AMERICAN JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH VOL. 3 NO.

3 (2004)

Exactness, Tor and Flat Modules Over

a Commutative Ring
Abhishek Banerjee
Indian Statistical Institute
203 Barrackpore Trunk Road
Kolkata 700108 INDIA
Received: June 4, 2004 Accepted: November 20, 2004

ABSTRACT

In this paper, we principally explore flat modules over a commutative ring with identity. We do
this in relation to projective and injective modules with the help of derived functors like Tor and
Ext. We also consider an extension of the property of flatness and induce analogies with the
“special cases” occurring in flat modules. We obtain some results on flatness in the context of a
noetherian ring. We also characterize flat modules generated by one element and obtain a
necessary condition for flatness of finitely generated modules.

I. DEFINITIONS • Flat modules: Those modules F for

which the functor _⊗F is exact are
Let R be a commutative ring with termed flat modules.
identity and consider the modules over R. • Derived functors: Let T be an additive
• Exact sequence: A sequence of maps functor and N be an R-module. If the
A→B→C is said to be exact at B if the Ci’s are all projective modules and the
image of the map “entering” B is equal following sequence is exact:
to the kernel of the map “leaving” B. …. →…→C1→C0→N→0, then we have
• Functor: It is a map from the set of R- a projective resolution of N. The ith-
modules to itself. derived functor with respect to T is the
• Exact functor: A functor T which when homology module at T(Ci ), i.e., the
applied to all the terms of an exact quotient of the kernel of the map leaving
sequence induces another exact T(Ci) to the image of the map entering it
sequence is said to be exact. The from T(Ci-1). It can be proved that the
functor T in question should be additive, derived functor is determined uniquely
i.e. if f is a map from M to N, there up to isomorphism by any projective
should exist an induced map T(f) from resolution [1-7].
T(M) to T(N).
• Projective modules: A module P having
the following property: If p is a map from II. FLATNESS
M onto N and f is a map from P to N,
there exists a map g from P to M such Let R be a commutative ring with
that p o g = f. In other words, P is such identity [2]. Flatness may be defined through
that the functor Hom(P,_) is exact. either of the following equivalent conditions:
• Injective modules: A module Q having
the following property: If i is a one to one (i) If P→Q is a monomorphism of R-
map from K to M and f is a map from K modules, the induced map from M⊗P →
to Q, there exists a map g from M to Q M⊗Q is also a monomorphism.
such that g o I = f. In other words, the (ii) The functor _ ⊗M is exact.
functor Hom(_,Q) is exact.

