w w Reference Materiai for 2013-1. mised anne Syllabus and Questions: Cropping Pattern ‘Cropping pattern in diferent agroclimatic zones of the counwry. + bupact of high-yielding and thort- duration varieties on shifts in cropping pattern * Goncepts of multiple eropping, multi-storey, relay and intercropping, and their importance in relation to food production, Previous year questi 2012 1. Intercropping- Advantages and disadvantages. 2 Integrated farming aystem 3. Concept of minimus tillage and how it differs from ero tillage. 2011 1. Crop diversification 3. "Relay clopping ne satan. Enlist criteria for evaluation of intercropping system. Discuss the most Stable criterion of evaluation under Indian condition, (10) 2. Plasticity of erops Intercropping Multiple cropping and multi etorey cropping eyotem Benefita of crop rotation in intensive cropping 2 Define Intereropping System, Enlist the advantages and Aisadvantages of intercropping 78. Support your answer with outable examples, 20) © Evolution Bducare Pvt. Lids [Page I] - 1 oats,Which are pre-requisites of successful intereropping system? (20) Organic and conventional farming: Difference What are the advantages and disadvantages of intereropping? (20) Enlist the qualities of good seed. What happens when inferior quality seed is used for sowing of a field crop? (20) Suggest that ideal conditions which should be met while sowing of seeds in the field. (20) What are the features of a good cropping system? (20) ‘Suggest procedures for assessing suitability of different multiple cropping systems. (20) Difference: Maximum and Optimum Yield Difference: Rotation intensity and eropping intensity ‘What is Organic farming? Discuss its scope and limitations in Indain Assiculre, (40) Organic farming Intercropping in Sugarcane Furnish a detailed account of the features of agro-climatie zones of India. (40) Intereropping © Evolution Educare Pvt, Ltd. [Page 2) = SoOROLSeCCERBSEEEH # 4 POH OKHHHDOEEOOOHOOD Besseee Chapter 1: Introduction to Agronomy Scope and importance of Agronomy * Agronomy is a dynamic discipline. With the advancement of knowledge and bettor understanding of plant and environment, agricultural practices are modified and new practices are developed for high productivity. For example, availability of chemical fertilizer has necessitated the generation of knowledge on the method, quantity and time of application of fertilizers, Similarly, availability of herbicides for the control of weeds has led to development of knowledge about selectivity, time and method of application of herbicides. ‘To overcome the problems different management Practices are developed. Restoration of soil fertility, preparation of good oeed bed, use of proper need rates, correct dateo of FROEeenerreroved variety, proper conservation and management of soil moisture eat [art from traditional breeding programmes, now varieties were evolved using other techniques Tike use of Radioviootopes, Biotechnology ete. Now we aloo have GM planta, Tillage and Titth ‘Tillage i old an agriculture, Jetho Tull--Father of iage * After the harvest of crop the soil becomes hard and compact because of 1. Beating action of rain drops. 2. Irrigation and eubsequent drying * 5, Movement of implementa and labourere. for tees Is the physica) manipulation of oi with tools and implementa to reoult in good tlth for better germiration and subsequent growth of eropa, * Tilth: It is the physical condition of sol resultirig from tillage, © Evolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 3] 4X ( 4 ’ |Characteristics of Good Tilth * Acoil should be mellow, friable, crumbly and adequately aerated. * A soil in good lth is porous. Capillary and non capillary pores are equal. This facilitates free movement of air and water, + Higher percent of larger aggregates (more than § mm in diameter) are necessary for irrigated agriculture, while higher percentages of smaller aggregates (1 to 2 mm diameter) are desirable for dry land agriculture, + Tilth can be coarse or fine, For sandy soils fine kind of tilth is required and for heavy black soils rough cloddy conditions or coarse tilth is enough, + With very fine tilth the surface gets caked up when it dries after a rain. Because of this the soil is unable to absorb rain water and it results in runoff loses. Objectives of Tillage 1. To produce a sstisfactoty seed bed for good germination and good crop grow?th, 2.,To make the coil loose and porous. : 8, For deep tillage and inversion of soil 8. For incorporating bulky organic manures 10. To warm up the soil 11. To increase infiltration rate, ‘Types of Tillage Operations ‘Tillage includes use of different kinds of implements at different timea are classified on the basi ‘their Homing into-dtypes: 1. Preparatory tillage: Tillage operations that are carried out from the time of harvest of a crop to the sowing of the next crop are known as preparatory cultivation! Tillage. OR Operations carried out in any ciltivated lend to prepare seedbed for sowing crops are preparatory tillage. ‘These are time consuming & costly but are to be performed at right stage of eoil moisture & with ight implementa, otherwise it will not helps in good growth of crop. These includes in sequence, plouging, clod crushing, leveling, discing, harrowing, manure mixing & compacting the soil and implements to be used are ploughs, clod crushers, diee ploughs or harrow , bladed harrow ete. ‘© Evolution Educare Pvt. Led. [Page 4] 4s SS@eeoOoR 0202 CKHKAaGHBA > o 8 S Se e @ eS RBTOOOOon Reference Material for 2013-14 4 I includes primary & secondary tillage ®) Primary tillage: It mainly includes the ploughing operation which is opening of the compacted soil with the help of different ploughs. Ploughing is done to: ey 1) Open the hard soil, we 2). Separate the top soil from lower layers, o 3) Invert the soil whenever necessary and 1) Uproot the weeda & stubbles. ‘The cutting & inverting of the soil that ie done after the harvest of the crop or untitled fallow or B to bring virgin or new land under cultivation io called primary tillage. It wey be dene nn oe i f@ (ices tear in normal or settled agriculture or once in four to five yenrsin dey and aoneehone : fy Secondary tillage : Lighter or finer oporation performed on th soil after primary tillage i * are known as secondary tillage which includes the operations performed after ploughing, : leveling, discing, harrowing ots : ). _ Seedbed preparation: When the oot is broug Wea iraee iS EMnge Operas : cart ovt in tho standing crop are called inter tillage operations, The tillage eperation : done in the field after sowing or planting and prior to the harveating of crop plante keowa an i B inter cultivation. It includes gap filling , thinning , weeding, mulching, top dressing of fertilizers, 2 hocing, earthing up ete, unless theve are carried out at right time, with suitable implements i Pain hoes & hand tools the cop ill at attain a view meth, The ennlemente i carried out in between the crop rows. 5 Modern Concepts of Tillage ‘Tillage io time consuming, laborious & costly, owing to this new concepte like minimum tillage & zero tillage are introduced. 2. Minimum Tillage: It ia aimed at reducing tillage operations to the minimum necessary for i > gnsuring a good seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand & favorable growing conditions, i 1) Omitting operations which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost and 2) Combining agricultural operations like seeding & fertilizer application, ww ‘© Bvolution Educare Pvt, Ltd. [Page 6] \ aMaterial for 2013-1. 4 Advantages: 1) Improve soil condition due to decomposition of plant residues in situs, 2) Higher infiltration caused by decomposition of vegetation present on Soile & channels formed by decomposition of dead roots. ) 3) Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure. 4) Less soil compaction by reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles, 5) Less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage. Disadvantages: 1) Less seed germination, 2) More 'N’ has to be added as rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow. 8) Nodulation may affect in some legumes. 4) Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary implements. completely avoided 2) Organic matter content increased due to less mineralization. 3) Surface runoff is reduced due to presence of mulch. Several operations are performed by using aly one implement. In these weeds are controlled by spraying of herbicides, Disadvantages: 1) Higher 'N ia too applied due to slower mineralization of org. matter. 2) Large population of perennial weeds appears. 3) Build up of peats is more, 8. Stubble mulch tillage: The soil is protected at all times either by growing a crop or by crop residues left on the surface during fallow periods. It is year round system of managing plant residue with implements that undercut residue, loosen the soil and kill weeds, Soil ie tilled as often as necessary to control weeds during thé interval between two crops. However, it presents the practical problem as the residues left on the surface interfere with ceedbed preparation & sowing operations, The traditional tillage & sowing equipment is not suitable under theoe conditions, ‘© Brolution Educare Pvt. Ltd, [Page 6) 8 e e 8 @ ® e e e 9 2 e e e e i i © 9-9-0 G_O_@. i 6-066 . 