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design and design concepts.

About IDEO

We are a global design company committed to creating positive impact.

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Our Story
From designing the first manufacturable mouse for Apple to advancing the practice of human-
centered design, IDEO has long been at the forefront of creating change through design. See
some of the highlights from our decades of history.

Who we are
We are a community of designers, entrepreneurs, engineers, teachers, researchers, and more.
Our shared values and beliefs influence the work that we do, and the impact we hope to achieve.
About IDEO —
About IDEO
We are a global design company committed to creating positive impact.

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700+

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IDEO AT A GLANCE
psst... IDEO is pronounced EYE-dee-oh
Our Story
From designing the first manufacturable mouse for Apple to advancing the practice of human-
centered design, IDEO has long been at the forefront of creating change through design. See
some of the highlights from our decades of history.

VIEW SLIDESHOW
01 / 06
A Gathering of Friends
Our roots date back to 1978, when David Kelley established his design firm, David Kelley Design
(DKD). In 1991, David Kelley, Bill Moggridge, and Mike Nuttall merged their companies and
called it IDEO.

“My dream for the future of IDEO is the same as it was back then: that everyone at IDEO finds
their calling, that being here feels like working with friends, that we are all enjoying our lives, that
we are engaged in what feels like important work we were personally put on Earth to do.” —
David Kelley

Book cover of the Little Book of IDEO

Who we are
We are a community of designers, entrepreneurs, engineers, teachers, researchers, and more.
Our shared values and beliefs influence the work that we do, and the impact we hope to achieve.

WE BELIEVE...
Everyone is creative.
IDEO builds learning platforms and tools to unlock creativity.

SEE EXAMPLES
Creative organizations are more agile.
IDEO helps organizations innovate by empowering the people who drive them.

SEE EXAMPLES
Complex problems are best solved collaboratively.
IDEO brings together networks to act on systemic challenges such as education, food, mobility,
and aging.

SEE EXAMPLES
How We Work
As early leaders of human-centered design, we keep people at the center of our work. It's a key
tenet of design thinking, and even as our methods evolve in response to new, complex
challenges, we’re always designing solutions for people first. We’re building to learn, and
learning as we build, through inspiration, ideation, and implementation.

“Design thinking is a human-centered approach to innovation that draws from the designer's
toolkit to integrate the needs of people, the possibilities of technology, and the requirements for
business success.” —Tim Brown, chair of IDEO

Explore our work

We work with organizations on complex challenges. See the big questions we’re tackling now or
explore some of our recent work below.

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TRANSPORTATION AND MOBILITY
VENTURING

Engineering product/process design changes are unavoidable and necessary for improvement &
innovation. To capture the maximum market shares, manufacturers have to effectively and
efficiently manage engineering changes throughout the entire product life. In this paper a
comprehensive literature review on engineering change management in product/process
perspective is presented. Engineering design changes can be taken in both aspects, such as an
opportunity or as a burden. Different methods have been proposed by the researchers for better
understanding of engineering change phenomenon. The insight regarding the changes
propagation during the engineering design is crucial because a large number of artifacts are
results of the predecessors. This article discusses the significant aspects of engineering
changes, product architecture, propagation paths and highlighted the methods and tools that are
proposed by the researchers. This paper will help researchers and managerial staff to get an
idea and awareness about the change propagation and its impact. The review shows the
prominence of engineering change management and concluded that the interest in the research
field is escalating gradually.

