes. This works to both motivate the children to
read, as well as work on practicing their comprehension skills46 .
Scaffolding
Family and teacher support is a big component of READS. Teachers help the children learn
comprehension skills and routines, and parents provide their children with motivation and
support throughout the summer to continue with the program. Parents are provided with
scaffolding tips so that they can successfully play a role in their child’s literacy efforts.
Encouraging children to read, asking about the comprehension checks, engaging in conver-
sation about the books, and sending the booklets back for prizes, are some of the ways in
which the READS program teaches parents how to encourage their child 47 .

5.4.2 Support and Research Findings

While the READS program claims to have found positive effects from their programs, the
efficacy of these types of programs is still up for debate. Research findings for increasing
reading comprehension through summer programs has been controversial. Some research

42 Kim, J. S., & White, T. G. (2008). Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5:
An Experimental Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 1-23.
43 Kim, J. S., & White, T. G. (2008). Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5:
An Experimental Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 1-23.
44 Kim, J. S. (2004). Summer Reading and the Ethnic Achievement Gap. Journal of Education for Students
Placed at Risk, Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 9(2), 169-188.
45 Kim, J. S., & White, T. G. (2008). Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5:
An Experimental Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 1-23.
46 Kim, J. S. (2004). Summer Reading and the Ethnic Achievement Gap. Journal of Education for Students
Placed at Risk, Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 9(2), 169-188.
47 Kim, J. S., & White, T. G. (2008). Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5:
An Experimental Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 1-23.

79
Encoding and Retrieval

has found no difference between children who do voluntary reading, and later reading com-
prehension performance. Research studies have however, found a positive results from
children who read and are provided scaffolding by teachers and parents, versus those who
do not receive any support48 . Other research studies have found a positive correlation be-
tween children who read during the summer, and their test scores in the fall. Increased
access to books and other reading material has also been found to lead to positive reading
outcomes for children 49 .

48 Kim, J. S., & White, T. G. (2008). Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5:
An Experimental Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 1-23.
49 Kim, J. S. (2004). Summer Reading and the Ethnic Achievement Gap. Journal of Education for Students
Placed at Risk, Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 9(2), 169-188.

80
 Highlighting

5.5 Highlighting

Figure 18 text highlighting

Highlighting text is one of the most common study strategies used by students. Highlighting
involves selecting important text in a passage and marking it for later reference. Most of the
time, when students use highlighting as a learning tactic, it is with the purpose to helping

81
Encoding and Retrieval

them with their future studying, when they intend to come back to the material at a later
date50 .
When used appropriately, each step in the highlighting strategy can engage meaningful
processing of text. Reading the text, activating prior knowledge, selecting important in-
formation out of the text, linking this information to prior knowledge and the previously
read text, and constructing a representation of the text meaning all work to help better
store and recall the information back later 51 . Each of these steps work to strengthen the
encoding process, so that this information is more likely to be processed further in the
working memory. Marking parts of sentences, or individual words, is a good way to keep
the student’s focus on the information that is important.
There are many different theories as to why highlighting may be beneficial to learning. The
cognitive processes that are used and required when deciding which of the text should be
marked amongst the text that shouldn’t, could possibly result in students thinking harder
about the material and using thinking strategies when evaluating it, which leads to deeper
processing of the text meaning, versus just regular reading52 . Actively choosing which text
to mark, and which meanings are important in the information they are studying changes the
way the student reads and re-reads the text, which can lead to it seeming more important,
and therefore more memorable 53 .

5.5.1 Research Findings and Opinions

While there are many hypothesis as to why the cognitive processes involved in highlighting
may be beneficial to learning, research studies have shown conflicting results as to whether
or not highlighting itself is helpful. Many studies have shown beneficial results from high-
lighting, while others have not 54 .
One research study compared participants who read highlighted information with partici-
pants who read non highlighted information. The study found that the participants with
highlighted information were better able to recall the information that was highlighted, as
well as the information that was not highlighted, over the participants who had plain text.
This finding was even stronger when participants read over the text two or more times

50 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z
51 Den Elzen-Rump, V., Leopold, C., Leutner, D (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategy: A training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215(3), 174-182. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.
lib.sfu.ca/10.1027/0044-3409.215.3.174
52 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z
53 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z
54 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z

82
 Highlighting

without delay. These findings suggest that combining highlighting with rereading may aid
student’s recall ability 55 .
One of the research views opposing the helpfulness of highlighting argues that students do
not know how to highlight information correctly, and that is why it is not beneficial to them.
Because students do not know how to properly focus their attention on the text long enough
to decipher what information is useful and the most meaningful, they end up highlighting
information that they believe is important, but is actually not relevant 56 . This draws
student’s attention away from the important information, and acts more as a distraction,
adding onto their cognitive load. Also, because students may be reading the information
wrong and focusing on the incorrect parts, deeper processing is not possible and does not
occur in a beneficial way 57 .
Another view opposing the highlighting process states that highlighting may actually be
a placebo effect58 . In other words, students may believe highlighters are effective simply
because they have always relied on them. This false belief can backfire when students
become over confident and comfortable with highlighting, and don’t give the process much
thought. Students that are overconfident in their use of highlighting may also assume that
they already know the information when they reread it, which can cause them to skim,
resulting in a loss of deeper processing59 .

5.5.2 Application

Learning to highlight text properly requires high levels of reading comprehension, as well
as other cognitive abilities such as problem solving techniques and critical thinking. Stu-
dents must learn to identify what concepts are important, relevant and appropriate to the
information they are learning. The process of highlighting a text should pose some diffi-
culty to students in order to be beneficial, because by focusing your attention and thinking
hard about what is important, you strengthen your chances of deeper encoding of the text
meaning60 .
Five simple steps for approaching highlighting are: (1) familiarizing yourself with the general
topic of the text, (2) reading each paragraph slowly and carefully, (3) identifying and mark-

55 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z
56 Den Elzen-Rump, V., Leopold, C., Leutner, D (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategy: A training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215(3), 174-182. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.
lib.sfu.ca/10.1027/0044-3409.215.3.174
57 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z
58 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z
59 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z
60 Bjork, E., Kornell, N., Storm, B., Yue, C (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study
and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78. http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z

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Encoding and Retrieval

ing the main points, (4) revising your understanding of the text based on the information
you found, and (5) applying this information to memory61 .

5.6 Concept Mapping

Figure 19 Venn diagram

A concept map is a method in which concepts can be organized, linked, and visually dis-
played. A concept map, more commonly referred to as a diagram, represents the relation-
ships between concepts. Some more common forms of concept maps are Venn diagrams,
tree diagrams, flow charts, and context diagram. Concept maps can be used and adapted
to fit many different subjects of learning.
Concept maps are a useful tool for learning because they enable the student to visualize how
concepts interact with each other, and what their relationships are. This enables students
to encode the meanings of the concepts more deeply, and with better understanding62 .
When a student goes through the process of making a concept map and they consider the
possible relationship between concepts, their prior knowledge and schemas are activated.
The building of a concept map also works to add to new information to student’s knowledge,
by visually representing new ideas, and asking students to think critically and find logical

61 Den Elzen-Rump, V., Leopold, C., Leutner, D (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategy: A training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215(3), 174-182. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.
lib.sfu.ca/10.1027/0044-3409.215.3.174
62 Blunt, J (2014). Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping. Journal of Educational Psychology,
106(3), 849-858. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1037/a0035934

84
 Concept Mapping

relationships between ideas. These two work together, linking new ideas to old schemas, to
reinforce learning and strengthen encoding 63 .
Concept maps require students to think deeply about the information they are learning,
in order to identify the main points 64 . By building a concept map, students learn how to
represent what they know, and how to organize information in a logical, sense making way.

5.6.1 Research Findings

Research studies show that the use of concept maps help students learn how to organize
information, enhance their academic performance, and increase their knowledge retention
abilities65 . This is because the process of forming a concept map relies on encoding strength-
ening procedures such as deep thinking, organizing, and relating old information to new.
One study compared the retrieval effectiveness of information practiced in either concept
maps or in paragraph form. As a retrieval activity, both formats gave similar results in
the study, meaning that concept maps are just as effective as paragraph retrieval. Worth
noting, in the study, researchers reported that the participants preferred the paragraph
retrieval format.

5.6.2 Use of Concept Maps

There are many different ways that concept maps can be used academically. Students can
personally make concept maps while they are learning. This would help students in their
learning process. By being able to identify the key components and how they relate to each
other, students would be able to grasp a deeper understanding right away.
Concept maps could also be used after students have learned. Having students fill in a blank
diagram could be a way in which class understanding and comprehension of new ideas are
tested and measured. Students could also use concept maps as a method of studying, as
recall practice for what they need to know.
Lastly, concept maps can be used by instructors as a teaching aid. Diagrams and visual
representation of new ideas are useful tools that could help teachers in communicating and
clarifying information to students. Concept maps may be used most effectively of all by
educators, because they have a clear understanding of the information they are trying to
deliver 66 .

63 Blunt, J (2014). Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping. Journal of Educational Psychology,
106(3), 849-858. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1037/a0035934
64 Blunt, J (2014). Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping. Journal of Educational Psychology,
106(3), 849-858. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1037/a0035934
65 Liu, P (2014). Using eye tracking to understand learners’ reading process through the concept-mapping
learning strategy. Computers & Education, 78, 237-249. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.
1016/j.compedu.2014.05.011
66 Hung, S., Ku, D., Shih, J (2014). The integration of concept mapping in a dynamic assessment model for
teaching and learning accounting. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 17(1), 141-153.

85
Encoding and Retrieval

5.7 Classroom Contexts/Strategies

This chapter will describe the ways in which you teach and the ways that your students
perceive their learning environment help to affect their cognitive development as they grow.
This includes the type of teaching style that you execute and how the students see you as
your role as a teacher. How the classroom is built for students to develop academically
and emotionally will also be a factor in this chapter. Relationships between students and
teachers will be analyzed to determine the impact they have on learners.

5.7.1 Interactions in the Classroom

The relationships between teachers and students, and students and students are vital to
the success of a classroom and its ability to foster a supportive learning environment. A
study completed in Greece by Poulou (2014) 67 focused on student behaviours, emotions and
attitudes in relation to teacher-student interactions. It heavily emphasizes the importance
of Brofenbrenner’s model describing the influences of our peers and adult figures. Not only
does it look at teacher-student relationships, it takes into consideration student social skills
and classroom context to see its influence on student behaviours and attitudes.
Discussions between students which are also facilitated by teachers are strongly supported
by a study done by Danish & Saleh (2015). It shows that while student to student dialogue
is advantageous, it is much more effective if there is a teacher who consistently provides
support, which in this case, is context clues, for the students to continually develop their
ideas.

5.7.2 Self-Regulated Learning

TheorySelf-regulated learning is a technique used in classrooms in which students are given

freedom to control the pace at which they work and to evaluate their understanding of the
material. They use this understanding to make judgements on their progress and to decide
whether or not they will move their studies forward. In turn, this allows them to create and
maintain their own learning goals and the strategies they will use to fulfill these goals. It
involves metacognitive awareness in that they are aware of their own learning, such that they
are able to make the aforementioned decisions as necessary. Motivation also plays a major
role as it requires an individual to work independently, determining their own intrinsic or
extrinsic motivations.
ResearchAlthough self-regulated learning is widely popular with educators, it is debated
whether or not it is effective for all students. For that reason, this strategy in the class-
room is looked at in a study done by Nelson (2015)[35] in which a variety of high school
students studying history in a suburban upper mid-west neighborhood report motivation
and self-regulation. Different groups of students with skill levels ranging from AP students
to students in regular courses are observed as self-regulating techniques are applied and

67 Poulou, M. (2014). The effects on students’ emotional and behavioural difficulties of teacher-student
interactions, students’ social skills and classroom context. Br Educ Res J British Educational Research
Journal, Vol 40(6), 986-1004. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1002/berj.3131

86
 Classroom Contexts/Strategies

removed. It finds that those who are in AP courses are more highly motivated if they use
self-regulatory techniques, whereas students in normal classes quickly become disinterested
if they are in control of their learning. However, this article also mentions findings conclusive
from another study by Cleary and Chen where self-regulated learning was more effective
for students in regular classrooms than for those in AP classrooms. Because this study
was based on math rather than world literature, it could be considered that self-regulated
learning is important for all learners and that the effectiveness of self-regulated learning
varies by subject.

5.7.3 Self-explanation

TheorySimilarly, self-explanation is another useful independent strategy where students

verbalize their thoughts to facilitate clearer, conscious, and more organized understanding.
For instance, if a student were to tackle a math problem using the self-explaining technique,
they would work through the problem explaining each step, what they are going to do to
solve each step, and why they did it. If they find that they are not able to explain why
they did it, they might go back and look for an explanation from another source. In the
same way that we are able to learn by teaching others, self-explanation works because you
are working to break down the material to your own understanding to teach yourself.
ResearchFor further understanding, an article by Roy & Chi68 differentiates between high
quality self-explanations and low quality self-explanations. The former describes students
who have shown a more critical understanding of the material by being able to demonstrate
reflections of their learning through assumptions, comments and integrated statements. The
latter describes students who simply restate what they’ve read. Being able to recognize the
two is important because those who participate in high-quality self-explanations are not
only able to produce better post-test results, but are also more likely to be good students
as opposed to poor students (these students were tested prior and classified according to
their scores). Roy & Chi also looked at another study that shows four different types of
self-explanation- two that are successful and two that are unsuccessful. Principle-based
explainers can connect what they learn to the principles of the topic and anticipative ex-
plainers make predictions prior to reading and connect it to relevant material from the
past. Most learners in the study fall into the unsuccessful type category, which includes
passive explainers and shallow explainers. They concluded that learners vary in their abili-
ties to self-explain, and these variations can predictively estimate the quality of the results
a learner produces.
ApplicationWylie and Chi69 describe different forms of self-explanation that can be cat-
egorized by placing them under one or more of the utilized methods. One of the methods
used included open ended methods, the first being one in which students are asked to fur-
ther connect and ensure understanding of the material by relating it to prior knowledge and
explaining what they just read aloud. Another similar open ended method used computers

68 Roy, M., & Chi, M. (2012). The Self-Explanation Principle in Multimedia Learning. The Cambridge
Handbook of Multimedia Learning, 271-286. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816819.018
69 Wylie, R., & Chi, M. H. (2014). The self-explanation principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer, R.
E. Mayer (Eds.) , The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (2nd ed.) (pp. 413-432). New York,
NY, US: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139547369.021

87
Encoding and Retrieval

for students to express their understanding of the material rather than vocalizing it. On the
other end of the spectrum were some less open ended methods that required students to pick
their explanation of why they answered incorrectly off a multiple choice list. Both extremes
have advantages and disadvantages, with open ended methods being too unrestrictive yet
allowing students to freely assess themselves, which can allow new and different ideas. On
the other hand, menu type methods can be too restrictive, but eliminate the irrelevant or
incorrect explanations students can make.

5.7.4 Scaffolding Instruction

Scaffolding learning is another classroom technique that is very popular with educators.
It involves a step by step process in which the educator continually provides support for
individual students as they progress in their understanding of the topic. The teacher works
around the pace of the students to further their knowledge development. There are impli-
cations to this, which includes the lack of time and far too large classroom sizes for this to
be a feasible task. With that said, given enough time and small enough classroom sizes,
providing scaffolding instruction could yield extremely effective learning outcomes.
In an article by Kabat-Zinn (2015) 70 , he discusses the downfalls of scaffolding. While
scaffolding, in the moment, can be a great way to support students, it may become detri-
mental eventually as students may become dependent on the support they have received
thus far. In other cases, scaffolding instruction does not carry the burden of leaving a sense
of dependency. In a study done by Ukrainetz (2015)71 , students who struggled with read-
ing comprehension participated in a text comprehension program in which they were given
practical and explicit strategies to improve their skills. It discusses ways in which students
successfully transition from being supported by their speech language pathologists to being
supported by their own knowledge.

5.8 Studying

There are many types of studying strategies that are taught to students- although often
times, students tend not to use strategies at all. In this chapter, different strategies will be
looked at along with the population they work best with. It will analyze and study students
as individual groups in relation to the study techniques they use. Motivation and social
support from peers and adults including teachers, tutors and parents will also be seen as a
factor in the effectiveness of various study techniques. We will look at studying in relation
to individual groups rather than studying as a whole. Additionally, study techniques can
be broken up and categorized according to different subjects and different forms of testing.

70 Kabat-Zinn, J. (2015). On Lineage and the Uses and Limitations of Scaffolding. Mindfulness, 6(5),
1222-1225. doi:On lineage and the uses and limitations of scaffolding.
71 Ukrainetz, T. (2015). Improving Text Comprehension: Scaffolding Adolescents into Strategic Reading.
Semin Speech Lang Seminars in Speech and Language, 36(1), 17-30. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.
sfu.ca/10.1055/s-0034-1396443

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 Studying

5.8.1 Peer Tutoring

Theory
Peer tutoring is a method of learning in which classmates teach and learn from each other
through one-on-one direct instruction. Many schools, particularly secondary schools, have
implemented this strategy as whole classes. Its intentions are directed at students to be able
to process material deeply enough to be able to teach it, and for tutees to be able to learn
in an environment without pressure. Typically, tutors are better performing students, likely
those who have previously taken the class that they are tutoring. Some of the challenges
of peer tutoring, as stated in an article by Mynard & Almarzouqi72 include the fact that
students, especially those in high school, may not necessarily get along and thus coordination
of all the students becomes difficult. Additionally, there are no guarantees that tutors and
tutees will consistently show up for class. There is also a fear among professional educators
that students don’t possess adequate information or ability to effectively teach another one
of their peers.
ResearchOne study by Korner & Hopf73 looked specifically at cross-age peer tutoring in
physics, in which the tutors were in grade 8 and the tutees were in grade 5. Using a
pre-test post-test design, they had three main groups in which each consisted of tutors,
tutees or tutors and tutees, and two mentoring groups that would guide them through the
material prior to tutoring. Results saw that no matter which group was tutoring which, all
groups showed positive effects on tutors, mentors and tutees, particularly when the students
took part in the active role of tutoring. In their review of literature, they also consider
past studies where “They emphasized positive effects concerning students’ achievements,
attitudes toward the subject matter, and self-concepts not only for the tutoring students,
but for the tutees as well74 .” Peer tutoring increased a variety of interpersonal skills such
as teamwork and taking on a leadership role. In the same way, another study found that
peer tutoring benefitted vulnerable minority students who came from low income and/or
poor socioeconomic families more so than if they were to adhere to traditional means of
teaching. The difference is that peer tutors and tutees are able to form relationships that
students and teachers cannot. The impact, given that the system is organized, structured
and clearly understood, is most likely to be positive on both tutor and tutee’s sense of
academic achievement and self-efficacy.
Application
Being a fairly new method of learning, peer tutoring is still somewhat in its initial stages
of development. School systems vary among a variety of factors including different levels
of schooling, private and public schools, different countries, and so forth. For this reason,
there are a variety of ways peer tutoring can be implemented in classrooms.

72 Mynard, J., & Almarzouqi, I. (2006). Investigating peer tutoring. ELT Journal, 60(1), 13-22.
doi:10.1093/elt/cci077
73 Korner, M., & Hopf, M. (2014). Cross-Age Peer Tutoring in Physics: Tutors, Tutees, and Achievement
in Electricity. Int J of Sci and Math Educ International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education,
13(5), 1039-1063. doi:10.1007/s10763-014-9539-8
74 Korner, M., & Hopf, M. (2014). Cross-Age Peer Tutoring in Physics: Tutors, Tutees, and Achievement
in Electricity. Int J of Sci and Math Educ International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education,
13(5), 1039-1063. doi:10.1007/s10763-014-9539-8

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Encoding and Retrieval

An article by Ayvazo & Aljideff75 discusses Classwide peer tutoring (CWPT) and its struc-
ture in inner-city elementary and secondary schools. The first step in CWPT is to train the
tutors. Teachers first instruct the tutors in their expertise, and the tutors are to then prac-
tice tutoring what they have learned. As this is happening, teachers will move from student
to student, assessing them and providing critique to allow students to correct themselves.
Next, they are given a performance record sheet to check off the skills that they have done
well, and cross off the skills they need to continue to work on. Throughout this, students
continue to learn lessons about interpersonal growth, such as how to appropriately receive
and give feedback to their peers. Following this, students become ready to undertake their
roles as they take on being both the tutee and tutor. This turn taking is advantageous
because it allows the students to reap benefits from both roles, as they also learn to become
better learners and teachers. It also eliminates feelings of inferiority or superiority, as all
students are given the opportunity to teach each other, rather than deeming some students
more qualified than others to teach.
In universities, a study by Brandt & Dimmit76 utilizes writing centers at school to be a
setting for peer tutors who are separated by their specific studies. Tutors go through a
screening process in which they must complete a number of specific, selected courses, have
at least a 3.5 GPA., and fulfillment of other criteria stated by the university. As tutors,
they are taught to teach by scaffolding the learners, rather than straightforward direction.
They teach a student-centered approach and encourage tutors to understand why these
methodologies are used. The methods used at these writing centers seemed to be well
organized in terms of their hired tutors and study formats. The beliefs that the writing
centers had to ensure that tutors were genuine in their use of student-centered approaches
greatly facilitated the success to this program. A peer tutoring system does not simply work
when it’s implemented; it must be planned thoroughly and made clear to all participants
what its intentions are. The effects of this peer tutoring method depended on approach and
clear guidelines being followed.
It’s apparent that peer tutoring techniques fare especially well in schools with at-risk stu-
dents, for it allows these students to work with peers whom they most likely have more
valuable and meaningful relationships with. Additionally, for antisocial students, it creates
a starting point of interaction- which can often times be the most difficult part of making
friends. Given that an effective method of peer tutoring is used, it is unlikely that it will
have a negative effect on students and likely that it will create a positive impact on students’
self-confidence, academic achievement, peer relationships, and interpersonal skills.

5.8.2 Note Taking, Summarizing, and Rereading

TheoryBecause strategies while studying are dependent on the motivation and effort of an
individual, rather than their peers and teachers, they play a major role in the development
and academic achievement of a student. Habits and perceptions on studying that students
pick up in their younger years are likely to carry on throughout their lives. The effects of note

75 Ayvazo, S., & Aljadeff-Abergel, E. (2014). Classwide peer tutoring for elementary and high school students
at risk: Listening to students’ voices. Support for Learning, 29(1), 76-92. doi:10.1111/1467-9604.12047
76 Brandt, C. & Dimmitt, N. (2015). Transfer of learning in the development of peer tutor competence.
Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 12(2). http://lthe.zu.ac.ae

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 Glossary

taking can differ as it can occur during lectures or while reading. Similarly, summarizing
material may have different outcomes, dependent on whether you are recalling material or
directly referring to the material as you summarize. The effectiveness of these strategies,
including note taking, summarizing, rereading and highlighting, depends on a number of
different factors, some of which will be looked at as we analyze the literature.
ResearchA study by Dyer & Ryley77 looks at the effects of note taking, summarizing,
and rereading individually and collaboratively as study strategies. Each student is given
an envelope with instructions along with a passage, telling them that they are to do a
random combination of taking notes, reading, summarizing, and/or doing an unrelated
task. Students who were able to spend more time reviewing and studying the passage
through note taking or rereading had better post-test results than those who summarized
the material by recall without reference to the material. On the other hand, those who did an
unrelated task after reading had the lowest performance scores. A meta-analysis by Ludas
(1980) focused on the accumulated studies on note taking and the effect it has on recalling
information. Previous studies have shown note taking to be either positive, or having no
difference, but never negative in results. Note taking is optimal in suitable environments,
such as lectures that are slower-paced, as opposed to note taking during videos. During
quick-paced lectures, one might simply write exactly what they hear, rather than thinking
about what they’re writing. Time is also a factor when looking at the efficiency of note
taking- in that 15 minutes is the proximal time for one to effectively listen and take notes
that are remembered.
ApplicationNote taking, summarizing and re-reading are strategies many students use as
they are often the first things taught about studying. They are very much self-explanatory,
although it is important to mention the impact that technology has on these strategies, as
they can all be done on laptops, computers and tablets. All in all, it is evident that activities
that allow more review of the material taught result in better sustainment of what is learned.
Note taking requires rereading and comprehending text in order to understand what we are
reading in our own words, thus it requires constant review. Note taking in lectures provides
students material that is written to their understanding to review, given that the class
provides an optimal environment for note taking.

5.9 Glossary

Learning strategies:tactics, which the learner can apply to material in order to remember
it more efficiently
Encoding:the process of transferring information from short- term memory for storage in
the long-term memory of the learner
Retrieval:the process of re-accessing information once it has been encoded in the brain
Maintenance rehearsal:Information is repeatedly rehearsed in order to keep it active in
short-term memory

77 Dyer, J., Riley, J., & Yekovich, F. (1979). An Analysis of Three Study Skills: Notetaking, Summarizing,
and Rereading 1. The Journal of Educational Research, 73, 3-7.

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Encoding and Retrieval

Elaborative rehearsal:Relating the to be learned information to other information

Mnemonics:Study tactics, which aid learners in the retention and retrieval of information
The Keyword method:A two- stage procedure for remembering materials that have an
associative component
Prior Knowledge:The pre-existing knowledge a student possesses surrounding a particular
topic
Zone of Proximal DevelopmentThe time in which students are most likely and able to
learn material and as they move further from this time, it will become harder to learn
ScaffoldingA process first put forward by Lev Vygotsky, in which learners are supported
step by step at their own pace to reach their learning goals
Self-Regulated LearningLearning that gives the learner freedom to control their own
pace
MotivationBehaviours and thoughts that drive individuals to perform
Intrinsic MotivationA drive to complete a task based on personal interest or belief
Extrinsic Motivation A drive to complete a task based on outside factors such as prizes
and rewards

5.10 Recommended Readings

The self-explanation principle in multimedia learning.

Wylie, R., & Chi, M. H. (2014). The self-explanation principle in multimedia learn-
ing. In R. E. Mayer, R. E. Mayer (Eds.) , The Cambridge handbook of multimedia
learning (2nd ed.) (pp. 413-432). New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1017/CBO9781139547369.021 Siegler
The effects on students’ emotional and behavioural difficulties of teacher-student
interactions, students’ social skills and classroom
Poulou, M. (2014). The effects on students’ emotional and behavioural difficulties of teacher-
student interactions, students’ social skills and classroom context. Br Educ Res J British
Educational Research Journal, Vol 40(6), 986-1004. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.
ca/10.1002/berj.3131
Mayer, R. E. (1980). Elaboration techniques that increase the meaningfulness of technical
text: An experimental test of the learning strategy hypothesis. Journal Of Educational
Psychology, 72(6), 770-784. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.72.6.770
K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text.
Ogle, D. (1986) K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text.
Reading Teacher, 39(6), 564-570. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1598/RT.
39.6.11
Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in Grades 3 to 5: An Experimental Study.

92
 Recommended Readings

Kim, J. S., & White, T. G. (2008). Scaffolding Voluntary Summer Reading for Children in
Grades 3 to 5: An Experimental Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, Scientific Studies of
Reading, 12(1), 1-23.
While encoding processes store new information into long-term memory, retrieval processes
access previously stored information in long-term memory and place it into our conscious
awareness

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6 Encoding Processes

Before we are able to decode information, it must first be placed in to our long-term memory,
which is referred to as encoding 1 . There are several strategies that students can use
in order to successfully encode the information that is being learned. When encoding
simple information, three distinct strategies can be used. Elaborative rehearsal, defined
as “any form of rehearsal in which the to-be-remembered information is related to other
information”, is a deeper encoding strategy than maintenance rehearsal, which is simple
repetition of information 2 . Mediation is a simple elaborative encoding strategy that involves
relating information that is difficult to remember with something meaningful 3 . Another
commonly used strategy is mnemonics, in which new information is paired with already
learned information. This gives meaning to the new information, which allows it to be more
memorable 4 .
In order to encode more complex information one may use other strategies, such as activating
prior knowledge, using guided questioning, or using the levels of processing approach 5 .

1 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
2 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
3 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
4 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
5 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.

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7 Reconstruction of Memories and
Information

7.1 Definition and examples

In previous chapters, we have learned about the encoding process and its role in constructing
memories. In this chapter we look at the retrieval process and its use of reconstructive
memory. When information is taken into the brain during encoding, only selected key
elements of the situation are stored in long-term memory.1 This storage is aided with the
structural help of schemata, mental frameworks that help organize knowledge.2 Think of
how you recognize that a dog is a dog. Your schema for ”dog” may include, four legs, barks,
has a tail, and so on. Some people may include in there schema for ”dog” that they are
pets, while other may include that they can be dangerous and can bite. The individual
componets that make up a schema work together in constructing one’s perceptive of that
schema. When we want to retrieve certain information for recall, the schemata will be
activated and the stored pieces of information will be combined with general knowledge,
thereby reconstructing the memory into a whole. Therefore, reconstructive memory can
be defined as the way in which the recall process reassembles information by building upon
the basis of limited key details held in long-term memory with the general and domain
specific knowledge in one’s repertoire. The reconstruction of memory allows our minds
to deal with fragments of information, which is far easier to handle than taking on every
piece of information we come into contact with all at once. The reconstruction of memory
is not a fully accurate system of retrieval; mistakes can arise out of the reconstruction
process that can distort the original information. This section will focus on reconstruction
of memories and information, give specific examples and definitions, provide an insight into
the research in this field, and examine the errors that can arise during the process of memory
reconstruction.
To give a basic image of the concept behind reconstruction, think of a jigsaw puzzle and the
box that holds its pieces. The individual puzzle pieces come together in creating a unified
image, but are stored as individual units within the box. When the pieces are reconstructed
in a meaningful way, starting with one piece and it being connected to another piece and
so on, the entire image comes together as a whole image. The completed puzzle is now a
single entity and now too big to fit into the box. In order to have the puzzle stored properly
in the box, it needs to be deconstructed and have its individual pieces put back into their
original container. The idea here is that memories and information are deconstructed for

1 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
2 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.

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Reconstruction of Memories and Information

easy storage, yet have the ability to be reconstructed in collaboration with general and
domain specific knowledge in order to become a single unit of meaningful information.3

7.2 Bartlett’s Research on Memory Reconstruction

The nature of memory recall has been under debate for many years, with the question:
is recalling information from memory a reproductive process or a reconstructive process?4
After several experiments regarding memory reconstruction, many cognitive psychologists
agree that remembering is a reconstructive process.5 One experiment that widely impacted
this debate was done by British psychologist Frederic Bartlett and was expressed in his book
Remembering:A Study in Experimental and social psychology.6 The experiment involved a
group of students who read a short story from an entirely different culture; the fact that
the story was from a different culture was to ensure that the material as not too familiar
to the students. At various lengths of time since the original reading, students were asked
to reproduce the story to the best of their abilities. Two years after the original reading,
one student was asked to reproduce the original story. The only pieces of information the
student could reproduce were the names of the two main characters in the story, Egulac and
Calama. After some thinking, the student was able to connect several other aspects of
the story to the vivid names that she originally remembered; although these aspects did
not match the original story exactly, it was clear that they were inspired by the original
content. This experiment shows that remembering can be an active process that combines
key points of interests that are stored in long-term memory with prior knowledge in order
to produce a whole product that closely matches the original. This experiment supports the
reconstructive nature of memory because the student started with a main point of reference,
then actively tried to make connections, ultimately reconstructing the original story, or at
least a story that resembles the original).7

7.3 Errors in Reconstruction

The work done by Bartlett sets the stage for addressing the errors that can arise during
memory reconstruction. As stated earlier in section 1.2, the student in Bartlett’s experiment
was able to reconstruct her memory of the story, but the reconstructed memory did not
exactly match the original content. Bartlett was able to show not only that remembering
is a reconstructive process, but also that this process is vulnerable to errors and is not fully
reliable in reproducing completely accurate copies of the original experience. There are two
main topics related to memory reconstruction errors: confabulation and selective memory.

3 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
4 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
5 Bruning, R., & Schraw, G., & Norby, M., (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 5th ed.
6 Bordignon, S., Giulini, E., Trentini, C.M., & Bosa, C.A. (2015). Memory in children and adolescents with
autism spectrum disorder: a systematic literature review. Psychology and Neuroscience, 8, 211-245.
7 Bordignon, S., Giulini, E., Trentini, C.M., & Bosa, C.A. (2015). Memory in children and adolescents with
autism spectrum disorder: a systematic literature review. Psychology and Neuroscience, 8, 211-245.

98
 Errors in Reconstruction

Confabulation is one error that arises out of memory reconstruction. Confabulation is

the unintentional fabrication of events displayed as real memories in one’s cognition. It
is a common problem that can affect those who have suffered from a brain injuries or
psychological diseases. Confabulation occurs when the key pieces of information in long-
term memory that starts the reconstruction process of producing the memory is lost; this
loss can be caused from brain trauma. The brain makes up for this loss of information by
coming up with new information that seems right, resulting in the invention of a confused
memory. Confabulation can present itself in a wide degree of severity, depending on the
individual and their medical condition.8
Selective memory is the active repression of negative memories, or it can be seen as
the active focus on positive memories. This causes errors in the reconstruction of memories
because the recall process is disturbed. When a person actively represses negative memories,
those memories will be forgotten. The forgotten material will not be recalled because even
the proper cues will not connect to the repressed material.9

8 Nalbantian, edited by Suzanne; Matthews„ Paul M., McClelland, James L. (2010). The memory process :
neuroscientific and humanistic perspectives. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01457-1.
9 Waulhauser, G. (2011, July 11). Selective memory does exist. The Telegraph.

99
8 Recalling Specific Events

While reconstruction of memories occurs when people try to retrieve memories from a
general information and memory storage, retrieval of specific bits of information- like specific
life events- occurs under a slightly different process 1 . In this section the recalling of specific
events will be looked at. We will discuss the role that episodic memory has and how this type
of memory functions. We will also examine a phenomenon known as flashbulb memories
and how it works.

8.1 The Role of Episodic Memory

Episodic memory is defined as the “storage and retrieval of personally dated, autobio-
graphical experiences” 2 . Appropriately named, this type of memory focuses on life events,
like recalling childhood events, where you vacationed last summer, and even what you had
for breakfast last Sunday. These types of memories are retrieved with the help of asso-
ciations that link the event to a specific time or place 3 . Robin, Wynn, and Moscovitch
studied the effects of spatial context on the recall of specific events 4 . These researchers
were interested in whether actually being in the context or simply hearing auditory cues
about the context will enable the recall of events 5 . Robin and colleagues found that loca-
tions, compared to people, served as a better tool for recall when participants were asked to
either imagine or recall an event- although both were better when they were highly familiar
6 . It is interesting to note that Robin et al. 7 found that even when there was no location

specified for the scenarios provided, the participants were much more likely to generate a
spatial context than a person. The researchers state that “participants spontaneously added

1 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
2 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
3 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
4 Robin, J., Wynn, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2016). The spatial scaffold: The effects of spatial context on
memory for events. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(2),
308-315.
5 Robin, J., Wynn, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2016). The spatial scaffold: The effects of spatial context on
memory for events. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(2),
308-315.
6 Robin, J., Wynn, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2016). The spatial scaffold: The effects of spatial context on
memory for events. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(2),
308-315.
7 Robin, J., Wynn, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2016). The spatial scaffold: The effects of spatial context on
memory for events. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(2),
308-315.

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Recalling Specific Events

location information to the person-cued events when none was specified” 8 . Furthermore,
when spatial cued events were compared against person cued events, it was discovered that
the recall of memories was much more vivid and detailed 9 . Thus, the researchers concluded
that spatial cues were much more effective for accurately recalling specific events 10 . This
study portrayed how the location and time of various events is a salient factor for retrieval
of episodic memories.
There is an ongoing debate among psychologists whether episodic memory and semantic
memory, which is defined as a “memory of general concepts and principles and associations
among them”, are different types of memory 11 . Researchers are investigating brain activity
in people with amnesia who are no longer able to retrieve episodic memories 12 . A study
on individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease, a type of dementia characterized by progressive
degeneration of the brain, found that people with amnesia have significant impairments in
all domains of episodic memory 13 . The greatest impairments were evident in acquisition of
memory, delayed recall and associative memory 14 .
Research on people with amnesia inspired many psychologists to investigate the functions of
implicit memory; this type of memory is an automatic and unconscious way of memory
retention 15 . It is interesting to note that often times our memories are not available to our
conscious mind for recall, but can still influence our behaviour due to a previous event 16 .
Early theorists believed that the “inability of such individuals to transfer verbal materials
from [short-term memory] to [long term memory] played a critical role in their amnesia”
17 . However, this view was not adequate, as it became evident that individuals suffering

from amnesia were not impaired in all kinds of long-term verbal memory 18 . Further studies
have revealed that individuals with amnesia have the ability to use implicit memory when

8 Robin, J., Wynn, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2016). The spatial scaffold: The effects of spatial context on
memory for events. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(2),
308-315.
9 Robin, J., Wynn, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2016). The spatial scaffold: The effects of spatial context on
memory for events. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(2),
308-315.
10 Robin, J., Wynn, J., & Moscovitch, M. (2016). The spatial scaffold: The effects of spatial context on
memory for events. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(2),
308-315.
11 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
12 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
13 Irish, M., Lawlor, B. A., Coen, R. F., & O’Mara, S. M. (2011). Everyday episodic memory in amnestic mild
cognitive impairment: A preliminary investigation. BMC Neuroscience, 12doi:10.1186/1471-2202-12-80
14 Irish, M., Lawlor, B. A., Coen, R. F., & O’Mara, S. M. (2011). Everyday episodic memory in amnestic mild
cognitive impairment: A preliminary investigation. BMC Neuroscience, 12doi:10.1186/1471-2202-12-80
15 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
16 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
17 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
18 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.

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 Flashbulb Memories

completing various tasks, like spelling, suggesting that there is no division between semantic
memory and episodic memory 19 .

8.2 Flashbulb Memories

Moving forward, flashbulb memories are another type of memory for recalling specific events.
This type of memory is of an incredibly specific nature and is tied to events with an emo-
tional relevance to the individual 20 . For example, individuals may experience flashbulb
memories when remembering the 9/11 terrorist attacks on New York City. Although flash-
bulb memories may be considered to be perfect accounts of the event or events that have
occurred, research has discovered something quite on the contrary. It has been found that
flashbulb memories are not actually as accurate as previously assumed 21 . This gives rise
to the debate on whether flashbulb memories are a “special class of emotional memories,”
or whether they should be categorized as ordinary autobiographical memories 22 .

19 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
20 Lanciano, T., Curci, A., Mastandrea, S., & Sartori, G. (2013). Do automatic mental associations detect a
flashbulb memory?. Memory, 21(4), 482-493.
21 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
22 Lanciano, T., Curci, A., Mastandrea, S., & Sartori, G. (2013). Do automatic mental associations detect a
flashbulb memory?. Memory, 21(4), 482-493.

103
9 Relearning

Relearning is a process of acquiring of once lost information, while using much less time
compared to the initial attempt of learning the same material. It provides an accurate
demonstration of how memory can store the smallest traces of information without us
realising that we remember anything about it. Proof to that is how much faster we can
relearn seemingly lost information compared to first tries of learning it1 . A good example
would be the case when a learner memorizes meaningless set of words and then after some
time, when it is impossible to recall any of it, he or she repeats the process. The comparison
between the amount of time that was needed to memorize the words for the first and the
second time would demonstrate that the second attempt was shorter in duration. Next
section demonstrates how similar experiments were done by prominent researches in the
past.

9.1 History of Research on Relearning Method

Hermann Ebbinghaus was one of the first researchers who examined relearning method in
his work. He practiced it by memorizing nonsense syllables to the point when he could
repeat them without an error2 . After some time, when the memory of it was completely
gone, he relearned the same set of syllables and compared the number of attempts made
during the initial and subsequent sessions. The fact that the second try required less time
to succeed in recalling suggested that some information retained after initial session3 .
However, relearning method stays underused in modern memory research and more
widespread approaches like recall tests took its place4 . One reason for that is an apparent
insufficiency in measuring any visible savings while relearning complex materials, which
usually require deeper understanding alongside the sheer memorization5 .

1 de Jonge, M., Tabbers, H. K., & Rikers, R. P. (2014). Retention beyond the threshold: Test-
enhanced relearning of forgotten information. Journal Of Cognitive Psychology, 26(1), 58-64.
doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.858721
2 Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013), Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory.html
3 Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013), Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from
www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory.html
4 de Jonge, M., Tabbers, H. K., & Rikers, R. P. (2014). Retention beyond the threshold: Test-
enhanced relearning of forgotten information. Journal Of Cognitive Psychology, 26(1), 58-64.
doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.858721
5 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.

105
Relearning

9.2 Distributed versus Massed Practice

Although it is unclear how exactly relearning occurs, research indicates that the way in
which learners practice their studies has a major impact on both learning and relearning.
There are two ways of practice that can cause quite different learning outcomes. One is
distributed practice - a certain amount of study sessions which take place regularly over
time (e.g., working on improving a skill for several weeks or years). The opposite is massed
practice, where learners make one-time intensive effort of working on a task (e.g., preparing
for a test overnight)6 .
Subsequent retention of information proves to be more successful when using distributed
practice method. At the same time, if the goal of a studying is to pass a test or just use
certain knowledge once or twice, massed practice might be a better choice7 . Thus, the
purpose of the learning activity could influence which of these practices learners adopt in a
given activity.
A number of non-experimental studies had examined the effect of distributed practice on
mathematical knowledge retention. In particular Bahrick and Hall (1991) analyzed how
much the subjects remember from school algebra and geometry classes after 1 to 50 years
later. Results of the study indicated that the more different-level classes of the same subject
student took in school (which means that he or she was exposed to certain amount of
repetition of the same material), the better student’s memory of the subject was8 .
Massed practice can be beneficial too, in particular while meeting two conditions. First
case is when the goal is not understanding, but particular behaviour, which would generate
stimulus-response linkages. Second example is when it is used by an expert who already
holds sufficient amount of knowledge in the field9 .

9.3 Relearning after Brain Injury

Another interesting domain, where relearning occurs as a necessity, is the cases of people
forgetting sometimes not only declarative, but even simple procedural knowledge that we
all have been trained to perform since early childhood. When brain injury results in dys-
function between different parts of the brain, motor and cognitive functioning suffers. In
that case, damage can cause problems in performing even regular every-day behaviour. Ob-
servational learning appears to be one of the most useful relearning tactics for individuals
with such injuries. When watching others performing a needed activity, patients form a
mental representation of it10 . If accompanying by a proper reinforcement, such practice

6 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
7 Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2006). The effects of overlearning and distributed practise on the retention of
mathematics knowledge. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(9), 1209-1224. doi:10.1002/acp.1266
8 Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2006). The effects of overlearning and distributed practise on the retention of
mathematics knowledge. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(9), 1209-1224. doi:10.1002/acp.1266
9 Mumford, M. D., & Constanza, D. P. (1994). Influence of abilities on performance during practice: Effects
of massed and distributed practice. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 86(1), 134.
10 Sarah Mae Sincero (2012). Nature and Nurture Debate. Retrieved Apr 05, 2016 from Ex-
plorable.com: https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate

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 Relearning after Brain Injury

can produce positive results for patients who is capable of focusing their attention on the
object, can plan and execute their own behaviour11 .

11 Sarah Mae Sincero (2012). Nature and Nurture Debate. Retrieved Apr 05, 2016 from Ex-
plorable.com: https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate

107
10 Testing as Retrieval Practice

When thinking of a test, most students will only consider its outcomes in the form of a
grade or a conclusive estimation of their abilities and knowledge, while research proves that
testing can be a solid learning tool itself. Depending on the desirable outcomes, tests can
be designed and implemented into the curriculum in much more useful ways than just for
assessment purposes.

10.1 Testing Effect

The principle of the testing effect states that if being tested during the time of study by
undergoing smaller tests and quizzes on the material, students will perform better on their
final test1 .
Under certain conditions tests can provide much more positive impact on students’ future
retrieval of information, than spending the same amount of time on rereading the material.
That standard tends to be confirmed even if no feedback follows the test and performance
on the test itself is not perfect. Thereby, after initial studying of the material, it would be
more beneficial to undergo some tests on it, than rereading the text again2 .
However, better effect takes place if detailed feedback for the test is provided or if perfor-
mance on it was successful. Research indicated that the number of successful tries increases
long-term retrieval effect respectively. Even better conditions are provided when those
testing practices are distributed across several days and take place repeatedly3 .
Several reasons form the basis of tests providing more positive impact on students’ retrieval
outcomes than simple rereading of study material. One of such reasons is practice on the
retrieval, when learners have an opportunity to work on their abilities to find and extract
needed material out of their memory under small pressure of a challenge. Also, if there
is a resemblance between practice and final tests, such actions will put retrieval processes
into right context, which provides additional connections between encoding and decoding
conditions4 .

1 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
2 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
3 Rawson, K., Dunlosky, J., & Sciartelli, S. (2013). The Power of Successive Relearning: Improving Per-
formance on Course Exams and Long-Term Retention. Educational Psychology Review, 25(4), 523-548.
doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9240-4
4 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.

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Testing as Retrieval Practice

10.2 Research on Testing for Retrieval

Despite the fact that students usually assume that primary goal of being tested is to be
evaluated afterwards, cognitive psychologists have been aware of tests’ ability to enhance
retrieval for a long time. Several research methods were used to verify it. First, it required
the students to learn new material and then take or don’t take a test on it before the final
exam. Results proved that those who took the additional test performed better on the
final one. With such a method some researchers have questioned whether positive results
depended on test itself or they were caused by additional reminders about the material in
the test. Due to that additional type of research was conducted and it required students to
either take a test after initial learning or restudy the material without taking a test. Final
tests again showed that student who took additional test performed better on the final one.
As for the nature of the material being tested, equally beneficial results were found for
remembering words, texts or illustrations. Overall, there were conducted numerous studies
which proved tests to reinforce learning outcomes5 .

5 Rawson, K., & Dunlosky, J. (2012). When Is Practice Testing Most Effective for Improving the Durability
and Efficiency of Student Learning?. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 419-435. doi:10.1007/s10648-
012-9203-1

110
11 Glossary

Alzheimer’s Disease: A type of dementia characterized by progressive degeneration of

the brain.
Confabulation: The unintentional fabrication of events displayed as real memories in one’s
cognition.
Distributed Practice: a certain amount of study sessions which take place regularly over
time (e.g., working on improving a skill for several weeks or years).
Episodic Memory: Storage and retrieval of personally dated, autobiographical experi-
ences.
Implicit Memory: An automatic and unconscious way of memory retention.
Massed Practice: practice, where learners make one-time intensive effort of working on a
task (e.g., preparing for a test overnight).
Reconstructive Memory: The way in which the recall process reassembles information
by building upon the basis of limited key details held in longterm memory with the gerneral
and domain specific knowledge in one’s repetoire.
Schemata: Mental frameworks that help organize knowledge.
Selective Memory: The active repression of negative memories, or the active focus on
positive memories.
Semantic Memory: Memory of general concepts and principles and associations among
them.
Testing Effect: the influence that taking tests makes on learning and retention of infor-
mation.

111
12 Suggested Readings

Bartlett, R.H. (1932). Remembering: A Studyin Experimental and Social

Psycology. Cambridge University Press.
Irish, M., Lawlor, B. A., Coen, R. F., & O’Mara, S. M. (2011). Everyday episodic memory
in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A preliminary investigation. BMC Neuroscience,
12doi:10.1186/1471-2202-12-80
Lanciano, T., Curci, A., Mastandrea, S., & Sartori, G. (2013). Do automatic mental asso-
ciations detect a flashbulb memory?. Memory, 21(4), 482-493.

12.1 References

113
13 Sociocognitive Learning

13.1 Social Cognitive Theory

Figure 20

Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory views learning as occurring within a social context
and regards humans as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating.1 Social
cognitive theory categorizes the factors in human development as environmental, behavioral,
and cognitive. It portrays development as emerging from the dynamic interplay of these
three types of factors. Building on Bandura’s earlier focus on observation and modeling as
a source of learning, social cognitive theory describes how the belief in one’s competence to
succeed at a task, known as self-efficacy, strongly affects learning outcome.2

1 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
2 Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological review,
84(2), 191.

115
Sociocognitive Learning

13.1.1 Reciprocal Determinism

Figure 21

Bandura considers his model of reciprocal determinism as a way to explain how an

individual’s behavior both influences and is influenced by both personal characteristics and
the social world. Bandura’s reciprocal determinism model also explains that learning is the
result of interacting variables. His model involves three components, personal, behavioral,
and environmental factors that interact and influence each other. These three components
are considered to function as interdependent rather than autonomous determinants, thus
maintaining the fact that the they are conditional of each other. Personal factors include
beliefs and attitudes of the individual. To apply this to a learning environment, one would
say that the personal beliefs and attitudes of the learner would affect their own learning.
If they were previously rewarded for a certain behavior in a certain situation, for instance,
they are more likely to repeat that scenario. The behavioral component of learning can
consist of responses one makes in a given situation such as one’s response to a low test
score with either frustration or an increased effort. Finally, environmental factors such as
roles played by parents, teachers and peers can have an effect on an individual’s behavior
and self-beliefs, which consequently impact their learning. Given the importance of this
three components of Bandura’s model, we focus on the personal factors such beliefs about
the self, and how it can affect behaviors and the interpretation of environmental cues. The
model of reciprocal determinism will thus be considered in each section of this chapter.

116
 Social Cognitive Theory

13.1.2 Self-efficacy

Figure 22 self efficacy factors

Since self-concept and self-efficacy, though distinct constructs, are related in their concep-
tion and in their effects on student achievement, consideration is given first to the literature
on self-concept as a basis for observations on self-efficacy. Self-concept is generally viewed
as an assessment of self-worth deriving from comparisons with the past performance of
self and the performance of others.34 Self-efficacy tends to be conceptualized as a context-
specific assessment of one’s competence to perform a specific task. Self-efficacy theory
suggests that feelings of self-efficacy have their origins in experiences of success or failure
that arise through attempts to master actual tasks. In brief, Self-efficacy is how the in-
dividual perceives ones own abilities and the level of confidence for achieving goals from

3 Marsh, H. W. (1986). Global self-esteem: Its relation to specific facets of self-concept and their importance.
Journal of personality and social psychology, 51(6), 1224.
4 Bandura, A. (1978). Reflections on self-efficacy. Advances in behaviour research and therapy, 1(4), 237-
269.

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Sociocognitive Learning

the perceived abilities. There are three domains of self-efficacy that differentiates in: task
difficulty, generality of one’s self-efficacy (self-efficacy in one domain is not consistent with
self-efficacy in another domain), strength of one’s efficacy judgments. Within those three
domains, there are four factors that Bandura stated to effect self-efficacy. These factors are
enactive mastery, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological and effective
state. Enactive mastery is related to the knowledge that an individual has obtained from
pervious experience. For example, if an individual has achieved mastery in math they are
more likely to have a high self-efficacy. Achieving mastery contributes to the individual’s
perception of ones ability in completing a task. Vicarious experience is watching others and
learning from what was watched5 . For example, if an individual watches a classmate or
teacher demonstrate an equation on the board they may feel their ability to the problem on
their own has increased. There will be more discussion related to this in the section entitled
enactive and vicarious learning. Another factor is verbal persuasion which is having an
individual convince another that they are capable of completing a task. Having another
person or classmate tell another that they have the ability to do well on a task or encourage
them, might boost their confidence and their perception of their ability on a task. The
final factor, physiological state, can effect the individual’s self-efficacy. For example, if an
individual is tired due to a lack of sleep, their perception of their ability to complete a
math task might be low. Even though they normally have high self-efficacy in math. These
four factors as well as others affect the individual’s self-efficacy.67 As self-efficacy is closely
related to the concept of reciprocal determinism in ways that the personal, environmental,
social aspects influence self-efficacy and vice versa, this part of the chapter will look closely
at the different aspects and implications of self-efficacy and factors that will correlate with
each other.

13.1.3 Agency

Agency refers to simply the capacity of a person to act in any given environment. When
it comes to learning, agency and performance are closely related, since agency involves the
individual’s willingness to engage in academic tasks. Agency is characterized by number
of core features that operate within human consciousness and influences the nature and
quality of one’s life and learning. Social cognitive theory distinguishes among three modes
of agency: direct personal agency, proxy agency that relies on others to act on one’s be-
hest to secure desired outcomes, and collective agency which is exercised through socially
coordinated and interdependent effort.8 As defined by Bandura, efficacy beliefs form the
foundation of human agency as people need to believe that they can produce results by
their own actions, individuals who have agency are intrinsically motivated to perform and
may need very little or no external incentives; Bandura (2007)9 refers to this subjective

5 Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. (2014). Factorial equivalence of social cognitive theory: Educational levels × time
differences. Educational Psychology, 34(6), 697-729. doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.814190
6 Seijts, G. H., Latham, G. P., & Whyte, G. (2000). Effect of self- and group efficacy on group performance
in a mixed-motive situation. Human Performance, 13(3), 279-298. doi:10.1207/S15327043HUP1303_3
7 Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. (2014). Factorial equivalence of social cognitive theory: Educational levels × time
differences. Educational Psychology, 34(6), 697-729. doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.814190
8 Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American psychologist, 44(9), 1175.
9 Bandura, A. (2007). Much ado over a faulty conception of perceived self-efficacy grounded in faulty
experimentation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26(6), 641-658.

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operative capabilities. For example, a person with high self‐efficacy would be confident
in his/her ability to perform a given task successfully. In order to fulfill and maintain the
condfidence, the person would exert greater effort in completing a difficult goal‐related tasks
if he/she feels confident that the task would be successfully completed. Individuals with
high self-efficacy, need to believe that challenges can be met and overcome. Self-efficacy
beliefs usually affect cognitive functioning through the joint influence of motivational and
information-processing operations. For example, this dual influence is illustrated in studies
of different sources of variation in memory performance. The stronger people’s beliefs in
their memory capacities, the more effort they devote to cognitive processing of memory
tasks, which, in turn, enhances their memory performances. However, efficacy in dealing
with one’s environment is not a fixed act or simply a matter of knowing what to do. People
are neither autonomous agents nor simply mechanical conveyers of the environmental in-
fluences. Rather, they make causal contribution to their own motivation and action, which
involves a generative capability in which cognitive, social, and behavioral skills must be
organized into integrated action. Perceived self-efficacy helps to account for such diverse
phenomena such as changes in coping behavior produced by different modes of influence.
The stronger their perceived self-efficacy, the higher the goals people set for themselves and
the firmer their commitment. These include the temporal extension of agency through in-
tentions and thought, self-regulation, and self-reflection about one’s capabilities, quality of
abilities, and the meaning and purpose of one’s life pursuits. In causal tests, the higher the
level of induced self-efficacy, the higher the performance accomplishments and the lower the
emotional arousal.10 Among the mechanisms of personal agency, none is more central or
pervasive than people’s beliefs about their capabilities to exercise control over events that
affect their lives. Self-efficacy beliefs function as an important set of proximal determinants
of human motivation, affect, and action. So far, the discussion has centered on efficacy
activated processes that enable people to create beneficial environments and to exercise
control over them. Judgments of personal efficacy also affect selection of environments.
People tend to avoid activities and situations they believe exceed their coping capabilities,
but they readily undertake challenging activities and select social environments they judge
themselves capable of handling. They operate on action through motivational, cognitive,
and affective intervening processes. Some of these processes, such as affective arousal and
thinking patterns, are of considerable interest in their own right and not just as interven-
ing influencers of action.11 Those who argue that people do not exercise any control over
their motivation and action usually emphasize that external events influence judgments
and actions, but neglect the portion of causation showing that the environmental events
are partially shaped by people’s actions. In the model of reciprocal causation, people partly
determine the nature of their environment and are influenced by it. Self-regulatory func-
tions are personally constructed from varied experiences and not simply environmentally
implanted. Among the mechanisms of human agency, beliefs of personal efficacy is also
very pervasive and other factors serve more as guides and motivators, as they are rooted in
the core belief that one has the power to produce what one desires. Do beliefs of personal
efficacy contribute to human functioning? If it was otherwise people would have little in-
centive or motivation to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties. This core belief affect
whether individuals think in self-enhancing or self-debilitating ways, how well they motivate
themselves and persevere in the face of difficulties, the quality of their emotional well-being

10 Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American psychologist, 37(2), 122.
11 Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American psychologist, 37(2), 122.

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and their vulnerability to stress and depression, and the choices they make at important
decisional points. The critique for this theory comes from this aspect since self-efficacy
beliefs operate in concert with goal systems of self-regulation in contrast to the focus of
control theory on discrepancy reduction. As evaluated by 9 meta-analyses for the effect
sizes of self-efficacy beliefs and by the vast body of research on goal setting, contradicts
findings that belief in one’s capabilities and personal goals is self-debilitating. 12

13.1.4 Outcome Expectation

Figure 23 thumbnail

12 Vancouver, J. B., Thompson, C. M., Tischner, E. C., & Putka, D. J. (2002). Two studies examining the
negative effect of self-efficacy on performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 506.

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Studies of the relationship between self-beliefs and performance tend to draw on this or re-
lated theories and usually endorse the notion of reciprocal determinism at a theoretical level
which can also set the basis for self-efficacy level. However, attempts to model this mutual
influence of self-beliefs and performance are few and are focused on the relationship between
self-concept and performance. Comparisons are made between those who overestimate how
well they will perform (over-estimators), those who underestimate their level of performance
(under-estimators) and those who have an accurate perception of their performance level
(accurate estimators) to determine how the three groups differ.13 If differences exist then
recommendations can be made to improve the accuracy of self-estimates, and thereby im-
prove the efficacy of such measures. A key consideration is what differentiates those that are
able to accurately self-assess from those that produce erroneous self-assessments. Feedback
is also a very important factor in building outcome expectation and self-efficacy. Athana-
sou (2005) identified three key sources of feedback used by people in deriving self-estimates:
social messages, personal factors and situational factors. Social messages were sources of
information derived from interaction with others. Three types of social messages influenced
self-evaluation: comparisons we make of ourselves with others, feedback we receive from
others, and the social and cultural stereotypes.14 Results from the above study indicated
four main areas of feedback sources, and a positive relationship between ability and accu-
racy of self-estimates. Learning goal orientation and use of feedback were positively related;
however their effects on accuracy of self-assessment were contrary to those hypothesized.
Analyses indicated a positive relationship between ability and accuracy of self-assessments.
However, over-estimators recorded higher levels of confidence, learning goal orientation and
usefulness of feedback than the other groups.Most studies report the relationship between
estimates of ability and actual ability to be only moderate.15 Thus the reciprocal determin-
ism of self-efficacy and performance seems to be without direct empirical support, probably
because the longitudinal, repeated-measures data often considered necessary for this pur-
pose are not available. It is possible, though, to model reciprocal effects with cross-sectional
data. In the analyses reported in an article, the authors achieved this using a structural
model in which the mutual influence of self-efficacy and performance in mathematics is rep-
resented as a feedback loop. This model was estimated in each of 33 nations on the basis of
data on the mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics achievement of 15-year-olds. First,
the reciprocal determinism of mathematics self-efficacy and achievement was supported in
26 of the 30 nations, providing empirical support for this proposition as an explanation for
the observed relationship between mathematics self-efficacy and achievement. The model
was a good fit to the data in 30 nations and was supportive of reciprocal determinism in
24 of these, suggesting a fundamental psychological process that transcends national and
cultural boundaries. Such evidence can suggest the link between culture which is an exam-
ple of environmental factors correlated to self-efficacy and performance. 16 Taken together,
these findings provide persuasive support for Bandura’s contention that self-beliefs and per-

13 Ng, J. R., & Earl, J. K. (2008). Accuracy in self-assessment: the role of ability, feedback, self-efficacy and
goal orientation. Australian Journal of Career Development, 17(3), 39-50.
14 Athanasou, J. A. (2005). Self-Evaluations in Adult Education and Training.Australian Journal of Adult
Learning, 45(3), 290-303.
15 Ng, J. R., & Earl, J. K. (2008). Accuracy in self-assessment: the role of ability, feedback, self-efficacy and
goal orientation. Australian Journal of Career Development, 17(3), 39-50.
16 Williams, T., & Williams, K. (2010). Self-efficacy and performance in mathematics: Reciprocal determin-
ism in 33 nations. Journal of educational Psychology, 102(2), 453.

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formance iteratively modify each other until the individual comes to a realistic appraisal of
his or her self-worth or competence relative to the (mathematics) tasks at hand.

13.1.5 Goal Orientation

According to Locke and Latham (2002), ‘A goal is the object or aim of an action, for exam-
ple, to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit’.17 Elliot
(1997) sees goals as cognitive representations that guide individual behaviour by focusing on
specific outcomes. These definitions have a common thread that they suggest goal‐setting
is based on purposeful conscious human behavior.18 Thus, a goal is that which an indi-
vidual hopes to reach or attain through purposeful behavior. Goal orientation refers to
the mental framework that influences how people approach situations of achievement in
terms of interpreting the situation and motivation to achieve. Past research suggests that
goal orientation may be treated as either an individual trait or a situational characteristic.
Button, Mathieu and Zajac (1996) claimed that goal orientation has both the dispositional
and situational components.19 College students who hold a strong learning goal orientation
are more likely to pursue challenging activities and to exert greater effort when presented
with a difficult class, topic, or activity. this mastery pattern is adaptive in an academic
setting and leads to a higher level of achievement.20 There are two types of goal orientation:
performance orientation, where the aim of completing a task is to gain favorable judgments
of one’s performance; and learning orientation, where the aim is to gain knowledge. The-
oretically these orientations produce different behaviors. Individuals with a performance
orientation are more likely to avoid challenges and pressure because that might increase
the likelihood of failure and consequently be judged negatively by others. For people with
performance orientation, their aim is on the performance and external reinforcement com-
ponents such as positive feedback and judgment on their work or grades in school and taking
risks that will result in negative feedback or bad grades lower their motivation to challenge
tasks. In contrast individuals with a learning orientation seek out challenges and maintain
their motivation even under difficult conditions, for them, failure is also a form of useful
feedback. For learners with learning orientation, the process itself is also reward for learning
and the result of succeeding or not does not effect them very much because they are more
focused on gaining the knowledge which ironically often results in good external feedback
and results as well.21 Button et al., (1996) concluded from their investigations that learning
and performance goal orientations were not mutually exclusive, each goal orientation repre-
sent a different end of a continuum. Self-efficacious students are better goal setters, because
of their willingness to set “close” rather than “distant” goals and the ability to set one’s own
goals; also it has been shown that these students have an enhance self-efficacy. This also

17 Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task
motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American psychologist, 57(9), 705.
18 Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement
motivation. Journal of personality and social psychology, 72(1), 218.
19 Button, S. B., Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. (1996). Goal orientation in organizational research: A
conceptual and empirical foundation. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 67(1), 26-
48.
20 Vieira Jr, E. T., & Grantham, S. (2011). University students setting goals in the context of autonomy,
self‐efficacy and important goal‐related task engagement. Educational Psychology, 31(2), 141-156.
21 Ng, J. R., & Earl, J. K. (2008). Accuracy in self-assessment: the role of ability, feedback, self-efficacy and
goal orientation. Australian Journal of Career Development, 17(3), 39-50.

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implies that student‐initiated goals and related achievement can be important to the sub-
sequent establishment of challenging goals being applied to complex situations. In other
words, perceptions of higher levels of control and goal commitment (self‐efficacy beliefs and
a willingness to engage in important goal tasks) influence an individual’s willingness to set
difficult goals[11].

13.1.6 Task Engagement

Self-efficacy is linked with the initial task engagement, persistence of task engagement, and
successful performance. In self-efficacy, first setting the goal from the level of self-perceived
performance expectation leads to how the student will approach and engage in a task.
There seems to be two aspects to task engagement: the first is the willingness or the level
of motivation to engage in a given tasks and the second aspect would be the actual attitude
and behavior of engaging in the certain tasks. One’s ability and willingness to establish
challenging yet achievable goals is necessary to evaluate options, make decisions, plan and
achieve meaningful accomplishments. A willingness to take on important goal‐related tasks
and have positive self‐efficacy beliefs were associated with those who reported a readiness
to set difficult goals. This suggests that an individual, who experiences a general sense of
autonomy, may likely extend this perspective to specific situations. Inversely, an individual
who experiences a low general sense of autonomy may perceive less autonomy in specific
situations. A sense of having autonomy, for example, through the opportunity to choose,
is related to confidence in one’s ability to complete a task successfully.22 Individuals, who
perceive a margin of control in their lives, might take on difficult goal‐related tasks, since
they likely feel confident in affecting outcomes. An individual’s sense of having some control
in life as supported by choice is positively related to a sense of self‐efficacy and a willingness
to engage in important goal tasks. By its very nature, goal‐setting invokes task effort that
may include planning in order to increase the probability of success. Goal‐setting is thus
a key component in self‐regulation (Locke & Latham, 2002) and can facilitate learning.
Results suggest that before males engage in challenging goal attainment they must perceive
themselves as self‐efficacious, whereas females are inspired by tasks that are important to
them. If the tasks are important, so are the goals, regardless of their difficult nature. One’s
ability and willingness to establish challenging yet achievable goals is necessary to evaluate
options, make decisions, plan and achieve meaningful accomplishments. For example, in
two studies, one with undergraduate university students and the other with high school
students, Sideridis (2001) found the important task of maintaining a high GPA contributed
to normative beliefs in the goal, importance of effort, intention to achieve the goal and posi-
tive study behaviors such as organizing and planning, which resulted in satisfaction over the
long term.23 These studies suggest the saliency of goal‐setting and self‐efficacy in academic
achievement. They also imply that student‐initiated goals and related achievement can be
important to the subsequent establishment of challenging goals being applied to complex
situations. The literature indicates that an individual’s sense of having some control in life
as supported by choice is positively related to a sense of self‐efficacy and a willingness to
engage in important goal tasks.

22 Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American psychologist, 37(2), 122.
23 Sideridis, G. D. (2001). The causal role of goal importance for the explanation of student study behaviour:
Cross-validation with multiple samples. Educational Psychology, 21(3), 277-298.

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13.1.7 Persistence

Persistence is defined as the act of perseverance in spite of obstacles and frustrations.

Although the persistence of an individual can be respective to a variety of factors, it is
found that the level of self-efficacy in an individual amounts to the extent of persistence in
an individual. As self-efficacy refers to the degree of confidence of one’s ability to succeed
at a task, the strength of one’s perceived efficacy accompanied by motivation highly corre-
sponds to the extent to which they persist in a given task. In an observational study made
by Hackett and Betz (1981), it was hypothesized that efficacy expectations are associated
to the degree of persistence that lead to success in an educational setting. Their study
ultimately found that both level and strength of self-efficacy for educational requirements
were generally related to persistence and successful academic outcome in students 24 . Mo-
tivation is another determining factor that contributes to an individual’s persistence. A
logistic regression analyses and general linear modelling approach was applied to predicting
persistence and academic success in students. In both cases of academic motivation on
persistence and academic success, it was proven that amotivation was the single significant
motivational predictor in the final models 25 . These results are associated with the level of
self-efficacy of the participants as the level of their motivation also seems to branch from
the level of their self-efficacy.
Case Study: In another study done by Taylor and Betz (1983), self-efficacy was measured in
relation to the tasks required in career decision making. This study was aimed to investigate
the theory of self-efficacy beliefs tied with academic success and persistence in students who
were considering careers in the science and engineering field. It was discovered that college
students’ efficacy expectations were dependent on the degree of their career indecision;
students who were indecisive about their career path were less confident in their ability to
complete the tasks required to make career decisions, and those who had decided on their
career path experienced the reverse. The expectations of self-efficacy in completing their
education for their specific technical/scientific careers were acquired at the beginning, at the
end, and two months following a ten week academic course in career planning. The strengths
of individual self-efficacy was then assessed by having students give an estimate of their level
of confidence in ability to complete these requirements and duties for career performance.
Other correlations that were used to measure the relationship between self-efficacy and
academic success included the individual’s Math PSAT scores and high school rank and
it was found that self-efficacy for technical/scientific educational requirements appeared
to be related to objective measures of mathematical aptitude and high school academic
achievement. According to Bandura, performance accomplishments are hypothesized to be
an influential factor in self-efficacy; based on this notion, the subjects’ knowledge of their
previous academic performance and aptitude test scores may have had a part in determining
their efficacy expectations 26 . On the other hand, the relationship between measured and
perceived ability did not correlate, which in turn suggests that the appeal of studying
both efficacy expectation and objective ability as they can contribute to the understanding
of career-relevant outcomes. Further work can be done in determining a causal connection

24 Lent, R. (1984). Relation of Self-Efficacy Expectations to Academic Achievement and Persistence. Uni-
versity of Minnesota.
25 Lent, R. (1984). Relation of Self-Efficacy Expectations to Academic Achievement and Persistence. Uni-
versity of Minnesota.
26 Bandera, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change, 84(2), 191-215

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between self-efficacy and particular academic behaviors with factors such as objective ability
and incentive for performance can be considered in this context.
As much of previous studies on self-efficacy were based on the examination of targets prob-
lems, such as phobias, and performance criteria, like behavioral avoidance tests, this par-
ticular investigation looked at self-efficacy in various different levels and sets of academic
behaviors. The expectations were not confined to an educational setting, but branched
out into the consideration of occupational fields titles. The fact that significant relations
were found with such variable and nonspecific factors suggests that “self-efficacy may be a
relatively robust and flexible model that may help to explain complex as well as relatively
discrete behaviors” 27 . Overall, this study resulted in the confirmation of the strength of
efficacy expectations in relation to persistence and success in major choice.

13.1.8 Strategy use

Strategy use is a significant factor in determining the level of self-efficacy in individuals and
vice versa. The use of strategy enables students to regulate their behavior and and be in
control of their learning environment, thus putting a significance on self-regulation in es-
tablishing a connection to successful uses of strategy with positive outcomes. Furthermore,
the different strategies used by an individual is strongly dependent on their perception
of academic efficacy as well as some factors of reciprocal feedback through teachers. Ac-
cording to Zimmerman, students use strategies to regulate three foundational aspects for
learning: their personal functioning, academic behavioral performance, and their learning
environments 28 . Personal regulation are strategies such as organization, rehearsal, memo-
rizing, goal setting and planning; strategies that are geared towards enhancing behavioral
functioning are things such as self-evaluation and self-consequating; and finally, strategies
that include students to seek information, keep records and seeking assistance can improve
students’ immediate learning environment. For those students who are successful in self-
regulation seem to have a general understanding of the environment on themselves and hold
the ability to improve that environment through the use of strategy. To better understand
students’ use of these self-regulated learning strategies and the factors that affect motivation
for strategy use, we can take a look at Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons’ study conducted
in 1986. This study was aimed at measuring students’ self-regulated learning strategies
through the Self-Regulated Learning Interview Schedule (SLRIS). The results found that
the measures of strategy use were highly correlated with students’ academic achievement
29 ; additionally, perceptions of self-efficacy also acted as a determinant of strategy use.

Case Study: The SLRIS that Zimmerman and Martinez-Pon used in their study measured
strategy use by asking students to report the methods they used in various learning contexts.
Two multiple regression analyses were conducted in order to determine students’ perception
of academic efficacy in relation to self-regulated learning strategies. These learning
strategies were then used to predict both verbal and mathematical efficacy, where verbal

27 Lent, R. (1984). Relation of Self-Efficacy Expectations to Academic Achievement and Persistence. Uni-
versity of Minnesota.
28 Zimmerman, B., & Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex.
and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Estados Unidos: American Psychological Association.
29 Zimmerman, B., & Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex.
and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Estados Unidos: American Psychological Association.

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self-efficacy was related to the individual’s use of strategies such as organization, reviewing
notes and seeking peer assistance and mathematical self-efficacy had similar results, with
the exception of seeking adult assistance which was negatively correlated. Final results
on the strategy use of students indicate that “the achievement of these students in school
indicates that a triadic model of self-regulation may have merit for training students to
become more effective learners” 30 .
In providing individuals with the necessary tools for efficient strategy use, Zimmerman pro-
poses an academic self-regulation model called the SRL model. The theory behind this
model outlines how teachers can aid students in becoming more engaged in their learning
and lead to improvement in academic performance. The SRL model makes use of an feed-
back cycle consisting of three phases: planning, practice, and evaluation. In the planning
phase, students will have a chance to carefully assess their academic environment and pick
a strategy that can most efficiently address their learning goals. During the practice phase,
students can implement their chosen strategy and make ongoing adjustments to the plan
as they go, also giving them the opportunity to self-monitor their progress. Finally, in
the evaluation phase, students can evaluate the effective of each strategy that was used to
help obtain their learning goals. This model can be useful in to providing individuals with
the necessary techniques to regulate their academic behaviors and control their learning
environment.

13.1.9 Effort

Self-regulation strategies alongside self-efficacy successively help maintain the level of effort
put forth by an individual. Volition is represented in effort regulation which describes one’s
willingness towards a given task. Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1990) reported that
individuals who demonstrate the successful use of self-regulation strategies and hold a high
degree of self-efficacy were likely to succeed academically; this demonstrates that self-efficacy
helps maintain volition and those who are successful in doing so consequently appear to
promote the use of self-regulation strategies 31 . Zimmerman’s Model of of Self-Regulatory
Process explains that learners regulate and maintain their concentration, attention and
motivation so that they can learn efficiently and achieve their determined goal 32 . Based on
this, there exists a three stage model of self-regulation that includes three cyclical phases
involved in the self-relation process: a forethought phase, a volitional or performance control
phase, and a self-reflection phase. When a student is engaged in a task, their learning
behavior is supported by volitional/performance control. They then regulate themselves
by strategies such as maintaining concentration, attention and motivation. The last stage
to this model is the reflection on learning outcomes. This reflection helps individuals in
maintaining the motivation needed to maintain and improve on their performance for future
academic success.

30 Zimmerman, B., & Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex.
and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Estados Unidos: American Psychological Association.
31 Onoda, S. (2014). Examining the relationships between self-efficacy, effort regulation strategy use, and
English vocabulary skills. Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 5(4), 357-371.
32 Zimmerman, B., & Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex.
and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Estados Unidos: American Psychological Association

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Throughout the three stages mentioned, the phase of volition and performance control is
a significant factor in looking at effort. When individuals set an initial learning goal in
the stage of forethought they are then needed to regulate themselves and use strategies
that can allow them to reach their goal. One of the learning strategies used includes
effort regulation which is then represented through volition. Furthermore, as motivation
is associated with effort and volition, it can then be seen as an essential construct of self-
efficacy which ultimately fosters effort regulation. Zimmerman suggests that it is crucial for
educators to understand the importance of learners developing self-efficacy because this can
positively affect effort regulation strategy use; in order to promote self-efficacy teachers can
help learners experience personal mastery experiences such as observing peers, repeated
successful experiences and positive feedback that will allow them to improve their effort
regulation strategies as manifested by volition 33 . In addition to these ideas, Onoda’s
results of examining the relationship between self-efficacy and effort regulation strategy use
determined that self-efficacy indeed significantly influenced effort regulation strategy use 34 .
Through a series of questions based on the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire
created by Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie (1993), it was discovered that self-efficacy
developed through previous learning experiences was a determining factor in employing
effort regulation as well as their ability to control their learning behavior for successful
learning.