06606‘ Evolultion Reference Material for 2013-14 Modern methods of tillage are not [rocticed in Indian condition becouse: ® Left over residue is a valuable fodder & fueh ') Limited use of heavy machinery & therefore Problem of soil compaction is rare, D4. Pudating: Paling i ploughing the land with ei plenng. i UH to reduce deep percolation one of 10 provide soft soedbed for BD planting rice, The followed in rice as the growth and yield ee higher when grown under BD SAREE condions. Maintaining standing water Greet ae crop period is not possible cera Puding 1 aime at destroying soil stvetare neh ene individual soil particies ie % send, sitt & clay, during operation ane settles later. The sand particles reach the Thich silt particles settle & finally clay particles any the pores thus making imp. the compacted soil we eS 2 ; > illage: It ia disturbing i , des agin » > i , | » i a ‘ 5 ; i ; | ; : > 2 R 3 © Brolution Biveare Pre Lad Page] > ‘ 5 \ be > \5 =; . Reference Material for 2013-14 Chapter 2: Cropping Pattern in India ‘The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crop or of crops and fallow on a given area (a farm), region, province or country is based on dhe, consideration to natural features (ooil and climate), crop efficiency, and capability, socio-econbmic structure, technologicAl and extension infrastructure (changeable) and the national agricultural policy ‘The changes in the cropping pattern are attributed to the following reasons: 1. The development of high yielding and short duration crop varieties 2. Development of production technology to grow these varieties, incentives provided by govt. 8. Sproad of irrigation 4. Development of fertilizer production and technology 5. Changes in the socio-economic condition of the people due to rapid indusixialization 6. Transformation of subsistence agriculture into market oriented economy possible decline in production in future; have raised doubte on its austainability, Important issues emerging as a threat to the sustainability of rice-wheat system ore: + Over mining of nutrients from coil + Disturbed soil aggregates due to puddling in rice + Decreasing response to nutrients ~ Declining ground water table - Build up of diseasea/pests * Build up of Phalaris minor + Low input use efficiency in north western plains + Low tise of fertilizer in eastern and central India « Lack of appropriate varietal combination, 2. Rice Rice-rice is the popular cropping system in irrigated lands in humid and coastal ecosystems of, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala and it is spread over an area of 6 sulin hectares. The major issues in sustaining productivity of rice-rice ayatem are: 4. Deterioration in soil physical conditions. ii. Micronutrient deficiency. iii. Poor efficiency of nitrogen use. iv. Imbalance in use of nutrients. v. Non-availability of appropriate tranoplanter to mitigate labour shortage during critica period of transplanting. vi. Build up of obnoxious weeds such as Bchinochloa crusgatli and non-availability of suitable control measures, ‘© Evolution Bducare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 8) eS e e 8 9 oO ecceodoses »@O©OCRECOEE: O98 eooy wy B B a D 3 Reference Material f or 2013-14 Im Kerala, reduction in area is mainly attributable to the conversion of paddy lands to more Profitable and less labour intensive plantation estates. In Assam, low productivity under Prevailing coll and climatic situations, poor drainage in submerged areas, low mutrient doe on iron losiity are some of the issues of concern. The ather general iaues of low productiviey and building ap of pests, diseases and weeds year after year and deterioration of sil health toa lerge extent, 3. Rice-Mustard From wew point of food security ahd national economy, rice-rapesced/mustard may be considered as an important cropping pattern. In this cropping system, the yield of Rice re satisfactory in all ecosystems; however, wide variations in yield of mustard were regorded rox, one ecoeystem to another. Nevertheless, adoption of appropriate high yielding rice and mustand Yarities, adequately supported by improved production technology, enstires desited productivity of the system. Observed gaps suggest that scope exists for at least two time inereave in yielde cf ‘ce and mustard in the syatem. In genéral, with a medium or short duration high yielding rise Yariety, a successful mustard crop i possible. The mustard erop remains'in field upto march and thereafter summer season can be best utilized by another crop to increase the productivity of the nv} pt, however, Rabifoummer 2. a arated tu, ated 2 Mehaboobnagar, Anantpur, Warangal, Prakasham of Andhra Pradesh and Krishna distin of Karnataka; Cuttack and Puri districte of Odioha; coastal districte of Konkan, Maratheada Froion, Satara, Sangli, Pune, Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra and Junagarh distrie of Gujarat, ‘he area under summer groundnut in general and rice groundnut sequence in particular is Sr zeaeing fast in moot ofthe west and east coastal districta of the country. Beoides this, spreed of groundnut in rice fallowo would make rice-groundnut cropping ayatem more sustaingble coat remunerative: Rainfall during September, ool type, selection of ouitable éarly maturing varieties for rice and Groundnut and agro-technclogies developed to suit local conditions for rice-groundnut systems are important factors in achieving potential yield and to bridge the regional yield gaps in rice. Grotndnt sequence, Bxcese rainfall received during September/October creates water-logging problems in medium and tow lying fertile rico fields and affects groundnut yield adversely, Non release of irrigation water in time through canal system delaye land preparation and sowing of improved short duration bunch type factors, greatly limiting expansion of © Bvolution Educare Pvt, Lea. [Page 9] \Reference Material for 2013-14 XN _ Gvolution eevee s 5. Rice-Pulses Bice Pulses cropping aystem is a dominant erop rotation in Chhattisgarh, Odisha and parte of Bihar, The Richer: productivity of rice, the base crop in the system, ia poseible and aloe semeaive (iepthis re¢ion if suitable varieties of paddy and pulses along with proper management arb considered . Factars limiting productivity of this eropping system in the region are as follows» A Physical factors: - Droughts and erratic distribution of rainfall. - Small area under aesured levigation, - High percolation, resulting in heavy nitrogen looses in red candy long soils, particularly Bhata soils, Pi input related factors: Delayed and prolonged biaa/transplanting. - Low coverage under hi Jielling varieties (HYVs).-Litle attsntion to timely weed control. - Inadequate ropply of b ‘vualty seed. - Little attention to disease/pest control SCOT HVBORSED ©; Social factors: - Low litericy.- Large proportion of marginal and tribal farmers. Practices i of animal grazing on agricultural lands - Low risk bearing eapacity of farmere ofthe region i Net-Whe: @ systems of the country and spreads 3 aft pdt of Kathiawar Peninoul jd 6. Pearl Mi a ingrofoutsiontesBeploting 201 fertility; Imbalance in fertilize une; Decreasing response to nutrienta; Lowering erouninnte, table; Build up of diseasea/pests and weeds, eee Inpearl millet-wheat system, farmera are now realizing the need to replace pearl millet with more Temunerative erops. Therefore, diversifigation may prove to be of paramount importance in several farming situations, not only in mitigating probleme of eoil health, but aloo trom economics point of view. & 7. Pearl millet - Mustard "earl millet during Kharif and rapeseed during Rabi have been the moot important crops of { dovland and/or areas with limited water availability under-marginal Iand condition of sesth, i Veoh weet and central parts of India In several parto of Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh where mono-cropping of pearl millet and muotard waa most common inexane i 1. Delayed sowing of mustagd after harvesting pearl millet in October © Evolution Bducare Pvt, Ltd. [Page 10) i F i z e & 5 i i 5 a i 3 : & i i ub CO COOHODODSvu gee a wy we wy a 8 oO eo Uy Me we Ye wow ww ww Reference Material for 2013-14 Jvolufion jue eee 2, Pearl millet in an exhaustive cereal crop and it depletes soil of escential nutrients 3. Non-application of sulphur in this area by farmers, ‘ 4. Shortage of farm machinery by the farmers in this area. 5. Build up of diseases by continuous cultivation of pearl millet ~ mustard sequence. 8. Maize-Wheat “ Among maize-wheat growing areas, maize ia the principal crop of Kharif season in northern hills of the country but plains of northern states like Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar also have sizeable acreage undor this crop. Results of national demonstrations and lab to Jand demonstrations clearly revealed that this system has a potential to produce 8-10 Uha por year. Howovor, experimental findings from various research stations revealed that a productivity of more than 10.6 vha.per year (6.0 t+ 4.51) may be realized under sub-montane conditions of Jammu. Likewise, a productivity'of 7-8 ha per year at Palampur, 6.28 Uha per year (2.00 + 4.281) at Indore and more than 7 Uha per year at Ludhiana has been recorded in maize-wheat system. Maximum yield research in maize-wheat sequence at Palampur hap shown a potential of 14.21 tha pér year by optimization of variqua resources like plant population, manures and fertilizero. Poor maizo-wheat yield has been reported from Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, cultivation on slopping fields leads to soil erosion, especially when sowing ie not done across the slope, maize is very sensitive to water logging and drought. Any delay in weed control in maize can reduce the yield of the system significantly. Deglining yield trends in maize-wheat system under long term experiments have indicated that the ayatem ouffers due to emerging deficiencies of multiple nutrients. Continuously over-mining of nutrients from soil and imbalance on use of {fertilizere in maize-wheat aystein are some of the many reasons for auch decline. 9% Sorghum-Whent Sorghum-wheat is one of the most prevalent cropping aystem in Western regions of the Country, comprising eastern parts of Rajasthan, western and central parts of Madhya Pradesh, Western Marathwada and Vidarbha regions of Maharashtra, Sourthern Gujarat, Northern parts of Karnataka and Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh. Out of the two component crops of the system, productivity of sorghum faces wide fluctuations due to some problems. Striga, a parasitic ‘weed ia one of such problems hampering the productivity of sorghum. Top shoot borer and shoot fly axe major insecto affecting plant population and reducing yicld levels considerably. Fluctuating market prices, usually discourage thé sorghum growers, however, éorghum cultivation is indispensable as it is the most important source of fodder for cattle in thie area. © Byolutiog Educare Pvt. Lad. [Page 11) \ \ iReference Material for 2013-14 10. Sugareane-Wheat Sugarcane is grown in about 3.4 million hectare. In north India (Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar), which account for 68 per cent of the total area under sugarcane, stigarcane-ratonn, heat ie the most important crop sequenee, The system is also gaining importance in Jorhat, Sibeagar and Sonitpur districts of Assam; Ahmedanagar and Kolhapur distri! of Maharachteg and Belgauun district of Karnataka. The other states where the system covers considerable area ‘under sugarcane-wheat are Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan Problems in sugarcane-whea! system are i, Late planting of sugarcane as well as wheat, Imbalance and inadequate use.of nutrients, Since majority of farmers apply only N in sugar cane and the use of P and K is limited. The emerging deficiencies of P, I, § and micro. nutrients are limiting system ‘productivity dirgetly and through interactions with other nutrients, ii, Poor nitrogen use efficiericy in sugarcane. iv. Low productivity of ratoon due to poor sprouting of winter harvested sugarcane in north India, sugarcane pose tila prfflem for sucsedtinffcodf and ned tobe masiaged \ L) >, thle, by este : S fandhra Reade Radu o Katte) Web tie ayailahiliy-obaioi dation varities of cotton system has become dominant in North, About 70-80 per cent area of cotton io covered emer system, In Central region also, wherever irrigation ia available, cotton-wheat is practiced, The ‘major issues of concern in cotton-wheat cropping system are: i. Delayed planting of succeeding wheat after harvest of cotton. 