Abstract : Manufacturing firms employ structured approach to ensure that its production system is
designed to achieve the firm’s business objectives. The study examined the influence of process and
product design on production efficiency of 28 manufacturing firms listed with Manufacturers’
Association of Nigeria. Structured questionnaire was administered and analyzed using percentages,
mean, regression analysis and t-statistic in testing the hypothesis. The findings showed that process
design and product design has a significant positive influence on production efficiency. Therefore,
the study recommend that manufacturing firms in Nigeria should pay attention to the issues of
product design regularly; keeping in mind future growth, expansion plans, market trend and future
demands; and that improved methods and processes should be adopted in accomplishing a given
task. Keywords: process design, product design, production efficiency 1. Introduction The task in
any productive endeavour is the process and product design, which extends from the design of
operations to decisions on how to accomplish task or work assignments. In creating a new product
or service, the key issue to be considered is the design. Every outstanding design translates
customers wants and needs to tangible products, increases quality, refine existing products or
services, set cost targets and translate products and service specification into process specifications
(Baldwin & Clark, 2010; Gorman, 2012). It provides relevant information on such important
questions as vital characteristics of the product, types of machines, equipment and tools, the
expected volume of output and types of labour skill required to enhance the efficiency of
production. Answer to these questions would serve as necessary inputs for process design efforts
(Bellgram, Gullander, & Harlin, 2010). Hayes, Pisano, David, Upton and Wheelwright (2012) in their
study on process design revealed that process design coordinates the mix of machines, tools and
materials in the production process. Alix and Vallespir (2009) stated that the overall objective of the
process and product design is to improve product quality in satisfying customers’ expectation. It is
important to note that although organizations have to maximise profit, the time difference between
the design phase and the actual production takes a considerably long time, thereby increasing cost.
Thus the overall measure of design effectiveness should take into considerations the element of
product quality as an overriding objective. Cohen and Uday (2008) stated that organizations get
involved in design in other to increase productivity minimize customers complaint, excessive
warranty claims and product return rate. To be sustained in the global scenario, organizations’
focus is to design a production system that can fulfil all the demand orders within due dates at a
reasonable cost (Malhotra, 2008). Design decisions have strategic importance for business
organizations. Hence managers are becoming more interested in the design process in other to
remain competitive. 2. Literature Review Manufacturing organizations are set up to convert input
resources through the transformation process in workstations to get product output and achieve
profit maximization as well as running efficient production process. Hawker and Chris (2010)
observed that designing a system for optimum efficiency and productivity

www.ccsenet.org/emr Engineering Management Research Vol. 6 No. 1; 2017 50 requires

overlapping perspectives: process, task, product, and the organization itself. On the other hand,
Ulrich and Steven (2009) noted that, the challenge for manufacturers is to propose a design that
supports their firm’s core competencies (flexibility and quality) while considering all the dimensions
of the design and analysing their interdependence in relation to value creation of the firm. Hayes
and Pisano (2011) noted that manufacturing organizations in their bid to improve their
competitiveness implements programmes such as lean manufacturing, just in time production
process and quality management. However, it was observed that they don’t always achieve the
intended results due to the generic nature of the approaches they adopt, more so, designing
production and operation systems involves equipment selection, physically arranging the equipment
and machines in the job floor. Again, Madu, Kuei, and Lin (2010), in their study of manufacturing
efficiency observed that, systems designers select among the available and identified options that
best suit the requirements that have been specified. The production system is achieved as a result of
implementing the ideas that are created and specified in the systems design process. Also,
Schmenner (2009) observed that during product design, the processes must be planned, more so in
planning the process, the general features of the part, such as the material, surface finish,
configuration, and tolerances level, must be first determined. These features will shape the type of
tools and machines, part handling, assembly line and the sequence of operations. The determination
of the physical features during the product design phase will help control the quality of the product
rendered to the consumers. Other aspects are also affected by what happens during the design
process, such as, the time it takes to design and build the production system which in turn controls
when production ultimately starts, the total time it takes to market the product, and the relevant
cost implications. Morris (2009) stated that product design impacts every functional area of an
organization. Thus, operations and marketing should be involved because sufficient information
must be generated to clearly determine customer wants. This must be conveyed to those
responsible for designing, marketing and producing a particular product or service. Furthermore,
Pullman and William (2011) stated that the market demand for a product and its uses must be
clearly determined during the process design with data from sales personnel, marketing manager
and others decision makers within the organization. Shaw (2010) observed that businesses are now
taking into account legal and environmental concerns when designing new product or service. More
so, one of the major reasons for product or service development is to provide satisfaction for basic
needs of customers. Therefore, product must be design in such a way that it will provide the
necessary satisfaction for the customers in cost efficient way (Bagshaw, 2015). 3. Research
Methodology A survey design was adopted, with 36 manufacturing firms listed with the
Manufacturers’ Association of Nigeria (MAN) in Rivers State as the population of the study. The
sample size is 33 manufacturing firms based on Krejece and Morgan (1970) Table for sample size
determination. 28 completed copies of the distributed questionnaire were retrieved and used as
sample size in the presentation and analysis of data. The model below was specified in line with the
hypotheses. The specified model expresses the relationship between the criterion variable
(production efficiency) and the predictor variable (process design/product Design). Y=f (x1, x2)-----
(1a) Rewriting (1a) explicitly Y=a0+a1x1+a2x2+u1……. (1b) PE=ao+a1PDD+a2PCD+U1 4. Data
Analysis and Discussion The discussion on the findings is on process design and product design in
relation to production efficiency. 4.1 Process Design and Production Efficiency An organization is
only as efficient and effective as its processes; the process of designing a product first requires an
understanding of the functionality and performance expected from the product (Kingman-Brundage,
2010). Chaiken (2007) stated that process design is the organization of resources in a facility in other
to enhance the production process. If resources are not properly arranged, manufacturing firms will
suffer inefficiency thereby leading to waste and loss of productivity. Thus, to what extent does
process design influence production efficiency?