13.1.10 Enactive and Vicarious learning

Enactive and vicarious learning represent two different ways of acquiring knowledge 35 .
Enactive learning occurs when one learn something by doing it; and vicarious learning refers
to the learning that occurs when one observes others perform a task. Enactive learning,
because it involves active engagement on a task, may appear to be most important because
students can learn the steps to perform a task successfully; however it can also lead to a
trial and error cycle if the student do not possess the knowledge required to perform the
task. On the other hand, vicarious learning might seem more time effective because one
does not actively perform the task and therefore there is no risk for errors, but at the same
time it requires students to use more cognitive abilities such as focusing attention on the
model that is being observed, and retaining the information intended to be learned. 36
In spite of these differences, much of the learning happens enactively and vicariously; in
mathematics for example, students first need to learn the theoretical knowledge of how to

33 Zimmerman, B., & Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex.
and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Estados Unidos: American Psychological Association
34 Onoda, S. (2014). Examining the relationships between self-efficacy, effort regulation strategy use, and
English vocabulary skills. Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 5(4), 357-371
35 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick,
G. M. Sinatra, J. Sweller, J. Sweller (Eds.) , APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories,
constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101-123). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association
doi:10.1037/13273-005
36 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick,
G. M. Sinatra, J. Sweller, J. Sweller (Eds.) , APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories,
constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101-123). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association
doi:10.1037/13273-005

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solve a problem before they attend to do it. In fact when both types of knowledge are used,
the chances for errors is significantly reduced.37
When discussing vicarious learning it is important to distinguish between learning and
performance. Although learning might occur by observing a model, performance on a task
might depend in several other factors such as motivation, interest, confidence, and several
other factors. Self-efficacy might also play an important role in performance of a task that
was previously learned by observation. As previously mentioned, self–efficacy is a judgement
of one’s ability to perform a task in a specific domain. 38 A student who has high levels of
self-efficacy, is more likely to perform a task that was learned vicariously. One important
question to ask is whether observational learning can improve the self-efficacy of students.
Braaksma. M. H and his colleagues claim that indeed the relation between observational
learning and self-efficacy can be influenced by the perceive similarities between a student
and the model; this means that students who can identify with a model are more likely to
learn from observation and increase their self-efficacy. 39
Because self-efficacy is domain-specific, Braaksma. M. H and his colleagues (2002) 40 ex-
amined whether if students could learn more efficiently when observing a model that has
more share similarities to them compared to models that are more different. The study
involved a written task where participants observed peer models write argumentative texts.
The authors separated the participants into three conditions: participants who observed a
competent model, those who observed a non-competitive model, and a control group where
participants just did the written task without observing any model. Results from this study
show that students who were weak at writing benefit more from observing the writing of
non-competent models, and strong students benefit more from observing competent mod-
els. The results from this study show that perceived model identification is important. The
author offer several reasons for this results, perhaps the results can be explained better by
individual’s need for social comparison and identification. 41 It might be the case that par-
ticipants who were stronger writers identify more with competent writers since both have
more things in common, such as writing style and error recognition. 42

37 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick,

G. M. Sinatra, J. Sweller, J. Sweller (Eds.) , APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories,
constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101-123). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association
doi:10.1037/13273-005
38 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
39 Braaksma, M. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the ef-
fects of model-observer similarity. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 405-415. doi:10.1037/0022-
0663.94.2.405
40 Braaksma, M. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the ef-
fects of model-observer similarity. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 405-415. doi:10.1037/0022-
0663.94.2.405
41 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick,
G. M. Sinatra, J. Sweller, J. Sweller (Eds.) , APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories,
constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101-123). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association
doi:10.1037/13273-005
42 Braaksma, M. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the ef-
fects of model-observer similarity. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 405-415. doi:10.1037/0022-
0663.94.2.405

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Another interesting finding from this study is that participants who were considered strong
writers benefit from both observation and performance of the written task. According to the
authors, strong writers possessed previous information about writing and are probably able
to divide their attention between learning and performing. In contrast weak writers, since
they might not possess enough information about the task, were unable to do this. Hoover,
J. D., Giambatista, R. C., & Belkin, L. Y. (2012) 43 offer some further support for this find-
ing. In their study participants were divided into two conditions: observation-performance,
and performance only. The task in this study was a more complicated one compared to the
study previously described; it involved negotiation between a buyer and a seller. Partici-
pants in the observation-performance condition were able to solve the negotiation problem
more effectively than the performance alone condition. Together these findings point out
that Vicarious or observation learning can increase performance and consequently raise the
self-efficacy of students.
The results from both of these studies described above may have important implications for
learning. On the one hand, Braaksma, M. H., et al study (2002) 44 . show the importance of
share similarities between models and students. In classrooms, teachers might enhance the
learning of their students by asking a student to perform a task infront of his other peers.
In math learning for example, a teacher may ask someone who seem to understand the
procedures of solving a specific problem to come to the blackboard and solve the problem
so everyone could see. By observing peers solving a math problem, students might feel more
identified with the model since both share similar characteristics such as level of intelligence,
student roles, and even physical characteristics. On the other hand, Hoover, J. D., et al
(2012) 45 study show that learning can be enhanced when observation and performance are
combined. in classrooms, teachers might ask volunteers to try to solve a similar problem
after observing the performance of other students. Observation, can also be important
in the classroom because students might also get motivated to try to solve a task after
observing one of their peers performance.

13.1.11 Modelling

The results from the studies described above suggest that modeling plays an essential role
in learning; in a classroom for instance, students can learn from the performance of teachers
and peers on a math problems; However not all models are the same; In Braaksma. M. .H; et
al (2002) 46 study, Strong writers benefit more from observing competent models and weaker
writer from observing non-competent models. These results suggest that observational

43 Hoover, J. D., Giambatista, R. C., & Belkin, L. Y. (2012). Eyes on, hands on: Vicarious observational
learning as an enhancement of direct experience. Academy Of Management Learning & Education, 11(4),
591-608. doi:10.5465/amle.2010.0102
44 Braaksma, M. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the ef-
fects of model-observer similarity. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 405-415. doi:10.1037/0022-
0663.94.2.405
45 Hoover, J. D., Giambatista, R. C., & Belkin, L. Y. (2012). Eyes on, hands on: Vicarious observational
learning as an enhancement of direct experience. Academy Of Management Learning & Education, 11(4),
591-608. doi:10.5465/amle.2010.0102
46 Braaksma, M. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the
effects of model-observer similarity. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 405-415. doi:10.1037/0022-
0663.94.2.405

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Sociocognitive Learning

learning might depend somehow on specific characteristics of the model. These results
also suggest that similarities between learners and models can be essential for learning. For
instance in schools, students might learn more effectively from the performance of peers on a
math problem. As it was mentioned in the previous section,there are several explanations for
the fact that students are more likely to learn from other students compared to less similar
models such as teachers or older peers; one reason is identification; students recognize and
identify with the characteristics they share with a peer model. Another reason is social
comparison where students compare themselves to peer models; and a final reason might
be related toSelf-evaluation, that is when students use others as a standard to evaluate
themselves. 47 Similarly modelling also serve different functions; according to Bandura (as
cited by Schunk, H, D; 2012) 48 there are three main functions of modeling: to facilitate
responses, disinhibit student’s responses, and provide observational learning. In a classroom
students might feel more motivated to participate in a discussion when they see other peers
doing the same, and might feel more confident to do so.
Another function of modelling is that it provides the necessary strategies that enhance
learning such as active engagement and participation 49 . Improving Classroom Learning by
simultaneously Observing Human Tutoring Videos while Problem Solving might be more
effective than either watching a video or solving a problem alone 50 ; furthermore it is
important to encourage students to ask questions, discuss, and use examples to self-explain
the material, in oth words it is important o actively involve students in their learning.
Craig et al (2009) 51 emphasize the importance of active observation in learning. Active
observation refers to observing that facilitates engagement with the material so as to
facilitate deeper processing (Chi et al; 2008 as cited in Craig et al; 2009) 52 . In a study
intended to explore the impact of collaboration on learning, Participants were divided into
two conditions; the collaborative observing tutoring where students watch a video of a
tutor teaching a student how to solve a problem, and a worked example where students
watch a video of a tutor giving and performing the instructions of how to solve a problem.
Participants were given a physics problem to solve right after they watch the videos and
again 26 days after they watch the video. The results show no difference in score in the
immediate post-test, but students in the collaborative observing tutoring score higher when

47 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick,

G. M. Sinatra, J. Sweller, J. Sweller (Eds.) , APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories,
constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101-123). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association
doi:10.1037/13273-005
48 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick,
G. M. Sinatra, J. Sweller, J. Sweller (Eds.) , APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories,
constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101-123). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association
doi:10.1037/13273-005
49 Craig, S. D., Chi, M. H., & VanLehn, K. (2009). In a classroom, Learning can be enhanced by Collabo-
ratively Observing Human Tutoring Videos While Problem Solving. Journal Of Educational Psychology,
101(4), 779-789. doi:10.1037/a0016601
50 Craig, S. D., Chi, M. H., & VanLehn, K. (2009) Journal Of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 779-789.
doi:10.1037/a0016601
51 Craig, S. D., Chi, M. H., & VanLehn, K. (2009). Improving Classroom Learning by Collaboratively
Observing Human Tutoring Videos While Problem Solving. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 101(4),
779-789. doi:10.1037/a0016601
52 Craig, S. D., Chi, M. H., & VanLehn, K. (2009). Improving Classroom Learning by Collaboratively
Observing Human Tutoring Videos While Problem Solving. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 101(4),
779-789. doi:10.1037/a0016601

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 Social Cognitive Theory

the task was applied 26 days later. These results suggest that modelling provides essential
strategies for effective learning such scaffolding and explanations in order to promote long-
term retention of knowledge. 53
Results of this studies can be easily applied to classrooms. As mentioned in the previ-
ous section, teachers can not only enhanced immediate learning by assigning a student to
demonstrate how a problem is solved in front of the classroom, but also encourage reten-
tion of knowledge. Given that perceived similarities depend on specific characteristics of
a model, students might be more complying to look at other students as an extension of
their own capabilities. When a student is more skillful at solving a particular problem than
another, perceived similarities may play an important role since, a less skill individual might
feel more motivated to perform at the same level as the hihly-skill peer. In contrast when a
model is perceived to be less similar, such as teaches or older peers,the student’s motivation
to achieve at the same level might suffer Braaksma, M. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den
Bergh, H. (2002)54 .

13.1.12 Teacher efficacy

In classrooms, teachers and students are equally affected by beliefs about their own abilities
to perform a task. In the case of teachers, the beliefs are about their own capability to
teach 55 Teacher efficacy can be influenced by several factors such as classroom experi-
ences, relation with colleagues, and even school settings. 56 Knoblauch, D., & Chase, M.
A. (2015) show that teachers have lower sense of efficacy in urban areas, tAhis was per-
haps because of the challenges that urban teaching represent. Teacher efficacy has a great
impact on student’s learning. 57 Teacher efficacy is associated with effective classroom
management, efficient teaching methods, and greater student’s achievements. 58 Teach-
ers with high self-efficacy can influence student’s performance in several ways; they can
encourage mastery experiences, provide verbal persuasion, and give informational
feedback (Holzberger, D., et al 2015) 59 In summary, at schools, teachers with high self-

53 Craig, S. D., Chi, M. H., & VanLehn, K. (2009). Improving Classroom Learning by Collaboratively
Observing Human Tutoring Videos While Problem Solving. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 101(4),
779-789. doi:10.1037/a0016601
54 Braaksma, M. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the ef-
fects of model-observer similarity. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 405-415. doi:10.1037/0022-
0663.94.2.405
55 Holzberger, D., Philipp, A., & Kunter, M. (2013). How teachers’ self-efficacy is related to in-
structional quality: A longitudinal analysis. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 774-786.
doi:10.1037/a0032198
56 Knoblauch, D., & Chase, M. A. (2015). Rural, suburban, and urban schools: The impact of school setting
on the efficacy beliefs and attributions of student teachers. Teaching And Teacher Education 45104-114.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2014.10.001
57 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
58 Holzberger, D., Philipp, A., & Kunter, M. (2013). How teachers’ self-efficacy is related to in-
structional quality: A longitudinal analysis. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 774-786.
doi:10.1037/a0032198
59 Holzberger, D., Philipp, A., & Kunter, M. (2013). How teachers’ self-efficacy is related to in-
structional quality: A longitudinal analysis. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 774-786.
doi:10.1037/a0032198

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Sociocognitive Learning

efficacy can be fabulous models for students since they can not only raise their academic
success but also enhance their learning by providing effective instructions.
In one longitudinal study conducted by Holzberger, D., et al (2015) 60 intended to explore
the relation between teacher efficacy and the quality of instructions, students and teachers
complete some test intended to measure teacher efficacy (social interaction with kids, and
coping with job stress) and quality of instructions (cognitive activation, and mastery expe-
riences). The tests were applied at the end of grade 9 and then again at the end of grade
ten in order to measure changes in teacher efficacy or quality of instructions. Results show
that scores in teacher efficacy measures change over the course of a year, it either improve
or decrease depending on external variables such as student’s achievement and curriculum
changes. Regarding quality of instructions, scores did not change between time 1 and time
2 suggesting that teacher efficacy and instructional quality are independent of each other
and might be explained by other variables such as motivation to keep their jobs. It is
important to notice that these results do not imply that teacher efficacy is irrelevant to
learning. Even though this study might not show a relation between teacher efficacy and
instructional quality, teacher efficacy is associated with other strategies that can enhance
learning such as verbal persuasion and provision of feedback Schunk, H, D; 2012) 61 .
Another interesting feature that characterized teachers with high levels of self efficacy is
related to agency. As previously mentioned, agency is the willingness of a person to act in
any given environment. Because at schools, often, there are situations that teachers can
control such as classroom management, and situations that teachers cannot control like
curriculum demands, teacher efficacy involve the ability to act on those features that can
be control. At the begginning of this section, it was established that teacher efficacy is
related to effective classroom management, and efficient study methods, these are features
that are under the control of teachers. Teachers with high levels of efficacy focus on the
things they can control while being aware of the situations that are out of their control (the
figure shown below state some other situations that teachers can an cannot control).
According to Bandura (as cited in Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W. K. 1990) 62 the motivation
of teachers to manage the classroom and use efficient teaching strategies depend on two
factors: outcome expectation and efficacy factors. Efficacy factors refer to individual beliefs
that one is capable to perform effectively on a task; in contrast, Outcome expectation refers
to individual’s judgement about the likelyhood that a positive or negative outcome might
happen. Teacher efficacy is a combination of these two factors, for instance a teacher who
believe that she can greatly impact the learning of her students (personal efficacy), is more
likely to believe that her effort s will result in a positive outcome (outcome expectation).
In a study, Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W. K. (1990) intended to explore the relation between
personal efficacy, outcome expectation, and classroom management. Participants in the

60 Holzberger, D., Philipp, A., & Kunter, M. (2013). How teachers’ self-efficacy is related to in-
structional quality: A longitudinal analysis. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 774-786.
doi:10.1037/a0032198
61 Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick,
G. M. Sinatra, J. Sweller, J. Sweller (Eds.) , APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories,
constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101-123). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association
doi:10.1037/13273-005
62 Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers’ sense of efficacy and beliefs about control.
Journal Of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 81-91. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.81

132
 Social Cognitive Theory

study did a bunch of questionnaires intended to measure personal efficacy, teachers’ outcome
expectation, and strategies for classroom management. The results show a complex relation
between these variables; overall, the results show that teachers who have higher personal
efficacy tend to have positive views about outcomes and therefore use more humanistic
strategies such as coperative interactions and direct experiences. In contrast, teachers with
a lower sense of personal efficacy tend to hold negative predictions about outcomes, and use
more rigid and highly control environments in order to manage the classroom. Similarly,
teachers with high personal efficacy have more positive views about teaching than teachers
with lower efficacy, and therefore spend more effort to encourage intrinsic motivation on
their students whereas teachers with lower efficacy tend to use rigid control strategies to
elicit specific behaviors on their students 63 The results from this study clearly show that
teacher efficacy is a complex construct that involve a combination of personal efficacy and
the general beliefs about teaching. these results can serve to explain the findings from
Holzberger, D., et al (2015) 64 study. The fact instructional quality can remains the same
overtime regardless of teachers’level of efficacy can result from a change in individuals beliefs
about teaching but not in the beliefs about personal efficacy. teachers may still belief that
they are capable of teaching because of the extrinsic rewards and therefore adopt more
controlling strategies; but on the other hand, their intrinsic motivation to teach might be
affected.

13.1.13 Collective Efficacy

So far we have discussed self-efficacy, enactive and vicarious learning, teacher-efficacy and
how they are related to the reciprocal determinism. This part of the chapter is going to
explore the concept of group efficacy. First there is a distinction that needs to be made
between collective efficacy and group efficacy. Collective efficacy is each individual group
member’s perception of how well the group will do on the task65 . Thus each group member
could have a different collective efficacy based on their perception of the groups ability.
Whereas group efficacy is the whole group’s perception of how well the group will do on
the task66 . This would include each group member holding the same efficacy This difference
is small but is important when interpreting data results. The following discussion will look
at collective efficacy, performance goals, group performance, group cohesion, social lofting
and school efficacy.
Bandura argued that collective efficacy is related to self-efficacy. He suggested that the
four factors that influence self-efficacy also influence collective efficacy. These factors are
enactive mastery, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological and effective
state. He also emphasized social comparison, social influences, mix of knowledge, and past
group performance which influence more specifically collective efficacy. Making references
to reciprocal determinism these factors each fall under either personal, behavioural or envi-

63 Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers’ sense of efficacy and beliefs about control.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 81-91. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.81
64 Holzberger, D., Philipp, A., & Kunter, M. (2013). How teachers’ self-efficacy is related to in-
structional quality: A longitudinal analysis. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 774-786.
doi:10.1037/a0032198
65 Mulvey, P. W., & Klein, H. J. (1998)
66 Mulvey, P. W., & Klein, H. J. (1998)

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Sociocognitive Learning

ronmental 67 . Enactive mastery and mix of knowledge are personal factors. They are both
related to knowledge that the individual already has which contributes to their feeling of
being competent to complete a group task. Vicarious and social comparison are related to
modelling which was discussed earlier. These behavioural factors influence collective effi-
cacy. Verbal persuasion, physiological and affect states, and social influences are all related
to environmental factors. Socially, these affect how the individual perceives his/her capa-
bility to complete a group task. Each of these factors contribute to collective efficacy. Each
of these factors interact with one another and together affect collective and group efficacy.

13.1.14 Group Performance/ Performance Goals

Collective efficacy, group performance and performance goals are important aspects to
examine. Collectively, research has shown that collective efficacy is related to group per-
formance 68 A higher sense of collective efficacy produces better performance on the task.
Those students who perform well on group tasks often have higher collective efficacy than
those who do not 69 . For example, if a group is given the task to create a board game, and
they have a high collective efficacy they are more likely to perform well. If the performance
was done well it would be reflected in the grade or assessment that took place after the
project. A way to improve collective efficacy and performance is through setting goals. In
addition to group performance, the goals that a group sets are important, too. Research
shows that when there are specific goals; overall performance and efficacy is higher than
when there are no goals or they are non specific 70 . For example, a teacher might divide the
students up into teams and get them to build the highest tower. Here the teacher has set a
specific goal which is to build the highest tower. Since students are given a specific goal they
should perform well overall than if they were given the instruction to “do your best” when
building a tower. As well as making the goals specific it is also important to make them
challenging. However, making them too difficult and too easy was negatively correlated
with group performance 71 Thus, teachers need to take into consideration of the level of
the students and their capabilities when setting group goals. For example, giving kinder-
garteners the task of designing a science experiment is too difficult for them, but giving
the same task to fourth graders would be more appropriate. Once group goals are set, the
group needs to make a commitment to these goals. Research shows that if a group has high

67 Seijts, G. H., Latham, G. P., & Whyte, G. (2000). Effect of self- and group efficacy on group performance
in a mixed-motive situation. Human Performance, 13(3), 279-298. doi:10.1207/S15327043HUP1303_3
68 Mulvey, P. W., & Klein, H. J. (1998). The impact of perceived loafing and collective efficacy in group goal
processes and group performance. Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes, 74(1), 62-87.
doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2753
69 Stajkovic, A. D., Lee, D., & Nyberg, A. J. (2009). Collective efficacy, group potency, and group perfor-
mance: Meta-analyses of their relationships, and test of a mediation model. Journal Of Applied Psychol-
ogy, 94(3), 814-828. doi:10.1037/a0015659
70 Klein H. J., Mulvey P. W., (1995) Two Investigations of the Relationships among Group Goals, Goal
Commitment, Cohesion, and Performance. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes,
61(1), 44-53. doi:10.1006/obhd.1995.1004
71 Klein H. J., Mulvey P. W., (1995) Two Investigations of the Relationships among Group Goals, Goal
Commitment, Cohesion, and Performance. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes,
61(1), 44-53. doi:10.1006/obhd.1995.1004

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efficacy they are more likely to commit to their goals 72 . This makes sense considering that
if the students perceive that the task needs to be attended to, has specific goals, and feels
that they are capable of completing the project, they are more likely to be committed to
the project. Higher commitment is also shown to correlate with persisting when difficulties
arise in the project73 . Further discussion on persistence was discussed earlier in the chapter.
Students need specific, challenging goals, and to make a commitment to these goals in order
to achieve high collective efficacy and high group performance.
Another aspect is whether a task requires high interdependence or low interdependence. If
a task has high interdependence, the group members are more likely to rely on one another
and develop a higher group efficacy 74 An example of this would be a group project that
consists of performing a skit. The members have to rely one on another to perform the skit
and all members have to be present when performing the skit. Whereas, a group that has
low interdependence are more likely to not rely on group members and will have a lower
group efficacy. An example of a group project would be the creation of this Wiki book.
Although each of us are in a group and each group is creating a chapter we must likely
divide the chapters up. This allows for each member to do their own part and not have to
rely on other group members. In addition, at the end of the project we are getting marked
individually. This project overall promote lower group efficacy.

13.1.15 Group Cohesion

Another way to increase collective efficacy is making sure the group has cohesion.Group’s
cohesion,is defined as an attraction to group members and each group member wants to
work with the others75 . It can also be defined as group members who are interested in the
same subject or have a collective mind. Higher group cohesiveness is an important predictor
of group performance 76 . Thus the more cohesive the group, the better they will perform,
and the higher the collective efficacy they will have. In order to achieve group cohesion a
teacher should allow students to pick their groups. This would address the aspect of each
group member wanting to work together. However, it should be emphasized the group’s
goals and the expectation of the group this will promote commitment and collective efficacy.
In addition, one of the downfalls of group work is that the students get off task. A study
that observed high school adolescents found that they were able to complete group work
while staying on task, whereas elementary school children were more likely to become off
task. This could be due to the seating arrangements. In elementary school they are more
likely to sit in groups, and have a lot of opportunity to interact with each other in informal

72 Klein H. J., Mulvey P. W., (1995) Two Investigations of the Relationships among Group Goals, Goal
Commitment, Cohesion, and Performance. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes,
61(1), 44-53. doi:10.1006/obhd.1995.1004
73 Goncalo, J. A., Polman, E., & Maslach, C. (2010). Can confidence come too soon? Collective efficacy,
conflict and group performance over time. Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes,
113(1), 13-24. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.05.001
74 Seijts, G. H., Latham, G. P., & Whyte, G. (2000). Effect of self- and group efficacy on group performance
in a mixed-motive situation. Human Performance, 13(3), 279-298. doi:10.1207/S15327043HUP1303_3
75 Klein H. J., Mulvey P. W., (1995) Two Investigations of the Relationships among Group Goals, Goal
Commitment, Cohesion, and Performance. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes,
61(1), 44-53. doi:10.1006/obhd.1995.1004
76 Huang, C., (2009). Knowledge sharing and group cohesiveness on performance: An empirical study of
technology R&D teams in Taiwan. Technovation, 29(11), 786-797. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2009.04.003

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situations thus making it easier for them to go off topic. Whereas high school students are
more likely to sit in rows or individually so when they were put into groups they were only
in groups to complete a task. This association with being in a group and completing a task
makes it more likely they will stay on task.77 Further, research has shown that it takes
up to seven weeks to fully develop group cohesiveness. These seven weeks allow the group
time to work together, and develop their collective efficacy 78 . If the group sees that they
are able to perform well on previous tasks, this will increase their collective efficacy. Thus
it is important for teachers to let the child work with the same group for longer periods of
time. However, there is research that contradicts this assumption. Research conducted by
Goncalo, Polman, and Maslach shows that having a high sense of collective efficacy right at
the beginning of a project can be detrimental to the group’s overall performance. Having
a high sense of efficacy can reduce the beneficial forms of conflict that is essential to group
work79 . Even though previous research has suggested that it takes seven weeks for a group
to develop collective efficacy some groups may develop it early80 . In addition, one group
may develop high group efficacy from working with each other previously. It is uncertain if
a group who has worked together previously and has a high group efficacy, will miss out on
the beneficial forms of conflict. Beneficial forms of conflict include disagreeing on how to
carry out the project, and reconstructing the information through discussion, evaluation,
and consensus. For example, take this Wikibook project, if I had worked with my group
members previously and we received a favourable performance outcome and had developed
a high collective efficacy we might have gone about the project in a different way. At the
beginning of the project we might not have changed our outline because in the past we had
done well. As well, when we were in the final stages of editing we might not have put in as
much time and effort because in the previous task we had done well. Our group discussed
ways to improve our project, which included using more examples, adding pictures, and
how to make the project flow better. Once again we might not have talked about it at such
length if we had already established high collective efficacy. In conclusion, it may not be as
beneficial as once thought for students to work together on multiple projects; there needs to
be more research to further support this assumption81 . Another important note to be made
is that self-efficacy is normally discussed as being domain specific, as was mentioned earlier
in this chapter. This can also be used in relation to collective efficacy82 . Children should be
placed in different groups for different subjects. To further illustrate this point, a baseball

77 S., Howe, C., & Boyle, J. (2012). Exploring the characteristics of small groups within sci-
ence and English secondary classrooms. Cambridge Journal Of Education, 42(4), 527-546.
doi:10.1080/0305764X.2012.73334
78 Klein H. J., Mulvey P. W., (1995) Two Investigations of the Relationships among Group Goals, Goal
Commitment, Cohesion, and Performance. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes,
61(1), 44-53. doi:10.1006/obhd.1995.1004
79 Goncalo, J. A., Polman, E., & Maslach, C. (2010). Can confidence come too soon? Collective efficacy,
conflict and group performance over time. Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes,
113(1), 13-24. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.05.001
80 Klein H. J., Mulvey P. W., (1995) Two Investigations of the Relationships among Group Goals, Goal
Commitment, Cohesion, and Performance. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes,
61(1), 44-53. doi:10.1006/obhd.1995.1004
81 Goncalo, J. A., Polman, E., & Maslach, C. (2010). Can confidence come too soon? Collective efficacy,
conflict and group performance over time. Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes,
113(1), 13-24. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.05.001
82 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.

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team might have high collective efficacy while playing baseball but they may not have a
high sense of collective efficacy in completing a science experiment. Thus, they should be
put in another group when performing different tasks of task to allow each member the
opportunity to achieve collective efficacy. Some groups can be picked based on who the
children want to be with and other groups could be picked based on interest. A group’s
cohesion, is related to the environmental aspect of the reciprocal determinism. The other
group members are the environmental aspect that influences group cohesion and collective
efficacy. Another aspect of the environmental reciprocal determinism, is the size of the
group.
The size of groups affects group performance and group efficacy. A research study showed
that groups of three had higher group efficacy than those in groups of seven 83 . In ad-
dition, group members in smaller groups are more likely to stay on topic and complete
the task84 .The article suggested that the lack of group efficacy was due to the difficulty
communicating within larger groups and multiple personal interest took over group goals.
However, it was mentioned that the key to group size depends on the type of task at hand.
Even though the article suggested that groups of three are good for multi motive tasks
other tasks might produce higher group efficacy in larger groups85 . This would explain why
sports teams work together well even though they consist of a larger group of people. Thus,
if you are getting students in the class to build a tower this is best done in small groups
to reduce the lack of communication. However, activities such as trivia would be better
suited to larger groups. This is because each child in a group will have different knowledge
which will lead to better performance and higher group efficacy. Cohesion and group size
are important aspects of a groups performance outcomes and efficacy.

13.1.16 Social Loafing

Figure 24

83 Seijts, G. H., Latham, G. P., & Whyte, G. (2000). Effect of self- and group efficacy on group performance
in a mixed-motive situation. Human Performance, 13(3), 279-298. doi:10.1207/S15327043HUP1303_3
84 S., Howe, C., & Boyle, J. (2012). Exploring the characteristics of small groups within sci-
ence and English secondary classrooms. Cambridge Journal Of Education, 42(4), 527-546.
doi:10.1080/0305764X.2012.73334
85 Seijts, G. H., Latham, G. P., & Whyte, G. (2000). Effect of self- and group efficacy on group performance
in a mixed-motive situation. Human Performance, 13(3), 279-298. doi:10.1207/S15327043HUP1303_3

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The discussion so far has been about how to improve collective efficacy through specific
and difficult goals, making groups interdependent, group cohesion, and adequate number of
group members. One pitfall of group work is social loafing ’which is an environmental
factor. This occurs when a group member or members do not pull their weight
in a group project 86 . Ideally teachers would like to think that when they put
students in groups that each one will contribute equally to the project. However,
this is not the case as many students have experienced. There is always the one
person in the group who never pulls their weight which has negative consequences
for the other group members. Research has shown that when there is a group
member that is not pulling their weight other group members put less effort
into the project. This leads to a lower group performance and collective efficacy
87 . A way teachers can avoid this is to make specific and challenging goals,

promote each group’s interdependence, group cohesion and use adequate number
of students in each group. In addition to making sure that there is an evaluation
at the end of the project that includes what contribution each person made to the
project. This evaluation is best done with the other group members not present
in order to make each member feel more comfortable about saying what each
member truly contributed to the project. This type of evaluation will lead to the
social loafer getting the grade he or she should receive for their contribution.
This should also help with the other members still putting in adequate effort
despite having a member who is a social loafer.

13.1.17 School efficacy

We have addressed three different efficacy’s in this chapter. Although they each have their
own defining characteristics they are also similar. School efficacy is the belief of the
school that the students can perform well, and this includes the students and the teachers.
Research has found that if a school collectively feels incapable of improving the learning of
the students both the students and the teachers efficacy decreased. In context, students who
have high self-efficacy because they have done academically well before is related positively
to school efficacy. Some factors that contributed specifically to school efficacy are the SES
status of the students and the stability of the students. Students who come from low SES
status and do not show up to class often affects the school efficacy negatively 88 . In order
to promote a higher school efficacy both the students and the teachers efficacy need to
improve. There are suggestions as to how to improve efficacy in previous sections.
Collective efficacy stems from self-efficacy and has similar factors that affect it. Those
factors include enactive mastery, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and
effective state, performance goals and persistence. However, collective efficacy is associated
with being in a group and thus has some different factors that affect an individuals collective

86 Mulvey, P. W., & Klein, H. J. (1998). The impact of perceived loafing and collective efficacy in group goal
processes and group performance. Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes, 74(1), 62-87.
doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2753
87 Mulvey, P. W., & Klein, H. J. (1998). The impact of perceived loafing and collective efficacy in group goal
processes and group performance. Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes, 74(1), 62-87.
doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2753
88 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.

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efficacy. These include group cohesion, interdependence of the group task, group size and
the phenomena of social lofting.

13.1.18 Implications for Instruction

Figure 25 Self-Efficacy - Teaching Presence

Self-efficacy stands as a significant factor in fostering self-regulation in students and have

proven to enhance the quality of their learning. This leads to its implications within a
classroom that demands the consideration of other factors, such as teachers. One of the
most significant drivers of a learning environment are the teachers themselves. It has been
shown that an individual’s own perception of self-efficacy was the final determinant of their
success and in addition to having successfully acquired the motivation and effort to use
self-regulated learning strategies, a teacher may incorporate constructivist learning envi-
ronments to encourage or enhance these behaviors. As shown in the venn diagram below,
personal factors, academic behavioral performance and learning environments interrelate
with one another, showing how one factor affects another. Adopting a student-centred ap-
proach to learning and teaching can lead to an increase in student involvement; exerting a
positive influence on students’ affective and cognitive domains, as well as their perception
of the learning environment 89
Implications for teaching from the above discussed theories of especially task engagement
and goal orientation suggest that team‐based learning is very successful when students take

89 Ning, H., & Downing, K. (2012). Influence of student learning experience on academic performance: The
mediator and moderator effects of self-regulation and motivation (2nd ed., Vol. 38, pp. 219-237). British
Educational Research Journal.

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Sociocognitive Learning

ownership of a complex problem, and engage the problem in a collaborative and system-
atic manner. Team‐based learning environments provide students with opportunities to
solve complex problems resulting in their developing greater self‐confidence in their abili-
ties. Understanding the relationship of goal‐setting in the learning process can facilitate a
positive team effort experience for students through a learning and iterative process. Stu-
dents, who successfully learned through collaboration, might be intrinsically motivated and
self‐efficacious when placed in other team‐based learning settings. However, students who
are inexperienced in this environment or who do not have sufficient knowledge of the subject
might require additional guidance in order to have a satisfying experience. If this guidance
is not provided, the experience could be not very satisfying, and thus have a negative effect
on intrinsic motivation, self‐efficacy beliefs and team‐based learning in general. So, it might
be more effective to expose upper class undergraduate students to collaborative learning
projects, where it is assumed that they possess the minimum required subject knowledge so
that they can successfully apply what they know to the experience: participate in collabo-
rative activities involving critical thinking, and formulate creative and innovative solutions
by setting goals.
Teacher efficacy can offer learning strategies that could be beneficial for students; Even
though Craig’s et al (2009) 90 study found no relation between teacher efficacy and instruc-
tional quality, Teachers with high sense of efficacy can contribute to learning by providing
other means to enhance learning such as providing constructive feedback. Teachers can
be an important model for students, especially when they incorporate the individual needs
of students.Teachers can encourage students to use both enactive and vicarious learning
in order to enhance the learning process. Apparently, the most effective way of learning
involves learning occurs when students can observe teachers performance, and have some
opportunity to apply the learned skills on a similar task. For example, in a math problem,
students might benefit from observing a teacher or peer solve a problem, as well as by
solving the problem themselves; this allows students to apply the knowledge they learn by
vicariously.
In order to promote collective efficacy in group settings teachers should make sure their
performance goals are clear, specific and challenging. Making sure the students know exactly
what is expected of them for specific tasks allows the students to develop collective efficacy.
Allowing for group cohesion with the right amount of members in the group allows for
better performance and overall higher collective efficacy. Group cohesion can be achieved
by allowing students to pick their groups and let them work in their groups throughout the
school year. In addition, making sure the groups are appropriate for the task at hand is
essential. Smaller groups should be used for more intimate projects, larger groups should be
used when vast knowledge is needed to complete the task, or in group sports the necessary
amount of players needed in order to play the sport.

90 Craig, S. D., Chi, M. H., & VanLehn, K. (2009). Improving Classroom Learning by Collaboratively
Observing Human Tutoring Videos While Problem Solving. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 101(4),
779-789. doi:10.1037/a0016601

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 Suggested Readings

13.1.19 Conclusion

Social cognitive theory provides a framework for the constant changing of human behavior.
In order to be able to understand and predict such behaviors, it is important to consider the
variables that interact amongst each other and how those interacting factors are determined.
The essence of social cognitive theory based on the theory that learning is the product of
observation. It also considers these foundational interacting variables that come together
to explain Bandura’s concept of reciprocal determinism as the basics for the theory of
social cognition. Our chapter outlines three different elements that contribute to the social
cognitive theory as well as cognition and instruction. Within these elements include self-
efficacy, enactive and vicarious learning, and collective efficacy. Self efficacy determines how
an individual perceives their own abilities and the level of confidence they have for achieving
their goals and well as their abilities. Drawing from self-efficacy, we move on to enactive
and vicarious learning that represents the ways we acquire knowledge. Enactive learning
refers to the way an individual learns something by doing it, and vicarious learning occurs
through observation of others performing the given task. Both learning styles are used in
different cases, but the use of both are proven to be the most successful. In relation to self-
efficacy, learning through observation - vicarious learning - can improve self-efficacy as it
gives individuals a chance to identify with a model and lead to self-regulation. Furthermore,
collective efficacy explains the individual perception of success of the group. Bandura argues
that collective efficacy greatly relates to self-efficacy as there are factors that influence
both efficacies. These factors come back down to the influence of personal, behavioral and
environmental components of the reciprocal determinism model.
It is said that environments and social systems are greater influencers of human behavior;
thus, the social cognitive theory justifies that different factors do not affect individual be-
havior in a direct manner, but instead affect them to a degree that influence other factors
such as one’s aspirations, self-efficacy beliefs, personal standards, emotional states, and
other self-regulatory influences (Pajares, 2002). Our chapter determines how these differ-
ent influences and factors co-exist and affect the basic components of Bandura’s reciprocal
determinism theory.

13.2 Suggested Readings

Burney, V. H. (2008). Applications of social cognitive theory to gifted education. Roeper

Review, 30(2), 130-139. Effect of self- and group efficacy on group performance in a mixed-
motive situation. Human Performance, 13(3), 279-298. doi:10.1207/S15327043HUP1303_3
Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. (2014). Factorial equivalence of social cognitive the-
ory: Educational levels × time differences. Educational Psychology, 34(6), 697-729.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.814190
Schunk, D. H. (2012). Social cognitive theory. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C.
B. McCormick, G. M. Sinatra, J. Sweller, J. Sweller (Eds.) , APA educational psychology
handbook, Vol 1: Theories, constructs, and critical issues (pp. 101-123). Washington, DC,
US: American Psychological Association doi:10.1037/13273-005

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Sociocognitive Learning

13.3 Glossary

‘Active observation: Observation that facilitates engagement with the material

Agency: capacity of a person to act in any given environment
Collaborative observing tutoring: Ovservation of the teaching interaction between a
teacher and a student
Collective efficacy: This type of efficacy refers to the individual’s perspective of how well
the group can accomplish their task.
Enactive learning: Learning by doing performing a task
Group Cohesion: Is an attraction to group members as well as group members who are
interested in the same subject or have a collective mind.
Group efficacy: This type of efficacy refers to the group’s perspective as a whole in how
well the group can accomplish their task
Goal Orientation: refers to the mental framework that influences how people approach
situations of achievement in terms of interpreting the situation and motivation to achieve
Identification: Feeling close to a person that has similar characteristics as yours
Informational feedback: Feedback that helps improve performance
Learning: Act of acquiring new knowledge
Learning Orientation: aim of completing a task is to gain knowledge
Mastery experience: performance that leads to learning
Performance: Process of completing an action
Performance Orientation: aim of completing a task is to gain favorable judgments of
one’s performance
Persistence Continuing in a course of action despite difficulties
Reciprocal determinism: term coined by Bandura to describe the foundation of his the-
ory of social cognition— psychological functioning involves a continuous reciprocal interac-
tion among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental influences
School efficacy: This type of efficacy refers to the school as a whole in relation to how
they can effectively promote learning in their school. It is closely related to student and
teacher efficacy.
Self-efficacy: how the individual perceives ones own abilities and the level of confidence
for achieving goals from the perceived abilities
Self evaluation: Evaluating one self according to a standard
Self-regulated Learning Strategies Uses of students’ strategies that regulate individual
behaviour
Social comparison: Determine self worth by comparing ourselves to others

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 Reference

Social Lofting: This happens when one person in the group does less work than the other
members in the group
Subjective operative capability: the concept that efficacy beliefs form the foundation
of human agency as people need to believe that they can produce results by their actions
in order or else the incentive or the reinforcement to act is very little
Teacher efficacy : teacher’s own belief about their teaching skills
Verbal persuasion:convince someone to do a task by using verbal communication skills
Vicarious learning:Learning by observing others
Worked examples:Explanation of how to solve a problem
Volition Cognitive process that allows one to decide on committing to a course of action.

13.4 Reference

Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers’ sense of efficacy and be-
liefs about control. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 81-91. doi:10.1037/0022-
0663.82.1.81

13.5 Social Contexts of Learning

This chapter discusses beliefs about the social contexts of cognition, and how social and
cultural factors can influence a child’s development of mind (thoughts). In the subsequent
sections of this chapter, we will discuss social cognition, situated cognition, Bronfenben-
ner’s ecological model, the child in culture, social interaction/cognitive tools, socio-cultural
contexts of learning, implications for instruction, and individual contextual differences.
Situated cognition theory identifies features of the environment relevant to immediate con-
versational contexts, interpersonal relationships, and social group memberships. It also
increases our understanding about how these features shape thoughts and actions. We also
look into Bronfenbenner’s ecological model and it’s influence on a child’s learning envi-
ronment. In the socio-cultural context, Vygotsky theorized that human development was
inseparable from cultural and social development and that these social interactions help
children to develop cognitive tools. These cognitive tools develop skills specifically tied to
an individual’s personal culture and social experiences and include language/speech and cul-
tural production. As time progresses, these skills become internalized in the zone of proximal
development. In relation to instructional implications, placed based, culturally based, and
cooperative learning techniques are discussed. It will help future educators use this theory
and research effectively, and apply it to a practical classroom setting. Individual Contex-
tual Differences have various influences on our cognitive development. It encompasses both
Bronfenbrenner’s theory about the influence of the microsystem and macrosystem in regards
to child development and Vygotsky’s theory on social and cultural factors being essential
to cognitive development. Therefore, we look at how differences in societal, classroom and
institutional settings have an effect on a child’s cognitive development. The social context
in which cognitive processes take place are highly influential in the development of mind.

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13.5.1 Social Cognition

Social cognition focuses on the theory of mind. Theory of mind is a broad concept, encom-
passing and understanding the full range of mental states, as well as the antecedents and
consequences of such understanding.The social context is made up not only of our relation-
ships with specific others but also the groups we identify. As we continue to develop and
associate with certain social groups, this becomes a part of our “social identity”[1]. These
social groups establish norms, or standards for correct and appropriate beliefs, opinions,
and behaviors. For example, it may be the ”norm” to use inappropriate language with your
friends, but not with your parents or family members . Such norms influence our behavior
all the time, whether other members of the social groups are physically present or not. This
social identity is activated by situational reminders of our social group membership or by
our own intentional thought. Once this identity is activated, we tend to conform to that
group’s norms. [1].
Social identities serve as behavioral guides for appropriate behavior. This can have some
negative effects. If define social identity by our social group membership that we share with
some people but not others, it divides the world into ‘us’ and ‘them.’ Shaping how we think
about and behave toward other people. People on the ‘us’ side of the line, are considered
group members and are therefore better liked.[2] In a school context, children can often
become victims of bullying if they do not identify with a popular social group, and adopt a
social identity that suits their peers ”cultural norms”.
In order to understand the development of social cognition and social identity, we must
examine situated cognition. Cognition almost invariably occurs in the context of other peo-
ple. It refers to the web of face-to-face encounters, personal relationships, and social group
memberships that make us who we are. Not only do these social entities very frequently
constitute the content of our thoughts and feelings, but they fundamentally shape the pro-
cesses underlying our thinking and behavior as well. To detail some of the evidence for this
broad claim, this chapter describes the interface of situated cognition, the ecological model
of development, and the child in culture. The social context of cognitive development has
to do with our thoughts and beliefs about the social world. It also refers to our beliefs
about others, the self, people in general, specific aspects of people (e.g., thoughts, desires,
emotions), social groups and social institutions[3]. Situated Cognition
Situated cognition is centered on the idea that knowing is “inseparable” from actually doing
and highlights the importance of learning within context[4]. The Situated Cognition The-
ory is based upon principles related to the fields of anthropology, sociology, and cognitive
sciences. Its main argument is that all knowledge that a learner acquires is somehow situ-
ated within activities that are social, physically or culturally-based. The Situated Cognition
Theory mainly supports, that the acquisition of knowledge cannot be separated from the
context in which this knowledge is collected. Therefore, a learner must grasp the concepts
and skills that are being taught in the context in which they will eventually be utilized. As
a result, instructors who are trying to apply this theory in their classes are encouraged to
create an environment of full immersion, wherein students must be able to learn skills, as
well as new ideas and behaviors that are taught in the context in which they will be used
at a later time. Collins, Brown, & Duguid are creators of the situated cognition model, and
believed that learning culture played a major role in education, and that learning by doing
was an often overlooked approach[4].

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Situated cognitive learning emphasizes that learning in the real world is not like studying
in school. It is often describe as acculturation or adapting the norm, behavior, skills, belief,
language, and attitudes of a particular community. This community might be mathemati-
cians, gang member, writers, and students of any group that has particular ways of thinking
and doing. Knowledge is seen not as individual cognitive structures but as a creation of the
community over time. The practices of the community, the way of interacting and getting
things done, as well as the tools the community has created constitute the knowledge of
that community. Thus learning means becoming more able to participate in those practices
and using the tools. Situated cognitive learning emphasizes the idea that much of what
is learned is specific to the situation in which it is learned[3]. However, situated cognitive
learning says that knowledge and skills can be applied across contexts, even if the context is
different from the initial learning situation. For example, when you use your ability to read
and calculate (which you learned in school), to complete your income taxes, even though
learning how to do your taxes was not part of your original high school curriculum[5]. In
this situation, the student would be applying their mathematics and reading skills which
they learned in the classroom, to the real world. Demonstrating how situational learning
can be applied across different contexts.
Situated cognition offers the key insight that cognition is for adaptive action, our minds
evolved under the demands of survival rather than for detached puzzle-solving or abstract
cognition. This principle implies the existence of close connections between cognition, mo-
tivation, and action. Cognition is generally not neutral and detached, but is biased by
the individual’s motives and goals, with motives shaping our thoughts. Consider a per-
son’s understanding of the meaning of traits (such as reliable, honest, or intelligent), which
are basic components of our impressions of other people as well as ourselves[2]. Research
shows that our definitions of such traits are not objective and invariant, but are shaped in
self-serving ways by our own perceived understandings of those traits. Also the fundamen-
tal human need to belong shapes our social cognition. People experiencing a heightened
need to belong, after a social rejection; tune their attention and cognition to process social
information in the environment more carefully and thoroughly. This example of biases
in cognition caused by the perceives motivational concerns effectively illustrate how so-
cial cognition serves the needs of adaptive action important in determining the course of
cognition [6]. There is evidence that social-cognitive development and learning recognizes
that individuals develop through reciprocal interactions, in which people contribute to an
individuals development. These social interactions, are rooted in the situation in which it
occurs. Research on reciprocal transactions between organisms and the environment is a
basic feature of Brenfenbenner’s ecological theory.[7] Social-cognitive learning states that
a child’s personality functioning differs among individuals. Personality is understood by
reference to basic cognitive and effective structures and processes. These personality vari-
ables develop through experiences with one’s sociocultural environment. Social-cognitive
development differentiates among a number of distinct cognitive capacities contributing to
personality functioning. These include cognitive mechanisms that underlie skills and social
competencies, knowledge structures through which people interpret or “encode” situations,
self-reflective processes through which people develop beliefs about themselves and their
relation to the social environment, and self-regulatory processes through which people es-
tablish personal goals and standards for performance and motivate themselves to reach
desired ends[8]. In the next section, Bronfenbrenner’s theory divides the community in
which a child grows up into four systems. The community in which a child develops, will

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ultimately effect the situation in which the child learns, a child’s interpersonal relationships
and who they associate with. As previously mentioned, social cognition and situational
cognition explain the development of a child’s mind, but both can be largely influenced by
a child’s environmental context. Bronfenbrenner outlines some of these social contextual
influences in his ecological model.
.

13.5.2 Ecological Model

Bronfenbenner’s Ecological Model

Ecological Model.gif
Bronfenbrenner provides an ecological model for understanding human development. He
explains that children’s development within the socio-cultural context of the family, com-
munity, broader society and the educational setting. All have an impact on the developing
child, because all the various contexts are interrelated. For example, even a child in a
supportive, loving family within a healthy, strong community is affected by the biases of
the larger society, such as racism, sexism or violence, and may show the effects of negative
discrimination and stereotyping. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological context of child development
and learning can be depicted as a series of concentric rings as with each system influencing
and being influenced by the others[7] for example:
Microsystem
Bronfenbenner’s theory: The microsystem is the system closest to the person and the one in
which they have direct contact. Some examples would be home, school, daycare, or work. A
microsystem typically includes family, peers, or caregivers. Relationships in a microsystem
are bi-directional. In other words, your reactions to the people in your microsystem will
affect how they treat you in return. This is the most influential level of the ecological
systems theory.
Let’s look at the microsystem in Marian lives. The first part of his microsystem is her
home environment. This includes his interactions with her parents and little sister. Mar-
ian’s school is also part of her microsystem. Her regular school interactions are with her
kindergarten teacher and the other children in his class[9].
Mesosystem
The next level of ecological systems theory is the mesosystem. The mesosystem consists of
the interactions between the different parts of a person’s microsystem. The mesosystem is
where a person’s individual microsystems do not function independently, but are intercon-
nected and assert influence upon one another. These interactions have an indirect impact
on the individual.
One aspect of Marian’s mesosystem would be the relationship between her parents and her
teacher. Her parents take an active role in her school, such as attending parent/teacher
conferences and volunteering in her classroom. This has a positive impact on her devel-
opment because the different elements of her microsystem are working together. Marian’s

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development could be affected in a negative way if the different elements of her microsystem
were working against one another[9].
Exosystem
The exosystem is the next level we will examine. The exosystem refers to a setting that
does not involve the person as an active participant, but still affects them. This includes
decisions that have bearing on the person, but in which they have no participation in the
decision-making process. An example would be a child being affected by a parent receiving
a promotion at work or losing their job.
One part of Marian’s exosystem would be his father’s workplace. Marian’s father is in the
Navy. This often takes her away from the family, and she sometimes does not see her father
for months at a time. This situation impacts Marian, and she becomes anxious when her
father leaves. Marian’s anxiety has an effect on his development in other areas such as
school, even though she has no interaction with her father’s work or say in the decision
making process, but this may have impact her learning environment[9].
Macrosystem
The fourth level of ecological systems theory is the macrosystem. The macrosystem en-
compasses the cultural environment in which the person lives and all other systems that
affect them. Examples could include the economy, cultural values, and political system.
The macrosystem can have either a positive or a negative effect on a person’s development.
For an example, consider the different effects on the development of a child growing up in
a third-world economy versus that of the United States.
Ecological theorists such as Bronfenbrenner[7] point to the importance of the settings and
circumstances in which students live for understanding children’s behavior and establishing
productive programs and policies to promote the development of children and youth. Teach-
ers make many decisions that can be informed by an understanding of the context in which
children live. These decisions include curricular and instructional decisions about materials
and methods used in the classroom. Teachers’ guidance of children’s classroom learning can
be fostered by understanding how the knowledge, practices, and language socialization pat-
terns within children’s families and communities contribute to children’s ability to function
in the classroom how to communicate and work with children’s families,[7] as well as how
to promote children’s participation and positive social relations in the classroom influence
by cultural and social context. The Child-in-Culture
The child in culture, it is important for teachers to learn about the culture of the majority of
the children they serve if that culture differs from their own. Recognizing that learning and
development are influenced by cultural and social context, it would be an impossible task
to expect teachers/caregivers to understand all the nuances of every cultural group they
may encounter in their practice. It is more important for teachers/caregivers to become
sensitive to the knowledge of how their own cultural experience shapes their perspective
and to realize that multiple perspectives must be considered in decisions about children’s
learning and development, in addition to their own. Children have the learning ability
and capability to function simultaneously in more than one cultural context. However, if
teachers/caregivers set too low or too high expectations for children based on their home
language and culture, children cannot learn and develop optimally and reach their full
potential. The ideal would be for example, that children whose primary language is not

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English should be able to learn English without forcing them to give up their home language
and to get a teacher/caregiver to translate or teach in both languages. Likewise, children
who speak only English benefit from learning another language. The goal is that all children
learn to function well in the society or even community as a whole and move comfortably
among groups of people who come from both the same and different backgrounds[10]
In understanding the mind of the child (learner), teachers must also understand that each
student is an individual who is developing a sense of self and relationships in a variety of con-
texts, notably the family, school, and community.[9] Hence, teachers considered themselves
least knowledgeable about issues concerning diversity and schooling effects on students.
This perception exists despite major efforts made at the national level to provide guidelines
for preparing teachers to teach culturally diverse students.[11] Research suggests that there
is both cause for concern and hope for improvement. For example, Hollingsworth,[12] indi-
cate that novice teachers’ views of children are often inaccurate because they assume that
their students possess learning styles, aptitudes, interests, and problems that are similar to
their own.[12] Furthermore, recent research suggests that prospective teachers hold simplis-
tic views of student differences have little knowledge about different cultural groups, may
have negative attitudes toward those groups, they Teachers) may view diverse backgrounds
of students as a problem, and have lower expectations for the learning of ethnic minority
students.[12]
For some children, these points of difference may not have much effect. But for others,
the mismatch between parental or community expectations and the expectations of the
formal learning environment may leave the child feeling as if he or she is straddling two
distinct worlds. How we think about child in culture can help us move toward greater
sensitivity or, alternatively, can create additional roadblocks to our ability to engage and
work with families. Early calls for cultural competency sometimes put forward a list of
observed parenting traits of minority cultures with little explanation of how these aspects
of culture may be part of a whole and with little understanding of the cultural participants’
intention behind these actions. This type of thinking, though well-meaning, can solidify
stereotypes instead of helping us penetrate them. Educators, open to embracing the diverse
cultures represented in their classrooms, had little guidance in how to achieve this sensi-
tivity in more than just a superficial way. One observation notes that ironically, teachers
may conscientiously try to create culturally sensitive environments for their students (e.g.,
through multicultural displays and activities) while simultaneously structuring classroom
interaction patterns that violate invisible cultural norms of various non-dominant groups.
Teachers may also inadvertently criticize parents for adhering to a different set of ideals
about children, families and parenting[13].
Research have shown that in many content domains when children are asked to learn or solve
problems based upon materials with which they are familiar, or in ways that make “human
sense” they learn more rapidly. These relations between culture and learning do not fade
away, but become even more pronounced as children move from early into middle childhood
and adolescence. Consequently, those concerned with leveraging the power of culture to
promote learning should take care to pay as much attention to the cultural enrichment of
children as to their health and physical well-being, all of which play an especially important
role during this period of extraordinarily rapid developmental change[13]. Cognitive Tools
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The previous sections have mentioned how a community influences cognition by determining
the context in which a child learns about the social and cultural rules around them[5]. This
community also determines the situation in which learning and cognitive development takes
place. For example, a child who grows up in a rural town in Saskatchewan is going to have
grown up in a very different community, when compared to a child who grew up in New
York City. Their learning will have taken place in a classroom with different socio-cultural
”norms”. Although these skills can be transferred across situations, each child is going to
develop a different set of cognitive tools that reflects the cultural and social environment
they grew up in. Cognitive tools are specialized, and designed to guide a learner in following
the ”norm” behaviors dictated by a particular community[5].
In a community, there are many social interactions and processes. As time goes by, these
social interactions define our patterns of thought and cognition. This social cognition refers
to the information processing of social situations. Once this information is encoded, it is
used in all other social interactions and applied to people. Due to this fact, early interactions
will shape and serve as a template for future pro-social behaviors. These early interactions
also influence our ways of thinking, and shape how we view the world. This type of situated
cognition, refers to knowledge that is learned and developed through authentic activity [4].
Social interaction can serve as an important conceptual tool. They relfect the collective
knowledge and wisdom of the culture in which they are used, and connect the insights
and experiences of individuals[4]. These tools are understood through repeated use, and
by interacting with others. Over time, these tools become implicit knowledge and shape
your view of the world. Allowing you to adopt the belief system of the culture they are
learned in. For example, Vygotsky states language is a cognitive tool produced through
social interaction[14]. Language is tied to culture, and different languages have different
semantic meanings, leading to differences in speech and cognition. These differences in
socio-cultural acquisition influences an individuals thought patterns and beliefs[14]. In this
way, social interaction creates cognitive skills, specifically tied to an individuals personal
cultural and social experiences. In the following sections, we define Vygotsky’s socio-cultural
contexts, and explain how these contexts produce cognitive tools such as language, speech,
and cultural production, and how these tools are learned through more knowledgeable others
in the ZPD. Socio-Cultural Contexts of Learning
In the 1930’s, psychologist Lev Vygotsky developed a new socio-cultural theory of learn-
ing and development. His theory was conceived decades before Bronfenbenner’s ecological
model, although both psychologists emphasized the social and cultural context. At the
time, Vygotsky’s theory contrasted that of the popular child development theorist, Jean
Piaget[14]. For his era, Vygotsky’s theory of development was revolutionary. He stated
that human development was inseparable from cultural and social development[14]. These
social and cultural interactions lead to the development of higher cognitive processes such
as language, and attention[14]. Vygotsky developed four basic principles of learning and
knowledge. These are: knowledge is constructed, development cannot be separate from the
social/cultural context, language plays a central role in mental development, and learning
is facilitated through collaboration by working with ”more knowledgeable others” [14].
The learning of these socio-cultural processes occurs through the cultural inventions of
a society. Thus, development of conscious cognition is the result of social and cultural
influences[14]. Vygotsky defined specific aspects of these social interactions as specialized
cognitive tools. These tools become internalized as a learner progresses through the ZPD,

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and shape our thought patterns. Specifically, Vygotsky emphasized language, speech, and
cultural production as highly influential cognitive tools produced through socio-cultural in-
teraction. Vygotsky also stated, that these cognitive tools are learned and enforced through
more knowledgeable others in the ZPD[14]. These concepts will be broken down, and ex-
plained in detail in the subsequent sections. Language and Speech
The development of cognitive processes, are shaped through communicative interactions in
specific social situations of development[15]. Vygotsky, emphasized that speaking and think-
ing are unified, with two basic functions: revealing reality, and communicating meaning in
social interactions. Through language, an individual’s cultural identity is formed, because
children acquire knowledge in a specific cultural setting through familial and institutional
influences[16]. As Bronfenbenner suggested, the ecological community in which learning
takes place, influences developmental processes like language and speech[7]. Language ini-
tially serves as means of communication between the child, and people in the immediate
environment[16]. However, upon conversion to internal speech, it affects how a child orga-
nizes his/her thoughts. It becomes an internal mental function[16]. For example, a child
that grows up in an English western family, has a different dialect and system of values and
beliefs compared to a child that grows up in rural India[15]. These differences can mani-
fest in differing writing styles. This is because, each child has their own set of deliberate
semantics, and words can have different meanings[15]. This is also known as, dialectic con-
tradictions, which are historically accumulated structural tensions in a language[15]. These
differences in the cultural context of language acquisition, manifest themselves in differ-
ing thought processes resulting in different cognitive and communicative interactions. This
process of language/speech acquisition, can also be referred to as acculturation[4]. In this
way, language is a cognitive tool as it has the ability to influence our patterns of thought.

13.5.3 Cultural Production

In previous sections, culture was defined as acculturation[5], or the process where a child
learns and adopts the ”norm” beliefs and values of a community. Each child learns these
norms in different situational contexts and interactions. After repeated use, these norms
become a part of a child’s social identity, and determines the character of a child and future
patterns of behavior and thought[5]. Culture can be produced through language and speech,
the learning of cultural norms from elders of a group with mastery social skills (ZPD), and
by a community[4].
Culture plays a dominant role in shaping social interactions, and the development of cog-
nitive processes. It is a tool that is changeable, and created during a child’s early social
lives[14]. Cultural production can occur at two levels: institutional (macrosystem), and
intrapersonal (microsystem). In an institutional setting, this refers to the larger social con-
text such as school settings, political context etc. An interpersonal setting would refer
to interactions between each other , such as peer to peer interactions[14]. An individuals
overall cultural history, is responsible for producing useful cognitive tools that are accumu-
lated over time [14]. Eventually, this leads to the internalization of culturally valued skills
and behaviors, making these cognitive processes automatic[14]. A culture creates special
forms of behaviors, which are specific to a specific cultural history[15]. These structures
affect problem solving capacities, and patterns of social interactions. To examine these
differences, psychologists can conduct cross-cultural studies. An example of a cross-cultural

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study, could include investigating how some cultures don’t believe in displaying knowledge
overtly, compared to cultures where that is considered a good thing. Vygotsky states that
culture is developed and produced through processes of social interactions, and through
active agents in the immediate development context.

13.5.4 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky theorized that learning largely occurs in a child’s ZPD. It mostly takes place
in Bronfenbrenner’s microsystem level of the ecological model. He defined this as “the
distance between the actual developmental level, as determined by actual problem solving,
and the level of potential development under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more
capable peer[17] .” This form of social interaction occurring between the student and “more
knowledgeable others,” serves as a cognitive tool for developing higher learning processes[17].
In a classroom setting, a more knowledgeable other includes any active agents such as
teachers, supervising adults, or peers[17] . There are three levels of a learners developmental
progress in the ZPD over time (see figure 2 [17]). These three levels are the actual level,
potential level and realized level[17]. The actual level refers to what a learner is able to
accomplish without assistance. It refers to the actual base level of knowledge a student
possesses on their own[17]. Whereas, the potential level is how well a learners performs
with assistance by a more knowledgeable other[17]. A student has the capability to achieve
this potential level of knowledge through collaboration. For example, a tutor is helping a
grade two student learn grade three level mathematics. On their own, the student is able
to readily solve grade two mathematics problems. Since this student possesses a strong
actual level of mathematics, the student can be taught grade three level mathematics by
collaborating with a more knowledgeable tutor. Eventually, through rehearsal and practise,
the student is able to complete grade three mathematics problems on their own. This is
referred to as their realized level of knowledge. Three Stages of ZPD Progression
Figure 2.[17] Adapted from “The Mediation of learning in the Zone of Proximal Development
through a Co-Constructed Writing Activity,” by Thompson, 2013 Research In The Teaching
Of English, 47(3), p.259
Essential to this theory, is that the level of knowledge being learned must be more advanced
than what the student currently knows [17]. Teachers can also use scaffolding, which uses
a student’s prior knowledge to help give students a base level of information They can
use this to build more complex concepts[17]. Like in the example, the tutor built off the
students prior knowledge of grade two mathematics, and made sure the material was more
advanced than what the student currently knew. Before a student attempts to master a new
skill, they can be given supplemental information to introduce them to the new material.
This can include artifacts such as: books, videos, textbooks, and computer technology[17].
These artifacts act as priming agents for learners, and ease the learning transition to more
complex concepts. By using the ZPD as a cognitive tool, instructor’s can approach mastery
of more difficult skills through collaborative classroom strategies. See figure two for further
explanation learning through the ZPD[17].
Learning in the ZPD.jpg

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Sociocognitive Learning

Figure 3[17]. Stages of Learning in ZPD. Adapted from “The Mediation of learning in the
Zone of Proximal Development through a Co-Constructed Writing Activity,” by Thompson,
2013 Research In The Teaching Of English, 47(3), p.257 Implications for Instruction
The social lives of school children, can have many instructional effects. As previously men-
tioned, the situation in which information is learned, level of difficulty, collaboration with
more knowledgeable others, level of social cognition/competency, and cultural production,
all have differing instructional effects in the classroom. Each student has a different cultural
history, that influences their patterns of thinking, and how they approach solving problems
in the classroom. Teaching should incorporate the situation and use conceptual tools[4].
Learning should involve, the activity, concept, and culture. For example, teaching children
the definition of words. It is simply not enough to have them write out definitions from
the dictionary, in an abstract way[15]. Learning words, must take place in an authentic
way, and relate to the cultural situation in which the word is defined and used in speech[4].
The next section will discuss how some of the previous social and cultural factors can be
mediated through instructional methods. Some useful pedagogies for instructors that will
be discussed are place based and cooperative learning strategies.

13.5.5 Place Based Instruction

One way of taking otherwise abstract concepts and rooting them in culturally meaningful
pedagogy, is a method known as place based instruction. It uses both ideas about situated
cognition and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory. The environment in which we learn and
situation in which the learning takes place, is responsible for co-creating our knowledge.
A place based learning approach is suited for the multi-cultural classroom. If focuses on
transforming the traditional classroom environment, into a place that engaging for all types
of learners[18]. At its core, it links place to cultural struggles, and aims to empower diverse
learners through the integration of local cultural knowledge[18].
Main Focuses of Place Based Pedagogy[18]:
1. Support thinking about a system using the “bigger picture”
2. Connect students to lived experiences- creating meaning through place based instruction
3. Foster Reflexive Inquiry
4. Regulate and Control How Ethnically Diverse Learners Organize their Identity
One way this pedagogy can be implemented in the classroom is by creating a community
garden. It is a creative way of incorporating language, culture, and environment by
increasing feelings of interconnectedness[18]. A community garden is open to all, and
provides a green space for children in urban areas. It creates a setting for social interactions
to take place through the cooperative planning, designing, and execution of a garden and
all its elements[18]. The garden is a great way of creating conversation between students
about local and self-cultural identity[18]. Students can research herbs related to their
cultural background, and report to the class the various cultural ways in which the herb is
used culturally like in, cuisine, medicine, or religion[18]. They can then plant these herbs
in the garden, tying place with the construction of their knowledge. This also allows for
peers to create conversations about cultural differences, fostering reflexive inquiry [18].

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The place based framework, examines how a culture and local environment makes up the
community and culture of the school. This method also allows ethnically diverse learners
to, self-identify their cultural values, and decide what they want to share. This control
and the self-regulation of their own identity, can help grow self-regulated learning as well[18].

Culture-Based Education and Its Relationship to Student Outcomes

Adapted from: Kana‘iaupuni, S., Ledward, B., & Jensen, U. (2010). Culture-based educa-
tion and its relationship to student outcomes. EDUCATION.
Figure 4. ”Hawaiian Cultural Influences in Education Study Model[19]”
In a study by Kana‘iaupuni[19], they explored the kinds of teaching strategies being used in
Hawaiian classrooms and investigated the impact of teachers’ use of culturally based educa-
tion strategies (CBE), on student socio-emotional development and educational outcomes.
Cultural relevance in education was shown to have direct effects on student socio emo-
tional factors such as self-worth, cultural identity, and community/family relationships.
It was also shown to have direct and indirect effects on educational outcomes, such as
student engagement, achievement, and behaviour[19] (Kana‘iaupuni, 2010). In Figure 1,
it shows the reciprocal interelating relationship between CBE, educational outcomes, and
socio-emotional development. Adapted from: Kana‘iaupuni, S., Ledward, B., & Jensen, U.
(2010). Culture-based education and its relationship to student outcomes. EDUCATION.
Figure 5: ”School Engagement Among Hawaiian Students By Teacher CBE Use[19]”
The results of the of the study show (see figure 5[19]) that teachers who use CBE methods
in the classroom have higher levels of student self-efficacy and trust, than students with
Low CBE Teachers. Students exposed to high levels of CBE by their teachers are also
more likely to be engaged in schooling than others, by putting cultural skills to use in their
communities and forming trusting relationships with teachers and staff[19]. In the study,
they used methodology involved in place based pedagogy[18]. They took into account
the local environment and interwove it into the curriculum. Students took part in classes
teaching Hawaiian culture, and and/environmental stewardship[18]. The study illustrates
how place based pedagogy can significantly improve students rates of self-efficacy and trust
in the classroom when teachers use a high amount of CBE/place based curriculum[19].
Cooperative Learning
In Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, he emphasized the importance and role of
peer collaboration and learning. Cooperative based learning refers to intentional learning
activities, where group members work towards a shared learning goal[20]. It is different from
classroom “group work,” as group work does not always guarantee actual learning will take
place . The goal of cooperative based learning is to understand that each learner brings their
own particular set of skills to the table[20]. If differs from collaborative learning, because
students are not trying to improve a weak skill, but rather identify the skills they excel in
and use them to help the group.For example, Amy may struggle with abstract concepts like
mathematics, but has a great imagination (Also, see figure 3[20]). She is grouped together
with students who excel with abstract concepts, but struggle thinking imaginatively. This
way, students are able to share their skills, and teach each other. This is known as reciprocal
teaching, where learners are able to teach other members of their group[20]. By working

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towards achieving their common learning goal, students must combine their different skill
sets to solve the problem. It can help students see different perspectives on how to approach
problem solving activities[20].
The Five Steps to Achieve Cooperative Learning in the Classroom[20]
1. Give Specific Learning Objectives
2. Plan out learning strategies, and composition of groups
3. Explain the learning objective
4. “monitor-observe” the students
5. Assess the achievement and cooperation of students
Some examples of cooperative learning strategies for the classroom are the jigsaw method
and group investigation method[20]. In the jigsaw method, students are divided into groups.
Then, one member from each group is sent to a special group to learn about a specific
course topic. Once students individually read the material, they discuss and reflect upon
the material as a group, making note of its key points[20]. Lastly, each student returns to
their original groups. After their peers read the material, the student sent to the special
group leads their group discussion, reflecting on the topics key points. The premise of this
strategy is to have the students in each group teach each other, and become better self-
regulatory learners[20]. In the group investigation method, students are first divided into
groups. They are then given information about a specific course topic, and read through the
material individually, and are asked to make note of its key points[20]. After this, the group
discusses the material collectively, reflecting on its key points, and could be asked to prepare
a presentation for the class.This strategy promotes group dialogue and aims at cultivating
social interaction skills. Cooperative learning, is a strategy that instructors can use in the
classroom to promote social cognitive growth, and increase student’s performance[20]. In
the next section, we discuss how social cognitive processes are affected by macrosystem
influences, such as individual contextual differences in societal, classroom, and institutional
settings. Individual Contextual Differences
The cognitive development process can be differed individually. Lots of aspects of social
context can have varies of influences on our cognitive development, Such as: intelligence,
environment factors, learning opportunities, economics status, family and society. As pre-
viously mentioned, the social and cultural context in which learning takes place, greatly
affects our cognitive growth. Theories like situated cognition, Bronfenbenner’s ecological
model, and Vygotsky’ scocio-cultural theory, discuss how macrosystem influences such as
the cultural environment, make up our implicit views on the world. In this section, we will
look into how different classrooms, different institution and society can affect our cognition
and how do we do to improve this development. Society
“We have no obligation to make history.
We have no obligation to make art.
We have no obligation to make a statement.
To make money is our only objective.”
-- Michael Eisner, former CEO of Walt Disney

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The problem of boys having lower graduation rates, greater worries about intimacy and
relationships are touched upon to suggest some reasons behind it. Using the internet and
accessing pornography are acting as arousal addictions that have negative effect on social
life of boys. Lots of documents shows the problems of women getting misrepresented,
objectified and sexuality are evident in our societies’ status quo. The society and media is
often portraying women as object for sex and beauty, demising women’s actual capabilities.
We should advocate the need to value women’s capabilities and encourage them to discover
their true power.. Simply put, media is any device or system that we humans use to
accomplish our goals. The wheel, an oar, an abacus, a hammer, a toothpick, and a TV set
are various examples[21].
These influences heavily affect development of the authentic self for both males and females
negatively. Being authentic self is being who you really are, knowing your personal why,
discovering your capabilities and expressing your inner self to others. These are real, genuine
and authentic which comes from your heart. The problem with the media is that they are
portraying cognition of what it means to be ideal women or men that are accepted by the
society. Often, these perfect images of beauty, success and satisfaction are falsely created
by media often to get more people’s attention and money. Thus, people start to take in
what the media tells them to be rather than finding their own true beauty, capabilities, and
values that are truly meaningful for themselves. For that reason, the media exposure simply
makes us to seek what is ideal in our society instead of genuine values that are found within
self-discovery so lots of people are developing a wrong cognition because of that. In order to
sustain the authentic life, we need to have a clear sense of values and define our view of life
that comes from inner self. Our own clear vision, belief, goal, and mind act as a firm pillar
that support from being impressionable person who easily get swayed by society and media
influence. Therefore, we can prevent ourselves from following other people’s values.When
movies and television first appeared predictions were made that they would replace most,
if not all, classroom instruction[21]
The notion that these media companies are “giving us what the public want” is concerning
because they’re actually just giving us what the media companies and advertisers want, and
manipulating viewers in believing that it is our fault for the brainless content that’s being
produced. It’s also a problem that men make up the majority of the board of these reputable
media companies because the way women are represented is inaccurate and are often times
exploited through the views of white, capitalist male elites who take no interest in genuine
women empowerment. On the other hand, although men aren’t as demonized via media as
women are, they still do struggle with radical stereotypes, biases, and discrimination. In
Demise of Guys, Atherton mentions that men are constantly exposed to explicit content
such as pornography, creating an “arousal addiction[22].” Men are also constantly shown
“ideal” images of masculinity where there is a lack of emotional representation and here,
problems in intimacy and relationships will start to manifest.
These media influences affect the development of the authentic self for both females and
males in a sense that when they are exposed to inaccurate representations without knowledge
on the corporate strategy behind it, they will be easily manipulated into believing that who
they are and how they look isn’t good enough. Especially for girls and boys who are exposed
to explicit and exploitative content at a young age, they will start to believe that what they
see on media is their reality. When in reality, everyone is different – we come in all shapes,
sizes, and color – and it’s important to base your beauty from within rather than from the

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physical.Educators increasingly are aware of media’s potential for changing how learning
and teaching take place. Even though education continues to lag behind other segments of
society in using media[21]. Media likes to hyper-sexualize women and pit them against each
other while romanticizing the male character for their strength and independence. Although
some women and men might prefer to play that role in reality, we would possibly live in
a different society if we focused on issues such as gender equality, health and fitness, and
educated viewers on the reality of the world instead of the dream. Classroom
We should value children’s competencies in learning, focusing on self-directed learning ap-
proach.We should value children’s competencies in learning, focusing on self-directed learn-
ing approach. Rather than simply throwing information and knowledge at children, it is
important to acknowledge that they are capable, competent learners who are not helpless.
Children are competent enough to be innovated by learning, creating changes and solving
problems. We should also emphasize design thinking approach where children are engaged
in real life context to solve problems and create solutions. Thus, the opportunities actively
engage children to be part of a community member. They can highly relate their learning
in their real life that matters and is meaningful. We should be providing real tools and ma-
terials to build real things where children have an access to these materials for their creative
ideas of invention. The social contexts of cognition and learning have obvious applications
to the classroom. As any teacher knows, the classroom is above all a social environment
and teaching is a form of social interaction that affects group collaboration, motivation,
learning and even use of technology[23].
One of the strength of these kind of learning approaches is that these encourage children
to form great cognitions and fulfil their potentials. By recognizing children’s capacities to
think, learn, and change will help them to see their learning abilities. Also, these approaches
of learning are very good for children to enjoy and have some fun. Because it requires
children to come up with their own creative ideas and solutions, they can have more interest
in what they do and learn throughout the process. The weakness in these approaches is
the possible financial problem. Many resources and materials are probably needed for
children to access that could cost quite of bit of money. If these approaches of learning are
incorporated in other regular classes, funding will be needed and not all schools can afford
it as they wish.
The self-directed learning approach can help students to be engaged in what they learn and
do with genuine interests[24]. Also, being in the field rather than simply staying in the
classroom can motivate them better. Thus, the learning can be made more effectively. For
instance, whenever students go to a field trip to learn about certain thing with their own
eyes, it got me more interested and motivated. Do you still vividly remember when you
went to Science World, different kinds of museums, and Camps where you got to participate
in activities that engaged you actively? The answer will be yes. Institutional
The whole education system is seems like ”Building a house”, and the base or the foundation
construction is the most important part for a building, just like the meaning of the elemen-
tary education for the whole education system[24]. Lots of schools are ranked according
to standardized testing, but the author didn’t told us is this kind of practice is right or
wrong, good or bad. However, school ranking in some way is good, they may help schools
to improve themselves by comparative. But with my personal experience, the ranking by
testing for student is not good and really make me stressful in my whole middle and high
school. In China, school ranking and ranking students in all schools is very universal, they

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divide student into two classes, good and bad. Then, the parents who wants their child get
in the good school or class, they will pay a lot money and time for them. This classification
is serious influence and hurt students’ self-esteem and enthusiasm for learning and study.
In conclusion, in view of all its defects and the harmful effects of university and schools,
why would anyone pay attention to the school ranking?
”when the teaching begins, educators must ask, who are the students, what are their partic-
ular needs, and what do they bring to the classroom?” points out the importance of student
in teaching and curriculum design as well as the whole education process. When a school
designs their education methods, they should consider the students themselves. What is
their goal of learning? How will students’ own value, culture and experience influence their
learning? And what can teachers learn from the students? If remembering the questions
when designing and implementing curriculum, I think the curriculum can better cope with
students’ needs.
We do have pressure on curriculum, which includes technology, culture, economy and en-
vironment, etc. When designing and implementing curriculum, it is also very important to
consider these factors that will influence students’ learning goals, needs, etc. For example,
a curriculum for in-class course may greatly differ from a distance course.
The problem of boys having lower graduation rates, greater worries about intimacy and
relationships are touched upon to suggest some reasons behind it. Using the internet and
accessing pornography are acting as arousal addictions that have negative effect on social
life of boys. Lots of documents shows the problems of women getting misrepresented,
objectified and sexuality are evident in our societies’ status quo. The society and media is
often portraying women as object for sex and beauty, demising women’s actual capabilities.
We should advocate the need to value women’s capabilities and encourage them to discover
their true power.
These influences heavily affect development of the authentic self for both males and females
negatively. Being authentic self is being who you really are, knowing your personal why,
discovering your capabilities and expressing your inner self to others. These are real, genuine
and authentic which comes from your heart. The problem with the media is that they are
portraying cognition of what it means to be ideal women or men that are accepted by the
society. Often, these perfect images of beauty, success and satisfaction are falsely created
by media often to get more people’s attention and money. Thus, people start to take in
what the media tells them to be rather than finding their own true beauty, capabilities, and
values that are truly meaningful for themselves. For that reason, the media exposure simply
makes us to seek what is ideal in our society instead of genuine values that are found within
self-discovery so lots of people are developing a wrong cognition because of that. In order
to sustain the authentic life, we need to have a clear sense of values and define our view of
life that comes from inner self. Our own clear vision, belief, goal, and mind act as a firm
pillar that support from being impressionable person who easily get swayed by society and
media influence. Therefore, we can prevent ourselves from following other people’s values.
The notion that these media companies are “giving us what the public want” is concerning
because they’re actually just giving us what the media companies and advertisers want, and
manipulating viewers in believing that it is our fault for the brainless content that’s being
produced. It’s also a problem that men make up the majority of the board of these reputable
media companies because the way women are represented is inaccurate and are often times

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exploited through the views of white, capitalist male elites who take no interest in genuine
women empowerment. On the other hand, although men aren’t as demonized via media as
women are, they still do struggle with radical stereotypes, biases, and discrimination. In
Demise of Guys, Atherton[22] mentions that men are constantly exposed to explicit content
such as pornography, creating an “arousal addiction.” Men are also constantly shown “ideal”
images of masculinity where there is a lack of emotional representation and here, problems
in intimacy and relationships will start to manifest.
These media influences affect the development of the authentic self for both females and
males in a sense that when they are exposed to inaccurate representations without knowledge
on the corporate strategy behind it, they will be easily manipulated into believing that who
they are and how they look isn’t good enough. Especially for girls and boys who are exposed
to explicit and exploitative content at a young age, they will start to believe that what they
see on media is their reality. When in reality, everyone is different – we come in all shapes,
sizes, and color – and it’s important to base your beauty from within rather than from the
physical.
Media likes to hyper-sexualize women and pit them against each other while romanticizing
the male character for their strength and independence. Although some women and men
might prefer to play that role in reality, we would possibly live in a different society if we
focused on issues such as gender equality, health and fitness, and educated viewers on the
reality of the world instead of the dream. Conclusion
In conclusion, from a socio-cultural perspective there are many social influences on cogni-
tive development. As previously stated, the socio cultural context of cognition is explained
through social and situated cognition, cultural production, social interaction and cognitive
tools, socio-cultural theory, and individual contextual differences.Through social interac-
tion students learn social cognition and develop cognitive tools. Individual differences in
socio-cultural contexts are influenced by those closest to you. Over time these differences
are internalized, and affect your cognition, thought patterns, and views about the world.
As learners, we are influenced by macrosystem factors outside our control. This includes
societal, individual, classroom, and institutional differences in contexts and situations of
learning. This can have many instructional implications, and calls for more place based and
cooperative classroom pedagogies, Research has stated that situated learning has an increas-
ing influence on education. The ecological model also states that in order to understand
human development, one must consider the entire ecological system in which growth oc-
curs. As discussed, recent research suggests that prospective teachers hold simplistic views
of student differences. They have little knowledge about different cultural groups. In fact,
they may have negative attitudes toward those groups, and view the diverse backgrounds
of students as a problem, and have lower expectations for the learning of ethnic minority
students. In the development of children, there are many social processes of interaction.
These early interactions will shape and serve as a template, for future pro social behaviours.
The social context can have various of influences on our cognitive development. Such as
: intelligence, environment factors, learning opportunities, economics status, family and
society. In order to be effective instructors, one must take into account the social-cultural
perspective, and account for the social influences on cognitive development. Glossary
Acculturation: adapting the norm, behavior, skills, belief, language, and attitudes of a
particular community[4].