44, Stubbles of cotton ereate problem of tillage operations and poor tilth for wheat. Xt. Susceptibility of high yielding varieties of cotton to boll worm and white fly and consequently high cost on their control leading to unsustainability, iv. Poor nitrogen use efficiency in cotton resulta in low productivity of the system. ¥. Appropriate technology for intereropping in widely paced cotton is needed to be developed 12, Soybean = Wheat Soybean-wheat cropping system has emerged as an important cropping system only after 1980 ‘with the introduction of oybean.as a Kharif crop in wheat growing areas of the country particularly under irrigated ecosystem. ‘© Bvolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 12] x ; S9OSOCUSOOSS SESE e12. Legume Based cropping pattern Legume crops (pulses and oilseeds) are Popular for their suitability Recent advances in the development at large number of varieties seaanct arsely for maturity duration, have made we Possible to incl qrluences. The popular cropping systems ane Pigeon. pea-wheat ‘Adverse soils making them highly unstable in Performance. manne ourceptibility to diseasea and pests, 2.Bastern Himalayan Region shifting cultivation (hum), practiced in nearly one third of the cultivated area, has caused B denudation and degradation of cole ‘ncteasiog in heavy runoff, massive soit erosion and floods in the lower reaches and baring. © Bvolution Baucare Pvt. Led. Page To] \ 2 Hi” Susceptibility of the pulses to aberrant weather conditione especially water Jogging and : : SPOR omatat7 A\volution sete manele Since this area has high polenta! for agriculture incaling forestry and hortieule, 4 coniplete package of supply af inputs (quality eeeda, sapling, feriaere and pestle) contig with marketing and processing, has to be organized for each abnor, 1. Lower Gangetic Plains a ‘This zone accounts for about 12% ofthe country’s tice production, Floods and inundation of heida in Barind and Central plains often deotay standing crops, Sesamin Jute mecterd dn a and potato are emerging a5 new crops of this zone. "The pet capita land availability haze is very low (0.095 hectares) as this zone has highest density of population (692 per m2), Marine fisheries programmes are well developed but need to eigesreterersiced productivity is low. Zine deficiency in rice in wide spread. There is urgent need to improve the. yield,” through a technological backup, ' along with supply of seeds of high yielding varieties and adoption of improved package of Practices by the formers, It is suggested to put uncultivable wasteland under ailvicpasture and cultivable land under agro-forestry. Poultry, dairying and inland riverine fishery also should receive priority, ete rexion ofa) ]° 1 5, Upper Gangetic Plains ‘he zone has 144% cropping intensity. ligation is largely through canals and tube wells, A good Potential for exploitation of ground water exists. Growth in agriculture haa to come through increasing productivity ao net sown area is already exploited. In all the Diara lands (flood prone areas) development of fruit treca is important. Milk production from cows is very low. Genetic improvement through cross breeding and increasing the area under fodder crops is important, (© Evolution Educare Pvt, Ltd, [Page 14] Ss e e @ @ 8 6 Se eo e @ 8 e Ss > @©Oeece eceooesce 1wi ow wy Reference y, ns-Gangetic Plaing It is delineated into three Subzones, namely, foothills of Shiwalik and the Himalayas, plaing (Gemi arid) and atid zone bordering the ‘Thar Desert, ‘The major charactettetics of the aren are: highest net spate) Jeveh high cropping intensity (170%) and hij zation. Rice-wheat crane i8 Prevalent. There is need to eve sho) taking E: Food processing industries sheutd on ‘aking up cultivation of vegetables ana fruit ereps, 7. Bastern Plateau and Hills [2 tharif, 82% of the area is under Tice. Most soils are reas application of lime is necessary. Cultivation of crops like redgrain, groundn uplands is to be degranget: Mustard and vegetabloo ars te be grown in iri The rehabilitation of degraded peripheral forests is te be taken up on a large ccal % of the forestland io A.Gontral Plateau and Hills be takenup through a community approach, he zone with over 2,000 km of veel 224 Many inland waterways ig Suitable for fisheries, Brackish water fisherieg and crag cutare bold great promine in thie area. Roughly 40% of the arine Potential io taken advantage of ig Andhra Pradesh and 46% in the Tamil Nadu Coast, © Brohition Edueare Pvt. Led, [Page 15) \ \ ’ \Elvoluition = ast Plains and Ghats ‘This is an important zone for plantation crops and spices and fisheries. Cropping intensity is 124%, Productivity of rice and millets is low and there is need for diversification to horticulture crops such as Mango, Banana and Coconut. yuit marketing and processing should be systematized by developing appropriate infra stricture. ‘The approach of hemestead (group farming) system (one of the agro-forestry systems) of reclaiming and using khar lands (saline soils) or polshali lands (acidic soils) needs to be planned and implemented. This zone is important for multi-storeyed cropping, 13, Gujarat Plains and Hills ‘The zone is arid with low rainfall in most parts and only 22.5% of the area is irrigated, largely through wells and tube wells. Only 60% of the cultivated area is under food crops resulting in food deficit. However it ia an important oilseed zone. The cropping intensity is 114% and nearly 60% of the zone is considered drought prone. ‘The major thrust should be.on rainwater harvesting, dry farming and canal and ground water management. 14, Western Dry Region Famine and drought are common features forcing people and animals to migrate to other places tuations 4.3%). The ‘warranty stringent eliorto for development of allyrpastoral ayotema and enerey plantations ta meet the ecarcity and to stabilize partially the sand dunes. The Indira Gandhi Nahar Project ia the main water source of great potential in this zone. ‘8.Istands Region Rainfall of 3,000 mm is opread over eight to nine months, It ia largely forest zone having large Lunidulating arcas leading to heavy loa9 of soil due to runoff. Nearly half of the cropped area is under cotonut. This is the emallest zone with a high literacy rate and low poverty levele. (© Evolution Bducare Pvt. Led. [Pago 16] SCeooao eegCoOd ds oeeesesosa: Seeoeos ©© ow Chapter 3: Crop Shift/Diversification in India India is a country of more than one Billion people. More than 70 percent of India's population lives in rural areas where the main occupation is agriculture. Indiaw agriculture is characterized by small farm holdings. The average farm size is only 1.57 hectares, Around 93 percent of farmers have land holdings smaller than 4 ha and they cultivate nearly 55 percent of the arable Jand. On the other hand, only 1.6 of the farmers has operational land holdings above 10 ha and they utilize 17.4 percent of the total cultivated land. Due to diverse agro-climatic conditions in the country, a large number of agricultural items are Produced. Broadly, these can be classified into two groups - foodgrains crops and commer crops. Due to the challenge of feeding our vast population and the experience of food shortages in the pre-independence era, ‘self reliance’ in foodgrains has been the cornerstone of our policies in the last 60 years. Around 66 percent of the total cultivated area ie under food grain cropa (coreals and pulses). Concurrently, commercial agriculture developed for whatever reasons in the pre: independent phase also kept flourishing during the post independent period. Commercial agriculture not only catered to the domestic market but has also been one of the major earnera of foreign exchange for the country. Mission on Oilseeds (TMO) to give ion as @ national need for the country's requirement for less ‘thrust on ilsceda producti dependency on imports, 2. Market infrastructure development and cortain other price related supporto aloo induee crop shift. 3. Often low volume high-value cropa like spices aloo aid in crop diversification. 4. Higher profitability and also the resiliencelstability in production also induce crop diversification, for example ougar cane replacing rice and wheat, 5. Crop diversification and aloo the growing of large number of crops aré practiced in rainfed lands to reduce the risk factor of crop failures due to drought or less rainfall, 6 Crop substitution and shift are also taking place in the areas with distinct eoil probleme. For example, the rowing of rice in high water table areas replacing oilseeds, pulses and cotton; promotion of soybean in place of sorghum in vertisols (medium and deep black soils) ete ‘© Bvolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 17) t : i i : i i ; iGvolultion Mecsas ‘The share of the agriculture sector in the total GDP has declined rapidly (19.9% in 2011-12) after 1980/81 (24.8%) and this trend will continue, The agriculture sector at present employs around 52% of the country’s work force. With the development of alternative sources of employment in the rural areas, viz., agro industries, supportive infrastructure, etc., it is hoped that the share of population dependent on agriculture will come down, though not commensurately, by the year 2020, India’s ogriculture has passed through four distinct phases of strategy: @) Starting with the intensification of efforts in identified areas, using traditional technology and expansion of area during the pre-Green Revolution period; ») Through a new strategy of use of inodern inputs and high yielding varieties in irrigated areas during the late sixtica and the seventies, (Green Revolution); ©) Further through a period of greater focus on management of linkages and infrastructure, such as, marketing, trade and institution building; and, @). To an era of liberalization and relaxation of controle during the nineties, The journey has been demanding but rewarding. The agriculture sector has been successful over the past five decades in keeping pace with the rising food demand of a growing OAUTH REE BONEN PGP TEN PTS POTTS POPPIN NPE OT RE LT fh are largely agrobased Id ‘total export, colton, ougar etc glt cogtribute nearly 16% of the The crop pattern changes, however, are the outcome of the interactive effect of many factors which can be broadly categorized into the following five groups: 1, Resource related factors covering irrigation, rainfall and soil fertility. 