www.ccsenet.org/emr Engineering Management Research Vol. 6 No. 1; 2017 51 The presentation

of data is in Table 1. Table 1. Items and scores on response of process design S/n Questionnaire
Items Very great/great Undecided Very low/low f fx Mean Remark 1 Does the process design
adopted by your firm reduce the amount of time it takes to be done? 24 (85.7%) (72) 1 (3.6%) (2) 3
(10.7%) (3) 28 (100%)(77) 2.75 Great Extent 2 In our firm, we have new and improved ways as well
as techniques 20 (71.4%) 60 3 (10.7%) (6) 5 (17.9%) 5 28 (100%)(71) 2.54 ModerateSource: Survey
2016. From Table 1 above, 85.71% of the respondents agreed that process design adopted reduced
the amount of time it takes for a task to be completed, while 71.43% of the respondent agreed that
new and improved techniques in processing their task influenced their production efficiency. The
unique features of a product and the configuration of the machines and equipment whether general
or special purpose would enable the process designer to decide on the appropriateness of either the
continuous or intermittent production system (Almgren, 2011). According to Malhotra (2008)
posited that Operations managers should consider the capital intensity and flexibility of the process
before adopting it, noting that the greater the relative cost of equipment, the greater the capital
intensity. Hence operations managers should pay more attention to process design as a poor process
design will impinge on the efficiency of their firms. In the final analysis, Harris and Gonzales (2009)
observed that, choosing the best alternative process design is in most cases determined by the
characteristics of the product, demand levels and cost of the production process can accommodate
considering the stability of the process design. 4.2 Product Design and Production Efficiency
Product design commences with spawning of product ideas, which are further examined and every
aspect properly identified, considering the technical requirements of each product, in line with
availability of skilled personnel and machines (Slack, Chambers, & Johnston, 2010). Product design
relates to functions, cost, quality, appearance and forecasted volume, ease of production, assembly,
maintenance or service. Chambers (2011) observed that an organization that fails to take these into
consideration can result to low efficiency, low quality and increased cost. Thus, to what extent does
product design influence production efficienc