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 Social Contexts of Learning

Cognitive development: Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psy-

chology focusing on a child’s development in terms of information processing, conceptual
resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and
cognitive psychology compared to an adult’s point of view[4].
Dialectic contradictions: Historically accumulated structural tensions in a language. . Each
child, has their own set of deliberate semantics. Therefore, words can have different mean-
ings according to each child[15].
Ecological model: An ecosystem model is an abstract, usually mathematical, representation
of an ecological system (ranging in scale from an individual population, to an ecological
community, or even an entire biome), which is studied to gain understanding of the real
system[7].
Exosystem: The exosystem refers to a setting that does not involve the person as an active
participant, but still affects them. This includes decisions that have bearing on the person,
but in which they have no participation in the decision-making process. An example would
be a child being affected by a parent receiving a promotion at work or losing their job[9].
Macrosystem: The macro-system encompasses the cultural environment in which the person
lives, in the larger sociological context. This level of the ecological model often influences
students without them even knowing it, leading to implicit beliefs or beliefs shared by a
culture. Examples could include the economy, cultural values, and political system[9].
Mesosystem. The mesosystem consists of the interactions between the different parts of
a person’s microsystem. The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems do
not function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.
These interactions have an indirect impact on the individual. For example, the relationship
between parent and teacher, can have an indirect impact on a students learning[9].
Microsystem: The system closest to the person and the one in students have have direct
contact. Some examples would be home, school, daycare, or work. A microsystem typically
includes family, peers, or caregivers[9].
Place based instruction: The environment in which we learn and situation in which the
learning takes place, is responsible for co-creating our knowledge. A place based learning
approach is suited for the multi-cultural classroom. It focuses on transforming the tradi-
tional classroom environment, into a place that is engaging for all types of learners[18].
Scaffolding: building of a students prior knowledge to learn new or difficult concepts[17].
Situated Cognition: A theory based upon principles related to the fields of anthropology,
sociology and cognitive sciences. Its main argument is that all knowledge a learner acquires
is somehow situated within activities that are socially, physically or culturally-based[4].
Social cognition: A subtopic of social psychology that focuses on how people process social
information (especially its encoding, storage, and retrieval) and how this information is
applied to social situations, other people, and social interactions[4].
Social Context: refers to the immediate physical and social setting in which people live or
in which something happens or develops. It includes the culture that the individual was
educated or lives in, and the people and institutions with whom they interact[4].

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Sociocognitive Learning

Zone of proximal development: The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as

ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can
do with help[17]. Suggested Readings
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1999). Environments in developmental perspective: Theoretical and
operational models. In Measuring environment across the life span : emerging methods and
concepts(1st ed., pp. 3-28). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Brown et al., (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Re-
searcher, 32- 42
Campbell, F. A., Pungello, E. P., & Miller-Johnson, S. (2002). The development of per-
ceived scholastic competence and global self-worth in African American adolescents from low
income families: The roles of family factors, early educational intervention, and academic
experience. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17, 277-302.
Poch, S. (2005). Higher education in a box. International Journal of Educational Manage-
ment 19(3), 246-258. doi:10.1108/09513540510591020
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. References
Miller, S. A. (2010). Social-cognitive development in early childhood.interactions, 20, 21.
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Redis-
covering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Cambridge, MA, US: Basil Black-
well, Inc. Smith, E. R., & Conrey, F. R. (2009). The social context of cognition.Cambridge
handbook of situated cognition, 454-466. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989).
Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational researcher, 18(1), 32-42. An-
derson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Situated learning and education.
Educational researcher, 25(4), 5-11. Smith, E. R., & Conrey, F. R. (2009). The social
context of cognition.Cambridge handbook of situated cognition, 454-466. Bronfenbrenner,
U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. Cervone, D., Shadel,
W. G., & Jencius, S. (2001). Social-cognitive theory of personality assessment. Person-
ality and Social Psychology Review, 5(1), 33-51. Bronfenbrenner’s, U. (2011). YOUTH,
Science TEACHING AND Learning. Böhmer, W. (2009). An investigation into the in-
clusion of child development in early childhood programs (Doctoral dissertation). Gay,
G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York,
NY:Teachers College Press Hollingsworth, S. (1989). Prior beliefs and cognitive change in
learning to teach. American educational research journal, 26(2), 160-189. Maschinot B.
(2000).The Changing Face of the United States The Influence of Culture on Early Child
Development: 2000 M St., NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20036-3307 (202) 638-1144
Rogoff, B., & Morelli, G. (1989). Perspectives on children’s development from cultural psy-
chology. American Psychologist, 44343-348. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.343 Mahn, H. h.
(2012). Vygotsky’s Analysis of Children’s Meaning Making Processes. International Jour-
nal Of Educational Psychology,1(2), 100-126. doi:10.4471/ijep.2012.07 Reunamo, J. J., &
Nurmilaakso, M. (2007). Vygotsky and agency in language development. European Early
Childhood Education Research Journal, 15(3), 313-327. doi:10.1080/13502930701679320
Thompson, I. (2013). The Mediation of learning in the Zone of Proximal Development
through a Co-Constructed Writing Activity. Research In The Teaching Of English, 47(3),
247-276. Sloan, C. (2013). Transforming Multicultural Classrooms through Creative Place-
Based Learning. Multicultural Education, 21(1), 26-32 Kana‘iaupuni, S., Ledward, B., &

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Jensen, U. (2010). Culture-based education and its relationship to student outcomes. ED-
UCATION. Clapper, T. t. (2015). Cooperative-Based Learning and the Zone of Proximal
Development. Simulation & Gaming, 46(2), 148-158. doi:10.1177/1046878115569044 Brun-
ing, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed).
Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971 Atherton J
S (2013) Doceo; Assignment Presentation Guidelines [On-line: UK] retrieved 2 March 2016
from http://www.doceo.co.uk/academic/assignment_presentation.htm#Referencing
Lajoie, K& Azevedo, J (1992). Laughter and stress Humor, 5, 43-355. Dobbin, F. 2004.The
New Economic Sociology: A Reader. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Social
emotional learning (SEL) is the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes to effec-
tively manage and understand emotions in social settings. SEL programs teach children to
establish positive relationships while making responsible decisions in the school setting. SEL
is intended to provide a foundation for socialization and achievement in school and later
life.91 There are five competencies identified within SEL: self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, relationship skills and responsible decision making.92 These competen-
cies enhance students’ understanding of themselves and others around them. This chapter
examines the theory, research and application of the five SEL competencies.

13.6 Self-Management

Self-management is the management of one’s emotions, behaviours, and thoughts in a va-

riety of situations. There are three approaches to social emotional learning: positive
youth development (PYD), critical youth empowerment (CYE), and sociopoliti-
cal development (SPD). The approach that relates to self-management the most is PYD.
PYD uses a variety of activities and experiences to assist young people in building their
social and emotional competence in the society93 . These activities and experiences allow
young people to build an attitude towards their capability at different stages of their life.
It is important to develop a positive attitude because attitude is the way of thinking or
feeling that is reflected in one’s behaviour. In order to maintain a positive attitude, one
need to learn their capability on managing stress, motivating oneself, controlling impulses,
and setting toward achieving personal and academic goals94 . In an educational setting,
self-management is an essential component for young people to grasp. Stress is often the
feeling that occurs to young people the most often in school. Self-management will benefit
young people by preventing a mental breakdown and have methods of calming oneself. So
through the PYD activities and experiences, young people can learn how to self-manage
their social and emotional competence.

91 Denham, Susanne A. (2014). How Preschoolers’ Social-Emotional Learning Predicts their Early School
Success: Developing Theory-Promoting, Competency-Based Assessments. 426-454.
92 SEL Defined. (n.d.). Retrieved November 1, 2015
93 Jackson, Cassandra McKay. (2014). A Critical Approach to Social Emotional Learning Instruction
Through Community-Based Service Learning. 292-312.
94 SEL Defined. (n.d.). Retrieved November 1, 2015

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13.6.1 Managing Emotions

Emotions are an instinctive or intuitive feeling derived from reasoning or knowledge. Being
able to manage emotions is important because it can either affect an individual’s behaviour
in a positive or negative way. Every individual has different methods of coping with emo-
tions; it just comes down to the individual’s self-management skills. An individual first
self-manages through learning how to manage stress, motivate oneself, control impulses,
and set toward achieving personal and academic goals95 . Research has shown that stress
is one of the factors affect a student’s level of functioning. Academic stress is when a
student feels they lack the skills, emotions, and time to effectively perform a given task96 .
Under stressful conditions, it is difficult for students to manage their emotions because
majority of the time, they feel helpless about a task. Motivation can be one of the best
methods to manage emotions. Motivation gives an individual the drive to set towards
achieving their personal and academic goals. Throughout that process, an individual can
maintain positive when they think about what their accomplished goal or the reward (if
any) at the end of the goal. In a school setting, student motivation is called autonomous
motivation. Autonomous motivation is undertaking an activity because of its meaning-
fulness and relevance97 . Students are more motivated to pursue activities that made more
meaningful to them by their educators. It is called autonomous motivation because the
educators will mold a classroom environment that allows students to make choices of their
own in classroom interactions. According to a research done on social emotional learning
skills such as motivation and managing stress, these skills are good indicators of future aca-
demic outcomes98 . The research was conducted towards high school students. The results
showed that students who had lower social emotional learning skills academically scored
in the bottom 25%, and students with high social emotional learning skills academically
scored in the top 25%99 . Students who saw college as an important journey or goal in
life was reflected in their grade point average (GPA) after their first year of high school.
If there is a steady or significant increase in a student’s GPA, this means they had the
motivation to work towards getting admitted into college. By improving students’ social
emotional learning skills, students will become more self-regulated and engaged learners100 .
Becoming self-regulated means to become autonomous by controlling their own emotions
and behaviour. Self-regulated students will be able to effectively seek motivational goals to
pursue. They will also be able to seek methods that can sufficiently cope with their stress.

95 SEL Defined. (n.d.). Retrieved November 1, 2015

96 Alan Davis, V. Scott Solberg, Christine de Baca & Taryn Hargrove Gore (2014) Use of Social Emotional
Learning Skills to Predict Future Academic Success and Progress Toward Graduation, Journal of Education
for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 19:3-4, 169-182, DOI: 10.1080/10824669.2014.972506
97 Alan Davis, V. Scott Solberg, Christine de Baca & Taryn Hargrove Gore (2014) Use of Social Emotional
Learning Skills to Predict Future Academic Success and Progress Toward Graduation, Journal of Education
for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 19:3-4, 169-182, DOI: 10.1080/10824669.2014.972506
98 Alan Davis, V. Scott Solberg, Christine de Baca & Taryn Hargrove Gore (2014) Use of Social Emotional
Learning Skills to Predict Future Academic Success and Progress Toward Graduation, Journal of Education
for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 19:3-4, 169-182, DOI: 10.1080/10824669.2014.972506
99 Alan Davis, V. Scott Solberg, Christine de Baca & Taryn Hargrove Gore (2014) Use of Social Emotional
Learning Skills to Predict Future Academic Success and Progress Toward Graduation, Journal of Education
for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 19:3-4, 169-182, DOI: 10.1080/10824669.2014.972506
100 Alan Davis, V. Scott Solberg, Christine de Baca & Taryn Hargrove Gore (2014) Use of Social Emotional
Learning Skills to Predict Future Academic Success and Progress Toward Graduation, Journal of Education
for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 19:3-4, 169-182, DOI: 10.1080/10824669.2014.972506

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13.6.2 Classroom Management

In an educational setting, classroom management is one of the contributing factors to stu-

dents’ self-management. Classroom management is the teacher’s knowledge about student’s
behaviour and development, as well as developing strategies and practices that would assist
students101 . With this knowledge, teachers can pass down the tools necessary for students
to successfully manage their own behaviour. For students to gain the capability of managing
their behaviours in a classroom, they must first learn how to regulate their own emotions.
For example, if a student knows how to calm their own emotions and be patient, chances
are they will be less disruptive in class. However, students are not the only ones who must
learn how to regulate their own emotions. As an educator of the students, they must learn
how to regulate their emotions before becoming a role model for the students. As a role
model, the teacher demonstrates proper solutions on handling situations, as well as creat-
ing positive relationships with every student in the class102 . Creating positive relationships
with the students will allow the teacher to understand them better. This way, teachers can
develop better strategies and practices tailored to each student’s needs.
There are four principles of effective classroom management103 :
Four Principles of Effective Classroom Manage- Details
ment
1. Planning and Preparation Teachers have a clear lesson plan for the day so transi-
tions between activities will be smooth.
2. Extension of the Quality of Relationships in the Creating positive relationships with students will de-
Classroom crease the possibilities of classroom disruptions.
3. Management is Embedded in the Environment Teachers use materials to support their teaching rou-
tines (eg: using charts or pictures)
4. Ongoing Processes of Observation and Documenta- Teachers need to consistently reflect upon their man-
tion agement skills to see if it is working effectively.

The main purpose of these principles is to allow educators to gain the skills to prevent the
worst case scenarios. This means being planning ahead of time so educators will not panic
and handle the situations ahead of them. These principles are not to prepare educators on
how to react, but how to prevent and build skills104 . Reaction is how the educator manages
and expresses their emotions during a situation, whereas prevention will allow the educators
think ahead of time and prepare for the worst. In doing so, this promotes organization and
educators will have control over the classroom. A technique that could be used to gain
control over the classroom is enforcing a daily routine. This routine could be used when
transitioning between activities105 or to get the class to quiet down. For example, if an
educator wants to get the students’ attention, they could clap their hands in a rhythm and
have the students follow. By doing so, this enforces positive behaviour from the students

101 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
102 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
103 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
104 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
105 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.

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Sociocognitive Learning

and students will manage themselves by reinforcing expectations106 . The clapping creates
a positive behaviour and will be emitted by students in applicable situations. Also, having
a particular transition between activities can create positive behaviour because it will make
the classroom more predictable107 . For example, educators can use a particular song to end
an activity to start the next. Students will get into the habit of this routine and manage
themselves through reinforcing the positive behaviour.
Using these principles, students can gain autonomy through managing their own be-
haviour108 . These principles not only allow educators to gain control over their classroom,
but students will have the opportunity to self-manage. To create a positive relationship
with the students, educators will need to create boundaries and balance between warmth
and discipline109 . Educators need to understand the degree of their discipline because going
by the rules for everything will stray the students away from the educators. Discipline
that are over controlling can cause educators to be inflexible and unresponsive to student
needs110 . There should not be a determined discipline because every year, there will be new
students in every classroom. The discipline should be modified based on the needs of the
students so there will be opportunities for students to learn the skills to self-manage.

13.7 Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is assessing one’s emotions and thoughts and its impact on behaviour. One
of the three approaches to social emotional learning, sociopolitical development (SPD),
connects to self-awareness. SPD is the critical reflection of young people that help them
see and understand structures, social values and practices that they may be struggling
with111 . Critical thinking will assist young people on realizing what their weaknesses are.
Self-awareness allows the young people to determine their strengths and weaknesses, as
well as maintaining a positive attitude and confidence. This is especially important in
an educational setting because young people need to understand their capabilities to set
goals for themselves that are not out of their limits. Figuring out what one’s strengths and
weaknesses are can influence emotions and thoughts either a positive or negative way. If one
is struggling with their weaknesses, this could result with frustration, anger, or any negative
emotions or thoughts. This will also lead up to negative behaviour. In an educational
setting, educators need to understand students’ weaknesses so they can scaffold alongside
to turn them into strengths. This will be beneficial with students’ self-awareness.

106 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
107 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
108 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
109 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
110 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
111 Jackson, Cassandra McKay. (2014). A Critical Approach to Social Emotional Learning Instruction
Through Community-Based Service Learning. 292-312.

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 Self-Awareness

13.7.1 Morals and Values

On one hand, morals are a person’s standards of behaviour involving their definitive belief
about what is acceptable and what is not acceptable for them to do. It is crucial for people
to develop morals because they establish a set of rules for themselves based on their belief
between right and wrong. Having morals will provide a person with directions, guiding
them towards more positive decisions and preventing themselves from negative choices.
This works in with SPD through the critical reflection that one must go through. SPD
seeks out social values, structures, practices, and processes that need to be altered112 . A
person with morals can easily seek out those social factors that do not fit in with their beliefs.
Setting a set of ground rules allows an individual to determine whether their emotions and
thoughts are generating a positive or negative behaviour.
On the other hand, values are what are important to an individual. Values and morals
work to build on each other. Morals determine what is acceptable and not acceptable in
an individual’s perspective, and values determine what is important. Values will trigger
the emotions in an individual because a value sets an importance on an object, a person, a
place, etc. in the individual’s life. Values can give an individual confidence and optimism
in life because these values act as a motivation for the individual. Motivation is a factor
that will benefit young people in schools. Motivation gives people a reason to do things
because it interests them. Usually, an individual will develop motivation for a task because
they can get something out of it (eg: a reward). The reward they get out of a task could
be of some value of theirs. Thus, having values can also be used as a motivator for people.

112 Jackson, Cassandra McKay. (2014). A Critical Approach to Social Emotional Learning Instruction
Through Community-Based Service Learning. 292-312.

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13.7.2 SECURe

Figure 26 SECURe (PreK) Strategies and Routines

Researchers have come up with a school intervention called SECURe113 . SECURe stands
for Social, Emotional, and Cognitive Understanding and Regulation in education. This
intervention is used in primary education to assist with three skills: cognitive regula-
tion/executive function, emotion processes and interpersonal skills114 . SECURe uses games
and songs to teach these skills, such as using a storybook to identify the emotions of the

113 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
114 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.

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 Social Awareness

characters. The educator would then teach a method called, ”I Message” 115 . This method
teaches students to express their emotions to their classmates. For example, if a student is
upset with their classmate because they were calling them names, then the student would
speak up to their classmate and say, ”I am upset because I do not like being called names”. I
Message is beneficial in assisting students to become self-aware because this method allows
students to regulate their emotions to discover how they were feeling and why they felt that
way. By becoming self-aware, students can regulate their emotions and communicate in a
calm manner to their peers about how they feel. This reduces the chance of students acting
in an irrational behaviour that could lead to negative consequences.
Another component of SECURe is creating daily structures and routines because this pro-
vides opportunities for students to practice skills in recurring interactions and relationship-
building activities116 . This is mainly for students in prekindergarten and/or kindergarten.
These students have just started interacting with other students their age so creating a
routine is very beneficial. Creating a structure or routine will give them the basic un-
derstanding of which behaviour to use in certain situations. Grasping this component of
SECURe will enable them to move further as they progress and eventually self-manage.

13.8 Social Awareness

Social Awareness Refers to

Being aware of others
Understanding that others have feelings
Knowing that YOUR actions affect others

Social awareness is the student’s ability to express and control their thoughts and emotions
in different situations. Developing the student’s ability to self regulate their thoughts,
emotions, attention and reactivity is a key goal of SEL. Through learning social awareness
strategies, students can identify which emotions are appropriate to display in different social
events. For example, students know how to regulate their behaviors inside a classroom
compared to a formal event such as a wedding ceremony or funeral. As students continue
to develop frameworks on how to behave in a formal setting compared to a casual setting,
students demonstrate more behaviors aligned with the social norm.
Through becoming socially aware of one’s surroundings, students also learn techniques in
how to remain motivated and focused on a given task within the classroom. For example
throughout the school day, students can learn how to improve their level of motivation and
focus as teachers encourage them to practice mindfulness techniques which refers to being
consciously aware of how one is feeling physically and emotionally at that present moment
and accepting those emotions. Research has shown students who are mindful of their emo-
tions are more socially aware of how to regulate those positive and negative emotions 117

115 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
116 Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., Jacob, R. (2014). Social Emotional Learning is Essential to Classroom Manage-
ment. 19-24.
117 John Meiklejohn (2012) Integrating Mindfulness Training into K-12 Education: Fostering the Resilience
of Teachers and Students. 291–307.

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Sociocognitive Learning

For example, when students are feeling stressed and angry, being mindful of their current
emotional state allows students to reflect on how they are feeling and encourages regula-
tion of their emotions through talking about their feelings, or accepting their emotional
state and relaxing. Social awareness also refers to the student’s ability to see situations
in different perspectives. This teaches students how to be respectful, and open minded
when being introduced to new situations with different challenges such as transitioning into
a new school, classroom or having to work with new people. These new situations allow
students to become more aware of one’s surroundings as it also encourages students to be
accepting of diverse point of views. If these skills are not practiced within the classroom,
these transitional situations would lead to chaos as individuals will not understand the im-
portance of compromising and integrating ideas from both the sides of the relationship. For
example, teachers can demonstrate social awareness within the classroom by incorporating
the student’s ideas when creating classroom rules and boundaries. This demonstrates social
awareness as the students are encouraged to speak up and share their perspectives on situa-
tions in which the teacher will take into consideration. This demonstrates social awareness
as there is a level of compromise and integration of ideas when creating classroom standards
and rules. These types of relationships leads students to build a trusted relationship with
their teacher which allows the student to be less at risk of developing social and emotional
regulation problems as the students learn new strategies in how to be open minded to dif-
ferent ideas 118 . Through being open minded, students learn compromise helps to resolve
social, emotional and physical problems. For example, if there is a conflict between two
friends, if both individuals demonstrate social awareness by listening to the perspective of
the other individual, it is more likely that the conflict will be resolved sooner as both sides
of the relationship shares their ideas while listening to the other.
Mindfulness brings many advantages to students Physically, Emotionally and Mentally

Physically Emotionally Mentally

Students report feeling less fa- better emotional regulation Better attention span
tigue
Improved sleep cycle teaches students to ”think before better memory capacity
acting”
Lowers blood pressure feeling less stressed higher academic performance
Helps relieve physical tension teaches relaxation techniques less substance use and depres-
sion

13.8.1 Gestures

Gestures are the ways in which children learn to express how they are feeling through phys-
ical hand motions and body movements. These methods of learning can be integrated into
the classroom setting by teaching students ways in which they can express their emotions
through words and showing their emotions through their their hand gestures. For example,
when teachers ask students how everyone is feeling today from 1-5 (1 being bad), students
should learn to express their emotions through hand gestures not simply holding their emo-
tions into themselves. When students do not practice skills in expressing their emotions

118 Robert C. Pianta (2012) Recent trends in research on teacher–child relationships Institute for Policy
Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; C213–231

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 Relationship Skills

through gestures, they are more likely to develop temperament as these students may inter-
nalize all their emotional expressions 119 . Gestures help students to develop more efficient
ways in communicating their thoughts and feelings which may be unclear for teachers and
peers.Gestures can also be used to teach students new information. For example, when
learning their colors, body parts and letters, students can learn these information through
songs, videos, and hand gestures such as Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes or ABC. Through
learning these songs, hand gestures and body movement, students can retain the informa-
tion in a fun and interactive way allowing the students to be more motivated and engaged
to learn new information. Gestures also teaches students strategies in reading and under-
standing symbols in different situations. For example when seeing a ”quiet” sign in the
library, students will know they need to remain silent inside the library, taking into consid-
eration the other people who maybe studying and trying to focus. However, some gestures
or symbols have more than one meaning. For example raising our hands in class demon-
strates the student has something they want to share. On the other hand, raising our hands
while crossing the street shows a different meaning as it represents manners to the driver.
Students can learn which gestures are appropriate for certain situations when the teacher
demonstrates the meanings behind these gestures through ”role playing” in which students
and teachers act out situations helping to demonstrate which gestures are appropriate for
certain situations.

13.9 Relationship Skills

Relationship skills are the strategies students use to build and maintain positive relation-
ships among peers and surroundings. When building positive relationships, researchers
often wonder why individuals chose to create friendships with certain people but not
others. Researchers wonder whether creating relationships has to do with personality traits,
physical abilities, socioeconomic systems, intelligence, or other features120 . Overall, stu-
dents build positive relationships as they learn to communicate their thoughts and feelings
in a positive and healthy way through using emotional regulation. Learning these tech-
niques allows students to become more open minded to diversity within the classroom as
they learn to interact with all peers regardless of their age, gender, size or ethnicity. When
these skills are developed at a young age, students built upon these frameworks on how
to build and maintain relationships in the future with their co-workers, family members
and their partners, as students are able to identify which relationship strategy worked and
didn’t work while they were in school. Overall, students who show better acceptance by
their peers often demonstrated more admirable qualities within them such as being friendly,
intelligent, attractive and athletic. To add on, these students were shown to be more suc-
cessful in the future facing less emotional problems such as depression and social anxiety
disorder 121 .

119 Ann Sanson, S. A. (2004) Connections between Temperament and Social Development: A Review. 143-
170.
120 Mary E. Gifford-Smitha, Celia A. Brownell (2003) Childhood peer relationships: social acceptance, friend-
ships, and peer networks Journal of School Psychology 41, 235–284
121 Weinstein, C.S., Romano, M. (2015) Knowing Your Students and Their Special Needs 110-145

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Sociocognitive Learning

13.9.1 Bullying

Bullying is one of the most common issue within all school environments but can be difficult
to identify due to the several different methods of bullying that takes place. Bullying can be
done directly (hitting, pushing punching), or indirectly (verbally abusing someone through
name calling, isolating). Two main reasons for bullying others include alleviating bore-
dom/creating excitement and to split up friendship and group processes. Bullying
is common within the classroom as students choose to reject and/or ”pick on” students who
look more vulnerable and seem to be easier targets 122 .In general, researchers show females
to be more verbally victimized whereas males report being bullied more physically 123 These
situations affect children emotionally as they feel alone, misunderstood and are scared to
speak up and seek help from an adult due to the believed consequences behind their ac-
tions. However, not speaking to a trusted friend or adult only makes the situation worse as
bullying is often a destructive process as the bully continues to become stronger within
the relationship while the victim becomes weaker 124 During these situations, teachers need
to step in and teach students the effects of bullying how it can lead to depression, isolation
and withdrawal within the victim 125 . The teacher can bring more awareness of the effects
of bullying by incorporating role plays of different bullying situations, or having profes-
sionals come into the classroom and speak about the consequences behind bullying and
the importance of speaking up when one is involved in a bullying relationship. Through
these involvements, the bullies are more likely to see the situations in the perspective of the
victim, as they learn ways in how to create and maintain an equal respectful relationship
with their peers.

13.9.2 Building Relationships

Building relationships centers around student’s ability to learn how to create and maintain
positive relationships inside and outside the classroom. It is evident that certain students
have better relationship building skills compared to others, however, the true and main
reason behind their advanced skills is still in research. It can have something to do with
the student’s cultural family background; the student’s peer groups; personality character-
istics and much more. Nevertheless, learning these skills at a young age teaches students
appropriate strategies to use when building relationships with future peers, partners and
co-workers. Students learn that the way they talk with their surrounds should be altered
when interacting with people who are older than them such as teachers and parents. For
example students should should show respect to older people by constantly being open
minded towards receiving positive and negative feedback. If students chose to talk with
adults like how they interact with their peers such as saying ”what’s up” or ”how’s it going”?
teachers and adults can be lead into the perspective that this student is extremely rude and

122 Mary E. Gifford-Smith, C. A. (2002). Childhood Peer Relationships: Social Acceptance, Friendships, and
Peer networks. 41, 235–284.
123 WENDY M. CRAIG & DEBRA J. PEPLER (2007) Understanding Bullying: From Research to Practice;
Canadian Psychology Vol. 48, No. 2, 86-93
124 WENDY M. CRAIG & DEBRA J. PEPLER (2007) Understanding Bullying: From Research to Practice;
Canadian Psychology Vol. 48, No. 2, 86-93
125 Kenneth W. Merrell, R.B. (2006). Relational Aggression in Children and Adolescents: A review with
implications for school settings. Psychology in the Schools , 43, 345-361.

170
 Responsible Decision Making

should be better educated. In order for these situations to be avoided, research has shown
that students learn better when they are shown ways in how to build positive relationships.
Therefore teachers should step into the classroom modelling positive relationship building
techniques such as demonstrating how to share, be respectful, and be welcoming for di-
versity. For example, when providing students with snacks, teachers can demonstrate how
giving all students 1 piece is the fair thing to do as everyone gets the same amount. To
add on, teachers should model the different levels of acceptable interaction between one’s
peers compared to adults they know. Through modelling these behaviours, students learn
to modify their behaviour and create positive and long lasting relationships with their peers
and surroundings 126 .

13.10 Responsible Decision Making

Responsible decision making is the student’s ability to construct responsible choices about
their personal behaviours and social interactions. For students to develop these skills they
need to consider various questions such as, how would this decision benefit me? what would
be the consequences behind this decision? who will it impact? These question, choices and
behaviour are often guided by the individual’s pre-constructed ethical standards, such as
safety concerns, social norms and the evaluation of consequences behind performing these
actions. These responsible decision making techniques are often guided by cultural and
religious beliefs.
There are two main different cultural point of views known as:

Collectivist Individualistic
We Oriented Me Oriented
Blending in Standing out
Belonging Standing out
Group Goals Individual Goals
Cooperation Competition
Group Support Self Reliant

For example, cultures that emphasize individualism (US, Canada, Australia), chose to make
decisions based on what they believe would benefit themselves the most, whereas collectivist
communities (Asia, Latin America) emphasizes the importance of group harmony instead of
individual decisions 127 . These cultural differences affect the student’s level of moral decision
making even at the young age of 4. In the CBC video babies born to be good?, researchers
conducted an experiment where researchers recruited students under the age of 5 to test their
level of moral reasoning. All students showed diversity in age (4-5), ethnicity and gender.
In each of the situations, the experimenter left one student in a room (1 on 1) full of mess.
When the experimenter left the room to grab a clipboard, all the children chose to clean
up the mess to help the researcher. Before conducting the experiment, researched believed
students coming from collectivist communities (Asia, Latin America) will lie in order to

126 Kenneth W. Merrell, R. B. (2006). Relational Aggression in Children and Adolescents. A review with
implications for school settings. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 345-361
127 Xinyin Chen and Doran C. French (2008) Children’s Social Competence in Cultural Context 591-616

171
Sociocognitive Learning

not receive credit for helping the researcher whereas individualistic communities would be
honest and take the credit for the job being done.The results confirmed the hypothesis
as researchers found students from individualistic communities didn’t mind “standing out”
and receiving acknowledgement” whereas collectivist students preferred “blending in”. These
cultural differences can be present upon individuals as they grow older due to their different
moral and ethical values. For instance, when a student receives a job offer, individualistic
communities would encourage the students to make the decision based on how the situation
would benefit the individual whereas collectivist communities emphasize putting their group
unity before their individual choices. Despite the different cultural perspectives, in order
for responsible decision making to take place, individuals need to keep in mind how this
decision would affect themselves as well as their surroundings. Through using responsible
decision making, students learn to become critical thinkers as it introduces them to the
importance of ”thinking before acting”. Teachers can integrate these aspects of learning
through reading short scenarios of a story and by asking students questions on what would
be the responsible thing to do next? or What action can lead to a big consequence? These
scenario acting techniques help students learn strategies in regulating their actions to fit
their ethical beliefs.

13.10.1 Social Behaviour

Social behaviour looks at how individuals interact physically, emotionally and socially in
different situations. This includes looking at how individuals interact through verbal face
to face conversations or talking through a phone or electronic device. Social behavior
also refers to physical interactions through holding hands, linking arms, hugging, etc. An
individual’s level of social behaviour is highly correlated with their past experiences. For
example, when a child is highly neglected by their parents, they are more likely to display
aggression inside the classroom due to the fact they were mostly rejected by their primary
caregiver. 128 . These negative interactions guided students to believe this world is an unsafe
place therefore, they become highly defensive in new situations as they choose to reject new
peers and teachers. During these situations, teachers need to step in and make the child
feel safe and comfortable within the classroom, by integrating positive reinforcements such
as complementing the student on their work, or providing feedback on how the student can
improve their learning and understanding. Through these levels of interactions, the student
often becomes less aggressive in different situations as the teacher helped to restructure the
students understanding of the world to be a ”safe environment” altering one’s morals and
shaping their interactions with their peers and parents.

13.10.2 Teamwork

Teamwork is build within the classroom when students acknowledge the importance of
collaboration of different works and ideas to make it better. Through using teamwork
strategies, students learn ways in feeding off of each other through learning ways in get-
ting their points and ideas across while listening to the opinions and feedbacks of other

128 Ann Sanson, S. A. (2004). Connections between Temperament and Social Development: A Review. 143-
170.

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 Glossary

individuals. For example, when students work on group assignments, they often split up
the work evenly and collaborate their ideas in the end. This allows the work to become
more developed as it integrates different perspectives of the situation into one assignment.
When there is a disagreement within the group, students learn more teamwork strategies
by compromising and being respectful towards the ideas of their peers. However, if these
skills are not practiced, teamwork situations would become chaotic for learners as well as
teachers and students will struggle to regulate their ideas, emotions and relationships. Nev-
ertheless, when teamwork is practiced inside the classroom through doing group projects, or
playing team sports, children learn ways in building neutral and respectful relationships in
the future. For example through playing a team sport, students better understand that in
order to run a company, there needs to be different individuals having different roles to run
the company however, group collaboration is important for the company to be successful.

13.10.3 Conflict

Individuals often face social and emotional conflicts inside and outside the classroom setting.
The individual’s ability to deal with these conflicts are highly dependent on their previous
experiences resolving conflicts and is often shaped by their beliefs of social norms and ethical
beliefs. For instance, at a young age, students are often unclear on social norms on how to
resolve a conflict as they may have not been exposed to these situations. These students
may lack morals therefore, may believe the best way to resolve a conflict is fighting back
and becoming defensive. During these times, teachers can show students the consequences
behind fighting back as it only makes the conflict worse. Teachers can then teach students
ways to resolve the conflict through talking about the problem as students may have had
a miscommunication. Many individuals also face emotional conflict such as feeling lonely,
rejected, mad, and sad. During these situations, teachers should guide students in having
a conversation about what they are feeling and why they are feeling this way. Research has
shown students who resolve emotional conflicts through talking about it, lead the student
to become more emotionally and socially stable in the future 129

13.11 Glossary

Academic Stress: An academic task is perceived as stressful by people who do not feel as
if they have the skills, or emotional or time resources, needed to effectively manage a given
activity.
Aggression: The practice of making assaults or attacks; boldly assertive.
Alleviating Boredom/Creating Excitement: Picking on an individual to make their
lives more fun, eventful and interesting.
Autonomous Motivation: Engaging in an activity because of its perceived meaningful-
ness and relevance.
Collaboration: to work, one with another; cooperate, integrate ideas

129 Joseph E. Zins, M. J. (2006). Social and Emotional Learning: Promoting the Development of All Students.
Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 17, 233–255.

173
Sociocognitive Learning

Collectivist Perspective: view point of Asian, Latin American communities emphasizing

importance of group collaboration, group unity, and group belonging.
Critical Youth Empowerment (CYE): Focuses on collaboration and connection
through various models of youth empowerment.
Destructive process: as the bullying continues, the power imbalance becomes greater
because the bully continues to grow stronger as they figure out more vulnerable aspects of
the victim making the victim weaker and an easier target.
Diversity: The inclusion of individuals representing more than one national origin, color,
religion, sexual orientation, etc.
Emotional Regulation: The child’s ability to monitor their behaviour in different situa-
tions.
Ethical standards: Perception of what is morally right and wrong, and their reasoning
behind beliefs.
Individualistic Perspective: view point of Canadians, Americans, Australian citizens
emphasizing the importance of independence, having privacy, being self oriented, etc.
Motivation: The reason for acting or behaving in a particular way.
Neglected: Given little attention to, fail to show care.
Positive Youth Development (PYD): Using activities and experiences to assist young
people in developing social, moral, emotional, physical, and cognitive competence in their
community.
Reactivity: How the individual responds to the environment.
Scaffold: Process through which educators guide children along their emerging abilities.
SECURe: Social, Emotional, and Cognitive Understanding and Regulation in education.
Self Regulation: Child’s ability to control their reactivity in different situations while
controlling their emotion and attention.
Sociopolitical Development (SPD): Promotes an understanding of the cultural and
political forces that shape one’s societal status by emphasizing the acquisition of practical,
analytical, and emotional faculties to act within political and social systems.
Split up friendship and group processes: Convincing others to not hangout with
certain people due to having undesirable qualities.
Symbols: Something used for or regarded as representing something else; Can include
words, images, phrases to represent another object.

13.12 Recommended Readings

Ann Sanson, S.A. (2004) Connections between Temperament and Social Development: A
Review. 143-170.

174
 References

Jackson, Cassandra McKay. (2014). A Critical Approach to Social Emotional Learning

Instruction Through Community-Based Service Learning. 292-312.
Weinstein, C.S., Romano, M. (2015) Knowing Your Students and Their Special Needs.
110-145.

13.13 References

175
14 Metacognition and Self-Regulated
Learning

177
15 Metacognition and Self-Regulated
Learning

This chapter explores how learners take an active role in their own learning through self-
regulation. We examine the stages of self-regulated learning (SRL) and how the ability to
reflect on our own thinking, known as metacognition, facilitates these stages. We discuss
the theory of metacognition and self-regulated learning and show how these fundamental
cognitive processes drive learning in academic settings.

15.1 The Concept of Metacognition

Metacognition is one of the key components of self-regulated learning which involves knowl-
edge about our cognitive thinking and regulation of thinking.

15.1.1 Definition of Metacognition

Metacognition is the knowledge and regulation of your own thinking. Someone who is
able to monitor and control his learning is thought to have metacognitive ability. 1 This
notion has a huge implication in the field of education because studying often involves these
skills. In this section, we will look at how the definition of metacognition has evolved.
In 1979, Flavell introduced the concept of metacognition. 2 From his and other’s study,
Flavell found out that “young children are quite limited in their knowledge and cognition
about cognitive phenomena, or in their metacognition” in other words, “cognition about
cognition” 3 . This was the beginning of research in metacognition and the field has been
growing since then. The notion of metacognition also led educational psychologists to
study self-regulated learning, which will be discussed later in this chapter. Metacognition
not only holds importance in educational psychology but also in developmental psychology,
along with theory of mind, and cognitive psychology. This is why researchers always come
back to the notion of metacognition.
Metacognition is related to various aspects of life including reading, writing, planning, and
evaluation. Flavell initially states that metacognition serves two basic functions, which

1 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
2 Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental
inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911.
3 Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental
inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911.

179
Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

are the monitoring and control of cognition 4 . Similarly, Ann Brown in 1980, provides a
definition including the knowledge and regulation of cognition 5 . This is when the word
“regulation” comes in. In recent research, metacognition is usually divided into three forms.
They are metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experiences, and metacognitive skills or
strategies 67 .
Metacognitive knowledge is declarative knowledge such as language and memory 8 . It
also involves information about tasks, strategies, goals and persons. That includes how
people process tasks.
Metacognitive experiences are “what the person is aware of and what she or he feels
when coming across a task and processing information related to it” 9 . Metacognitive
experience is especially important in self-regulated learning because it allows people to
make attributions about their feelings. For example, a student might feel that the task is
too difficult. This leads the student to adjust his goals.
Metacognitive skills are the “deliberate use of strategies (i.e. Procedural knowledge) in
order to control cognition. 10 Metacognitive skills include “orientation strategies, plan-
ning strategies, strategies for regulation of cognitive processing, strategies for monitoring
the execution of planned action, and strategies for the evaluation of the outcome of task
processing” 11 .
Efklides also adds that “metacognition is a representation of cognition, and that metacog-
nition and cognition are connected through the monitoring and control functions” 12 . This
is the concept Flavell and Brown were missing and it is called the meta-level thinking.
Metacognitive experiences and metacognitive knowledge are related to the monitoring of
cognition, and metacognitive strategies are related controlling of metacognition 13 . These
definitions and assumptions of metacognition led Efklides to conceptualize metacognition as
first, “metacognition is multifaceted. Specifically, there are metacognitive experiences and
metacognitive knowledge, which are related to the monitoring of cognition, and the control

4 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
5 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson.
6 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation.
7 Furnes, B., & Norman, E. (2015). Metacognition and reading: Comparing three forms of metacognition in
normally developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Dyslexia: An International Journal Of Research
And Practice, 21(3), 273-284.
8 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
9 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
10 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
11 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
12 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
13 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.

180
 The Concept of Metacognition

processes that are distinct from the monitoring of cognition”. 14 Second, metacognition is a
conscious process. Third, metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control are strictly
limited to the self-regulation of cognition without any interaction with affect or broader
self-regulation of behaviour”.15 Fourth, “metacognition is purely individual phenomenon”.16
Usually, metacognition is measured using self-report questionnaires. However, Efklides sug-
gests that behavioural measures such as verbal and non-verbal behaviour, and physiological
measures also needed17 . In order to study metacognition in the self-regulation processes, we
need to combine “experimental methodology that implicate the self (e.g., feedback, social
comparison) along with measures of metacognitive experiences and affect” 18 . A number of
interventions have been developed in education because metacognitive experience is impor-
tant for the control of cognition and learning. 19 The Emphasis of interventions is often on
the metacognitive knowledge of strategies and the procedures involved in metacognitive ex-
perience because they can be improved over time. Specifically, metacognitive interventions
should be able to identify reasons why metacognitive regulation is failing. “That is, if it is
metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive skills or metacognitive experience. Then, they can
target that particular facet of metacognition and support regulation”20 .

3 forms of metacognition
Metacognitive knowledge
Metacognitive experiences
Metacognitive skills

21

15.1.2 Judgments of Learning

A topic related to metacognition is Judgements of learning. Judgments of learning

(JOLs) are “assessments that people make about how well they have learned particular
information”.22 Nelson and Dunlosky (1991) 23 first introduced this concept and it is fre-

14 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
15 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
16 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
17 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
18 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
19 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
20 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
21 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation
and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
22 Son, L.K., & Metcalfe, J. (2005). Judgments of learning: Evidence for a two-stage process. Memory &
Cognition, 33(6), 1116-1129.
23 Nelson, T. O., & Dunlosky, J.. (1991). When People’s Judgments of Learning (JOLs) Are Extremely
Accurate at Predicting Subsequent Recall: The ”Delayed-JOL Effect”. Psychological Science, 2(4), 267–
270.

181
Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

quently discussed since then. They suggest that judgements of learning “help to guide
self-paced study during acquisition”.24 Although judgements of learning can be inaccurate
a lot of the times, Nelson & Dunlosky argue that judgments of learning made shortly after
study is more accurate than judgements of learning made immediately after study. This
implies that students should evaluate their progression of study after waiting for a short
time. Nelson & Dunlosky call this “delayed-JOL effect”. Knowing what one knows has a
huge effect on later recall because they can go back and re-study the items they do not
know. This leads to better study outcome because they can allocate their study time more
efficiently on later study sessions. Nelson and Dunlosky use the word “self-monitoring during
learning” to represent judgements of learning. Thus, metacognition is once again a crucial
component of judgements of learning, and self-regulated learning. Feeling-of-knowing
judgment is another concept related to judgements of learning. Feeling-of-knowing refers
to “the judgment about the degree of accuracy for recognizing or knowing a task or answer
and predicting one’s knowledge”25 It is similar to the concept of judgments of learning except
the accuracy is considered. Feeling-of-knowing and self-regulation of learning are related
because it is related to metacognitive accuracy. Metacognitive accuracy will be discussed
later in this chapter. Nelson and Leonesio (1988) suggest that feeling-of-knowing judgment
is part of metacognition. Feeling-of-knowing judgment is part of monitoring components of
metamemory which is a similar concept of metacognition. Another important concept of
knowledge and monitoring of one’s cognition is metamemory. Metamemory is “a high level
of cognitive functioning involving decisions of when to deploy a strategy and knowledge
of one’s memory abilities”.26 During Bembenutty’s study on undergraduate students, all
students allocated their study time according to their feeling-of-knowing. The study also
revealed labor-in-vain effect which means that the longer self-paced study time did not pre-
dict better recall. This might be because feeling-of-knowing is often inaccurate. Then, the
question would be how can we improve our understanding of knowledge? In other words,
how can we improve metacognitive knowledge? Implication in educational settings will be
discussed later.

15.1.3 Metacognition in Writing

Metacognitive abilities are essential in writing, especially in university level courses. Al-
though instructors often urge students to reflect on their writing and revise it several times,
it is rare for students to actually evaluate and re-work their writing in a detailed fashion.
Parrott and Cherry brings up this concern and suggest a new teaching tool to make students
think about their writing more actively. The strategy is called process memos. Process
memos are guided reflections submitted from students and teachers. 27 Students submit
process memos after writing the first drafts and the final versions of their papers. For the

24 Nelson, T. O., & Dunlosky, J.. (1991). When People’s Judgments of Learning (JOLs) Are Extremely
Accurate at Predicting Subsequent Recall: The ”Delayed-JOL Effect”. Psychological Science, 2(4), 267–
270.
25 Bembenutty, H. (2009). Feeling-of-Knowing Judgment and Self-Regulation of Learning. Education, 129(4),
589-598.
26 Bembenutty, H. (2009). Feeling-of-Knowing Judgment and Self-Regulation of Learning. Education, 129(4),
589-598.
27 Parrott, H. M., & Cherry, E. (2015). Process Memos: Facilitating Dialogues about Writing between
Students and Instructors. Teaching Sociology, 43(2), 146-153.

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first draft, students are asked to reflect on their paper, helpfulness of the rubrics, questions
regarding the assignment, strengths and weaknesses of their paper, and what they think
they need to improve in the final version of the paper. After this, teachers mark the paper
and provide feedback. In the second process memo, students are asked to reflect on the
feedback they received from the teacher. Questions include “which comments were most
helpful, and why?”. 28 Parrot and Cherry started testing out process memos in 2005 and
fully implemented it in a study in 2015. The study included 242 university students in
various sociology courses, including introductory courses and more advanced courses. The
results suggest that process memos help both students and teachers to actively engage in
the process of writing. Teachers get feedback on their instructional qualities so that they
can improve their teaching in the future and make sure the rubrics are clear. Although
some students did not take process memos seriously and provided insufficient comments,
most students found this method useful in improving their writing skills. Most students
were honest about their comments. Process memos also promoted communication between
students and teachers which allowed teachers to directly respond to students’ reflections.
Another advantage of using process memos is that they engage every student in the class so
students who feel too shy to raise their hands and ask questions in class can benefit.29 It is
an efficient way to enhance students’ metacognitive awareness, and guide students’ writing
step by step.

15.1.4 Metacognition in Reading

Recent research on metacognition and the effect on reading comprehension includes studies
on individuals with language disorders and adolescents. These studies show the relationship
of metacognition with reading and writing, as well as the applicability of metacognitive in-
terventions. Furnes and Norman (2015) 30 compared three forms of metacognition (that is
metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive skills, and metacognitive experiences) in normally
developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Participants read two factual texts, and their
learning outcomes were measured by a memory task. Metacognitive knowledge and skills
were assessed by self-report and metacognitive experiences were measured by predictions of
performance and judgements of learning.31 The results show that reading and spelling prob-
lems of individuals with dyslexia are not generally associated with lower levels of metacog-
nitive knowledge, metacognitive strategies or sensitivity to metacognitive experiences in
reading situations.32 A longitudinal study on normally developing children indicate that

28 Parrott, H. M., & Cherry, E. (2015). Process Memos: Facilitating Dialogues about Writing between
Students and Instructors. Teaching Sociology, 43(2), 146-153.
29 Parrott, H. M., & Cherry, E. (2015). Process Memos: Facilitating Dialogues about Writing between
Students and Instructors. Teaching Sociology, 43(2), 146-153.
30 Furnes, B., & Norman, E. (2015). Metacognition and reading: Comparing three forms of metacognition in
normally developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Dyslexia: An International Journal Of Research
And Practice, 21(3), 273-284.
31 Furnes, B., & Norman, E. (2015). Metacognition and reading: Comparing three forms of metacognition in
normally developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Dyslexia: An International Journal Of Research
And Practice, 21(3), 273-284.
32 Furnes, B., & Norman, E. (2015). Metacognition and reading: Comparing three forms of metacognition in
normally developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Dyslexia: An International Journal Of Research
And Practice, 21(3), 273-284.

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

girls have better metacognitive knowledge between age 10 -14.33 The study also revealed
that text comprehension is positively correlated with individual differences in metacognitive
knowledge of strategy use. These two studies suggest that text comprehension in dyslexia
is not related to their metacognitive skills, metacognitive knowledge or metacognitive ex-
periences, however for normally developing children, their text comprehension is related to
their level of metacognition. Question generation often help students understand the
texts better. “An ideal learner – self-regulated to active – is a person who asks deep ques-
tions and searches for answers to thought -provoking questions”.34 A number of research are
done regards to question generation on reading. This suggests that question generation is
an important aspect of reading. Question generation also benefits learning in science. Gar-
cía et al. (2014) 35 examined 72 ninth-grade students in science class. The results indicate
that “question-generation training influenced how students learned and studied, specifically
their metacognition”.36 Participants in group 1, who received question-training by provid-
ing prompts had the highest score on metacognitive knowledge and self-regulation. This
suggests that effectiveness of question generation depends on the person’s metacognitive
knowledge. It is important for teachers to recognize students’ knowledge before letting
students generate questions.

15.1.5 Metacognition in Science Education

As mentioned before, metacognition is important in the field of science education because

higher levels of science require students to reconstruct perceptual knowledge and procedural
strategies on their own. It is also important for students and teachers to be aware of the
beliefs they have about science as they affect their learning and for teachers it affects how
they teach science in classrooms. 37 However, a number of teachers take these beliefs for
granted. A study where researchers interviewed preservice teachers and students reveals
that not many teachers teach beliefs about science or nature of science. Some teachers
in this study believe that teaching the nature of science is not as important as teaching
other concepts in science. 38 This becomes a problem when students proceed to university
and learn higher levels of science. It also affects students’ motivation to study science be-
cause it hinders their understanding of science. Schraw, Crippen & Hartley agrees to this
and state that “effective instruction should help students and teachers aware of the beliefs

33 Kolić-Vehovec, S., Zubković, B. R., & Pahljina-Reinić, R. (2014). Development of metacognitive knowledge
of reading strategies and attitudes toward reading in early adolescence: The effect on reading comprehen-
sion. Psychological Topics, 23(1), 77–98.
34 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self-regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390.
35 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390.
36 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self-regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390.
37 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
38 Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L. and Lederman, N. G. (1998), The nature of science and instructional
practice: Making the unnatural natural. Sci. Ed., 82: 417–436.

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 The Concept of Metacognition

they hold about science”. 39 Then, how do we promote metacognition in science learning?
Schraw, Crippen and Hartley suggest that “authentic inquiry promotes metacognition and
self-regulated learning because students are better able to monitor their learning and evalu-
ate errors in their thinking or gaps in their conceptual understanding.” 40 This is part of the
inquiry based learning that many researchers believe it is effective for science teaching.
In inquiry based learning, students pose questions and construct solutions. 41 Another way
to enhance metacognition in classroom is by collaboration among students and teachers.
This will promote feedback, modeling and social interaction, which will benefit in students’
motivation and epistemological beliefs. 42 Similarly, metacognition and self-regulated learn-
ing is highly discussed in math learning and instruction research. Please refer to 43 for more
information.

39 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
40 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
41 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
42 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
43 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cognition_and_Instruction/Learning_Mathematics

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

15.1.6 Individual Differences in Metacognition

Figure 27 Different minds

Another popular topic in the studies of metacognition is individual differences in metacogni-

tion. Research in individual differences in metacognitive ability shows that it is very difficult
to measure metacognition. Winne (1996) proposed that there are 5 sources of individual dif-
ferences affecting metacognitive monitoring and control in self-regulated learning. They are
“domain knowledge, knowledge of tactics and strategies, performance of tactics and strate-
gies, regulation of tactics and strategies, and global dispositions” 44 Global dispositions
refer to dispositions about learning. In other words learning styles. Winnie emphasized
that his proposals are tentative and requires further investigation. However, his research
encouraged other researchers to dive into this topic. A number of researchers suggest that
individual differences in metacognitive accuracy reflect differences in metacognitive ability,
however Kelemen, Frost, & Weaver, (2000) suggest that this is not the case. Metacogni-
tive accuracy refers to “the relationship between metacognition and future memory perfor-
mance”. 45 The study measured 4 common metacognitive tasks. They are ease of learning

44 Winne, P. H. (1996). A metacognitive view of individual differences in self-regulated learning. Learning

and Individual Differences, 8(4), 327-353.
45 Kelemen, W. L., Frost, P. J., & Weaver, C. A. (2000). Individual differences in metacognition: Evidence
against a general metacognitive ability. Memory & Cognition, 28(1), 92-107.

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 The Concept of Self-Regulated Learning

judgements, feeling of knowing judgements, judgements of learning, and text comprehension

monitoring. In the study including pre-test and post-test, memory and confidence levels
were stable however, individual differences in metacognitive accuracy were not. 46 This sug-
gests that metacognitive accuracy is not reliable when it comes to measuring individual
differences in metacognitive ability. However, the validity of research is unknown as a lot of
researchers acknowledge the difficulty of measuring metacognition. Further research are re-
quired in this field. The notion of individual differences in metacognitive ability also suggest
that there is no one-size-fits-all solution for metacognitive instruction. Lin, Schwartz and
Hatano (2005) suggest that application of metacognition need to be proceeded with careful
attention to differences in individual learning and classroom environment.47 Lin, Schwartz
and Hatano (2005) suggest teachers to use adaptive metacognition which involves ”both
the adaptation of oneself and one’s environment in response to a wide range of classroom
variability.” 48 Classroom variability includes social and instructional variability. In order to
implement adaptive metacognition, Lin, Schwartz and Hatano suggest an approach called
Critical Event Instruction which ”help teachers appreciate the need for metacognitive adap-
tation, particularly in situations that appear routine on the surface level”. 49 This approach
helps prepare preservice teachers deal with commonly occurred problems in the classroom.
It provides information on how to deal with different values, goals and experiences. 50

15.2 The Concept of Self-Regulated Learning

Figure 28 Self-regulated learning

46 Kelemen, W. L., Frost, P. J., & Weaver, C. A. (2000). Individual differences in metacognition: Evidence
against a general metacognitive ability. Memory & Cognition, 28(1), 92-107.
47 Lin, X., Schwartz, D. L., & Hatano, G. (2005). Toward Teachers’ Adaptive Metacognition. Educational
Psychologist, 40(4), 245-255.
48 Lin, X., Schwartz, D. L., & Hatano, G. (2005). Toward Teachers’ Adaptive Metacognition. Educational
Psychologist, 40(4), 245-255.
49 Lin, X., Schwartz, D. L., & Hatano, G. (2005). Toward Teachers’ Adaptive Metacognition. Educational
Psychologist, 40(4), 245-255.
50 Lin, X., Schwartz, D. L., & Hatano, G. (2005). Toward Teachers’ Adaptive Metacognition. Educational
Psychologist, 40(4), 245-255.

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

Self-regulated learning is the ability to control learning 51 . People who are self-regulated
are metacognitively, motivationally and behaviourally active participants in their own learn-
ing, they are self-motivating and make learning easier for themselves 52 . Another aspect of
self-regulation is the focus on why and how students initiate control of their own learning
53 . It is believed that people who self-regulate are capable of influencing their own learning.

By changing ones own learning strategies, one is better able to understand the knowledge
they are learning and the process by which they are achieving it. Active planning before
learning takes place, monitoring during learning, and evaluation after learning are simple
strategies that can help one self-regulate 54 . Being a self-regulated learner prompts the
ability to change and alter learning strategies based on the growth of self understanding 55 .
For example: Emily is trying to learn the process of evolution. She reads three chapters
and realizes that she can not remember what she just read. As she reads the next chapter
she summarizes each paragraph in one sentence into her notebook. Writing notes helped her
understand the overall concept of what she was learning. The process she went through was
self regulating because she understands that she was not learning by simply reading and she
change her learning strategy so that she could learn more information.
Self-regulated learning is beneficial because with better metacognitive awareness one is
better able to judge their learning strengths and weaknesses and can alter their learning
patterns from what they know about themselves 56 .
Self-regulated learning can be better understood through viewing specific strategies which
people use to engage in their own learning. The large scale structure of self-regulated
learning is as follows:

Self-Regulated Learning
Self-Assesment Forethought Phase
Goal Setting
Strategic Planning
Strategy Implementation Performance Phase
Strategy Monitoring
Outcome Evaluation Self-regulation Phase

This model of self-regulated learning is broken down into three phases. The forethought
phase (self-assesment, goal setting, strategic planning) which is what takes place before

51 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
52 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
53 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
54 Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental
inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911
55 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390.
56 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390

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 The Concept of Self-Regulated Learning

learning occurs, the performance phase (Strategy implementation, strategy monitoring)

which takes place during learning and self-regulation phase (outcome evaluation) 57 .
By adopting this method an individual is showing engagement with their learning and by
assessing it they can better their understanding.

15.2.1 Self-Assessment:

Self-assessment is about understanding yourself and the way you learn. Questions you can
ask yourself are: What are my skills? What are my Interests? Do I learn by watching
videos? Do I learn better taking notes? Do I learn by writing or typing out notes? Do
I learn best my memorizing and explaining? Self-assessment makes people reflect on their
abilities and their strategies. It requires choosing techniques that are most appropriate
for the information needed to learn 58 . This first stage in self-regulated learning is not
always easy because one must be motivated, one must have the will and effort to test new
learning techniques 59 . Self-assesment requires a specific attitude 60 . Negative attitudes
towards studying will not promote self-assesment. It will promote the idea that studying
and changing techniques of learning will not enhance understanding. However a positive
attitude and having an open mind in changing learning techniques can enhance the process
of self-assesment. With optimal motivation, persistency and emotion one is better able
to asses themselves and find techniques that work and don’t work. These traits are also
important in total self-regulation.

15.2.2 Goal Setting:

Goal setting is looking at what you need to achieve and how to get there in a specific time
frame 61 . Goal setting requires a basic understanding of the information you will be learning,
because in order to set a goal you must have some knowledge in what the outcome should
look like. Goal setting is important because it helps create motivation and can motivate
a person to accomplish a specific goal. It is essential to create attainable goal. Attainable
goals are goals which one is capable of reaching. Therefore the goal one sets is not too
high and not too low, it is in the persons realm of attaining and succeeding. By creating
attainable goals and many goals, a person is more likely accomplish them. Attainable goals

57 Furnes, B., & Norman, E. (2015). Metacognition and reading: Comparing three forms of metacognition in
normally developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Dyslexia: An International Journal Of Research
And Practice, 21(3), 273-284
58 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390
59 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390
60 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390
61 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

promotes desire and will power because it is not so far out of reach. Some questions that
one could ask themselves to goal set are as follows:
What do I want to achieve? What steps will take me to my goal?

15.2.3 Strategic Planning:

Strategic Planning is similar to goal setting in that you need to have a basic understanding
of the information you will be learning. This is important because after setting a goal there
are specific strategies which you will set to achieve that goal. 62 .
For example if you had seven days to study for an exam covering 14 chapters you might
separate your learning into studying two chapters per day. By strategically planning how
much you need to study everyday, the end goal of learning 14 chapters in 7 days will be
achieved.
People goal set and strategically plan for athletic goals too.
A person may have one month to train for a marathon. To properly plan their training they
can create a timeline of how much they should improve each week, how long they will run
each day and each week and how much to add or take out of their workouts each day and
each week.
Strategic Planning is a more detailed way to reach your goal. It is composed of smaller
goals within the bigger goal. To have a good plan one must understand their goal, one must
know the direction they want to pursue. Some questions one could ask themselves to help
promote strategic planning are as follows:
How will I reach my final goal? What do I normally do? Will I be able to achieve this?
How do I study/learn best? How can I implement my learning strategies into my goals?
Do I have enough time to accomplish each goal? Are my goals realistic in this specific time
frame? How should I study/learn for this specific goal? What are my values? How does
my personality affect my learning and goals? What distracts me? When do I get tired of
study? What things in learning do I not like?
These are several questions which can help strategic planning. Some questions such as ”how
does my personality affect my learning goals” can inhibit or enhance learning and the ability
to reach goals. If a person has a chatty personality and wants to talk when in a group of
people, that person might want to set goals to study alone. If someone has a hyperactive
attitude and cannot focus on their studying due to excess energy, they might try setting
goals to workout or go for a run before studying. These questions can look at many different
aspects which effect the outcome.

62 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390

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 The Concept of Self-Regulated Learning

15.2.4 Strategy Implementation:

Strategy implementation is an even more detailed organization system of goals and strategic
planning. This is the process of which one will implement strategic plans and actually
enforcing them into practice 63 . Strategy implementation requires motivation and self-
determination. You must have a solid strategic plan to prevent environmental distractions
and understand what will motivate you and demotivate you in achieving the goal. Strategy
implementation is important in the success of learning because it addresses and implements
when you will study or learn. It enforces how you will learn and where you will learn and
is the physical act of reaching your goals.

15.2.5 Strategy Monitoring:

Strategy Monitoring is the process of monitoring how effective your strategic planning is
for your learning. This is an important stage for effective learning because as you learn
you can asses if the practice you are doing is effective. Strategy Monitoring occurs during
learning and during the act of reaching your goal, similarly to strategy implementation 64 .
You may monitor how much you are accomplishing, if you are reaching your goals, if you
are actually learning, if you are being distracted and how your environment is effecting your
learning process. Monitoring is evaluating your strategies and how effective they are. You
must accurately adjust your strategies so that your best learning can take place.

15.2.6 Outcome Evaluation:

Outcome evaluation takes place after learning has occurred. It is reviewing your goals and
planning and figuring out how effective it was 65 . Outcome evaluation is important because
it allows one to improve on their learning practices and creates a better plan for the future
learning processes. Questions you may ask could be as follows:
How effective were my goals? Were they attainable? How accurate was my strategy plan-
ning? Should I have included any strategy’s which I did not? What should I change about
my learning next time? Was my environment distracting?

63 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390
64 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390
65 García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects of question-
generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning approaches in Science. Psi-
cothema, 26(3), 385-390

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

15.2.7 Other Self-regulated Terms

Self-regulated Action is the means of how regulation is conducted 66 . Self-regulated

action takes into consideration the object and the action. To better explain this, the object
is the end goal such as writing an essay. The action is how that goal will be achieved. Actions
can include changes in cognition, emotion, motivation, behaviour, personality attributes and
physical environment 67 . The action of motivation will effect if, how and when a student will
write their essay. A poor behaviour will negatively effect the learning of an individual. In
this case the action is the behaviour and the action is effecting the persons learning ability,
which is the object.
Purpose of Engagement is a combination of self-process, purpose, and possible actions
that are relevant in a specific situation 68 . For example all people have different reasons
for engagement of their learning. Some people learn because it is interesting, some learn
because it will make others happy. They have different motivating factors which will benefit
or hinder their learning process. The reasons people have towards why they are engaged or
not engaged in their learning, can and will effect the purpose of engagement. The reasons
one has towards learning will change self-regulated action and the process by which one will
plan, monitor and evaluate their learning.
A more detailed table of the self regulated process and how students regulate their personal
functioning, academic performance and learning environments is as follows:

Self-Regulated Process
Self-evaluation
Organization and Transformation
Goal Setting and Planning
Information Seeking
Record Keeping and Self-moitoring
Environmental Structuring
Giving Self-Consequences
Rehearsing and Memorizing
Seeking Social Assistance
Reviewing

(20)
Self-Motivation Beliefs
Another important component of self-regulated learning that we have not mentioned is
self-motivation beliefs. Zimmerman introduced this concept in the forethought phase and

66 Kolić-Vehovec, S., Zubković, B. R., & Pahljina-Reinić, R. (2014). Development of metacognitive knowledge
of reading strategies and attitudes toward reading in early adolescence: The effect on reading comprehen-
sion. Psychological Topics, 23(1), 77–98
67 Kolić-Vehovec, S., Zubković, B. R., & Pahljina-Reinić, R. (2014). Development of metacognitive knowledge
of reading strategies and attitudes toward reading in early adolescence: The effect on reading comprehen-
sion. Psychological Topics, 23(1), 77–98
68 Kolić-Vehovec, S., Zubković, B. R., & Pahljina-Reinić, R. (2014). Development of metacognitive knowledge
of reading strategies and attitudes toward reading in early adolescence: The effect on reading comprehen-
sion. Psychological Topics, 23(1), 77–98

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 The Concept of Self-Regulated Learning

it includes self-efficacy, outcome expectations, intrinsic interest/value, and learning goal

orientation.69 Self-efficacy in this case is your belief about the ability to learn a task. For
example, when you are learning a difficult concept in class you feel like you are going to
understand it right away or you fear that you are going to get lost. ”Self-efficacy is extremely
important for self-regulated learning because it affects the extent to which learners engage
and persist at challenging tasks.” 70 Teachers can enhance self-efficacy by providing tasks
with appropriate level of difficulty, which is related to the concept of scaffolding. Schraw,
Crippen and Hartley suggest that there are two ways to enhance students’ self-efficacy.
”One is to use both expert (e.g., teacher) and non-expert (e.g., student peers) models”, “The
second is to provide as much informational feedback to students as possible”71 Outcome
expectations is expectations about your consequences of learning. Students who believe
that they can learn a difficult concept in economics class and believes that he is going to use
this knowledge in the future. 72 Teachers can promote outcome expectation by reminding
students that the information is going to be useful in the future. Students with high in-
trinsic interest learn because they want to acquire the task skill. A student might study
education really hard because he wants to become a teacher. 73 Teachers can enhance this
intrinsic interest by introducing the application of knowledge. Students who have learning
goal orientation value the process of learning. They simply enjoy learning the material.
Teachers can enhance learning goal orientation by making the class entertaining or intrigue
students’ attention using different modality (video clips, graphs). Another component of
self-regulated learning in the category of motivation is epistemological beliefs. Episte-
mological beliefs are “those beliefs about the origin and nature of knowledge”. 74 These
beliefs affect problem solving and critical thinking, which are important component of self-
regulated learning. 75 Please refer to chapter 4 76 for further information about motivation
and beliefs about self. Another component of self-regulated learning in the category of
motivation is epistemological beliefs. Epistemological beliefs are “those beliefs about the

69 Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2),
64-72.
70 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
71 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
72 Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2),
64-72.
73 Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2),
64-72.
74 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
75 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
76 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cognition_and_Instruction/Motivation_and_Beliefs_About_
Self

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origin and nature of knowledge”.77 These beliefs affect problem solving and critical thinking,
which are important component of self-regulated learning. 78

15.3 Critical Review of Metacognition and Self-Regulated

Learning

15.3.1 Conceptual Confusion

While self-regulated learning has blown up to be the topic of discussion in contemporary

educational psychology, there are a number of criticisms being set forth. In an extensive
critical analysis done by Martin & McLellan (2008) conceptual confusions, especially with
respect to the definitions surrounding self-regulation, have been noted to lead to misun-
derstandings in knowing what is really being measured. Multiple terms are being used to
pinpoint the focus of self-regulation such as “self-management”, “metacognitive strategies”,
“behavior management” and “self-regulated learning”79 . Some researchers use these inter-
changeably 80 which can be misleading. Yet still some tend to emphasize and categorize
defining features based on internal mental activity (i.e. Winne and Hadwin, 1998 as cited
in 81 ) while others define it by reference to action and activity (i.e. Bandura, 1986 and
Zimmerman, 1989 as cited in 82 ). The former group view self-regulation as metacognitive
capabilities that can develop over time with respect to individual variation while the latter
more-so consider beliefs and behavior that are context dependent. 83 According to Mar-
tin & Mclellan (2008), it is important to consider that the lack of conceptual boundaries in
some cases and that over-integration of terms in other can account for problems in empirical
research. Without knowing what it is exactly that is being studied, or having too wide of
a range in inclusive criteria, it will be difficult to reach the purpose of bettering the models
of SRL 84 .

77 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
78 Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting Self-Regulation in Science Education:
Metacognition as Part of a Broader Perspective on Learning. Research In Science Education, 36(1-2),
111-139.
79 Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2008). The educational psychology of self-regulationː A conceptual and critical
analysis. Stud Philos Educ, 27,433-448.
80 Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2008). The educational psychology of self-regulationː A conceptual and critical
analysis. Stud Philos Educ, 27,433-448.
81 Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2008). The educational psychology of self-regulationː A conceptual and critical
analysis. Stud Philos Educ, 27,433-448.
82 Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2008). The educational psychology of self-regulationː A conceptual and critical
analysis. Stud Philos Educ, 27,433-448.
83 Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2008). The educational psychology of self-regulationː A conceptual and critical
analysis. Stud Philos Educ, 27,433-448.
84 Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2008). The educational psychology of self-regulationː A conceptual and critical
analysis. Stud Philos Educ, 27,433-448.

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15.3.2 Cultural Differences

Culture may play an impact on self regulated learning but there is still not a significant
amount of research to understand how much it impacts self-regulation. Every individual is
different and therefore stereotypes of how one culture learns is not a complete replication of
how all people from that culture learn. To add to this point, self-regulation can change as
one ages and can change when emerged into a new or different culture 85 . One study found
that American students placed a high value on education but the academic achievement of
african Americans and Hispanic Americans were considerably less than European and Asian
Americans 86 . Japanese and Chinese students were found to have high levels of academic
achievement 87 . The difference in achievement may be due to cultural influence on self-
regulated learning. This same study measures strategies used by Australians, Japanese and
Japanese students in Australia in self-regulation. The study evaluates these students on
their self-evaluation, organizing and transforming, environmental structuring (for example:
turning off the radio), rehearsing and memorizing, and the nonstrategic category of “other”
which analyzes if their learning behaviour was an outcome initiated by another person.
Japanese students in Australia:
The study found that Japanese student’s studying in Australia had lower environmental
structuring strategies, little seeking assistance strategies and little strategy use of outcomes
initiated by others 88 . However these students were high in memorization and rehearsing
strategy use 89 . These Japanese students used a great deal of checking, outlining, drafting,
recording, reviewing notes, reviewing tests and using willpower 90 . The high achievement
and their self-regulation results correlate to the traditional ways Japanese students are
raised at home and in school. Traditional Japanese culture emphasizes effort because effort
is a large contributing factor in success. They emphasize group cooperation and persistence,
and also believe that achievement is met with individual diligence and self-discipline 91 .
Japanese Students: Memorization was found to be the most important self-regulated
learning strategy used by Japanese students 92 . Repetition was another strategy widely used
by Japanese students 93 . In Japanese culture it is believed that spontaneous understanding

85 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
86 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
87 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
88 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
89 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
90 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
91 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
92 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
93 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.

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will occur when a person has read the information they are learning 100 times 94 . Values
are different in Japan than they are in the western world. They value “compliance with
authority”, “obedience in good grace,” and ”cooperation with the teacher” 95 . Japanese
students are likely to use a high will power to achieve and self-regulate successful learning
96 .

Australian Students:
Memorization was not encouraged in an Australian classroom 97 . They were aiming for
understanding rather than memorizing. Although Australian students did use memoriza-
tion, they did not use it to the extent that Japanese students did 98 . Australian culture,
alike to American culture, values self-confidence, tolerance of differences, creativity and
assertiveness 99 .
Culture may impact self-regulated learning. However when an individual is learning in a new
culture some of their learning strategies may change and some of their learning strategies
may stay the same. For example, one study found that Japanese students maintained
their memorizing strategy as a learning behaviour in the Australian learning system even
though the Australian classroom did not recommend it. Because memorization is a large
part of learning in Japanese culture it effected their learning strategy use when they moved
to Australia to learn. This is one example of how culture effects self-regulated learning.
Learning strategies are approached differently in ever country, every town, every school
and every classroom. Therefore the learning strategies of every individual is different, and
culture is not necessarily the driving force of how we implement self-regulation although it
can be a big influencer. Another point is that the strategies used by Australian students,
Japanese students and Japanese students studying in Australia are not necessarily right or
wrong.

15.3.3 Concept of Learning

The concept of learning can be looked at in six steps:

1. Increasing one’s knowledge
2. Memorizing and reproducing

94 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
95 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
96 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
97 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
98 Purdie, Nola, and John Hattie. “Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-regulated Learning”.
American Educational Research Journal 33.4 (1996): 845–871.
99 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.

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 Critical Review of Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

3. Applying
4. Understanding
5. Seeing something in a different way
6. Changing as a person. 100

Their are many different views of learning such as what is learning and what strategies
are used in learning. According to Purdie learning is viewed in several ways: It is a way
to increase knowledge, it requires memorization, it requires reproducing and studying 101 .
Learning is seen to help generate a career and learning is viewed as understanding 102 .
Learning is also a way to see things in a different or new way, it is a means of personal
fulfillment and can be considered a ‘duty’ to some individuals 103 . Learning may be seen “as
a process not bound by time or context” and also as a way to “develop social competence” 104 .
These different views of learning generate a concept of learning which help to understand
self-regulated learning. Understanding the different views of learning is self-regulating itself
and it can also help one to understand the learning strategies people use when self-regulating.

15.3.4 Concept of Learning in Relation to Cultural Differences

The concept of learning relates to cultural differences and self-regulation because most in-
formation on ‘self-regulation’, and the ‘concept of learning’ are Western views. This makes
understanding the cultural effect of self-regulation one sided. Being exposed to different
cultures, exposes people to different ways of thinking. When the Japanese students studied
in Australia they learnt different learning strategies and found new ways to understand
knowledge than what they were used to. This process may have been unconscious but be-
cause they were put into a new system with a different language and a different structure,
they would be forced to change some of their learning strategies. When viewing learning
from different perspectives people may start to see that knowledge is not necessarily dual-
istic 105 . This means that knowledge is not right and wrong, or good and bad. Learning
may become viewed as relativist where one can “recognize the flexibility of knowledge and
understand that knowledge can be questioned. The stereotypical view of Asian culture on

100 Purdie Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
101 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
102 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
103 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
104 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
105 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

learning is that knowledge is something learnt by an authority figure who knows right and
wrong 106 . Knowledge is to be learnt and memorized 107 . This results in the assumption that
students from Asia are passive learners who are compliant, obedient, and absorb knowledge
rather than understand it 108 . The stereotypical view of Australian students are that they
are active learners. This results in the assumption that they are “assertive, independent,
self-confident, accepting of diversity and willing to question and explore alternative ways of
thinking and acting” 109 .

15.4 Metacognition Through a Developmental Lens

Research shows that metacognitive abilities are related to factors such as age and biology
(citation 4). It is therefore important to understand the developmental progression in order
to apply the theory.

15.4.1 Maturation Bases

• Age as a factor
• Young children
• Theory of Mind
• Adolescents
• Adults

15.4.2 Biological Bases

• Deficits in Learning

15.5 From Theory to Application

A review of how theories around self-regulated learning and metacognition are put into
practice in educational settings.

106 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
107 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
108 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.
109 Purdie, Nola, John Hattie, and Graham Douglas. ”Student Conceptions Of Learning And Their Use Of
Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.” Journal Of Educational Psychology
88.1 (1996): 87-100. PsycARTICLES. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.