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We note the following interesting hence we have Tor(M,E)=0 for all modules
isomorphism: M. Thus, E is flat.
Hom(E,Hom(F,G)) ≅ Hom(E⊗F,G).1
From these we obtain the following results:
III. DEFINITION OF THE EXT
Result (a): Suppose that G is injective FUNCTOR
and we have the exact sequence:
0→Hom(M,G)→Hom(N,G) →Hom(P,G) Suppose that M is an arbitrary R-
→0. If E is flat, the functor Hom(E,_) module and that the following is a projective
preserves the exactness of this resolution of M:...→C2 →C1 →C0 →M →0.
sequence. Thus, the functor Hom(_,G) We consider the nth right derived functor of
for injective G enables a flat module to Hom(_,N). This is denoted by Extn(M,N). If
do what a projective module does. 0 →M’ →M →M’’ →0 is exact, we have the
This follows if we apply the functors E⊗_ exact sequence, 0 → Hom(M’’,N)→
and Hom(_,G) one after the other to the Hom(M,N) → Hom(M’,N) → Ext1(M’’,N)
sequence 0→P→N→M→0. Each of →Ext1(M,N) →Ext1(M’,N) →….
these functors preserves the exactness From this, we obtain the following
of the sequence. set of equivalent statements:
Result (b): The condition that
(i) M is projective.
Hom(E⊗_,G) is exact can be replaced (ii) Extn(M,N)=0 for all N and all n>=1.
by the condition that Hom(E,G) is (iii) Ext1(M,N)=0 for all N.
injective. We will now prove that if
Hom(E,G) is injective for all injective We first determine as to when there exist
modules G, then E is flat. projective modules that are direct
summands of R. In this respect, we obtain
Result (c): If E and F are projective, so the result that follows.
is E⊗F. This is because the successive
use of the two functors Hom(F,_) and Result: There exist projective modules
Hom(E,_) can be replaced by the that are direct summands of R if and
functor Hom(E⊗F,_). only if R contains idempotents other
than 0 and 1.
Result (a) can also be used to characterize
flat modules. If we assume that the functor Suppose that R can be written as a direct
Hom(E⊗_,G) is exact for all injective sum I⊕J, where I and J are submodules
modules G, we can prove that E is flat. (and hence ideals of R). Then 1 can be
Let M be an arbitrary R-module. We written as a sum i+(1-i), where i is in I and 1-
represent M as the quotient of a free module i is in J. Consider the element i(1-i). This
F. Thus we have the exact sequence lies in both I and J and hence must be 0.
0→K→F→M→0. Tensoring with E, we have Thus i is an idempotent in R. If i is 0 or 1,
the exact sequence 0→Tor(M,E)→E⊗K→ one of the submodules I and J will contain 1
E⊗F→E⊗M→0. and hence will be equal to R. Thus, R
Let G be any injective module. contains an idempotent not equal to 0 or 1.
Then 0 → Hom(E⊗M,G) → Hom(E⊗F,G) → Conversely, if we assume that R
Hom(E⊗K,G) → Hom(Tor(M,E),G) → 0 is contains an idempotent j ≠ 0,1 we always
exact. But, if we assume that Hom(E⊗_,G) have a nontrivial projective module which is
is exact, we have Hom(Tor(M,E),G)=0 for all a direct summand of R. Consider the ideals
injective G. Now, Tor(M,E) can be (j) and (1-j). None of these modules is zero
embedded in some injective module G and and hence it is enough to show that their
intersection is 0. Say that jx = (1-j)y. Then y
= j(x+y). Then jx = (1-j)j(x+y). But j(1-j) = 0
and hence jx = 0. Thus, the intersection is
1
We note that the RHS is symmetric in E (0).
and F, while the LHS is apparently not so.
We have Hom(E,Hom(F,G)) ≅
Hom(F,Hom(E,G)).

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0 (i) M is a flat module.