Abstract

Manufacturing firms employ structured approach to ensure that its production system is designed to
achieve the firm’s business objectives. The study examined the influence of process and product
design on production efficiency of 28 manufacturing firms listed with Manufacturers’ Association of
Nigeria. Structured questionnaire was administered and analyzed using percentages, mean,
regression analysis and t-statistic in testing the hypothesis. The findings showed that process design
and product design has a significant positive influence on production efficiency. Therefore, the study
recommend that manufacturing firms in Nigeria should pay attention to the issues of product design
regularly; keeping in mind future growth, expansion plans, market trend and future demands; and
that improved methods and processes should be adopted in accomplishing a given task.
Keywords: process design, product design, production efficiency

1. Introduction

The task in any productive endeavour is the process and product design, which extends from the
design of operations to decisions on how to accomplish task or work assignments. In creating a new
product or service, the key issue to be considered is the design. Every outstanding design translates
customers wants and needs to tangible products, increases quality, refine existing products or
services, set cost targets and translate products and service specification into process specifications
(Baldwin & Clark, 2010; Gorman, 2012). It provides relevant information on such important
questions as vital characteristics of the product, types of machines, equipment and tools, the
expected volume of output and types of labour skill required to enhance the efficiency of
production. Answer to these questions would serve as necessary inputs for process design efforts

(Bellgram, Gullander, & Harlin, 2010).

Hayes, Pisano, David, Upton and Wheelwright (2012) in their study on process design revealed that
process design coordinates the mix of machines, tools and materials in the production process.

Alix and Vallespir (2009) stated that the overall objective of the process and product design is to
improve product quality in satisfying customers’ expectation. It is important to note that although
organizations have to maximise profit, the time difference between the design phase and the actual
production takes a considerably long time, thereby increasing cost. Thus the overall measure of
design effectiveness should take into considerations the element of product quality as an overriding
objective.

Cohen and Uday (2008) stated that organizations get involved in design in other to increase
productivity minimize customers complaint, excessive warranty claims and product return rate. To
be sustained in the global scenario, organizations’ focus is to design a production system that can
fulfil all the demand orders within due dates at a reasonable cost (Malhotra, 2008). Design decisions
have strategic importance for business organizations. Hence managers are becoming more
interested in the design process in other to remain competitive.

2. Literature Review

Manufacturing organizations are set up to convert input resources through the transformation
process in workstations to get product output and achieve profit maximization as well as running
efficient production process. Hawker and Chris (2010) observed that designing a system for optimum
efficiency and productivity www.ccsenet.org/emr Engineering Management Research Vol. 6 No. 1;
2017

50

requires overlapping perspectives: process, task, product, and the organization itself. On the other
hand, Ulrich and Steven (2009) noted that, the challenge for manufacturers is to propose a design
that supports their firm’s core competencies (flexibility and quality) while considering all the
dimensions of the design and analysing their interdependence in relation to value creation of the
firm.

Hayes and Pisano (2011) noted that manufacturing organizations in their bid to improve their
competitiveness implements programmes such as lean manufacturing, just in time production
process and quality management. However, it was observed that they don’t always achieve the
intended results due to the generic nature of the approaches they adopt, more so, designing
production and operation systems involves equipment selection, physically arranging the equipment
and machines in the job floor.

Again, Madu, Kuei, and Lin (2010), in their study of manufacturing efficiency observed that, systems
designers select among the available and identified options that best suit the requirements that
have been specified. The production system is achieved as a result of implementing the ideas that
are created and specified in the systems design process.

Also, Schmenner (2009) observed that during product design, the processes must be planned, more
so in planning the process, the general features of the part, such as the material, surface finish,
configuration, and tolerances level, must be first determined. These features will shape the type of
tools and machines, part handling, assembly line and the sequence of operations. The determination
of the physical features during the product design phase will help control the quality of the product
rendered to the consumers. Other aspects are also affected by what happens during the design
process,such as, the time it takes to design and build the production system which in turn controls
when production ultimately starts, the total time it takes to market the product, and the relevant
cost implications.

Morris (2009) stated that product design impacts every functional area of an organization. Thus,
operations and marketing should be involved because sufficient information must be generated to
clearly determine customer wants. This must be conveyed to those responsible for designing,
marketing and producing a particular product or service.