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 From Theory to Application

15.5.1 Commonly Used Strategies

Self-regulated learning is a vastly growing topic of interest, especially within the field of
educational psychology 110 . The aim lies in seeking to integrate theories into a cohesive
framework that can be used to guide educators and learners. In a review of the literature
regarding self-regulated learning, Paris & Paris (2001) summarize several principles out-
lined by Paris & Winograd (1999) as being practical applications of SRL in the classroom
environment111 . They categorized them within the confines of four ideas that integrate the
research in this field. Firstly, students are capable of better understanding what learning
entails when they can make self-appraisals 112 . This means that by analyzing their ways of
learning and comparing it to others, evaluating what they have and don’t have knowledge
about, and assessing their efforts students can enhance their awareness of the process of
learning 113 . Secondly, self-management of thought and affect allows for greater flexibility in
the ability to problem solve adaptively 114 . By setting realistic goals that focus on improv-
ing their competence, effectively managing their time through continual monitoring, and
reviewing/revising learning strategies students can commit to higher performance standards
for themselves 115 . Thirdly, with respect to instruction self-regulated learning can be taught
in a variety of ways that allows for accommodation 116 . SRL may be taught to students
explicitly (directed reflection, discussions around metacognition, practice with experts); it
can be taught indirectly (modeling, and reflective practices); and it can be prompted with
individualized mapping of growth 117 . Lastly, it is believed that self-regulation is inter-
twined with the narrative experiences related to identity for each student 118 . The way in
which students choose to assess and monitor their behavior is consistent with the identity
they desire and by being a part of a reflective community of learners/instructors, one can
enhance the level of depth by which they look at their self-regulated learning 119 .
While there may be variation in the ways in which students self-regulate, the importance lies
in understanding how children come to self-regulate in the first place. According to Paris
& Paris (2001), SRL can be enhanced in three ways: (1) Indirectly through experience:
repeated exposure to experiences in school can elicit learning of what is expected by the

110 Rosman, Tom; Mayer, Anne-Kathrin; Krampen, Günter. (2015). Combing Self-Assesments and Achiev-
ment Tests In Information Literacy Assesment: Empirical Results And Recommendations For Practice.
Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol 40(5), pp. 740-754.
111 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
112 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
113 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
114 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
115 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
116 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
117 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
118 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
119 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

teacher and what is most beneficial to the student 120 . An example of this is the learning
that double-checking work, although initially time-consuming, can be beneficial in the long-
run and will therefore be advantageous to do the next time around also. (2) SRL can be
taught directly: students can learn from the explicit instruction of educators who highlight
effective strategy use, and increase awareness of the importance of goal-setting 121 . As an
example, an instructor may emphasize the strategic steps of how to analyze a word problem
from start to finish. (3) Self-regulation can be elicited when integrated with active practices
that embody SRL within them 122 . An effective practice that encompasses SRL into it is
collaborative learning projects where each student takes on responsibility for a portion of
an overall project 123 . Self-regulated learning appears throughout such projects as students
are bound to learn from the feedback of others, and from analysis of what they have done
to contribute to the whole. These three outlined ways of enhancing SRL are often found
in combination as students get exposed to experiences with their peers and instructors in
their educational environment 124 .
Throughout education, students are taught various learning strategies to incorporate into
their studies; yet as research shows, it is not always enough to know such learning strategies
but to be able to regulate the use of the strategy effectively 125 . In a computer-based training
experiment by Leutner, Leopold, and Elzen-Rump (2007), researchers were able to show the
benefit of not only teaching students a useful cognitive learning strategy (highlighting) but
of additionally providing training on how to monitor and regulate the use of this tool with
metacognitive learning strategies 126 . The study involved 45 college students randomly
assigned to either a treatment group that received no training at all, one in which they
were trained only in the cognitive strategy of highlighting, and the other in which training
on highlighting was combined with training on self-regulation in learning about new-born
babies 127 . The combined self-regulation training group had a version of the computer-
program that included steps on how to obtain metacognitive control with time to practice
the control strategy and apply it in the next section of their text learning 128 . The results
of the study indicate that students trained in both strategy-use and metacognitive control
of this strategy use were more successful in applying their learnings in a goal-oriented way
when tested after the training 129 . The cognitive-strategy use only group performed better

120 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
121 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
122 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
123 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
124 Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educa-
tional Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
125 Leutner,D., Leopald, C., & Elzen-Rump, V.D. (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategyːA training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215 (3), 174-182.
126 Leutner,D., Leopald, C., & Elzen-Rump, V.D. (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategyːA training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215 (3), 174-182.
127 Leutner,D., Leopald, C., & Elzen-Rump, V.D. (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategyːA training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215 (3), 174-182.
128 Leutner,D., Leopald, C., & Elzen-Rump, V.D. (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategyːA training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215 (3), 174-182.
129 Leutner,D., Leopald, C., & Elzen-Rump, V.D. (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategyːA training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215 (3), 174-182

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 From Theory to Application

than the control group that received no training at all; however the combined training group
outperformed both indicating that while strategy use can improve outcome performance,
learning can be enhanced even further when students are taught to regulate such strategies
130 .

The Use of Speech

Psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that all speech, beginning as early as childhood, serves
adaptive communication and socialization purposes131 . Interacting with others as a child
allows them to eventually function as self-regulated problem solvers 132 . In other words in
an interaction between an adult and child, the adult at first holds responsibility for helping
to perform strategies like planning and monitoring to reach a desired goal 133 ; however as
they work together to accomplish what can be done with assistance from a capable other
as opposed to on their own, the adult helps to transfer self-regulatory performance over to
the child 134 . In this sense, metacognition can be seen as being rooted in social interaction
135 as the child learns to think about the actions they take.

The literature in this field discusses the important role that speech, and in particular inner-
speech, plays in facilitating self-regulation 136 . Vygotsky suggested that private speech
serves the self-regulatory aspect of planning, and related cognitive functions of “orienting,
organizing, and structuring behavior” 137 . This aids in understanding how to deal with
various difficult situations. Even early forms of speech (i.e.egocentric speech) that become
a part of a child’s activities aid in “accidentally capturing or regulating behavior” (Zivin, 1979
as cited in 138 ). In this sense, he advocated that language is essential to the development of
self-regulation 139 . Vygotsky’s student outlined verbal self-regulation occurs in a sequential
process where initially others’ speech controls the child, then the child’s overt speech starts
to regulate their own behavior, and finally the meaning of their own overt/covert speech
regulates behavior in an efficient manner 140 .

130 Leutner,D., Leopald, C., & Elzen-Rump, V.D. (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-highlighting
strategyːA training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215 (3), 174-182.
131 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
132 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
133 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
134 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
135 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
136 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
137 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
138 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
139 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
140 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.

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Behavioral perspectives of self-regulated learning also give us insight into the important
role played by self-speech, especially with regards to self-control 141 . They look at the role
of induced self-speech where one self-instructs themselves in facilitating such self-regulatory
processes as self-monitoring and self-evaluation 142 . These self-instructions can act as cues
that guide behavior 143 and can therefore be helpful in encouraging self-regulated behavior
on the part of the speaker. This sort of self-speech is described as being a “part of a com-
plex cognitive-symbolic process that mediates and maintains behaviors when consequences
are either delayed or not evident” (Mahoney & Thoresen, 1974 as cited in 144 . In other
words, if we imagine an individual performing some sort of problem-solving task that re-
quires regulatory behaviors, self-speech and talking it through with themselves can initiate
progression in the task as they try to attain understanding. A study of third-grade stu-
dents who were taught to self-instruct and self-monitor the use of a comprehension strategy
yielded more use of the strategy in comparison to the teacher only explicitly teaching it to
them (Elliott-Faust & Pressley, 1986, as cited in 145 ). Continuation in empirical evidence
is needed to further understand the specifics of when and how this sort of speech allows for
self-regulation 146 as limitations do exist in the assessment and methodology of researching
private speech.

15.5.2 Incorporating Technology

With the undeniable growth in technological use, it is important to consider ways in which
this can be used to improve self-regulated learning for students in today’s educational sys-
tem. Graesser et al. (2005) notes that there is a need for “inquiry and explanation-centered
learning”, and a good starting point for this would be incorporating computer programs into
schools that are capable of fostering this. Certain computer programs have the ability to
produce positive learning outcomes by allowing for deep learning, scaffolding, elaboration,
and self-monitoring 147 while creating a reflective environment that employs collaboration
148 . Students have the opportunity to interact with these computer programs which allow

them to learn not only the topic of study but of how to approach that topic in an effective
manner that enhances them as learners. In a study based on interactive software, White &
Frederiksen (2005) were able to assess metacognitive changes. This Inquiry Island software
allowed for learners to interact with different characters on an “island” that incorporated

141 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
142 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
143 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
144 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
145 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
146 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
147 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
148 White, B., & Frederiksen, J. (2005). A theorietical framework and approach for fostering metacognitive
development. Educational Psychologist, 40 (4), 211-223.

202
 From Theory to Application

various knowledge, advice, and tools that supported metacognitive growth 149 . It gave stu-
dents the opportunity to internalize forms of expertise (e.g. questioning) as they carried
out their projects 150 . The results of pre and post assessments show that the program al-
lowed for significant gains on metacognition and inquiry assessments while simultaneously
decreasing the performance gap between low and high achieving students as they engaged
in these reflective activities 151 .
Based on prior research, The Learning Kit Project 152 became an extensive study looking
at self-regulated learning through the development of a software program known as gStudy.
This software could be used in a variety of subjects and allowed for learners to study
through interacting with a shell of knowledge that used cognitive tools such as note-making,
glossaries, mind-map construction, and collaborative chat 153 . A particularly important
design of this software that aided research was the fact that it contained a non-invasive
log analyzer that traced the work of learners through a time-referenced, real-time account
of how students interacted with the material/tools 154 . This allowed for researchers to see
that, for example, data for students who reported higher mastery goals aligned with them
engaging in more elaborate and frequent note taking 155 .

149 White, B., & Frederiksen, J. (2005). A theorietical framework and approach for fostering metacognitive
development. Educational Psychologist, 40 (4), 211-223.
150 White, B., & Frederiksen, J. (2005). A theorietical framework and approach for fostering metacognitive
development. Educational Psychologist, 40 (4), 211-223.
151 White, B., & Frederiksen, J. (2005). A theorietical framework and approach for fostering metacognitive
development. Educational Psychologist, 40 (4), 211-223.
152 Winne, P.H., Nesbit, J.C., Kumar, V., Hadwin, A.F., Lajoie, S.P., Azevedo, R., & Perry, N.E. (2006).
Supporting self-regulated learning with gStudy software: The learning kit project. Tech, Inst., Cognitive
and Learning, 3, 105-113.
153 Winne, P.H., Nesbit, J.C., Kumar, V., Hadwin, A.F., Lajoie, S.P., Azevedo, R., & Perry, N.E. (2006).
Supporting self-regulated learning with gStudy software: The learning kit project. Tech, Inst., Cognitive
and Learning, 3, 105-113.
154 Winne, P.H., Nesbit, J.C., Kumar, V., Hadwin, A.F., Lajoie, S.P., Azevedo, R., & Perry, N.E. (2006).
Supporting self-regulated learning with gStudy software: The learning kit project. Tech, Inst., Cognitive
and Learning, 3, 105-113.
155 Nesbit, J.C., Winne, P.H., Jamieson-Noel, D., Code, J., Zhou, M., Macallister, K., Bratt, S., Wang, W.,
& Hadwin, A. (2006) Using cognitive tools in gStudy to investigate how study activities covary with
achievement goals. J Educational Computing Research, 35 (4), 339-358.

203
Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

Figure 29 AutoTutor

Many computer programs aim to stimulate professional human tutoring which has shown
to be advantageous 156 . Such programs include Autotutor in which animated agents con-
verse with students to guide metacognition, Istart which teaches comprehensive reading
strategies, and Betty’s Brain where students are able to teach computer agents their knowl-
edge 157 . These types of programs provide concrete ways of getting metacognitive and
self-regulating practices into play in a visually and mentally engaging manner that tailors
to the demographic targeted. As metacognitive expertise is needed to gain knowledge and
transfer this knowledge from one context to another 158 , giving students the opportunity to
enhance this domain will serve to be beneficial in creating more self-regulated learners.
The question is can these tutoring systems completely replace human tutoring? Research by
Azevedo (2010) shows that when it comes to approaching difficult scientific topics, hyperme-
dia use accompanied by human-tutor scaffolding regarding course content and self-regulated
learning processes can facilitate learning for students 159 . Yet given the current restrictions

156 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
157 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
158 Winne, P.H., Nesbit, J.C., Kumar, V., Hadwin, A.F., Lajoie, S.P., Azevedo, R., & Perry, N.E. (2006).
Supporting self-regulated learning with gStudy software: The learning kit project. Tech, Inst., Cognitive
and Learning, 3, 105-113.
159 Azevedo Roger. (2005). Using Hypermedia as a Metacognitive tool for Enhancing Student Learning? The
role of Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 199-209.

204
 From Theory to Application

on technology in this field, Azevedo (2010) notes that it is impossible for tutoring systems to
completely mimic human tutors. One of the biggest challenges these types of systems face
is the inability to fully monitor a student’s understanding in the same sense that a human
tutor would be able to given the verbal feedback and requests for help that a human can
receive throughout and the timely manner in which they can respond 160 . In this respect,
there are limitations with providing adaptive scaffolding161 to the situation at hand. Scaf-
folds embedded within these systems pose technical challenges in, for example, judgments
of learnings (JOL) described earlier in this chapter 162 : the hypermedia does not “know”
that a student cannot tell if they are reading too fast 163 , yet a human tutor would most
likely be able to pick up on this through the interaction and conversational exchange 164 .

15.5.3 Facilitating & Encouraging Self-Regulated Learning

The educational environment, the home environment, and the family of a student can play
an important role in supporting and facilitating self-regulated learning. Martinez-Pons
(2002) outlines practical steps that educators can take in aiming to support self-regulation
both at school and home. One of these is to emphasize encouragement: this can be done by
teaching students how to encourage their peers and by keeping parents informed of what
challenges students are facing in what areas and therefore needing the most encouragement
in to get through 165 . Another is to model self-regulation: an educator can be open to
sharing their own goals and processes with students or encouraging parents to share theirs
with their children to actively model what it means to have self-regulation be incorporated
into their life 166 . Families can be made a source of good strategy ideas: educators can
provide a monthly strategy to take home and share, or families can be encouraged to help
their children with their work systematically rather than referring to textbook answers167 .
As well, providing self-evaluation guidelines can be efficient in prompting SRL168 ː Rubrics
for self-evaluation can collaboratively be created with students; educators can gradually
encourage students to develop their own record-keeping sheets for keeping track of their
work throughout the semester; and examples of material that has been useful for some

160 Azevedo Roger. (2005). Using Hypermedia as a Metacognitive tool for Enhancing Student Learning? The
role of Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 199-209.
161 Azevedo Roger. (2005). Using Hypermedia as a Metacognitive tool for Enhancing Student Learning?
The role of Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 199-209.
162 Azevedo Roger. (2005). Using Hypermedia as a Metacognitive tool for Enhancing Student Learning? The
role of Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 199-209.
163 Azevedo Roger. (2005). Using Hypermedia as a Metacognitive tool for Enhancing Student Learning? The
role of Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 199-209.
164 Azevedo Roger. (2005). Using Hypermedia as a Metacognitive tool for Enhancing Student Learning? The
role of Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 199-209.
165 Woolfolk, A.E., Winne, P.H., & Perry, N.E. (2012). Educational psychology(̬5th ed.). Toronto, ONː
Pearson.
166 Woolfolk, A.E., Winne, P.H., & Perry, N.E. (2012). Educational psychology(̬5th ed.). Toronto, ONː
Pearson.
167 Woolfolk, A.E., Winne, P.H., & Perry, N.E. (2012). Educational psychology(̬5th ed.). Toronto, ONː
Pearson.
168 Woolfolk, A.E., Winne, P.H., & Perry, N.E. (2012). Educational psychology(̬5th ed.). Toronto, ONː
Pearson.

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Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

parents can be openly shared with others at parent-teacher meetings to stimulate ideas of
how families can track the progress of their child in an effective manner 169 .
Another way to promote self-regulated learning is to start implementing it at a young age, as
research shows that self-regulation can effectively be fostered as early as preschool 170 . The
improvement of self-regulatory competence of children in preschool was studied in Germany
through providing self-regulation training to the kindergarten teachers directly involved
with teaching them 171 . This short-term intervention involved 35 kindergarten teachers who
underwent self-regulatory strategy training and 97 children who were interviewed before and
after intervention was carried out. Teachers were taught strategies for their own learning
process and for supporting the learning of these children through a model of self-regulated
learning 172 . Within this model they included the notion of meta-cognitive dialogues where
conversations take place between children and their teachers as they reflect on various
aspects of learning 173 . Through a structured interview, changes in self-regulatory skills
were measured and coded as children explained to a puppet how they could learn to ride a
bike 174 . Results indicated that it is possible to improve self-regulation of preschoolers with
significant differences shown throughout all phases of self-regulation 175 . The researchers
discussed that kindergarten teachers ought to be adequately prepared to “help children to
learn how to learn, to organize their knowledge and to solve problems” 176 .
This important interaction that takes place between an instructor and a student that fa-
cilitates self-regulated learning is emphasized in other literature as well 177 . In particular,
dialogue and guided discovery are important tools that can aid the learner to grow through
“graduated difficulty, prompts, feedback, and social reinforcement” 178 . The student plays
an active role, as well, as they work collaboratively with the teacher in determining pur-

169 Woolfolk, A.E., Winne, P.H., & Perry, N.E. (2012). Educational psychology(̬5th ed.). Toronto, ONː
Pearson.
170 Perels, F., Merget-Kullman, M., Wende, M., Schmitz, B., & Buchbinder, C.(2009). Improving self-
regulated learning of preschool childrenː Evaluation of training for kindergarten teachers. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 79, 311-327.
171 Perels, F., Merget-Kullman, M., Wende, M., Schmitz, B., & Buchbinder, C.(2009). Improving self-
regulated learning of preschool childrenː Evaluation of training for kindergarten teachers. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 79, 311-327.
172 Perels, F., Merget-Kullman, M., Wende, M., Schmitz, B., & Buchbinder, C.(2009). Improving self-
regulated learning of preschool childrenː Evaluation of training for kindergarten teachers. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 79, 311-327.
173 Perels, F., Merget-Kullman, M., Wende, M., Schmitz, B., & Buchbinder, C.(2009). Improving self-
regulated learning of preschool childrenː Evaluation of training for kindergarten teachers. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 79, 311-327.
174 Perels, F., Merget-Kullman, M., Wende, M., Schmitz, B., & Buchbinder, C.(2009). Improving self-
regulated learning of preschool childrenː Evaluation of training for kindergarten teachers. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 79, 311-327.
175 Perels, F., Merget-Kullman, M., Wende, M., Schmitz, B., & Buchbinder, C.(2009). Improving self-
regulated learning of preschool childrenː Evaluation of training for kindergarten teachers. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 79, 311-327.
176 Perels, F., Merget-Kullman, M., Wende, M., Schmitz, B., & Buchbinder, C.(2009). Improving self-
regulated learning of preschool childrenː Evaluation of training for kindergarten teachers. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 79, 311-327.
177 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
178 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.

206
 Suggested Readings

pose, strategy, and the most effective way in carrying out the discussed strategy to facilitate
performance (K.R.Harris, 1985; K.R. Harris & Pressley, in press, as cited in 179 .)
While many factors may ultimately influence a child’s educational environment which can
in turn influence their self-regulated learning (e.g. being tired), there are instructional
practices that can be beneficial in promoting self-regulated learning 180 . Paris and Newman
(1990) suggest a number of instructional conditions that encourage the development of self-
regulated learning. The first of these is that “effective instruction provokes students to
change their theories” 181 : although it may be a difficult task, students must make personal
commitments to a new strategy otherwise it may seem more like obedience 182 . Modeling
correct strategy use and how to revise plans is one method instructors can use but they
must incorporate persuasion to an extent because simply observing the success of another is
not always enough 183 . Another condition is “effective instruction makes thinking public”: it
is suggested that good instructional environments allow students to listen to the problems
and solutions of their peers, with such discussions that arise facilitating the understanding
and awareness of alternative ways to approach issues, and this ultimately allowing the
instructor to address misconceptions 184 . A third practice is “effective instruction promotes
active participation and collaboration”: when students are encouraged to peer tutor and take
an active role they are able to face their own theories and to become aware of what they
do and do not sufficiently know which simultaneously aids their own learning as they teach
others 185 . Paris and Newman (1990) encourage the use of these practices alongside other
aspects such as motivating students to measure success or failure by their own standards
and not in comparison to others while assisting them along the way.

15.6 Suggested Readings

Kaplan, A. (2008). Clarifying metacognition, self-Regulation, and self-regulated learning.

Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 477-484.
A helpful reading that aims to clarify conceptual boundaries.
Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated
learning. Educational Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
Reviews self-regulated learning research and its practical applications in educational set-
tings.

179 Harris, Karen R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and self-
instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49
180 Paris, S.G., Newman, R.S. (1990). Developmental aspects of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychol-
ogist, 25(1), 87-102.
181 Paris, S.G., Newman, R.S. (1990). Developmental aspects of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychol-
ogist, 25(1), 87-102.
182 Paris, S.G., Newman, R.S. (1990). Developmental aspects of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychol-
ogist, 25(1), 87-102.
183 Paris, S.G., Newman, R.S. (1990). Developmental aspects of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychol-
ogist, 25(1), 87-102.
184 Paris, S.G., Newman, R.S. (1990). Developmental aspects of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychol-
ogist, 25(1), 87-102.
185 Paris, S.G., Newman, R.S. (1990). Developmental aspects of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychol-
ogist, 25(1), 87-102.

207
Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation
to self-regulation and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.
A Review of metacognition and its components.

15.7 Glossary

Dualistic: Knowledge viewed as right or wrong; good or bad.

Forethought Phase: Strategies taking place before learning. Self assessment, goal setting
and strategic planning.
Metacognition: Thinking about thinking
Metacognitive Knowledge: Declarative knowledge such as language and memory.
Metacognitive experiences What the person is aware of and what she or he feels when
coming across a task and processing information related to it.
Metacognitive skills: Deliberate use of strategies (i.e. Procedural knowledge) in order to
control cognition.
Performance Phase: Strategies taking place during learning. Strategy implementation,
and strategy monitoring.
Purpose of Engagement: The self-process, the purpose, and the possible actions that
are relevant in a specific situation.
Relativist: Knowledge is flexible and changeable. It can be questioned.
Self-Regulated Action: The means by which regulation is conducted.
Self Regulated Learning: The ability to control learning.
Self-Regulated Phase: Strategies after learning has taken place. Evaluation.

15.8 References

Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L. & Lederman, N. G. (1998). The nature of science and
instructional practice: Making the unnatural natural. Sci. Ed., 82: 417–436.
Azevedo, R.(2005). Using hypermedia as a metacognitive tool for enhancing student learn-
ing? The role of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 199-209.
Bembenutty, H. (2009). Feeling-of-knowing judgement and self-regulation of learning. Ed-
ucation, 129(4), 589-598.
Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and
instruction (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation
to self-regulation and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13(4), 277-287.

208
 References

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–

developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911.
Furnes, B., & Norman, E. (2015). Metacognition and reading: Comparing three forms
of metacognition in normally developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Dyslexia: An
International Journal Of Research And Practice, 21(3), 273-284.
García, F. C., García, Á., Berbén, A. G., Pichardo, M. C., & Justicia, F. (2014). The effects
of question-generation training on metacognitive knowledge, self regulation and learning
approaches in Science. Psicothema, 26(3), 385-390.
Harris, K.R. (1990). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: The role of private speech and
self-instructions. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 35-49.
Kaplan, A. (2008). Clarifying metacognition, self-regulation, and self-regulated learning.
Educational Psychology Review, Vol 20(4), 477-484.
Kelemen, W. L., Frost, P. J., & Weaver, C. A. (2000). Individual differences in metacog-
nition: Evidence against a general metacognitive ability. Memory & Cognition, 28(1),
92-107.
Kolić-Vehovec, S., Zubković, B. R., & Pahljina-Reinić, R. (2014). Development of metacog-
nitive knowledge of reading strategies and attitudes toward reading in early adolescence:
The effect on reading comprehension. Psychological Topics, 23(1), 77–98.
Leutner,D., Leopald, C., & Elzen-Rump, V.D. (2007). Self-regulated learning with a text-
highlighting strategyːA training experiment. Journal of Psychology, 215 (3), 174-182.
Lin, X., Schwartz, D. L., & Hatano, G. (2005). Toward Teachers’ Adaptive Metacognition.
Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 245-255.
Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2008). The educational psychology of self-regulationː A con-
ceptual and critical analysis. Stud Philos Educ, 27,433-448.
Nelson, T. O., & Dunlosky, J.. (1991). When People’s Judgments of Learning (JOLs) Are
Extremely Accurate at Predicting Subsequent Recall: The ”Delayed-JOL Effect”. Psycho-
logical Science, 2(4), 267–270.
Nelson, T. O., & Leonesio, R. J. (1988). Allocation of self-paced study time and the “labor-
in-vain effect”. Journal Of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory & Cognition, 14,
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Nesbit, J.C., Winne, P.H., Jamieson-Noel, D., Code, J., Zhou, M., Macallister, K., Bratt,
S., Wang, W., & Hadwin, A. (2006). Using cognitive tools in gStudy to investigate how
study activities covary with achievement goals. J Educational Computing Research, 35 (4),
339-358.
Paris, S.G., & Newman, R.S. (1990). Developmental aspects of self-regulated learning.
Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 87-102.
Paris, S.G. & Paris, A.H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated
learning. Educational Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.
Parrott, H. M., & Cherry, E. (2015). Process memos: facilitating dialogues about writing
between students and instructors. Teaching Sociology, 43(2), 146-153.

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Perels, F., Merget-Kullman, M., Wende, M., Schmitz, B., & Buchbinder, C.(2009). Im-
proving self-regulated learning of preschool childrenː Evaluation of training for kindergarten
teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 311-327.
Purdie, N., & Hattie, J. (1996). Cultural differences in the use of strategies for self-regulated
learning. American Educational Research Journal, 33 (4), 845–871.
Purdie, N., Hattie, J., & Douglas, G. (1996. Student conceptions of learning and their use
of self-regulated learning strategies: A cross-cultural comparison.Journal Of Educational
Psychology, 88 (1),87-100.
Rosman, T., Mayer, A.K., & Krampen, G. (2015). Combing self-assessments and achieve-
ment tests in information literacy assessment: Empirical results and recommendations for
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Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting self-regulation in science
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Stoeger, H., Fleischmann, S., & Obergriesser,S. Self-regulated learning (SRL) and the gifted
learner in primary schoolːthe theoretical basis and empirical findings on a research program
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Winne, P. H. (1996). A metacognitive view of individual differences in self-regulated learn-
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White, B., & Frederiksen, J. (2005). A theoretical framework and approach for fostering
metacognitive development. Educational Psychologist, 40 (4), 211-223.
Winne, P.H., Nesbit, J.C., Kumar, V., Hadwin, A.F., Lajoie, S.P., Azevedo, R., & Perry,
N.E. (2006). Supporting self-regulated learning with gStudy software: The learning kit
project. Tech, Inst., Cognitive and Learning, 3, 105-113.
Woolfolk, A.E., Winne, P.H., & Perry, N.E. (2012). Educational psychology(̬5th ed.).
Toronto, ONː Pearson.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into
Practice, 41(2), 64-72.

210
16 Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs
About Learning

Our motivations drive and direct our thought processes and actions. People in developed
countries spend about 15,000 hours in school by the time they are 20.1 It is important
to understand the effects this extended school experience has on students’ lives and well-
being.2 Research has repeatedly found that as adolescents get older, there is a decrease
in their motivation to learn.3 Researchers are now focusing on ways to sustain students’
motivation throughout their school experience. This chapter explains how theories and
research on motivation and beliefs about one’s self can be applied to teaching and learning.
It emphasizes the importance of motivation in learning, and how teachers can motivate
students by accommodating and adapting to their needs. Motivation has two aspects that
are inter-related.4 One aspect looks at how much motivation a person has, and the second
looks onto what type of motivation it is. 5 There are many theories of motivation, and here
we examine three that offer understanding of teaching and learning. The first theory we
look at is Self-Determination theory, which looks at two types of motivation and the factors
that facilitate them by fulfilling psychological needs. The second theory we examine is Goal-
Orientation theory, which looks at the power of goals in relation to the environments they
are constructed within. The structure of the environment generally aligns with the type of
motivational goal students strive to achieve. The third theory we examine is Expectancy-
Value theory, which explains motivation in terms of the expectations individuals have for
their performance in particular activities, and what value performance in those activities
holds for them.

16.1 Self-Determination Theory

Self- Determination Theory, first introduced by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan,
primarily looks at two different types of motivation.6 It states that each type of motivation

1 Deci, E.L., Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G., & Ryan, R. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-
determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346.
2 Deci, E.L., Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G., & Ryan, R. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-
determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346.
3 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
4 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
5 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
6 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

211
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

is built upon a reason or goal that eventually develops into a certain behaviour. 7 The
first type of motivation is intrinsic motivation, which is motivation that comes within one’s
self for enjoyment and self interest without external pressures or reasons.8 A student who
decides to read a textbook for full pleasure and takes interest in the topic, does so because of
intrinsic motivation. 9 On the other hand, extrinsic motivation comes from doing something
because it leads to an external outcome. 10 This would be a student who solely reads a
textbook because he or she knows there is going to be a test at the end and wants to do
well on the test.11
Both of these types of motivation topics are extremely important to researchers and educa-
tors within the theory, because over the years there have been numerous conclusions, under
the view of the Self - Determination Theory, intrinsic motivation facilitated the highest
quality of learning because it included using creativity and the existence of psychologi-
cal needs. 12 With recent research however, there are a few approaches that state that
although the highest quality of learning does still involve the core aspects of intrinsic mo-
tivation, there are ways to include extrinsic motivators to achieve the same purpose. This
will be talked about more in later sections, after defining Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation
more in depth.

Intrinsic Motivation

As mentioned above, intrinsic motivation has been concluded to facilitate the highest qual-
ity of learning, as it stimulates creativity and satisfies important yet basic psychological
needs.13 According to the Self-Determination Theory there are three personal physological
needs every human tries to fulfill. 14 The first need is Autonomy. Autonomy is defined
as being self regulation and self initiating of ones own behaviour and actions. 15 A student
who is autonomous would know exactly what is needed to achieve a given task and feels
that they have the individual freedom to do so with effort.The second physological need
is Competence which is defined as being the ability to attain different outcomes both
externally and internally and is successful in doing so using the environment they are sur-

7 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
8 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
9 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
10 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
11 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
12 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
13 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-
determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_
14 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and
education: The Self-Determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346.
doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_
15 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-
determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_

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 Self-Determination Theory

rounded by. 16 For a student this would mean the ability to do well on a difficult exam
with the skills that they already have built from previous experiences.17 Finally, the third
physiological need is Relatedness. Relatedness, would be the level of connection one feels
from their social environment,18 where in the case of a student, would be when a student
feels that they can relate and connect to what they’re learning as well as with the subjects
around them. 19

Extrinsic Motivation

The Self- Determination Theory explains that there are 4 specific types of extrinsic moti-
vation that are different to the degree which they hold autonomy.20 Starting from the left
side of the spectrum, motivation is completely external, and as it moves in the right side
direction it moves towards becoming internal.21 The least autonomous extrinsic motivation
on the left spectrum is External regulation. This form of motivation is where behaviours
are done to receive an incentive or to avoid a sort of punishment.22 This would be a student
who decides to study for an exam strictly to get a good grade, avoid a punishment by their
family members , or not be mocked by external subjects for being incapable.23 Now moving
one to the right side, the next type is Introjected regulation, where motivation would occur
solely to fulfill self/internal power and avoid guilt.24 A student here would change their
motive of studying for an exam to elevate their ego and protect their image.25 Identified
regulation comes next, which moves to a more autonomous motivation as its main reason
towards acting on something is because it is seen as being valuable and useful for the fu-

16 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-
determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_
17 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-
determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_
18 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-
determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_
19 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-
determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_
20 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
21 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
22 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
23 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
24 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
25 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

ture.26 For example studying hard for an exam because you want to do well for your future
career would be identified regulation.27 The final type of extrinsic motivation which is the
most autonomous is Integrated regulation, which is closely tied with topics that are being
learned combined with one’s self interests.28 For example, a student might want to study
chemistry because it will help them become a doctor which will in turn help others and
society. 29

16.1.1 Promoting and Changing Extrinsic Motivation into Intrinsic

Motivation

A key reason why it is important for students to improve their intrinsic motivation is that
it leads to overall improvements in both psychological health and academic success 30 .
Knowing this, many educational psychologists are constantly working towards finding ways
to promote the benefits of intrinsic motivation for students in both their school subjects
and emotional health 31 . We can look at literacy as a clear example. On average, 73%
of American children do not read for enjoyment 32 and we can assume that this rate is
high due to students not realizing the benefits of finding intrinsic motivation in literacy.
Results show that students who enjoy reading perform higher in comprehension and overall
feel more contended; 33 similarities were found with Math. Over the K-12 schooling years
for students, academic intrinsic motivation for math shows to have the highest decline 34 .
Math has shown to be able to energize students, and those who have intrinsic motivation
have higher problem solving skills as well as higher confidence levels when solving complex
problems in different aspects of life 35 Students with special needs and special education
also proved to show higher rates of confidence36 . For these students, this positive impact

26 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
27 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
28 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
29 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
30 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
31 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
32 Perie, M., Grigg, W. & Donahue, P. (2005). The nation’s report card: Reading 2005 (U.S. Depart-
ment of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, NCES 2006-451). Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
33 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
34 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
35 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
36 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.

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 Self-Determination Theory

can result in higher hopes for high school completion rates and achievements after finding
intrinsic motivation.37 In regards to emotional behaviour and health, students who were
found to have high levels of intrinsic motivation were overall happier with life, and further
created a friendlier and positive school environment. 38 Increased motivation also promoted
positive social qualities such as being helpful, friendly, and caring. Considering this aspect,
results also showed a positive decline in drug use, violence and vandalism. 39
With understanding the benefits of promoting internal motivation and also acknowledging
the degrees of extrinsic motivation, we can now work towards looking at a common concern
as to how to change external motivation into internal motivation in the classroom. Let us
use an example of a grade 7 class that is spending time on a specific chapter in science.
Some of the students feel that the content they are being taught is extremely uninteresting
and pointless. The approach teachers should take in a scenario like this is the process of
Internalization and Integration, which aims to promote and discover the value of what is
being taught.40 Internalization is the method of analyzing the explicit reasons as to why
one chooses to do something with external motivation. Integration is process of taking
those external reasons and converting them to come from one’s own self 41 . Here we will see
motivation transform from something that was once external (left spectrum) to something
that becomes more internal (right spectrum). 42 However, this process can only be achieved
or facilitated once students are placed into environments that are allowing them to feel self
determined and fulfilled in all three psychological needs of competence, relatedness, and
autonomy 43 . The ways that teachers can support this is by allowing students to have a
voice and and choice in the academic activities that they engage in. 44 , assigning learning
activities that are challenging with providing them with the tools and information needed
to succeed in the activity.45 , in addition, creating an environment that makes them feel
valued, respected, and regarded positively by their teachers and peers. 46

37 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
38 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
39 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
40 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New
York: Plenum.
41 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New
York: Plenum.
42 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation
and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346.
doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6
43 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation
and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325-346.
doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6
44 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
45 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.
46 Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in the Classroom:
Applying Self-Determination Theory to Educational Practice. Theory And Research In Education, 7(2),
133-144.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

16.1.2 Cognitive Evaluation Theory and Rewards

On a similar note, The Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) is a sub section of the
Self Determination Theory that was presented by Deci and Ryan (1985) 47 . It states that
any event that becomes interpersonal or relational, and helps to promote the feeling of
both competence and autonomy, will in turn cause intrinsic motivation. 48 The theory
however, stresses that they’re both interrelated and that the feelings of competence will not
promote intrinsic motivation unless it is aided by the sense of autonomy. 49 Moving this
theory into the classroom, when teachers look at assigning a given task or assignment, they
should look to see if the guidelines will fulfill the needs of competence and autonomy in the
student.50 For example, this can be seen when a teacher assigns an individual project or
presentation for science class. If the teacher allows the students to chose their own topic
and pick between giving a project or presentation, it allows them to have control (feeling of
autonomy), which in effect allows them pave their own pathway towards feeling successful
(feeling of competence). 51
Under the CET, research has been continuously worked on to find the results of using
rewards, feedback, and other external events on intrinsic motivation to see if it further pro-
moted or decreased the feeling of competence and autonomy. 52 The Cognitive Evaluation
Theory explains that external events can do either, depending on how one’s self determi-
nation or competence is perceived 53 . If an event decreases the way one perceives them,
it will decrease intrinsic motivation whereas if it increases the way they perceive them it
will increase it.54 The Cognitive Evaluation Theory also claims that the two aspects of
rewards, wether they are either informational or controlling, can answer this question 55
Informational increases intrinsic motivation and controlling decreases it.56 To determine if
a reward is either controlling or informational, it is first important to define the difference
between verbal and tangible rewards.57

47 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New
York: Plenum.
48 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New
York: Plenum.
49 deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.
50 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
51 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
52 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
53 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2
54 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2
55 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2
56 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2
57 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-2

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 Self-Determination Theory

Verbal Rewards are often replaced with the common term “positive feedback ”58 It has
strongly been suggested and assumed that positive feedback will increase intrinsic moti-
vation as it is likely to fulfill a student’s need to feel competence and be informational.59
However it is important to realize that verbal rewards may have a controlling aspect as well.
It can lead to a student doing actions for the sole purpose to gain appraisal and approval.
(i.e. teacher or peers)60 . The CET therefore claims that the rewards must be looked at in
the terms of interpersonal context which looks at the social atmosphere that students are
surrounded by( i.e. a classroom)61
Tangible Rewards are opposite of verbal words and are rewards that are strongly associated
with being controlling and contributing to decreasing intrinsic motivation.62 For them to be
controlling, they have to be looked at as rewards that are offered as incentives for students
to do things that are out of their regular norm.63 This could mean that the student would be
motivated to do something because they knew what the expected outcome of the the reward
was going to be. 64 The CET takes this understanding and explains that expected tangible
rewards are broken specifically based upon the tasks or circumstances that students are
asked to participate in.65 It outlines that there are three types of reward circumstances.66

Task-Non Contingence Rewards that are given to students for participating in

an activity
Task-Contingence Rewards given to students for completing an activity
Performance-Contingence Rewards given to students for completing an activity,
showing success, and performing well

The use of rewards in the classroom has been a long term debated topic, as both researchers
and teachers aim to consider what kinds of rewards are best to give to students and when
they are the most appropriate to give as well67 . A recent meta analysis study was done to
test the effects of verbal and tangible rewards in the classroom. The effect of verbal rewards

58 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
59 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
60 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
61 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
62 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
63 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
64 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
65 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
66 Ryan, R. M., Miniis, V., & Koestner, R. (1983). Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context
to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive eval- nation theory. Journalof Personalityand
SocialPsychology, 45, 736 750
67 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

showed exactly what was claimed above.68 When verbal rewards were informational they
increased intrinsic motivation and if they were to be controlling it decreased it.69 They also
found that verbal rewards had a higher significance in increasing intrinsic motivation in
adolescents in college than younger students in primary school.70 Similarly, similar results
were found with experiment with tangible rewards as they showed to diminish intrinsic
motivation. However, in this situation, the effect on students was higher in younger students
than for adolescents in college.71 In regards to teachers and educators giving rewards, it
can be implemented in the classroom but only to be used in an appropriate manner. Verbal
Rewards are highly recommended however only when it informational.72 Although Tangible
Rewards show negative results, they too can also be implemented in the classroom, however
the best method for implementing them include making the rewards unexpected so that the
students are not aware of what will be rewarded to them.73

16.1.3 Teachers

While working to apply the Self Determination theory in the classroom with students, it is
important to analyze the environments that students are exposed to and look at the effects
of how the external environment plays when working towards creating an environment that
creates intrinsic motivation. Here we will look at the effects of teachers, and the effects that
teachers have directly upon students.
Because teachers play a major role in a student’s life , there are many ways teachers can
influence students. The first way teachers can achieve this is by simply being intrinsically
motivated themselves 74 A study was done to see if intrinsic motivation from teachers could
disseminate to students in a high school physical education class. Results positively showed
that when working with a intrinsically motivated teacher, higher levels of intrinsic motiva-
tion in physical education were achieved than working with a teacher who was extrinsically
motivated for external rewards( i.e. being paid) 75 Similar results to promote an intrinsic
environment were shown when a study was done to look at how teacher’s support for basic
needs effected school bullying levels. The study included looking at 536 students, grades
7-9 in different Hong Kong secondary schools, where students were asked to fill out a ques-

68 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
69 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
70 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
71 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
72 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
73 Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education:
Reconsidered Once Again. Review Of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
74 Froiland, J. M., Oros, E., Smith, L., & Hirchert, T. (2012). Intrinsic motivation to learn: The nexus
between psychological health and academic success. Contemporary School Psychology, 1691-100.
75 Radel, R., Sarrazin, P., Legrain, P. & Wild, T.C. (2010). Social contagion of motivation between teacher
and student: Analyzing underlying processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 577-587.

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 Expectancy Value Theory

tionnaire based on different measures they had felt throughout that semester.76 Some of
the questions included asking students how often they excluded someone, how often they
felt they were a bully victim, and how often they felt their teacher showed support in re-
latedness, autonomy, and competence. Results showed that the lowest amount of bullying
took place in schools when teachers had shown high levels of support in relatedness, and
students had felt that they had a personal bond and open relationship with their teachers.
77

16.2 Expectancy Value Theory

In a school and learning environment, students are always making choices when it comes
to what motivates them and how they act on that motivation. These choices often revolve
around how much effort to put into different activities; for example one student might not
put any effort into their schoolwork, but may try exceptionally hard in sports, while another
student puts effort into every class but physical education. Expectancy Value Theory;
which was developed by Atkinson and built upon largely by Eccels and Wigfield, tries to
explain this concept by stating that performance and choice are most strongly influenced
by the specific understanding a person has on what they are capable of in different fields,
and on what they find important to them.78 Culture, emotion, and outside parties such
as parents or teachers have also been deemed by researchers such as Richard Pekrun to be
influential in adding value to certain activities.79

16.2.1 Wigfield and Eccels’ Model of Expectancy Value Theory

One of the most well received models of the Expectancy Value Theory was initially developed
in 1983 by Wigfield and Eccels, with the model still being further developed.80 What
makes Wigfield and Eccel’s model of Expectancy-Value Theory significant is that it easily
applicable to teaching and learning as it examines the individual more closely. As a whole,
Wigfield and Eccles’ model examines ability and expectancy beliefs and personal values
as significant to the expectancy-value theory.81 Expectancies and values are influenced by
an individual’s beliefs in their abilities, which tasks they define difficult or simple, goals,

76 Lam, S., Law, W., Chan, C., Wong, B. H., & Zhang, X. (2015). A Latent Class Growth Analysis of
School Bullying and Its Social Context: The Self-Determination Theory Perspective. School Psychology
Quarterly, 30(1), 75-90
77 Lam, S., Law, W., Chan, C., Wong, B. H., & Zhang, X. (2015). A Latent Class Growth Analysis of
School Bullying and Its Social Context: The Self-Determination Theory Perspective. School Psychology
Quarterly, 30(1), 75-90
78 Bembenutty, H. (2012). An Interview With Allan Wigfield: A Giant on Research on Expectancy-Value,
Motivation, and Reading Achievement. Journal of Advanced Academics, 23(2). 186.
79 Bembenutty, H. (2012). An Interview With Allan Wigfield: A Giant on Research on Expectancy-Value,
Motivation, and Reading Achievement. Journal of Advanced Academics, 23(2). 186.
80 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72.
81 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

and past learning.82 Expectancies and values are then in turn seen as directly influencing an
individual’s choices, performance, effort, and persistence.83 When discussing the model in
the context of schooling, Eccels and Wigfield identify four different values that are present
in the classroom.
Intrinsic Value Utility Value Attainment Value Cost
The level of enjoyment a specific activity or task gives an An individual finding a certain task or activity to have a An individual recognizing the success in a certain activity How an individual views a certain task or activity in terms
individual. 84 quality of usefulness; whether it is related to a present or as important.86 of its cons, such as if any other opportunities will be lost in
future goal, or to please parents or friends.85 the place of doing this one and the amount of effort it will
take to complete.87

These values further tie in with ability beliefs to create the certain expectancies and levels
of motivation an individual sets to a certain task. Ability Beliefs are defined as an indi-
vidual’s insight on how capable they are at certain kinds of tasks.88 Wigfeild and Eccels
state that while ability beliefs are based on present ability, expectancies are based on what
they expect of themselves in the future.89
Another important aspect of the model to examine in regards to the classroom is how a
student’s expectancies and values develop over the years, and when they start to develop.
Wigfield and Eccles state that children start recognizing what activities they are good or
bad at and what value different activities have from as early as kindergarten or grade
one.90 This includes the various domains found within a school environment, such as math,
reading, music, and sports.91 These insights on what areas they were successful in also
changes over the years as students continue learning. For example, ability and expectancy
beliefs for reading generally increase from a grade four student to a grade seven or grade
ten student,92 meaning that an individual who does not view themselves as a strong and
confident reader may eventually become confident in their reading skills.93 This is especially

82 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72.
83 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72.
84 Haichun, S., Haiyong, D., & Ang, C. (2013). NOTHING BUT BEING THERE MATTERS:
EXPECTANCY-VALUE MOTIVATION BETWEEN U.S. AND CHINESE MIDDLE SCHOOL STU-
DENTS. International Education, 42(2), 9.
85 Haichun, S., Haiyong, D., & Ang, C. (2013). NOTHING BUT BEING THERE MATTERS:
EXPECTANCY-VALUE MOTIVATION BETWEEN U.S. AND CHINESE MIDDLE SCHOOL STU-
DENTS. International Education, 42(2), 9.
86 Haichun, S., Haiyong, D., & Ang, C. (2013). NOTHING BUT BEING THERE MATTERS:
EXPECTANCY-VALUE MOTIVATION BETWEEN U.S. AND CHINESE MIDDLE SCHOOL STU-
DENTS. International Education, 42(2), 9.
87 Haichun, S., Haiyong, D., & Ang, C. (2013). NOTHING BUT BEING THERE MATTERS:
EXPECTANCY-VALUE MOTIVATION BETWEEN U.S. AND CHINESE MIDDLE SCHOOL STU-
DENTS. International Education, 42(2), 9.
88 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 70.
89 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 70.
90 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 75.
91 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 75.
92 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 75.
93 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 76.

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 Expectancy Value Theory

significant because it shows that teachers can try to help students develop their values and
expectancies in different subjects. However, an individual can also experience a decline in
their values and expectancies for different subjects.94 For example, students tend to value
math more in elementary school than they do in high school.95 Wigfield and Eccel’s model
describes that this can be due to two main reasons; first that children become better at self-
assessment through criticism and comparison and can therefore highlight weaknesses in their
abilities and in what they value.96 The second explanation is that the school environment
changes over the years of elementary and high school by becoming more competitive, which
leads to students adjusting their expectancies for achievement.97

16.2.2 Raising Value in the Classroom

A first question to ask when examining ways to increase student value towards class ma-
terial is what makes value something worth spending time on? In 2012, a research study
by Gregory Liem and Bee Leng Chua was done to examine expectancy and value in the
classroom and which were more effective in student raising motivation and performance.
The study consisted of a sample of 1664 Indonesian high school students in Civic Education
classes in West Java.98 Selected from a total of six schools, the 1664 students included 812
males and 852 females from the Year 7 to Year 12.99 In order to assess whether expectancies
or values were more influential, Liem and Chua gave the students a set of questionnaires
that assessed what the students expected from themselves in their civic education classes,
how they valued the class, their future goals, their civic capital, and factors such as gender
and school level.100 Overall, the questionnaires showed that though expectancies were effec-
tive, values had a much stronger effect on individual students’ motivation and performance
(304). This means that in a teaching setting, it is important to try to make connections
to the different values that may be present in students. As discussed earlier, Wigfield and
Eccles’ model identifies four different values; utility value, intrinsic value, attainment value,
and cost.
1. Strengthening Utility and Attainment Values
In Liem and Chua’s study, it was also found that motivation to learn and interest in material
in the civic education class were especially strong if the student’s future and career goals
were related to civic education.101 This means that as the subject material had a direct

94 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 76.
95 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 77.
96 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 77.
97 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 77.
98 Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Exper-
imental Educational Psychology, 33, 290.
99 Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Exper-
imental Educational Psychology, 33, 291.
100 Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Exper-
imental Educational Psychology, 33, 291.
101 Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Exper-
imental Educational Psychology, 33.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

quality of usefulness to those students, they possessed a higher utility value for the subject
material.102 Furthermore, the direct utility value the students shared with the material also
raised a higher attainment value, meaning that it was important for them to do well in that
class103 . Therefore an effective way to get students more motivated to engage with certain
material is to teach them why education is important, why the specific lesson is useful to
them, and how it connects to the future role they will play in society. Though university
students have a better understanding of which courses offer utility value, high school and
elementary students may need extra help from teachers to explain why the connection is
useful to them. For example, for high school students some ways to engage utility value is to
discuss any university programs or future career goals they may be interested in and make
explain how that course is relevant to them; such as explaining that a programming class
can provide a good knowledge base for any who want to go into Information technology. For
activities such as essay writing, this may make a student more eager to learn and motivate
them to do well in the class; especially as students are starting to look into universities.
Engaging utility value in elementary students may be extra beneficial for the students as
an early understanding of why education of certain material is important may increase the
students overall desire to learn and engage in schooling. As elementary teachers work more
closely with the same group of students in every subject, they have a unique opportunity to
appeal to their students as to why certain material is important. One of the best ways to
do this is to be selective of what material is chosen to teach and how to teach it while still
staying within curriculum, which can also be taken into account for high school students.
For example, Jere Brophy of the University of Michigan states there are three significant
steps that can be taken to aid in this.104

Step Significance
1. Curriculum Careful selection of curriculum to make sure ev-
Development erything the students are learning is worth learn-
ing while still following school requirements.105
2. Scaffolding Application Apply scaffolding techniques to make sure stu-
dents are given plenty of opportunities to develop
new skills and learn for themselves how to apply
what was learned while making sure they are ap-
plying their knowledge in beneficial ways.106
3. Lesson Framing Frame Lessons in a way that makes sure to ex-
plain the value and application of all material and
skills being taught. 107

102 Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Exper-
imental Educational Psychology, 33.
103 Liem, Gregory, & Chua, Bee Leung. (2013). Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Exper-
imental Educational Psychology, 33.
104 Brophy, J. (2008). Developing Students’ Appreciation for What Is Taught in School. Educational Psy-
chologist, 43(3), 132-141.
105 Brophy, J. (2008). Developing Students’ Appreciation for What Is Taught in School. Educational Psy-
chologist, 43(3), 132-141.
106 Brophy, J. (2008). Developing Students’ Appreciation for What Is Taught in School. Educational Psy-
chologist, 43(3), 132-141.
107 Brophy, J. (2008). Developing Students’ Appreciation for What Is Taught in School. Educational Psy-
chologist, 43(3), 132-141.

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 Expectancy Value Theory

Overall, explanation and understanding is the key to engaging student’s utility and attain-
ment value by having students understand how to apply the skills they are learning and
why they should want to succeed in learning them.
2. Engaging Intrinsic Value
As stated earlier, intrinsic value is the level of interest or enjoyment a student finds in lesson
material. Intrinsic Value is closely related to the Self-Determination Theory aspect of in-
trinsic motivation that was described earlier, as whenIan individual finds intrinsic value in
a task, it can become intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic value and intrinsic motivation can be
very varied depending on the individual as all individuals have their own specific interests.
This also means that what an individual finds intrinsic value in cannot be changed with
extrinsic factors. Therefore, as teachers cannot change what a student finds interest in,
one of the most effective ways for a teacher to raise student intrinsic value is to build and
maintain a good relationship with their students. Overall, studies show that an emotionally
and academically supportive teacher can lead to higher interest and intrinsic motivation,
and therefore higher academic effort. A study conducted by Julia Dietrich a, Anna-Lena
Dicke , Barbel Kracke and Peter Noack with math teachers shows how positive and nega-
tive relationships with teachers can affect both the individual and the classroom.108 On an
individual level, a supportive teacher led to higher positive associations with intrinsic value,
effort, and long-term development in math;109 while an unsupportive teacher led to a nega-
tive association and lower development. On a classroom level, a shared perception between
students of a teacher as supportive led to a positive association of class levels of intrinsic
value and motivation, with increased skill development over the year.110 However, if a
class deemed a teacher unsupportive, class levels of motivation were lowered.111 This shows
that it is overall beneficial try to provide students with emotional and academic support.
However, this is further developed by good relationships with multiple teachers, as it leads
to positive comparison.112 Dietrich et al’s paper describes this Comparative Process as
comparing one’s own achievements with their own achievements in other classes or with
other students.113 This process can also occur between experiences with other teachers. For
example, if a student finds the teacher of one grade or subject to be less supportive than

108 Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influ-
ence on students’ intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of
Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54
109 Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influ-
ence on students’ intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of
Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54
110 Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influ-
ence on students’ intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of
Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54
111 Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influ-
ence on students’ intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of
Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54
112 Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influ-
ence on students’ intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of
Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54
113 Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influ-
ence on students’ intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of
Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

another teacher, their motivation in the class of the less-supportive teacher may decrease.114
This shows that while it is important to ensure that a teacher is creating an emotionally
and academically supportive environment, it is equally important that all teachers and
staff work together to ensure that they are all setting a similar teaching standard for their
students.
3. Overcoming CostOf all of the values described in Wigfield and Eccle’s model, cost
is the most unique as it is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Though
engagement of the other values may limit the amount of negatives a student identifies
in a task by increasing its importance, many of the qualities of a task that influence an
individual student to make decisions are outside of the teachers control. This increases as
students get older and begin to be in charge of more decisions, for example a high school or
university student picking their courses. An article by Jessica Flake et al describes how cost
can be split into four identifications, Task Effort Cost, Outside Effort Cost, Loss of Valued
Alternatives Cost, and Emotional Learning Cost.115 The chart below is an adaptation of
a chart shown in Flake’s article that explains how different costs lead to different decisions
and behavior.

Figure 30 Adapted from work by Jessica Flake et al, in ”Measuring cost: The forgotten
component of expectancy-value theory”

114 Dietrich, Julia, Dicke, Anna-Lena, Kracke, Barbel, and Noack, Peter. Teacher support and its influ-
ence on students’ intrinsic value and effort: Dimensional comparison effects across subjects. Institute of
Educational Science, Jena. (2014) 45-54
115 Flake, Jessica, Barron, Kenneth, Hulleman, Christopher, McCoach, Betsy, and Welsh, Megan. ”Measuring
cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory” Contemporary Educational Psychology. 41,
232-244.

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 Expectancy Value Theory

116

Though teachers may not be able to limit what cost values a student might be influenced
by, learning how these costs affect student’s decisions can provide a deeper understanding
of why students make specific choices. This can then better prepare a teacher to cater to
the needs of individual students and identify specific problems.

16.2.3 Raising Expectancy in the Classroom

Though the Wigfield and Eccle’s model of Expectancy-Value theory focuses more strongly
on values, expectancy and ability beliefs are still fundamental the theory’s application. As
mentioned earlier, building on student values within the classroom is an effective way to
also raise expectancy. However, there are still other ways that expectancies can be built
upon. Furthermore, as expectancy and ability beliefs are considered to be more domain
specific over activity specific,117 they can be improved in a much more general way than
values. For example, one of the most applicable ways to raise expectancy in the classroom
is by building on base skills.
The Importance of Reading Programs
Improving students’ expectancy and motivation in reading is one of the most effective and
easily applied ways to increase an individual’s overall expectancy. As reading is a base
skill, a higher expectancy in reading skills can then make a student more confident in their
overall learning abilities. A study by Christopher Nkechi showed that the implication of
Extensive Reading Programs; a program that requires students to read several books
over a span of a few months, were beneficial in increasing motivation through raising self-
expectancy in reading.118 Many researchers have done studies showing that these programs
are extremely beneficial for students whose first language is not the language being taught,
with many examples using English as the second language. However, Nkechi showed that
these Extensive Reading Programs are also extremely beneficial for students who already
speak the language being taught, using native English speakers in his study.119 One of
the main aspects of the Extensive Reading Program used in Nkechi’s study was Literary
Circles. Literary Circles is a group activity that uses scaffolding strategies by assigning
each group of students with a novel to read, and then requiring each student to go through
a rotation of assigned roles.120 These roles not only encourage the students that might
otherwise be disengaged or unwilling to read the novel in order to keep up with their group,
but require the students to find meaning and message in their readings.121

116 Flake, Jessica, Barron, Kenneth, Hulleman, Christopher, McCoach, Betsy, and Welsh, Megan. ”Measuring
cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory” Contemporary Educational Psychology. 41,
232-244.
117 Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 72
118 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
119 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
120 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
121 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

For Nkechi’s study, 96 students were split into groups and rotated through three to four
novels.122 Each student was then asked to fill out a questionnaire about their expectations
for the program both before and after completion of the program. Once the students
completed their program after several months, the results showed that the program overall
raised student expectancies and beliefs in their reading ability.123 Overall, the study showed
that Extensive Reading programs help students become more capable in different aspects of
language and how to use their capabilities in different forms of media and activities.124 These
ER programs also help develop vocabulary, which is significant as in order to make sense
and meaning of texts an individual needs a 97-98% vocabulary coverage.125 Though lessons
can target and teach certain specific words, these reading programs supply students with
general vocabulary and how to recognize it.126 Extensive Reading programs also supply
a student with more exposure to grammatical laws, which can provide deeper examples
after the basics have been taught to them.127 As reading provides a base from which
to learn many different subjects, increase in expectancy in reading abilities can also help
raise expectancy in other subjects where reading in order to understand subject material
is required. Therefore, as a whole these programs are easily implemented in a classroom
and are successful in increasing students expectancies in reading and comprehension in all
subjects.

16.3 Goal Orientation Theory

Early conceptualizations of goal orientation theory are derived from James A. Eison’s work
on dimensions of student’s learning and grade orientations.128 Eison looked at the structure
of student’s educational and personal differences; he viewed them in relation to learning for
genuine acquirement of knowledge, versus performing for attaining high grades.129 Subse-
quently, Dweck postulated similar ideas categorizing mastery and performance goal orien-
tation.130 Dweck’s work established goal orientation theory as a two-dimension construct
wherein students either approach situations with the motivation to master and acquire

122 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
123 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
124 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
125 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
126 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
127 Christopher, N. M. (2014). Expectances and Outcomes of an Extensive Reading Programme Carried out
among University Students. Arab World English Journal, 5(3), 154-169.
128 Eison, J A. (1982). Educational and personal dimensions of learning and grade-oriented students. Psy-
chological Reports, 51, 867-870.
129 Eison, J A. (1982). Educational and personal dimensions of learning and grade-oriented students. Psy-
chological Reports, 51, 867-870.
130 Fan, J., Meng, H., Billings, R S., Litchfield R C., & Kaplan, I. (2008). On the role of goal orientation traits
and self-efficacy in the goal-setting process: distinctions that make a difference. Human Performance, 21,
354-382.

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new skills, or perform in order to gain approval and do better in comparison to others.131
People have different reasons for setting goals and as such, each person approaches their
goals differently. Goal-orientation theory seeks to explain the underlying implications of
motivation in academics.132 Students are categorized by their mastery goal orientations or
performance goal orientations.133 A mastery goal orientation reflects genuine purpose as
people work towards mastering a set of skills in order to accomplish a task.134 Students with
mastery goal orientations pursue goals for their own sake.135 It is important for teachers
to structure lessons that assist students in obtaining a mastery goal orientation. Teachers
can accomplish this by relating learning to personal growth and by co-constructing objec-
tives that are relevant to the student’s interests.136 Consequently, by focusing on personal
growth in the learning process, teachers can increase intrinsic motivation which activates a
mastery goal orientation.137
Studies have also found students that adopt mastery goal orientations demonstrate more
adaptive self-regulatory behaviors and social attitudes, which contribute to an increased
interest in learning.138 Teachers must be willing to continually adjust their methods and
instructions in order to create optimal learning conditions. In doing so, they create an envi-
ronment that aligns with their student’s goal orientations. The instructional approach must
avoid tasks that encourage memorization and rehearsal, for example.139 However, how can
teachers ensure their students are learning appropriate information without incorporating
tests and exams? Teachers can facilitate in-class discussions, group projects, papers, and
presentations in order to gauge the level of understanding and also the amount of content
being absorbed by students.140
Performance goal orientations highlight how well an individual can demonstrate suc-
cess in tasks and understanding.141 Performance-oriented individuals are competitive and
focused on personal gain prompted by extrinsic rewards.142 Furthermore, mastery and per-

131 Fan, J., Meng, H., Billings, R S., Litchfield R C., & Kaplan, I. (2008). On the role of goal orientation traits
and self-efficacy in the goal-setting process: distinctions that make a difference. Human Performance, 21,
354-382.
132 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
133 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
134 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
135 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
136 Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence:
Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291.
137 Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence:
Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291.
138 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
139 Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence:
Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291.
140 Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence:
Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291.
141 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
142 Leondari, A., & Gialamas, V. (2002). Implicit theories, goal orientations, and perceived competence:
Impact on students’ achievement behavior. Psychology in The Schools, 39(3), 279-291.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

formance goals can be divided into subcategories of avoidance.143 The former, describes
students who wish to avoid misunderstanding tasks, lessons, or instructions; the latter,
describes students who wish to avoid appearing incompetent during performance.144 Over-
all, students with mastery avoidance and performance avoidance goals fear failure.145
Teachers must avoid creating a class atmosphere that is high risk and high reward. That
is, they must place less emphasis on external motivation and achievement in relation to
others.146 The structure of the classroom is contingent on the teacher’s representations of
goals, values, and beliefs; for example, does the teacher focus on how well students perform
in comparison to one another, or how the students improve throughout the year?147
Students can have adaptive goal orientations because they engage in multiple goal paths.148
Studies also identify a combination of learning and performance cues that exist outside the
classroom; two prime examples are the ways in which parents and peers influence student
motivation.149 Consequently, teachers need to be aware of how parents and peers con-
tribute to shaping of a mastery goal orientation. 150 In a longitudinal study conducted
by Juyeon Song, Mimi Bong, Kyehyoung Lee, and Sung-il Kim, surveys were administered
to assess variables in learning and home environments that influenced student’s motiva-
tion; psychological attitudes students felt towards school were included in the assessment
as well.151 Subsequently, the data was used to measure the degree of perceived support
from parents and teachers; they found that certain types of support promoted different
types of goal orientations.152 Parents and teachers that stressed achievement increased test
anxiety, compared to parents and teachers who supported students with emotional encour-
agement.153 The preceding study supports the notion that teachers need to foster intrinsic

143 Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school:
Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(4), 268-279.
144 Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school:
Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(4), 268-279.
145 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
146 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
147 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
148 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
149 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
150 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
151 Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived
social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology,
107(3), 821-841.
152 Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social
support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3),
821-841.
153 Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social
support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3),
821-841.

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 Goal Orientation Theory

motivation in the classroom.154 They can do so by continuing to nurture student’s emo-

tional development so there is no discrepancy between the care and support they receive
at home and at school; in this way, teachers are also able to combine the student’s home
and school lives representing a comfortable space for students to develop their learning.155
Moreover, offering emotional support shows student’s that they are worthy of care and this
can reverse adverse effects of achievement pressure.156
Another study by Javier Fernandez-Rio, Jose A. Cecchini, and Antonio Mendez-Gimenez
tested cooperative intervention programs against traditional teaching programs in order to
find out which method generated more intrinsic motivation.157 The study participants were
university students between their early twenties and early forties.158 The participants were
split into either an experimental condition in which they were taught through cooperative
reciprocal learning, or they were placed in the control condition wherein traditional unilat-
eral instruction was applied. 159 The cooperative intervention program influenced positive
perceptions of competence and enhanced intrinsic motivation.160 In addition, cooperative
learning encouraged students to work with one another and problem solve together.161 If
applied in a classroom setting, cooperative learning supports mastery goal orientations
through peer to peer interaction as they learn to work together and not against each other;
as they are required to solve problems and work through differences to achieve a common
goal.162
Both of the studies presented above hold important implications for the classroom. Finding
the source of motivation can also assist in guiding future goals, achievement goals, social
goals, and personal well-being goals towards a more mastery oriented goal state.163 Par-

154 Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived
social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology,
107(3), 821-841.
155 Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social
support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3),
821-841.
156 Song, J., Bong, M., Lee, K., & Kim, S. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social
support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 107(3),
821-841.
157 Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on
perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education
teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71
158 Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on
perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education
teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71
159 Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on
perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education
teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71
160 Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on
perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education
teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71
161 Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on
perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education
teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71
162 Fernández-Río, J., Cecchini, J. A., & Méndez-Giménez, A. (2014). Effects of cooperative learning on
perceived competence, motivation, social goals, effort and boredom in prospective primary education
teachers. Infancia Y Aprendizaje / Journal For The Study Of Education And Development, 37(1), 57-71
163 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

ents and peers are significant influences in a student’s motivation and as such, teachers
must learn to implement their influence in the class. The studies presented above provide
teachers with strategies and techniques to approach their class with. Applying social goals
in particular, can create more opportunities for peer to peer involvement and can foster a
cooperative class climate as well.164 Feeling comfortable and connected to peers helps stu-
dents discover meaning which enhances the development of a mastery goal orientation.165
The sociocultural framework helps teachers investigate motivation through its use in cross-
cultural contexts.166 It enables teachers to identify aspects of the class climate that sustain
mastery; for example, by allocating more time for group work and discussions.167 Parent,
teacher and peer involvement are intertwined; teachers must always keep this in mind so
they can understand their students and their intentions for learning. Consequently, teachers
can support mastery by guiding future goals, achievement goals, social goals, and personal
well-being goals if they involve all aspects of the student’s home, school, and social life.168
Assessment and intervention are two methods in goal-orientation theory that can help
identify and shape the types of goal orientations that will persist in the class.169 One way
teachers can assess whether a mastery or performance goal orientation exists is by applying
interventions such as the Likert scale.170 Questionnaires help teachers get a feel for the
class’ impressions and expectations. Surveys also assist teachers in acquiring important
information about their student’s beliefs regarding success in the class.171 Teachers can use
this data to reorder their instructional process and better explain a path to meaningful suc-
cess. Surveys are beneficial because they can vary in specificity and target information.172
For example, asking students to share their aspirations and motivations can provide in-
sight into student conceptualization of the learning process and therefore, assist teachers
in setting classroom objectives that support a mastery goal orientation. In the same way
mastery goal orientations can balance performance goal orientation, qualitative methods
can complement quantitative methods.173 In applying a diverse range of methodology such
as open and structured observations, talk-aloud protocols, conversation analysis, life history

164 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
165 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
166 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
167 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
168 Wosnitza, M., & Volet, S. (2012). Editorial introduction: Multiple goals in learning contexts. Applied
Psychology: An International Review, 61(4), 513-519.
169 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
170 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
171 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
172 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
173 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.

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 Goal Orientation Theory

and ethnography, teachers can gain a fuller understanding of the nature and origins of goal
orientations.174

16.3.1 Goal Structures

There are two types of goal structures that align with the mastery and performance
goal orientations.175 The goal structure however, refers to the environment and the ways in
which outside conditions can affect student’s motivation, cognitive engagement and achieve-
ment.176 It emphasizes the specific goals to be achieved in the classroom by way of instruc-
tion and practice.177 The teacher must be cautious when organizing the curriculum as the
types of tasks delegated and marking process influence goal structure.178 In addition, the
level of freedom students are given to explore and group arrangement, both contribute to
forming a particular classroom goal structure.179
As noted above there are two types of goal structures known as mastery goal
structure and performance goal structure.180 A mastery goal structure embodies a
learner focused environment wherein the standards and policies encourage students to try
hard and do their best.181 Teachers can create a mastery goal structure through clear ex-
planations of the objectives; for instance, by telling students the purpose of performing
tasks is to expand their knowledge.182 Teachers that offer choice in their activities, such as
allowing students to pick their own essay or presentation topics, piques interest by targeting
subjects students are passionate about. Students are taught to value themselves as well as
the learning process in this way as well.183

174 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
175 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
176 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
177 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
178 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
179 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
180 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
181 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
182 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
183 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

A performance goal structure creates an atmosphere of rivalry and competition.184 Success

comes from obtaining extrinsic rewards and performing competently in various tasks.185
Teachers can better shape their classrooms by determining which goal structures foster
approach and avoidance goals.186 For example, mastery goal structures foster mastery
approach goals.187 Teachers can administer anonymous surveys and the questions can help
indicate whether students acquire more of a mastery or performance goal orientation. In
addition, because goal structures usually mirror the environmental conditions, they are
observed as impacting the specific goal orientations that students adopt.188 Applying this to
a classroom setting, teachers must remain cognizant of the goals students perceive as being
important in the class because they will correspond to their personal goal orientations.189
Research has proposed that teachers who placed higher worth on learning and working hard
resulted in students viewing their environment as mastery structured; therefore, students
were more likely to assume a mastery goal orientation.190 Teachers can implement classroom
contracts at the beginning of the school year to solidify the working conditions. Cultivat-
ing mastery goal structure enhances student drive for more challenging work and they are
better able to adapt in order to succeed.191 Students learn to effectively employ learning
strategies in the presence of mastery goal structures as well.192 Self-report measures assist
teachers in identifying connections and discrepancies within student’s goal structures and
goal orientations; they are able to analyze reported levels of choice, effort and persistence
in order to understand a student’s adaptive motivational engagement.193 Ultimately, mas-

184 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
185 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
186 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
187 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
188 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
189 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
190 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
191 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
192 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
193 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.

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 Goal Orientation Theory

tery goal structures promote mastery goal orientations that encourage intrinsic motivation,
cognitive engagement and achievement.194

16.3.2 Mastery Goal Orientation and Performance Goal Orientation

Goal orientations originate in schemas and can be made purposeful in context.195 Students
perceive cues and prompts from the situation that leads them to adopt either mastery goal
orientations or performance goal orientations.196 Asking student’s questions about their
past can trigger positive intrinsic experiences that reactivate their schemas for mastery
goals.197 By asking students to draw upon experiences of happiness and success during
their academic careers, teachers place more of an emphasis on mastery goal orientation that
can be similarly attained in the class.198 Questions that require deep reflection also help
students continually adapt and challenge their goals to coincide with their mastery goal
structures.199 Students can recognize differential emphases on mastery goal orientation and
performance goal orientation.200 Subsequently, they align their perspectives and behaviors
accordingly.201
Tasks, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time are all aspects of the class
setting that influence goal orientation.202 The following examples illustrate the implications
and relationships to instruction.
Tasks
Teachers must consider what they are asking their students to do when assigning specific
tasks.203 What is the outcome they wish to obtain? If teachers are asking students to
listen to a lecture and soon after write a quiz, students will adopt a performance goal
orientation.204 The demand level and structure of such a task places external pressure

194 Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations
to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
236-250.
195 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
196 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
197 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
198 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
199 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
200 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
201 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
202 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
203 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
204 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

on students and detracts from a meaningful experience.205 In order to prevent this from
happening, the teacher can engage students through a more flexible task structure.206 For
example, allowing students to participate in an online discussion forum allows them to go at
their own pace and use their creativity.207 Discussion forums are powerful because students
can internalize input from their peers in order to create meaning.208
Authority
Authority refers to the teacher’s dominancy or openness towards the structure of the class
rules and regulations.209 Strict regulations and rules reflect intolerance for change insin-
uating students are not active participants in decision-making for their own learning.210
However, teachers can create contracts with students in order to layout guidelines and re-
sponsibilities.211 Furthermore, instructors can assign a date in the middle of the school year
to request feedback and make revisions if necessary.212 In this way teachers demonstrate
their concern for student’s wellbeing and personal growth.213
Recognition
Recognition addresses the outcomes and actions that must be attended to in order to foster
mastery goal structures.214 Extending effort, taking risks, being creative, sharing ideas
and learning from mistakes are all acceptable and functional behaviors to encourage within
the classroom.215 In addition, teachers should express praise in private because publically
commending students can foster competition and undermine the abilities of others.216
Grouping
Grouping takes different dynamics into consideration.217 Criteria includes appreciating
differences by grouping students with different domains of interests together; in doing so,

205 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
206 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
207 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
208 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
209 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
210 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
211 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
212 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
213 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
214 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
215 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
216 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
217 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.

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 Goal Orientation Theory

students are given the opportunities to share, interact and interpret perspectives outside
their own.218 Groups represent the inherently social climate embedded in the class.219
Mastery is co-constructed as teachers and peers participate in guided meaning making.
Evaluation
Evaluation communicates much about task, teacher and overall course objectives.220 There-
fore the manner in which evaluation is carried out holds vast implications for both instruc-
tors and students.221 Teachers must avoid comparing students based on final outcomes and
they can do so by evaluating based on progress, creativity and mastery of skills.222 Much
like recognition, evaluations should also be conducted in private.223 Teachers can implement
weekly progress reports and students can track their personal growth. Allowing students to
measure their mastery of skills also allows the teacher to gauge what types of adjustments
and provisions could be offered.
Time
Time is a critical factor in establishing a mastery goal structure and mastery goal orientation
appropriately.224 Time restrictions communicate completion over quality. For this reason,
teachers should be accommodating by letting students work at their own pace.225 Teachers
must also be open to allocating time according to the level of task difficulty.226 For example,
although some students can complete their work by the end of class, other students may
feel anxious from the time pressure and thus, require more time. Moreover, teachers can
leave more class time to complete work, but allow students to take the material home as
homework if work remains incomplete.227 Mastery goal orientations maintain a stronger
motivation to learn because they nurture personal growth in the learning process while
fostering an ongoing desire to improve.228
Tasks Authority Recognition Grouping Evaluation Time
Allowing student to choose their own topics for Instructor is open to collaborating with Identifying creativity and learning from Grouping by diversity; pairing students with a Holistic approach reviewing progress and Allocating an adequate amount of time for
research students mistakes variety of learning strategies development; encouraging reflection learning and structuring knowledge

218 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
219 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
220 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
221 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
222 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
223 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
224 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
225 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
226 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
227 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
228 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educa-
tional Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

16.3.3 Mastery Avoidance and Performance Avoidance

Mastery avoidance goals and performance avoidance goals are concerned with the
image one reflects.229 For example, students with a desire to avoid performing poorly and
appearing incompetent in comparison to others are concerned with performance avoidance
goals; whereas, students concerned with mastery avoidance goals strive to avoid misunder-
standing the task or material presented.230 Performance avoidance goals have been tied
to negative outcomes and low achievement.231 Generally, performance orientations are less
adaptive than mastery orientations regardless of the approach or avoidance orientation that
results.232 Moreover, in relation to the self, performance avoidance goals are associated with
negative emotions and overall, wellbeing. Subsequently, students characterized by mastery
avoidance fear becoming incompetent as a task and strive to evade it at all costs.233 Akin to
performance avoidance goals, findings have revealed that mastery avoidance goals are also
linked to maladaptive outcomes including poor implementation of cognitive strategies and
procrastination.234 It is not enough to encourage mastery goal structures and mastery goal
orientations in the class; teachers must also understand the roles that avoidance orientations
play and their implications for instruction.

16.4 Summary of Motivation

The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate how motivation can be increased in the
classroom through certain popular theories such as the Self-Determination Theory, the
Expectancy Value Theory, and the Goal Orientation Theory. In general, we can see that a
good reason to encourage intrinsic motivation is because it leads to increased levels in both
psychological health and academic success. Setting the context for learning is an important
aspect of the teaching environment because it influences the goals set out for the class.
Encouraging intrinsic motivation supports student’s genuine purpose and passion to master
skills. In the self-determination theory we saw that intrinsic motivation is triggered once
students feel fulfilled in three psychological needs which are autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. In the expectancy value theory we looked at how a student’s performance and

229 Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school:
Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(4), 268-279.
230 Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school:
Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(4), 268-279.
231 Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school:
Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(4), 268-279.
232 Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school:
Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(4), 268-279.
233 Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school:
Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(4), 268-279.
234 Madjar, N., Kaplan, A., & Weinstock, M. (2011). Clarifying mastery-avoidance goals in high school:
Distinguishing between intrapersonal and task-based standards of competence. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(4), 268-279.

236
 Suggested Reading

choice are influenced by what they expect of themselves as well as what they value. More
importantly, we look at how to increase expectancy and value in the classroom in order
to raise motivation. In the goal-orientation theory we saw that evaluations hold important
implications in the classroom by allowing time for reflection on the development of mastery.
Through this chapter we hope that present and future educators can use these applications
as a way to increase motivation in the class.

16.5 Suggested Reading

Motivational Beliefs, Values, and Goals

Eccles, Jacquelynne, & Wigfield, Allan. (2002). Motivational Beliefs, Values, and Goals.
Annual review of Psychology, 53. 109-132.
Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation
Wigfield, Allan, & Eccles, Jacquelynne. (2000). Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement
Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 68-81.
The Contributions and Prospects of Goal Orientation Theory
Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The Contributions and Prospects of Goal Orientation
Theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141-184.
Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orien-
tations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement
Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and
Goal Orientations to Predict Students’ Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250.
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Goal Contents in Self-Determination Theory: An-
other Look at the Quality of Academic Motivation.”
Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in
self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational
Psychologist, 41(1), 19-31. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4101_4

16.6 Glossary

Ability Beliefs: Ability Beliefs are the beliefs an individual has on how capable they are
at certain kinds of tasks.
Attainment Value: Attainment Value is the value an individual finds in a certain task or
activity from recognizing that success in that activity is important to them.
Autonomy: Autonomy is the ability to be self regulated and self initiating of ones’ own
behaviour and actions.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET): The Cognitive Evaluation Theory is a sub section
of the Self Determination Theory that was presented by Deci and Ryan (1985). It states

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

that any event that becomes interpersonal or relational, and helps to promote the feeling
of both competence and autonomy, will in turn cause intrinsic motivation.
Competence: Competence is the ability to attain different outcomes both externally and
internally by using the environment they are surrounded by.
Cost: Cost is the negative qualities that an individual attaches to certain activities or tasks.
Examples of this include missed opportunities from selection of that task over others, and
the amount of effort the activity will take.
Curriculum Development: Curriculum Development is the careful selection of curricu-
lum and content to ensure that everything students are being asked to learn is worth
learning.
Expectancy Value Theory: Expectancy Value Theory is a theory first developed by
Atkinson that defines performance and choice as being influenced by the certain values and
self-expectations an individual has for certain activities.
Extensive Reading Programs: Extensive Reading Programs are programs that require
students to read several books over a span of a few months, and are beneficial in increasing
motivation through raising self-expectancy in reading.
Goal-Orientation Theory: Goal-orientation theory explains the reasons and choices indi-
viduals make that maintain motivation. The theory states that individuals have two major
goal orientations; mastery goal orientations and performance goal orientations.
Goal Structure: Goal structures embody the learning environment. Goal structures are
shaped by the language used by an instructor, the assigned tasks, and the incentives em-
ployed to facilitate learning.
Intrinsic Value: Intrinsic Value is the level of enjoyment and interest an individual finds
in a specific activity or task.
Lesson Framing Lesson Framing is the structuring of lessons in a way that makes sure to
explain the value and application of all material and skills being taught.
Literary Circles: Literary Circles is a method used in Extensive Reading Programs that
uses scaffolding strategies by splitting students into groups, assigning each group of students
with a novel to read, and then requiring each student to go through a rotation of assigned
roles. Each group typically reads more than one novel together.
Mastery Avoidance: Mastery avoidance is the desire to avoid misunderstanding tasks and
information.
Mastery Goal Orientation: Mastery goal orientation focuses on intrinsic growth and
development. Individuals who acquire a mastery goal orientation are genuinely motivated
and value the learning process.
Mastery Goal Structure: Mastery goal structures influence mastery goal orientations.
Mastery goal structures foster learner focused environments based on intrinsic motivation.
Performance Avoidance: Performance avoidance is the desire to avoid performing poorly
and appearing incompetent in comparison to others.

