26/08/2019 Bipolar junction transistor Applications

Electronics

Bipolar junction
transistor(BJT):Applications &
characteristics
admin • June 8, 2016 0  6,718  22 minutes read

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What is transistor?
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power.Or A transistor is a device that regulates current
or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic signals. Transistors
consist of three layers of a semiconductor material, each capable of carrying
a current.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

the basic structure of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) determines its
operating characteristic.In this section, you will see how semi-conductive
materials are used to form a BJT, and you will learn the standard BJT
symbols.

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The BJT  is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated

by two pn  junctions, are shown in the epitaxial planar structure. The three
regions are called  emitter,base  and  collector  . Physical representations of
the two types of BJT are shown in above Fig. One type consists of
two n regions separated by a p region (npn), and the other type consists of
two p regions separated by an n region (pnp). The term bipolar refers to the
use of both holes and electron as current carriers in the transistor structure.

The  pn  junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called
base-emitter junction. The  pn  junction joining the base region and the
collector region is called the base-collector junction. A wire lead connects to
each of the three regions,are shown. These leads are labeled E,B and C for
emitter,base and collector,respectively. The base region is lightly doped and
very thin compared to the heavily doped emitter and the moderately doped
collector region. (The reason for this is discussed in the next section). The
schematic symbols for the npn and pnp bipolar junction transistors.

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How does a bipolar junction

transistor work?
In order for a BJT to operate properly as an amplifier, the two pn junctions
must be correctly biased with external de voltages. In this section, we mainly
use the npn transistor for illustration. The operation of the pnp is the same
as for the npn except that the roles of the electrons and holes,the bias
voltage polarities,and the current directions are all reversed.

Biasing
A bias arrangement for both npn and pnp BJT for operation as an amplifier .
Notice that the both cases the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased
and the base collector (BC) junction is reverse-biased. This condition is
called forward-reverse bias.

Operation:
To understand how a transistor operates,let’s examine what happens inside
the npn structure. The heavily doped n-type emitter region has a very high
density of conduction-band (free) electrons. These free electrons easily
diffuse through the forward-based BE junction into the lightly doped and
very thin p-type base region,as indicated by the wide arrow. The base has a
low density of holes, which are the majority carriers,as represented by the
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white circles. A small percentage of the total number of free electrons

injected into the base region recombine with the holes and move as valence
electrons through the base region and into the emitter region as hole
current,indicated by the red arrows.

When the electrons that have recombined with holes as valence electrons
leave the crystalline structure of the base,they become free electrons in the
metallic base lead and produce the external base current. Most of the free
electrons that have entered the base do not recombine with holes because
the base is very thin. A s the free electrons move toward the reverse-biased
BC junction,they are swept across into the collector region by the attraction
of the positive collector supply voltage. The free electrons move through the
collector region, into the external circuit,and then return into the emitter
region along with the base current,as indicated. The emitter current is
slightly greater than the collector current because of the small base current
that splits off from the total current injected into the base region  from the
emitter. Watch also how transistor work? .

How Does a Transistor Work?

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Transistor Current
The directions of the currents in an npn transistor and its schematic symbol
are shown in above Fig; these for a pnp transistor are shown in above Fig.
Notice that the arrow on the emitter inside the transistor symbols points in
the direction of conventional current. These diagrams show that the emitter
current (IE) is the sum of the collector current (IC) and the base current (IB),
expressed as follow:

IE  = IC + IB 

As mentioned before, IB is very small compared to IE  or IC. The capital-letter

subscripts indicate dc values.

              

BJT Characteristics And Parameters

Two important parameters, βDC (dc current gain) and αDC are introduced and
used to analyze a BJT  circuit. Also,transistor characteristic curves are
covered,and you will learn how a BJT’s operation can be determined from
these curves. Finally, maximum ratings of a BJT are discussed.

When a transistor is connected to de bias voltages for

both npn and pnp types, VBB  forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and
VCC  reverse biases the base-collector junction. Although in this chapter we
are using separate battery symbols to re[present the bias voltages, in
practice the voltages are often derived from a single de power supply.For
example, VCC  is normally taken directly from the power supply output and
VBB (which is smaller) can be produced with a voltage divider.

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DC Beta (βDC ) And DC Alpha (αDC ):

The DC current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the de collector current (IC)
to the de base current (IB) and is designed de beta (βDC ).