2. Technology related factors covering not only seed, fertilizer, ‘and water technologies but also those related to marketing, atorage and'processing. 3. Household related factors covering food and fodder self-sufficiency requirement ag well as investment capacity, 4. Price related factoro covering output and input prices ag well as trade policies anid other economic policies that affect these prices either directly or indirectly, 5. Institutional and infrastructure related factors cqvering farm size and tenancy arrangements, research, extension and marketing systems and government regulatory policies, Obviously, these factors are not watertight but inter-related. For instance, the adoption of crop technologies is influenced not only by resource related factors but also by institutional and infrastructure factora, Similarly, government policies - both supportive and regulatory in nature affect both the input and output prices. Likewise, epecial government programmes also affect” ‘© Bvolution Educare Pvt, Ltd, [Page 18] > 4 S@ecesenaees aeecns oS 3 LO _@ CO < 9 @ 8.8.5 SCO Oe GDwow we wow wy ww Reference Material for 2013-14 NG ie ceaeget area allocation and crop composition, More importantly, both the economic liberalization policies se,well a the globalization process are also exerting strong Pressures on the area allocation Ghriously differ in terms of the relative importance both aerose ha Groups and resource regions. White factors such as food and fodder self sufficiency, fara size, and investment constraints are waa in influencing the area allocation pattern among smalion farms, larger farmers Rith.an ability to cicumvont resources constraints wovally 9 more by economic considerations based on relative crop prices than by other non-economic considerations, ‘The most notable thing ia the change in the relative importance of these factors over time. From 8 much generalized perspective, Indian agriculture is increasingly getting influenced more and snraat eg economie factors. Thin need not be surprising because. irrigation expansion, and opread of short initiatives n alld globalization policies are role that price related economic incentives play in erop chore can statin” Of *éricultural evolution where growth originates mone sat more from value-added production. . Impact of Crop Shifting Diversification) Turning now to the socio-econoriic and environmental consequences of crop shifting, the Green Revolution technologies, mainly high yielding’ and shost duration varieties, have stimulated, ceriog ter things, an increasing tendency towards crop apeviaizntios and commercialization of agriculture, © Bvolution Bducare Pvt. Ltd, [Page 19) \Evolution exawple is the rice-wheat system in North-western India replacing traditional erops like pulees, oilseeds and cotton. Impact_of Green revolution technologies: Temporal Changes in the Area Share of ‘ Crops y It netds to be stated that the changing area share of erops is due as much to shift in area under other competing or alternative crops as to the relative area allocation of fresh areas brought under cultivation. The changes in the comparative advantage of crops reflect, in reality, the ongoing changes in relative prices of inputs and outputs, production conditions (including irrigation expansion), development and spread of new varieties of crops and farm technologies, extension and input. support policies and trade policies and domestic regulations, It is evident that there is a substantial area shift from’cereals to non-cereals. While cereals and pulses have : lost area, the major gainers of this area shift are the non-food grain crops especially oilseeds. The : area share of oilseeds as a group that has gone up by 4.08 percent accounts for about 83 percent of the 8.96 m/ha involved in the area shift between 1966/67 and 1996/97. As we consider the share of individual crops within cereals, although the share of cereals as a ‘group has declined, the area share of rice has increased continuously over all the four periods, Wheat, although having a declining area share until 1986/87, also gained in its share when the: B SOOSSSCSOHSSCHeRVEeBOSE Pearl millet, barely and amall millet. i 2s maize shows a marginal bs a) : i@ Sa peOT, HS TENET TF NG TST TOTS PHATE TS TRE PE UTE ETSI POR TT i the declining area share of eropa - expecially thoce with only a marginal change in their area te share-need not necsesariy imply a decline inthe actual area under theae crops, Sines the Groce : Gygrped Aren (OA) i eouotantyinerading over time partly through an enrovatan strat nee fe areas avin the initial stages of the Green Revolution and partly through increasing intensity of Fe y by irrigation expansion, the delining area share can eaineide with an incrense : ‘dbsthite inereace in the area under erope. Fe Although the increase in the area share of other commercial crops is not as dramatic as that of i 5 cilsceds, i is etill notable because of its implications for the direction of Indian agriculture. But, } among these other commercial cropa that cover fibres, opiceo,fruite and vegetables, and other : eld aops such as tobacco and maar cane and plantation erop, only epices, fruits and veyetables i show asteady improvement in their area shares, whereas others show moatly a declining trend. ‘aia inpariculaly true for fibres and other Geld crop that have over four fifth ofthe total area under the brond group of other commercial cops. However, agar cane, included in the eatogory i of other eld crope, showo an inereae in ita area shar. Thin in leo true for cotton included in the fits category. While allspice crops show a gradual increase in their area share, enly tee of the sx erope inched in the fruit and vegetables eateory show a gain in their area share over : the year. Thee eropa are bana, potato and onion, b ‘© Bvolution Bducare Pvt, Ltd, (Page 20) . |o ow w www wwew wy > 2 we www ww ewe w www « Reference Material for 2013- Ent later when increased productivity of foodgrains, especially cereals, raade it possible to sllocate more area to other crops such as oilseeds with a severe supply shortage, the svetialization tendency witnessed earlier has given room for overall crop diversification. Even within uch an overall crop diversification, itis also possible to vee specialinnen, tendencies nithin each crop group. For instance, within cereals, the declining share of onan cereals and spotiehnnian na cf wheat and rice indicates a rice and wheat centered specialisation cacy a specialization has become possible because within the achievement of self-eufficiency, mainly Eitine category Tas ofown an mereasing tondcacy To (averely WiC air improved Pelseet in their area composition, But, during 1976-97 the non-foodgrains category hac tin caught up amoig the non-foodgraina. Gonelusion {nals being a vast country of continental dimensions, presents wide variations in agroclimatic Hrautions. Such variations have led to the evolution of regional niches for waveee crops. Historically, regione were often associated with the crops in which they specialize for various even level of area and creating thereby the condition for inter-crop aren ehife (diversification) without much disturbance in output level. Besides,-ae agriculture become drought proof and © Evolution Bdueare Pvt, Ltd. [Page Bi] T }Browth become more regionally balanced, there has been a reduction in the instability of agricultural output, In the face of these new changes including the achievement of food self-sufficjency, the area shift that tended towards cereals in the immediate aftermath of the Green Revelytion, hao started moving in the opposite direction, ie., from cereals to non-cereals. Although these reverse area shifls actually tock place in the mid-1970's as a part of the process of commercialization, they became more pronounced since the mid 1980's as a response partly to emerging supply deficit in edible oils and partly to the changing comparative advantage of crops. Since the recent trend in intercrop area shifts has it origin in the price and trade policy changes of the 1980's, they indicate the increasing market inffuence on area allocation. ‘The area under commercial crops has almost doubled in the last three decades. Among the food ‘grain crops, the arca under superior cereals, i.e., rice and wheat, is increasing; while that of coarée csreals (sillets) is on decline. The area share of jute and allied fibres has also gone down substantially, Like any other economy, the, share of agriculture in the GDP ig aleo declining in India. Increase in income from the agriculture sector, further growth of non-crop sub-sectors within agriculture; faster growth of non-food grain crops; itd faster growth of auperior cereals among the food grains are all happening, but the pace of such change is far too slow. n- and ‘it also implies a careful wuefee. le relative profitability of fa adjustment of macropdflcics, which ieqand es © Evolution Bducare Pvt, Ltd, [Page 22) ©80066 88 OG@ Di 7 _°@ 8 G8 880 OG @8 B wow ol d wwe wv a Reference Material for 2013-14 Chapter 4: Cropping Systems Cropping Systems {tioanorder in which the crops are cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period of time. 1) Mono-cropping/Monoculture Uf Zelers to. growing of only one erp on a piece of land year after year, Ex: Rice ~ Rice (In odavari belt) Disadvantage in Mono-cropping * Improper use of moisture and nutrients from the soil * Control of crop, associated pests and weeds become a problem, 7 8. The crops of the samo family should not be ‘srown in succession because they act like alternate host for insects, pesto and disease pathogens. 