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 Attribution Theory

Performance Goal Orientation: Performance goal orientation focuses on extrinsic re-

wards such as grades, prizes, and praise. Individuals who acquire a performance goal
orientation only wish to appear competent in relation to others.
Performance Goal Structure: Performance goal structures influence performance goal
orientations. Performance goal structures foster competitive environments based on extrin-
sic reward.
Relatedness: Relatedness is the level of connection one feels from their social environment.
Scaffolding Application: Scaffolding Application is the application of scaffolding tech-
niques to ensure that students are given opportunities to develop new skills and learn for
themselves how to apply the skills they have learned.
The Self- Determination Theory: Self- Determination Theory , first introduced by
Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, and is a sub section of motivation that primarily
looks at two different types of motivation. It states that each type of motivation is built
upon a reason or goal that eventually develops into a certain behaviour.
Utility Value: Utility value an individual finds in a task or activity related to the degree
to which an individual finds a certain task or subject to be useful to any short term or long
term goals.
Wigfield and Eccles’ Model of Expectancy Value Theory: Wigfield and Eccles’
model of the Expectancy-Value theory states that expectancies and values are influenced
by an individual’s beliefs in their abilities, which tasks they define difficult or simple, goals,
and past learning.
This chapter examines the role of attribution and emotion in teaching and learning. We will
be discussing attribution theory, the four stages of the attributional process, methods for
helping students cope with emotions, attributional retraining and implications for instruc-
tion. Any event that occurs in our everyday lives can be interpreted in a variety of ways,
depending on what we identify as the cause of the event. Our causal attributions have con-
sequences for our emotions and behaviours which, in turn, affect learning and achievement.
Attribution theory classifies emotions and links them to types of attributions. As educators,
we can take our student’s affective and behavioural responses into consideration to ensure
that they know how to cope with their emotions. In addition to our student’s emotions, we
should also be aware of our own feelings and how they are expressed towards our students.
Attribution theory can be applied in the classroom environment by providing attributional
retraining to students identify and change their maladaptive attributional responses.

16.7 Attribution Theory

We often come across events in our lives that can be interpreted in several different ways.
The explanation that we come up with to describe the cause of an event is referred to as
an attribution. 235 The way an event is attributed causes us to react with a variety of
responses. To study how people interpret events taking place in their lives, researchers

235 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education

239
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

use attribution theory. Attribution theory gives insight into why people have different
responses to the same outcomes.
To illustrate the theory, imagine that two students take a math test and both end up
receiving 60 percent. One student is very disappointed with herself and vows to create a
study group in order to earn a better grade for the next test. She also goes to her teacher for
extra help. The second student is angry when she sees her test grade and goes to her friends
to see how they did. When she discovers that a few of her friends also performed poorly,
she attributes her failure to a poorly written test. Although the outcomes of the situation
are the same for both students, the way they interpret and respond to the experience is
very different. Later on in the chapter, we will take a more in-depth look into how different
attributions affect the way we cope with failure. We can gain a deeper understanding of
why people make specific attributions, what the most common attributions are, what types
of affective responses are elicited and the effect that attributional judgments have on our
behaviour by studying the attributional process.

16.8 Importance of Attributions as a Predictor of How

People Cope with Failure

The significance of attributions is highlighted in the study ”Importance of Attributions as

a Predictor of How People Cope with Failure” done by Follette and Jacobson. 236 The
purpose of this study is to replicate and expand on the research of Metalsky et al. (1982),
which focuses on the reformulated learned helplessness model (RHL). Measuring general
attributional style, specific attributions for examination performance and the prediction of
motivational deficits, this study aims to emphasize the significance of attributions to help
predict how people cope with failure in a classroom setting. We will be referring back to
this study throughout the attribution theory section of this chapter.
One hundred and ten subjects from an upper division, undergraduate psychology course
participated in the study. There were 28 men and 82 women. The participants were asked
to complete the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, 1967), the Expanded Attributional
Style Questionnaire (EASQ; Peterson & Seligman, 1984) and an additional questionnaire
including the following questions: “What grade do you expect to get on the next exam?”,
“What grade would make you happy?” and “What grade would make you unhappy?” The
questionnaire period was labelled as Time 1. Following this, the students completed an
adjective checklist (Zuckerman & Lubin, 1965). It was used to assess three types of moods,
including anxiety, hostility and depression. This assessment took place 12 days after Time
1 and 2 days before the actual examination. Seven days after Time 2, students completed
the last step in the study, designated as Time 3. Their actual examination grades were
returned along with the final package of questionnaires. The package included the checklist
for assessing mood, two forms soliciting the students’ attributions for their examination
performance, a questionnaire asking about their future plans to help prepare the next ex-
amination and a request asking them to report their actual grade. The study concluded
with a final debriefing of the participants.

236 Follette, V. M., & Jacobson, N. S. (1987). Importance of attributions as a predictor of how people cope with
failure. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 52(6), 1205-1211. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1205

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 Importance of Attributions as a Predictor of How People Cope with Failure

The materials used in this study include the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire,
Mood Affect Adjective Check List, Exam attributional measures and the Planned Be-
haviours Questionnaire.
The EASQ distributed to the students measures attributional style for negative hypothetical
events. The participants were asked to imagine themselves in each situation and write
down a possible cause for the event. There was an equal distribution of both affiliative and
achievement situations. Examples include, “You have been looking for a job unsuccessfully
for some time” and “You meet a friend who acts hostilely to you”. The participants were
then asked to rate the cause of each situation using a 7-point Likert scale. The first three
dimensions are internal-external (ranging from completely due to others to completely due
to my own efforts), stable-unstable (ranging from will never be present again to will always
be present) and global-specific (ranging from influences only this situation to influences all
situations). Peterson and Seligman added a fourth dimension, control-no control that asked
subjects of the study to rate the degree of control that they believed they would have in
each event. The calculated score of this study was only based on the first three scales.
The Mood Affect Adjective Check List Today Form (MAACL; Zuckerman & Lubin, 1965)
is comprised of 132 items that are used to detect the subjects’ moods based on three
dimensions: depression, anxiety and hostility. In addition to measuring depressed mood at
one point in time, the MAACL was also used to assess the change in participants’ mood
over a short period of time in this study.
Students’ attributions for their grade on the examination were measured in two ways.
Firstly, participants were given an indirect probe, which requested that they list their
thoughts and feelings about their performance on the exam. There were several boxes on
the form, in each of which subjects were asked to list one thought or feeling. The partici-
pants were told that they did not have to fill in all the boxes. This method of examining
attributions allowed for more spontaneous thinking and was potentially less reactive com-
pared to some of the instruments traditionally used in attribution research. For the second
part of the exam attributional measures, the subjects were then asked to rate the cause
of their examination performance with the Likert ratings that were used in the EASQ.
The cause of the event was rated on the four dimensions: internal-external, stable-unstable,
global-specific, and control-no control dimensions. For each of the student’s responses to the
indirect probe, two trained undergraduate coders rated whether an attributional thought
was developed. Statements that explained possible causes for a participant’s examination
performance were coded as attributions. Examples include: “The test was deceptively easy,”
“My score reflected the fact that I had two midterms and an assignment due on the same
day,” and “I should study harder.”
The Planned Behaviours Questionnaire (PBQ) was designed by the authors specifically to
use in this study. Participants were asked to give an estimate of the number of hours they
spent studying for the examination they had just completed. Following this, they were then
asked to estimate the number of hours they intended to spend studying in preparation for
the next exam. Finally, the questionnaire was concluded with this final question: “Do you
intend to do anything different from what you did to prepare for this exam when studying for
any future exams in this class? “Please list anything new that you plan to do in preparation
for the next exam” The new behaviours listed were counted to see how many participants
chose the same method in order to study for the next exam in this class.

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The regression analyses of the study were comprised of several factors. The preexamination
MAACL depression score was a covariate that was entered in into the equation first. Next,
the degree of stress was added into the equation. This variable was the difference between
the score that would make the participant happy and the actual examination grade that they
received, based on the traditional 0.0-4.0 grading scale. The greater the discrepancy between
the two grades, the higher the stress score the participant received. The third component
that was entered into the equation was the composite attributional style variable. This
variable was calculated by taking the sum of internal-external, stable-unstable and global
specific dimensions for hypothetical situations on the EASQ. The final and most important
component entered into the equation was the product vector of the interaction between
attributional style and stress level to test the diathesis-stress model of depressed mood.
Table 1 and Table 2 can be found with the study here. 237
Additional results of the study showed that under high stress conditions, the tendency to
make internal, stable and global attributions resulted in greater depression. For students
that received a grade within close proximity to the grade that would make them happy,
their attributional styles did not have an effect on their mood. Because no correlation was
found between the attributions made for hypothetical events and real life stressors, a similar
correlation was calculated for the study. The results showed that only the attributions made
based on real life situations were useful in explaining variability in mood.

16.9 The Four Stages of the Attributional Process

The attributional process is comprised of four main components. One is outcome evalu-
ation, the process of determining whether or not an outcome is favoured. The second is
attributional responses, the explanations we attribute to causing the result. The third is
affective responses, the emotional responses that follow the interpretation of the outcome
and the last is behavioural responses, the course of action that we take to respond to the
experience. One main aspect of the attributional process to keep in mind is that specific
events do not trigger behavioural reactions directly. These responses only take place af-
ter the outcome is cognitively interpreted. All four of these stages can be observed in the
previously mentioned study.

16.9.1 Outcome Evaluation

Outcome evaluation refers to the process by which we determine whether an outcome is

desired or not. These evaluations are based on several criteria. One is the individual’s
prior history to encountering similar outcomes. An example of this could be a student
that consistently excels in math class, but receives an average test score on his final exam.
He could interpret this outcome as undesirable. Another aspect of outcome evaluation is
performance feedback. A student that falls below a pre-established standard may view
his performance as unfavourable. Evaluations of various outcomes are also dependent on
the characteristics of the person, such as the need for success, the perceived value of the

237 Follette, V. M., & Jacobson, N. S. (1987). Importance of attributions as a predictor of how people cope with
failure. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 52(6), 1205-1211. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1205

242
 The Four Stages of the Attributional Process

task and the expectations of others. The final standard for outcome evaluation is based on
cues from others. When a student regularly exceeds expectations, submitting an average
assignment may be deemed unfavourable by their teacher, while his classmates can turn in
work of the same quality and receive praise from the teacher. 238 These four components
make up the criteria for outcome evaluation. Using our previous example from above, we
can say that both of the students deemed their math test outcome unfavourable, leading
them to make their own attributional responses.

16.9.2 Attributional Responses

The second step of the attributional process is explaining the outcome with a particular
cause. Follette and Jacobson’s study shows examples of various attributional styles using
the hypothetical situations of the EASQ and the exam attributional measures. Examples
from the study show attributions based on internal and external sources, stable and unstable
conditions and global-specific influences. We can also consider our previous example. Upon
seeing her mediocre test mark, the first student attributes her poor performance to her lack
of preparedness. The second student responds by putting the blame on the quality of the
test written by her teacher. The difference in the two students’ responses can be better
explained by the locus of control.

Locus of Control

Attributional responses are interpreted in three dimensions. The first dimension is the
locus of control, which defines the outcome as being caused by an internal or external
source. 239 One example of an internal cause is mood. The performance of a student can be
affected by mood, which is controlled by the student himself. An external variable affecting
performance may be the student’s parents. This is an example of an external variable
because the student’s parents have an effect on his performance but the student himself
has no control over the situation. In reference to the study, both internal and external
attributions were made about the students’ examination scores. One student attributes
their score to having two midterms and an assignment due on the same day. This student
attributes their failure to an external source rather than considering a lack of preparedness.
An example of an internal cause from the study is a student that attributes their below
average test score to the minimal effort that they put into studying for the exam.

Stability

The second dimension of attributional responses is stability. It is defined by how consistent

the factor is when encouraging success. Various aspects of performance such as ability, effort
and luck can be ranked in terms of how stable each condition is. The dimension of stability
is frequently connected to a person’s expectancy of success. If a student attributes their

238 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education
239 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

success to a typically stable variable such as ability, it is highly plausible that past success
will occur again. On the other hand, if a student attributes their success to a more random
cause such as luck, there is a much smaller chance of seeing repeated success. Participants
of the study were asked to rate the cause of an event ranging from never being present again
to always being the reason for this situation to occur.

Controllability

Controllability is the third and final dimension of the attributional responses. It describes
the degree to which the individual can influence the cause behind the outcome. Several
factors such as effort and strategy use can be highly controlled whereas ability and interest
are considered less controlled. Uncontrollable causes, such as the difficulty of a task and
luck do not contribute to an individual’s repeated success. There is a strong connection
between the controllability dimension and the amount of effort and persistence an individual
puts into completing a task. Outcomes deemed more uncontrollable tend to encourage
anxiety and avoidance strategies while more controlled variables can lead to increased effort
and persistence.that appear from the matrix can elicit numerous affective and behavioural
responses.

16.9.3 Affective Responses

The various attributional combinations that result from the three dimensions produce differ-
ent, though highly predictable emotional responses. The locus of control is most commonly
linked to the affective response an individual experiences after a specific outcome. Drawing
back on our previous example, the first student attributes her poor performance to lack of
preparedness, which is an internal cause involving the amount of effort put into the task.
This results in the student feeling a sense of disappointment or shame because effort is a
controllable factor. With these same conditions, pity is most appropriate to be elicited by
others. In contrast, the second student interprets her mediocre grade as being caused by an
external factor. She experiences anger because the situation has external, controllable and
stable causes. Other combinations of the three dimensions can produce different results.
For a student feeling gratitude, it is most likely due to an external, uncontrollable and
unstable factor such as an easy test. For all the emotional responses that are elicited, they
are followed by a behavioural course of action. Follette and Jacobson’s study showed that
participants displayed feelings of disappointment following the reveal of their exam scores.

16.9.4 Behavioural Responses

The understanding of an outcome determines what an individual will do after the situation
is interpreted. For attributions in which the locus of control is the prominent dimension,
the individual elicits internal feelings of confidence, satisfaction and pride. The behavioural
responses resulting from an external locus are help seeking in a positive manner, learned
helplessness, avoidance, and lack of persistence when the situation is interpreted negatively.
With attributions critically relating to stability, the behavioural response elicited commonly
results in higher success expectancies. In turn, the individual develops higher levels of task
engagement, seeks out challenges more often and performs to a higher standard. When

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 Emotions

attributions are more closely linked to controllability, the individual becomes more persistent
and puts in a greater amount of effort to complete a task. The two students from our
above example display contrasting behavioural responses to their same outcome. The first
student vows to put in more work to receive the grade she deserves. In the future, if she
succeeds in earning a higher grade on her next math test, she can attribute her success
to her increased effort and persistence. In turn she will feel more confident and proud of
her abilities. For the second student, her attributions cause her to feel anger due to an
external source. Because her interpretation of the event is negative, it is highly predictable
that she will develop a sense of learned helplessness, become avoidant towards taking math
tests and lack persistence in preparing for test taking. Drawing on the study ”Importance
of Attributions as a Predictor of How People Cope with Failure,” students showed different
behavioural responses based on what they attributed their test scores to. Responses from
the study included: ”I will ask the teacher what I did wrong,” ”I plan to do the reading
earlier in preparation for the next exam,” and ”I will stay on campus to study with my
friends that are also in the class.” 240 These are some of the behavioural responses that can
occur due to a variety of attributions.

16.10 Emotions

Emotion is a state of feelings. It represents human reactions and responses to the stimuli.
241 It can foster humans well-being, or can contribute to psychological and physical function.

There are two main types of emotions that can be classified: positive emotions and negative
emotions. Positive emotions can include happiness, compassion, gratitude, hope, interest,
enjoyment, joy, love and pride. 242 Whereas negative emotions can include anger, fear,
disgust, sadness, anxiety, shame, hopelessness and boredom. 243 These two emotions both
consist of a pattern of cognitive, physiological and behavioural reactions to events that
have relevance to important goals such as learning. In order to understand the reason why
people respond to learning differently, we could look at the impact of emotions. There are
four types of components: attribution response, emotion, learning and achievement. We
will first look at how emotion is a response to learning, and vice versa. Different learning
patterns, styles and outcomes that people are attributing will represent different emotions.
Also, different emotions will impact different academic achievements.

Positive Emotions Negative Emotions

happiness sadness
joy fear
gratitude disgust
hope hopelessness

240 Follette, V. M., & Jacobson, N. S. (1987). Importance of attributions as a predictor of how people
cope with failure. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 52(6), 1205-1211. doi:10.1037/0022-
3514.52.6.1205
241 Valiente, C., Swanson, J., & Eisenberg, N. (2011). Linking Students’ Emotions and Academic Achieve-
ment: When and Why Emotions Matter. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 129-135.
242 Valiente, C., Swanson, J., & Eisenberg, N. (2011). Linking Students’ Emotions and Academic Achieve-
ment: When and Why Emotions Matter. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 129-135.
243 Valiente, C., Swanson, J., & Eisenberg, N. (2011). Linking Students’ Emotions and Academic Achieve-
ment: When and Why Emotions Matter. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 129-135.

245
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

Positive Emotions Negative Emotions

interest anxiety
enjoyment boredom
pride anger

16.10.1 Attribution and Learning about Emotions

Learning and Emotion

In the Learning Theory, it states that effective learning is depending on emotional re-
sponses. In different learning environment and situations, it will trigger different emotions
in learning. Individuals differ in emotional responses to situations. When the learners are
feeling comfortable and in control with the learning environment, learners will have a bet-
ter performance. It is because the learners would adapt the environment when they are
learning. They would feel comfortable and help increase the learning process. In contrast,
if learners are feeling uncomfortable and not in control of the environment, the learner will
not perform as well. 244 It is because the learners can not adapt the learning environment
while learning, which negatively affects the learning process. Therefore, they may perform
worse. In the learning environment, it is necessary to have certain emotions present: Learn-
ers must be able to control and overcome negative emotions like fear, anxiety and sadness.
Therefore, positive emotions such as the sense of accomplishment and enthusiasm can be
increased. It is because negative emotions are negatively affecting the learning and positive
emotions are positively affecting the learning. This mean that, positive emotions are more
likely to achieve higher academic performance while negative emotions are more likely to
achieve lower academic performance.
In a study of The relations between students’ approaches to learning, experienced emotions
and outcomes if learning, it stated that there is a relationship between the emotions and
academic performance in students experience. 245 The sample of this study was studying
the first year biology course in University of Sydney. They are all age 18 to 25 years. The
participants took the The Revised Study Process Questionnaire to self-report their learning
strategy and learning motives. The researchers linked emotions with intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation, which are associated to learning performance. The study showed that students
with anger and boredom avoided engaging in learning the resulting learning outcome. Also,
students with anxiety and shame reduced their intrinsic motivation in learning activities
that lower their academic achievement. Students who were angry and frustrated were less
likely to adopt strategies in learning and have a more negative learning outcome. In contrast,
all students with positive emotions engaged in learning, being motivation during activities
and adopted strategies in learning, which have a more positive learning outcome. This
means that, motivation and self-efficacy are also related the students’ emotions in learning.
The following table shows different emotions affect learning patterns and styles and results
different learning outcomes in the study.

244 Zahed-Babelan, A., & Moenikia, M. (2010). The role of emotional intelligence in predicting students’
academic achievement in distance education system. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 1158-
1163.
245 Trigwell, K., Ellis, R., & Han, F. (2011). The relations between students’ approaches to leaning, experi-
enced emotions and outcomes if learning’ Studies in Higher Education, 37(7), 811-824.

246
 Emotions

Emotions Learning patterns and Learning outcomes

styles
Pride, hope, confidence, enjoy- increase academic performance
ment, optimistic and proud • prepare the assessment for the
course
• contribute course materials
• make sure everything is going
well for the course
• feeling pride and confident of
the result
• follow the progress in the
course

Frustration, anger and boredom decrease academic performance

• feeling bored of the course
• get angry with the course
• get annoyed when trying the
learning activities for the
course

Anxiety and shame decrease academic performance

• ashamed thinking for the as-
sessment
• become panicky about the
course
• feeling embarrassed for not
contributing to learning activ-
ities
• ashamed of not preparing for
course
• do not contribute to class
discussion
• do not ask question during
class

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

Figure 31 A graph of emotion and academic achievement. As students

experienced more positive emotion, their academic achievement will increase.
While students experienced more negative emotions, their academic
achievement will decrease.

Attribution and Emotion

Rainer Reisenzein, a psychologist in University of Greifswald, who interests in computa-

tional belief-desire theory of emotion. He focuses research on theoretical and empirical
questions related to emotion and motivation by interdisciplinary orientation toward philos-
ophy and cognitive science. In one of his attributional approach studies, he addresses that
our belief is based on the causes of the events that determine emotion and behaviors. He
also states that the attributional theory of emotion provides a cognitive analysis for the
cause of emotions. The appraisal dimensions related to causal attribution is also gener-
ally the appraisal theory of emotion. 246 Different from other cognitive appraisal theories,
the attributional theory of emotion provides not just the analysis of the cognitive causes
of emotions, but also emphasizes the effects of the emotions, especially focusing on the
functional effects in emotions. There are two effects in emotions. First, the motivational
emotion effect. It means that emotions evoke people’s action tendencies to the situation
as appraised. Second, the communicative emotion effect. It means the emotions provide
information about people’s experiences in situation appraisals and action tendencies to the
environment. 247 It can show that attribution is related to emotions. Moreover, the impact
of attributions and emotions are connected in learning behavior, which in turn, influences

246 Reisenzein, R. (2014). The Attributional Approach to Emotion and Motivation: Introduction to a Special
Section of Emotion Review. Emotion Review, 6(4), 332-335.
247 Reisenzein, R. (2014). The Attributional Approach to Emotion and Motivation: Introduction to a Special
Section of Emotion Review. Emotion Review, 6(4), 332-335.

248
 Emotions

subsequent academic achievement. Self-control is one of the characteristic in attribution.

Individual differences in self-control associates different self-regulatory abilities. It is de-
fined as the capacity to modify one’s internal responses of impulses, emotions, thought and
behaviors. 248 The conceptualization of self-control guides individuals towards goals and
standards. This mean that, self-control can alter learners to achieve their desired goals. 249
In King et al’s 2014 study, it investigated how self-control is related to students’ experience
of academic emotions by taking individual differences for the examination. It found that
self-control is positively predicts positive academic emotions. Having higher self-control can
predict more positive emotions, with better engagement and higher achievement in school.
In the Control-Value Theory, control and values-related appraisals are the predictors of
achievement emotions. When learners have a high control-related appraisal and high
value-related appraisal, they will be more likely to experience positive academic emotions.
When learner has a low control-related appraisal and low value-related appraisal, they will
be more likely to experience negative academic emotions. 250 . Figure 1 shows the basic
propositions of the control-value theory.
Furthermore, self control has proved that it can be a negative predictor of behavioral and
emotional disaffection. It can inhibit learners to display disengaged behaviors and emotions.
This means that self-control had a direct affect on academic achievement, which will be
discussed later.

Figure 32 Fig. 1 Basic propositions of Control-Value theory of achievement emotions

248 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.
249 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.
250 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.

249
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

16.10.2 Emotions and Attributional Responses

Different attributions in individual can predict emotions. A study from Follette and Jacob-
son shows that different learning styles and patterns that attribute to examination could
predict emotion reactions. 251 They examined that the causal attributions were predictive
of depressed mood in college students who experienced the negative event. They found that
internal, global and stable attributional responses have a tendency toward depression. 252
In order to understand how emotions and attributional responses are related, individuals
need to understand more about their own self. 253
In 2006, Bar-On addressed that understanding of yourself and others, relating well to peo-
ple and adapting to attribute with the immediate surroundings will help you to be more
successful in dealing with environmental demands. Adapting attribution associates to our
emotional intelligence (EI). Emotional Intelligence is an ability to monitor one’s own
and other people’s emotions. It can discriminate different emotions and label them appro-
priately and to use the emotional information to guide thinking and behavior. 254 There are
three components that contribute to EI: persistent effort, locus of control and self-efficacy.
If learners are high in these three components, they will have a high EI and they will more
likely to be successful. In contrast, if learners are low in those three components, they will
have a low EI and they will more likely to have failure and emotion problem. To maintain
and develop a high EI, learners can focus on their stress management, which is emotional
management and regulation. 255 There are two elements in stress management: stress tol-
erance and impulse control. Learners need to manage and control emotions effectively and
constructively to achieve the stress management.
Attributions vary along three dimensions: locus of control, stability and controllability.
Each dimension is related with a type of affective response. Different combinations of the
dimension will have different emotional reactions. 256 This means that, different combi-
nations in attributions dimensions will result different emotions. In Weiner’s attribution
theory, the three dimensions shows different emotion results. For example, internal, con-
trollable and stable factors will experience pride and confidence; external, uncontrollable
and unstable factors will experience gratitude; external, controllable and stable will cause
anger; and internal, uncontrollable and stable will cause a feeling of shame. As different
attributional responses will cause different emotions, in turn, it is affecting the academic
achievement as well. The following table shows attributional dimension emotions.

251 Follette, V., & Jacobson, N. (1987). Importance of attributions as a predictor of how people cope with
failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1205-1211.
252 Follette, V., & Jacobson, N. (1987). Importance of attributions as a predictor of how people cope with
failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1205-1211.
253 Zahed-Babelan, A., & Moenikia, M. (2010). The role of emotional intelligence in predicting students’
academic achievement in distance education system. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 1158-
1163.
254 Zahed-Babelan, A., & Moenikia, M. (2010). The role of emotional intelligence in predicting students’
academic achievement in distance education system. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 1158-
1163.
255 Zahed-Babelan, A., & Moenikia, M. (2010). The role of emotional intelligence in predicting students’
academic achievement in distance education system. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 1158-
1163.
256 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, Fifth Edition.
Pearson.

250
 Emotions

Figure 33 Different combinations of attributional dimension results different emotions.

16.10.3 Emotion and Academic Achievement

Emotion and psychological state can determine learning productivity. Higher learning pro-
ductivity will more likely to have a more positive emotion. 257 As positive emotions can
stimulate self-motivation, it is saying that learner’s self-control would be stimulated as well.
258 Learners that have a higher self-control are more successful in school because it is also

relating how learners feel in school, and which of the emotions are affecting school activities.
259 In addition, to study the relationship between emotions and academic achievement, aca-

demic emotions are involved. Academic emotions are identified in enjoyment, hope, pride,
anger, anxiety, shame, boredom and hopelessness. 260 Different emotions can be classi-
fied into different valence and activation circumstances. Positive-activating emotions are
enjoyment, hope and pride; the positive-deactivating emotion is relief; negative-activating
emotions are anger, hope and pride; and negative-deactivating emotions are hopelessness
and boredom.
Emotions can also facilitate academic engagement, which in turn, influences subsequent
academic achievement. 261 Positive emotions are more likely to increase learning engage-
ment, which is positively to achieve a higher academic grade. In contrast, negative emotions
are more likely to be disengaged from schooling process, which is negatively to receive a

257 Matuliauskaite, A., & Zemeckyte, L. (2011). Analysis of interdependencies between students’ emotions,
learning productivity, academic achievements and physiological parameters. Science - Future of Lithuania,
3(2), 51-56.
258 Matuliauskaite, A., & Zemeckyte, L. (2011). Analysis of interdependencies between students’ emotions,
learning productivity, academic achievements and physiological parameters. Science - Future of Lithuania,
3(2), 51-56.
259 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.
260 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.
261 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.

251
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

lower academic grade. 262 Learners who passively withdraw and feel boredom and anxiety
in school will increase disaffection. Therefore, they will be more likely to experience low
academic achievement. Emotions and academic achievement have a direct relation. Rea-
son why learners who experience low school outcome are because their negative emotions
promote withdrawal and disengagement in school. As learners who experience positive emo-
tions will engage in their studies, which is beneficial to their academic career. However,
there are exceptions too. Emotions and academic achievement can be affected inversely.
King et al.’s study examined the possibility that positive emotions lower academic achieve-
ment. There is a diminishing return on emotions and achievement. When the learner’s
positive emotions achieved to the optimal level of academic score, his or her academic
achievement will return to the marginal. However, differences are individual as different
people experiences different circumstances. 263 Moreover, a study found that students in
China who dispose negative emotions such as anger would increase their grade point average
(GPA). Yet, there are no relation between anger and GPA. 264 Furthermore, lacking school
attention has shown that positive emotions would increase. However, the experimenter ex-
plained that positive emotions are difficult to recognize. Even though experiments can be
recorded in a digital way, many positive emotions share a similar facial expression. There
are no significant differences that can be recognize in positive emotions, as a result, the
outcome might not be accurate. Also, many studies stated that positive emotions usually
appear after a solving problem task, which people are less likely to be aware of. Negative
emotions are generally to be viewed as more troublesome in children’s development and
functioning. This is saying that, negative emotions are more likely to have investigating
attention.
In conclusion, emotion is associated with academic competences. Individual differences
in emotions are engaging into different attribution styles. Self-control, self-motivation,
engagement, locus of control and stability are affecting learners and which behaviors they
present. Positive emotions are more likely to increase academic achievement, while negative
emotions are less likely to decrease academic achievement. Emotions are related to academic
success because it contains a useful information to guide and predict cognition and actions.
In addition, to help low academic achievement learners to improve their learning, educators
should encourage students to minimize the experiences of negative emotions. Students
should engage in positive thinking to attribute for their academic styles. Furthermore,
student can seek help from family and professionals. To discuss more about how students
attribute learning and emotions, a classroom setting can be looked at.

262 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.
263 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.
264 King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement,
and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29,
81-100.

252
 Attributions and Emotions in the Classroom

16.11 Attributions and Emotions in the Classroom

Students all bring different emotions and attributions with them into the classroom. Al-
though many of these students may bring in positive attributions, equally as many students
may carry negative attributions with them into their academic lives. The teacher plays an
essential role in helping students figure out their emotions at school, why they feel them,
and how they could possibly improve. By helping students learn about their emotions in
the classroom, the students are better able to focus on how emotions and what other ex-
traneous factors may affect how they learn. Once students understand how their emotions
affect their learning, they are better able to create a learning environment and figure out
which strategies for dealing with their emotions work best. It is important that teachers
show students’ how emotions affect how they attribute both positive and negative situations
and to learn about unfavorable behaviors and attributions early on so that they are better
able to learn to avoid them throughout their academic career.

16.11.1 Attributional Retraining

One of the main ways teachers can help students improve their mindset is by attributional
retraining which is helping students get a better understanding of their attributional re-
sponses and how to change their response so that they are more encouraged to stay focused.
The main focus of attributional retraining is to shift student’s focus from their ability shown
to the effort put forth in the classroom.265 By doing this it emphasizes to students that
their performance and success or failures in class are due to controllable factors such as their
effort. Whereas if students attributed their successes and failures on something uncontrol-
lable such as their ability, they would quickly become discouraged after receiving negative
feedback or a low score as many students attribute one’s ability with self-efficacy. As a re-
sult, attributional retraining could help assist students in motivation, task persistence and
achievement levels. There are many ways that teachers can help students understand their
attributions. One of the main ways this can be done is simply by reminding the students
that their scores are not attributed to their ability. School is becoming increasingly com-
petitive and many students are focused on the marks that they are receiving. By constantly
reminding students that any low mark they are receiving is attributed to their effort in the
classroom, it may encourage them to try harder during their next assignment.
There are four main steps to attributional retraining. The first step is getting individuals
to identify undesirable behaviors that they may have. These behaviors could include things
like task avoidance. Being able to identify these behaviors early allows these behaviors to
be easily evaluated and changed. It is important for both the student and the teacher to
work together on identifying these behaviors early on. By not identifying these problems
early, students may lose learning opportunities that could be easily fixed. The second step
is evaluating the underlying negative behavior. This could be evaluating how serious the sit-
uation and behavior may be and what could be causing the student to have such behaviors.
Generally these could be due to internal factors, which require immediate attention or could
be caused by extraneous factors that may be hindering that student’s performance at that

265 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.

253
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

moment. The third step is considering how to change the student’s attributional response.
It is important to figure out what is best for the student and what kind of attributions could
take its place. By implementing the wrong new attribution, it could potentially hinder the
student’s performance further. Depending on the student, finding a new attribution could
be a difficult task or it may be very clear. Every student is different. And the last step is
implementing the new attribution, which must be done by finding the most suitable way
to implement the new attribution. It is not beneficial for students to implement the new
attribution if it does not work well with their learning style. Students and teachers must
work collaboratively to ensure that the new attributions being implemented are what is
most suitable for the student.266

16.11.2 Understanding Our Own Emotional Reactions

Teachers should be wary of how their students perceive success and failure and which ones
make negative attributions after experiencing failure. Showing negative emotion is normal,
however some emotions can be perceived as more harmful than others. It is important for
the teacher to educate and remind students that learning how to redirect their attributional
thinking can change their emotions.267 However it is equally as important to teach students
about emotional intelligence, which is learning to understand one and others emotions,
relating to people, and learning to deal with environmental demands by adapting to the new
surroundings.268 By teaching emotional intelligence, students and teachers are better able to
understand their emotions in the classroom and why they feel them in different situations.
Students would also learn to control their emotions during both success and failures in
and around the classroom. It is important to emphasize positive emotions as it has been
seen to have more positive effects on students. The broaden-and-build theory states that
positive emotions can help expand a student’s engagement in activities as well as encourage
students to delve deeper into learning materials and expand their focus whereas negative
emotions narrow the focus of students and do not allow for optimal learning.269 Having
positive emotions towards learning provides a better learning environment for students,
which may allow for more positive attributional thinking when feedback is given. Although
it is important to emphasize positive emotions, it is also important to remind students that
it is okay to feel negative emotions as well. Negative emotions are a regular occurrence in
the classroom and should not be discouraged. All students handle situations differently and
showing negative emotion might be a way for the student to cope with a situation that they
are not used to. As educators, it is important to figure out with the student why they may
be feeling this negative emotion and how to best handle it.

266 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
267 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
268 Zahed-Babelan, A., & Moenikia, M. (2010). The role of emotional intelligence in predicting students’
academic achievement in distance education system. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2),
1158-1163.
269 Naude, L. n., Bergh, T., & Kruger, I. (2014). ’Learning to like learning’: an appreciative inquiry into
emotions in education. Social Psychology Of Education, 17(2), 211-228.

254
 Implications for Instruction

16.12 Implications for Instruction

16.12.1 Effects on Students

One of the most important things educators can do is begin discussing attributions and
their effects from an early age. It is an integral part of the classroom and is something that
should be focused on. By explaining to students the subtle differences between attributing
something to ability rather than lack of effort, you remind them that knowledge is not
innate and is something that can be learned.270 This is especially important when students
are first beginning school so that it builds a strong foundation for them as they progress
through the grades. It should also be reminded to students throughout the school year as
students can often become discouraged when they find tasks difficult or receive unfavorable
marks. Since school is becoming increasingly competitive in terms of admission standards
to post secondary institutions, it is important to remind students constantly that although
grades are important, they are not tied to a low mark that they may receive.
Commonly, students may find that they experience difficulty in the classroom, which is due
to many controllable factors. These factors may include a lack of prior knowledge, and
automaticity.271 It is important to remind these students that the difficulty they experience
is due to extraneous factors and not themselves so that they do not become discouraged
when learning new material or understanding new concepts. By creating a student-centered
approach in the classroom, we are creating a learning environment where personal growth
and change are prioritized.272 This kind of approach allows the students to be less frustrated
when they do not understand a concept right away or when they receive negative feedback.
The emphasis of this approach is that knowledge can always be learned and is not dependent
on your innate ability or prior knowledge. By approaching learning in this kind of way, it is
teaching and instilling in students to be persistent and to keep trying even if it takes them
longer to understand concepts or they do not succeed the first time around. Students may
also seek help if they believe that what is holding them back is an environmental factor
rather than a personal one.273 This is because they do not hold their difficulties personally
but rather believe other things cause them. Whereas many students may not seek assistance
in class if they are struggling because they do not want to be perceived as incompetent in
the eyes of their peers or their professor. It is important to instill early on in students that
the difficulties they face are due to controllable factors.
There are many extraneous factors that could be affecting student performance. Students
may be struggling in class for many different reasons. One of the main reasons that stu-
dents could be struggling is by not knowing how to best apply appropriate strategies that
maximize their learning potential. As educators it is important to try to help students
learn what methods work best for them in acquiring new information. Another reason that

270 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
271 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
272 Naude, L. n., Bergh, T., & Kruger, I. (2014). ’Learning to like learning’: an appreciative inquiry into
emotions in education. Social Psychology Of Education, 17(2), 211-228.
273 Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal Of Educational
Psychology, 71(1), 3-25.

255
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

students could be struggling is lack of prior knowledge. If students are unable to best apply
learning strategies and it is not noticed by an educator, students may fall behind and not
have the appropriate prior knowledge to learn new concepts. It is important as an educator
to remember that these extraneous factors are controllable causes which may be hindering
the student’s ability to reach their fullest potential. Reminding the students that these
things can be changed as well is important so that the students may not become discour-
aged for something that can be fixed. Monitoring and discussing with students regularly
what may be affecting their performance is important as it allows the teacher to have a
better understanding of how the student is doing and how it can be bettered.
When teachers are providing feedback to students, it is important to be mindful of how it
is given. Students who have a lower self-esteem may benefit from feedback that is given
privately rather than in front of the class. It may also be beneficial when directing praise
in front of the class as it may cause provide low-ability cues to students unintentionally.274
One way to effectively provide feedback is to provide information-oriented feedback rather
than performance-oriented feedback. Information-oriented feedback emphasizes how a
student’s performance can improve where as performance-oriented feedback emphasizes
how a student is progressing in relation to their peers.275 If students are provided feedback
in relation to the other students, they may attribute their lower score to their ability and
become discouraged in class, as they may not be progressing as quickly as some of the other
students. As educators it is important to try to keep students from comparing themselves to
each other as students will be discouraged and feel negatively about school. But by providing
feedback basked solely on the students’ progress, it allows for personal growth rather than
comparison to others, which is more beneficial for students with low self-esteem. This also
teaches students that education is about personal progress and knowledge acquisition rather
than comparing themselves to other students. The lack of comparison may keep students
motivated to continue pursuing new knowledge.
According to the control value theory, emotions are directly related achievement, cognitive,
motivational processes.276 Generally positive emotions are correlated with an increase in
students’ motivation while negative emotions reduce students’ motivation. It is important
that students use these positive emotions to attempt to become intrinsically motivated in
school. When students are intrinsically motivated, they are more likely to persist when
they encounter difficult problems or concepts in their learning. Teachers are a large part
of helping students develop these behaviors. It is important that teachers create a learning
environment that sets a positive example for the student. Students are greatly influenced
by the teacher and the environment of the classroom. By creating a positive learning
environment, students may feel more inclined to be positive about their learning. The
teacher student relationship is also one of the most important things that can help students
academically. By having positive, nurturing and supportive teachers, students are able to
develop self-confidence and a sense of self-determination, which will in turn affect their
learning behaviors.277 Once students are intrinsically motivated to do well in school, they

274 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
275 Bruning, R. H., Schraw G. J., Norby M. M., (2011) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
276 Naude, L. n., Bergh, T., & Kruger, I. (2014). ’Learning to like learning’: an appreciative inquiry into
emotions in education. Social Psychology Of Education, 17(2), 211-228.
277 Seifert, T. L. (2004). Understanding student motivation. Educational Research, 46(2), 137-149.

256
 Suggested Readings

will be more likely to create positive attributions between themselves and what they are
learning.
However it is important to remember that all students begin with different attributions
and ways to deal with them and they learn and process information differently. Techniques
used in helping students change their attributions and learn to control their emotions vary
greatly between students. As with all techniques, it is important for the teacher and student
to work collaboratively in finding out what works best for that individual. One of the ways
that this can be done is by discussing with the student different learning strategies that
may work best for them and having the teacher monitor the student in class to see if it is
effective. This can also be done through trial and error of different techniques until one is
found to be most effective for that student or group of students. Once an effective method
is found, it can be implemented not only in academic situations, but also in all aspects of a
student’s life. By learning what methods works best and really understanding the student,
it creates an easier learning environment that is more beneficial for everyone involved.The
most important aspect is merely teaching students about their attributions and how it
affects them in the classroom. Learning how to affectively attribute their successes and
failures will help to further their academic career. Even though it may take some time to
fully understand their attributions, the mere knowledge of it will help students to become
aware of why they may feel a certain way in class. It definitely will take time for students to
fully learn what methods work best for them but by teaching them about their attributions
early, they are better able to carry this knowledge with them throughout their academic
career.

16.13 Suggested Readings

1. Zahed-Babelan, A., & Moenikia, M. (2010). The role of emotional intelligence in

predicting students’ academic achievement in distance education system. Procedia -
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 1158-1163.
2. Valiente, C., Swanson, J., & Eisenberg, N. (2011). Linking Students’ Emotions and
Academic Achievement: When and Why Emotions Matter. Child Development Per-
spectives, 6(2), 129-135.
3. King, R., & Gaerlan, M. (2013). High self-control predicts more positive emotions,
better engagement, and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychol-
ogy of Education Eur J Psychol Educ, 29, 81-100.
4. Follette, V. M., & Jacobson, N. S. (1987). Importance of attributions as a predictor
of how people cope with failure. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 52(6),
1205-1211. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1205
5. Trigwell, K., Ellis, R., & Han, F. (2011). The relations between students’ approaches
to leaning, experienced emotions and outcomes if learning’ Studies in Higher Educa-
tion, 37(7), 811-824.
6. Matuliauskaite, A., & Zemeckyte, L. (2011). Analysis of interdependencies between
students’ emotions, learning productivity, academic achievements and physiological
parameters. Science - Future of Lithuania, 3(2), 51-56.
7. Naude, L. n., Bergh, T., & Kruger, I. (2014). ’Learning to like learning’: an appre-
ciative inquiry into emotions in education. Social Psychology Of Education, 17(2),
211-228.

257
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

16.14 Glossary

• Affective responses: the emotional responses that follow the interpretation of the
outcome
• Behavioural responses: the course of action is taken to respond to the experience
• Controllability: the degree to which a factor can be influenced
• Attribution: explanation to describe the cause behind an event
• Attributional responses: the explanations attributed to causing a specific result
• Attribution theory: the study of how people interpret various events
• Locus of control: defines the outcome as being caused by an internal or external source
• Outcome evaluation: the process by which an outcome is considered a success or a
failure
• Stability: how consistent the factor is in encouraging success
• Learning theory: a conceptual frameworks on how information is absorbed, processed,
and retained during learning
• Control- value theory: relationship between level of controllability and value and the
achievement in emotions
• Achievement emotions: the mental state of feeling that attribute to achievement
• Emotion Intelligence: ability to identify, use, understand, and manage emotions in
positive ways to relieve stress, to communicate effectively and to overcome challenges
• Diminishing Return: a decreasing effect on a product that passing to marginal level
after the optimal point
• Attributional Retraining: helping students better understand their attributional re-
sponses
• Information-oriented Feedback: feedback regarding how an individual student’s per-
formance can be improved
• Performance-oriented Feedback: feedback regarding how a student is progressing in
comparison to their peers

16.15 References

In order for education to be the most successful, educators need to understand not only the
various ways in which intelligence and knowledge is acquired, but also the beliefs surround-
ing them which are held by students and teachers. These beliefs are influenced by hope
and impact students’ behaviors and what they believe they can achieve academically. The
way teachers view these beliefs will influence the way they structure their classrooms and
curriculum, which in turn has an effect on students educational experiences. This chapter
will further explain hope and the beliefs about knowledge and intelligence and the impact
they have on learning.

258
 Beliefs

16.16 Beliefs

16.16.1 Implicit and Explicit Beliefs

Beliefs are personal opinions about the environment and the self. Each person holds both
implicit beliefs and explicit beliefs. Implicit beliefs are subliminal beliefs that influence an
individual’s behaviour 278 . For example, an international student who attended schools that
only taught in Chinese, might develop an implicit belief that he or she has poor English
pronunciation. Subsequently, this belief causes him or her to avoid reading or speaking
aloud in an English-speaking school. In addition, implicit beliefs help the construction of
an implicit theory, which involves an individual making unspoken speculations about the
causes of an event 279 . As an example, the aforementioned international student might
state that he cannot pronounce English words properly because English is not the student’s
mother tongue and the student’s family does not speak English at home. Consequently, the
student has implicitly attributed his failure of pronouncing English words to both innate
ability and practice. Explicit beliefs are conscious beliefs that impact a person’s behaviour
280 . For example, a student who is consciously aware of his or her excellent speaking and

writing in English class might develop an explicit belief that he or she has proficiency in
English.
It is important to transform implicit beliefs to explicit beliefs because many attributions
that people place upon their learning performance are implicit 281 . The unconsciousness of
certain beliefs will likely prevent people from discovering the reasons behind behaviors which
might not be effective and/or healthy. In order to reflect on and to modify one’s beliefs,
an individual should spend time trying to express their implicit beliefs to themselves and
to the people around them. For example, a person can write in a journal or participate in
group discussions 282 .

16.16.2 Development and Effects of Beliefs

Before we can understand how to change beliefs, it is important to understand how beliefs
come to exist. It has been found that for many teachers, beliefs are derived as a result of their
own personal experiences in education growing up 283 . As a result, elementary teacher who
are pre-service, enter programs with preconceived beliefs and attitudes towards education

278 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
279 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
280 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
281 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
282 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
283 Baş, G. G. (2015). Correlation Between Teachers’ Philosophy of Education Beliefs and Their
Teaching-Learning Conceptions. Education & Science / Egitim Ve Bilim, 40(182), 111-126.
doi:10.15390/EB.2015.4811

259
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

and how it should be approached 284 . Beliefs about knowledge and intelligence is very
important in classroom environments, as it provides the structure and base for organizing
these environments 285 . They impact how a teacher designs his or her classroom in terms of
curriculum, methods, techniques and skills 286 . Even the teaching of specific subjects such
as math is impacted by the way teachers view knowledge and intelligence, as discovered by
Stohlmann et. al (2014), which will be discussed later in this section 287 . One area of beliefs
teachers may hold is in regards to the roles of students and how information is attained.
One theory, described by Bas (2015) is that teachers maintain either a traditional view,
or a constructivist view about education 288 . On the one hand, the traditional view is
where teachers act as the authority figure towards students who are passive recipients of
knowledge. On the other hand, a constructivist view sees the teacher as a guide who helps
students in obtaining knowledge, in this view students are active participants in their own
learning 289 . A similar but more detailed view is the epistemological belief which consists
of four categories, in which students progress through in their educational development 290 .
These categories include dualism, multiplism, relativism, and commitment 291 . Dualism
acts similarly to a traditional view, while multiplism shares views with a constructivist
perspective.

16.16.3 Changing Beliefs of Students and Teachers

It can be very difficult for people to change their beliefs and attitudes, Brownlee et al. (2001)
found this to be especially true the more a belief is connected with other beliefs within an
attitude structure 292 . Whether information has been acquired as affective knowledge,
which is subjective and based on emotional reactions or as cognitive knowledge, which

284 Stohlmann, M. M., Cramer, K. C., Moore, T. T., & Maiorca, C.C. (2014). Changing Pre-service Elemen-
tary Teachers’ Beliefs about Mathematical Knowledge. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development,
16(2), 4-24
285 Baş, G. G. (2015). Correlation Between Teachers’ Philosophy of Education Beliefs and Their
Teaching-Learning Conceptions. Education & Science / Egitim Ve Bilim, 40(182), 111-126.
doi:10.15390/EB.2015.4811
286 Baş, G. G. (2015). Correlation Between Teachers’ Philosophy of Education Beliefs and Their
Teaching-Learning Conceptions. Education & Science / Egitim Ve Bilim, 40(182), 111-126.
doi:10.15390/EB.2015.4811
287 Stohlmann, M. M., Cramer, K. C., Moore, T. T., & Maiorca, C.C. (2014). Changing Pre-service Elemen-
tary Teachers’ Beliefs about Mathematical Knowledge. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development,
16(2), 4-24
288 Baş, G. G. (2015). Correlation Between Teachers’ Philosophy of Education Beliefs and Their
Teaching-Learning Conceptions. Education & Science / Egitim Ve Bilim, 40(182), 111-126.
doi:10.15390/EB.2015.4811
289 Baş, G. G. (2015). Correlation Between Teachers’ Philosophy of Education Beliefs and Their
Teaching-Learning Conceptions. Education & Science / Egitim Ve Bilim, 40(182), 111-126.
doi:10.15390/EB.2015.4811
290 Brownlee, J., Purdie, N., & Boulton-Lewis, G. (2001). Changing Epistemological Beliefs
in Pre-service Teacher Education Students. Teaching In Higher Education, 6(2), 247-268.
doi:10.1080/13562510120045221
291 Brownlee, J., Purdie, N., & Boulton-Lewis, G. (2001). Changing Epistemological Beliefs
in Pre-service Teacher Education Students. Teaching In Higher Education, 6(2), 247-268.
doi:10.1080/13562510120045221
292 Brownlee, J., Purdie, N., & Boulton-Lewis, G. (2001). Changing Epistemological Beliefs
in Pre-service Teacher Education Students. Teaching In Higher Education, 6(2), 247-268.
doi:10.1080/13562510120045221

260
 Beliefs

is knowledge obtained objectively and rationally, will also impact the difficulty of changing
ones beliefs 293 .
While beliefs may be difficult to change, it is still possible to achieve with the proper under-
standing of how to implement beneficial change. When it comes to changing beliefs which
have been attained through affective knowledge or cognitive knowledge, how the information
was originally obtained plays a significant role in how the belief should be challenged. It has
been found that information which is obtained through cognitive knowledge, is resistant to
change through affective means and vice versa 294 . This means that information which has
initially been obtained through cognitive means, is more prone to change through cognitive
means, and information initially obtained through affective means, is more susceptible to
changing beliefs through affective means 295 .

Figure 34 Figure 1 Changing Beliefs Mind Map

Another way in which beliefs can be changed was found in a study which compared tech-
niques teachers in the US used, with techniques used by teachers in China 296 . It was
found that Chinese teachers had a greater coherent understanding of the concepts and were
therefore better able to provide flexibility in their explanations, these teachers were also
better able to provide meanings to their students 297 . In contrast, teachers from the US
were procedure based, and were not able to provide the same rich explanations to their
students 298 . US teachers beliefs about the best approach to teaching math changed once

293 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed). Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971
294 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed). Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971
295 Edwards, K. (1990). The interplay of affect and cognition in attitude formation and change. Journal Of
Personality And Social Psychology, 59(2), 202-216. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.202
296 Stohlmann, M. M., Cramer, K. C., Moore, T. T., & Maiorca, C.C. (2014). Changing Pre-service Elemen-
tary Teachers’ Beliefs about Mathematical Knowledge. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development,
16(2), 4-24
297 Stohlmann, M. M., Cramer, K. C., Moore, T. T., & Maiorca, C.C. (2014). Changing Pre-service Elemen-
tary Teachers’ Beliefs about Mathematical Knowledge. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development,
16(2), 4-24
298 Stohlmann, M. M., Cramer, K. C., Moore, T. T., & Maiorca, C.C. (2014). Changing Pre-service Elemen-
tary Teachers’ Beliefs about Mathematical Knowledge. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development,
16(2), 4-24

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

they were able to see the difficulties students had when they were taught only procedurally
and not conceptually, and when a change in student learning was evident 299 . While it
may be difficult to change student or teachers views about knowledge and intelligence may
be difficult, by providing environments where students and pre-service teachers are able to
reflect on their own beliefs and shift into new modes of thought, a change in belief can be
possible 300 .

16.17 Beliefs about Intelligence

16.17.1 Intelligence

Figure 35 Figure 2 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

299 Stohlmann, M. M., Cramer, K. C., Moore, T. T., & Maiorca, C.C. (2014). Changing Pre-service Elemen-
tary Teachers’ Beliefs about Mathematical Knowledge. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development,
16(2), 4-24
300 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed). Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971

262
 Beliefs about Intelligence

Figure 36 Figure 3 Carroll three stratum model of human Intelligence

Intelligence can be defined in multiple ways. According to Sternberg, intelligence is based

on three components: adjusting to, shaping and choosing an environment 301 . It is also
related to discovery and invention302 . Throughout history researchers studied intelligence
to determine its nature and outcomes. In addition, social and cultural factors influence
the ways people interpret intelligence 303 . Moreover, intelligence is viewed as a general
ability or as multiple abilities. For instance, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences in-
volves seven intelligence aspects: logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, verbal,
musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence (refer Figure 2) 304 . Similarly, Stern-
berg discovered three types of intelligence: emotional, creative and practical intelligence305 .
Lastly, Carroll’s hierarchy of intelligence represents intelligence as a general ability that is
made up of broader abilities, which can be further broken down into more specific abilities
(refer to Figure 3) 306 .

16.17.2 Entity and Incremental Theory

Two implicit theories of intelligence pioneered by Dweck are known as the entity
theory and incremental theory. The entity theory presents the belief that intelligence
cannot be changed; whereas, the incremental theory demonstrates that gradual modifica-

301 Sternberg, R. J. (2014). Teaching about the nature of intelligence. Intelligence, 42176-179.
doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.08.010
302 Sternberg, R. J. (2014). Teaching about the nature of intelligence. Intelligence, 42176-179.
doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.08.010
303 Sternberg, R. J. (2014). Teaching about the nature of intelligence. Intelligence, 42176-179.
doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.08.010
304 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.03.001
305 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001
306 Sternberg, R. J. (2014). Teaching about the nature of intelligence. Intelligence, 42176-179.
doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.08.010

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

tions of intelligence are possible 307 . Entity and incremental theorists differ from each other
based on their understanding of an individual’s behaviour 308 . For instance, entity theorists
explain a person’s behaviour due to his or her genetically determined characteristics 309 .
Incremental theorists however, focus on identifying certain factors such as, intentions, ne-
cessity, previous behaviour and emotions, which give rise to an individual’s behaviour 310 .
Consequently, entity and theorists have different responses toward negative consequences.
Individuals who believe in the entity theory will have a higher chance of demonstrating help-
lessness when they are facing challenges in terms of their performance 311 . Furthermore,
they will attribute their poor performance to their unchangeable traits; therefore, they feel
that they have no control over their intelligence. On the other hand, those who believe in
the incremental theory of intelligence will likely use controllable factors to counter negative
effects to improve their performance 312 .

Entity Theory Incremental Theory

Intelligence is Changeable No Yes
Explanation of Behaviour Genetics Intentions, necessity, pre-
vious behaviour, emotions
Reaction to Negative Conse- Helplessness, giving Persistence, problem-
quences up solving by regaining con-
trol

As mentioned earlier, intelligence can be viewed as multiple abilities. Furnham conducted a

study recently on entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple intelligences. The goals
of the study was to see whether students believe that each of the fourteen intelligences
is changeable or fixed and whether personality (e.g. Big Five and CORE self-beliefs) has
a role in these entity and incremental beliefs313 . The fourteen intelligences were divided
into three categories: abstract, skillful and classical314 . Abstract intelligences, such as
naturalistic, sexual and intra-personal intelligences are easier to change315 . In addition,
skillful intelligences, such as musical and creative intelligences are less easy change because
they are believed to be based on innate ability as well as practice316 . Moreover, classical

307 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
308 Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions:
A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry,6(4), 267-285. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1
309 Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions:
A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry,6(4), 267-285. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1
310 Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions:
A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry,6(4), 267-285. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1
311 Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions:
A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry,6(4), 267-285. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1
312 Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions:
A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry,6(4), 267-285. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1
313 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001
314 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001
315 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001
316 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001

264
 Beliefs about Intelligence

intelligences which include verbal and logical intelligences are easy to change317 . The CORE
self-beliefs in the study were measured based on self-esteem, self-efficacy, internal locus of
control and emotional stability318 . Regardless of holding incremental beliefs, high CORE
self-beliefs help people see that intelligence can be increased because these beliefs cause a
person to see that change and improvement are possible319 . The study also demonstrated
that people who are introverts are more likely to hold entity beliefs; whereas, people who are
extroverts are more likely to hold incremental beliefs. Furthermore, the openness personality
trait appeared to promote incremental beliefs320 . Overall, Furnham’s study raises awareness
for the need to understand the diversity of students in the classroom when observing their
entity and incremental beliefs about intelligence. The multiple intelligences model along
with the entity and incremental theories help educators to pinpoint students’ beliefs about
a specific intellectual ability, which can be useful since different disciplines request different
skills. Also, educators can gain knowledge on what types of intelligences are harder to
change from a student’s perspective. Although the study only found correlations between
personality traits, such as openness, extraversion and CORE self-beliefs and incremental
beliefs about intelligence, it might still be useful to try to promote these traits and see if
they are of any help to students’ incremental beliefs.

16.17.3 Goal Orientation and Learning Performance

Initially, Dweck and Leggett stated that the implicit theories of intelligence give rise to
two separate goal orientations, which are known as the performance orientation and the
mastery orientation. The performance orientation involves the belief in the entity theory
and the display of proficiency; whereas, the mastery orientation includes the incremental
theory and the desire to improve one’s proficiency321 . This goal orientation model suggests
that people are either performance-oriented or mastery-oriented. Over time researchers
discovered that people could be performance-oriented and learning-oriented at different
degrees depending on the task322 . Additional features were added to this model, such as
approach and avoidance323 . Both of these components are applicable to performance and
learning orientations. As a result, research on the beliefs about intelligence throughout
history has led to the creation of four goal orientations that influence learning performance:

317 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001
318 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001
319 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001
320 Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple
’intelligences’. Learning And Individual Differences,32163-167. doi:10.1016/j.lind’if.2014.03.001
321 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
322 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
323 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.

265
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

Figure 37 Figure 4 Goal Orientations

• Performance-approach goals
Concentrate on the desire to show proficiency by making other people targets for compe-
tition324 . For example, a student decides to work and pay attention in class because he or
she wants to get the top grade, subsequently the grade gives him or her the motivation to
study. However, once this grade is no longer achieved, the student will likely lose interest
in learning.
• Performance-avoidance goals
Focus on the finding ways to avoid tasks that will likely reflect failure when compared to
others325 . For instance, a student wants to do well in a class because they do not want to
lose and be embarrassed. However, if the student cannot perform well, then he or she will

324 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
325 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559

266
 Beliefs about Intelligence

choose to avoid any task that they cannot succeed in. Subsequently, they will likely miss
many learning opportunities.
• Mastery-approach goals
Bring about a commitment to improve competence and to engage in meaningful learning, in
which understanding is highly valued326 . For example, a student chooses to learn by obtain-
ing a strong understanding of the knowledge that is imparted in the classroom. The student
will take the time to self-regulate his or her learning by posing questions to teachers when
confused or when they want to learn something new and improving their understanding and
knowledge through consistent discussion with teachers and classmates.
• Mastery-avoidance goals
Give rise to hiding from inadequacy in relation to the self and to an undertaking327 . For
instance, a student does not believe that he or she has the ability to learn and understand
something. As a result, the student often thinks negatively of him or herself by saying ”I am
not smart” or ”This question is too hard”. Overall, they believe that they cannot improve
their ability which means they cannot deal with the difficult task at hand.

16.17.4 Western and Chinese Beliefs about Intelligence

Beliefs about intelligence are mostly tied to the Western culture. However, these west-
ern beliefs are often not applied to other cultures, such as the Chinese culture, which is
a significant problem because schools contain students from various cultures. In addition,
Sternberg stated different cultures will have some dissimilar interpretations of intelligence,
which in turn leads to varying behaviours. We dedicated a section for differences between
Western and Chinese beliefs about intelligence because the recent success of Chinese stu-
dents in international, academic assessments has produced a desire to discover whether the
Western beliefs about intelligence affect these students’ learning performances328 .
Chen and Wong’s study compare Western and Chinese students’ beliefs about intelligence
and their academic performance. In the Chinese cultural context, performance-approach
goals are very common because the schools promote competition, which in turn encourages
a social hierarchy that forces students to obtain high academic achievement 329 . Moreover,
the academic achievement in Chinese culture is viewed as a child’s obligation to his or her

326 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
327 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
328 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
329 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559

267
Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

family 330 . Consequently, Chinese students are constantly competing to honour their fam-
ilies. Furthermore, mastery goals are prevalent as well because the Chinese culture values
Confucian philosophy, which promotes self-development and self-fulfillment 331 . The results
from the study demonstrated that like Western students, Chinese students who hold incre-
mental beliefs are more likely to utilize mastery goals, which help them build effective learn-
ing strategies. Subsequently, these students’ academic performance are likely to be more
successful 332 . However, the study showed that Chinese students’ academic achievement
might be due to their use of performance-approach goals. Also, even though performance-
avoidance goals are often negatively associated with learning, it is positively correlated with
mastery goals in Chinese students 333 . Overall, the desire for self-development, competi-
tion and avoidance of failure in the Chinese culture give rise to the positive correlations
between mastery, performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. Unlike Western
students, Chinese students might be able to obtain academic success with both performance
and mastery goals334 . More research will need to be conducted to prove this phenomenon
because the current study has a limitation of the participants being university students with
high academic success. Therefore, future research should involve middle and high school
students with varying academic achievement.
Wang and Ng’s study focused on grade seven and ten Chinese students’ implicit beliefs
about intelligence and school performance. The results of the study showed that Chinese
students viewed the changeability of intelligence and school performance separately and
that the two have a role in developing helplessness 335 . The Chinese culture emphasize
the importance of effort over ability in terms of academic achievement, but this does not
necessarily mean that they automatically believe that intelligence is changeable 336 . In fact
effort can be associated with improving performance or counteracting substandard intelli-
gence in Chinese students337 . Also, Wang and Ng found that Chinese students believed that

330 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
331 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
332 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
333 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
334 Chen, W., & Wong, Y. (2015). Chinese mindset: Theories of intelligence, goal orientation
and academic achievement in Hong Kong students. Educational Psychology, 35(6), 714-725.
doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.893559
335 Wang, Q., & Ng, F. F. (2012). Chinese students’ implicit theories of intelligence and school performance:
Implications for their approach to schoolwork. Personality And Individual Differences, 52(8), 930-935.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.024
336 Wang, Q., & Ng, F. F. (2012). Chinese students’ implicit theories of intelligence and school performance:
Implications for their approach to schoolwork. Personality And Individual Differences, 52(8), 930-935.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.024
337 Wang, Q., & Ng, F. F. (2012). Chinese students’ implicit theories of intelligence and school performance:
Implications for their approach to schoolwork. Personality And Individual Differences, 52(8), 930-935.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.024

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 Hope

school performance was more changeable than intelligence338 . Therefore, Chinese students
might be more likely to avoid helplessness and might even have higher academic achieve-
ment than Western students339 . This is because Western students view intelligence and
school performance as related. Western students that hold entity beliefs about intelligence
focus mainly on innate ability, which in turn hampers their academic achievement. For
example, if they believe that intelligence is fixed, then their school performance cannot be
changed. Lastly, the study found that like Western students, Chinese students that strongly
believe that intelligence or school performance are not changeable, will more likely develop
helplessness340 .

16.18 Hope

For a student to reach a high level of hope, two components are necessary. These are
agencies which is goal-directed determination, and pathways which is the planning of
ways to meet goals 341 . Agencies are also referred to as willpower or ‘will’ and pathways
are also commonly referred to as ‘ways’ for one to reach their goals 342 . Mellard, Krieshok,
Fall and Woods (2013) provide an example for understanding how pathways and agencies
work by considering a highschool dropout working in the food industry who wants to earn
more money. He may consider pathways such as working hard at his current job and try to
get promoted, look for a better paying job for his current skill level. He may also consider
a larger goal, but break it up into smaller achievable goals such as obtaining his GED,
then getting a certification in trades. He would then move onto the agency stage, where he
would choose one of his options and put it into action with thoughts such as “I’m capable of
getting my GED”. If he were to encounter obstacles such as requiring transportation to get
to school, he would use the same patterns and consider possible pathways such as asking
a classmate for a ride or taking public transit 343 . In order for high hope to develop both
components must be present as neither alone is sufficient 344 . External agents can influence
hope as well, as external resources can help people increase the perceived pathways and
agencies rather than thinking goal setting and hope are only individual pursuits 345 .

338 Wang, Q., & Ng, F. F. (2012). Chinese students’ implicit theories of intelligence and school performance:
Implications for their approach to schoolwork. Personality And Individual Differences, 52(8), 930-935.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.024
339 Wang, Q., & Ng, F. F. (2012). Chinese students’ implicit theories of intelligence and school performance:
Implications for their approach to schoolwork. Personality And Individual Differences, 52(8), 930-935.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.024
340 Wang, Q., & Ng, F. F. (2012). Chinese students’ implicit theories of intelligence and school performance:
Implications for their approach to schoolwork. Personality And Individual Differences, 52(8), 930-935.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.024
341 Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Rapoff, M., Ware, L., Danovsky, M., et al. (1997). The
development and validation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22, 399–421.
342 Adelabu, D. H. (2008). Future time perspective, hope, and ethnic identity among African American
adolescents. Urban Education, 43, 347–360.
343 Mellard, D. d., Krieshok, T., Fall, E., & Woods, K. (2013). Dispositional factors affecting motivation
during learning in adult basic and secondary education programs. Reading & Writing, 26(4), 515-538.
doi:10.1007/s11145-012-9413-4.
344 Snyder, C R. Journal of Counseling and Development : JCD73.3 (Jan 1995): 355
345 Bernardo, A. B. I. (2010). Extending hope theory: Internal and external locus of trait hope. Personality
and Individual Differences, 49, 944–949. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.036.

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

Figure 38 Figure 5 Hope Mind Mapa

a Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., et al. (1991).
The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570–585

16.18.1 Benefits of Hope

There has been lots of research to show that high hope has several benefits for students
mental well-being. It has been shown to increase optimism and happiness in students, and
students with high hope are less likely to have anxiety or depression as students who have
low hope 346 . Higher hope has also shown to increase academic achievement, especially
in students around the 7th grade 347 . Research has also shown that these students are
more likely to prepare to achieve academically by studying more and getting involved in
extracurricular activities 348 . When students have a higher level of hope they are also more
likely to set more challenging goals for themselves at school 349 , and focus on success over

346 Ryzin, M. M. (2011). Protective Factors at School: Reciprocal Effects Among Adolescents’ Perceptions of
the School Environment, Engagement in Learning, and Hope. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 40(12),
1568-1580. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9637-7
347 Adelabu, D. H. (2008). Future time perspective, hope, and ethnic identity among African American
adolescents. Urban Education, 43, 347–360
348 Adelabu, D. H. (2008). Future time perspective, hope, and ethnic identity among African American
adolescents. Urban Education, 43, 347–360
349 Ryzin, M. M. (2011). Protective Factors at School: Reciprocal Effects Among Adolescents’ Perceptions of
the School Environment, Engagement in Learning, and Hope. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 40(12),
1568-1580. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9637-7

270
 Hope

failure 350 . This alternative focus leaves these students to perceive they will be successful
at attaining the challenging goals they set for themselves 351 .If students however, fail to
obtain this perception they are likely to experience learned-helplessness. This maladaptive
strategy commonly develops in performance-oriented students who have experienced failure
and come to believe that anything they try will result in failure 352 . As a result, these
students refuse to engage in tasks because they assume they will not succeed 353 . By failing
to participate in anything, these students prevent themselves from being successful and
therefore have a difficult time increasing their levels of hope for future accomplishments.
The overwhelming research shows the importance of increasing levels of hope in students,
not only for the benefits of mental well-being but also for the effects it has on students
academic performance.

16.18.2 Importance of Hope in the Education Process

It is important for parents and educators to create resilient learners by encouraging students
to not only succeed but also stumble and fail 354 . By doing so, students are able to recognize
failure as something which they can overcome and learn from. It is also important to
encourage a realistic understanding of a student’s potential 355 . Students who create goals
which are too far out of their capacities are likely to fail more frequently and decrease their
level of hope. Goal related experiences in general can be beneficial in increasing a student’s
level of hope 356 , especially By creating goals which are realistic but still maintain some
level of challenge, students are able to achieve goals and increase their level of hope for
future challenges. Another recommendation to increase hope is to promote mastery goals
in teaching 357 . It is also beneficial for students to have role models to encourage students
to stay mentally energized to continue to pursue their goals and assist in finding pathways
to achieve them 358 .

350 Snyder, C R. Journal of Counseling and Development : JCD73.3 (Jan 1995): 355
351 Ryzin, M. M. (2011). Protective Factors at School: Reciprocal Effects Among Adolescents’ Perceptions of
the School Environment, Engagement in Learning, and Hope. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 40(12),
1568-1580. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9637-7
352 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson
353 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson
354 Addison, B. B. (2012). Academic care, classroom pedagogy and the house group teacher:
‘making hope practical’ in uncertain times. Pastoral Care In Education, 30(4), 303-315.
doi:10.1080/02643944.2012.688064
355 Addison, B. B. (2012). Academic care, classroom pedagogy and the house group teacher:
‘making hope practical’ in uncertain times. Pastoral Care In Education, 30(4), 303-315.
doi:10.1080/02643944.2012.688064
356 Ryzin, M. M. (2011). Protective Factors at School: Reciprocal Effects Among Adolescents’ Perceptions of
the School Environment, Engagement in Learning, and Hope. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 40(12),
1568-1580. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9637-7
357 Phan, H. H. (2013). Examination of Self-Efficacy and Hope: A Developmental Approach Using Latent
Growth Modeling. Journal Of Educational Research, 106(2), 93-104. doi:10.1080/00220671.2012.667008
358 Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Rapoff, M., Ware, L., Danovsky, M., et al. (1997). The
development and validation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22, 399–421.

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16.19 Beliefs about Knowledge

16.19.1 Models of Knowledge

Epistemological beliefs are the beliefs about what knowledge is and how one acquires
that knowledge (Otting)Epistemological beliefs are the individually based systems of beliefs
that are more or less independent from one another. They differ according to the age and
the nature of education 359 Younger learners are said to be more naïve, for instance, they
quickly accept the knowledge without questioning it. Older learners, however, approach the
knowledge in a more critical manner. In addition, one’s type of the education affects one’s
epistemological beliefs. For example, the people who are in the soft sciences (e.g. psychol-
ogy) approach the type of knowledge with uncertainty, which means that there are several
answers or ways to solve a problem. On the other hand people in the hard sciences (e.g.
chemistry) approach knowledge with the belief that it is fixed, thus there is one answer and
not the several answers 360 . Epistemological beliefs predict numerous aspects of academic
performance, including comprehension, cognition in different academics domains, motiva-
tion, learning approaches and self-regulation. Therefore, it is important for the teachers to
understand epistemological beliefs. This subsequent sections will discuss the three different
models of knowledge that were suggested by Perry, Schommer and Kitchner&King.
Perry’s dualist and relativist model of knowledge
Perry states that students pass through two stages of knowledge which are the dualistic
and the relativistic.361 The dualist knowledge is when the knowledge is either right or
wrong. There is no ambiguity. As the students’ progress, they tend to now think in a
relativist manner. This approach states that knowledge can be evaluated based on per-
sonal experience. There is no one answer but rather the knowledge is uncertain. Knowledge
approaches are very important because they affect how the students approach learning.
Students who are in the dualistic stage are most likely to be looking for the fact-oriented
information when they are studying. They study like they are memorizing the information
and they do not take time to break down the information so that they could deeply under-
stand it. This is different from the student who use the relativistic approach. When they
are studying they tend to search for context-oriented information. This means that they
break down the information through paraphrasing, constructing what they have understood
and they also summarize their information. This leads to the students who use the relativist
approach to learning, to do better in their classes when they are getting graded.
Schommer’s four dimensions of knowledge
Schommer came up with four separate dimensions about knowledge 362 The first one was
simple knowledge this is when knowledge is organized in bits and pieces, meaning that for

359 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
360 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.
361 Dahl, T., Bal., M.,& Turi, A.L. (2005) Are Student’s beliefs about knowledge and learning associated with
their reported use of strategies? British Journal of Educational Psychology 75, 257–273
362 Schommer, M. 1993. Epistemological development and academic performance among secondary students.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 85: 406 – 411

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one to understand it, it has to be broken down into smaller simple parts. The second one was
certain knowledge which is the belief that knowledge is absolute, for example the student
believes that there is one answer. The third one is fixed ability is the belief that one’s
ability to learn is innate and cannot be changed for example the student will believe that it
is either they are born to grasp materials. The fourth one is the quick learning which is
the belief that learning is fast process or it completely does not occur. The earlier research
that was done by Schommer, showing the effects that these beliefs had on the individuals
learning were as follows: those who believed that knowledge was certain & simple tend to
not use critical thinking skills, self-regulating skills and meta cognitive skills which resulted
in them not acquiring the deeper knowledge since they were not questioning what they
were learning363 Those who believed that knowledge was fixed resulted in students engaging
in superficial learning because they was no deep and thoughtful thinking when they were
tuckling materials that were presented to them. This resulted in them giving up when
they were faced with challenges 364 Those who believed in quick knowledge, were presented
with a text and told to write a conclusion, most of them tent oversimplify the conclusion.
Meaning that they just scrapped on the surface without asking themselves why they would
think that would be the conclusion 365
Kitchener and King’s Reflective model
This is framework of work was coined by Kitchener and King, in which explains the dif-
ferent stages that the students go through in seven stages of reflective knowledge. These
seven stages are dived into three stages which are pre-reflective judgment (stages 1 to
3 knowledge is certain), quasi- reflective judgment (stages 4 and 5 knowledge is not
certain)and reflective judgment (stages 6 and 7 knowledge is context based) 366 . This
model is important in that it focuses on the reasoning behind the answers of the open-ended
questions and also the individual’s problem solving skills. Also, the model is affected by the
age, education level and major that one is in. Consequently, this is significant in the learning
process because those who believe that knowledge is simply something that is handed done
from authority learn differently from those that believe that knowledge is constructed. The
studies that were done about the different stages show that those who value the teacher’s
expertise and think that knowledge is certain tend to follow a more traditional manner
of learning 367 . This means that they wait to be handed over materials by the teacher.
However, students that are in stages 6 and 7 recognize that knowledge is something that is
personally constructed and not handed down by an expertise. These students are able to
challenge their learning environments and are more open to the collaboration of information
with the other students, because they also believe that peers like teachers can be a source
of knowledge.

363 Dahl, T., Bal., M.,& Turi, A.L. (2005) Are Student’s beliefs about knowledge and learning associated with
their reported use of strategies? British Journal of Educational Psychology 75, 257–273
364 Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A socio-cognitive approach to motivation and personality Psycho-
logical Review, 95, 256–273
365 Dahl, T., Bal., M.,& Turi, A.L. (2005) Are Student’s beliefs about knowledge and learning associated with
their reported use of strategies? British Journal of Educational Psychology 75, 257–273
366 Hofer, B. K., & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about
knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning. Review of Educational Research, 67,88–140
367 Bruning, R., Schraw, G. & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon/Pearson.

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Figure 39 Figure 6 Reflective Thinking Model

16.19.2 Western Culture vs Eastern Culture

There are cultural differences in the beliefs in epistemology. 368 The two views that are
going to be discussed are the Western culture and Eastern culture. The Western culture
emphasizes more on the Socratic view, in which the students are taught to question and
challenge the information that they are given. Therefore they are more active in their
learning because they are expected to reflect on the given information. The Eastern view
of learning is mainly based on the Confucius. This is the belief in the student’s effort and
willingness to learn. The students were expected to respect the authority that is imparting
information to them because they are seen as the ones that are always correct and needs
to be constantly followed and be obeyed if one wants to learn. Learning is not something
that the students just do, but they do it for a purpose. Most of the time the purpose of
learning was for the students to go work as civil servants 369 . These differences in cultural
beliefs does not mean that these students are in the different stages of knowledge but rather
that they have different ways to acquire knowledge. It is important that the teacher does
not become bias about this views, by thinking that those students who value the what the

368 Hardy,C.,&Tolhurst,D.,(2014). Epistemological Beliefs and Cultural Diversity Matters in Management

Education and Learning: A critical review and Future Direction. Academic of Management Learning &
Education, 13(2) 265-289
369 Hardy,C.,&Tolhurst,D.,(2014). Epistemological Beliefs and Cultural Diversity Matters in Management
Education and Learning: A critical review and Future Direction. Academic of Management Learning &
Education, 13(2) 265-289

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 Application to Instruction

authority is says without questioning it or those who come from the Eastern culture are in
the early stages of knowledge.370 .