↓ (ii) Tori(N,M)=0 for all R-modules N and
0 Tor(N,M) all i>0.
↓ ↓ (iii) Tor1(N,M)=0 for all R-modules N.
M’⊗N’→ FM⊗N’ → M⊗N’→ 0
b. Isomorphisms
↓ ↓ ↓
0 → M’⊗FN → FM⊗FN → M⊗FN → 0 Now that we have defined both Ext
↓ ↓ ↓ and Tor, we obtain the following
M’⊗N → FM⊗N → M⊗N → 0 isomorphisms:
↓ ↓ ↓ (a) For any projective module P:
0 0 0 Hom(P,Ext(F,G))≈Ext(P⊗F,G) for all F
and G.
Figure 1. A ‘tensor product’ of the (b) For any injective module Q:
sequences in (1). Hom(Tor(E,F),Q)≈Ext(F,Hom(E,Q)) for
all F and finitely generated E.
To prove (a) we start with the exact
IV. THE TOR FUNCTOR AND sequence: 0 →G →In →I →0, where In is
FLATNESS an injective module. (n.b., Any module can
be embedded in an injective module.) We
a. Symmetry of the Tor Functor obtain: 0 → Hom(F,G) → Hom(F,In) →
Hom(F,I) → Ext(F,G) → 0. Since P is
The Tor functor directly measures projective, we have: 0→Hom(P,Hom(F,G))
the degree to which a module is flat. As the →Hom(P, Hom(F,In)) → Hom(P, Hom(F,I))
tor is part of a family of functors, it lends →Hom(P,Ext(F,G)) →0. But we can directly
itself to defining flatness in a more general
obtain: 0 → Hom(P⊗F,G) → Hom(P⊗F,In)
setting. First we show that the tor functor is
→Hom(P⊗F,I) → Ext(P⊗F,G) → 0. Since
symmetric: Tor(M,N) ≅ Tor(N,M).
the first three terms of the two exact
Represent M and N as quotients of
sequences are isomorphic, we have the
flat modules,
result of part (a).
0 → M’ → FM → M → 0 To prove part (b), we start with the
0 → N’ → FN → N → 0 (1) exact sequence: 0 → I → Fr → E → 0,
where Fr is a free module. (i.e. We write E
We now ‘tensor the sequences with each as the quotient of a free module.) We tensor
other’—as shown in Figure 1, above. The
the sequence with F to obtain: 0 → Tor(E,F)
snake lemma yields the exact sequence,
→ I ⊗F → Fr⊗F → E⊗F → 0.
0 → Tor(N,M) → M’⊗N → FM⊗N. But we
Applying the functor Hom(_,Q) we
already have,
obtain 0 → Hom(E⊗F,Q) → Hom(Fr⊗F,Q)
0 → Tor(M,N) → M’⊗N → FM ⊗N, →Hom(I⊗F,Q)→Hom(Tor(E,F),Q) → 0. But,
we also have: 0 → Hom(E,Q) → Hom(Fr,Q)
and hence Tor(M,N) ≅ Tor(N,M). An R- → Hom(I,Q) →0. And we get: 0→
module M is flat if and only if Tor(N,M) = 0
Hom(F,Hom(E,Q)) → Hom(F,Hom(Fr,Q)) →
for all R-modules N. If we have a projective
Hom(F, Hom(I,Q)) → Ext(F,Hom(E,Q)) → 0.
resolution of N, say,
Hom(Fr,Q) is isomorphic to a direct sum of
finitely many copies of Q and hence is
… →C2→C1→C0→N→0,
injective (since E is finitely generated, Fr
may be taken to be of finite basis). From the
then Tor is the ‘1st’ derived functor of the
isomorphism of the first three terms in the
complex derived by tensoring the above
two exact sequences, we obtain part (b).
resolution by M. Similarly Torn is the nth
derived functor of the complex. Derived
functors (of additive functors) are c. Result of the Long Exact Sequence
independent of the resolution chosen and
First, we note that the long exact
hence we have the following set of
sequence of homology gives us the
equivalent statements:
following: If 0→M’→M→M’’→0 is an exact

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sequence, then the following is exact: …→ Clearly, Tork(N,M)=0 iff Tork-1(I,M) = 0.