7, An ial crop rotation is one which provides maximum employment to the family and-farm Tabour, the machines and equipmente are efficiently used. 1) Multiple cropping 1) Rice-potato-green gtam. 2) Rice-mustard-maize, 9) Rice-potato-sesame. © Bvolution Bducare Pvt, Lid. [Pago 23)oo KN E\volufion Seen 4) Sutrice-potato, Cropping intensity is more that 200 per cent when the farm as a whole is considered; the Multiple Cropping Index (MCI) is determined by the number of crops and total area planted divided by the total arable area. When the vplue is three or more, iis said to be most promising farm. This is also called ag intensive cropping. a) Sequential cropping: Growing two or more crops in a sequence on the same field in a farming year (twelve months) for irrigated land and is limited to the period of adequate soil moisture availability for crop growth in semi-arid & arid areas. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding efop has been harvested. Crop intensification is only in time dimension ‘There js no inter-crop competition. Farmers manage only one erop at a time in the eame field. + Relay cropping: Growing the succeeding crop when previous crop attend its maturity stage- or-sowing of the next crop immediately after the harvest of the standing crops. Or it is a system of cropping where one crop hands over land to the crop in quick succession, Bs) Paddy-lnthers; 2) Paddy-Lucerne; 8) Cotton-Berseein; 4) Rice-Cauliflower-Onion-summer ‘gourds Advantages: Same piece of Tand, base crop necessarily in Giatine? Tow arrangement” The Tecommentin optimum plant population of the base crop is suitably combined with appropriate additional plant density of the associated/component crop. The objective ia intensification of cropping both in time and space dimensions and to raise productivity per unit area and inputs by increasing the pressure of plant population, Ex: Setaria + Redgram in 5:1 ratio; Groundnut + Redgram in 7:1 ratio The objectives of Intereropping Systems are: 1. Insurance against total crop failure under aberrant weather conditions or pest epidemics. 2 Increase in total productivity per unit land area, . 3, Judicious utilization of resources such as land labour and inputs, Intereropping was originally: practiced as an. inourance against crop failure under rainfall conditions. At present the main objective of intereropping is higher productivity per unit area in addition to stability in production. Intercropping eystems utilizes resources sufficiently and their productivity is increased, ‘© Evolution Baucare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 24) i @OGeeagcoesce € G e 2 Ss G & @ Se eS 9 a eo 8 e 8 9we weee 6 4, 8 Reference Material for 2013-14 209 os esi at nec tency Inter cropping system utilizes resources efficiently and their Productivity ie increased (Reddy and Reddi, 1992) A Intercropping with cash crops is higher profitable, 1t helps to avoid intercrop competition and thus a higher number of crop plants are grown por unit area, Disadvantages of intercropping: ’ L 8 ‘Yield decreases as the crops diffe: in their competitive abilities Management of intererops having different cultural practices eeeme to be difficult task. Improved implements cannot be used efficiently. ‘Somponent crops vary in their response of these resourecs, Harvesting is difficult, i : i i not have distinct row Tow competition with a market or the factories Ratoon cropping: The cultivation of crops're-growth coming out of roots or atalka of the Preceding crop after barveot, although not neceasarily for grain ic termed as ratoon exopping/ratooning. Mixed farming: It is defined as a "ASE RNAS naN Eesti Multi storeyed system: Growing of plants of different heights in ‘same field at the same Coconut — Piper - banana ~ Pineapple. I t 5 : F : i i ' © Evolution Balucare Pvt. Ltd. (Page D7] + D 4Reference | Material for 2013- 14 Difference between intercropping and mixed cropping Intercropping Mixed cropping ‘The main objective is to utilize the space eft | Main objective is to get at least one crop between two rows of main crop especially during | under any climatic hazards (ood, drought early growth period of main crop. oF frost) conditions, More emphasis is given to the main crop and subsidiary eropa are’ not grown at the cost. of | Al! crops are given equal care and there is Efficient cropping systems for a particular farm depend on farm resources, farin enterprises and farm, technology. The farm resources include land, labour, water, capital and infrastructure, When land is limited, intensive cropping is adopted to fully utilize available, water and labour. When oufficient and cheap labour is available, vegetable crops are also included inthe cropping syotem aa they require more labour. Capital intensive crops like Sugarcane, banana, ginger ete, find a place in cropping system when capital is not constraint. In Jow rainfall areag (less than 750 mm/annum) monceropping is followed and when rainfall is more than 750 mm intereropping is practised. With sufficient icrigation water, triple and quadruple cropping ig adopted when other climatie factors are not limiting. Farm enterprises like dairying, poultry ete’ also influence the type of cropping system. ‘When farm enterprises include dairy, the cropping eystem should contain fodder crops as ‘components. Change in cropping system fakes place with the development of technology. ‘The feasibility of growing four crop sequence in Gangetic alluvial plains gave impetus to multiple eropping. ‘© Bvolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 28) 5 Seeesvoveseeoee eoaes GSbsoss GGHOGTOCSBOOGO @d Oox Reference » Bvoluition Chapter 5: Important Indices 1) Land Use Efficiency or Assessment of Land Use. : The main objective isto use available resources effectively. Multiple cropping whi B inter and sequential cropping han the main objective of intensification of cropping available resources in a given environment, yo. Mutt Cropping Index or Multiple Cropping Intensity (MCD: Jt was proposed by Dalarymple (1971), It is the ratio of total area cropped in a year to the land area available for cultivation and expressed in percentage: B ‘Total number of crops + with their respective area et Net cultivable area Moris the sum of area planted to different crops and harvéeted in a single year divided by total ~ McI= ow w Where, j= 1, 2, 3, m= total number of erepa, aiz area occupied by the ith exop, di faye that 5 the ith crop oocupied ai and A= total cultivated land aren svatlabie pe 865 days. 5 CLUL ean be expreoced as a fraction or percontage. This given an idea about how the land area bas been put into wae, If the index ia 1 (100%), it showo that the lancl hne hen left fallow and saan i tlle the specification of intoreropping and relay eropping. lenitatinn ot CLUL is ito inability to consider the land temporarily available to the farmer for ealtivntien 3. Crop Intensity Index (CI): © Evolution Bducare Pvt, Led, [Page 29) e : t > i iReference Material for 2013-14 Elvoluition = rote Where, i= 1, 2, 3......NC, NC = total number of crops grown by a farmer during the time period 1 ‘ai = area occupied by ith crop (months that the crop i occupied an area ai) T = time period under study (usually one year), Ao= Total cultivated land area available with the farmer for use during the entire time period, T, m= total number of fields temporarily available to the farmer for cropping during time period. T, j=1, 2, 3... M, Aj-land area of jth field and ‘Tj= time period Aj is available. When, CII = 1 means that aréa or land resourees have been fully utilized and less than 1 indicates under of resources, CII indicates the number of times a field ia grown with crops in a year. It ig calculated by dividing gross cropped. in,the farm, region or country multiplied by M1) Assessment of Yield Advantage ‘Many types of cropa/ cultivars are included in a multiple cropping sequences. It is very difficult to compare the economic prodiuce of one crop to another. To cite an example, yield of rice cannot be compared with the yield of grain cereals or pulse crops and e0 on. |. Crop Equivalent Yield (CEY): ‘The camparisons can be made based on economic returns (gross or net returns). The yield of protein and carbohydrate equivalent can also be caleulated for valid comparison. ‘The yielda of different intercrops are converted into equivalent yield of any one erop based on price of the produce. CBY can be calculated as: : CEYEE (Wi. ei) Where, Yi= yield of ith component; ei= equivalent factor of ith component or price of ith exop ‘© Evolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 30) — SOCHOTLRO CLOG CDSERvow we ow w @ % 2 Land Equivalent Ratio (LER): It is the ratio oeeosveseoeeonove i ; | 1 i | |“© Coppight Evolution Educare Pt $ » > 2 [Migs ae owned bore book amet be coped rep oy without ist obtaining fed by Elton Educare Re. td The content of this vlted, posted bresdeact or ansaid ns \SCCOECHCOOKESTOOCOOSTE SOOO BOHONHAOOROHODOElvoluition Reference Material for 2013-14 Contents Syllabus and Questions: Social & Agroforestry... 2 Chapter 1: Social Forestry & Agroforestry ~ Basics. ot) Chapter 2: Shelterbelte & Windbreaks... uM Chapter 3; Classification Agroforestry Systems 7 : - evolution sar wo uy wow w © Bvolutign Bawcare Pra. Lid. [Pago I] \ \ ’ vwv ow ww_ @ 8 ese G82 69805000000" T29OCOCODTS OCC BR EEO90R82 wwe woe ww YY wow « www _ = Reference Material for 2013-14 Elvoluition Sterne tatralo 20131 SSE SSS AR Nee ee Syllabus and Questions: Important features, scx extension, social forest "Pe and propagation of various types of forestr 'rY, agro-forestry and natural forests Previous vear Question 2012 'Y plantations such as 1 Pifferentiote between Agri-stviculture and Silv Pasture (10) 2010 seush Alley cropping and its advantages (16) Difference between: Reserve and Protected Forest a0) 2003 Compare: Social foreatry and Agroforestry (10) © Evolution Bducare Prt. Lia, Page 7) 4 -€lvoluttion Chapter 1: Social Forestry & Agroforestry — Basics Introduction ‘ he word forest is derived from Latin word ‘Foris' mehns outside. Therofore forebts are areas covering practically all uncultivated and untended lands fairly extensive stretch of land covered with rather tall and dense tree growth. Forests are also defined as an area sot aside for the production of timber and other forest produce and is under woody vegetation for cettain benefits which it provides. Definition of Forestry Forestry stands for the theory and. practice of constitution and management of forests and utilization of their products. It also stands for scientific management of forests for the continuous production of goods and services, ‘As we are aware of many traditional practices euch as, chifting cultivation, farm steads, it ean be precisely concluded that Agroforestry is a new name for old practices with certain modifications. A.strictly scientific