16.20 Application to Instruction

16.20.1 Awareness and Discussion of Beliefs

It is important for educators to be aware of the various beliefs relating to knowledge and
intelligence. By making students aware of what their beliefs are, through group discussions
and reflection journals, teachers are better able to help students identify and change their
beliefs 371 . Moreover, teachers should also explicitly teach students how beliefs about in-
telligence and knowledge affect learning. For example, if someone believes intelligence is
something which is fixed, they will be less likely to pursue in learning when faced with a
challenge 372 . In addition, if someone believes knowledge is fixed, then they are less likely
to reflect or question their thoughts because they think what they know is always true.
Similarly, these beliefs can change the opportunities in which we expose ourselves to 373 . If
an individual does not believe they have the knowledge or intelligence required for a certain
career opportunity, they are not likely to attempt to pursue that career. With appropri-
ate belief strategies, nearly all students can attain a high academic achievement as these
strategies can encourage students to use previous knowledge and develop advanced critical
thinking skills 374 . In this respect, classroom environments play a significant role in shaping
students beliefs as they can enhance beliefs already held by students, challenge them, or
introduce new ideas 375 .
Not only is it important to be aware of the different beliefs about intelligence and knowledge
held by students, but teachers should be aware that these beliefs change as the students
age. For example, elementary school students tend to believe intelligence entails capacities
based on cognition. This is determined by how much knowledge an individual possesses
and how well they read and comprehends visuospatial relationships 376 . These students
believe intelligence involves non-cognitive factors, such as communication and interaction
skills, work habits, and athleticism 377 . High school students however pay more attention
not only to a person’s cognitive abilities when judging an individual’s intelligence but also

370 Tweed, R. G., & Lehman, D. R. 2002. Learning considered within a cultural context. Confucian and
Socratic approaches.American Psychologist, 57, 89 –99.
371 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed). Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971
372 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed). Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971
373 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed). Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971
374 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed). Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971
375 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2010). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed). Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN: 978-0132368971
376 Jones, B. D., Byrd, C. N., & Lusk, D. (2009). High school students’ beliefs about intelligence. Research
In The Schools, 16(2), 1-14.
377 Jones, B. D., Byrd, C. N., & Lusk, D. (2009). High school students’ beliefs about intelligence. Research
In The Schools, 16(2), 1-14.

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their performance 378 . Jones’ study presents five themes of how high school students define
intelligence: knowledge, skills and abilities; academic effort; achievement; decision making
and personal characteristics 379 . Taking the age of the student into consideration is impor-
tant in understanding how they perceive intelligence. If teachers are aware of these beliefs,
they can better recognize how it impacts students learning and organize their classroom
environments and curriculum accordingly.
Epistomological knowledge is also believed to depend on the age and experiences of the
child. According to studies done by Perry, as children progress through levels of education,
so did their level of knowledge. As individuals mature, their beliefs about the complexity
of knowledge, the justifications of knowledge and the effort required to obtain knowledge
began to change. This finding is important for teachers to understand that acquiring critical
thinking and justification of knowledge that is seen in the higher stages of reflective thinking
or relativistic stage comes with age and experience. Therefore teachers should not rush to
impose critical thinking, instead they should offer patience and support and take small steps
when introducing critical thinking 380 . The belief of intelligence being fixed or incremental
also affects the academic achievement of the student and their motivation. Students who
believe intelligence to be incremental see intelligence as something that requires effort. These
students see failing a test a result of not putting in enough effort in studying, improving
would require the motivation to applying more effort. This is different from students who
believe intelligence is something that is fixed, which led to learned helplessness and lack of
motivation to succeed in the next test. With these students teachers need to teach students
that school is about effort and intelligence is not something which is fixed 381 .

16.20.2 Development of Reasoning Skills and Reflective Thinking

Teachers need to ensure that they give information that challenge their student’s epistemo-
logical views 382 . Epistomologial beliefs influences the learning of the individuals. Those
who believe that learning is something that is complex, uncertain,effortful and requiring
justification tend to do well with their academics 383 .This is because they know that their
motivation changes their learning. They are also open to exploring the new ideas, and go
out there to find deeper contextual information.These are the learners who are in the higher
stages of the reflective thinking and those who are believed to be in the relativistic stage
384 . The beliefs in the epistemological knowledge is something that should be taught to the

teachers as well. This is because the teachers beliefs about knowledge and how it is acquired

378 Jones, B. D., Byrd, C. N., & Lusk, D. (2009). High school students’ beliefs about intelligence. Research
In The Schools, 16(2), 1-14.
379 Jones, B. D., Byrd, C. N., & Lusk, D. (2009). High school students’ beliefs about intelligence. Research
In The Schools, 16(2), 1-14.
380 Zhao, Q., Zhang, J., & Vance, K. (2013). Motivated or paralyzed? Individuals’ beliefs about intelligence
influence performance outcome of expecting rapid feedback
381 Zhao, Q., Zhang, J., & Vance, K. (2013). Motivated or paralyzed? Individuals’ beliefs about intelligence
influence performance outcome of expecting rapid feedback
382 Bendixen, L.D.(2002).A process model of Epistemic belief change. In Hofer, B.K., and Pintrich PR.(eds).
Personal Epistemology: The
383 Erdamar, G., & Alpan, G., (2013) Examining the epistemological beliefs and problem solving skills of
preservice teachers during teaching practice. Teaching in Higher Education, 18 (2), 129-143
384 Zhao, Q., Zhang, J., & Vance, K. (2013). Motivated or paralyzed? Individuals’ beliefs about intelligence
influence performance outcome of expecting rapid feedback

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affects the student’s learning process 385 . The teacher’s beliefs about teaching are deemed
important because they may be used to filter and interpret information, frame tasks, and
guide action 386 . The teachers who believed that they were the only source of information
that their students had, structured the class in a non-discussion one. This led to their stu-
dents believing that knowledge was certain, and the only sources of knowledge was from the
authority. This differs from the teachers that believed that knowledge is constructive, this
led to them designing the classroom in a more collaboration manner. The teachers would
encourage students, to think critically about the information that they were given. The
teacher also encouraged the student’s engagement with others because they knew that this
will help in making them more open to the new ideas. This also encouraged the students
in their reflective thinking. Therefore it is important that the teachers are trained not to
have the traditional view of thinking because this in turn influences the students.

16.20.3 Cultural Diversity

Figure 40 Figure 7 Canadian Mosaic Wall

British Columbia’s new curriculum has developed three competencies that students should
strive for during their education. One of the competencies that relates to the cultural
diversity of the beliefs about intelligence and knowledge is the positive personal and cultural
identity competency:

385 Braten.L.,& Ferguson. L.,(2015). Beliefs about sources of knowledge predict motivation for learning in
teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13-23
386 Erdamar, G., & Alpan, G., (2013) Examining the epistemological beliefs and problem solving skills of
preservice teachers during teaching practice. Teaching in Higher Education, 18 (2), 129-143

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”[T]he awareness, understanding, and appreciation of all the facets that contribute to a
healthy sense of oneself. It includes awareness and understanding of one’s family back-
ground, heritage(s), language(s), beliefs, and perspectives in a pluralistic society. Students
who have a positive personal and cultural identity value their personal and cultural narra-
tives, and understand how these shape their identity. Supported by a sense of self-worth,
self-awareness, and positive identity, students become confident individuals who take satis-
faction in who they are, and what they can do to contribute to their own well-being and to
the well-being of their family, community, and society.” 387
The multicultural classroom in Canadian schools require educators to be open-minded and
flexible when helping students develop their cultural identity and their beliefs. Figure 7
demonstrates the multicultural society that exists in Canada today. As mentioned earlier
in this chapter, the Western and Eastern cultures have a different view on intelligence and
knowledge. As a result, children need to be taught explicitly about how cultural identity
affects their beliefs about intelligence and knowledge
In terms of beliefs about intelligence, cultural differences give rise to different goal orien-
tations which in turn causes academic performances to vary. Therefore, teachers should
evaluate the beliefs and goal orientations of each individual student in a private session
to ensure that they are positive and useful. Unfortunately, there might be occasions, in
which students have negative beliefs and ineffective goal orientations because of the cul-
tural context they live in. For example, in Chen and Wong’s aforementioned study, there
appears to be a positive correlation between performance-approach, performance-avoidance
and mastery goals. In addition, these goals each seem to help Chinese students’ academic
achievement. However, an important point to keep in mind is that this correlation is most
likely based on the Chinese students’ desire of self-development, competition and avoid-
ance of failure. Educators should strive to encourage self-development to enable students
to taken on mastery goals, but competition and avoidance of failure are not features of a
good learning environment. There is a lot of stress that comes with competing and avoid-
ing failure. Even if academic achievement is obtained, educators need to be cautious. It
might be more effective to promote an incremental view of intelligence in the classroom
because students holding this view are more likely to focus on their own improvement and
to learn for the sake of mastery and enjoyment. Subsequently, students are more likely to
feel confident and satisfied with their learning.
As for beliefs about knowledge. cultural differences lead to different ways of developing
and utilizing knowledge. As mentioned earlier, the Western and Eastern cultures have
differing views of knowledge. Therefore the teacher should be willing to have a multicultural
classroom. For instance, one that has both the Socratic view and Confucian view and be
able to teach the students to implement one or the other depending with the situation and
the class that they are taking. The Socratic view is important for the social sciences classes
in which the students are supposed to question what they are learning since there is no
right or wrong answer. The Confucian view is helpful in learning the hard sciences. such as
physics, which adhere to the laws,meaning that the student has to grasp the fundamental
facts. The teacher should create a classroom that is group based so that the students can

387 Positive personal and cultural identity competency profiles. (n.d.). Retrieved March 02, 2016, from https:
//curriculum.gov.bc.ca/sites/curriculum.gov.bc.ca/files/pdf/PPCICompetencyProfiles.pdf.

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 Suggested Readings

be able to share their different beliefs and critically think about them 388 . Overall, teaching
children the Socratic and Confucian approaches explicitly can help students have a better
understanding of how cultural affects beliefs and thinking, which in turn prepares them to
collaborate with people in a multicultural society. Additionally, other cultures’ beliefs can
also be researched and it is highly encouraged that teachers keep themselves updated to
ensure that they are considering the effects of culture in their classrooms.

16.21 Suggested Readings

Bernardo, A. B. I. (2010). Extending hope theory: Internal and external locus of trait hope.
Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 944–949. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.036.
Haimovitz, K., Wormington, S. V., & Corpus, J. H. (2011). Dangerous mindsets: How
beliefs about intelligence predict motivational change. Learning And Individual Differences,
21(6), 747-752. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.09.002
OECD (2009), ”Teaching Practices, Teachers’ Beliefs and Attitudes”, in OECD. , Creating
Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS, OECD Publish-
ing, Paris. DOI: 10.1787/9789264068780-6

16.22 Glossary

Affective knowledge: Information acquired subjectively, based on emotional reaction.

Agency: Goal-directed determination, willpower.
Beliefs: personal opinions about the environment and the self
Certain knowledge: belief that knowledge is absolute
Cognitive knowledge: information acquired objectively and rationally.
Constructivist view: teachers are guides in helping students obtain knowledge, students
are active in their own learning
Dualist knowledge: belief that knowledge is either right or wrong
Entity theory: the belief that intelligence cannot be changed
Epistemological beliefs: beliefs about what knowledge is and how one acquires that
knowledge
Explicit beliefs: conscious beliefs that impact a person’s behaviour
Fixed ability: belief that one’s ability to learn is innate and cannot be changed for example
the student will believe that it is either they are born to grasp materials

388 Dahl, T., Bal., M.,& Turi, A.L. (2005) Are Student’s beliefs about knowledge and learning associated with
their reported use of strategies? British Journal of Educational Psychology 75, 257–273

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Motivation, Attribution and Beliefs About Learning

High hope: occurs when both agencies and pathways are present, students believe they
have ability of attaining their goals.
Implicit beliefs: subliminal beliefs that influence an individual’s behaviour
Implicit theory: involves an individual making unspoken speculations about the causes
of an event
Incremental theory: demonstrates that gradual modifications of intelligence are possible
Intelligence: a person’s capacity to adjust to, shape and choose an environment
Mastery-approach goals: bring about a commitment to improve competence and to
engage in meaningful learning, in which understanding is highly valued
Mastery-avoidance goals: give rise to hiding from inadequacy in relation to the self and
to an undertaking
Mastery orientation: includes the incremental theory and the desire to improve one’s
proficiency
Pathways: planning of ways to reach one’s goals
Performance-approach goals: concentrate on the desire to show proficiency by making
other people targets for competition
Performance-avoidance goals: focus on the finding ways to escape tasks that will likely
reflect failure when compared to others
Performance orientation: involves the belief in the entity theory and the display of
proficiency
Pre-reflective judgment: the stages in which knowledge is certain
Quasi-reflective judgment: the stages in which knowledge is uncertain
Quick learning: the belief that learning is fast process or it completely does not occur.
Relativist knowledge: belief that knowledge can be evaluated based on personal experi-
ence
Reflective Judgement: the stages in which knowledge is content based
Simple knowledge: knowledge is organized in bits and pieces, meaning that for one to
understand it, it has to be broken down into smaller simple parts
Traditional views: teachers act as an authority figure while students are passive recipients
of knowledge.

16.23 References

280
17 Technologies and Designs for Learning

In order to best use technology for teaching and learning, teachers and designers need to
understand its potential benefits and pitfalls. This chapter examines theories about how
cognitive processes are affected by multimedia learning environments and evidence-based
principles for designing such environments. The first section introduces cognitive load theory
and describes how the cognitive demands of a multimedia environment affect how students
learn from it. The second section introduces the four component instructional design model
which offers research-based guidance for designing materials and technologies to facilitate
learning of complex skills. Finally, this chapter will look at how technology can be used to
facilitate collaborative learning.

17.1 Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive load theory is an important aspect when looking at technology in the educational
setting. Cognitive load theory is a theory proposed by John Sweller and focuses on
working memory and instruction.1 Our working memory is only capable of processing a
limited amount of information at one time2 When designing instructional tools working
memory’s limitations is something that needs to be kept in mind, especially when factoring
technology into instruction. The reason behind this is that if too much information is
presented simultaneously working memory can become overloaded will either to fail to take
in all of the information being presented or will shut down completely and take in none of
the information. Sweller proposed that there are three types of cognitive load: intrinsic,
extraneous, and germane. Through understanding the differences between these three types
of cognitive load we should be able to analyze how multimedia presentations are helpful for
learning or if they cause cognitive load issues 3

1 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
2 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
3 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.

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Technologies and Designs for Learning

Figure 41 How Cognitive Load Affects Working Memory

17.1.1 Intrinsic Cognitive Load

Intrinsic cognitive load refers to mental processing that is essential to completing a

task.4 Intrinsic cognitive load according to Sweller is something that cannot be changed
by instructional design but needs to be taken into account by instructional designers5 Any
material that is being learned places intrinsic cognitive load on working memory, the level of
difficulty is what changes how much pressure is put on the working memory6 If a student’s
level of expertise is high in the topic being learned then intrinsic cognitive load will still
affect working memory just not as much as if the student had little to no knowledge on the
topic in question7 In this case the level of previous knowledge and understanding of the topic
in question needs to be taken into account when presenting a class with new information.
For example if a person already had some knowledge about oranges, a lesson on the parts
of oranges would cause less intrinsic cognitive load than if they didn’t know anything about
oranges.

17.1.2 Extraneous Cognitive Load

Extraneous cognitive load is mental processing that does not promote learning and
which can be eliminated by changing the design of a task.8 Extraneous cognitive load

4 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
5 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
6 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
7 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
8 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0

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 Cognitive Load Theory

is entirely determined by instructional design9 For example in a multimedia presentation

extraneous cognitive load is the sounds, pictures, text, and animations that could be used
to present the material. The more that the working memory has to attend to the less likely
it is going to retain the information presented10 Extraneous cognitive load is manageable,
good instructional design lessens the load while poor design can increase the load. For
example, a teacher is doing a lesson on the life cycle of a butterfly and decides to use a slide
show on the smart board. In the slide show the teacher outlines all the relevant information
about each part of the cycle but they add an animation of the butterfly evolving through
the stages. In this case the extraneous cognitive load would increase because the students
have to pay attention to the relevant information while being distracted by the animation.

17.1.3 Germane Cognitive Load

Germane cognitive load the amount of working memory devoted to processing the
amount of intrinsic cognitive load associated with the information presented and is as-
sociated only with a learner’s characteristics11 He notes that germane cognitive load does
not cause an independent strain on working memory rather, it is directly associated with
intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load levels. For example if we assume that a student’s
level of motivation stays constant they have no control over their level of germane cognitive
load12 So what does this have to do with instruction? According to Sweller, this means
that if lessons are created to allow working memory to focus on intrinsic cognitive load,
by reducing extraneous cognitive load, germane cognitive load is increased and the level of
learning increases as well.

17.1.4 Research and Implications

Intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load are relational, in other words if both are high then
working memory can become overloaded13 The implications are that because only extrane-
ous cognitive load can be controlled instructional designers need to work to keep it low so as
not to overload working memory when the intrinsic cognitive load is high14 According to the
theory, in order to reduce extraneous cognitive load we should take advantage of long term
memory’s vast capacity by drawing on existing schemas and creating new ones, thereby

9 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
10 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
11 Sweller, J. (2010). Element Interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Educa-
tional Psychology Review 22(2), 123-138. doi: 10.1007//s10648-010-9128-5
12 Sweller, J. (2010). Element Interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Educa-
tional Psychology Review 22(2), 123-138. doi: 10.1007//s10648-010-9128-5
13 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
14 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.

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reducing the strain on working memory15 These include: presenting goal free problems,
useful redundancy, modality, completion problem effect, split attention effect and others16
To start, goal free problems were designed by to change student activities to reduce ex-
traneous cognitive load and to encourage schema production17 They do this by reducing
the chance a student will use goal related strategies to try to solve the problem. This is
done by changing how a problem is worded so that students don’t limit themselves to trial
and error testing which, can take up a lot of working memory’s capacity18 For example, a
math problem asks: a train is traveling at fifty kilometers per hour and travels a distance
of 400 kilometers. How long did it take? If a student doesn’t know the correct formula
for calculating time when having the above information they will start a trial and error
approach to finding the answer, which will increase extraneous cognitive load. However, if
the question asked the student to show as many ways as you can to calculate the answer
instead it will reduce the extraneous cognitive load on working memory.
The worked example effect is when a person studies already worked examples to learn how
to solve a problem, this also reduces the trial and error approach to problem solving because
it provides the student a way to create a schema on how to solve these particular types of
problems19 Unlike regular problems, worked problems focus a person’s attention on the steps
needed to solve a problem rather than on the problem as a whole, theoretically reducing
extraneous cognitive load because nothing else needs to be attended to20 In this case if a
teacher gives students a new equation in math and then proceeds to provide them with a
list some of examples where this equation can be used to solve problems the students have
a resource to use when it comes to using the equation, which reduces cognitive load.
The theory behind useful redundancy is that if a student is presented with the same in-
formation but in different ways they will be more likely to remember it21 The idea is that
because it is the same information just presented in different ways the extraneous cognitive
load will lessen because learners choose which way they prefer to attend to the information22
However, research has since been conducted that brings this claim into question studies have
shown that rather than promote deeper learning it lessens it23

15 van Merrienboer, J., & Ayres, P. (2005). Research on cognitive load theory and its design implications for
e-learning. Educational Technology Research and Development 53(3), 5-13
16 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
17 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
18 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
19 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
20 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
21 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
22 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
23 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.

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In a study conducted by Mayer, Heiser, and Lonn a series of experiments were conducted
to investigate the redundancy effect in multimedia learning24 . They define the redundancy
effect as a multimedia learning situation where words are presented as text and speech and
the learning is hindered by the dual presentation of information25 In the first experiment 78
college students were tested on retention and transfer of information based on a multimedia
presentation on the formation of lightening. The students were divided into four test groups.
The no-text/no-seductive-details group received animation and concurrent narration, the
text/no-seductive-details group received the presentation with added on screen text that
summarized the narration. The no-text/seductive-details group received a presentation that
contained text that had irrelevant but entertaining information. The last group received
both an on screen text summary and entertaining irrelevant information26 The results of
this first experiment found that the students who received the on screen text summary
remembered less on the retention test than those who did not have the on screen text. As
well, students who received the seductive details also retained less than those who did not
receive seductive details27 This first experiment falls in line with the theory that over use
of details on a multimedia presentation is detrimental to retention of information. They
hypothesised that the redundancy effect caused by the on screen text could have been due
to the increased cognitive load in the visual channel, or in the auditory channel. The second
experiment set out to test this hypothesis by breaking the participants into three groups.
The first group contained 36 students who received no added text to the presentation,
the second contained 37 students who received a summary of the narration, and the third
group contained 36 students who received a presentation with added word for word text of
the narration28 The results showed that the students who received no added text to their
presentation remembered more than those who had the added text. They also found that
there was no significant difference in retention between the two groups that had added
text. The third experiment set out to discover what happens when video clips are added
to multimedia presentations. In this experiment the video clips that were added contained
information about lightening but that they were not relevant to the specific information
presented in the original presentation29 Thirty eight college students were divided into
two groups, the no video clip group and the group that had video clips added to the
presentation. They found that the students in the added video group did not remember
any more than the no video group but the results failed to reach statistical significance30 The
last experiment conducted looked at whether adding video clips before or after a multimedia
presentation boosts interest in the presentation. The results showed that adding video clips
to the beginning of a presentation results in students remembering more of the presentation

24 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
25 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
26 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
27 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
28 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
29 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
30 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.

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although the results were not statistically significant31 Overall, this study concluded that
adding extra modes of presenting the same information reduced the amount of information
that students will retain after seeing a multimedia presentation. When a learner has to
divide their working memory to make sense of the information presented the extraneous
cognitive load is increased which reduces the amount of information that can be learned.
This is especially important when text is added to a presentation. Mayer, Heiser, and
Lonn recommend that instructional designers should refrain from adding text when the
information is presented orally in multimedia presentations32 .
Some theorize that those who work on instructional design can go further than only consid-
ering ways to reduce extraneous cognitive load. They feel that instructional design can be
improved by creating ways to increase germane cognitive load in learners33 By increasing
a learner’s germane cognitive load they feel that the learner’s attention can be directed to
the construction of schemas which in turn reduce the strain on working memory during the
learning process.

17.1.5 Summary

In summary Sweller proposes that there are three types of cognitive load and all effect
how our working memory is utilized when learning new information. The implications of
cognitive load theory on the use of technology in instructional design is that technology can
be an effective learning tool as long as guidelines are followed in order to reduce extraneous
cognitive load on working memory. In particular teachers need to pay attention to the
research conducted on redundancy effect so that they do not overload working memory
with redundant information. One way in which technology can be utilized is to present
information in ways that help with schema production, which reduces cognitive load by
moving information into long term memory.

17.2 Four-Component Instructional Design

Four Component Instructional Design (4C/ID) is an instructional design model developed

by van Merriënboer and his colleagues. It prescribes instruction for learning in a complex
environment. The 4C/ID model is based on the idea that skills are learned most effectively
by using them instead of just reading instructions from a text. It is important that the
conditions of learning are similar to what the learner would encounter in real-world applica-
tions of the skill, and instruction emphasizes practice rather than information giving. The
4C/ID model consists four components: (1) Learning Task, (2) Supportive Information, (3)
Just-in-Time (JIT) Information, and (4) Part-Task Practice (van Merriënboer, 1997;34 ; van

31 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
32 Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting
more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
33 Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-0251S15.00/0
34 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2007). These tasks are ordered from task difficulty, less complex
to more complex. At the beginning of each four components, lots of scaffolding is required,
and gradually reduce in amount of scaffolding as learners progress. In this section we will
discuss researches and theories about how technology can support this theory of learning.

17.2.1 (1) Learning Task

Learning Task is represented as circles in Figure 1. Complex learning involves achieving

integrated sets of learning goals. The 4C/ID model promotes use of learning tasks that
are whole, authentic, and concrete. Learners participating in the online courses, other wise
known as technology-based instruction, based on this model it is important to begin learning
as a cluster of relatively simple , but meaningful tasks called task classes. It is impossi-
ble to provide highly complex learning tasks from the beginning of the training program
because this will slow down excessive cognitive overload for the learner. This will lead to
learning and performance impairments 35 . Once learners master the simple but necessary
components, they progress towards more complex tasks. Complexity of a task is determined
by the number of skills involved in task classes, how they relate each other, and amount of
knowledge needed to perform them. While there is no increasing difficulty for the learning
tasks within one task classes, they do differ with regard to the amount of support provided
to learners. This support that a child receives is called scaffolding 36 . Scaffolding is used
when needed in situations such as learners moving from the lowest level task classes to the
top-level task classes. Dotted lines around the circles in Figure 1 represents the process of
selection and development of suitable learning tasks for a child. Eventually, supports and
scaffolding fades as a result. Fading support is due to the expertise reversal effect. It
is the phenomenon where supports (e.g. coaching) and instructional methods (systematic
steps) that works well for novices can have negative effects for advanced learners due to
redundancies 37 . It also increases their cognitive load. Learning tasks stimulate learners to
construct cognitive schemata by mindfully abstracting away from the concrete experiences
that the learning tasks provide 38 . In learning, generalization and discrimination consists
schemata to make them more in line with new experiences 39 . According to van Merriën-
boer, Clark, and Croock 40 these to-be-constructed schemata comes in two forms. Mental
Models: that allows reasoning in the domain because they reflect the way in which the
learning domain is organized. Cognitive Strategies: guides problem solving in the domain
because they reflect the way problems may be effectively approached. Product-oriented
and Process-oriented supports are the two ways to applying learning tasks in a classroom
setting. Product-oriented support can be divided into highest or lesser degree. Highest

35 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
36 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
37 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
38 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
39 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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40 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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product-oriented support is a learning task that provides a case study or worked-out ex-
amples that confronts the learner with a given state , a desired goal state, and a solution,
intermediate solutions, or both 41 . It is desirable to use accidents, success stories, or stories
with unexpected ending to motivate student learning. In these learning tasks, learners are
required to answer questions that stimulates deeper processing and the indiction of mental
models from the given example materials. By demonstrating a real-life example, learners
can get a clear impression of how a particular domain is organized. It is necessary to allow
students to come up with their own conclusion/solution. More information can be retrieved
from Figure 2. Process-oriented support is also directed towards the problem-solving process
itself. A modeling example confronts the learner with an expert who is performing the task
while explaining why the task is performed as it is performed. This is a hands-on experience
allows children to retrieve information a lot easier than information gathered by reading
texts. This method also helps retain information easier than other learning methods 42 .
By studying by using the modeling example, learners can get a clear understanding of the
systematic approaches and rules of thumb that even professionals use 43 . Thinking aloud
may be helpful to bring the hidden mental problem-solving processes as well. Moreover,
computer-based learning tools may invite learners to approach the problem at hand as an
expert would do.

17.2.2 (2) Supportive Information

This type of information plays a role in developing complex skill using technology. Learn-
ers need information in order to work successfully on nonrecurrent skills (schemata-like
controlled processes) aspects of learning tasks and to genuinely learn from those tasks 44 .
Procedure-like automatic processes are called recurrent skills in the 4C/ID framework 45 .
Complex cognition consists of both nonrecurrent and recurrent skills. Supportive informa-
tion is provided to help learners master the nonrecurrent aspects of complex cognitive task.
It provides a bridge between learners’ prior knowledge and the learning tasks 46 . It is the in-
formation that teachers typically refer it to the theory and often presented during lectures or
in study books . The goal of supportive information is to help learners acquire the different
kinds of flexible schemata needed to cope with real life problems. Supportive information
plays as an additional to or an elaboration of the previous information and help students
to establish factual relationships between newly presented information elements and their
prior knowledge 47 . It allows learners to do things that could not be done before. It has

41 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
42 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
43 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
44 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
45 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
46 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
47 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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been shown that this type of elaboration process produces highly complex schemata that
should allow for deeper understanding. Learners may study how databases are organized in
order to develop useful mental models. Task performers further develop their mental models
and cognitive strategies in order to improve their performance. For example, Tiger Woods
makes extensive study of the layout of golf courses to develop mental models of how they are
organized. Also by him watching videotapes of his competitors help him develop cognitive
strategies of how to approach problems in this world (real-world) 48 . It is of utmost impor-
tance to stress non-arbitrary relationships. Methods that identify relevant relationships can
be used in an expository fashion or in an inquiry fashion. Expository methods allows learn-
ers to explicitly present the non-arbitrary relationships. Inquiry methods ask the learners to
discover the relationships. Within these two methods, experiential one is the most impor-
tant relationship. It relates general and abstract knowledge to concrete cases 49 . The 4C/ID
model furthermore distinguishes inductive and deductive strategies for presenting support-
ive information. There are two types of inductive strategies. Inductive-Inquiry Strategy is
a method that presents one or more case studies and then asks the learners to identify
the relationships between pieces of information illustrated in the case(s). However, this
method is very time consuming and requires deep level of understanding although learners
have no experience with the skill. Therefore van Merriënboer, Clark, and Croock (2002) 50
does not recommend using this method unless there is enough instructional time available.
Inductive-Expository Strategy on the other hand, starts with one or more case studies and
then explicitly presents the relationships between pieces of information that were illustrated
in the cases. Merriënboer, Clark, and Croock (2002)51 suggests using this approach by de-
fault since this strategy is more reasonable and time effective by starting with concrete, and
recognizable case studies that works well for learners with little prior knowledge. Cognitive
Feedback is known as a final part of supportive information. This refers to the nonrecurrent
aspects of performance since nonrecurrent performances are never correct or incorrect, it is
rather more or less effective. Cognitive feedback can only be presented once learners have
finished one or more, or all, learning tasks. When feedbacks are well-designed, it should
stimulate learners to reflect on the quality of their personal problem-solving processes and
founded solutions 52 .

17.2.3 (3) Just-in-Time (JIT) Information

In contrast to supportive information, JIT information is aimed at the recurrent aspects of

complex skills. It is the prerequisite to the learning and performance of recurrent aspects of
learning tasks or practice items. Automaticity depends heavily on consistency, and repet-
itive practice. JIT information gives learners the step-by-step guidance when needed then

48 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
49 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
50 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
51 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
52 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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fades quickly. The goal of JIT information is to make basic, but critical skills as automatic
as possible, as soon as possible. Freeing cognitive resources, leading to more automaticity
becomes crucial to advanced learners. It also provides a step-by-step knowledge, such as
teachers or tutors directing learners almost acting as an assistant looking over their shoul-
der. JIT information is identical for many learning tasks, therefore it is typically provided
during the first learning task for which the skill is relevant 53 . Similarly to scaffolding, JIT
information goes through a principle called fading, that is a quick fade as learners gain
more expertise in the learning material. Instructional method of JIT information mainly
promote complication through restricted encoding of situation-specific knowledge into cog-
nitive rules 54 . These rules are formed through multiple practice and this process is when
information is necessary for forming the rules is directly available from our working mem-
ory. Applying this into a real-life situation, for instance, when one is learning golf, your
coach will preferably explain how to hold a club, taking stances, and making swings out on
the driving range while making first drives, and not during a lecture in a classroom 55 . This
goes the same for learners in a classroom setting. Information Displays is organized in small
units, this is considered to be essential because controlling the number of new information
to bear minimum prevent processing overload during practice. In a real-life situation, for
instance, a manual for complex machine may explain the steps one by one rather than
assuming user’s prior knowledge and only stating some of the steps. This approach should
directly present information displays when the learners need the information to work on the
recurrent aspects of a particular learning task56 . However, in some situations this approach
is not always helpful. Training for a job, for instance, learning aids such as on-line help
system, checklists, and manuals are available and readily accessible. This is due to lack of
direct presentation of JIT information when necessary. Demonstrations and Instances are
the name for elements of the recurrent skill, also known as generalities. Just like rules can
be applied in various situations, these are called demonstrations; for concepts, plans, and
principle, on the other hand are called instances 57 . Cognitive Feedback is considered as a
final part of JIT information which relates to feedback that is provided on the recurrent
aspects of performance. This feedback should promote compilation, meaning that if rules
are not correctly applied to the situation, learners are said to make an ”error” 58 . These
feedbacks are recommended to be presented as early as possible. This is for learners to cor-
rectly input the right information into their working memory. The 4C/ID model genuinely
believe that errors are inevitable in learning and it also plays an important role in a sense
that learners learn to recognize their own mistakes and errors, and learn how to recover
from them.Well-designed feedbacks should inform the learner why there was an error and

53 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
54 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
55 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
56 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
57 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
58 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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provide suggestions or hints of how to achieve their goal. It becomes crucial not to give out
answers to encourage their learning process 59 .

17.2.4 (4) Part-Task Practice

Learning tasks are designed to promote schema construction, and also facilitate compilation
for recurrent aspects of the complex skills. The last component of 4C/ID model, part-task
practice provides additional practice for selected recurrent skills in order to reach required
level of automaticity. It is a way of automatizing procedural knowledge more rapidly while
circumventing cognitive load problems resulting when learners try to develop skills while
simultaneously trying to solve a problem. Expertise is ordinarily a slow-developing process
that depends on extending practice to automatize the productions that directly control
behavior. JIT information presentation aims at restricted encoding of newly presented
information in rules 60 . Learners practice would be supported through appropriate JIT in-
formation until they achieve automaticity. van Merriënboer and his associates believed that
some part-task practice can help reduce task complexity due to relatively short and spaced
periods of it intermixed with work on complex, authentic tasks 61 . This pattern allows the
learner to practice sub skills and relate them to the overall task. It is important that prac-
ticed items are divergent for all situation/environment that underlying rules can deal with.
However, when a high level of automaticity of recurrent aspects are required, learning tasks
may provide insufficient repetition to provide necessary amount of strengthening. This is
when we need to include additional part-task practice 62 . Other situations such as learning
in a general environment, part-task practice is not helpful to complex learning. Part-task
practice promotes the compilation of procedures or rules and specially their subsequent
strengthening. These are a very slow process that requires numerous practice items. Exam-
ples for part-task practice are multiplication tables or playing scales on musical instruments.
It becomes critical to start part-task practice within an appropriate cognitive context since
it has been found effectively only after learners were exposed to an easier version of the
complex skill 63 . Task hierarchy indicates that either, they enable the performance of many
other skills higher in the hierarchy, or it has to be performed simultaneously with many
other coordinate skills 64 . Therefore, one should identify the first task class then initiate
part-task practice.Practice Items for par-task practice encourages learners to practice num-
ber of times just like the saying, ”Practice makes perfect”. However, learners have to keep
in mind that the whole set of practice items should be divergent, and be applicable in all
situations. This will help develop a broad set of situation-specific rules. In cases such as
highly complex algorithms, it may be necessary to work from simple to complex practice

59 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
60 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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61 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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62 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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63 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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64 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
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items to decompose it into parts then gradually combine towards the whole task. This
approach is called a Part-Whole Approach 65 . Right use of part-task practice will lead to
accurate performance of a recurrent skill. Furthermore, extensive amount of overtraining
may be necessary to make the skill fully automatic. For tasks that highly relies of auto-
maticity, sometimes the ultimate goal is not be accurate. It is common, in such cases, that
acceptable accuracy combined with high speed and performance skills as a whole is the goal.
In order to reach this, the recurrent skills are first practiced under speed stress, then once
the speed criteria is reached, the skill is practiced under time-sharing condition. Only then,
the skll is practiced in the context as a whole task. In other words, performance criteria
gradually change from accuracy, to accuracy combined with speed, to accuracy combined
with speed under time-sharing conditions or high overall workload 66 . It is suggested that
short, spaced periods of part-task practice or overtraining has better results than long,
concentrated periods of part-task practice. Part-task practice is best intertwined with the
learning tasks because this provides distrubuted practice and also enables the learners to
relate the recurrent constituent skill to the whole complex skill 67 .

17.2.5 Research and Implementation

Recent study on the effectiveness of learning environments using one-by-one-by-two pretest-

posttest quasi-experimental design from Frederick K. Sarfo and Jan Elen (2007) concluded
that 4C/ID method combined with Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
showed the best result in learning gains 68 . The dependent variable was the learning gain
which was calculated by subtracting pretest score from posttest scores. The independent
variable was the tree treatment conditions. Three groups compared were; regular method of
teaching vs 4C/ID learning environment with ICT vs 4C/ID learning environment without
ICT. The sample consisted of 129 students selected from six Secondary Technical School
in Ghana with the age mean of 18 and Standard Deviation of 1.3 years. Assessment tasks
consisted of 26 pretest and posttest items; 13 retention and 13 transfer test. Result revealed
a statistically significant difference between student’s pretest and posttest in all three groups.
With average pretest across all groups being 6.28, the average posttest across all groups
were 14.39. Taking a closer look into the data presented by Frederick K. Sarfo and Jan Elen
(2007), study claim that 4C/ID learning environment with ICT scored higher in both pretest
and posttest 69 . Researchers conclude that these results indicates that the experimental

65 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
66 Salisbury, D.F., Richards, B.F., & Klein, D. (1985). Designing practice: A review of prescriptions and
recommendations from instructional design theories. Journal of InstructionalDevelopment, 8(4), 9- 19.
67 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
68 Sarfo, F., & Elen, J. (2007). Developing technical expertise in secondary technical schools: The ef-
fect of 4C/ID learning environments. Learning Environ Res Learning Environments Research, 207-221.
doi:10.1007/s10984-007-9031-2
69 Sarfo, F., & Elen, J. (2007). Developing technical expertise in secondary technical schools: The ef-
fect of 4C/ID learning environments. Learning Environ Res Learning Environments Research, 207-221.
doi:10.1007/s10984-007-9031-2

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group was better able to solve problems that required reasoning, reflection and recall of
procedures, facts and concepts 70 .
Using this Four Component Instructional Design in a classroom setting will help students
learn better specially in a complex environment. In order to apply this model, teachers
who are teaching the material should be an expert in the field. This will help answer all
questions that students may have and helps children understand the course material deeper.
Additional support from media or technology specialist may be required. Most importantly,
in this model, it becomes essential for teachers-students, and student-student to work as a
collaborative team.

17.2.6 Summary

Four Component Instructional Design model is based on research on cognitive learning

and expertise. It provides a framework for designing technology systems for developing
complex skills. According to the model, experiences should be realistic and increasingly
more authentic tasks; such as projects, cases, and scenarios. Instructions given to the
learner should focus on practice and not information giving 71 . These components will be
practiced until one achieves the required level of automaticity, without any scaffolding. Once
children accomplished all four components, it can be said the one mastered the knowledge
or activities. Most importantly, the 4C/ID model does not propagate the idea of errorless
learning 72 . The 4C/ID model should be used to develop training programs for complex
skills and when transfer is the overarching learning outcome. This model is not developed
for teaching conceptual knowledge or procedural skills, and not useful for designing very
short programs 73 . Despite all these studies, further research continues on Four Component
Instructional Design model.

17.3 Collaborative Learning

Learning collaboratively through pieces of technology systems

As technology is becoming more advanced so are its uses in which individuals can gain
and share information. Collaborative learning which is sharing and learning knowledge
through peers/groups has become a focal point for different interactions through technology
systems. Social interactions are an important factor in cognitive growth. Student inter-
actions with their peers and teacher are among the most important of these exchanges.74

70 Sarfo, F., & Elen, J. (2007). Developing technical expertise in secondary technical schools: The ef-
fect of 4C/ID learning environments. Learning Environ Res Learning Environments Research, 207-221.
doi:10.1007/s10984-007-9031-2
71 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.
72 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
73 Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model.
ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-64.
74 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.

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However, a question that comes up is how can technology help or incorporate these types
of interactions. Ways in which good technology design can help students is to note how
our cognitive system works, these are things such as attention, working memory, and long
term-memory as well as how complex cognitive skills develop. An example of this is the
need for supportive and JIT (just-in-time) information, coaching, and scaffolding for ef-
fective learning strategies. A key thing to remember is that a good design system works
with our cognitive systems. This section will be broken down into different models of tech-
nology designs and how collaborative learning may or may not be effective within these
systems, The different models in which it will be broken down are learning through/from
experts, learning with peers, learning through inquiry, learning through creation, and learn-
ing through games. Collaborative learning is seen as a great tool for teachers and students
when it comes to education and information being taught or shared. It allows students
to experience what it is like working with other peers. However, although it can be seen
as a great system to have and incorporate in classrooms it does have some flaws and are
still being fully developed to be used in the most effective ways for teachers and students.
Teachers should not heavily rely on these types of technology systems but they can be useful
and informative.
One of the first things to consider when discussing various systems of technology and their
possible implications is how do people learn? It is often seen that many students have
trouble with learning information because they are more focused on memorizing rather
than understanding.75 However, Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon said a great piece that “the
meaning of ‘knowing’ has shifted from being able to remember and repeat information to
being able to find and use it.” In order for students to develop a better understanding in
subject matter they must have a deep foundation for factual knowledge, understanding facts
and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework and organize knowledge in ways that
facilitate retrieval and application. What does this mean exactly in terms of knowledge?
Having a deep foundation of factual knowledge, students are aware of the information
that is true and relevant to what they are learning. Understanding facts and ideas in
the context of a conceptual framework, meaning students understand the material in the
context that it is placed in, and how it relates to that topic. Organize knowledge in ways
that facilitate retrieval and application, is helping students take that knowledge that they
have or are learning and being able to apply it to other areas or topics. These requirements
do however have some difficulties when it comes to implementing them in class or within
the curriculum. It becomes difficult for teachers because students come into the classroom
with these preconceived notions about what they already know. As well as, teachers have a
set amount of information they need to teach, it becomes difficult when they have to go into
depth in every topic or re-teach certain areas multiple times. As students progress through
their school careers many teachers believe they are taught certain material from the previous
years, this is not always the case. Some students may feel like they are behind, or are too
afraid to ask questions and ask for help. This is where the incorporation of technology
systems may be able to help or at least ease the pressure off teachers and allow students to
use them within the classroom or on their on time. Now these technology systems are not
to take the place of the teacher but rather complement the teacher’s lesson. It is not their
job to be the foundation for learning but instead they can act as a review to help students

75 Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn. Washington DC: National
Academy Press. (pp. 1-50)

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with exams or projects. Teachers who rely too heavily on these technology systems may
lose a lot of material and interaction that the students can only receive from a physical
being. Believing that technology can take the place of teachers is not the proper way of
looking at the systems that are being created, they should be viewed as more of a tool to
help aid those who take advantage of using them.
To give a brief descriptions about what these systems are-
Learning from Experts: Cognitive Tutors & Telementoring
The first type of technology system is learning from experts, two examples of this are
known as cognitive tutors and telementoring. Cognitive tutors, is “a type of intelligent
tutor that supports ‘guided learning by doing’ ” 76 . Cognitive tutors are based around
John Anderson’s ACT theory. This theory contains three main principles, the first one
is procedural-declarative distinction, the second one is knowledge compilation, and the
third one is strengthening through practice. 77 The main focus of cognitive tutors is to
monitor students learning as well as provide them with context specific feedback when a
student needs it. The primary focus for cognitive tutors are in the areas of mathematics and
computer programming. This is able to help students get a better understanding of material
while working at their own pace they can also work with others to solve and work through
the problems together. One study that was done with cognitive tutors, was a study done
by Kenneth R. Koedinger, called Intelligent Tutoring Goes To School in the Big City. In
this study “The Pittsburgh Urban Mathematics Project (PUMP) [had] produced an algebra
curriculum that is centrally focused on mathematical analysis of real world situations and
the use of computational tools. We have built an intelligent tutor, called PAT, that supports
this curriculum and has been made a regular part of 9th grade Algebra in 3 Pittsburgh
schools. PAT was useful because it was able to help students who had difficulty learning in
classrooms. In the 1994-95 school year, the PAT curriculum expanded to include 10 lessons
and 214 problem situations. Students are in the computer lab two days a week, working
with PAT at a self-paced rate. Student time on the tutor will more than double (roughly
from 25 to 70 days) compared to the 93-94 school year.” 78 Telementoring or better known
as ‘e-mentoring’ or ‘online-mentoring’ 79 provides students with the opportunity to work
with another individual with problems they may be having with course material. Mentoring
interactions occur with problems that students are having and questions that they think
of. A downfall to telementoring is that students do not get to work with the same adult
over and over again. Although they are collaborating they do not get to build a connection
with the mentor as some students do with teachers. They do not get the physical one on
one interaction with a teacher and the connection is different in comparison to virtually
speaking/learning from an individual. This can also be a pitfall with cognitive tutors and
learning through any software is not building a relationship with a teacher or mentor and
feeling as if there is a disconnect.

76 Bollen, L., Harrer, A., Mclaren, B. M., Seawall, J., & Walker, E. (1995) Collaboration and Cognitive
Tutoring: Integration, Empirical Results, and Future Direction
77 Anderson, J., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Pelletier, R. (1995). Cognitive tutors: Lessons learned:
Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4(2), 167-207.
78 Anderson, J. R., Hadley, W. H., Koedinger, K. R., & Mark, M. A. (1997).Intelligent tutoring goes to
school in the big city. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education (IJAIED), 8, 30-43.
79 Anderson, J. R., Hadley, W. H., Koedinger, K. R., & Mark, M. A. (1997). Intelligent tutoring goes to
school in the big city. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education (IJAIED), 8, 30-43.

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Technologies and Designs for Learning

Learning with Peers: Knowledge Forum & Starburst

Knowledge forum is a collaboration platform for students to build upon ideas. It places
emphasis on community rather than the individual. Knowledge forum is a place where
students or individuals can create databases where knowledge is built, this is where collab-
oration is highly involved. The main components of knowledge forums are what are known
as notes and views. 80 A view is a way to organize the notes made by individuals, this
can take the shape of a concept map, a diagram, or anything that visually adds structure.
the notes appear within these structures. This is also great because it involves the concept
of visually learning as well because through the diagrams and maps students are able to
connect ideas and see how the connections are made. This is a way for students to all work
together on a topic and provide information on a database that can continuously grow.
However, knowledge forums are not the only place students and individuals should get their
knowledge experience. Learning material through books, and lectures, as well as going on
field-trips allows individuals to get a better understanding and perspective. Knowledge
forum is just a database where the topic is shaped and evolves. Similar to knowledge fo-
rum starburst also provides a place for students to collaborate with others in sharing ideas
through a database. However starburst the ideas spread out like a web getting larger and
larger. These two systems mainly focus on peer interactions and collaboration among indi-
viduals in order for knowledge to build and grow. A study that was shown using knowledge
forums was done by Carol and Yuen Yan Chan. In their study, which is taken directly
from their article written: “The sample includes 521 secondary school students in Forms
One to Six (ages 12–17) from eight secondary schools in Hong Kong. These participants
were involved in a research project on computer-supported knowledge building. The sample
includes 322 male and 199 female students, with 216 from junior high (Grades 7–9, ages 12–
14) and 305 from senior high schools (Grades 10–12, ages 15–17). Students in Hong Kong
are streamed into different bands according to their academic achievements; there were 267
students from high-band schools and 254 students from low-band schools.This study took
place in the context of a University-School Partnership project on developing knowledge-
building pedagogy for elementary and secondary teachers in Hong Kong. The context of
the project included university researchers/mentors providing professional development to
teachers. There were regular workshops throughout the year to help teachers better under-
stand knowledge-building epistemology and pedagogy; groups of project teachers meeting
to plan their curricula collectively; and classroom visits with university researchers and
teachers. Regarding knowledge building pedagogy, in a typical knowledge-building class-
room, students usually start by identifying areas of inquiry and putting forth their ideas
and questions, ‘making ideas public’ for collective improvement is emphasized 81 . In Asian
classrooms, it is particularly important for students to experience working together as a
community. In this project, classroom and online discourse were integrated, with students
contributing notes to Knowledge Forum as they engaged in collaborative inquiry – posing
questions, putting forth ideas and theories, building on others’ ideas, and co-constructing
explanations to advance their collective knowledge. Data were collected from two question-

80 Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: theory, pedagogy, and technology. In R.
K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 97–119). New York: Cambridge
University Press
81 Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: theory, pedagogy, and technology. In R.
K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 97–119). New York: Cambridge
University Press

296
 Collaborative Learning

naires examining students’ views of collaboration and online learning, and their preferred
approaches to learning. After examining the questionnaire data, we excluded items on
online learning that showed variable responses, and focused on the questionnaire items on
knowledge-building and approaches to learning. We also employed students’ usage statistics
on Knowledge Forum derived from Analytic Toolkit to examine their online forum participa-
tion.The questionnaire, comprising 12 items, written in Chinese, examined students’ views
of collaboration aligned with the notion of knowledge building 82 . Students were asked to
use a 5-point Likert scale to rate the questionnaire items that reflected their experience of
collaboration while working on knowledge building. In assessing these items, the students
could refer to both face-to-face and online collaboration To measure students’ online fo-
rum participation, Analytic Toolkit was used to retrieve and analyze summary statistics on
individual students’ activity in Knowledge Forum. Analytic Toolkit Version 4.6 provides
up to 27 analyses to show how students interact with each other in the Knowledge Forum
database. We selected several of the most frequently employed indices from previous stud-
ies, including those that have been grouped into overall indices with good construct validity
with quality of forum writing (e.g., van Aalst & Chan, 2007; Lee et al., 2006; Niu & van
Aalst, 2009). The indices are as follows: (i) Number of notes written: This is included
because it is the most commonly used index for measuring online participation. (ii) Scaf-
folds: This index refers to the number of scaffolds (thinking prompts) used. Knowledge
Forum includes scaffolds such as “I need to understand”, “a better theory”, and “putting our
knowledge together”. Scaffolds help students to frame ideas and to signpost their ideas to
others for interaction and dialogue. (iii) Revision: Students’ attempts to revise their notes
are recorded. From a knowledge-building perspective, revision shows a deeper approach to
working with ideas. Instead of employing a linear approach, ideas are revisited and revised
based on the contributions of the community. (iv) Number of notes read: The number of
notes read has been considered important for assessing community awareness; one cannot
engage in dialogue without knowing what others have written (Zhang et al., 2009). (v)
Number of build-on notes: This index is different from the number of posted notes, and
refers to responses to previous notes. This index provides more information about inter-
action among participants. (vi) Keywords: Students can include “keywords” when they
write notes on Knowledge Forum. Other participants can use these keywords to search for
related notes on similar topics. The use of keywords reflects domain knowledge and com-
munity awareness as students try to make their work more accessible to other members.”
83

Learning through Inquiry: Anchored Instruction & WISE

The best example of anchored instruction is known as The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury
Series. These series are complex video-based problems and it was created so that each of the
Jasper adventures are focused on a complex math-oriented problem that needs to be solved.
Because such math problems are very complex they are often too difficult to solve alone.
While working together, students are able to come up with more than one right solution,
and are needed to provide evidence as to why they think theirs is correct. This involves

82 Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: theory, pedagogy, and technology. In R.
K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 97–119). New York: Cambridge
University Press
83 Chan, C. Chan, Y. (2010). Students’ views of collaboration and online participation in Knowledge Forum.
Computers & Education, Vol 57(1), Aug, 2011. pp. 1445-1457

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collaboration among the students to come up with various solutions to the problems given
because there is not only one right answer. Another way students can work together to
solve problems is through what is called WISE (Web-based Inquiry Science Environment).
Students work together in a web-based environment and discuss problems to do with global
warming or recycling. With WISE teachers are able to play a supportive role and monitor
what the students are providing as solutions. “WISE provides evidence and hints about the
topic; notes, visualization, discussion, and assessment tools; and prompts for collaboration,
reflection, and design of solutions” 84 The big ideas with anchored instruction are that
students are learning by constructing understanding as well as learning in context. There is
generative learning that occurs as well and this is where sub-goals are created. The big ideas
with a program such as wise are that learning is intentional and students are integrating
prior knowledge when answering questions.
Learning through Creation: Scratch
An example of learning through creation is the program Scratch. It is a website that media
and visuals is the main component. In scratch students are able to work individually or
as a group to make visuals in a program for an online community. They are able to share
these visuals with one another. With Scratch the students are in control and are able to
think with the use of objects, as well as create something from their own imagination. They
can encompass audio alongside their visual creations. Students work together in creating
these pieces and can share them in the classroom as part of a project, or teachers can base
it off a theme or topic they are learning. This helps students think creatively and work
collaboratively. An example of how Scratch can be used by teachers in their lesson plan is
imagine you are in your 8th grade history class and for your final project you have to choose
a topic that you have learned about within the semester and create a visual representation of
it. Whether the project be completed in groups or done individually. You work with other
members and decide to use the program Scratch, you begin to create different characters
such as wounded men, and soldiers etc. You and your group members discuss ideas and
begin to create each idea piece by piece. Slowly the image your group had in their mind
is creatively coming to life. You are now able to see the piece of history you learned in a
visual picture and you can share it with your other classmates.
Learning through Games: Quest Atlantis
Another way students can work collaboratively is through games, one game in particular
is Quest Atlantis. This provides different scenarios and realms for students to venture
through as they come across problems and tasks they have to choose from and solve. It
is an engaging game however it may not fit in classrooms but rather in the spare time of
students. The context is best for providing situated learning; this is learning that takes
place from social relationships and connecting prior knowledge to new contexts.
Collaborative learning through the use of computer programs is another great way to get
students engaged with materials. It does have setbacks in the ways in which they can be
used and incorporated into classrooms. Teachers may not have enough devices for students
to use as well as students can become unfocused and begin to just play around with the
programs. For the programs that provide hints when there is a problem occurring, students

84 Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.)
Pearson.

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 Glossary

can just continuously be getting hints without even trying. Although there a positive to
these technology systems, one must take into considerations the negative implications as
well. As mentioned none of these systems should be the primary bases of students learning,
instead they should be a supplementary add on for students and teachers to use.

17.4 Glossary

Cognitive Load Theory: a theory proposed by John Sweller and focusses on working
memory and instruction.
Cognitive tutors: A type of intelligent tutor that supports ‘guided learning by doing’
Collaborative learning: sharing and learning knowledge through peers/groups
Expertise reversal effect: phase where supports and instructional methods have negative
effects on individuals due to increase in cognitive load
Extraneous Cognitive Load is the way working memory is affected by the ma-
terial is presented
Germane Cognitive Load: the amount of working memory devoted to processing the
amount of intrinsic cognitive load associated with the information presented and is associ-
ated only with a learner’s characteristics.
Intrinsic Cognitive Load: refers to the way in which information is presented.
Nonrecurrent skills: tasks that are effortful, error-prone, easily overloaded, and require
focused attention; =schemata
Recurrent skills: correspond to procedures; they occur with little or no effort, are data-
driven, and require little or no conscious attention
Situated learning: learning that takes place from social relationships and connecting prior
knowledge to new contexts.
Task classes: principle of working from a simple to complex or meaningful task

17.5 Suggested Readings

• Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn. Washington
DC: National Academy Press. (pp. 1-50)
• Chan, C. Chan, Y. (2010). Students’ views of collaboration and online participation in
Knowledge Forum. Computers & Education, Vol 57(1), Aug, 2011. pp. 1445-1457
• Sarfo, F., & Elen, J. (2007). Developing technical expertise in secondary technical schools:
The effect of 4C/ID learning environments. Learning Environ Res Learning Environments
Research, 207-221. doi:10.1007/s10984-007-9031-2

299
Technologies and Designs for Learning

17.6 References

• Anderson, J., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Pelletier, R. (1995). Cognitive tutors:
Lessons learned: Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4(2), 167-207.
• Anderson, J. R., Hadley, W. H., Koedinger, K. R., & Mark, M. A. (1997). Intelligent
tutoring goes to school in the big city. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in
Education (IJAIED), 8, 30-43.
• Barab, S. A., Dodge, T., & Ingram-Goble, A. (2008). Reflexive play spaces: A 21st cen-
tury pedagogy. Games, Learning, and Society, Cambridge Univeristy Press, Cambridge,
MA.
• Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and
instruction (5th ed.) Pearson.
• Bollen, L., Harrer, A., Mclaren, B. M., Seawall, J., & Walker, E. (1995) Collaboration
and Cognitive Tutoring: Integration, Empirical Results, and Future Direction
• Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn. Washington
DC: National Academy Press. (pp. 1-50)
• Craig, S., Gholson, B., & Driscoll, D. (2002). Animated pedagogical agents in multimedia
educational environments: Effects of agent properties, picture features and redundancy.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 428-434. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.94.2.428
• Chan, C. Chan, Y. (2010). Students’ views of collaboration and online participation in
Knowledge Forum. Computers & Education, Vol 57(1), Aug, 2011. pp. 1445-1457
• Kevin O’neil, D., & Harris, J. B. (2004). Bridging the perspectives and developmental
needs of all participants in curriculum-based telementoring programs. Journal of Research
on Technology in Education, 37(2), 111-128
• Mayer, R.E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning:
When presenting more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational
Psychology 93(1), 187-198.
• Merriënboer, J., Clark, R., & Croock, M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The
4C/ID-model. ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(2), 39-
64.
• Sarfo, F., & Elen, J. (2007). Developing technical expertise in secondary technical schools:
The effect of 4C/ID learning environments. Learning Environ Res Learning Environments
Research, 207-221. doi:10.1007/s10984-007-9031-2
• Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and
technology. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed).The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp97-
118). New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Salisbury, D.F., Richards, B.F., & Klein, D. (1985). Designing practice: A review of
prescriptions and recommendations from instructional design theories. Journal of In-
structionalDevelopment, 8(4), 9- 19.
• Schnotz, W., & Rasch, T. (2005). Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects of anima-
tions in multimedia learning: Why reduction of cognitive load can have negative results
on learning. ETR&D Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(3), 47-58.
• Sweller, J. (2010). Element Interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive
load. Educational Psychology Review 22(2), 123-138. doi: 10.1007//s10648-010-9128-5.
• Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instruc-
tional Design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi:1040-726X/98/0900-
0251S15.00/0

300
 Citations

• van Merrienboer, J., & Ayres, P. (2005). Research on cognitive load theory and its design
implications for e-learning. Educational Technology Research and Development 53(3),
5-13.

17.7 Citations

301
18 Problem Solving, Critical Thinking
and Argumentation

303
19 Learning Science and Conceptual
Change

Figure 42 Science_vision

Unlike other academic areas, when it comes to learning science, children develop experience
based preconceptions about the world and how it works before they even enter a classroom.
These naive concepts can be useful in helping them develop in a complex world, but can
ultimately result in incomplete or incorrect knowledge about the natural world. In order to
correct and reshape these pre-developed conceptions about science, we must first identify
where the misconceptions lie, then work with students to break them down and rebuild
them using hands on experiences to foster a deeper understanding of the materials. This
can be an intricate and delicate process that takes time in order for students to evolve their
thinking and successfully accommodate and assimilate new information into their existing
schemata.

305
Learning Science and Conceptual Change

In this chapter we discuss how these naive preconceptions tend to develop in young people,
how they differ from expert thinking, and how to identify and confront such notions so
that students may be able to develop their scientific and critical thinking skills, ultimately
changing their conceptions. We discuss effective teaching methods and essential elements
of science instruction, as well as addressing some unique challenges to teaching science at
different educational levels.

19.1 The Development of Naive Scientific Preconceptions

Children are naturally curious, constantly exploring their surroundings and questioning
the world around them, which helps them to develop an understanding of the natural
world and becomes their reference set when encountering new things in their environment.
These naive scientific concepts, developed from personal observation and experience, tend
to become strongly held and often incorrect beliefs by the time they begin school, which
can make them resistant to complex and sometimes counter-intuitive scientific theories and
principles.

19.1.1 Naive preconceptions

The persistence of naïve conceptions about the natural world which students bring with
them to the classroom has been one of the most outstanding developments in understand-
ing science learning. From a young age, people develop scientific thinking or curiosity. Even
before entering school, children are frequently used to observing and questioning their ev-
eryday life experiences. Thus, this results in both children and even a lot of adults having
naïve theories, which are well-formed but scientifically incorrect thoughts about how the
world operates. 1 There are several examples of naïve beliefs about science. Firstly,
prior to any formal instruction, the resistance of people’s naïve conceptions to change is
particularly evident in their own theories of motion. If people are asked to describe the
motion of force on a ball tossed into the air, they tend to illustrate that the motion of force
starts by going upwards with the ball as it ascends, and down as the ball falls. However,
it is a typically incorrect reply; the correct answer would be that the motion of force is
consistently downward, though the ball gains height before falling. Another example of
naïve misconception related to biology is that children possess false beliefs and incomplete
knowledge about scientific information. 2 When children are asked whether certain things
are plants, they incorrectly responded that carrots, oak trees and grass are not plants. Since
many people have already formulated misconceptions about science before learning formally
in a classroom setting, it may be difficult to change or re-conceptualize these beliefs.
Wu and Wu3 explored the development of epistemological beliefs about the nature of sci-
ence in children. They described three levels of epistemological beliefs about science: 1)

1 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)
2 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)
3 Wu, H., & Wu, C. (2011). Exploring the Development of Fifth Graders’ Practical Epistemologies and
Explanation Skills in Inquiry-Based Learning Classrooms. Research In Science Education, 41(3), 319-340.

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 The Development of Naive Scientific Preconceptions

Individuals at the novice level tend to know little about science. They hold naive pre-
conceptions about experiments in science, they don’t understand the difference between
hypotheses and theories, and tend to think mostly about the procedure of an experiment
and getting ’good’ results, rather than thinking about what the experiment is supposed to
be testing and whether it is an accurate measure, etc. They also tend to have strong beliefs
about science, in that it is definitive and unchanging. 2) Individuals in the intermediate
level have developed a basic understanding of the concept of hypotheses, and that theories
are well tested, supported hypotheses. They define experiments as testing a hypothesis, and
understand that science is uncertain. 3) Individuals at the expert level see that scientific
inquiry is guided by theories, and that theories are a general explanation of a phenomenon.
They understand the difference between testing a theory and testing a hypothesis within a
theory.4 Students who have dynamic epistemological beliefs tend to be more active learners
than students with static beliefs. These students will tend to form better understandings
of scientific concepts, and will rise in level more quickly.5
Wu and Wu6 also described two different types of epistemology: Formal
epistemology refers to individuals’ beliefs about professional science, and practical
epistemology refers to individuals’ ideas about scientific knowledge and how they con-
struct this knowledge from personal experiences. Based on these concepts of epistemo-
logical beliefs, Wu and Wu asked how these beliefs developed in children, and how they
affected the development of inquiry skills. They listed three key inquiry skills involved in
formulating students’ scientific explanations: 1) Being able to identify causal relationships
between variables, 2) being able to describe their reasoning process, and 3) being able to
interpret data to use as evidence.7 The researchers conducted an exploratory study to
determine whether students improved their inquiry skills after a series of inquiry-based ac-
tivities, what their practical epistemologies were before and after completing the activities,
and what interactions there were between inquiry skills and practical epistemologies.
Participants in the study were two classes of fifth grade students. 34 students were chosen
per class, and of those 34, 18 were girls and 12 were boys.8 Students were given ten
learning activities covering various physics topics to be completed over a period of five
weeks, or 15 class periods. Students learned about effects of force, developed experiments
to test the relationship between force and spring length, collected and analyzed data, and
presented their findings. Since the students had not experienced this kind of learning
before, the teacher used various scaffolding techniques, such as asking guiding questions,
performing demonstrations, and giving feedback during activities, in order to support the
students’ learning. Researchers recorded observational data, administered pre and post-
tests on explanation skills, and conducted interviews with students at the end of the five
week period. Results from the data analysis showed that using inquiry-based activities

4 Wu, H., & Wu, C. (2011). Exploring the Development of Fifth Graders’ Practical Epistemologies and
Explanation Skills in Inquiry-Based Learning Classrooms. Research In Science Education, 41(3), 319-340.
5 Wu, H., & Wu, C. (2011). Exploring the Development of Fifth Graders’ Practical Epistemologies and
Explanation Skills in Inquiry-Based Learning Classrooms. Research In Science Education, 41(3), 319-340.
6 Wu, H., & Wu, C. (2011). Exploring the Development of Fifth Graders’ Practical Epistemologies and
Explanation Skills in Inquiry-Based Learning Classrooms. Research In Science Education, 41(3), 319-340.
7 Wu, H., & Wu, C. (2011). Exploring the Development of Fifth Graders’ Practical Epistemologies and
Explanation Skills in Inquiry-Based Learning Classrooms. Research In Science Education, 41(3), 319-340.
8 Wu, H., & Wu, C. (2011). Exploring the Development of Fifth Graders’ Practical Epistemologies and
Explanation Skills in Inquiry-Based Learning Classrooms. Research In Science Education, 41(3), 319-340.

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could improve students’ explanation skills and develop their inquiry skills, allow them to
put together experiments, use data to support their claims, recognize experimental errors,
and better understand scientific questions, but their epistemological views about science
remained at a novice level. Wu and Wu9 concluded by suggesting that following inquiry-
based activities with reflective discussions could help to change epistemological beliefs, but
further research on this topic would still be necessary to support this hypothesis.

19.1.2 The difference between novice and expert thinking

There are several perspectives which look at people with novice and expert levels of scientific
knowledge. Compared to novices, experts have superior ability to solve scientific problems
efficiently and quickly. Experts in the field of science acquire wide-ranging knowledge and
strategies which influence what they notice and how they organize, understand and signify
information from their environment. Since they are trained and exposed to numerous
opportunities for problem solving, they are able to build a variety of pertinent problem-
solving schemata. This allows them to solve science problems much faster than novices. 10
Experts have the ability to perceive meaningful patterns of information and to easily retrieve
important aspects of their scientific knowledge more flexibly as compared to the novices.
This great recall ability can be explained in terms of chunking information. For example,
novices may not use chunking as much when dealing with physics principles whereas experts
use chunking to demonstrate a particular set of equations which correspond to a specific
problem they may be faced with. The chunking ability is enhanced when familiar patterns
are organized and gathered together in certain meaningful categories. However, novices do
not have such ability to process or organize their thoughts with more complex problems.
When looking at the understanding of scientific theories, there is a significant difference
between novices and experts that allows them to be separated into three sub-groups; for
instance, children, adults, and scientists. Identifying essential skills in scientific reasoning
includes a prominent comprehension of the main point of the theory, a clear differentiation
of supporting and rebutting evidences, the ability to reason why the data, graph or diagrams
support the theory, theory building, and precise reflection on the theory building process. 11
A few problems arose when searching for the differences between the groups: 1) There was
a lack of domain-specific knowledge among the adult experts and 2) Children felt frustrated
if they were not able to fully interpret the theories including the structures as well as the
messages, and decipher how they could apply the theories.

19.2 Identifying and Changing Naive Beliefs

Teaching scientific concepts to children is more complex than simply teaching terms and
facts. It is common for children to acquire a superficial understanding of scientific concepts

9 Wu, H., & Wu, C. (2011). Exploring the Development of Fifth Graders’ Practical Epistemologies and
Explanation Skills in Inquiry-Based Learning Classrooms. Research In Science Education, 41(3), 319-340.
10 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)
11 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)

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 Identifying and Changing Naive Beliefs

that enables them to recall relevant terms and even the gist of concepts presented to them.
Unless they fully process the contradictions the new concepts may hold for their prior beliefs,
their misconceptions will not change and their understanding of science will remain shallow.
To insure that children fully learn scientific concepts, we must address any misconceptions
that may block their comprehension.

19.2.1 Identify students’ naive preconceptions

People’s false beliefs about science will naturally be revealed as time passes and as they
learn. However, one must be very cautious not to directly point out and disclose people’s
misconceptions. In order to be successful and not to hurt others’ feeling, but to guide them
in the right direction, teachers should prepare experience-based instruction which includes
activities that will inspire the learners to change their preconceptions. It is important to
expose students to more encouraging and dynamic activities. The major role of teachers
is to assist students in expressing their thoughts and ideas about how they think and why
they think that way. As a class, students will be able to exchange their own thoughts and
compare others’ with theirs; this process allows students to justify their own thoughts and
to see other peoples’ perspectives. Then teachers can clarify and explain their conceptions
by providing adequate explanation.

19.2.2 Create conceptual conflict

Once an individual’s preconceptions have been brought to their attention, they must be
challenged in order to create cognitive disequilibrium within the individual, motivating
them to assess and reconsider their beliefs on the subject. The way instructors can do
this is by offering multiple views (perhaps those of several different students in the class),
then asking probing questions about which explanation seems to be the most reasonable
and getting the students to think about each scenario, rather than telling them which one
is correct.12 This form of questioning will help to stimulate discussion amongst students.
Allowing time for students to discuss with each other is also important, as it exposes them
to other students opinions and viewpoints.13 The teacher can then suggest the need for a
hands-on activity, such as an experiment, in order to test the validity of the various proposed
hypotheses. Running experiments can help students to learn critical thinking skills such
as the importance of gathering data to back their statements and making decisions on
what information is relevant. In order for an experiment or demonstration to be successful
in creating conceptual conflict, however, it must eliminate all possible explanations for
the outcome, except the correct scientific explanation.14 If this is done correctly, then
students can begin reassessing their own preconceptions and altering their beliefs in order
to accommodate the new information.

12 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
13 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
14 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson

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This process is demonstrated in a study done by Shtulman and Calabi on the effects of
instruction on essentialist theories of evolution.15 There are common misconceptions about
evolution, even among people with post-secondary education. Ideas such as, individuals
are born better adapted to their environment than their parents, that traits are developed
over one’s lifetime and then passed on to one’s offspring, or that animals are more likely
to survive and adapt than to die and become extinct, are quite prevalent, even among
science students.16 These types of misconceptions have been documented in the most novice
individuals (i.e. children) and the most expert individuals (i.e. educational professionals)
alike. The fact that these misconceptions are so generalized indicates a bias referred to
as essentialism. Essentialism is the belief that every observable trait is due to some
unobservable variable at its core, also referred to as an ’essence’.17 This ’essence’ is passed
down from parent to offspring. What makes something what it is, is not a series of traits
it has in common with other members of its species, but the ’essence’ it inherited from
its parents. This essentialist way of thinking is not only common across varying levels of
knowledge, but across cultures as well.18
Two major paradigms that are used to test childrens’ understanding of evolutionary concepts
are the unknown-property paradigm and the switched-at-birth paradigm.19 The unknown-
property paradigm introduces a novel property of a familiar organism (ex: a cat [familiar
organism] can see in the dark [novel property]). Then novel organisms, which may or may
not possess the novel property, are introduced (ex: a cat that looks like a skunk and a skunk
that looks like a cat). When tested on preschool-aged children, most tended to associate
the novel property with the skunk-like cat, but not with the cat-like skunk.20

15 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
16 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
17 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
18 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
19 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
20 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.

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 Identifying and Changing Naive Beliefs

Figure 43 Meyers_b13_s0595c

The switched-at-birth paradigm gives a scenario, for example, that a calf is taken from its
birth parents and raised, instead, by a family of pigs. It then asks whether the calf will
grow up to possess similar properties to its birth parents (i.e. straight tail, eats grass), or
to its foster parents (i.e. curly tail, eats slop). Children tend to reply with the former, that
it will develop like a cow, because it is a cow, not a pig.21 This essentialist reasoning can be
useful for basic details, like what an organism should look like, how it reproduces, where it
prefers to live, etc., but it falls short when applied to more complex processes like evolution
and natural selection. Essentialists tend to focus on differences between species, but what
is most important in evolution is the differences among individuals within a species.
Shtulman and Calabi22 took an interest in this phenomenon and conducted an test-retest
study using college undergraduates in order to determine whether instruction in evolution
could change students’ essentialist preconceptions about evolution. Each participant was
required to fill out a questionnaire before and after taking a course on evolution. The
questionnaire tested six sections of the subject: variation, inheritance, adaptation, domesti-

21 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
22 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.

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cation, speciation, and extinction.23 By comparing pre and post-test scores and calculating
the difference between the two, researchers divided the students into either ’learner’ or
’non-learner’ categories. Those that improved significantly (learners) were shown to have
significantly more preinstructional misconceptions than the non-learners. This would imply
that having more misconceptions when going into a course may facilitate learning, possi-
bly because students run into these misconceptions quite frequently throughout the course,
and are thus confronted with conflicting information more often. Having to resolve these
conflicts so frequently can lead to greater conceptual change, than if one rarely encountered
these informational conflicts.24

19.2.3 Promote reassessment of preconceptions

Once students begin to question the validity of their current beliefs, it is important for the
teacher to assist them in changing those beliefs by providing further information and answer-
ing questions in order to help them change their perception of the topic or event.25 Success
at this stage would result in the students changing their conceptions about a scientific event
and would help promote better acquisition of scientific knowledge.

19.3 Teaching Science Effectively

In order to teach any subject effectively, one must engage with the students and support
them throughout the learning process. This is especially true in science. By making them
question themselves and their preconceptions, they become more deeply engaged with the
materials, and develop a better understanding of the concepts and, as a result, gain a deeper
sense of achievement than if they were to simply read the texts and recite the facts.

19.3.1 Inquiry-based teaching vs. Lecture style classrooms

Quite often classes are taught in a lecture style which tends to promote more of a fact-
based or memorization style of learning. This can be a problem for science, in particular,
because of students’, often strongly developed, naive scientific preconceptions. In order
to help reveal these misconceptions to both the teacher and the student, a more dynamic
inquiry-based teaching approach is recommended.
Bruning, Schraw and Norby 26 describe inquiry-based teaching as teachers supporting
active learners. In an inquiry-based classroom environment the student takes the lead by
performing hands-on activities that the teacher has set up, asking questions and forming
hypotheses about the tasks, collaborating with other students and comparing ideas, and

23 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
24 Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive Theories of
Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
25 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
26 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson

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 Teaching Science Effectively

testing and reforming their hypotheses if results are contradictory to their predictions.
Teachers are there to assist in their students’ learning, rather than being the driving force.
This allows students to voice their beliefs and to test them. If these beliefs are proven to
be dysfunctional, then they may be driven to find an explanation that better supports their
observations 27 .
If students are simply given facts and information and tested on those facts, then none
of their misconceptions are being identified or addressed, and they will continue to hold
these misconceptions even if the facts they are memorizing for the exam contradict them.
This may be because the facts alone aren’t enough to show them why their beliefs are
incorrect. If they don’t fully understand why something is the way it is, though they may
see an inconsistency between the information they were given and the beliefs they currently
hold, this may not be enough for them to adopt a new belief. In order to change a child’s
beliefs, we must present them with information that is intelligible (can be understood by
the student), plausible and believable (as sited in 28 ). This means that the information
must give a better explanation of a phenomenon than their current conception.

19.3.2 Providing strategies for deeper understanding of materials

Optimal strategies for dispelling misconceptions need to address two important func-
tions in a student’s learning process; assimilation and accommodation of information 29 .
Assimilation is when a student uses existing schemas (mental representations of infor-
mation or experiences) to help make sense of new information, and accommodation is
when students replace or alter existing schemas in order to be consistent with new informa-
tion.
Longfield 30 discusses discrepant teaching events as strategies to help identify students’
misconceptions and cause cognitive disequilibrium (conflict of existing schemas and new
information being presented), which would lead to the assimilation and accommodation of
new information. A discrepant teaching event is an event that produces an unexpected
outcome, and that forces students to become aware of dysfunctional beliefs that may need to
be changed. These discrepant events can be used in almost any classroom, but for science,
in particular, it can be a very effective strategy.

19.3.3 Reassessment and development of teaching strategies

Inquiry-based teaching and the use of discrepant teaching events can be very difficult to
master, and it can take time to make a curriculum which takes full advantage of these
techniques, but it is possible to improve student learning by incorporating these elements

27 Longfield, J. (2009). Discrepant Teaching Events: Using an Inquiry Stance to Address Students’ Miscon-
ceptions. International Journal Of Teaching And Learning In Higher Education, 21(2), 266-271.
28 Longfield, J. (2009). Discrepant Teaching Events: Using an Inquiry Stance to Address Students’ Miscon-
ceptions. International Journal Of Teaching And Learning In Higher Education, 21(2), 266-271.
29 Longfield, J. (2009). Discrepant Teaching Events: Using an Inquiry Stance to Address Students’ Miscon-
ceptions. International Journal Of Teaching And Learning In Higher Education, 21(2), 266-271.
30 Longfield, J. (2009). Discrepant Teaching Events: Using an Inquiry Stance to Address Students’ Miscon-
ceptions. International Journal Of Teaching And Learning In Higher Education, 21(2), 266-271.

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as much as possible, and by scaffolding students in their development throughout the class
31 . It is, therefore, essential to continue to assess and reassess one’s teaching strategies in

order to insure that students are getting the most help possible, and that all individuals are
taken into account. By being more aware of the students’ needs, one can also develop an
environment where students can feel safe and secure enough to ask questions and to express
their own ideas and opinions.

19.3.4 Effective instruction improves science achievement

There are many factors that contribute to a student’s level of science achievement, but
some of the most important extrinsic factors are instructional time and quality 32 . Studies
have shown that level of achievement is strongly correlated to the amount of instruction
in a subject that a student has received and the amount to which they understood the
information being presented. This is further reason to invest more time in building a
comprehensive curriculum that helps to foster a child’s curiosity and helps to scaffold them
so that they may better understand the materials given.

19.4 Assessing and Monitoring Students’ Level of Science

Understanding

As important as it is to teach science to young people, it is just as important to assess

how well they are understanding the materials. A better understanding of science can help
them not only in school, but in everyday life. A large part of learning should be review
of past materials in order to practice and maintain information in long-term memory. By
incorporating practice and repetition of new materials, and checking students’ knowledge
on a regular basis, you help them to retain more information for a longer period of time, as
well as hopefully encouraging them to study and practice on their own.