Tor2(M’,N) → Tor2(M,N) →Tor2(M’’,N) → Hence, M is k-flat if and only if Tork-1(I,M) = 0
Tor1(M’,N)→Tor1(M,N)→Tor1(M’’,N)→ M’⊗N for all submodules I of free modules.
→ M⊗N→ M’’⊗N→0. If N is an R-module We can also take another look at the
such that Torj(M,N)=0 for all modules M, it is result: If Hom(F,Q) is injective for each
easy to see that Tork(M,N)=0 for all modules injective module Q, then F is flat. We can
M and all k>j. This follows easily from the extend this to the following:
above long exact sequence. Any module M Result: If F is finitely generated F is 2-
can be written as the image of a free module flat if and only if Hom(F,Q) is 2-injective
F and if we tensor that exact sequence by N for each injective module Q.
to obtain its long exact sequence, we have
the result. If F is 2-flat, it must be the quotient of a free
module Fr with respect to a flat module I:0
d. Follow-on Definitions and Observations →I→Fr→F→0. If Q is injective, we obtain
the sequence:
We therefore define the following: 0→Hom(F,Q)→Hom(Fr,Q) →Hom(I,Q) →0
From this we obtain: Ext(E,Hom(I,Q))→
• A module M is k-flat if Tork(N,M)=0 for
Ext2(E,Hom(F,Q)) → Ext2(E, Hom(Fr,Q)) →
all R-modules N. (And we define k-
Ext2(E, Hom(I,Q)).
projective and k-injective likewise with
The first and last terms are zero because
Extk)
Hom(I,Q) is injective (since I is flat). Also
Hom(Fr,Q) is isomorphic to a direct sum of
Analogously, we have the following set of
finitely many copies of Q and hence is
equivalent statements:
injective. Thus Ext2(E,Hom(F,Q)=0 for any
E. Thus Hom(F,Q) is 2-injective.
(i) M is k-flat.
Conversely, suppose that Hom(F,Q)
(ii) Tork(N,M)=0 for all modules N.
is 2-injective for any injective module Q. Let
(iii) Torj(N,M)=0 for all N and all j>=k.
I and Fr be defined as in the previous part.
We can obtain the exact sequence:
Thus, if 0→N’→N→N’’→0 is an exact
sequence and M is a 2-flat module, it is 0→Hom(F,Q)→Hom(Fr,Q)→Hom(I,Q)→0.
carried to the exact sequence:
Applying the functor Hom(E,_), we get:
0→Tor(N’,M)→Tor(N,M)→Tor(N’’,M)→N’⊗M Ext(E,Hom(Fr,Q)) → Ext(E,Hom(I,Q)) →
→N⊗M→N’’⊗M→0 Ext2(E,Hom(F,Q)) → Ext2(E,Hom(Fr,Q)).
The first and last terms are zero. Since
For 3-flat modules the sequence will have
Hom(F,Q) is 2-injective, the third term is also
the Tor2 terms; for 4-flat modules the
zero. Thus Hom(I,Q) is injective. Hence I is
sequence will have Tor3 terms and so on.
flat. Thus, F is 2-flat.
If a module M is 2-flat, we want to
e. Results for k-flat Modules find conditions under which it becomes flat
(or 1-flat). Accordingly, we have the
Now we have an if and only if following result:
condition for k-flat modules.
Result: The following statements are
Result: “ A module M is k-flat if and only equivalent:
if Tork-1(I,M)=0 for all submodules I of (ii) M is flat.
free modules.” (iii) M is 2-flat and Tor(Q,M)=0 for all
injective modules Q.
In order to demonstrate this, we take an
(i)⇒(ii) is obvious.
arbitrary module N and write it as the
quotient of a flat (free) module F: To prove the second part, we use the fact
0→I→F→N→0. We tensor the sequence by that every module can be embedded into an
M and write out the long exact sequence: injective module. Let M be 2-flat and N be
→…→0→Tork(N,M)→Tork-1(I,M)→0→…→ an arbitrary R-module. Then there exists an
Tor1(N,M)→I⊗M→F⊗M→N⊗M→0. injective module Q such that N can be
embedded in Q. Thus, there is an exact

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sequence 0→N→Q→Q/N→0. Since M is 2- which are cyclic modules and hence