definition of agroforestry should stress two characteriatica common to all paolorcatacandtacnarates mihentheriarns of land use, named epee et eee Notable among these are Community Forestry, Farm Forestry, and Social Forestry. Although these terms have not been defined precisely, it is generally accepted that they emphasize the eelf- help aspect - people's participation - in tree planting activities, not necessarily in association with agricultural crops and/or animals aa in. agroforestry, but with eocial objectives ranking ‘equally in importance with production objectives. L Forestry. Social Forestry is considered to be the practice of using trees and/or tree planting specifically to pursue cocial objectives, usually betterment of the poor, through delivery of the benefite (of trees and/or tree planting) to the local people; it is sometimes described as "tree growing by the people, for the people." The term social forestry was first used by a forest ecientist named Westoby in 1976, Social forestry is the greatest instrument of land transformation, Community forestry, a form.of social forestry, refers to tree planting activities undertaken by a ‘community on communal lands, or the so-called common land; it is based on the local people's direct participation in the procesn, either by growing trees themeclves, or by processing thé tree products locally. ‘Though claimed to be suited for areas with abundant common lands, the success of community forestry has been hampered by the "tragedy of the commons”. ~ (© Evolution Bducare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 2) \ 4 Se & @ @ @ a es eo @ 9 oa 8 e 3 9 3 3 e 8 3 2 ex 2013-14 ee Reference Material for The Social Forestry Practices Includes Raising wind breaks on the dry farm lands + Planting shelter belts Planting along road sides intensively nds Planting along raieay lines and canal banks Planting sinall wood lots on the farm if it is large B * Planting of grooves near villages and slong highways for recreation and rest B * Planting foreshore areas of irrigation tanks a > . 3 ) a 5 > Methods of P, (Practice of Social Forestry « Berideo Community forestry as a form, Social forest B L try may eub divided into: Farm Forestry: Practice of forestry on farm lands is farm forestry, breaks, shelter, bel Includes, rising of wind ts, and farm wood lote, raving trees in village eo mmon land ete 2 Forestry: Practice of forestry outside the farm lands and outside the reserve Extension forestry. It includes, raising tree crops on canal banks, railway lines a and road sides, under high tension electeie jines; afforeotation of foreshoro ereas of tanka and reservoirs, reclaiming lands unsuitable for agriculture under tree erops, B 5 Urban Forestry: Rising of tee espe in urbe roan I-20. forest or for amenity planting, 9 to prevent and minimize relies ¥ Benefits of Soctat Forestry 2D) Betterment of environment 2) Reduction of pollution (© Bvolution Rducare Pvt. Led. Page 3) \ Ae \Eivoluition 3) Providing the basic needs of rural and urban people for fuel, emall timber, manure leaf and other economic products nearer to home 4) Providing raw materials for industries such as wood, wool, packing easee, slate frames, fibre, tamagind extract, oil seeds, pulping and husking material 5) Provide shelter for insectivorous birds on the farms 6) Protection from wind 7) Conservation of moisture 8) Prevention of soil erosion 9) Fullest utilization of land unsuitable for cultivation 10) Employment opportunities in rural and urban area 11) Reduction of noise 12) Reduction of pressure on national forests Only blurred lines, if any, separate them and they all encompass agroforestry concepts and technologies. No matter what the experts may say, these terms are often weed eynonymously, and sometimes even out of context, in land-use parlance. Distinction between Social forestry and Agroforestry: Sr. No. | Social forestry Agroforestry L It is considered to be the practice of using trees and/or ‘tree planting, specifically to pursue social objectives, through the delivery of the benefits It ia a collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shriibs, palma and bamboos, etc) are deliberately ‘used on the same land management units with agricultural crop ‘and/or animale. 2 In SF main emphasis is on ecological and social interactions, In AF systems there aro both ecological and economic interactions between the different ‘components. 8. Include forest crops, including food, Combines with the production of ‘© Evolution Bducare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 4] 4s, \ \wow we ow S owe - w aoe —T meet the multifarious demands of society to [ agriculture, cropa, Tore forest plants and the | fodder specieg tultaneously or Seauentially on the same unita of land ‘age of technology that has to be developed before implementation There is a close crop relationship whose Cultivation is determined by the demands of region, demands of person ete require such a on the interrelationshipe, a Tt ig done’ on dry-lands water logged, alkaline and ‘saline soils and nearly all cultivable areas and forest blocks, agroforestry system is structurally, factional, and eocio-econosnically move complex than a ‘moneropping system, © Brolution Bducare Pvt. Lea. (Pago 6)Reference Material for 2013-14 tiON ses Agroforestry can be considered more as an approach than as a single, finished technology. Although several finished systems have been devised and tested, such technology may require adjustment for particular situations. The flexibility of the agroforestry approach is one of its advantages. Farmers adopt agroforestry practices for two reasons: 1. To increase their economic stability and 2. To improve the management of natural resourses under their care + ‘Traditional Agroforestry Systems in India Agroforestry is widespread in all ecological and geographical regions of India. ‘The systems vary enormously in their structural complexity and species diversity, their productive and protective attributes and ‘their socio-economic dimensions. They range from apparently simple forms of shifting cultivation to complex home-gardens: from systems involving sparse stands of trees on farm lands (e.g. Prosopis cineraria, khejri tree - in arid regione of western India) to high-density ‘complex multi-storeyed homesteads of humid lowlands: from systems in which trees play a predominantly 'service' role (e.g. shelter belts) to those in which they provide main saleable products (c.g. intercropping with plantation crops). Most of thece are ancedotal but in sonie Mag nencaceh ailacia have pen cacied iti reer Sytem bao degenerat ing seviow soll erosion depleting sal lertiity resulting to Tor productivity. In north-eastern India many annual and perennial erope with diverse growth habita are being grown. At times annual crops such as potato, rice, maize and ginger are grown in monoculture or mixed culture along with Pinus kesiya. Another important attribute of the system is secondary succession of vegetatioi during fallow period. ‘The tree species which may be considered suitable for afforestation of fallow areas or to intercrop with arable crops must be fast growing preferably nitrogen-fixing and must efficiently recycle available nutrients within the system shortening time required to restore fertility. These may include epecies of Acacia, Albizié, Alnus, Casuarina, E "bia, Gliricidia, Leucaena, Prosopis, Robinia and Sesbania. ‘Thus intercropping under or between fast-growing trees in a fallow phase is one of the approeches while finding.alternative to shifting cultivation, A farming-eystem approach based on the watershed management has been advocated as an alternative to shifting cultivation. 2, Taungya System: The Taungya eystem is like an organized and systematically managed shifting cultivation. The word is reported to have originated in Myanmar (Burma) and tauang ‘means bil, ya means cultivation ic, hill cultivation. It involves cultivation of crops in forests or forest trees in-crop-fields and was introduced to Chittagong and Bengal areas in colonial India in ‘© Evolution Educare Pvt. Lid. [Page 6) t : eOGceeog | e@eeosases oes 589800 6%Iti (~ Reference Materi a jal for 2013-14. ion 2: in 1896 in, rece fil tetion. In southern India, the eyatem ig called ‘kumar’ Wis practiced in areas with ardaooured annect rainfall of over 1200-1500 mm, ‘The Practice consists of land preparation, tree planting, growing agricultural exo, Until shade becomes too dense, and then moving on to repeat the cycle in a d, teen, Ghee erOP8 may be grown one year before the een, are planted. A large variety of erops and trees, depending on the soil and climatic contin Te 1g erewn in India. The owner of the land and hence the trees is the state Forest Department. In fact this system was introduced to raise ‘orest plantation but finally a recognized AP aysran, 8 for 1-3 years, ifferent area, In 3, Home-gardens/omesteads Cultivation: A Demestead is an operational farm unit in i protect mber of crops including tee cope aro ean livestock, poultry and/or fish t are pea ninly fo the purpoce of nesting the routrn base needs of the farmer. Iti an old. . 880 practice in coastal states particule) : 3 : 2 : . ‘There is critical i : > i 2 ! 5 : 5 i B 2 7 i 2 and profitable atabla land-uoc § > : Z (© Byolution Baucare PvE, Led. [Page a : 2 ‘ i 2 > . 4— 1: ~~‘ Reference Material for 2013-14 flvoluttion crane activity in tropics, The scope for integrative practices involving plant associations in these commercial plantations is limited, except during the early phases of plantation when some intereropping is feasible, the commercial production of these crops is aimed at having a single commodity. Some of the plantation crops like coconut, palms have been cultivated since very early times but their economic yield remained low. However, the research attention and commercial yields of these crops have increased substantially, Contrary to common belief - a substantial proportion of tropical plantation crops is grown by small farmers. Most of the coconut production in India, and other countries comes from eral holdings, in which coconut-palm is integrated with a large number of annual and perennial crops like clove, cardamom, coffee, cacao, cassava, yams, fodder grasses and legumes. Grazing under coconut and cashew nut is also common. Ii India, small holders grow cashew-trees (in wider space) with other crops, 5, Scattered trees on farm lands: The practice of growing agricultural crops under scattered trees-on farm lands ig old and.doés not seem to have changed for centuries. Though world-wide list of such trees is long, some of them have received more attention than others e.g. Prosopis cinaria in north-western India and Poplars in north India. The species diversity in these systems is very much related to ecology. With increase in rainfall, the species diversity and system complexity increases. Thus, there-is a proliferation of more diverse multistoried home-gardens in iba pentandra, Vitex cactoids are grown as common live-fence. 