Typically values of  βDC  range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.  βDC  is
usually designated as an equivalent hybrid (h) parameter hFE,  on transistor
datasheets. All you need to know now is that:

hFE = βDC

The ratio of the de collector current (IC) to the de emitter current (IE) is the
de alpha ( αDC  ). The alpha is a less-used parameter than beta in transistor
circuits.

Typically,values of αDC  range from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater,but  αDC  is always

less than 1. The reason is that that  IC is always slightly  less than  IE  by the
amount of IB . For example, if IE  = 100 mA and IB  = 1 mA , then IC = 99 mA
and αDC  = 0.99.

Transistor Dc Model:
You can view the understand BJT as a device with a current input and the
dependent current source in the output circuits for an npn . The input circuit
is a forward-biased diode through which there is base current. The output

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circuit is a dependent current source (diamond-shaped element) with a

value that is dependent on the base current,IB   and equal to  βDC  IB. Recall
that independent current source symbols have a circular shape.

BJT Circuit Analysis:

Consider the basic transistor bias circuit configuration. The transistor de
currents and three de voltages can be identified.

IB: dc base current IE: dc emitter current IC: dc collector current VBE: dc
voltage at base with respect to emitter VCB: dc voltage at collector with
respect to base VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter

The base-bias voltage source, V  BB  , ‘forward-biases the base-emitter

junction, and the collector-bias voltage source,V CC, reverse biases the base-
collector junction. When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased,it is like
a forward-biased diode and has a nominal forward voltage drop of.

V BE ≅ 0.7 V

Although in an actual transistor  V  BE  can be as high as 0.9 V and is

dependent on current, we will use 0.7 V throughout this text in order to
simplify the analysis of the basic concepts. Keep in mind that the
characteristic of the base-emitter junction is the same as a normal diode
curve like the one in the above Figure.

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V RB = V BB – V BB 

      

Collector Characteristics Curves:

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Using a circuit like that shown in above Fig, a set of collector characteristic
curves can be generated that show how the collector current, I C , varies with
the collector-to-emitter voltage, V  CE  , for specified values of base
current, I  B. Notice in the circuit diagram the both VBB  and VCC  are variable
sources of voltage.

Assume that V BB is set to produce a certain value of I B and V  CC  is zero. For
this condition, both the base-emitter junction and the base-collector
junction are forward-biased because the base is at approximately 0.7 V
while the emitter and the collector are at 0 V. The base current is through
the base-emitter junction because of the low impedance path to ground
and,therefore,  I  C  is zero. When both junctions are forward-biased the
transistor is in the saturation region of its operation. Saturation is the state
of a BJT in which the collector current has reached a maximum and is
independent of the base current.

As V  CC  is increased, V  CE  increases as the collector current increases. This i

indicated by the portion of the characteristic curve between points A and
B. IC increases as VCC is increased because VCE remains less than 0.7 V due to
the forward-biased base-collector junction.

Ideally,when VCE exceeds 0.7 V, the base-collector junction becomes reverse-

biased and the transistor goes into the active, or  linear  ,region of its
operation. Once the base-collector junction is reversed-biased,IC  levels off
and remains essentially constant for a given value of IB as VCE  continuous to
increase. Actually, IC  increase very slightly as VCE  increases due to widening
of the base-collector depletion region. This results in fewer holes for
recombination in the base region which effectively causes a slight increase
in  βDC  . This is shown by the portion of the characteristic curve between
point B and C. For this portion of the characteristic curve, the value of IC  is
determined only by the relationship expressed as IC = βDC  IB.

When  VCE  reaches a sufficiently high voltage, the reverse-biased base-

collector junction goes into breakdown; and the collector current increases
rapidly as indicated by the part of the curve to the right of point C. A
transistor should never be operated in this breakdown region.

A family of collector characteristic curves is produced when IC  versus VCE  is

plotted for several values of IB  . When IB  = o, the transistor is in the cutoff
region although there is a very small collector leakage current as

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indicated. Cutoff is the nonconducting state of a transistor. The amount of

collector leakage current for  IB  = o is exaggerated on the graph for
illustration.

Cutoff:
As previously mentioned, when IB =0, the transistor is in the cutoff region for
its operation. With the base lead open, resulting in a base current of zero.
Under this condition, there is a very small amount of collector leakage
current  ICEO  , due mainly to thermally produced carriers. Because  ICEO   is
extremely small, it will usually be neglected in circuit analysis so that VCE  =
V CC . In cutoff, neither the base-emitter nor the base-collector junctions are
forward-biased. The subscript CEO represents collector- to-emitter with the
base open.