flat, we have the sequence: isomorphic to some R/I. Thus, Tor(R/I,M)=0
for each I implies that M is flat.
0→Tor1(N,M)→Tor1(Q,M)→Tor1(Q/N,M)→N
⊗M→… VI. FLATNESS OF PROJECTIVE
If we allow Tor(Q,M) = 0 for all injective MODULES
modules Q, we have Tor(N,M) = 0 for all
modules N. Hence, M is flat. The above theorem shows that in
order to check whether a module is flat, we
Each of the properties (flatness, 2- need to consider the tensor products I⊗M,
flatness and so on is a local property: where I is an ideal. Suppose that x is a non-
zero element of M and a is an element such
Result: The following statements are that ax=0. Clearly, a is a nonunit and hence
equivalent: there exists a maximal ideal m containing x.
(i) M is k-flat. Since the map from m⊗M to M must be
(ii) Mp is k-flat for each prime ideal p. injective, we must have a⊗x=0 in m⊗M. In
(iii) Mm is k-flat for each maximal ideal general, we can say that if I is an ideal and
m. ∑aixi=0 with ai∈I we must have ∑ai⊗xi=0. In
this respect, we state the following criterion
Let …→C2→C1→C0→N→0 be a projective (without proof) of when an element of the
resolution of an R-mdoule N. We form the tensor product of two modules M and N is
complex M⊗C. Now, Tork(N,M) is the nth zero.
homology module of this complex and its Criterion: Let N be generated by a set of
localizations are the homology modules of elements {ni}. Every element of M⊗N may
the complex after localization. Since Q = 0 be written as a finite sum ∑mi⊗ni, where the
⇔ each Qp = 0 ⇔ each Qm = 0 for any mi lie in M. Such an expression is 0 iff there
module Q, and we have our result. exist elements mj’ of M and elements aij of R
such that ∑aijmj’=mi for each i (sum is taken
V. THEOREM over j) and ∑aijni=0 for each j (sum is taken
over i).
Theorem: Let M be an R-mdoule. If I is an
ideal of R, then the map I⊗M→M is an Projective modules are always flat.
injection if and only if Tor(R/I,M)=0. The This follows from the fact that a direct sum
module M is flat if and only if this is so for (finite or infinite) of R-modules is flat if and
every ideal I. only if each of its direct summands is finite.
This result can be easily generalized:
Proof: Consider the exact sequence: Result: A direct sum of R-modules is k-
0→I→R→R/I→0. We obtain the exact flat if and only each of its direct
sequence: 0→Tor(R/I,M)→I⊗M→R⊗M. summands is k-flat.
Since R⊗M=M, Tor(R/I,M) is the kernel of
We will actually prove that Tork(P,M⊕N)=0 iff
the map from I⊗M to M. Thus the map is an
Tork(P,M)=0 and Tork(P,N)=0. This is true
injection if and only if Tor(R/I,M)=0.
for k=1. We assume it to be true up to k-1.
Now, assume that Tor(R/I,M)=0 for
Express P as a quotient of a free module:
all ideals I. Suppose that P→Q is an
0→I→F→P→0 and consider the exact
injection of R-modules M⊗P→M⊗Q is not sequence
an injection. Then there exists a non-zero
0→Tork(P,M⊕N)→Tork-1(I,M⊕N)→0.
element m⊗p that goes to zero. If we restrict
If Tork(P,M⊕N)=0, we have Tork-1(I,M⊕N)=0
the map to the module generated by the
which means that Tork-1(I,M)=0 and so also
finitely many elements required to take m⊗p for N. From the sequence obtained by
to 0, we obtain a finitely generated module
substituting M for M⊕N in the above
for which this map is not an injection. But
sequence, we have Tork(P,M)=0. The
every finitely generated module can be
converse is proved similarly.
decomposed into a finite chain of
We note that properties of flat
submodules, the successive quotients of
modules tend to carry over to k-flat modules

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in an analogous manner. Let us generalize (ii) M is 2-flat and Tor(R/q,M)=0 for