17. Systems for soil conservation or amelioration: About 150 million ha of land in India is subject to serious wind and water erosion, of which 69 million ha are critically affected. Coastal andy areas and ateeply sloping lands and more than 9 million ha is salt affected. The deep and narrow gullies are best controlled by putting them to permanent vegetation after closure to grazing. Afforestation with euitable tree species like Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma. Prosopis juliflore, Dalbergia sissoo, Tectona grandis, Bambulsa spp. and endrocalamus and other adaptable species such as grascea like Dichanthium annulatum, Bothrioehloa pertusa, Cynodon dactylon and Sehima nervosum can help in stabilizing ravines ‘and gullies and checking their spread. In recent times, due to increase in population pressure ‘these wood-lots have shrunk at a fast rate. > Possible impacts of Agroforestry + Controlling poverty through increased income by higher production of agroforestry products for home consumption and market. Food aecurity by restoring farin soil fertility for food crops and production of fruits, vegetables, nuts and edible oils. © Bvolution Edueare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 8} BOoeCOoGS eS 2 Oeeeogesugce | w SGoooe ae @OOGL ©Reference Material for 2013-14 are inseennn £2 women fariners and other less-advantaged rural residents whose rig] land are insecure through better negotiations, {increasing bulleving tapacity of farmers against the effects of global climate ch, ange on-farm tree crops and tree cover, “Improving coil health of the farm through ameliorated micro-e "Augmenting accessibility to medicinal trees for cure of common and e ieethanat iad Proximity but are controlled separa * Integrated: The tree, erop and/or animal SomPonenta are structurally and functionally Gimbined into m single, integrated manageinent wadt, Integration may be horizontal or nes of Agroforestry Agroforestry provides a different land ‘we’ optic, compared with traditional arable and forestry {us te obvious landscape benefit. Efficient moder verre of agroforeatry have been developed, prota gbted to the einstein imposed by machaniene ee agroforestry plot remaine rerotereaet i farmer and generaten continuous revonea carte not feasible in arable land. Agroforestry allows for the diversification of farm activities and makes better use of cnvironmental resources, (© Evolution Baucare Pri. Lid. [Pago 5) 4 \ 4 i : | iOwing to increase in population of human and cattle, there is inereasing demand of food as well 4s fodder, particularly in developing countries like India, Bach year farmers of the world must ow attempt to feed more than 81 million more people irrespective of weather: It is important to note that there will be around 19% decline in eropland per head by the end of this century due to population explosion. ‘Therefore, there is slight scope to increase food production by increasing the area under cultivation. A management system therefore, needs to be devised that is capable of producing food from marginal agricultural land and is also capable of maintaining and improving quality of producing environment. > Advantages Agroforestry has interesting advantages from three different perspectives: A. From the agriculture perspective: 1. Diversification of the activities of arable farmers, with the building-up of an inheritance of multi-purpose trees, with continuous revenue from farm, 2, Protection of intercrops and animals by the trees, which have a windbreak effect, providing shelter from the sun, rain, wind, soil erosion and stimulating soil microfauna and microflora, Rents tivity on lan 6. In silvipastoral plots, fodder unite can be available at different periods compared to fall cropped plots, extonding the grazing calendar. B. From the forestry perspective: 1, Enhancement in the biomasa growth of the trees by wide spacing (480% over 6 years in the majority of the experimental plantations). A large reduction in the maintenance costs of the plantation, due to the presence of the intercrops. 2 Improvement in the quality of wood produced (wide regular rings, suited to the needa of industry), because the trees are not subjected to cycles of competition and thinning. 3. Guaranteed follow-up and tree care due to the arable intereropping activity. In particular, protection against the risk of fire in susceptible areas, with pasture or with intererops like vine or winter cereals (clear bare ground imrsummerafter stubble ploughing). 4. Agroforestry plantations on arable land allow the development of a quality wood resource that complements, rather than competes with, the products from traditionally exploited foreata, It ia especially important to produce wood that can eubstitute for tropical saw logs, which will soon decline in availability and quality. The areas concerned will remain small in terms of their ‘© Evolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 10) 4 SOCeCHOE SOCCOCCEOSSSOSCHESLOE OE 2 oeeon > 8 eSabeolute value, but the production of wood from them could become a ex | supply network, Production from 8Nn agroforestry plot ie Breater than the Separate production obtained by an 4 arable-forest Separate cropping pattern on the same area of land. This effect results from the 1 ‘OF pasture; maintenance is less costly and environmental resources are better used. a 2. Better control of cultivated areas of land: By substituting for arable plots, the ae 5 AE 5 3 2 * Limitations of Agroforestry An integrated food-tree farming ‘*vetet, while advantageous, doce have certain negative aspecte, ORCA ie Environment Aapeeta: 2 Possible competition of treee with food ‘Pe for space, sunlight, moisture and nutrients e e which may reduce food exop yieh f b) Damage to food crop during tree harvest. operation; . i 3 Raid eta ote ects tnt po hater haran g food crop nd ; 5 ala "Peatin by rl tenn nh nae arms pa and take over entire : 5 lin ; 3. Socioeconomic Aspectas i Po Cebu ™ © 0 vor ona wih ey cues sce Sines in other farm : acter ’ © Brolin Bivcare Pre Dad Page i :x b, Competition between food and tree crops, which could cause aggregate yields to be lower than those of a single erop; ©. Longer period required for trees to grow to maturity and acquire an economic value; 4, Resistance by farmers to displace food crops with trees, especially where land is scarce: and e, Its a fact that that agroforestry is more complex, less well understood and more difficult to apply, compared to single-erop farm, However, through skilful management practices, any or all of these aspects can be controlled, For instance it is easy to adopt some or all of the following strategies: 1. Select legume trees that have small or light crowns so that sufficient suntight will reach 1 the food crop for photosynthesis; 1 2, Select tree species that are deep-rooted co that they will absorb moisture and nutrients from the surface layer of the soil; and 3. Space'the trees farther apart to reduce their competitive effects on the food crops. tion | VAI) SOSOHSTORHOTEROOE a SOeO6 ‘© Bvolution Bdyare Pvt. Ltd, [Page 12) Swww w B » > Reference Material for 2013-14 Shelter Belts Shelter belts aro beltsblocks consisting of several rows of trees established at right angles to the Prevailing wind, The purposes are: ‘To deflect air currents, + Toreduce the velocity of prevailing wind, . 1.10 Provide food, fodder, timber ete ONG FETE GTR RaraTeRGIES OLSKENET Balle Height and spacing: The ratio of hon ;‘ _ _ _ _ @ . eat Reference Material for 2013-14 : Waser to onhanoe oup and an 2 3S 8 8 8 windbreaks serve to enhance crop and animal production by protecting livestock and crops from barsh environmental conditions in addition to reducing soil erosion from agricultural fielde, ‘The height of a windbreak is directly related to the amount bf leeward area protected by wind damage, These areas usually extend up to 10 to 16 times the trek height or up to 160 m with 10 1m high trees. Some windbreaks system has shown to increase wheat yields by 15% and improve net economic benefits by 179%. Windbreaks may also serve additional benefite such as pollination sources for crops, wildlife habitat, and production of timber, posts firewood and other valuable resources. However, very little if any information is available on the economic impacts from these additional products from windbreaks, A variety of potential tree and shrub species can be used to establish windbreaks, However, it is argued that a combination of tall, medium and low growing trees with dense foliage should have the best effect of producing an effective windbreak with suitable porosity, Caltis occidentalis, an also be effectire windbreak species due to their fast growth. Wind breaks are strips of trees and/or shrubs planted to protect fields, homes, canals or other areas from wind 5 and blowing soil or sand. The important reasons for which wind-breaks are planted inchude * To protect livestock from cold winds to protect crope and pastures from hot and dry winds + Toreducelprevent soil erosion, “ora eeramaapeaesinemgae © Evolution Educare Pvt, Led. [Page 14) \ ie w ww ww Vow wy Reference Mat When properly designed and maintained wind-brea ability to carry and deposit soil and eand ‘They al see aPeration trom soil and planta and can te Strlaoee such as Irrigation ponds, canals or atreanry h erial for 2013-14 Fante of useful products, from poles and fuelwocd ta fruit, fodder, Gber and mulch ‘There are three important characteristics of ideal wind-break: i) The ccneeermeable wind-breaks whith allow some naae to pass throu, ‘The slight movement of air through the Wind-breaks forms a eu ge tpwvind and downwind sides. This defocta she main volume of wind ahi euind-break works by Gitering and breaking the force of the wind. Fer most ih are the most suitable, shion of slow-moving air on both, “pwards and prevents It from descending for some distance, Ths, she ind velocity in the protected area may be reduced to between 26 and 75 per cent ofthe open wing speed. tree an. but moet natn id chrub species. Specie Evolution Bducare Pvt. Ltd, Page 18] \ ;oN voluition Reference Material