Saturation:
When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and the base
current is increased, the collector current also increases (  IC =  βDC  IB  ) and
V  CE  decreases as a result of more drop across the collector resistor (VCE  =
VCC  – ICRC). When VCE  reaches its saturation value,VCE(sat)  ,the base collector
junction becomes forward-biased and IC can increase no further even with a
continued increase in IB . At the point of saturation, the relation IC =  βDC IB  is
no longer valid VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs somewhere below the knee of
the collector curves, and it is usually only a few tenths of a volt.

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DC Load Line:
Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated in relation to the collector
characteristic curves by the use of a load line. A de load line drawn on a
family of curves connecting the cutoff point and the saturation point. The
bottom of the load line is at ideal cutoff where IC  = 0 and VCE = VCC. The top
of the load line is at saturation along the load line is the active region of the
transistor’s operation.

More About βDC :
The  βDC  or  hFE  Is an important BJT parameter that we need to examine
further. βDC  is not truly constant but varies with both collector current and
with temperature. Keeping the junction temperature constant and
increasing  IC  causes  βDC  to increase to a maximum. A further increase
in IC  beyond this maximum point βDC  to decrease. If IC  is held constant and
the temperature is varied, βDC   changes directly with the temperature. If the

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temperature goes up,βDC   goes up and vice versa. The variation of  βDC
 with IC and junction temperature (TJ) for a typical BJT.

A transistor datasheet usually specifies  βDC (hFE) at specific IC values. Even at

fixed values of IC and temperature, βDC varies from one device to another for
an given type of transistor due to inconsistencies in the manufacturing
process that are unavoidable. The  βDC  specified at a certain value of  IC  is
usually the minimum value.βDC(min)  , although the maximum and typical
values are also sometimes specified.

Maximum Transistor Ratings:

A BJT, like any other electronic device,has limitations on its operation. These
limitations are stated in the form of maximum ratings and are normally
specified on the manufacture’s datasheet. Typically, maximum ratings are
given for collector-to-base voltage, collector-to-emitter voltage,emitter-to-
base voltage, collector current,and power dissipation. The produce of
V  CE  and  IC  must not exceed the maximum power dissipation. Both
VCE and IC  cannot be maximum the same time. If V  CE  is maximum,IC  can be
calculated as.

If IC is maximum, VCE can be calculated by rearranging the previous equation

as follows:

Derating P D (max) :
P D (max)  is usually specified at 25°C . For higher temperature, P  D (max) is less.
Datasheets often give derating factors for determinating  P  D (max)  at any
temperature above 25°C. For example, a derating factor of 2 mW/°C

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indicates that the maximum power dissipation is reduced 2 mW for each

degree Celsius increase in temperature.

DC and AC Quantities:
Before discussing the concept of transistor amplification, the designations
that we will use for the circuit quantities of current, voltage,and resistance
must be explained because amplifier circuits have both dc and ac quantities.

In this text, italic capital letters are used for both dc and ac currents (I) and
voltages (V).  This rule applies to rms, average, peak, and peak-to-peak ac
values. AC current and voltage  values are always rms unless stated
otherwise.  Although some texts use lowercase i  and v for ac current and
voltage,  we reserve the use of lowercase i and v only for
instantaneous  values.  In this text, the distinction between  a dc current or
voltage and an ac current or voltage is in the subscript.

DC quantities always carry an uppercase roman (nonitalic) subscript. For

example, IB, IC, and IE are the dc transistor currents. VBE, VCB, and VCE are the
dc voltages from one transistor terminal to another. Single subscripted
voltages such as VB, VC, and VE are dc voltages from the transistor terminals
to ground.

AC and all time-varying quantities always carry a lowercase italic

subscript.  For example,Ib, Ic, and Ie are the ac transistor currents.  Vbe, Vcb,
and Vce are the ac voltages from one transistor terminal to another. Single
subscripted voltages such as Vb, Vc, and Ve are ac  voltages from the
transistor terminals to ground.

The rule is different for internal transistor resistances. As you will see later,
transistors  have internal ac resistances that are designated by
lowercase  r¿  with an appropriate subscript.  For example, the internal ac
emitter resistance is designated as r¿e .

Circuit resistances external to the transistor itself use the standard italic
capital R with a  subscript that identifies the resistance as dc or ac (when
applicable), just as for current and voltage. For example RE is an external dc
emitter resistance and Re is an external ac emitter resistance.