the statement “Projective modules are flat”. each primary ideal q of R.
Let M be a non-zero cyclic module over a
Result: k-projective modules are k-flat.
local ring (R,M). Then M is isomorphic to
some R/I. Let us assume that I is non-zero.
Let M be k-projective, i.e. Extk(M,N)=0 for all
Suppose that M is flat. Take an element a in
N. Let k>1. We write M as the quotient of a
I such that ax=0, where x is the generator of
free module F: 0 →I →F →M →0. We the cyclic module M. Since M is flat, there
derive the exact sequence: exist elements b1, b2…bk in R and elements
0→ Extk-1(I,N) → Extk(M,N) →0 for any y1,y2…yk in M such that bja=0 for each
module N. Thus Extk-1(I,N)=0 for all N and 0<j<=k and x=∑bjyj. Let yj=rjx and cj=bjrj.
hence I is k-1 projective. We know that Then, each cja=0 for each j and x is
projective modules are flat and hence we
annihilated by t=1-∑cj. Note that each of the
may assume the statement to be true up to
c’s lies in Ann(a). We assume that Ann(a) is
k-1. Thus I is k-1 flat. Now, we also have the
contained in m. Then t is not in m and hence
exact sequence: 0→ Tork(M,N) → Tork-1(I,N) t is a unit. Since tx=0, we have x=0. This is a
→ 0. Since I is k-1 flat, Tork-1(I,N)=0 for all N contradiction. Hence Ann(a)=R and a=0.
and hence Tork(M,N)=0 for all N. Thus, M is Thus, if M is same as R/I, I cannot contain a
k-flat. non-zero element. Thus the only cyclic and
flat modules over a local ring are R and 0.
VII. FLATNESS IN NOETHERIAN The above result can be restated
MODULES AND LOCAL RINGS for a general ring: If M is a non-zero, cyclic
and flat module over a ring R and a
Let us assume that R, in addition to annihilates M, Ann(a) is not contained inside
being a commutative ring with identity, the Jacobson radical of R. In other words, if
satisfies the noetherian condition. R/I is flat, Ann(i) is not contained inside the
If M is a finitely generated module Jacobson radical for any i in I.
over R, M is flat if and only if Tor(R/I,M)=0 Suppose that R/I is flat and I is
for each ideal of R. neither 0 nor R. Hence the localization
Result: The following statements are (R/I)m where m is any maximal ideal, is flat.
equivalent: Now Rm/Im is a cyclic module over the local
(i) Every finitely generated R-module is ring Rm. Hence, it must be either 0 or Rm.
flat. Thus, we have Im=Rm or Im=0. If m does not
(ii) Each of the quotient modules R/p (p contain I, we have Im=Rm. Hence, we have
a prime ideal) is flat. the result:
(iii) Every R-module is flat, i.e., R is
absolutely flat. Result: R/I is flat over R if and only if
To prove that (ii)⇒(i), we use the fact that Im=Rm or Im=0 for each maximal ideal m
every finitely generated R-module can be of R containing I.
filtered as: M=M0⊃M1⊃….⊃Mk=0 where
successive quotients are isomorphic to R/p The “only if” part has been proved above.
for some prime ideal p. Thus, Mk-1 is flat. The “if” part is obvious since M is flat ⇔
Since Mk-2/Mk-1 is flat, we have proved that each Mm is flat.
Mk-2 is flat. Proceeding thus, we can show We may extend this procedure to
that M is flat. flat modules having a minimal generating set
To prove that (i)⇒(iii), we use the consisting of two elements, say m1 and m2.
fact that an R-module M is flat iff Suppose that n1m1+n2m2=0. Then there
Tor(R/I,M)=0 for each I. Since R/I is finitely exist elements aij in R, i=1,2, j=1,2…k such
generated, R/I is flat. Thus, Tor(R/I,M)=0 for that
each M and hence M is flat. a1jn1+a2jn2=0 for each j.
and (∑a1jrj –1)m1+(∑a1jsj)m2=0
Result: The following statements are (∑a2jrj )m1+(∑a2jsj -1)m2=0.
equivalent: Now suppose that R is a local ring. Consider
the ideal I generated by elements a where
(i) M is flat. for each a, there exists b such that

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an1+bn2=0. If this ideal is contained in the

maximal ideal of R, the coefficient of m1 in INDIAN
the 1st equation becomes a unit and hence
{m1,m2} is not a minimal generating set. STATISTICAL
Thus, we can say that I=R. The same holds
for the second “co-ordinate”. This process INSTITUTE
can be extended to higher dimensions.
Thus, we can develop a necessary condition Calcutta, New Delhi, Bangalore
for flatness of a finitely generated module and Hyderabad
over a local ring. This may be extended to a
general R.

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mini-computers and mainframe
WABASH COLLEGE computers. Impressive as these
figures are, they convey little idea of
CRAWFORDSVILLE, INDIANA USA the road traversed, the range of
activities undertaken and the intimate
A LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE relationship of the Institute with the
life of India.
FOR MEN
http://www.isical.ac.in/
WWW.WABASH.EDU

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