for 2013-14 Chapter 3: Classification Agroforestry Systems 1. Classification of Agraforestry System on Structural Basis ‘The structural ofa system Lan be defined in terme of Rs components and the expected role or function of each. In this system the type of component and their arrangement are important, Hence, on the basis of structure, AF systems can be grouped into two categories: A. nature of components and B. arrangement of components A. Nature of Components: Based on the nature of components, AF systeros ean be classified into the following categories: 1. Agri-Silvicultural eystems 2, Silvi-Pastoral systems 3. Agro-Silvi-Pastoral systems 1. Agri-Silvicultural System (crops and trees including shrubs/vines and trees) Stand are cleared using an axe which the land is allowed to reat longer than the period of cultivation. However, during the period of rest the land reverts to come modified form of ito original cover. It is a aystem of production almost without capital inputs, requiring primarily manual labour. This system is practiced extensively in the north-eastern hill region comprising the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur,« Nagaland and Tripura and the Union territories of Arunchal Pradesh, Odisha and Karnateke states. It is called hum’ in the north-eastern hill region and ‘podu in AP and Odisha states and sidered most destructive for forest areas. ‘The main feature of the improved fallow system of agroforestry is that trees and shrubs are not Erown with crops on the same plot at the eamé time. The fallow perioda vary from region to region but are presently becoming shorter due'to an increasingly acute Jand shortage. The best species for the fallow eystem should induce good nitrogen fixation in the oil ‘Species: While the main function of the fallow is to maintain or restore soil fertility and reduce, erosion, some plants can be introduced primarily for their economic value. Species choice should not be exclusively confirmed’ to ‘soil improvers’; plants with marketable products should be ‘compatible with future crope, free of any negative physical or chemical effects on the soil and not ion with the crop to be planted later on the same site, i t eeeeeesegse @ e = oS e e eo i) @ew ww w Evolution Sess Establishment: Improved fallows can be' establishment in a variety ‘stages of the fallow. Methods might include: of ways and at various * Direct seedlings of clean tilled, harvested plots; q Selective cutting ofbrush,folloved by enrichment planting with tat Jcedlings [steoducig tall seedings and cuttings ito poor quality fallows on degraded lan; Ponting tee seedlings in closely spaced, deep planting holesifurrows in blocks of cleared cropland, he exact techniques vary with the previous landuse, value of:the fallow vegetation condition of the land and expected duration of the fallow. (i Taungya System (Please refer: Traditional Agroforestry Systema In India) * Gi) Alley Cropping @ledgerow Interetopping): Alley cropping, which is typically regarded /- are mostly characterized by syatemo ith cash crops using widely spaced rows as the inter-cropping of trees and. crops simultancoush which intercrop valuable nut and hardwood trees wit between trees for planting crops. aflowBuft¥Fent room for mechanized i as ‘eprqund mm rates of return between 4 and 11%. Moreover, they alao have conventional nono- cropping systems, alley cropping systems may prove to be more austainable and rofitable Figuce: mistraon of an ay croppiag system ” Thess gecondary products such as folder, fuelwood or mulch, Much of the curren rodent Party Lropical aly cropping systema also show some promioe in theiseffecivences of improving toi ferlity and overall crop productivity. However, more research on coy tenn interactions, management, production and economic aspe eta of these alley cropping eysteme needs to be conducted. Alley exepping practices appear to be a rational alternative land van for improving ‘sericultural sustainability while at the same time being economically viable, Nevertheless, there © Evolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. [Page 17] \ tReference Material for 20 /olultion are abundant tree-crop combinations that have not been examined yet as well as a substantial amount of research needed to fully assess their agro-ecological sustainability, economic potentials, and adoption by farmers and landowners. iv)Riparian Buffer: Riparian buffer systems show much promise in rectifying some of the most adverse problems anf environmental impacts facing present-day agriculture. Sustainability and environmental concerns relate to the loss of soil, nutrients, and organic matter from agricultural systems and the pollution of agrochemicals and nutrients into waterways by means of runoff. Hence, riparian buffers entail the establishment and management of vegetation (e.. trees, shrubs and grasses) along denuded waterways to buffer system losses and reduce agrochemical pollution. In contrast to other agroforestry practices, riparian buffer systems have not been traditionally common and their design, research and promotion has been recent. An aésortment of trees, Shrubs and grasses has been suggested for use in riparian buffer strips. ‘These species obviously oral Syatem (trees + past Silvipastoral systems uce definitely the most prominent agroforestry practice, Silvi-pastoral systems, are characterized by integrating trees with forage and livestock production, ‘Traditionally, silvi-pastoral systems involved grazing livestock incorporating trees in pastures for shade} ¥=Saken and timber. The majority of rangeland trazing in hills is typically comprise the grazing of natural herbaceous and shrubby vegetation for under trees such avpines, bhimal, Oak ete. Research on silvi-pastoral aysteme of pine and coastal Bermuda grase have determined their potential of being a better economic investment: of land use than producing colely timber or grazing livestock in open pasture. Moreover, if the harvesting of pine straw from the system is included, the economic benefits can exceed even that of the timber. For the most part, studies ‘© Evolution Educare Pvt. Ld, [Page 18) SGOCORCSEOHE o e e @vw |. Agro-Silvi intercropped with forage grasses, although some observ: oF excessive grazing can reduce tree survivability Promoted, silvi-pastoral eysteme perhaps are the Potential economic benefits. Still, there i@ further social aspects of silvipastoral. and growth of all agroforestry practices being most promising in terme of acceptance and research needed om ecological, economic and ‘The production of woody plants-combine 'd with pasture is referred to as a silvi-pastoral system. The trees and shrubs may be used prima rily to produce fodder for livestock or the for timber, fuelwood, and fruit or to improve the soil. A sil ‘areas, in particular té help meet wood and fodder demands throw ey may be grown rastoral system is needed in dry. ighout the year. ‘This system is again classified into three categories: Mowing tree and shrub species are used: For humid ‘3, Emb/ica officinalis, Psidium guajava, Tamarindus spp., Prosopis spp. and Tamarindus indica. ani subhumid regione: Derris indict indica, And for dry regions: Acacia. storal System (trees + crops + pasture/animals) ‘This system has been grouped into two subgroups: dense and apparently random arrangements, » although some rational control over choice plants and their spatial and temporal arrangement may be exercised, Rost home gardens also support a varity of animals (cow, bultalo, bullock, oat, sheep) and birda (chicken, duck). In some places. piga are also raised. Foddley and legumes are widely Frown to meet the daily fodder requirements of cattle. The waate materiale free crops and homes are uaed as fodderlfeed for animala/birde and barn wastes are veel on manure for S078. fa India, every hoinestead has around 0.2.0.5 ~ ha land for personal production, on © Evolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. [Pago 19)Reference Material for 2013-14 which are grown trees for construction timber, fruits, vegetables, smnall plots of sugar-cane In more open patches and a surrounding productive live fence of bamboo. Hence one may conclude from the foregoing that ‘home gardens represent land-use systems Involving deliberate management of multipurpose trees and shrubs in integrate association with annual and perennial agricultural crops and, Invariably, livestock, within the compounds of individual houses, the whole crop tree-animal unit being intensively managed by family labour’ (ii) Woody Hedgerows: In this system various woody hedges especially fast-growing and coppicing fodder shrubs and trees, are planted for the purpose of browse, mulch, green manure, ‘soil conservation ete. The main aim of this system is production of food/forderifivelwood and soil conservation, B. Arrangement of Components ‘The arrangement of components gives first priority to the plants even in, AF aystems involving animals. Their management according to a definite plan eay a rotational grazing scheme, gives precedence to. the plants over the’ animals. Such plant arrangements in multispecies combinations involve the dimensions of space and time. zonal AP and sole crop (component) plote. G Temporal Arrangement: Tesnporal arrangements of plants in AP may also take vasious ffm, An extrome example io the conventional shifting cultivation cycles involving 24 yours af oovw ee ey > BD a a a) functions | b) Protective functions @roducing one or more products) | and maintaining proach n systems) ‘ yp] & Pood, @ Wind-break, ii, Fodder, Gi) Shelter-bett, | ¥. Other products (9 Soil improvement (+i) Shade (for crop, a IIL. Socioeconomic. Classification of Agroforestry Systems Based on such socioeconomic criteria 9'scale of production an ‘management, agroforestry syatems hat Wve been grouped into three. a. Commercial Forestry: ‘The term commerci Gv) Moisture conservation, (rotecting nimal and man) id level of technology input and categories: government, corporate or ed ffixathptes include commercial ‘usually considered under this category, © Bvolution Educare Pvt. Led. [Page Di] q 8. many Haitian farmers) are aloo a 5sistence agroforestry systems are those where the use of land is directed toward satisfying ic needs and is managed by the owner or occupant and his/her family. Cash crops, including the sale of surplus commodities, may well be part of these systems, but are only supplementary, Most of the agroforestry eystems practiced in various parts of evolultion ‘© Evolution Bducare Pvt, Ltd, (Page 22) \ SOSCCOSTCHOGOSSOeCHLOHOSES o