Furthermore, Pullman and William (2011) stated that the market demand for a product and its uses
must be clearly determined during the process design with data from sales personnel, marketing
manager and others decision makers within the organization. Shaw (2010) observed that businesses
are now taking into account legal and environmental concerns when designing new product or
service. More so, one of the major reasons for product or service development is to provide
satisfaction for basic needs of customers. Therefore, product must be design in such a way that it
will provide the necessary satisfaction for the customers in cost efficient way (Bagshaw, 2015).

3. Research Methodology

A survey design was adopted, with 36 manufacturing firms listed with the Manufacturers’
Association of Nigeria

(MAN) in Rivers State as the population of the study. The sample size is 33 manufacturing firms
based on

Krejece and Morgan (1970) Table for sample size determination. 28 completed copies of the
distributed

questionnaire were retrieved and used as sample size in the presentation and analysis of data.

The model below was specified in line with the hypotheses. The specified model expresses the
relationship

between the criterion variable (production efficiency) and the predictor variable (process
design/product Design).

Y=f (x1, x2)----- (1a)

Rewriting (1a) explicitly

Y=a0+a1x1+a2x2+u1……. (1b)

PE=ao+a1PDD+a2PCD+U1

4. Data Analysis and Discussion

The discussion on the findings is on process design and product design in relation to production
efficiency.

4.1 Process Design and Production Efficiency

An organization is only as efficient and effective as its processes; the process of designing a product
first

requires an understanding of the functionality and performance expected from the product
(Kingman-Brundage,

2010).

Chaiken (2007) stated that process design is the organization of resources in a facility in other to
enhance the

production process. If resources are not properly arranged, manufacturing firms will suffer
inefficiency thereby

leading to waste and loss of productivity. Thus, to what extent does process design influence
production

efficiency?

www.ccsenet.org/emr Engineering Management Research Vol. 6 No. 1; 2017

51

The presentation of data is in Table 1.

Table 1. Items and scores on response of process design

S/n Questionnaire Items Very great/great Undecided Very low/low f fx Mean Remark

Does the process design adopted

by your firm reduce the amount

of time it takes to be done?

24 (85.7%)

(72)

1 (3.6%)
(2)

3 (10.7%)

(3)

28

(100%)

(77) 2.75 Great

Extent

In our firm, we have new and

improved ways as well as

techniques

20 (71.4%)

60

3 (10.7%)

(6)

5 (17.9%)

28

(100%)

(71) 2.54 Moderate

Source: Survey 2016.

From Table 1 above, 85.71% of the respondents agreed that process design adopted reduced the
amount of time

it takes for a task to be completed, while 71.43% of the respondent agreed that new and improved
techniques in

processing their task influenced their production efficiency.

The unique features of a product and the configuration of the machines and equipment whether
general or special

purpose would enable the process designer to decide on the appropriateness of either the
continuous or

intermittent production system (Almgren, 2011).

According to Malhotra (2008) posited that Operations managers should consider the capital intensity
and

flexibility of the process before adopting it, noting that the greater the relative cost of equipment,
the greater the

capital intensity. Hence operations managers should pay more attention to process design as a poor
process

design will impinge on the efficiency of their firms.

In the final analysis, Harris and Gonzales (2009) observed that, choosing the best alternative process
design is in

most cases determined by the characteristics of the product, demand levels and cost of the
production process

can accommodate considering the stability of the process design.

4.2 Product Design and Production Efficiency

Product design commences with spawning of product ideas, which are further examined and every
aspect

properly identified, considering the technical requirements of each product, in line with availability
of skilled

personnel and machines (Slack, Chambers, & Johnston, 2010).

Product design relates to functions, cost, quality, appearance and forecasted volume, ease of
production,

assembly, maintenance or service. Chambers (2011) observed that an organization that fails to take
these into

consideration can result to low efficiency, low quality and increased cost. Thus, to what extent does
product

design influence production efficienc