19.5 Essential Elements of Science Instruction

Because of the nature of science and complexity of many of the concepts, it is not something
that can easily be taught simply from a text. There are several essential elements that need
to be present in the curriculum in order to optimize students’ learning, understanding and
appreciation for science.
Design process VS Design patterns33
Design process is meant for developing students’ ideas by adding new ideas, elaborating
on current ideas, and organizing ideas into more coherent explanations. Its purpose in

31 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
32 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson
33 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)

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 Essential Elements of Science Instruction

knowledge integration is to: elicite ideas, introduce new ideas, evaluate, and synthesizing
those ideas. Design patterns play an important role in students’ learning of science. They
include assuming predictions, conducting experiments, gathering evidence, and reflection.
Teach science as a problem-solving process34
The most beneficial and effective skill in problem-solving is inquiry-based approaches to
science teaching, since problem-solving strategies require cognitive perspectives rather than
knowledge acquisition processes in science.
Use hands-on demonstration35
Experiments and/or demonstrations are a good way of challenging students’ preconceptions.
Thus, it is important for teachers to thoughtfully choose the topic, stay focused and guide
the learners through, in order to adopt correct scientific views. In order to assist students to
be involved in science class, hands-on activities, which help them engage in self-questioning,
should be used. These activities will advance students’ maturity and improve their view of
science.
Teach the nature of scientific theories36
As students go up in grades, they require more advanced understanding of scientific inquiry
and ability to think critically. Students, therefore, have to learn how to interpret scientific
theories, how they differ from hypotheses and how they are both coordinated. To secondary
school students, scientific theories might be boring or difficult to deeply understand. Yet
if teachers provide enough time to process the learned materials, students will be able to
handle other advanced materials much more easily and proficiently.
Give enough time to restructure knowledge37
Not only in science, but in other subjects as well, teachers need to provide students with
sufficient time to do their work in class as well as allow them to process the knowledge
mentally. To change or modify one’s beliefs or knowledge that one has carried for such
a long time requires sufficient processing time.Conceptual change in science, especially, is
not a short-term, but a long-term process. Students need to be exposed to many kind of
science-based views of the world in order to have their own thoughts challenged to the point
that they need to reconcile the conflict between their own beliefs and the concepts that
have been presented to them. Teachers should not expect rapid change in their students’
thinking since it might discourage students from deeper processing of meanings. One of
the best methods for changing and developing students’ knowledge is to repeatedly provide
students with complex problem sets. This lets them discover new strategies on how to
problem-solve, and to learn which strategies they have to apply to certain questions. Also,
rather than covering many different topics, it is better to cover small sections of topics in

34 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)
35 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)
36 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)
37 (Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson)

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greater detail. Doing so may help students to develop a better understanding of scientific
concepts and principles.

19.6 Unique Challenges In Teaching Science at Different

Stages

Though there are a lot of common issues in teaching science, regardless of age and experience
level, there are some unique challenges to teaching individuals at different stages in life and
education. These challenges need to be taken into account when running a class in order
to support students in every learning stage.

19.6.1 Elementary level

There are some difficulties in teaching young children in elementary school not only sci-
ence, but most subjects. One of the causes for these challenges might have to do with the
learner’s motivation in relation to one’s specific goals. Because elementary school students
are younger, they will not be focusing on desired outcomes such as knowledge attained,
grades, etc. in subjects, as older students might. Hence, teachers have to make sure to
encourage them, using inquiry-based instruction, and to assist student learning by simpli-
fying and imparting their professional knowledge. One study shows that there is evidence
that elementary science achievement considerably increases when the teachers instruct us-
ing inquiry-based teaching methods. Therefore, teachers have to consider how to instruct
their young children in more efficient ways.
As for the significance on inquiry teaching in science education, there are some difficulties
that the teachers encounter in their classes. For instance, there is a study which examines
pre-service elementary teachers, and how they manage the difficulties within their lessons.
About 16 seniors (fourth-year students) in an elementary teacher education program are
studied based on the teacher’s inquiry lesson preparation, practice, and reflections of pre-
service elementary teachers. Quantitative data such as discussion, observation of classroom
teaching, and reflective writing is collected as for the data. The result has found that there
are difficulties on the lesson that are missing some elements: encouraging students to have
own ideas and curiosity, assisting them in valid experiments for appropriate hypothesis,
scaffolding their data interpretation and discussion. These difficulties affect teachers’ task
such as tension between guided and open inquiry, incorrect comprehension of hypothesis
and lack of self-confidence in science knowledge. Thus, this emphasizes the importance of
teacher’s job to understand students and their actions. 38
People might be curious as to whether gender plays a significant role in performance on
certain subjects. One study investigated whether girls would perform better than boys at
an elementary school level depending on the methods of science instruction. However, the

38 Yoon, H.G., Joung, Y. J. & Kim, M. (2011) The Challenges of Science Inquiry Teaching for Pre-Service
Teachers in Elementary Classrooms: Difficulties on and under the Scene. Research in Science Education,
42(3), 1-20 DOI 10.1007/s11165-011-9212-y0.

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 Unique Challenges In Teaching Science at Different Stages

study concludes that there is no correlation between accomplishment and gender in relation
to method of science instruction. 39

19.6.2 Secondary level

These days, as school education has conformed to a new structure of teaching/learning re-
quirements, it requires teachers and students to define new learning goals, and to take an
innovative direction in instruction so that students can deal with any challenges after they
graduate. Some studies demonstrated that students’ poor marks for certain subjects were
not actually caused by the subject’s difficulty, by their study techniques, or by how they
processed learned information, but by struggles students may have had in adopting teach-
ers’ teaching methods. Traditional methods of science teaching included didactic principles
which related to the theoretical-action system and gave guidance to students’ education for
the long term. Teaching science to a new generation, however, would need to integrate
technologies into a lesson plan. Of all the new orientations in educational practices, the
“active-participative methods and techniques” are highlighted as new and effective meth-
ods of teaching. It provides development of students’ critical thinking by stimulating one’s
capacity to discover, analyze, and build conceptual maps in their mind. Examples of this
would be brain-writing, jigsaw, etc. Promoting an interactive learning environment, co-
operational strategies when assessing learning material, and applying students’ own infor-
mation processing, will be an important area to think about. Considering both traditional
and new teaching strategies, it is important to apply advantageous points from each side.
Therefore, educators now have the significant task of formulating new pedagogical systems
which harmoniously combine both traditional and new teaching strategies.
Between science teacher’s instruction-based didactic methods, and active-participative and
interactive didactic methods, students have shown significant difference in the efficiency of
learning, especially in Physics. 148 students from two grade 6 classes and two grade 9 classes
were randomly selected from the secondary school in Bucharest. Three experimental classes,
which included the active-participative methods, and three controlled classes, which held
didactic activities, were given written assessments such as written assignments, pretests and
post-tests. From the collected data, it is noticed that pretest results showed no significant
difference. However, post-test results did show a significant differences between the groups.
Thus, the result reflected that the active-participative and interactive didactic teaching
methods were effective when teaching science to students. 40
Not only do the methods and strategies that the teachers use matter, but other factors
matter, too. Also, the other important role for teachers is to know the students’ physical,
psychological and individual characteristics. This will help teachers when applying certain
strategies to students, since a strategy reaches its maximum efficiency, and benefits learners
most, when it’s been applied to the best learning situation possible, where students are
fully involved. When teachers use these methods, it is more likely for students to manage
and achieve individual learning tasks and increase their motivation. Overall, secondary

39 Kensinger, S. H. (2013). Impact of instructional approaches to teaching elementary science on student

achievement. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 73.
40 Dinescu, L., Dinica, M. & Miron, C. (2010). Active strategies - option and necessity for teaching science
in secondary and high school education. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 3724–3730.

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Learning Science and Conceptual Change

level years are when students’ scientific thinking skills are formed and their critical analysis
skills are developed. Thus, educators have to understand students’ situations and their
individual differences in order to come up with more meaningful ways of administering
science education and applying adequate teaching strategies.

19.6.3 Post-Secondary or University level

Of all the different education levels, post-secondary students are most likely to be involved
in classes which use technologies such as the Internet. The vast majority of post-secondary
students frequently use the Internet to communicate and access websites. Despite the fact
that students are familiar with the Internet, there are some issues raised planning and
teaching a curriculum. The challenges include how well teachers are able to use the internet
and how to effectively incorporate internet use into the class. 41 In order to consider how
to improve one’s teaching using technology, the instructors first need to carefully choose an
appropriate range of websites. Then they need to introduce and explain what the procedures
are, engage students in various activities which are inquiry-led, assign them into groups if
necessary and ask them to investigate scientific questions. Most likely, demonstrating these
processes will be a faster and more efficient way of giving guidance to students so that they
can visualize in their minds and draw out what they should do. However, a more important
challenge is to transfer these thoughts listed above into practical performance. Real life
performance does not always proceed in the same direction as the thoughts envisioned in
our minds, but in fact often conflicts and goes unexpected directions; thus, instructors must
always keep in mind that their roles need to be well defined and their curricula need to be
planned as well as possible.
Some key issues of where teachers need to develop their practical pedagogical skills are as
follows: 1) a narrow range of criteria for selecting appropriate websites, 2) give thought on
how students should be grouped in the Internet lessons, 3) students’ plagiarisms, 4) more
variety of ways to use Internet in science teaching, 5) limited consideration about the role
of the teacher, 6) science objectives of the chapter being vanished when using Internet, 7)
geographical setting of classroom. 42 As teachers, it is essential to have backup plans to
secure all science lessons. Teachers have to keep in mind that they must keep students on
task, give clear instructions, make the lesson student centered, check availability of resources,
use plenaries to reinforce learning and implement various kinds of activities rather than
just using the Internet. These innovative deployments of Internet technology in instruction
demonstrate the effects of the Internet and information technology in various contexts in
higher education. However, it provides some challenges for teachers when planning science
lessons as well as teaching in classrooms. Such challenges and difficulties may be decreased
in relation to how much effort the teachers puts in and how they try to guide their students.

41 Childs, A., Sorensen, P., & Twidle, J. (2011). Using the Internet in science teaching? Issues
and challenges for initial teacher education. Technology, Pedagogy And Education, 20(2), 143-160.
doi:10.1080/1475939X.2011.588413
42 Childs, A., Sorensen, P., & Twidle, J. (2011). Using the Internet in science teaching? Issues
and challenges for initial teacher education. Technology, Pedagogy And Education, 20(2), 143-160.
doi:10.1080/1475939X.2011.588413

318
 Suggested readings

19.7 Suggested readings

Childs, A., Sorensen, P., & Twidle, J. (2011). Using the Internet in science teaching? Issues
and challenges for initial teacher education. Technology, Pedagogy And Education, 20(2),
143-160. doi:10.1080/1475939X.2011.588413
Dinescu, L., Dinica, M. & Miron, C. (2010). Active strategies - option and necessity for
teaching science in secondary and high school education. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 2(2), 3724–3730.
Longfield, J. (2009). Discrepant Teaching Events: Using an Inquiry Stance to Address
Students’ Misconceptions. International Journal Of Teaching And Learning In Higher Ed-
ucation, 21(2), 266-271.
Yoon, H.G., Joung, Y. J. & Kim, M. (2011) The Challenges of Science Inquiry Teaching
for Pre-Service Teachers in Elementary Classrooms: Difficulties on and under the Scene.
Research in Science Education, 42(3), 1-20. DOI 10.1007/s11165-011-9212-y0.

19.8 Glossary

Accommodation: Replacing or altering existing schemas with new information.

Assimilation: The use of existing schemas to help interpret new information.
Chunking: Utilizing a letter, number, or word which may contribute to short-term memory
capacity.
Cognitive disequilibrium: Conflict between existing schemas and new information being
presented.
Discrepant teaching event: An event in which an unexpected outcome occurs. Used to
bring to light dysfunctional student beliefs and to insight change.
Essentialism: The belief that every observable trait is due to some unobservable variable
at its core, also referred to as an ’essence’.
Formal epistemology: Individuals’ beliefs about professional science.
Inquiry-based teaching: Student is seen as the active learner with teacher taking a
supportive role.
Naïve beliefs: Inaccurate beliefs about a phenomenon, acquired through uncontrolled
observation.
Naïve theories: Incorrect conceptual frameworks for understanding a domain and impor-
tant processes within that domain.
Practical epistemology: Individuals’ ideas about scientific knowledge and how they con-
struct this knowledge from personal experiences.
Schemas: Mental representations of information or experiences.

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Learning Science and Conceptual Change

19.9 References

• Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011).Cognitive psychology and
instruction (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
• Childs, A., Sorensen, P., & Twidle, J. (2011). Using the Internet in science teaching?
Issues and challenges for initial teacher education. Technology, Pedagogy and Education,
20(2), 143-160. doi: 10.1080/1475939X.2011.588413
• Dinescu, L., Dinica, M. & Miron, C. (2010). Active strategies - option and necessity for
teaching science in secondary and high school education. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 2(2), 3724–3730. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.579
• Kensinger, S. H. (2013). Impact of instructional approaches to teaching elementary sci-
ence on student achievement. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 73.
• Longfield, J. (2009). Discrepant Teaching Events: Using an Inquiry Stance to Address
Students’ Misconceptions. International Journal Of Teaching And Learning In Higher
Education, 21(2), 266-271.
• Shtulman, A., & Calabi, P. (2013). Tuition vs. Intuition: Effects of Instruction on Naive
Theories of Evolution. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59(2), 141-167.
• Wu, H., & Wu, C. (2011). Exploring the Development of Fifth Graders’ Practical Epis-
temologies and Explanation Skills in Inquiry-Based Learning Classrooms. Research In
Science Education, 41(3), 319-340.
• Yoon, H.G., Joung, Y. J. & Kim, M. (2011). The Challenges of Science Inquiry Teaching
for Pre-Service Teachers in Elementary Classrooms: Difficulties on and under the Scene.
Research in Science Education, 42(3), 1-20. doiː 10.1007/s11165-011-9212-y
• Science_vision image retrieved from Wikimedia commons, scientific pictures and images
• Meyers_b13_s0595c image retrieved from Wikimedia commons, zoological illustrations

320
20 Learning to Read

Reading is a crucial skill as it helps us learn in all academic subjects and is so important for
success outside the classroom. Learning to read is a complex, multi-year process of learning
to recognize the sounds and meanings of symbols and written words. Reading ability is an
important achievement for children because it is their entry point into the world of literacy
and learning upon which much of life depends.

Figure 44 Learning to read is a long process. Many children start reading books with
simpler words and colourful pictures before progressing to more difficult books.

This chapter covers several aspects of learning to read, beginning with the cognitive fac-
tors of reading including memory and attention. Different types of reading difficulties and
disabilities are reviewed, with some implications for teaching. As each child is different,
there is no single method that can be used to teach all children with reading difficulties or
disabilities. The chapter discusses the three stages of reading, moving from children who do
not know how to read or recognize any words all the way to children who have the ability to

321
Learning to Read

connect letters and their sounds in order to decode unfamiliar words. Reading instruction
today tends to combine and adapt methods derived from different theories to address the
needs of individual learners. Finally, we discuss several ways of effectively assessing reading
progress.

20.1 Cognitive Factors of Reading

Success in reading depends on using the cognitive abilities of working and long-term mem-
ory, and also focusing attention in order to make meaning of the text. In addition, the
reader must have some knowledge about the world around them in order to comprehend
the information.

20.1.1 Memory

Working and long-term memory are cognitive factors that have to do with children’s success
in learning to read. Reading is an act of memory because it depends on world and linguistic
knowledge 1 . When a child is learning a word they have to keep that word in their mind long
enough to build up the more complex meaning of phrases, sentences, and whole passages
2 . The temporary storage of material that a child has read depends on working memory
3 . The working memory is different from the other forms of memory due to the fact that

it reflects both processing and storage 4 . Working memory is often studied when learning
about children’s reading development, and Baddeley’s model is often used to describe the
relation between working memory and reading development 5 . This model involves two
basic aspects: the phonological loop and the visual sketchpad 6 . The processing of phono-
logical information has an inner rehearsal aspect, called the articulatory loop, which allows
the phonological information needed for word decoding and reading comprehension to be
retained longer in memory 7 . When children are not able to, or have problems decoding
words, it is then associated with difficulties in phonological awareness 8 . Children with
these difficulties are unable to understand or have access to the sound structure of spoken

1 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
2 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
3 Swanson, H. L., & Ashbaker, M. H. (2000). Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word
recognition and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: Does the executive system have a
role? Intelligence, 28(1), 1-30. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00025-2
4 Swanson, H. L., & Ashbaker, M. H. (2000). Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word
recognition and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: Does the executive system have a
role? Intelligence, 28(1), 1-30. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00025-2
5 Verhoevan, L., Reitsma, P., & Siegel, L. S. (2011). Cognitive and linguistic factors in reading acquisition.
Reading and Writing, 24(4), 387-394. doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9232-4
6 Verhoevan, L., Reitsma, P., & Siegel, L. S. (2011). Cognitive and linguistic factors in reading acquisition.
Reading and Writing, 24(4), 387-394. doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9232-4
7 Verhoevan, L., Reitsma, P., & Siegel, L. S. (2011). Cognitive and linguistic factors in reading acquisition.
Reading and Writing, 24(4), 387-394. doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9232-4
8 Verhoevan, L., Reitsma, P., & Siegel, L. S. (2011). Cognitive and linguistic factors in reading acquisition.
Reading and Writing, 24(4), 387-394. doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9232-4

322
 Cognitive Factors of Reading

language 9 . When children are young their working memory capacity is restricted due to
the fact that they lack the well-developed skills needed for encoding and rehearsal 10 . In
order to make reading meaningful both working and long term memory are needed 11 . Thus,
when children learn new information, the information must be kept fresh in their working
memory while they retrieve previously learned information from their long-term memory 12 .
In order for children to become great readers, they must decode words at a reasonable speed
so they don’t have to hold the meaning of the words in their memory for too long when
figuring out the meaning of a sentence or paragraph 13 . When poor readers are unable to
decode words at a reasonable speed they are required to spend extra time trying to decode,
resulting in further stress on their ability to comprehend the text. 14 .

20.1.2 Attention

When it comes to attention and reading, there is no doubt that attention is crucial to the
understanding and overall comprehension of the text being read. Without attention, one
cannot read. Teaching young students to read can often be challenging, as some don’t have
the ability to sit still for prolonged periods of time, or simply are not interested in the
material they are supposed to be reading.

In order for a child to read, they must have a book open in front of them, they must
be oriented towards the text.15 Even getting some children to this point can be a great
accomplishment, as some children simply do not have the attention span or capacity to
focus on tasks such as this for so long.

In addition to having children pay attention to the actual book in front of them, it is
necessary for them to make connections while they are reading in order for them to see
how smaller pieces of the reading process relate to larger ones. A great deal of attention is
needed for this as well, as there are often several instances in which a student can overlook
a small point that will play a bigger part in their learning later on. Though older readers
do not need to focus a lot of energy on the reading process, young readers must do so,
simply because they haven’t learned or practiced the process as much. Things such as eye
movements and moving their eyes from left to right are included in this type of attention

9 Verhoevan, L., Reitsma, P., & Siegel, L. S. (2011). Cognitive and linguistic factors in reading acquisition.
Reading and Writing, 24(4), 387-394. doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9232-4
10 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
11 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
12 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
13 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
14 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
15 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson

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Learning to Read

that is needed.16 Attention must also move systematically from word to word as they read,
as well as making sure the words being read can be connected to the overall message of the
text. In addition, attention needs to be shifted from images or illustrations to the text, and
back again in order for all elements of the story to make sense.17

20.2 Reading Disabilities

As much as reading requires the child’s ability to comprehend letters and words and draw
on prior knowledge, the child must be taught these skills. However, some students will
find difficulties in the learning process, which can in some cases be attributed to learning
disabilities. There are several ways to effectively teach students the necessary means to
developing literacy while working with any struggles they may be having.

20.2.1 Diagnosing Reading Difficulties

When it comes to disabilities, learning how to read can be a struggle for both teachers and
students. A disability in learners can hinder the learning process, meaning teachers and
instructors often have to adapt their teaching style to help the student grasp the infor-
mation. Though the word “disability” can be viewed as a general term to mean a number
of different things, each disability is different, and each can effect reading in a different way.

Oftentimes, the most difficult part of determining why a student is having troubles reading
lies in diagnosing what the trouble is. In terms of diagnosis, there are three principles
used to guide the process. First, an analysis must make a specific as possible diagnosis
of the student’s reading habits to discover which parts are not functioning properly.
Second, the analysis has to be based upon any available and relevant facts. Last, a
sense of open-mindedness must be maintained when looking over any data. 18 Though
open-mindedness may not seem important in the scientific realm of things, it does make
an impact on the diagnosis process, as the point of discovering a reading disability is not
to prove or disprove a theory or method, but to find exactly what is troubling the student.
In addition, it might be found that a student doesn’t fall into the category of one specific
learning disability, but perhaps show signs of struggling in more than one aspect. This is
a case where open-mindedness plays a large part in the diagnosis and evaluation stages.
Part of this is because though a child does have a reading disability, it doesn’t necessar-
ily need to fit a specific model or formula for what is considered a disability and what isn’t.

Principles of diagnosis aside, there are six general steps in the diagnosis process:

16 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
17 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
18 Brooks, F. D. (1926). How to diagnose reading deficiencies. In , The applied psychology of reading:
With exercises and directions for improving silent and oral reading (pp. 168-185). New York, NY, US: D
Appleton & Company. doi:10.1037/14870-012

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 Reading Disabilities

1. ”Measuring the reading achievement of the class or school” - Reading tests are adminis-
tered to students to gauge the level of reading in each class, and deficiencies in scores can
be seen.19

2. ”Selecting the major reading problems for each grade” - Test scores are analyzed and the
greatest problem for each grade is determined, and any student below the average needs
attention and support.20

3. ”Selecting pupils deficient in reading” - Students below the average are given attention.21

4. ”Obtaining additional information about the pupils selected for individual diagnosis” -
Information about the student’s health, general intelligence and attitude are taken into
account. Oftentimes factors such as these can have a large impact on the general leaning
abilities of the student. Other factors such as perceptual span, the number and regularity
of fixations, dyslexia, vocalization, and breathing habits should also be taken into account.22

5. ”Determining the types of reading deficiencies” and 6. ”Determining the causes of the
defects in reading” can be grouped into one larger step, as the four preceding steps will
help determine how and why the student is having difficulties learning.23

Though these steps can be used as guidelines in determining what a student may be having
difficulties with, each case is unique and can be approached in other manners that may
apply to that specific instance.

In diagnosing dyslexia, there are five tasks that help to determine if a child is in fact
dyslexic or not: oral word and pseudoword reading, oral text reading, oral pseudoword
text reading, oral word list reading, and spelling words and pseudowords.24 In doing
these tests, four types of reading speeds and four levels of reading and spelling accuracy
are taken into account. If a child lands in the bottom 10th percentile of the scores

19 Brooks, F. D. (1926). How to diagnose reading deficiencies. In , The applied psychology of reading:
With exercises and directions for improving silent and oral reading (pp. 168-185). New York, NY, US: D
Appleton & Company. doi:10.1037/14870-012
20 Brooks, F. D. (1926). How to diagnose reading deficiencies. In , The applied psychology of reading:
With exercises and directions for improving silent and oral reading (pp. 168-185). New York, NY, US: D
Appleton & Company. doi:10.1037/14870-012
21 Brooks, F. D. (1926). How to diagnose reading deficiencies. In , The applied psychology of reading:
With exercises and directions for improving silent and oral reading (pp. 168-185). New York, NY, US: D
Appleton & Company. doi:10.1037/14870-012
22 Brooks, F. D. (1926). How to diagnose reading deficiencies. In , The applied psychology of reading:
With exercises and directions for improving silent and oral reading (pp. 168-185). New York, NY, US: D
Appleton & Company. doi:10.1037/14870-012
23 Brooks, F. D. (1926). How to diagnose reading deficiencies. In , The applied psychology of reading:
With exercises and directions for improving silent and oral reading (pp. 168-185). New York, NY, US: D
Appleton & Company. doi:10.1037/14870-012
24 Eklund, K. M., Torppa, M., & Lyytinen, H. (2013). Predicting reading disability: Early cognitive
risk and protective factors. Dyslexia: An International Journal Of Research And Practice, 19(1), 1-10.
doi:10.1002/dys.1447

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Learning to Read

for each tested task, it is found that they have deficient skills in that area of reading
and comprehension. To be completely diagnosed with dyslexia, the child must score
in the bottom 10th percentile in a minimum of three of the four accuracy tests, or in
three of the four fluency tests, or in two of the accuracy tests and two of the fluency tests.25

In the past, learning disabilities were assessed through IQ tests and achievement scores on
reading tests. If their IQ was found to be average but showed a low reading achievement
score, the child was diagnosed as having a learning disability.26 Known as the discrepancy
model based procedure, this process of diagnosis was used in many schools, placing students
in classrooms that could provide them with the assistance they need.

Today, the Component Model of Reading is used more often to help understand and diag-
nose reading and learning disabilities. There are three domains of the Component Model
of Reading (CMR): cognitive, which includes the two components of word recognition and
comprehension, psychological, which includes the components of motivation and interest,
locus of control, learning styles and gender differences, and ecological, which includes the
components of home and classroom environment and culture, parental involvement and
dialect. 27 One thing to note is that the components of the cognitive domain can satisfy
the condition of independence in a student, but the psychological and ecological domains
do not do this as well.28

In a 2005 study regarding the effectiveness of the Component Model of Reading, it was
found that IQ tests previously used to determine reading disabilities can only predict
about 25% of variability in reading comprehension, whereas with the Component Model of
Reading, 38-41% of variability can be found.29

Overall, the diagnosis of reading and learning disabilities is a process that has evolved over
time, and is becoming more and more precise. Though there are multiple types of reading
disabilities, each one should be approached with a sense of open mindedness, as well as a
conscious awareness that each child and disability will be different. In terms of ways of
diagnosis, the steps included in this section have proven to work, though they are subject

25 Eklund, K. M., Torppa, M., & Lyytinen, H. (2013). Predicting reading disability: Early cognitive
risk and protective factors. Dyslexia: An International Journal Of Research And Practice, 19(1), 1-10.
doi:10.1002/dys.1447
26 Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., Gooden, R., & Bentum, K. E. (2008). Diagnosis and treatment of reading
disabilities based on the component model of reading: An alternative to the discrepancy model of LD.
Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 41(1), 67-84. doi:10.1177/0022219407310838
27 Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., Gooden, R., & Bentum, K. E. (2008). Diagnosis and treatment of reading
disabilities based on the component model of reading: An alternative to the discrepancy model of LD.
Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 41(1), 67-84. doi:10.1177/0022219407310838
28 Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., Gooden, R., & Bentum, K. E. (2008). Diagnosis and treatment of reading
disabilities based on the component model of reading: An alternative to the discrepancy model of LD.
Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 41(1), 67-84. doi:10.1177/0022219407310838
29 Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., Gooden, R., & Bentum, K. E. (2008). Diagnosis and treatment of reading
disabilities based on the component model of reading: An alternative to the discrepancy model of LD.
Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 41(1), 67-84. doi:10.1177/0022219407310838

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 Reading Disabilities

to change in the future as educators learn more about intervention and how disabilities
progress or change.

20.2.2 Types of Reading Difficulties and Disabilities

When discussing reading difficulties and disabilities, it is important to remember that there
is a wide array of factors that can affect reading and comprehension, and not all students
who experience trouble reading are diagnosed with a ”reading disability”. Sometimes
students are not developmentally ready for leaning to read and struggle with understanding
the linguistics of reading, while others come from cultural or linguistic backgrounds that
don’t match with the type of reading instruction taught in the school.30 In addition, some
students may have difficulty learning to read even with good instruction. This can be
attributed to low general ability, meaning they struggle more with comprehension than the
reading itself.31

Students can also have reading disabilities even if they are of average or above average
intelligence, which is different than students who are poor readers. Speech problems
are often paired with difficulties in writing and spelling, which in turn would hinder the
student’s ability to successfully read and comprehend what they’re reading.32

One common reading difficulty lies in the phonics of a word, specifically when a student is
unable to match the sounds of the letter to the visual symbol. In this case, the problem
is central rather than sensory.33 Word blindness, or dyslexia, is another common reading
disability in which letters and words are mixed around in the student’s brain, causing great
difficulty in the comprehension of what is being read.34

Dyslexia is a reading deficiency that runs in families. The risk of a child developing dyslexia
increases to 40% if a parent or relative also has the disability.35

Left handed students often have difficulty learning to read, as reading from left to right is
natural for right handed students - they are used to leading away from the centre of the

30 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
31 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
32 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
33 Hoillingworth, L. S. (1923). Reading. In , Special talents and defects: Their significance for education
(pp. 57-97). New York, NY, US: MacMillan Co. doi:10.1037/13549-004
34 Hoillingworth, L. S. (1923). Reading. In , Special talents and defects: Their significance for education
(pp. 57-97). New York, NY, US: MacMillan Co. doi:10.1037/13549-004
35 Eklund, K. M., Torppa, M., & Lyytinen, H. (2013). Predicting reading disability: Early cognitive
risk and protective factors. Dyslexia: An International Journal Of Research And Practice, 19(1), 1-10.
doi:10.1002/dys.1447

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Learning to Read

body rather than to it, which is the opposite for left handed students.36

Slow, silent reading can be caused by visual defects as well as a narrow span of recognition
and dyslexia, while poor reading comprehension of slow reading can be caused by an
inability to focus, organize main ideas, or lack of attention.37 However, though reading
comprehension can be hindered by a lack of attention, too much attention or focus on
single words can also cause problems. If a student focuses too much on individual words,
they can be unable to bring a sentence together as a whole.

In terms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), it is found that 8% to 20%

of students have the disorder, but only 3% to 7% show severe enough symptoms that they
are given a clinical diagnosis and are provided with special education intervention and
services.38 Though ADHD does not always mean that a student has a reading disability, it
can often coincide with one, in most cases causing students to misinterpret texts, or have
general comprehension issues regarding common connections in what is being read.

20.2.3 Implications for Teaching

As with any student who is struggling with any subject matter, teachers and learning aids
need to make changes in teaching styles and material to help make the material learnable.
One approach is the Reading Recovery method, which was developed in New Zealand.
This method consists of four steps:

1. ”Children are assessed on a variety of literacy tasks, such as their ability to identify letters,
read words, write, and do oral reading, as well as on their literacy knowledge and strategies”

2. ”A series of 30-minute daily tutorials in which a Reading Recovery teacher works

one-on-one with an individual student.”

3. ”Standardized sessions that provide a systematic set of activities, including having the
child practice letters and words, read from short books, and produce short compositions
that are cut up and re-read.”

36 Dearborn, W. F. (1932). Difficulties in learning. In W. V. Bingham, W. V. Bingham (Eds.) , Psychol-

ogy today: Lectures and study manual (pp. 186-194). Chicago, IL, US: University of Chicago Press.
doi:10.1037/13342-021
37 Brooks, F. D. (1926). How to diagnose reading deficiencies. In , The applied psychology of reading:
With exercises and directions for improving silent and oral reading (pp. 168-185). New York, NY, US: D
Appleton & Company. doi:10.1037/14870-012
38 Zentall, S. S., & Lee, J. (2012). A reading motivation intervention with differential outcomes for students
at risk for reading disabilities, ADHD, and typical comparisons: ’Clever is and clever does’. Learning
Disability Quarterly, 35(4), 248-259. doi:10.1177/0731948712438556

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 Reading Disabilities

4. ”A systematic process of staff development in which teachers are trained by Reading

Recovery trainers.”39

This level of scaffolding is both practical and efficient in propelling the learning of students,
and provides a high level of support for both students and teachers.

In a 2005 study conducted by Robert Schwartz, the Reading Recovery program was
examined in terms of the effectiveness in aiding first grade students. In this study, 47
Reading Recovery teachers in 14 states sent information of 107 students, 53% of which
were male and 47% of which were female. The students were paired with a Reading
Recovery teacher who led them through the program, which includes daily tutorials that
span the length of 30 minutes that are targeted toward structured activities that include
practicing letters and words, reading short books, producing small pieces of writing that
are later divided up and re-read. At the end of the study, 65% of students “graduated”
the program, 16% were recommended for further help, and 16% did not complete the
program. This can be compared to the national Reading Recovery data: 56% of students
graduated, 15% were recommended for further help, 19% were labelled as incomplete, 5%
“moved” and 4% were labelled as “none of the above”.40 Reading Recovery has proven to be
a very successful program in regards to rehabilitation and intervention. One interesting
aspect of the Reading Recovery program is that though it’s been around since the 80’s,
the system and process is still effective, and hasn’t needed to undergo any major changes.
A testament to the success of the program is that is it used internationally in English
speaking countries, and has a high success rate.

As with any situation in which a student is struggling, teaching methods and procedures
must be adjusted to adapt to the struggle of the child. Intervention of reading disabilities
is very important in the stages of learning to read, as a problem developed with learning to
read can plague a student throughout their entire lives if not caught soon enough. This is
exactly why programs such as Reading Recovery and the help of teachers are so important
in the process of learning to read. Though the help of SEA’s and other support workers
can greatly benefit the students and help take some of the load off of teachers, it is still
important to remember that each child does need to have a unique learning plan catered
to what they need and don’t need assistance with.

Though not all students are diagnosed with a reading disability, it is not uncommon for
students to struggle with material taught in class. Sometimes this can be attributed to
an undiagnosed disability. In the case of an undiagnosed student, or a student who is not
disabled but still faces challenges with learning, intervention and understanding can play a
large part in the future development for the child.

39 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
40 Schwartz, R. M. (2005). Literacy Learning of At-Risk First-Grade Students in the Reading Recovery Early
Intervention. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 97(2), 257-267. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.257

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Learning to Read

20.3 Stages of Reading

Like learning any other thing in life, learning to read requires steps or stages. When children
start to learn to read there are three main stages that they will all go through. Children start
off learning to read by not being able to decode any words (pre-alphabetic stage), they then
start to use phonic cues and other reading strategies (partial alphabetic stage), and finally
get to the point where they are able to distinguish between similar spelt words and are able
to learn new words while making connections (full alphabetic stage) 41 . Reading develops
in multiple dimensions before individuals reach conventional literacy. Each of these stages
is described as young children move from displaying very little literacy-related behaviours
to eventually being able to systematically decode language.

20.3.1 Pre-Alphabetic Stage

The pre-alphabetic stage consists of children who know quite a bit about literacy but
don’t know how to read any words. Children at this stage have no alphabetic knowledge
which is why the stage is called pre-alphabetic stage. Children however do know a lot of
words, can speak in full sentences, and have conversations with others, but are just not
able to read any actual words. However, they may say a word by looking at the symbol
associated with it. For example, reading the word ‘McDonald’s’ by looking at the big ‘M’
or saying the word ’dog’ by looking at a picture of one. Children have no recognition of
the word ‘McDonald’s’ or the word ’dog’ nor will they be able to read the word once the
picture is taken away. Children are simply responding to their environment and not to the
print 42 . Despite children knowing quite a bit of words and being able to say full sentences
they are just not able to read the words or any print on their own. Another type of group
in this stage try “linking a word’s look with its pronunciation and meaning” 43 . However,
the memory demands of reading in this way become very overwhelming and exhausting for
children and they soon try relying more on phonetic information while reading 44 .

20.3.2 Partial Alphabetic Stage

Children enter the partial alphabetic stage when they learn the names or sounds of the
alphabet and then use this knowledge to read words 45 . This is the stage where the actual
reading starts to occur. Children are no longer just looking at the images and reading the
word, they are actually trying to read the print. They now have knowledge of the letters in
the alphabet and are using this knowledge to help them read words. Children in this stage

41 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
42 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
43 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
44 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
45 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4

330
 Stages of Reading

generally focus more on the first and last letters of words, for example, the letter s and n to
read spoon 46 . When children are asked to write down words they tend to write down the
letters whose sound they can hear when pronouncing the word. For example, children might
write the word giraffe as jrf 47 . Children’s reading at this stage is only partial because they
are simply just looking at some of the letters in words and usually only some sound for
pronunciation 48 .
To better understand the difference of pre-alphabetic stage readers and partial alphabetic
stage readers, a study was conducted by Ehri and Wilce in 1985. This study tested kinder-
gartners by separating them into the two different stages mentioned above. Each stage was
given several practice trials to learn to read two kinds of spellings. One kind involved visual
spellings with varied shapes but no relationship to sounds, so for example, mask spelled
uHo. The other kind involved phonetic spelling that had letters represent some sounds in
the words, so for example, mask spelled MSK.
The results were that the pre-alphabetic stage readers learned to read visual spellings a
lot easier than the phonetic spellings 49 . Ehri explained that this confirmed their idea that
pre-alphabetic stage readers depend on visual cues because they lack knowledge of letters.
The partial alphabetic stage readers displayed the opposite pattern and were able to use
letter-sound cues to remember the words.

Figure 45 Results for Wilce and Ehri’s 1985 Experiment of Stages of Reading (graph is
showing number of words read in each stage)-Graph is Recreated

46 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
47 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
48 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
49 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4

331
Learning to Read

20.3.3 Full Alphabetic Stage

When children are able to learn sight words by forming complete connection between letters
in spelling and phonemes in pronunciations, they have moved onto the full alphabetic
stage 50 . In the partial alphabetic stage children will write down words with only the
letters they can clearly hear when pronouncing the word. However, in the full alphabetic
stage children are now able to decode unfamiliar words when reading, they can invent
spellings that represent all the phonemes, and are able to remember the spelling of words a
lot better 51 .
To show the difference in the phases of reading a study was conducted by Ehri and Wilce
in 1987. This study was done to show the differences in sight word learning between
full and partial stage readers 52 . For this study, kindergartners who were already in the
partial alphabetic stage were randomly selected. They then were randomly assigned to
a treatment or a control group. The treatment group then received training to become
full alphabetic stage readers by having them practice reading similarly spelled words. This
required processing all the grapheme-phoneme relations in the words to read them correctly.
The control grouped received no training what so ever and remained as partial stage readers.
Following this, both groups of kindergartners got practice learning to read a set of fifteen
words over several trials. All the words in the list had similar spellings which made it harder
for children to learn by remembering partial cues. The list of words included words such
as spin, stab, stamp, or stand. Before the study none of the children could read more than
two of these words prior to training.
The results of the study showed huge differences between the two groups of kindergartners.
Full-alphabetic stage readers learned to read most of the words in the list in three trials
but the partial alphabetic stage readers never even reached this level of learning 53 . The
study did say that the reason for difficulty for the partial alphabetic stage readers is due
to them confusing similarly spelled words. Which goes to show the advantage readers get
when they can form full connections to retain sight words in memory 54 .

50 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
51 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
52 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
53 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
54 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4

332
 Stages of Reading

Figure 46 Results of Ehri and Wilce’s 1987 Experiment for Phases of Reading (graph is
showing the number of trials and percent of words gotten right)-Graph is Recreated

It is important to note how just being one stage behind in reading can cause such a huge
difference in the results. Just by being at the full alphabetic stage the kindergartners were
able to read the similarly spelled words in three trials whereas the partial alphabetic stage
kindergartners had so much trouble doing so. It goes to show the importance of each reading
stage and how important it is for teachers to make sure students are ready to go onto the
next stage. Teachers need to be sure that students have learnt everything they need in the
previous stage to help them pass the next one.

20.3.4 Consolidated Stage

Children get to this final stage of reading when they have retained more sight words in
their memory and are familiar with letter patterns 55 . Children are now familiar with letter
patterns that appear repeatedly in different words and the grapheme-phoneme connections
begin to get consolidated into larger units 56 . For example, words such as printing is learned
more easily now because fewer connections are required to secure the word in memory and
the word is no longer being processed as many separate letter-sound connections but as two
syllable sized chunks 57 .

55 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
56 Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading,
9(2), 167-188, doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
57 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.

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Learning to Read

20.3.5 Implications for Teaching

The English language is not perfect and therefore it can have one letter represent one sound,
two or more letters represent that one sound, a silent final vowel can change the sound of
the medial vowel, and many words contain letters that have no sound 58 . When teachers
are starting to teach their students how to read they should be aware of the interconnection
between letters and sounds and know the different stages children go through when they
are developing their literacy skills. Throughout the three alphabetic stages, teachers should
focus on decoding and vocabulary as the mastery as these dimensions are vital to successful
reading 59 . Children need to be able to decode words or in other words be able to think
about letter and sound relationships and correctly pronounce written words. Games can
be used to teach children the correct pronunciation of letters and their sounds. Having
children hear the different sounds of letters with the letter in front of them will help them
understand better. Since beginner readers are visual learners, pictures might help them
understand the relationship between letters and the sound. For example, a teacher may put
up a picture of bat and write on the board the word bat but skipping the first letter. Now
the teacher can ask the students what the first letter might be by repeatedly saying the word
bat and helping the students sound it out. It is important for children to decode and fluently
read words, but it is also vital that children understand the meaning of specific contextual
words 60 . When children can read and understand the meaning of the words they are able
to truly comprehend a text 61 . Teachers should help children in discovering the meaning
of words found in a text by having them place words connected to each other in specific
categories, create connected categories of words, pointing out relationships between words,
using dictionaries or thesauruses to extend word meaning, and having students self-select
words for vocabulary study and stating specific reasons for choosing these words 62 .

20.4 Teaching to Read

There is often great importance placed on literacy and the skill of reading, and so teachers
may feel pressured to find the best approaches or methods for teaching their students how
to read. Deciding which areas to focus on can be challenging when teaching beginning
readers. Ideally, reading instruction should touch on each of the foundations of language, as
well as the benefits of learning to read. Over the course of the history of reading instruction,
there have been numerous controversies about which methods are the best to teach children
to read63 . In 1967, Jeanne Chall grouped reading methods into two categories that are

58 Bukowiecki, E. M. (2007). Teaching children how to read. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(2), 58-65. doi:
10.1080/00228958.2007.10516463
59 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
60 Bukowiecki, E. M. (2007). Teaching children how to read. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(2), 58-65. doi:
10.1080/00228958.2007.10516463
61 Bukowiecki, E. M. (2007). Teaching children how to read. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(2), 58-65. doi:
10.1080/00228958.2007.10516463
62 Bukowiecki, E. M. (2007). Teaching children how to read. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(2), 58-65. doi:
10.1080/00228958.2007.10516463
63 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.

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 Teaching to Read

still useful in understanding the divide on reading instruction: code-emphasis methods and
meaning-emphasis methods. Code-emphasis methods focus on decoding and learning
letters and sounds, while meaning-emphasis methods focus on making meanings and
using one’s general knowledge store64 . The following approaches to teaching reading are
separated by their methodology, but today, models of reading strive for a balance between
the two types of reading methods because they are both recognized as essential for learning
to read. Reading and literacy development have many different dimensions, but we also
must not forget the importance of teaching children that reading can be enjoyable.

20.4.1 Phonics-Based Approach

A phonics-based approach to teaching reading is a type of code-emphasis method. Primary

goals include making sure children can: understand letter-sound correspondences, automat-
ically recognize familiar words, and decode unfamiliar words65 . Researchers advocating for a
more phonics-based approach believe that phonemic awareness is a requirement for learning
to connect alphabetic symbols to their sounds, and that these letter-sound connections are
required for learning to identify individual words and learning to read in general66 . From
a logical standpoint, learning letter-sound correspondences may seem the most salient for
beginning readers, especially since words are made up of combinations of letter-sound corre-
spondences. Within a phonics-based approach, there are two types of instruction: an explicit
phonics approach and an implicit phonics approach. In an explicit phonics approach,
sounds are associated with the letters by themselves, and then are blended together to form
words67 . In the classroom, a teacher might directly tell students the sound represented
by an individual letter. Once students have learned a few letter-sound correspondences,
they begin to learn to read by blending the sounds together68 . The main strategy used
for identifying words in an explicit phonics approach is based on the student’s knowledge
of letter-sound correspondences69 . When a student encounters an unfamiliar word, they
are encouraged to sound it out and they are not directed to the context of the word until
after the word has been identified70 . In this case, context is only a metacognitive strategy

64 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
65 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
66 Vellutino, F.R. (1991). Introduction to three studies on reading acquisition: Convergent findings on
theoretical foundations of code-oriented versus whole-language approaches to reading instruction. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 83(4). 437-443. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.437
67 Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L., (1999). Analyzing Beginning Reading Programs: The Re-
lationship Between Decoding Instruction and Text. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 275-287.
doi:10.1177/074193259902000503
68 Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L., (1999). Analyzing Beginning Reading Programs: The Re-
lationship Between Decoding Instruction and Text. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 275-287.
doi:10.1177/074193259902000503
69 Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L., (1999). Analyzing Beginning Reading Programs: The Re-
lationship Between Decoding Instruction and Text. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 275-287.
doi:10.1177/074193259902000503
70 Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L., (1999). Analyzing Beginning Reading Programs: The Re-
lationship Between Decoding Instruction and Text. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 275-287.
doi:10.1177/074193259902000503

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Learning to Read

used to understand the text as a whole71 . In an implicit phonics approach, sounds of

letters are identified in the context of whole words rather than letters in isolation72 . During
instruction, the teacher might write the word hand on the board, and underline the letter
h. Then, the teacher would have the students say “hand” to elicit from them that h makes
the sound /h/73 . In addition, the context of the word and picture clues may be used to
sound out unfamiliar words. A common problem that has been identified in using context
to teach letter-sound correspondences is that some students fail to learn these correspon-
dences because they are unable to split words into their individual sounds, since they lack
the skills needed to infer sounds from a whole word74 . Evidence from research indicates that
a large majority of poor readers are deficient in alphabetic coding and phonemic awareness
75 . As stated earlier, ideal reading instruction should involve both code-emphasis methods

and meaning-emphasis methods. As such, more people are against over-emphasis of phonics
and prescriptive teaching methods than there are people against phonics instruction itself76 .
A study by Maddox and Feng (2013) compared the efficacy of whole language reading
instruction versus phonics instruction for improving students’ reading fluency and spelling
accuracy. The researchers hypothesized that explicit phonics instruction would have a more
positive effect on students’ reading fluency and spelling accuracy than whole language in-
struction, and that the students receiving explicit phonics instruction would show greater
gains in reading fluency and spelling accuracy than students receiving whole language in-
struction. Twenty-two first graders from one classroom were randomly assigned to either
the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group became the phonics
group and received explicit phonics instruction, while the control group became the whole
language group and did not receive explicit phonics instruction. With the experimental
group, the teacher taught phonics patterns and the group practiced segmenting, coding,
blending and working with these patterns, but did not read any stories. With the control
group, the teacher read the students fourteen stories from the Raz-kids reading program;
the words in the stories contained the same phonics patterns as those taught in the phonics
group and the students focused on picture walks, story predictions, and meaning of vocabu-
lary. Both groups met with their teacher (who was also one of the experimenters) for twenty
minutes, five days a week, over a span of four weeks. Before the training sessions began,
students’ pretest scores were gathered using the Aimsweb Reading Curriculum Based Mea-
sure (RCBM) and the Aimsweb Spelling Curriculum Based Measure (SCBM). After the

71 Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L., (1999). Analyzing Beginning Reading Programs: The Re-
lationship Between Decoding Instruction and Text. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 275-287.
doi:10.1177/074193259902000503
72 Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L., (1999). Analyzing Beginning Reading Programs: The Re-
lationship Between Decoding Instruction and Text. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 275-287.
doi:10.1177/074193259902000503
73 Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L., (1999). Analyzing Beginning Reading Programs: The Re-
lationship Between Decoding Instruction and Text. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 275-287.
doi:10.1177/074193259902000503
74 Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L., (1999). Analyzing Beginning Reading Programs: The Re-
lationship Between Decoding Instruction and Text. Remedial and Special Education, 20(5), 275-287.
doi:10.1177/074193259902000503
75 Vellutino, F.R. (1991). Introduction to three studies on reading acquisition: Convergent findings on
theoretical foundations of code-oriented versus whole-language approaches to reading instruction. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 83(4). 437-443. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.437
76 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.

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 Teaching to Read

four weeks of training, the same tests were administered to the students again to calculate
posttest scores to measure changes in reading fluency and spelling accuracy. The results
indicated no statistically significant differences in reading fluency or spelling accuracy of
either group. The phonics group had higher reading scores on average and increased their
reading fluency by 8.00 points compared to the whole language group, who increased their
reading fluency by 4.09 points. Data for spelling accuracy showed the phonics group had
positive results with an increase in 1.00 point while the whole language group regressed with
a decrease of -0.27 points. A direct comparison indicates the phonics group made greater
gains in both reading fluency and spelling accuracy.77

Figure 47 Mean pretest and posttest scores for experimental and control groups for
Reading Fluency.

77 Maddox, K., & Feng, J. (2013). Whole Language Instruction vs. Phonics Instruction: Effects on Reading
Fluency and Spelling Accuracy of First Grade Students. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED545621)

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Learning to Read

Figure 48 Mean pretest and posttest scores for experimental and control groups for
Spelling Accuracy.

20.4.2 Phonemic Awareness

How does phonemic awareness affect learning to read? Phonemic awareness is described
as the ability to focus on and manipulate phonemes in spoken words. Phonemes are
the smallest units that make up spoken language, and are combined to form syllables and
words,78 thus, phonemic awareness is a code-emphasis method. Research has posited that
sight-reading words from memory requires phoneme segmentation skills, and that phonemic
awareness is thought to help children write words by enabling them to invent letter-sound
spellings or retrieve spellings from memory79 .
A study by Castle, Riach and Nicholson (1994) was done with the aim of determining
whether training in phonemic awareness would get children off to a better start in reading

78 Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T.. (2001).
Phonemic Awareness Instruction Helps Children Learn to Read: Evidence from the National Reading
Panel’s Meta-Analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250–287. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.
org/stable/748111
79 Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T.. (2001).
Phonemic Awareness Instruction Helps Children Learn to Read: Evidence from the National Reading
Panel’s Meta-Analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250–287. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.
org/stable/748111

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 Teaching to Read

and spelling, even if they were already being instructed within a whole language program.
The experiment was done with children in New Zealand during their first few months
of school, during the time they were just learning to read and write. Thirty 5-year-olds
from three different schools were divided and matched into one experimental group and
one control group. The experimental group had 20-minute training sessions twice a week
for 10 weeks, totalling 6.7 hours in overall training time. The topics covered during these
sessions were chosen with the purpose of increasing phonemic awareness, including phoneme
segmentation, phoneme substitution, phoneme deletion, and rhyme. The control group had
the same amount of instructional time, but the children were involved in process writing
activities as part of the whole language approach in New Zealand schools, in which children
wrote their own stories and invented their own spellings of words. A series of pretests were
administered before the training sessions began, including: Roper’s measure of phonemic
awareness, a Wide Range Achievement of Spelling test, an experimental spelling test, and a
diction test. These same tests were also administered as posttests after the training sessions
were completed. The results from the study showed significant gains for both groups in
phonemic awareness, but there was a considerable difference between the experimental and
control groups that indicates that the training program used in the study was effective
in improving phonemic awareness skills. There was also a significant difference between
the groups on two of the spelling tests (Wide Range Achievement of Spelling test and
experimental spelling test), showing that improvement in phonemic awareness skills leads
to better spelling skills. In conclusion, the findings of the study suggest that the ability
to link letters and their sounds is associated with spelling progress, and that phonemic
awareness promotes spelling acquisition80 .

80 Castle, J.M., Riach, J., & Nicholson, T. (1994). Getting Off to a Better Start in Reading and Spelling: The
Effects of Phonemic Awareness Instruction Within a Whole Language Program. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 86(3), 350-359. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.3.350

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Learning to Read

Figure 49 Mean pretest and posttest scores of experimental and control groups for
WRAT Spelling Test.

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 Teaching to Read

Figure 50 Mean pretest and posttest scores of experimental and control groups for
Experimental Spelling Test.

It is important to note that the impact of phonemic awareness instruction is greatest in

the preschool and kindergarten years, and may become smaller beyond first grade81 . As
students move beyond first grade, phonemic awareness skills becomes less important than
the need to learn spelling patterns82 . Explicit instruction in phonemic awareness may not be
as effective for older students, however; it may be effective for children who have not made
normal reading progress and students with reading disabilities, thus, phonemic awareness
skill instruction can help with these students’ reading and spelling difficulties83 .

81 Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T.. (2001).
Phonemic Awareness Instruction Helps Children Learn to Read: Evidence from the National Reading
Panel’s Meta-Analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250–287. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.
org/stable/748111
82 Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T.. (2001).
Phonemic Awareness Instruction Helps Children Learn to Read: Evidence from the National Reading
Panel’s Meta-Analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250–287. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.
org/stable/748111
83 Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T.. (2001).
Phonemic Awareness Instruction Helps Children Learn to Read: Evidence from the National Reading
Panel’s Meta-Analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250–287. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.
org/stable/748111

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Learning to Read

20.4.3 Whole Language Approach

Figure 51 Zone of proximal development

In a whole language approach, literacy is viewed as a top-down process84 . The whole

language approach is a philosophy that emphasizes reading words and sentences are of
greater importance than learning the sounds and phonemes that make up words. Letter
sound-correspondences are not taught independently of reading, and so it is a type of
meaning-emphasis method. Students are engaged with language as a whole, rather than
separating out the parts and practicing each one on its own85 . Reading is meant to occur
naturally, as when children first learned to speak: with very little direct instruction and lots

84 McCaslin, M. M.. (1989). Whole Language: Theory, Instruction, and Future Implementation. The
Elementary School Journal, 90(2), 223–229. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.sfu.
ca/stable/1002031
85 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945

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 Teaching to Read

of encouragement86 . By experiencing the wholeness of reading, only then do students learn

the subparts of words87 . A whole language approach is very much a context-driven process,
and words are not presented out of context88 . In order to make sense of the text at hand,
students are meant to use their store of accumulated knowledge, illustrations, phonetic
strategies and prior experiences to make sense of the text and any unfamiliar words89 .
Teachers who support a whole language approach often use “real books” rather than basal
readers (often seen in code-emphasis methods) because they promote reading fluency and
making meanings90 . Furthermore, it is stressed in a whole language approach that the
process of learning is not always smooth and certain, and that students must take ownership
and responsibility for their learning goals91 . The whole language approach is often looked at
from a Vygotskian perspective: teachers are mediators who make learners’ transactions with
the world possible92 . According to Vygotsky, learning is a social interaction, and children
need to converse with others in order to exchange and form meanings 93 . As such, the whole
language approach to reading instruction flourishes through all kinds of social interaction
because learners can more effectively solve problems when they are collaborating on the same
problems and developing the same skills94 . When students work together, their discussion
can often lead to not only solving the problem at hand, but also forming new meanings
and accumulating new knowledge from information derived from collaboration. Vygotsky
also stated that literacy experiences should be structured so that they are necessary for
something, that is, there is a purpose for learning how to read and write95 . Using examples
in class that are relatable or have a parallel comparison to students’ experiences outside
the classroom can increase reading motivation96 . One other Vygotskian model for reading
instruction using a whole language approach is to work within a student’s zone of proximal
development, which is a person’s area of learning between what they can do alone and
what they can do with help. During reading, asking students questions about the language

86 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
87 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
88 Vellutino, F.R. (1991). Introduction to three studies on reading acquisition: Convergent findings on
theoretical foundations of code-oriented versus whole-language approaches to reading instruction. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 83(4). 437-443. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.437
89 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
90 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
91 McCaslin, M. M.. (1989). Whole Language: Theory, Instruction, and Future Implementation. The
Elementary School Journal, 90(2), 223–229. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.sfu.
ca/stable/1002031
92 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
93 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
94 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
95 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
96 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945

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Learning to Read

or for clarification can build on skills they already posses97 . Asking students questions
about the material and fostering meaning making can have a positive effect on reading
comprehension. Research suggests that when real reading is considered the main element
of whole-language reading instruction, the approach is beneficial to reading comprehension
tests98 . After all, reading comprehension is a main goal of reading instruction.
Manning and Kamii’s study (2000) on reading and writing tasks in kindergarten students
compared the effectiveness of whole language versus isolated phonics instruction. Thirty-
eight children from two kindergarten classes at one school in the United States were ex-
amined. The teacher of one class identified as a whole language teacher, and the other as
a phonics teacher. In the phonics classroom, the students had daily phonics worksheets
and oral-sound training, and often used flashcards to practice sight words and letter-sound
correspondences. There were posters that displayed various phonics rules, marked with
symbols to indicate long or short vowel sounds. In the whole language classroom, children
did a lot of shared reading and writing, such as independent journal writing and also group
writing activities. Books were read aloud by the teacher for over an hour each day, spread
out over the day. All the children were interviewed individually five times throughout the
year, where they were asked to write eight words and then read two to four sentences. The
researchers then scored the students according to their level of writing and ability to identify
a word in a given sentence. Results showed that although the whole language group started
out the year at a lower level, many more children ended the year at a higher level than the
phonics group. In the phonics group, there were more instances of regression, and overall
advanced less and became more confused during their kindergarten year99 .

20.4.4 Schema Theory

Schema theory is an explanation of how readers use their prior knowledge to comprehend
text100 . The term schema (plural: schemata) was first introduced in psychology to de-
scribe a mental framework that organizes a person’s knowledge, and was then later used
in reading instruction to describe the role that students’ prior knowledge plays in reading
comprehension101 . According to schema theory, people organize everything they know into
schemata102 . Everyone’s schemata are individualized, and the more elaborated a person’s
schema is for any specific topic, the more easily they will be able to learn new information
in that topic area103 . A person’s existing knowledge structures are malleable and constantly

97 Stone, T. J. (1993). Whole-language reading processes from a Vygotskian perspective. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 22(5), 361-373. doi:10.1007/BF00760945
98 Krashen, S.D. (2002). Defending whole language: the limits of phonics instruction and the efficacy of
whole language instruction. Reading Improvement, 39(1), 32-42.
99 Manning, M., & Kamii, C. (2000). Whole Language vs. Isolated Phonics Instruction: A Longitudinal
Study in Kindergarten With Reading and Writing Tasks, Journal of Research in Childhood Education,
15(1), 53-65. doi: 10.1080/02568540009594775
100 Shuying, A. (2013). Schema Theory in Reading. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(1), 130-134.
doi:10.4304/tpls.3.1.130-134
101 Shuying, A. (2013). Schema Theory in Reading. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(1), 130-134.
doi:10.4304/tpls.3.1.130-134
102 Tracey, D.H., & Morrow, L.M. (2012). Lenses on Reading, Second Edition : An Introduction to Theories
and Models. Guilford Press.
103 Tracey, D.H., & Morrow, L.M. (2012). Lenses on Reading, Second Edition : An Introduction to Theories
and Models. Guilford Press.

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 Teaching to Read

changing104 ; when a person learns new information, their pre-existing schema may need to
adjust to accommodate this new information. In regards to reading, the main idea of schema
theory is that written text does not carry meaning alone; rather, the text provides guidance
for how readers should retrieve or construct meaning from previously existing knowledge
structures105 . In addition to having schemata for content, learners also have schemata for
reading processes and different kinds of text structures106 . Understanding the text is a
reciprocal and interactive process between the reader’s prior knowledge and the actual text
because effective comprehension requires the ability to relate prior knowledge to the text107 .
Schema theory has two kinds of processing during reading comprehension: bottom-up
processing is schema activation (when textual stimuli signal recall of relevant schemata)
through specific information in the text, while top-down processing starts with general
knowledge and moves down towards more specific details, and as more stimuli are presented,
the reader’s specific schemata pertaining to the text can be activated108 . These two types
of processing occur simultaneously and interactively in order to comprehend text109 .

Figure 52 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing

104 Tracey, D.H., & Morrow, L.M. (2012). Lenses on Reading, Second Edition : An Introduction to Theories
and Models. Guilford Press.
105 Shuying, A. (2013). Schema Theory in Reading. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(1), 130-134.
doi:10.4304/tpls.3.1.130-134
106 Tracey, D.H., & Morrow, L.M. (2012). Lenses on Reading, Second Edition : An Introduction to Theories
and Models. Guilford Press.
107 Shuying, A. (2013). Schema Theory in Reading. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(1), 130-134.
doi:10.4304/tpls.3.1.130-134
108 Shuying, A. (2013). Schema Theory in Reading. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(1), 130-134.
doi:10.4304/tpls.3.1.130-134
109 Shuying, A. (2013). Schema Theory in Reading. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(1), 130-134.
doi:10.4304/tpls.3.1.130-134

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Learning to Read

Research suggests that when readers activate prior knowledge by previewing the text, they
use schemata immediately when they start reading and focus instead on new information,
with the aim of building connections between old and new information110 . Without existing
schema regarding the structure or content of the text, reading comprehension will not
occur111 . Due to the importance of pre-existing knowledge, teachers can build on and
activate students’ schema prior to reading112 . Previewing the text can include brainstorming
or group discussions, or even reviewing strategies and skills for reading the text. It is also
important to note that differences and students’ schemata relate in differences in reading
comprehension, but previewing text also allows a reader to realize in advance that they
have knowledge of the subject, increasing the student’s self-efficacy for that reading task113 .
A study of Iranian students examined whether schema activation through pre-reading ac-
tivities has an effect on reading comprehension of culturally based texts. The subjects
consisted of seventy-six English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students either majoring in
English Literature, or majoring in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). All the
participants were sophomore students in their fourth semester at the Islamic Azad Univer-
sity of Kerman in Iran. To make sure all students were of the same English proficiency,
they were categorized from a basic to upper-intermediate level of English based on their
results on the Oxford Placement Test. Participants were then separated into two groups:
one experimental group and one control group. The researchers tested two null hypotheses:
the first, that there would be no significant difference between the mean pretest and mean
posttest scores of the experimental group after schema activation; and the second, that there
is no relationship between the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group when
the students’ schemas are activated through pre-reading activities. During the procedure,
both the experimental and control groups were administered a reading comprehension test
about the origins and customs of Halloween as a pretest. The topic was chosen because the
holiday is culturally loaded, and so students from another country may have difficulties un-
derstanding it. Then, the experimental group had two training sessions of schema activation
with a researcher– these sessions included pre-reading activities, previewing, pre-teaching
vocabulary, and looking at pictures to make the students more familiar with Halloween cus-
toms. The group was then asked to talk about what they knew about Halloween, and this
served as a basis for group discussion. During the training sessions, the researcher asked
the group questions about new vocabulary word, and provided synonyms and definitions
when necessary. The experimental group was then given the same reading comprehension
test as a posttest two weeks later. The control group was only administered the initial
pretest, and did not have any training sessions or a posttest. The results showed that both
null hypotheses were rejected, and that both groups scored about the same on the pretest
– the experimental group with a mean score of 16.42 and the control group with a mean
score of 16.57 – but after the experimental group’s training sessions, their posttest mean

110 Al-Faki, I., & Siddiek, A. G. (2013). The role of background knowledge in enhancing reading comprehen-
sion. World Journal of English Language, 3(4), 42-n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/
docview/1525981385?accountid=13800
111 Tracey, D.H., & ;Morrow, L.M. (2012). Lenses on Reading, Second Edition : An Introduction to Theories
and Models. Guilford Press.
112 Tracey, D.H., & ;Morrow, L.M. (2012). Lenses on Reading, Second Edition : An Introduction to Theories
and Models. Guilford Press.
113 Al-Faki, I., & Siddiek, A. G. (2013). The role of background knowledge in enhancing reading comprehen-
sion. World Journal of English Language, 3(4), 42-n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/
docview/1525981385?accountid=13800

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 Assessing Reading Progress

score increased to 18.70. The researchers also found a significant relationship between the
pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group. In conclusion, as the experimental
group received more background knowledge, reading comprehension was enhanced, and the
researchers strongly believe that the results and implications of the study are applicable to
other less culturally bound materials. Teacher guidance is crucial for helping students con-
nect new information to existing schemas, and spending time on schema activation activities
leads to better student performance114 .

Figure 53 Comparison of mean pretest and posttest results of experimental and control
groups on reading comprehension test.

20.5 Assessing Reading Progress

When children start school, one of the very first things they start to learn is reading.
Formally learning to read starts in kindergarten and continues throughout our lifetime.
When children are learning to read it is important to give them feedback and assess them
along the way to see how they are doing. In order to gauge the success and improvement
of a student’s reading skills, there are some frequently assessed markers to determine one’s

114 Maghsoudi, Najmeh. (2012). The impact of schema activation on reading comprehen-
sion of cultural texts among Iranian EFL learners. Canadian Social Science, 8(5), 196-201.
doi:10.3968/j.css.1923669720120805.3131

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Learning to Read

reading progress: phonemic awareness, letter knowledge, and oral reading fluency 115 . Before
children learn to print, they need to be aware of how the sounds of the letters in words
work. Phonemic awareness is basically assessing just that, children need to have the ability
to notice, think about, and manipulate the phonemic segments of spoken words 116 . If
children are not aware of the sound structure of language they will be not be able to attend
to the separate sounds in spoken words and thus will not be able to establish letter-sound
correspondences 117 . It is believed that this letter-sound link is a foundational skill in
decoding, and are important early skills in literacy 118 . Letter knowledge is measured by
children’s ability to name upper and lower case letters and know the sounds of each of the
letters in the alphabet 119 . This is key for children to know because it is only when they
understand the letters and their sounds that they can start to read. While reading, children
have to know how to sound out words, decode them, and pronounce them and this is only
possible if they have mastered the letters and their sounds. The third type of assessment
used to measure early reading progress is known as reading fluency. This is basically trying
to measure children’s ability to read quickly, accurately, and with expression 120 . This type
of assessment is controversial for some people because they don’t believe that by reading
quickly children have progressed. Reading quickly and accurately isn’t the real purpose of
reading, it’s understanding and recalling what you have read that is important 121 .
Effective assessment should be an ongoing process and shouldn’t just stop after children can
quickly read a text and understand it. Which is why there are some authentic assessment
measures that teachers are able to use to determine students’ skills and learning and to
inform present and future instruction 122 . Teachers are able to use assessments such as oral
and written story retellings which will informally measure students’ reading comprehension,
literacy portfolios can be used to showcase student’s oral and written processes, products,
and skills, and checklists can be used to help the teacher’s observations of students and to
determine students’ literacy needs and growth 123 .

115 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
116 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
117 Walsh, R. (2009). Word games: The importance of defining phonemic awareness for pro-
fessional discourse. Australian Journal of Language & Literacy, 32(3), 211-225. Re-
trieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=
e203b503-b43d-4f66-b2e9-2534fa1b2905%40sessionmgr4002&vid=13&hid=4104
118 Walsh, R. (2009). Word games: The importance of defining phonemic awareness for pro-
fessional discourse. Australian Journal of Language & Literacy, 32(3), 211-225. Re-
trieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=
e203b503-b43d-4f66-b2e9-2534fa1b2905%40sessionmgr4002&vid=13&hid=4104
119 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
120 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
121 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
122 Bukowiecki, E. M. (2007). Teaching children how to read. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(2), 58-65. doi:
10.1080/00228958.2007.10516463
123 Bukowiecki, E. M. (2007). Teaching children how to read. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(2), 58-65. doi:
10.1080/00228958.2007.10516463

348
 Glossary

Assessing the reading progress of students’ is important and makes teachers aware of what
stage their students’ are at. This will help teachers to better assist their students’ needs.
Assessing students has a lot of benefits to it but teachers should always be aware that
assessing isn’t everything and not all students can be assessed at the same time or in the
same way.

20.6 Glossary

Bottom-up processing: An approach to information processing that involves piecing to-

gether smaller pieces of information and building up to bigger concepts.
Code-emphasis methods: Approaches to reading that stress the importance of decoding
letters and words, and letter-sound correspondences.
Discourse: Structured, coherent sequences of language in which sentences are combined
into higher order units, such as paragraphs, narratives, and expository texts, i.e., conversa-
tions 124 .
Explicit phonics approach: Reading instruction in which the sounds associated with let-
ters (letter-sound correspondences) are identified first independently, then are later blended
together to form words.
Full Alphabetic Stage: Readers who, as they conclude the early stages of reading, can
identify the separate sounds in words and understand that spellings correspond to pronun-
ciation 125 .
Implicit phonics approach: Reading instruction in which the sounds of letters are iden-
tified within the whole word rather than independently.
Meaning-emphasis methods: Approaches to reading that focus more on making mean-
ings from the words and using one’s general knowledge store.
Partial Alphabetic Stage: Readers who, in the early stages of reading, read by associat-
ing some but not all of words’ letters with sounds 126 .
Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound that makes up a word.
Phonemic Awareness: The ability to identify and manipulate the individual phonemes
in a word.
Pragmatics: The meanings, messages, and uses of language 127 .

Pre-Alphabetic Stage: It is the stage when children know quite a bit of literacy but do
not know how to read any words.

124 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
125 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
126 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
127 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.

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Learning to Read

Schema:The idea of a mental framework that helps us organize knowledge and the rela-
tionships between these pieces of information.
Schema activation:The process by which textual stimuli signal the recall of relevant
schemata from memory for the present reading task.
Semantics: The study of words and their meanings 128 .

Syntax: Ways words in a language are grouped into larger units, such as in phrases, clauses,
and sentences 129 .
Top-down processing: An approach to information processing that involves using general
knowledge to fill in what is known and working down towards smaller details.
Zone of proximal development: A concept created by Vygotsky that describes the area
of learning between what a student is capable of doing by themselves, and what they can
do with help, i.e., from a teacher, parents, or caregiver.

20.7 Recommended Readings

Bukowiecki, E. M. (2007). Teaching children how to read. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(2),
58-65. doi: 10.1080/00228958.2007.10516463
Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies
of Reading, 9(2), 167-188. doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
Hempestall, K. (2005). The whole language‐phonics controversy: A historical
perspective. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10(3-4), 19-33. doi:
10.1080/19404150509546797
Tracey, D.H., & Morrow, L.M. (2012). Lenses on Reading, Second Edition : An Introduction
to Theories and Models. Guilford Press.

20.8 References

128 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.
129 Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J., & Norby, M.M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed).
Pearson.

350
21 Learning Mathematics

Mathematics contains many areas of study such as geometry, algebra, calculus, and prob-
ability; each requiring the mastery of specialized concepts and procedures. The challenges
of teaching and learning mathematics can be understood and overcome through analysis of
cognitive processes. In this chapter we examine cognitive theories and research that inform
the practice of mathematics education. We discuss the relevant aspects of Piaget’s theory
of cognitive development and the criticism that it has received. We explain the factors that
influence individual students’ abilities to learn mathematics and how teachers can account
for these factors when designing lessons.

21.1 What is Mathematics?

Mathematics is the study of numbers, quantities, geometry and space, as well as their
relationships and functions. It utilizes a combination of conceptual, procedural, and
declarative knowledge.1 In order to successfully solve mathematical problems, students
need to acquire this set of knowledge. To fully engage in their learning of mathematics,
students must first gain a conceptual understanding, which requires utilizing background
knowledge of learned concepts. Conceptual understanding of mathematics leads to the
acquisition of more mathematical knowledge, helping to construct the other strands of
mathematical proficiency: productive disposition, procedural fluency, strategic competence
and adaptive reasoning. Growth in each proficiency leads to growth in the other profi-
ciencies and leads to more knowledge. That is, conceptual knowledge enhances procedural
knowledge and so on.2 For example, there are many different algorithms in mathemat-
ics that students need to be familiar with. When students have a clear understanding of
mathematical principles and concepts, they will be able to select and re-create the appro-
priate algorithm for any mathematical problem. This demonstrates the connection between
conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge because students can have many learned
strategies but they have to select the correct one and build upon it.3 In addition, when
there are successes or failures while using certain procedures to solve complex mathematical
problems, students can often learn more. Students can learn from their failure by self-
questioning their mistakes and can reconstruct their existing knowledge. As a result, this
increases their conceptual knowledge. Declarative knowledge is definitely related to both
conceptual and procedural knowledge because it requires students to retrieve mathematical

1 Wong, B., Graham, L., Hoskyn, M., & Berman, J. (Eds.). (2008). The ABCs of learning disabilities (2nd
ed.). Boston: Elsevier Academic Press.
2 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
3 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.

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Learning Mathematics

concepts (i.e., conceptual knowledge) and specific mathematical algorithms (i.e., procedural
knowledge) from the long-term memory. Deficiency in any one, or all, of these knowledge
areas may cause learning difficulties in mathematics.4 Thus, this combination of concep-
tual, procedural, and declarative knowledge influences learning since they are all associated
with one another.

21.2 Cognitive Theory and Mathematics

21.2.1 Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget has indicated four primary stages of cognitive development from birth to
young adulthood, these includes sensorimotor (from birth to age 2), preoperational
(about age 2 to age 7), concrete operational (about age 7 to age 11), and formal oper-
ational (about age 11 to age 15). Although everyone progresses through these stages
differently, Piaget believed that every child would eventually experience every stage of
thinking in the sequence and no one would miss a stage because one would not be able to
develop to the next stage until they understand the previous one; it’s just a matter of time.

Piaget also pointed out that children’s learning is usually developed through movement
and the five senses from birth to age 2. During the infants’ first few weeks, they start
learning how to track objects and to get a hold of them by constantly practicing, which can
help the parts of the brain that process and connect visual and motor behaviour to start
developing. Once the infants recognize that learning follows by repetition, then they will
start learning how to plan in advance and reach for the objects that they want by using a
more efficient approach. Piaget claimed that infants are able to link numbers to objects at
this stage5 and there is also evidence that children have already acquired some knowledge
of the concepts of the numbers and counting6 . In order to develop the mathematical skills
of infants at this stage, educators can offer activities that will integrate with numbers and
counting. For example, educators can read books that have pictograms in them. This not
only helps children to relate the pictures of objects to their corresponding numbers, but
also helps build their reading and comprehension capabilities. During this period, Piaget
has demonstrated that infants can already build their own ways of dealing with objects
and knowledge about them, which can support gains reflective intelligence.7 Since Piaget
believed that an individual needs to build upon knowledge that is acquired from the prior
stage and therefore cannot move to the next stage until the current stage is mastered.
Thus, in order to enhance infants’ understanding of numbers, educators can provide a
general foundation of mathematics by engaging activities that incorporate counting.

4 Wong, B., Graham, L., Hoskyn, M., & Berman, J. (Eds.). (2008). The ABCs of learning disabilities (2nd
ed.). Boston: Elsevier Academic Press.
5 Piaget, J. (1977). Epistemology and psychology of functions. Dordrecht, Netherlands: D. Reidel Publish-
ing Company.
6 Fuson, K. C. (1988). Children’s counting and concepts of numbers. New York: Springer.
7 Piaget, J. (1963). The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

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Children start acquiring language ability, symbolic thought, egocentric perspective and
some degree of logic at around age 2 to age 7. During this period, children learn how
to employ problem-solving skills that integrate with objects, such as numbers, blocks,
etc. Although children have already gained some knowledge of concepts of numbers, they
only have limited logic association, and cannot process operations in a reverse order. For
example, children who understand that 5+3=8 may not have the mindset that 3+5=8 also.
According to Piaget, this is because children can only identify one aspect or dimension of
an object with the loss of other aspects. In order to enhance the children’s mathematical
capabilities in this period, educators can ask them to build a specific object by using
building blocks. While they are building it, they can learn how to group them based on
their identical features, and also help them understanding that there are always multiple
methods of combining them together.8

According to Piaget, children’s cognitive development accelerates between ages 7 and 11.
They can start using their five senses to distinguish objects, which can help them to identify
two or three aspects of dimensions at once. For instance, Piaget used an experiment of
pouring the same amount of liquid into different size containers. Children at this stage
are able to notice the levels of liquid will be different based on the dimension of the
container. Another major cognitive growth that occurs during this period is the ability of
classification and seriation to separate objects.9 Children learn classification by grouping
objects based on similar features, and acquire the ability of seriation by categorizing objects
based on their increased or decreased value, such as length, width, volume, etc. Even
though they may have already acquired some basic arithmetical operations at this stage,
they do not know how to apply these concepts into solving math problems. For example,
when they are being asked to count the pieces that are made of 3 rows of 5 building
blocks, they do not know how to apply multiplication while counting. In other words, the
abstract concepts of arithmetic must be directly related to physically available elements
and operations. This also implies that they are still not capable of setting up a consistent
system based on measurement at this stage.

The final stage of cognitive development often occurs at around age 11 to age 15. At this
stage, children are able to form their own theories and construct their own mathematics
concepts. They can also relate abstract concepts to concrete situations now. For example,
when they encounter an algebra problem, they are now able to solve it by themselves
instead of having a teacher to refer to a concrete condition. The reason that they can
now develop abstract thought patterns into concrete situations is that that they start
building their reasoning skills, which includes clarification, inference, evaluation, and
application. In order to make students comfortable with these concepts, teachers can
teach students on how to separate the word problems and understand the differences
between related and unrelated information in the problem.

8 Thompson, C. S. (1990). Place value and larger numbers. In J. N. Payne (Ed.), Mathematics for young
children (pp. 89–108). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
9 Piaget, J. (1977). Epistemology and psychology of functions. Dordrecht, Netherlands: D. Reidel Publish-
ing Company.

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Learning Mathematics

Piaget believed that if a child has a difficulty understanding a concept, it is because of

the too-rapid progress from the qualitative structure of the problem to the mathematical
formulation. According to Piaget, in order to help the children to understand the concept,
teachers should find an active approach that allows children to explore spontaneously, so
they can learn and reconstruct their own concept, instead of having the teachers to give
them the answers directly. 10

21.2.2 Critiques of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget’s belief of cognitive development Criticism

1) Children start developing an understanding of the object permanence
• Piaget overlooked children’s need for motivation
• Children’s memory capacity has increased

2) Children’s sensory abilities and cognitive development occur in their

first 6 months of birth • Not all learners are the same, they might be placed in a higher or lower
category based on their unique abilities

3) Every child will experience the four stages in a specific order

• Piaget neglected the external factors, such as heredity culture, and
education

4) Piaget separated the cognitive development into definite stages

• The stages of cognitive development should be viewed as a gradual and
continuous progress

Even though Piaget’s theory is widely used by teachers to monitor their students’ cognitive
development in the classroom nowadays, his theory is controversial. Lots of educators rely
on Piaget’s theory to measure students’ readiness for learning math. On the other hand,
Hiebert and carpenter advised that Piaget’s theory is not a useful guide, as lots of researches
have proved that children who fail to follow Piaget’s theory are still able to learn the math
concepts and skills.11 While Piaget focused on children’s internal exploration for knowledge,
and believed that children start developing an understanding of object permanence (such as
how to track for a hidden object) from birth to age 2, other researchers argue that Piaget
neglected the children’s need for motivation. Berger believes that external motivations and
teachings play an important impact also.12 Kagan believes that the reason why an infant
is able to reach for objects even with displacement is because their memory capacity has
increased, not, as Piaget pointed out, in terms of the new cognitive structure.13 Piaget
has also been criticized for broadly speaking of children’s abilities. He deduced that chil-
dren’s sensory abilities and cognitive development occur in their first six months of birth.
While Piaget believed that each child must go through those stages in a particular order,
Heuvel-Panhuize argued that Piaget’s theory underestimates young children’s abilities. For
example, he found that since early childhood teachers’ belief of stages of cognitive devel-
opment deeply relied on Piaget’s theory, they may have lower expectations for children’s

10 Piaget, J. (1968). Genetic epistemology. New York, NY: Columbia University Press Retrieved June 13,
2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/
fr/piaget.htm
11 Hiebert, J., and T. P. Carpenter. ”Piagetian Tasks as Readiness Measures in Mathematics Instruction: A
CriticalReview.” EDUCATIONAL STUDIES IN MATHEMATICS 13: 329-345, 1982
12 Berger, K.S. (1988). The developing person through the life span (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers
Ltd.
13 Berger, K.S. (1988). The developing person through the life span (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers
Ltd.

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knowledge of symbols, the counting sequence, and arithmetic operations than what the
children are actually capable of.14 Beger also argued that their perceptual learning might
actually develope before birth.15 Even though a child is supposed to be in a certain stage
based on his or her age, not all learners are the same. They might be placed in a higher
or lower stage based on their unique abilities. For instance, Gelman and Gallistel have
pointed out that children in their preoperational stage are capable of thinking abstractly in
terms of counting objects. In addition, Piaget fails to demonstrate the aspects of emotional
and personality development of children. Even though Piaget’s theory explains an effective
approach that can measure children’s intelligence and memory development, he neglects the
remarkable aspects of creativity and social interaction of individuals.16 Christina Erneling
argues that the pattern of development can be established only if the children are put in
the right conditions. She believes that any concepts of learning require an expansive theory
of education, and the fundamental part of cognitive development is to acknowledge the dif-
ferences of an individual’s social and cultural backgrounds. In other words, Piaget seemed
to be overlooking cultural effects. Since his research was done in a Western country, his
theory of cognitive development may only represent Western society and culture. According
to Piaget, scientific thinking and formal operations can only be reached at a certain stage.
On the other hand, Edwards et. al argued that Piaget’s research was unreliable due to the
lack of controls and small samples. He believed that there could a higher regard for the
basic level of concrete operations in other cultures.17 Beger also argues against Piaget’s
definite stages, he judges that Piaget had explicitly explained the children’s internal search
for knowledge, but he tended to overlook the external factors, such as heredity, culture,
and education. He suggested that Piaget’s stages of cognitive development should rather
be seen as a gradual and continuous progress instead of separating into definite stages.18
Piaget’s theory has also been criticized for not offering a sufficient description of cognitive
development in his last stage. He supposed that everyone will be able to develop abstract
reasoning between age 11 to age 15. On the other hand, Paplia et.al believes that not
everyone can acquire the skills of formal operations at this stage. And even though they
may not attain this ability, it does not mean they are immature. We can only conclude
that they have different phases of mature thought.19 Hence, a more persuasive belief of
cognitive development should be perceived as an irregular process as children attain new
skills and different behaviors individually at each stage.20

14 Cross, C. (2009). The Early Childhood Workforce and Its Professional Development. In Mathematics
learning in early childhood paths toward excellence and equity. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press.
15 Berger, K.S. (1988). The developing person through the life span (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers
Ltd.
16 Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., and Feldman, R. D. (1998). Human development(7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-
Hill.
17 Edwards, L., Hopgood, J., Rosenberg, K., & Rush, K. (2000). Mental Development and Education.
Retrieved April 25, 2009, from Flinders University
18 Berger, K.S. (1988). The developing person through the life span (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers
Ltd.
19 Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., & Feldman, R.D. (1998). Human development (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
20 Berger, K.S. (1988). The developing person through the life span (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers
Ltd.

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Learning Mathematics

21.2.3 Cognitive Domains

Cognitive theory and its relevance to learning mathematics has come a long way since
Piaget. Numerous studies have been done which demonstrate the relationships between
different cognitive abilities and mathematical abilities. As early as 1978, researchers were
studying the relationship between academic abilities and patterns of brain related behaviour.
In 1978, Rourke and Finlayson studied 9-14 year old children with learning disabilities and
found that children lacking abilities in arithmetic performed as would be expected if their
right cerebral hemisphere was not functioning correctly.21 More recent studies have been
able to identify repeating patterns of even more specific relationships for cognitive abilities
and functional deficiencies in math.
In 2001, Hanich, Jordan, Kaplan and Dick studied the mathematical performance of grade
2 students.22 . Children were divided into four groups, consisting of normal achieving stu-
dents, children with math deficiencies, children with reading deficiencies, and children with
both math and reading deficiencies. Children in each of the four groups were given seven
mathematics tests in the same order, to assess performance in: a.) exact calculation in
arithmetic combinations, b.) story problems, c.) approximate arithmetic, d.) place value,
e.) calculation principles, f.) forced retrieval of number facts, and g.) written computation.
They found that children with math and reading deficiencies struggled with both word
problems and with standard computation (such as number facts, number combination and
procedural computations); whereas children deficient in just math struggled only with stan-
dard computational skills. This, and subsequent studies, have led researchers to conclude
that there is more than one cognitive domain for math, with each domain using different
processes of the brain.
Fuchs, Fuchs, Stuebing, Fletcher, Hamlett, and Lambert noted that a number of studies
have consistently found that predictors for computational success include: a.) working
memory, b.) visual-spatial working memory, c.) attention ratings, d.) phonological pro-
cessing (detecting and discriminating differences in speech sounds), and e.) vocabulary
knowledge (2008)23 . During a long-term, large scale study of students who were randomly
sampled, the authors undertook to determine whether or not problem solving and computa-
tion were distinct aspects of mathematics. The authors assessed students for computational
and word-problem solving abilities, phonological skills, non-verbal problem solving, working
memory, attentive behaviour, processing speed, and reading skills. They found that atten-
tive behaviour and processing speed played dominant roles for computational difficulty.
Further, Fuchs et al also noted that working memory, short term memory, non-verbal
problem solving (ability to complete patterns presented visually), concept formation, and
language ability (including reading) were all predictors of problem solving ability. They also
noted that deficiencies in language skills was a discerning factor for students who exhibited
problem solving difficulties.

21 Rourke, B. P., & Finlayson, M. A. J. (1978). Neuropsychological significance of variations in patterns of

academic skills: Verbal and visual-spatial abilities. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 121–133.
22 Hanich, L. B., Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., & Dick, J. (2001) Performance across different areas of mathe-
matical cognition in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 615–626.
23 Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Stuebing, K., Fletcher, J.M., Hamlett, C. L. , & Lambert, W. (2008). Problem
solving and computational skill: Are they shared or distinct aspects of mathematical cognition? Journal
of Educational Psychology 100 (1), 30

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 Cognitive Theory and Mathematics

Processes of the brain for each cognitive math domain

Computation Cognitive abilities Problem Solving Cognitive abilities

Predictors for computational success: Predictors for problem solving success:
• Working memory • Working memory
1. Auditory working memory 1. Auditory working memory
2. Visual-spatial working memory • Short term memory• Non-verbal problem solving (ability to complete
• Attention ratings• Processing speed• Language ability patterns presented visually)• Concept formation• Language ability
1. 1.
2. Phonological processing (detecting and discriminating 2. First language, cultural differences
differences in speech sounds) 3. Phonemes, vocabulary
3. Vocabulary knowledge

21.2.4 The Importance of Working Memory in Learning Mathematics

Working memory is the system responsible for temporarily holding new or previously-
stored information which is being used for the completion of a current task. Its capacity
is limited. There are two types of working memory: auditory memory and visual-spatial
memory. Visual-spatial memory has been found to be important for solving computational
problems. Auditory memory has been found to be important for all mathematical domains.
The variation of an individual’s capacity for working memory may be due to how fast
information is processed, one’s knowledge, or one’s ability to ignore irrelevant knowledge.24
Executive processing activities, such as planning, organization and flexible thinking, may
also affect working memory. 25
On the other hand, short term memory is responsible for temporarily storing information
which must be used, but not necessarily manipulated. Again, the capacity for short term
memory is limited, maybe only a few seconds. This is where we store information such as
a telephone number we need to remember for only a few seconds while we dial it.
In their study, The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem
Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties (2004), Swanson
and Beebe-Frankenberger concluded that working memory plays a critical role in integrating
information during problem solving. They argue that working memory is highly important
to integrating information during problem solving because ”(a) it holds recently processed
information to make connections to the latest input and (b) it maintains the gist of infor-
mation for the construction of an overall representation of the problem.”26
A new study by H. Lee Swanson suggests that the capacity of working memory moderates
the influence of cognitive strategies on problem solving accuracy.27 The author conducted
an intervention study to ascertain what role working memory capacity played in strategy
intervention outcomes and the role of strategy instruction on word problem solving accuracy.

24 Swanson, H. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004). The relationship between working memory and
mathematical problem-solving in children at risk and not at risk for serious math difficulties. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 96, 471–491
25 Swanson, H. L. (2003). Age-related differences in learning disabled and skilled readers’ working memory.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 85, 1–31.
26 Swanson, H. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004). The relationship between working memory and
mathematical problem-solving in children at risk and not at risk for serious math difficulties. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 96, 471–491.
27 Swanson, H. L. (August 4,2015). Cognitive strategy interventions improve word problem solving and
working memory in children with math disabilities. Front Psychol., 2015; 6: 1099. Retrieved from doi:
10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01099

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Both verbal and visual-spatial working memory were measured for all children in the study
group. Children, both with and without math disabilities, were were then divided into three
treatment groups for a randomized control trial. Group 1 was given verbal strategies for
problem solving; Group 2 was given visual-spatial strategies for problem solving; and Group
3 was given a combination of both verbal and visual-spatial strategies. Each of the groups
was also provided with lesson plans that regularly increased irrelevant information within
the word problems. The author’s strategy of adding irrelevant information was meant to
teach the children to attend to relevant information only. This strategy was prompted by
a number of other studies which showed that learning to differentiate between relevant and
irrelevant information is significantly correlated with problem solving accuracy for students
at risk for math disabilities.
The results of the study support the view that strategy instruction facilitates solution ac-
curacy. However, it must be noted that the effects of strategy instruction were moderated
by individual differences in working memory capacity. Those children with low working
memory capacity did not benefit as much as expected. It was the children with higher
working memory capacity, both with and without math disabilities, who were most likely
to benefit from the learning strategies. All children with math disabilities, whether pos-
sessing high or low working memory capacity, did benefit from strategies that used visual
information, however children with low working memory capacity needed the combination
of both verbal and visual strategies. Lastly, the results suggest, academic tasks that train
processes related to working memory for controlled attention may, in fact, influence later
working memory performance.
Implications of this study would suggest that students with math disabilities be evaluated
for working memory capacity and then strategies for addressing their individual concerns
be determined based on their working memory capacity.

21.3 Factors that Affect Learning and Teaching

Mathematics

21.3.1 Individual Differences

Every learner has their own distinct skills, background knowledge, culture, and interests.
These aspects can affect learning and teaching mathematics because instructional strategies
should be modified accordingly.

Differences in Skills

All learners have their own strengths and weaknesses. They may be skilled in some aspects
in mathematics but may be incompetent in another area. It is important for teachers to
know what skills the students have because they can utilize these skills to help improve the
students’ weaknesses. If teachers do not recognize the students’ strengths and weaknesses,
they might give students challenges. Students will face difficulty in the the given task
because they do not have the required skills. As a consequence, it may even influence
the students’ self-efficacy and create learned helplessness when students cannot accomplish

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the task. Hence, if teachers know what students are proficient in, then students will not
have problems in learning new knowledge of mathematics. Mathematical problems require
a set of pre-skills such as simple arithmetic, algebra and logic reasoning. For instance,
solving word problems require mental representation of the problem and simple arithmetic to
transform the word problem into a mathematical equation. As a result, students who are not
skilled at formulating a mathematical equation will not be able to solve the word problem.28
Teachers should adjust their instructional practices according to the different pre-skills that
the students have because these pre-skills play a big part in solving mathematical problems.
When students gain more conceptual and procedural skills in mathematics, they become
more competent and efficient in learning mathematics.29 In modern high schools, there
are different levels in the course of mathematics such as beginner, principle, and advance
level. Students are placed accordingly to their set of mathematical skills level. Otherwise,
they can choose which level they want to be in. In this case, it is important that teachers
support and evaluate the students’ performance to see whether or not if they are suitable
in the chosen level. Students do not want to be in a math class that is too difficult or else
it would be too overwhelming, neither should it be too easy or else it would be too boring.
Hence, by knowing what skills the students have, students can achieve new mathematical
knowledge.

Differences in Background Knowledge

Students’ knowledge of mathematics can be affected from their background knowledge.

Indeed, all students have different background knowledge because they all have different
experiences in the social world. These real-life experiences are crucial because they learn
about the functionality of mathematics symbols from these observations. For example,
students can learn simple arithmetic from grocery shopping which involves dealing with
money. Students can learn how to estimate the total cost of goods and how much change
they should received back. Therefore, when mathematical concepts are taught in a way that
is related to their background knowledge, students will be able to interpret these concepts
more easily.30 In addition, students are more motivated and engaged when their learnings
of mathematics are related to their real-world situations. This is because they find the
acquired learnings very meaningful and important as they are applicable in their daily liv-
ing.31 For instance, many students might find learning mathematics from a textbook boring
or difficult. However, if mathematics are taught to solve real-life problems such as calculat-
ing the interest gained in the bank, the total cost of living expenses, or the probability of
winning in a poker game. As a result, students will have a better understanding of math-
ematical symbols and concepts when these learnings are related to their prior experiences.
In addition, challenging mathematical problems not only require background knowledge
of mathematics, but also some knowledge of other subject areas such as physics terms or

28 Wong, B., Graham, L., Hoskyn, M., & Berman, J. (Eds.). (2008). The ABCs of learning disabilities (2nd
ed.). Boston: Elsevier Academic Press.
29 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
30 Wong, B., Graham, L., Hoskyn, M., & Berman, J. (Eds.). (2008). The ABCs of learning disabilities (2nd
ed.). Boston: Elsevier Academic Press.
31 Wong, B., Graham, L., Hoskyn, M., & Berman, J. (Eds.). (2008). The ABCs of learning disabilities (2nd
ed.). Boston: Elsevier Academic Press.

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chemistry terms.32 Mathematical word problems require a good understanding of the text
meaning before it can be solved which means that students need to be able to utilize their
language knowledge to comprehend the text. As a result, students’ background knowledge
can impact their learning in mathematics. For instance, many math courses in University
require prerequisite courses because the advance level math courses require understanding
of some basic mathematical knowledge. Without these background knowledge, students
will have difficulty comprehending the new math materials.

Differences in Interests

Everyone has different interests. Some students might enjoy mathematics because they were
born or taught at a young age with strong mathematical skills, while other students might
hate mathematics because they always face failure with mathematics which discourages
them to continue to learn. Having interests in mathematics can increase students’ moti-
vation to learn mathematics. This concept is an intrinsic motivation because students
want to study mathematics out of their own interests.33 As a result, they are more engaged
in the tasks and would try their best to solve the challenge. Students’ interests are related
with their beliefs on their self-perceptions, their ability, and their academic achievement.34
Thus, it is important to develop interests in mathematics for students in order to increase
their academic performance. Indeed, there are many ways to increase interest in mathemat-
ics such as family, classmates, and teachers.35 Family can show support and encouragement
to students in mathematics at home which can increases students’ value on mathematics.
Students usually have social comparisons and like to follow what other classmates are doing.
Hence, classmate influences play a big role in students. When students see their classmates
enjoying a mathematics problem or game such as sudoku or a puzzle, students will also be
interested in solving. Most importantly, teachers can organize fun and interactive games
in a classroom setting while showing enthusiasm in their teaching.36 This will enhance
students’ interests in learning a subject they do not enjoy. As a result, it is important that
teachers create an enjoyable setting for students to learn in order to promote interests in
mathematics. It would be very difficult to teach students mathematics if the learners hate
mathematics. They will not want to learn the materials and only study because they have
to.

32 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
33 Bruning, R., Schraw, G., & Norby, M. (2011). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction (5th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
34 Upadyaya, K., & Jacquelynne, S. E. (2014). How do Teachers’ Beliefs predict Children’s
Interests in Math from Kindergarten to Sixth Grade? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 60(4).
Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=
aaa92fa2-22f8-4cd7-9d94-49896f602e89%40sessionmgr120&vid=0&hid=109
35 Frenzel, A.C., Goets T., Pekrun R., & Watt, H.M.G. (2010). Development of Mathematics Interest in
Adolescence: Influences of Gender, Family and School Context. Journal of Research on Adolescence,
20(2), 507-537. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00645.x
36 Frenzel, A.C., Goets T., Pekrun R., & Watt, H.M.G. (2010). Development of Mathematics Interest in
Adolescence: Influences of Gender, Family and School Context. Journal of Research on Adolescence,
20(2), 507-537. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00645.x

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 Factors that Affect Learning and Teaching Mathematics

Cultural Differences

Students with different cultural background have different academic achievement levels and
different goals.37 Also, their values on mathematics might be different depending on their
culture. When a culture values a particular subject such as mathematics, these children
tend to be trained at a young age at school and at home. Hence, these students will have a
higher efficiency of mathematics performance. Students who study mathematics regularly
are likely to have a high level of automaticity because they have sufficient practices of the
mathematical problems. They will be able to select the appropriate strategy and solve
the mathematical problem more efficiently.38 Vice versa, when a culture does not believe
that mathematics is important, these children might not be taught vigorously and will
performed at lower competence levels. In order to excel in a subject area, it is important to
have practices both at school and at home. Students who only practice their mathematics
skills at school by the teachers’ support do not have enough training because they are
not encouraged to study actively and intensively at home. In addition, cultures that hold
positive beliefs on performance such as high standards, effort, and positive attitudes can
lead to high academic proficiency levels.39 Different cultures have different languages. By all
means, their way of wording a mathematical problem may also differ. Research shows that
the structure of Chinese number languages (e.g., 15 is ten five) is easier to learn than Indo-
European number languages which is English (e.g., 12 is twelve and -teens words are often
inconsistent).40 It is often to faster to pronounce Chinese number languages than in English
which affects students’ mathematics efficiency. Hence, Chinese has the ability to retain
these numbers in short-term memory longer especially in complex mathematical problems
with multi-digit numbers.41 Cultural differences should be taken into consideration when
designing instructional practices since different students have different cultures that can
affect how they approach mathematical problems.

21.3.2 Self-Efficacy in Mathematics

Students’ self-efficacy in math is their belief in their ability to solve math questions. Students
with a higher level of self-efficacy believe that they are capable in solving math questions,
which they are more likely to engage in math-related tasks and have higher academic per-
formance in math. On the other hand, students with low self-efficacy believe that they are

37 Tsao, Y-L. (2004). A Comparison of American and Taiwanese Students: Their Math Perception. Journal
of Instructional Psychology, 31(3). Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/
ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=97c91599-4222-4cc8-8717-703e6b774b06%40sessionmgr110&vid=
19&hid=109
38 Imbo, I., & LeFevre, Jo-Anne. (2009). Cultural differences in Complex Addition: Efficient Chinese
versus Adaptive Belgians and Canadians. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and
Cognition, 35(6),1465-1476. doi:10.1037/a0017022
39 Imbo, I., & LeFevre, Jo-Anne. (2009). Cultural differences in Complex Addition: Efficient Chinese
versus Adaptive Belgians and Canadians. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and
Cognition, 35(6),1465-1476. doi:10.1037/a0017022
40 Imbo, I., & LeFevre, Jo-Anne. (2009). Cultural differences in Complex Addition: Efficient Chinese
versus Adaptive Belgians and Canadians. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and
Cognition, 35(6),1465-1476. doi:10.1037/a0017022
41 Imbo, I., & LeFevre, Jo-Anne. (2009). Cultural differences in Complex Addition: Efficient Chinese
versus Adaptive Belgians and Canadians. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and
Cognition, 35(6),1465-1476. doi:10.1037/a0017022

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not capable in solving math questions, which they will feel more anxious in solving math
questions and have lower academic performance in math. Therefore, students’ self-efficacy
in math has strong connections with their engagement and academic performance in math.

Self-Efficacy’s Impact in Math

Self-efficacy can influence the way students think, understand, and feel about their learning
in math. Students with high self-efficacy believe that they have the ability and skill to
perform well in math.42 Having the thought that they are capable in solving math, students
will be more motivated to learn and study math. By doing so, students will encounter self-
fulfilling prophecy which fits their belief of their ability in math when their math improved
after they studied. On the other hands, students with low self-efficacy in math will believe
that they do not have the ability to perform well in math. 43 With this belief, students might
have the thought that they cannot achieve math even if they tried very hard. Therefore,
they are less motivated in doing math questions. Also, students with low self-efficacy in
math might give up easily after a few trials of questions by thinking that they do not have
the ability to get the right answer. When they do so, it reinforces their belief of their
disability in math. The student will encounter self-fulfilling prophecy which they act in a
way that fulfill their belief in their low ability in math.

Assessing Students’ Self-Efficacy

It is important to assess students’ self-efficacy and know whether or not if they are confident
in learning a particular topic in math because it may affect their performance. One of the
ways to assess students’ self-efficacy is to construct a list of first-person statement and have
students to rate their self-efficacy for each statement. 44 First, teachers have to identify
the topic that they would like to assess their students’ self-efficacy on. For instance, if the
topic is on finding surface area, teachers then construct a list of first-person statements on
that topic. Then teachers can have students to rate the statement using a scale range from
0-100 (0 which the statement is false and 100 which the statement is true).45 The following
chart is an example of a student’s rating his self-efficacy on the topic of surface area.

Rate (0- Statement

100)
80 I know what information do I need in order to find the surface area
for a parallelogram.
100 I can find the surface area of a rectangle when given the length and
width.

42 Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B.J. (2006). Competence and control beliefs: Distinguishing the means and
ends. In P.A. Alexander & P.H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed., pp.349-367).
Yahweh, NJ: Erlbaum.
43 Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B.J. (2006). Competence and control beliefs: Distinguishing the means and
ends. In P.A. Alexander & P.H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed., pp.349-367).
Yahweh, NJ: Erlbaum.
44 Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.New York, NY:Freeman.
45 Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.New York, NY:Freeman.

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 Factors that Affect Learning and Teaching Mathematics

Rate (0- Statement

100)
60 I can write the equation for the surface area of a trapezoid.
50 I can explain to my classmate why the equation for the surface area of
a triangle is bxh ÷2.
90 I can calculate the area for a square which have the length of 4cm.

After the student rated the statement, the teacher can estimate how confident the student is
on that topic by adding up the scores. For the above example would be 80+100+60+50+90.
From the scores, the teacher will have an idea on student’s self-efficacy on that topic. Fur-
thermore, the teacher can compare student’s self-efficacy for a particular topic to their
general efficacy in math. Also, when assessing students’ self-efficacy, teachers should keep
in mind that students’ self-efficacy may impact their learning motivation and learning be-
havior. Therefore, teachers should adjust their teaching instructions to increase students’
self-efficacy and match their level respectively.

Development of Students’ Self-Efficacy

Bandura has proposed four major influences on the development of self-efficacy.46 The first
influence is students’ mastery experiences.47 For instance, when students succeed in a math
test, their level of confidence in that area of math will go up. This will have a positive effect
on students future performance, which students will be more confident that they have to
ability to solve it when facing similar questions. The second influence is students’ various
experience.48 By observing others, especially peers with similar ability, students self-efficacy
in doing a particular task will increase. When the teacher introduced a new topic in math,
which students are uncertain about the level of difficult for that topic, by observing their
peers completing the questions, their level of confident in understanding and completing
the questions in the new topic will go up. Moreover, even watching a documentary on
mathematicians doing math improves students’ math self-efficacy.49 The third influence is
social persuasion.50 This could be a positive phrase from the people which the students
interact with, such as their parents, peers or teachers. Positive feedback from the teacher,
such as ”you are getting better in solving algebra questions” will increase students confident
in solving algebra questions. The fourth influence is students psychological state.51 This
refers to students emotional reaction toward a situation. For example, a student might feel
that her failure of a math test is due to her inability of math, which in reality is a result of

46 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
47 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
48 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
49 Hekimoglu, S., & Kittrell, E. (2010). Challenging students’ beliefs about mathematics: The use of doc-
umentary to alter perceptions of efficacy. PRIMUS: Problems, Resources, And Issues In Mathematics
Undergraduate Studies, 20(4), 299-331. doi:10.1080/10511970802293956
50 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
51 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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Learning Mathematics

her anxiety. In this case, student misjudged her ability and lowered her confident in math.
Another case might be student seeing her successful performance in a math test as luck,
instead of her ability in performing well. In this case, the student lost a chance of building
her confident in math. Therefore, students perception toward both positive and negative
situations have an effect on building their self-efficacy. The way to increase students self-
efficacy in this route is to have them to recognize their true ability in math and increase
their positive feelings of their ability.
Usher has conducted a research on measuring the four different sources of middle school
students self-efficacy’s development in math, by interviewing the students, parents, and
teachers. 52 The result of the research is consistent with Bandura’s proposed idea on the
development of self-efficacy, which mastery performance, vicarious experiences, social per-
suasion and physiological states all have a connection with students confidence in math.
For mastery performance, it showed a strong relationship with students development of self-
efficacy. A strategy that usher suggested which math teacher can use to increase students
confident through mastery performance is to ”deliver instruction in a way that maximize the
opportunity for mastery experiences, however small.”53 For instance, a teacher could teach
the students the correction strategy on math topic like algorithm and algebra. An example
question is 18 ÷ 6 =?. The teacher could teacher the students to self-check the answer by
multiplying the quotient by the divisor (3 x 6= 18) and if the answer is the same as the
dividend, then is correct. Students who have been taught and used the correction strategy
had increased their mastery performance in math.54 Assign challenging assignments for
students which are within their ability to complete it will also increase students’ mastery
experience.
In addition, some evidence in the usher’s research has shown that the four sources have a
connection with each others too. For vicarious experiences, the finding has shown that both
of the parents and the teachers’ experience with math have a connection with students math
confident. One of the compelling finding in the research is which a student interpreted his
parents’ failure in math as evidence that he could be different.55 This shows that not only
successful experiences, unsuccessful experiences with math could have a connection with
have students math confident. The finding also shows students’ physiological states would
have an affect on how they interpret others’ experience. For social persuasion, the finding
has shown that the messages both parents and teachers have sent to the children could
largely impact student’s belief in their ability.56 For instance, a message that belief math is
a fixed ability would result in students lack of motivation. So, if parents tell their children
that with math ability is either they have it or not, their children might end up believing

52 Usher, E. L. (2009). Sources of middle school students’ self-efficacy in mathematics: A qualitative inves-
tigation. American Educational Research Journal, 46(1), 275-314. doi:10.3102/0002831208324517
53 Usher, E. L. (2009). Sources of middle school students’ self-efficacy in mathematics: A qualitative inves-
tigation. American Educational Research Journal, 46(1), 275-314. doi:10.3102/0002831208324517
54 Ramdass, D., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Effects of self-correction strategy training on middle school
students’ self-efficacy, self-evaluation, and mathematics division learning. Journal Of Advanced Academics,
20(1), 18-41.
55 Usher, E. L. (2009). Sources of middle school students’ self-efficacy in mathematics: A qualitative inves-
tigation. American Educational Research Journal, 46(1), 275-314. doi:10.3102/0002831208324517
56 Usher, E. L. (2009). Sources of middle school students’ self-efficacy in mathematics: A qualitative inves-
tigation. American Educational Research Journal, 46(1), 275-314. doi:10.3102/0002831208324517

364
 Factors that Affect Learning and Teaching Mathematics

that they do not have the ability to perform well and lower their confident in math. In this
case, social persuasion could have an affect on students’ physiological sates.

Teachers Efficacy

Teachers’ teaching efficacy refers to the belief that they can make a significant change in
their students,57 such as students’ academic performance, self-efficacy, motivation, attitude
and interest in learning. In order for teachers to establish a high level of teaching efficacy,
they need to have a positive attitude, rich pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge
toward their teaching subject. Teachers’ attitude towards math may have a strong influence
on students’ attitudes and academic performance. A study has examined teachers’ attitudes
toward math in four different groups through interviewing the teachers and having them
to complete a teacher attitude scale.58 The four different groups are K-4 teachers, middle
school teachers, other educators (Principals, other administrators) and special education
teachers. The result indicated that among the four groups, middle school teachers have the
strongest positive attitude toward math (60% strongly positive, 30% neutral, 10% strongly
negative), whereas K-4 teachers have the strongest negative attitude toward math (43%
strongly positive, 23% neutral, 34% strongly negative). 59 The result shows that math
is less emphasize and valued in elementary level then in middle school level. By having
a negative attitude towards math, teachers are less likely belief that they can make a
change in their students’ learning, which is correlated to their teaching efficacy. Teachers’
pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge in math are also factors that affect their
teaching efficacy. A current research has studied teachers’ math pedagogical knowledge and
math content knowledge in relation to teachers’ teaching efficacy and students’ achievement
in the topic of algebra i.60 The result have found that they are strong correlation between
teacher’s teaching efficacy with their pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge, which
indicating that teachers with a rich pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge are more
confidence with their teaching and more likely to believe that they can make a significant
change in their students’ learning.61
Teachers’ teaching efficacy can affect students’ learning in many different ways. One of the
more observable factors is students’ academic achievement. A study had conducted K-12
school teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and found that their self-efficacy beliefs are positively
associated with students’ achievement. 62 Besides students’ achievement, teachers’ teaching
efficacy could also affect student motivation, interest and strategies use in learning. This is
because teachers with higher teaching efficacy are more likely to use praise instead criticism,

57 Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers’ sense of efficacy and beliefs about control.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 81-91. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.81
58 Kolstad, R. K., Hughes, S., & Briggs, L. D. (1994). Teacher attitudes toward mathematics. Journal Of
Instructional Psychology, 21(1), 44-48.
59 Kolstad, R. K., Hughes, S., & Briggs, L. D. (1994). Teacher attitudes toward mathematics. Journal Of
Instructional Psychology, 21(1), 44-48.
60 Fox, A. M. (2015). Teacher self-efficacy, content and pedagogical knowledge, and their relationship to
student achievement in algebra i. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 75,
61 Fox, A. M. (2015). Teacher self-efficacy, content and pedagogical knowledge, and their relationship to
student achievement in algebra i. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 75,
62 Chears-Young, J. B. (2015). The association between math teachers’ moral judgment development and
self-efficacy beliefs, and their relationship with student achievement. Dissertation Abstracts International
Section A, 76,

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Learning Mathematics

to be more accepting and more task oriented. 63 Another research has found that teachers
with higher efficacy will teach their students more learning strategies and have more focused
academic learning time, which will increase students’ performance.64

21.3.3 Self-Regulated Learning

People might think that students’ low mathematics achievement is due to their low ability
in math or the consequences of not studying. But that may not be the case in all situations.
Sometimes, students’ low mathematics achievement might be a result of not using the most
appropriate strategies to study due to their lack of self-regulated learning skills. Self-
Regulated Learning is students’ ability to control all aspect of their learning, from advance
planning to how they evaluate their own performance afterward 65 . There are three core
components for self-Regulated Learning. The first one is metacognitive awareness, which
refer to how students’ set their goal and their plan of reaching that goal. 66 The second one
is strategies use, which refer to a list of self-regulated strategies that students could apply to
their studying. Skilled learners use more effective strategies when they are learning.67 The
last one is motivation control, which is students’ ability to set goals and their positive belief
on their academic skills and performance.68 The ability of self-regulated learning has a big
impact on students’ mathematic achievement. Students will use better strategies and have
a better understanding on how to study mathematics, when their self-regulated learning
skills improved, which will increase this mathematic achievement.

Mathematics Self-Regulated Learning Program Study

A research in Southeast Asia had established a mathematics self-regulation learning pro-

gram and the result had shown that when students are being taught with self-regulated
learning skills, their mathematic achievement increases. The research involved with 60
lower mathematic achieving students in elementary level. 30 students are being placed in
the experimental group, which they have to attend a mathematics self-regulated learning
program.
This program contains 30 sessions, which serve a purpose of increasing students’ self-
regulated learning skill by increasing their motivational control and teaching them the
self-regulation strategies. (Sessions 1-5) The program started with developing students’ self-
regulation belief system. They introduced students’ to the value of personal responsibility,
self-efficacy, learning goal and attribution to effort by lecturing students with storytelling

63 Kagan, D.M. (1992). Implications of research on teacher belief. Educational psychologists, 27, 65-90.
64 Ghaith, G., & Yaghi, H. (1997). Relationships among experience, teacher efficacy, and attitudes toward
the implementation of instructional innovation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, 451-458.
65 Zimmerman, B. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R.
Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp.13-39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
66 Zimmerman, B. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R.
Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp.13-39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
67 Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating
grade, sex, and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 51-59.
68 Zimmerman, B. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R.
Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp.13-39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

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 Factors that Affect Learning and Teaching Mathematics

and having them to share their ideas in a group.69 (Sessions 6-11) Then, they introduced
students the 14 self-regulated learning strategies that were proposed by Zimmerman.70 Each
strategy was explained by emphasizing its usage and important in learning mathematics.
Afterward, students are given the opportunity to practice each strategy on their own. (Ses-
sions 12-30) Lastly, students are guided to apply self-regulated learning strategies in their
regular mathematic lessons. Also, they have to evaluate their own progress by completing
the goal setting, self-evaluation and self-consequating forms. After the students completed
the 30 sessions in mathematics self-regulated learning program, they will take a mathematic
achievement test and a self-regulated learning test. The results have shown that students
who attended the program scored higher in both tests compared to those who did not attend
the program.
Applying Self-Regulated Learning strategies in Mathematic

Strategies Application in Mathematic

Self-evaluation Students do so by making sure that they have the
right answers for the questions with the appropriate
steps.
Organizing and transforming Students’ ability to organize math questions. Some of
the ways are using graphs, equations, and diagrams.
Goal-setting and planning Students setting goals and their plan of achieving
those goals.
Keeping records and moni- Taking notes in class. Organizing the equations.
toring
Environment structuring Studying in an environment which benefits their
study.
Self-consequences Students’ own punishment or reward on its own suc-
cess or failure in mathematic.
Rehearsing and memorizing Student learned by doing a lot of different forms of
math questions.
Seeking information Student seek information from the nonsocial source.
Seeking social assistance Students seek help from their peers, teacher or other
adults.
Reviewing records Students re-read textbook, notes or their homework
questions.

After attending 30 sessions of a mathematics self-regulated learning program, students

showed significant improvement in their mathematical achievement and self-regulated learn-
ing test. 71 This shows that it is possible to teach lower-achieving math students with
self-regulated learning skills. When they were equipped with these skills and taught to fo-
cus on the processes and strategies, their math solving skills improved. With improvement,
students will gradually recognize their ability to do better in math. Praising and rewarding

69 Camahalan, F. G. (2006). Effects of Self-Regulated Learning on Mathematics Achievement of Selected

Southeast Asian Children. Journal Of Instructional Psychology, 33(3), 194-205.
70 Zimmerman, B. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R.
Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp.13-39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
71 Camahalan, F. G. (2006). Effects of Self-Regulated Learning on Mathematics Achievement of Selected
Southeast Asian Children. Journal Of Instructional Psychology, 33(3), 194-205.

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Learning Mathematics

themselves for their improvement will provide students will have even greater improvement
in math. As a result, their self-efficacy and their interest in math will rise. This creates a
positive cycle: when students believe that they have the ability to achieve math, they will
work even harder in math with the appropriate self-regulated learning skills.
In the traditional classroom, math is viewed as an answer-centred subject rather than a
process-centred subject. By emphasizing speed and accuracy, students will develop skills
in copying and memorizing mathematical facts instead of understanding math. Also, the
learning only flows one way, from teacher to students. In this kind of classroom setting
it would be hard for students to apply self-regulated learning strategies because when the
students are not allowed to have choice and control over their study, they are not likely to
learn strategies for self-regulation, nor willingly self-initiate and control the use of various
strategies. 72 Therefore, in order for students to apply self-regulation skills, the classroom
environment is very important. One of the best ways to develop self-regulated learning
skills is to give a certain degree of control to students for their own learning. Math teachers
should promote the sharing of knowledge and decision making. When students have a voice
in setting goals, planning activities and evaluating their own performance, they have a
chance to practice their self-regulated learning skills, which will have a positive impact on
their math achievement.
Upper-grade students can apply self-regulated learning skills better than lower grade stu-
dents. 73 This is because older students are more capable of understanding concepts and
ideas that are presented in self-regulated learning theory. Also, some of the self-regulated
learning strategies require prior knowledge and skills, such as writing a plan or organiz-
ing learning materials. Therefore, it is easier for upper-grade students to learn some of
the self-regulated strategies. As a result, upper-grade students show more improvement in
mathematical achievement than lower grade students when they are taught self-regulated
learning skills.

21.4 Implications for Teaching

21.4.1 Mathematics-Learning Disabilities

Recent studies into cognition, working memory and mathematics learning disabilities all
point to a need to distinguish between computation and problem solving learning disabili-
ties in math. To this point, mathematics assessments have been generic and have not given
appropriate consideration to the different features of each domain. Professionals must con-
sider these two skills separately when diagnosing students. Teachers should also take into
account the different domains when instructing children with mathematical learning disabil-
ities. Some suggestions and tools that may help students with their mathematical learning
are:

72 Camahalan, F. G. (2006). Effects of Self-Regulated Learning on Mathematics Achievement of Selected

Southeast Asian Children. Journal Of Instructional Psychology, 33(3), 194-205.
73 Camahalan, F. G. (2006). Effects of Self-Regulated Learning on Mathematics Achievement of Selected
Southeast Asian Children. Journal Of Instructional Psychology, 33(3), 194-205.

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 Implications for Teaching

21.4.2 External Representation

External representation is a helpful tool in mathematics because mathematical problems

can be complicated to solve mentally at times. By using external representation, it provides
a clear understanding on the concept of mathematics by which students can develop knowl-
edge acquisition. Some external representations are worked-out examples, animations, and
diagrams.

Worked-out Examples

Worked-out examples are a useful instructional method that teachers use to facilitate stu-
dents in learning mathematics. Research shows that using worked-out examples can increase
the students who have low mathematics performance level. One reason is when students
are given a problem to solve, their optimal goal is to solve the problem rather than to learn
mathematics. In contrast, when students are given worked-out examples, they actually
learn and try to interpret the materials on their own. 74 Thus, worked-out examples focus
more on intentional learning for students. Students usually do not understand the mathe-
matical theory or proof because they are complicated to comprehend. However, worked-out
examples are easier for students to acquire learning and understand the concept of mathe-
matics. Without giving explicit instruction, teachers simply show the steps of how to solve
the mathematical problem as an example for the students to refer to. There are detailed
explanations on the steps required to solve the mathematical problem. Then, students have
the autonomy to self-explain similar types of mathematical problem on their own. Thus,
they can use the worked-out examples as references to solve many mathematical problems.
75 They can explicitly reflect their thinking on how to solve the problem by referring to the

worked-out examples that the teachers provide. Hence, this can also enhance the students in
self-regulated learning as they are practicing their critical thinking in solving the problem.
This metacognitive strategy can help students improve their problem-solving skills espe-
cially on mathematical word problems. Metacognitive strategies include self-questioning,
self-evaluating, summarizing, and illustrating the problem. 76 These strategies are be-
lieved to acquire knowledge for students while constructing a deeper understanding from
the worked-out examples. Research shows that students who can self-explain the problem
and solve them have higher mathematics achievement. When students explain the steps
of how to solve the mathematical problem on their own, they are exercising their reflec-
tive thinking which can construct a greater understanding beyond what the information
was given. Indeed, students can develop new and sophisticated knowledge of mathematics
because they consolidate the newly learned materials with their prior knowledge. 77 In ad-

74 Renkl, A. (1999). Learning Mathematics from worked-out examples: Analyzing and Fostering self-
explanations. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 14(4), 477-488. doi: http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/BF03172974%C2%A0
75 Tu, C-T. (2011). An Instructional experiment: Using worked-out examples in mathematics problem-
solving of elementary school students. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 43(1), 25-50.
76 Tajika, H., Nakatsu, N., Nozaki H., Neumann, E., & Maruno S. (2007). Effects of Self-Explanation as
a Metacognitive Strategy for Solving Mathematical Word Problems. Japanese Psychological Research,
49(3), 222-233. doi: 10.1111./j.1468-5884.2007.00349.x
77 Tajika, H., Nakatsu, N., Nozaki H., Neumann, E., & Maruno S. (2007). Effects of Self-Explanation as
a Metacognitive Strategy for Solving Mathematical Word Problems. Japanese Psychological Research,
49(3), 222-233. doi: 10.1111./j.1468-5884.2007.00349.x

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Learning Mathematics

dition, worked-out examples can also be used in group settings where students can discuss
with their classmates in solving mathematical problems. Research found two ways that stu-
dents can use worked-out examples in classrooms. 78 One way is students who understand
the worked-out examples can explain to those who do not understand. The other way is
students interpret the worked-out examples altogether by using their logic and reasoning
skills. Both ways engage students in learning in a social interactive setting by discussing
the details of the worked-out examples. Learning in a social setting can strengthen the un-
derstanding of the materials because students are elaborating the examples more in depth.
They can also ask any questions that they have with the worked-out examples in order
to get a clear comprehension. 79 Therefore, it is important that students should discuss
further on the worked-out examples in small groups to reflect on the problem procedure
and to generate knowledge acquisition beyond their existing knowledge.

Animations

To increase the students’ interest in learning mathematics, animation is a great instructional

tool to use to teach students. Since mathematics can be quite boring and uninteresting at
times, animations can attract students’ interest in learning mathematics. Most importantly,
animations claim to facilitate students’ problem-solving skills in mathematics. 80 Before
students solve any mathematical problem, it is important that students identify the problem
and know what to solve. Henceforth, when students find the problem hard to translate,
animation becomes most effective because it consists of visual representation that makes it
easier for students to interpret the question. In contrast, when students just take notes on
the problem, they do not have a clear understanding of what the problem means because
they are just simply copying the text. By having a pictorial representation along with the
verbal explanation of the problem, students can visualize what is happening in the problem
fully. For instance, the concept of addition and subtraction is hard to explain through text to
an elementary school student. However, when using animations to display a before and after
frame of what happened in the problem can construct a clear comprehension. In the case of
addition or subtraction mathematical problems, animations can demonstrate an increase or
decrease of objects to represent the solution. In addition, animations can illustrate abstract
math theories by showing visible objects, concrete results, and specific instances. Thus,
animations can be used to convey the abstract concepts of mathematics with reference to
distinct examples. 81 Animations can facilitate the acquisition of abstract principles and

78 Mevarech, Z. R., & Kramarski, B. (2003). The Effects of Metacognitive Training versus Worked-out
Examples on Students’ mathematical reasoning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73(4), 449-
471. doi: http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1348/000709903322591181%C2%A0
79 Mevarech, Z. R., & Kramarski, B. (2003). The Effects of Metacognitive Training versus Worked-out
Examples on Students’ mathematical reasoning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73(4), 449-
471. doi: http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1348/000709903322591181
80 Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., & Schuh, J. (2010). The Acquisition of Problem-Solving Skills in Mathe-
matics: How Animations Can Aid Understanding of Structural Problem Features and Solutions Proce-
dures. Instructional Science, 38(5), 487-502. doi: http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/
s11251-009-9114-9%C2%A0
81 Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., & Schuh, J. (2010). The Acquisition of Problem-Solving Skills in Mathe-
matics: How Animations Can Aid Understanding of Structural Problem Features and Solutions Proce-
dures. Instructional Science, 38(5), 487-502. doi: http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/
s11251-009-9114-9%C2%A0

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 Implications for Teaching

the comprehension of worked-out examples due to the visual representation of the problems.
Although worked-out examples are known as a effective instructional practice, animations
can be used to effectively improve these examples. 82 Worked-out examples may not always
have a pictorial representation but only have written texts. Therefore, when each of the
steps of the solution procedure of the worked-out examples have a visual representation,
students can imagine what is going on in the problem. Students can also interpret the
worked-out examples better with the explanations and the pictures given. As a result, it is
recommended that teachers should use animations as an instructional tool in their practices
to fully consolidate the students’ learning in mathematics.

Diagrams

To produce an informational diagram can be a very difficult procedure, because students

do not only required to interpret the verbal information into the visual information, but
also needed to identify and integrate the related information together before associating to
their prior knowledge.83 Larkin and Simon believed that diagrammatic representation is
easier and more efficient than sentential representation because of three aspects in regards
to searching, matching, and inference. First, it clearly retains all the information about
the topographical and geometric relations between the elements of the word problems.
Therefore, students can search for particular information easily. Second, since all the
related elements are grouped together, it shows the connections between the concrete
representations and the pictograms. Hence, it can simplify the process of identifying the
related information. Besides that, the memory load is lower if the problem is produced
by drawing a diagram, as the students can clearly see the essential inference between the
related information.84 Many studies have suggested that the use of diagrams can improve
the efficiency in problem solving.

Banerjee has conducted a research on the effects of using diagramming as a representational

technique on high school students’ achievements in solving math word problems. The result
has proved that the diagramming method (such as focusing on the creation and labels of
diagrams to represent the mathematics) can significantly improve their achievements in
solving math word problems.85

82 Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., & Schuh, J. (2010). The Acquisition of Problem-Solving Skills in Mathe-
matics: How Animations Can Aid Understanding of Structural Problem Features and Solutions Proce-
dures. Instructional Science, 38(5), 487-502. doi: http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1007/
s11251-009-9114-9%C2%A0
83 van Garderen, D., Scheuermann, A., & Poch, A. (2014). Challenges students identified with a learning dis-
ability and as high-achieving experience when using diagrams as a visualization tool to solve mathematics
word problems. ZDM Mathematics Education, 46, 135–149.
84 Larkin, J., & Simon, H. (n.d.). Why a Diagram is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words. Cognitive
Science, 65-100.
85 Banerjee, B. (2011). The effects of using diagramming as a representational technique on high school
students’ achievement in solving math word problems. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 71,
394

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Learning Mathematics

Figure 54 Describes the result of the percentage of correct answers by using the
diagram to solve math word problems between the Japanese and New Zealand students

In a study with the use of diagrams in solving the math word problems, Uesaka, Manalo,
and Ichikawa made a comparison of students in Japan and New Zealand. 86 The diagram
that was drawn by a Japanese student was using a one-object problem, and the one that
was produced by a New Zealand student was using a two dimensional object to solve the
math word problems. Results indicated that the percentages of correct answers by the New
Zealand students were significantly higher than the Japanese students. The reason is that
producing a diagrammatic representation can index the sentences by location, so students
can observe the details at a specific location explicitly, which ease them on understanding
the problem.87

In order to promote students on using diagrams to solve math problems, teachers should first
teach them on 1) what diagrams are, 2) the importance of using diagrams to solve problems,
3) when to apply the diagrams in solving problems, 4) which type of diagram should be
using for the math problems, 5) how to generate a diagram, and 6) how to use a diagram
effectively. The reason that students should know the fundamental concepts of diagrams is
that diagrams may not apply on all the math problems. Uesaka and Manalo pointed out
that students tend to use diagrams when solving math word problems in regards of length
and distance instead of spatial problems, because it usually involves a concrete relationships

86 Uesaka, Y., Manalo, E., & Ichikawa, S. (2007). What kinds of perceptions and daily learning behaviors
promote students’ use of diagrams in mathematics problem solving?. Learning And Instruction, 17(3),
322-335.
87 Uesaka, Y., Manalo, E., & Ichikawa, S. (2007). What kinds of perceptions and daily learning behaviors
promote students’ use of diagrams in mathematics problem solving?. Learning And Instruction, 17(3),
322-335.

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 Implications for Teaching

and known quantities.88 After teaching them the important concepts of diagrams, teachers
can then instruct them the 3 step procedure – Ask, Do, and Check.89 Van Garderen and
Scheuermann suggested that students should first concentrate on what needs to be solved;
then they should produce a diagram. Finally, they can solve the problem by using the
diagrams. For example, in order to focus on what needs to be solved, students can use
the key word method to search for the information, and place the information that is given
from the problem.90 In conclusion, diagrams can be an effective strategy when solving math
problems; it does not only help students to think critically, but also aid them in solving
problems by using a different approach.

21.4.3 Algorithms

An algorithm is a series of steps to help students solving math problems. If they follow these
procedures, they will always be able to compute a correct answer every time. Algorithm
involves with repeating sequences, it applies to addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. By using algorithms, students can learn how to explain what is happening in
each step, and able to track their mistakes if they yield an incorrect answer in the end. It
requires them be attention to details when they are problem solving, that is, when they are
working through a multiple step solutions, they are required to recall the algorithms from
their long term memory and have a set of steps in their mind already. Also, teachers should
instruct students that algorithms must be solved in a sequential order, none of the steps
can be jumped over. For example, when students are learning basic arithmetic operations,
they have to learn that there is a specific order to solve a problem like 5+8×6. Students
need to understand that they have to do the multiplication first, then the addition part.
If they can follow the correct order, they can always yield to a correct answer. However,
Paul Cobb has conducted a study in regards of Grade 1 and 2 students solving double-digit
addition problems. He noticed that all of the students were managed to give a correct answer
for 16+9 by using various methods. Conversely, if they were asked to use the traditional
school algorithm with carrying to solve the same problem but with a vertical context, many
of them tend to yield an incorrect answer. He concluded that the reason of causing the
students to have a higher possibility of making errors with a traditional school algorithm
is that they were only forcing themselves to follow the rules instead of fully understanding
how the algorithms work.91 J.S. Brown and Burton found out that there is a significant
amount of students are using one or more wrong versions of algorithm consistently to solve
their math problems. Even though lots of incorrect algorithms yield to a correct answer,
yet it may not apply to all cases.92 For example, some children had a preconception that
the subtraction algorithm means taking the smaller number from the larger in every single

88 Uesaka, Y., & Manalo, E. (2012). Task-related factors that influence the spontaneous use of diagrams in
math word problems. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26, 251–260.
89 van Garderen, D., & Scheuermann, A. (2015). Diagramming word problems: A strategic approach for
instruction. Intervention in School and Clinic
90 Walker, D. W., & Poteet, J. A. (1989-90). A comparison of two methods of teaching mathematics story
problem-solving with learning disabled students. National Forum of Special Education Journal, 1, 44-51.
91 Cobb, P. (1991). Reconstructing Elementary School Mathematics. Focus on Learning Problems in Math-
ematics, 13(2), 3–32.
92 Brown, J.S., Burton, R.B. (1978). Diagnostic models for procedural bugs in basic mathematical skills.
Cognitive Science, 2, 155-192

373
Learning Mathematics

column, regardless of which number was on the top. The diagram on the left can explain
why incorrect algorithms may not produce a correct solution all the time.

Figure 55 A diagram that explains why a faulty algorithm does not work

Brown and Burton pointed out that even though the children who have the wrong
perception of the subtraction algorithm may seem to understand the arithmetic operations
of subtraction, as this can guide them to yield the correct solution on part a) and
part c). However, they will yield an incorrect answer on part b) and part d), as the
numbers on top in the second columns are smaller than the numbers in the bottom.
Nagel and Swingen believed that the traditional algorithms with carrying or borrowing can
only increase their efficiency and accuracy, yet neglect the sense-making for the students.93

Therefore, in order to deal with the serial aspects of algorithms effectively, educators should
teach students to use their spatial abilities when applying multiple steps to solve a problem.
For example, they need to learn how to keep numbers aligned and spaced correctly to solve
the problems successfully; especially when they are computing column subtraction, multiple
digit multiplication, etc. Teachers should encourage students to develop and use their own
algorithms to solve problems. They can encourage their students to incorporate mnemonics
with algorithms; this approach can help them to remember things such as the procedures
in solving problems.94 For example, PEDMAS can tell them the order when carrying out
operations. Instead of simply solving an arithmetic operation from left to right, they now
understand that they have to solve the brackets first.95 Moreover, teachers should ask the
students to look over the entire problems first before trying to solve for an answer, then they
should teach them how to break the problem into small parts and to determine which parts
will require using the algorithms. They should also know which algorithms they should
apply on for each parts; and finally, they should reflect on their answers for every steps.

93 Nagel, N., & Swingen, C. C. (1998). Students’ explanations of place value in addition and subtraction.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 5(3), 164–170.
94 Nelson, P. M., Burns, M. K., Kanive, R., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2013). Comparison of a math fact rehearsal
and a mnemonic strategy approach for improving math fact fluency. Journal Of School Psychology, 51(6),
659-667. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2013.08.003
95 Jeon, K. (2012). Reflecting on PEMDAS. Teaching Children Mathematics, 18(6), 370-377.

374
 Implications for Teaching

By showing steps, students can always track their mistakes and come to a correct solution
ultimately.

21.4.4 Word Problem Strategies

Word problems present a special case for all children, but especially those with problem
solving learning disabilities. The most significant difference between computational prob-
lems and word problems is the addition of linguistic information. In other words, children
must first read written words and filter out the information in order to translate the written
problem into a computational number sentence. Children must then identify the missing
information, as well as the relevant information, before completing the actual math portion
of the problem.
Word problems are challenging for many students to comprehend but the problem is com-
pounded when the learner’s first language is not English. According to Jan, S. and Ro-
drigues, S. (2012)96 , children with English as a second language cannot comprehend prob-
lem statements due to language barriers. They tend to rely on key words or misinterpret
the problem statement and so their resulting solution may be incorrect. Relying on key
words can distract students from trying to understand the problem. “Key words can cause
confusion in differentiating between everyday language and mathematical language.” 97
Findings from this study suggest that class or small group discussions will provide students
with an opportunity to clarify the nature of a problem so that they can understand what
is being given and what is being asked. Providing students with opportunities to read,
understand, share each other’s ideas, and to consider the problem and solution from a
number of different tactics will provide the students with a greater understanding of the
problem.
In taking a cognitive approach to teaching word problems, it is important for the teacher
to provide ample opportunity for students to think about and discuss the meaning of the
word problems, and then consider multiple solutions with their classmates. This approach
is valuable for both those students who have language barriers and those students with
math learning disabilities.
The Council for Learning Disabilities 98 recommends some of the following strategies for
instructing students in problem solving:
FAST DRAW (Mercer & Miller, 1992) Find what you’re solving for. Ask yourself, “What
are the parts of the problem?” Set up the numbers. Tie down the sign.
Discover the sign. Read the problem. Answer, or draw and check. Write the answer.

96 Jan, S. and Rodrigues, S., (2012). Students’ difficulties in comprehending mathematical word prob-
lems in English language learning contexts. International Researcher, Vol. 1, Issue 3, Accessed
Dec 4, 2015 fromhttp://www.academia.edu/2078056/STUDENTS_DIFFICULTIES_IN_COMPREHENDING_
MATHEMATICAL_WORD_PROBLEMS_IN_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_LEARNING_CONTEXTS
97 Jan, S. and Rodrigues, S., (2012). Students’ difficulties in comprehending mathematical word prob-
lems in English language learning contexts. International Researcher, Vol. 1, Issue 3, P. 156, Accessed
Dec 4, 2015 fromhttp://www.academia.edu/2078056/STUDENTS_DIFFICULTIES_IN_COMPREHENDING_
MATHEMATICAL_WORD_PROBLEMS_IN_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_LEARNING_CONTEXTS
98 http://www.council-for-learning-disabilities.org/mathematics-disabilities

375
Learning Mathematics

Questions and Actions (Rivera, 1994) Step a. Read the problem. Questions Are there words
I don’t know? Do I know what each word means? Do I need to reread the problem? Are
there number words? Actions Underline words. Find out definitions. Reread. Underline.
b. Restate the problem. What information is important? What information isn’t needed?
What is the question asking? Underline. Cross out. Put in own words. c. Develop a
plan. What are the facts? How can they be organized? How many steps are there? What
operations will I use? Make a list. Develop chart. Use manipulatives. Use smaller numbers.
Select an operation. d. Compute the problem. Did I get the correct answer? Estimate.
Check with partner. Verify with calculator. e. Examine the results. Have I answered
the question? Does my answer seem reasonable? Can I restate question/answer? Reread
question. Check question/answer. Write a number sentence.
3. TINS Strategy (Owen, 2003) Different steps used to analyze and solve word problems are
represented with this acronym. Thought: Think about what you need to do to solve this
problem and circle the key words. Information: Circle and write the information needed
to solve this problem; draw a picture; cross out unneeded information. Number Sentence:
Write a number sentence to represent the problem. Solution Sentence: Write a solution
sentence that explains your answer. Example: Kyle bought 6 baseball cards. The next day,
he added 11 more cards to his collection. How many cards does he have in all? Thought:
+ Information: 6 baseball cards, 11 baseball cards Number Sentence: 6 + 11 = Solution
Sentence: Kyle has 17 baseball cards in his collection.
4. Problem Solving (Birsh, Lyon, Denckla, Adams, Moats, & Steeves, 1997) Read the
problem first. Highlight the question. Circle the important information. Develop a plan.
Use manipulatives to represent the numbers. Implement the plan. Check your work.

21.5 Glossary

Algorithm is a procedure with a series of steps in mathematics that when used appropri-
ately to solve a mathematical problem, it will yield a correct solution.
Application occurs when students are able to make associations between mathematical
concepts and daily life situations.
Clarification occurs when students identify and analyze aspects of a problem, it allows
them to interpret the information that they need in order to solve the problem.
Classification is the ability of grouping objects based on similar characteristics.
Conceptual knowledge is the mental structures that promote students’ reasoning and
understanding of mathematics.
Declarative knowledge is when mathematical concepts, that are factual knowledge, are
being retrieved from the long-term memory; hence, using these concepts to solve other
complex mathematical problems.
Evaluation occurs when students can use a particular rubric to determine the correctness
of a problem solution.
Inference occurs when students are able to use general concepts to specific situations and
distinguish the similarities and differences among objects.

376
 Suggested Reading

Intrinsic motivation is when students want to perform mainly for their own personal
interests.
Metacognitive is the knowledge used to control one’s thinking and learning.
Procedural knowledge is the knowledge about how to solve mathematical problems using
the sequence of strategy steps.
Seriation is the ability of ordering objects from small to large based on the sizes, such as
length, weight, or volume.
Self-regulated learning is the ability to control one’s learning, from planning to how one
evaluate performance afterward.
Short term memory is responsible for temporarily storing information which must be
used, but not necessarily manipulated.
Working memory is the system responsible for temporarily holding new or previously-
stored information which is being used for the completion of a current task.

21.6 Suggested Reading

1. A case study of novice teachers’ mathematics problem solving beliefs and perceptions.
Baker, C. K. (2015). A case study of novice teachers’ mathematics problem solving
beliefs and perceptions. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 75

2. Piaget and Vygotsky: Many resemblances, and a crucial difference. Lourenço, O.

(2012). Piaget and Vygotsky: Many resemblances, and a crucial difference. New
Ideas In Psychology, 30(3), 281-295. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2011.12.006

21.7 References

Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Stuebing, K., Fletcher, J.M., Hamlett, C. L. , & Lambert, W.
(2008). Problem solving and computational skill: Are they shared or distinct aspects of
mathematical cognition? Journal of Educational Psychology 100 (1), 30
Hanich, L. B., Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., & Dick, J. (2001). Performance across different
areas of mathematical cognition in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 93, 615–626.
Rourke, B. P., & Finlayson, M. A. J. (1978). Neuropsychological significance of variations in
patterns of academic skills: Verbal and visual-spatial abilities. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 6, 121–133.
Swanson, H. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004). The relationship between working
memory and mathematical problem-solving in children at risk and not at risk for serious
math difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 471–491.
Swanson, H. L. (2003). Age-related differences in learning disabled and skilled readers’
working memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 85, 1–31.

377
22 Contributors

Edits User
16 Abbielikestosing1
7 CommonsDelinker2
2 Dirk Hünniger3
47 Dkahng4
103 EDUC320 Sylvialiang5
8 EDUC320-AB-19486
87 EDUC320CLB7
46 EDUC320JNSM8
28 EDUC320TAN9
41 EDUC320neeb10
48 EDUC320pkb11
127 Educ 320 Sarah T12
34 Educ32013
2 Educ320bf14
146 Educ320bf201515
49 Jenny.yip32016
2 Jess a18199517
8 Jsjandu18
93 Khikida19
111 Kmsteeves20
1 Materialscientist21

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41 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
42 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
43 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
44 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
45 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
46 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
47 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
48 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
49 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
50 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320&action=edit&redlink=1
51 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Abbielikestosing&action=edit&redlink=1
52 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Abbielikestosing&action=edit&redlink=1
53 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Abbielikestosing&action=edit&redlink=1
54 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Abbielikestosing&action=edit&redlink=1
55 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Abbielikestosing&action=edit&redlink=1
56 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Abbielikestosing&action=edit&redlink=1
57 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkapella&action=edit&redlink=1
58 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkapella&action=edit&redlink=1
59 http://flickr.com/photos/21489564@N03

383
List of Figures

21 EDCU320RHT60 , EDCU320RHT61
22 Coco061262 , Coco061263
23 Coco061264 , Coco061265
24 VIVIFYCHANGECATALYST PD
25 Educ320SK66 , Educ320SK67
26 Educ320vhsiao68 , Educ320vhsiao69
27 GFDL
• Silhouette_Mr_Pipo.svg70 : Nevit Dilmen71 (talk72 )
• derivative work: Nevit73
,
• Silhouette_Mr_Pipo.svg74 : Nevit Dilmen75 (talk76 )
• derivative work: Nevit77

28 Brews ohare78 , Brews ohare79 PD

29 Sidney.dmello80 , Sidney.dmello81 GFDL
30 Edu320acb82 , Edu320acb83
31 Heatherchueng84 , Heatherchueng85
32 Heatherchueng86 , Heatherchueng87
33 Heatherchueng88 , Heatherchueng89
34 Irisyu16090 , Irisyu16091
35 Linda Hartley CC-BY-2.5

60 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:EDCU320RHT&action=edit&redlink=1
61 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:EDCU320RHT&action=edit&redlink=1
62 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Coco0612&action=edit&redlink=1
63 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Coco0612&action=edit&redlink=1
64 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Coco0612&action=edit&redlink=1
65 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Coco0612&action=edit&redlink=1
66 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320SK&action=edit&redlink=1
67 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320SK&action=edit&redlink=1
68 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320vhsiao&action=edit&redlink=1
69 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Educ320vhsiao&action=edit&redlink=1
70 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Silhouette_Mr_Pipo.svg
71 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Nevit
72 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Nevit
73 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Nevit
74 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Silhouette_Mr_Pipo.svg
75 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Nevit
76 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Nevit
77 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Nevit
78 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Brews_ohare
79 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Brews_ohare
80 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sidney.dmello&action=edit&redlink=1
81 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sidney.dmello&action=edit&redlink=1
82 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Edu320acb&action=edit&redlink=1
83 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Edu320acb&action=edit&redlink=1
84 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Heatherchueng&action=edit&redlink=1
85 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Heatherchueng&action=edit&redlink=1
86 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Heatherchueng&action=edit&redlink=1
87 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Heatherchueng&action=edit&redlink=1
88 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Heatherchueng&action=edit&redlink=1
89 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Heatherchueng&action=edit&redlink=1
90 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Irisyu160&action=edit&redlink=1
91 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Irisyu160&action=edit&redlink=1

384
 List of Figures

36 Tim bates92 , Tim bates93 CC-BY-SA-3.0

37 Irisyu16094 , Irisyu16095
38 Clight9296 , Clight9297
39 Irisyu16098 , Irisyu16099
40 Tim Van Horn
41 EDUC320neeb100 , EDUC320neeb101
42 Jriddell102 , Jriddell103 GFDL
43 Bibliographisches Institut PD
44 Kalamazoo Public Library104
45 EDUC320pkb105 , EDUC320pkb106
46 EDUC320pkb107 , EDUC320pkb108
47 Khikida109 , Khikida110
48 Khikida111 , Khikida112
49 Khikida113 , Khikida114
50 Khikida115 , Khikida116
51 Dcoetzee117 , Dcoetzee118 PD
52 Khikida119 , Khikida120
53 Khikida121
54 Jenny.yip320122 , Jenny.yip320123

92 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tim_bates&action=edit&redlink=1
93 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tim_bates&action=edit&redlink=1
94 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Irisyu160&action=edit&redlink=1
95 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Irisyu160&action=edit&redlink=1
96 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Clight92&action=edit&redlink=1
97 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Clight92&action=edit&redlink=1
98 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Irisyu160&action=edit&redlink=1
99 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Irisyu160&action=edit&redlink=1
100 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:EDUC320neeb&action=edit&redlink=1
101 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:EDUC320neeb&action=edit&redlink=1
102 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jriddell&action=edit&redlink=1
103 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jriddell&action=edit&redlink=1
104 https://www.flickr.com/people/28641332@N03
105 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:EDUC320pkb&action=edit&redlink=1
106 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:EDUC320pkb&action=edit&redlink=1
107 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:EDUC320pkb&action=edit&redlink=1
108 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:EDUC320pkb&action=edit&redlink=1
109 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
110 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
111 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
112 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
113 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
114 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
115 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
116 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
117 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dcoetzee
118 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dcoetzee
119 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
120 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
121 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Khikida&action=edit&redlink=1
122 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jenny.yip320&action=edit&redlink=1
123 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jenny.yip320&action=edit&redlink=1

385
List of Figures

55 Jenny.yip320124 , Jenny.yip320125

124 http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jenny.yip320&action=edit&redlink=1
125 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jenny.yip320&action=edit&redlink=1

386
23 Licenses

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work, as a whole, under this License to anyone who comes into pos-
add to a covered work, you may (if authorized by the copyright holders to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through
To “modify” a work means to copy from or adapt all or part of the work session of a copy. This License will therefore apply, along with any
of that material) supplement the terms of this License with terms: a publicly available network server or other readily accessible means,
in a fashion requiring copyright permission, other than the making of applicable section 7 additional terms, to the whole of the work, and
an exact copy. The resulting work is called a “modified version” of the all its parts, regardless of how they are packaged. This License gives then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so
earlier work or a work “based on” the earlier work. no permission to license the work in any other way, but it does not * a) Disclaiming warranty or limiting liability differently from the available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit of the patent
invalidate such permission if you have separately received it. * d) If terms of sections 15 and 16 of this License; or * b) Requiring preser- license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner consistent
the work has interactive user interfaces, each must display Appropriate vation of specified reasonable legal notices or author attributions in with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent license to
A “covered work” means either the unmodified Program or a work
Legal Notices; however, if the Program has interactive interfaces that that material or in the Appropriate Legal Notices displayed by works downstream recipients. “Knowingly relying” means you have actual
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them do so. that material, or requiring that modified versions of such material be ered work in a country, or your recipient’s use of the covered work
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mission, would make you directly or secondarily liable for infringement d) Limiting the use for publicity purposes of names of licensors or au- country that you have reason to believe are valid.
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some countries other activities as well. in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an
by anyone who conveys the material (or modified versions of it) with work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties receiving the
“aggregate” if the compilation and its resulting copyright are not used
contractual assumptions of liability to the recipient, for any liability covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify or convey a
to limit the access or legal rights of the compilation’s users beyond
To “convey” a work means any kind of propagation that enables other that these contractual assumptions directly impose on those licensors specific copy of the covered work, then the patent license you grant is
what the individual works permit. Inclusion of a covered work in an
parties to make or receive copies. Mere interaction with a user through and authors. automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works
aggregate does not cause this License to apply to the other parts of
a computer network, with no transfer of a copy, is not conveying. based on it.
the aggregate. 6. Conveying Non-Source Forms.
All other non-permissive additional terms are considered “further re-
An interactive user interface displays “Appropriate Legal Notices” to strictions” within the meaning of section 10. If the Program as you A patent license is “discriminatory” if it does not include within the
You may convey a covered work in object code form under the terms of
the extent that it includes a convenient and prominently visible fea- received it, or any part of it, contains a notice stating that it is gov- scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on the
sections 4 and 5, provided that you also convey the machine-readable
ture that (1) displays an appropriate copyright notice, and (2) tells the erned by this License along with a term that is a further restriction, non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are specifically granted
Corresponding Source under the terms of this License, in one of these
user that there is no warranty for the work (except to the extent that you may remove that term. If a license document contains a further under this License. You may not convey a covered work if you are
ways:
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sponding Source fixed on a durable physical medium customarily used
receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a)
for software interchange. * b) Convey the object code in, or embodied
The “source code” for a work means the preferred form of the work for If you add terms to a covered work in accord with this section, you in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by you (or
in, a physical product (including a physical distribution medium), ac-
making modifications to it. “Object code” means any non-source form must place, in the relevant source files, a statement of the additional copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in connection
companied by a written offer, valid for at least three years and valid
of a work. terms that apply to those files, or a notice indicating where to find the with specific products or compilations that contain the covered work,
for as long as you offer spare parts or customer support for that prod-
applicable terms. unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent license was
uct model, to give anyone who possesses the object code either (1) a
A “Standard Interface” means an interface that either is an official granted, prior to 28 March 2007.
copy of the Corresponding Source for all the software in the product
standard defined by a recognized standards body, or, in the case of that is covered by this License, on a durable physical medium cus- Additional terms, permissive or non-permissive, may be stated in the
interfaces specified for a particular programming language, one that is tomarily used for software interchange, for a price no more than your Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any
form of a separately written license, or stated as exceptions; the above
widely used among developers working in that language. reasonable cost of physically performing this conveying of source, or implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise
requirements apply either way. 8. Termination.
(2) access to copy the Corresponding Source from a network server at be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No Surrender of
The “System Libraries” of an executable work include anything, other no charge. * c) Convey individual copies of the object code with a Others’ Freedom.
than the work as a whole, that (a) is included in the normal form of copy of the written offer to provide the Corresponding Source. This You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly
packaging a Major Component, but which is not part of that Major alternative is allowed only occasionally and noncommercially, and only provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement
Component, and (b) serves only to enable use of the work with that if you received the object code with such an offer, in accord with sub- modify it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do
Major Component, or to implement a Standard Interface for which an section 6b. * d) Convey the object code by offering access from a this License (including any patent licenses granted under the third not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot con-
implementation is available to the public in source code form. A “Ma- designated place (gratis or for a charge), and offer equivalent access to paragraph of section 11). vey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations
jor Component”, in this context, means a major essential component the Corresponding Source in the same way through the same place at under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a con-
(kernel, window system, and so on) of the specific operating system (if no further charge. You need not require recipients to copy the Corre- However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license sequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to
any) on which the executable work runs, or a compiler used to produce sponding Source along with the object code. If the place to copy the from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, un- terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from
the work, or an object code interpreter used to run it. object code is a network server, the Corresponding Source may be on a less and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates those to whom you convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy
both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from Later license versions may give you additional or different permissions. If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
conveying the Program. 13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copy- cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms, reviewing along with this program. If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
License. right holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later version. 15. courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates an abso-
Disclaimer of Warranty. lute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the Program, unless a
warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a copy of the Program Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper
Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permis- in return for a fee. mail.
sion to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed under
version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into a single com- THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EX-
TENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS How to Apply These Terms If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice
bined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this Li-
OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLD- to Your New Programs like this when it starts in an interactive mode:
cense will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, but
the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License, ERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM
section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the “AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EX- If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest <program> Copyright (C) <year> <name of author> This program
combination as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License. PRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type ‘show
THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these w’. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK terms. certain conditions; type ‘show c’ for details.
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new ver- AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PRO-
sions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new GRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DE-
To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ FECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SER- The hypothetical commands ‘show w’ and ‘show c’ should show the
attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively state the
in detail to address new problems or concerns. VICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. 16. Limitation of Liability. appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your pro-
exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the “copyright”
line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. gram’s commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you would
use an “about box”.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program
specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Pub- IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR
<one line to give the program’s name and a brief idea of what it does.>
lic License “or any later version” applies to it, you have the option of AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or
Copyright (C) <year> <name of author>
following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS school, if any, to sign a “copyright disclaimer” for the program, if nec-
of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU essary. For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the
FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCI- This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
the Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by GNU GPL, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
Public License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free DENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF
THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at
Software Foundation. your option) any later version.
BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING REN- The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your
DERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine
If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPER- This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary
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statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PUR- GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But first,
choose that version for the Program. OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. POSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. please read <http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html>.

23.2 GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMI-
stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as ”Acknowl- part of the section titles. * M. Delete any section Entitled ”Endorse- NATION
Copyright © 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, edgements”, ”Dedications”, ”Endorsements”, or ”History”.) To ”Preserve ments”. Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version.
Inc. <http://fsf.org/> the Title” of such a section when you modify the Document means that * N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled ”Endorsements” You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document
it remains a section ”Entitled XYZ” according to this definition. or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. * O. Preserve any except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt oth-
Warranty Disclaimers. erwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this
license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice automatically terminate your rights under this License.
which states that this License applies to the Document. These War- If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appen-
ranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this dices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other impli- from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, un-
functional and useful document ”free” in the sense of freedom: to as- cation that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of less and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates
sure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or effect on the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to no-
without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Sec-
must be distinct from any other section titles. tify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days
ondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to
get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either after the cessation.
modifications made by others. commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the You may add a section Entitled ”Endorsements”, provided it con-
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies tains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated
to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no parties—for example, statements of peer review or that the text has permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by
This License is a kind of ”copyleft”, which means that derivative works other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice
of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It com- technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copy- standard. of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder,
plements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license ing of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
designed for free software. and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough notice.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text,
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free pro- You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
gram should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the you may publicly display copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on not give you any rights to use it. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this Li-
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, LICENSE
cense principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
Document’s license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: one.
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such
back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this Li-
that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but
the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title cense give permission to use their names for publicity for or to as-
be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add sert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version. 5. COMBINING
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited DOCUMENTS
under the conditions stated herein. The ”Document”, below, refers to to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
is addressed as ”you”. You accept the license if you copy, modify or respects. You may combine the Document with other documents released under If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified License ”or any later version” applies to it, you have the option of
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the In- following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, variant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list
A ”Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifica- Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
tions and/or translated into another language. number of this License, you may choose any version ever published
(not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License
A ”Secondary Section” is a named appendix or a front-matter sec- The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transpar- can be used, that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a version
tion of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
ent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.
the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document’s overall copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name
copy a computer-network location from which the general network- 11. RELICENSING
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
using public has access to download using public-standard network
directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original au-
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added
a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any thor or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. ”Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or ”MMC Site”) means any
material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably pru-
mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connec- Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also
dent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity,
tion with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, Sections in the license notice of the combined work. provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A public
to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the
philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A ”Massive
an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled ”History” Multiauthor Collaboration” (or ”MMC”) contained in the site means
edition to the public. in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled ”His- any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
The ”Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that tory”; likewise combine any sections Entitled ”Acknowledgements”, and
says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does any sections Entitled ”Dedications”. You must delete all sections En- ”CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be titled ”Endorsements”. 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS 3.0 license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to
designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the profit corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco,
Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections Document. 4. MODIFICATIONS You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other doc- California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license published
then there are none. uments released under this License, and replace the individual copies by that same organization.
of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document un-
The ”Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this ”Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or
der the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other in part, as part of another Document.
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may respects.
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy An MMC is ”eligible for relicensing” if it is licensed under this License,
of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: You may extract a single document from such a collection, and dis- and if all works that were first published under this License somewhere
A ”Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable tribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole or in
copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the * A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title dis- of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, and
general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightfor- tinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.
wardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in
editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic the original publisher of that version gives permission. * B. List on A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate the site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August
translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. ADDENDUM:
A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together distribution medium, is called an ”aggregate” if the copyright resulting How to use this License for your documents
or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage sub- with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the com-
sequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you pilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. When the
is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy
from this requirement. * C. State on the Title page the name of the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to
that is not ”Transparent” is called ”Opaque”. of the License in the document and put the following copyright and
publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher. * D. Preserve the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative
license notices just after the title page:
all the copyright notices of the Document. * E. Add an appropriate works of the Document.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright
ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input for- notices. * F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy,
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU
mat, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard- notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the
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