Voltage Amplification:
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As you have learned, a transistor amplifies current because the collector

current is equal to  the base current multiplied by the current gain,  β.  The
base current in a transistor is very  small compared to the collector and
emitter currents. Because of this, the collector current is approximately equal
to the emitter current.

With this in mind, let’s look at the circuit. An ac voltage, Vs, is

superimposed on the dc bias voltage VBB by capacitive coupling as
shown. The dc bias voltage VCC  is connected to the collector through the
collector resistor,RC.

The ac input voltage produces an ac base current, which results in a much

larger ac collector current. The ac collector current produces an ac voltage
across RC, thus producing an amplified, but inverted, reproduction of the ac
input voltage in the active region of operation.

The forward-biased base-emitter junction presents a very low resistance to

the ac signal.  This internal ac emitter resistance is designated  r¿e  and
appears in series with RB. The ac base voltage is:

The ac collector voltage, Vc, equals the ac voltage drop across RC.

Since IC ≅ Ie, the ac collector voltage is:

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Vb can be considered the transistor ac input voltage where Vb =  Vs  –

IbRB.  VC can be considered  the transistor ac output voltage. Since voltage
gain is defined as the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage, the
ratio of VC to Vb  is the ac voltage gain, AV, of the transistor.

Substituting IeRC for VC and Ier¿e for Vb yields:

The Ie terms cancel; therefore,

This equation shows that the transistor provides amplification in the form of

voltage gain, which is dependent on the values of RC and r¿e.

The  BJT As A Switch

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In the previous section, you saw how a BJT can be used as a linear amplifier.
The second major application area is switching applications. When used as
an electronic switch, a  BJT is normally operated alternately in cutoff and
saturation. Many digital circuits use the BJT as a switch.

Switching Operation:
illustrates the basic operation of a BJT as a switching device. In part (a),
the transistor is in the cutoff region because the base-emitter junction is not
forward-biased. In this condition, there is, ideally, an open between collector
and emitter, as indicated by the switch equivalent. In part (b), the transistor
is in the saturation region because the base-emitter junction and the base-
collector junction are forward-biased and the base current is  made large
enough to cause the collector current to reach its saturation value.  In this
condition,there is, ideally, a short between collector and emitter, as
indicated by the switch equivalent. Actually, a small voltage drop across the
transistor of up to a few tenths of a  volt normally occurs, which is the
saturation voltage, VCE(sat).

Conditions in Cutoff:
As mentioned before, a transistor is in the cutoff region when the  base-
emitter junction is not forward-biased. Neglecting leakage current, all of the
currents are zero, and VCE is equal to VCC.

VCE(cutoff)  = V CC 

Conditions in Saturation:
As you have learned, when the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and
there is enough base current to produce a maximum collector current, the

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transistor is saturated. The formula for collector saturation current is:

Since VCE(sat) is very small compared to V CC, it can usually be neglected.The

minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is:

Normally, IB should be significantly greater than IB(min) to ensure that the

transistor is saturated.

A Simple Application of a Transistor

Switch
The transistor is used as a switch to turn the LED on and off. For example, a
square wave input voltage with a period of 2 s is applied to the input as
indicated. When

The square wave is at 0 V, the transistor is in cutoff; and since there is no

collector current,the LED does not emit light. When the square wave goes to
its high level, the transistor saturates. This forward-biases the LED, and the
resulting collector current through the LED causes it to emit light. Thus, the
LED is on for 1 second and off for 1 second.

Photo-transistor:
In a Photo-transistor the base current is produced when light strikes the
photosensitive semiconductor base region. The collector-base pn junction is
exposed to incident light through a lens opening in the transistor package.
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When there is no incident light,there is only a small thermally generated

collector-to-emitter leakage current,I  CEO  ; this dark current, I λ,is produced
that is directly proportional to the light intensity. This action produces a
collector current that increases with I λ . Except for the way base current is
generated, the phototransistor behaves as a conventional BJT. In many
cases,there is no electrical connection to the base.

The relationship between the collector current and the light-generated base
current in a phototransistor is:

I C = β DC I λ 

The schematic symbol and some typical photo-transistors are shown in

above Fig. Since the actual photo-generation of base current occurs in the
collector-base region,the larger the physical area of this region,the more
base current is generated. Thus,a typical photo-transistor is designed to
offer a large area to the incident light, as the simplified structure diagram in
above Figure:

       

Typical phototransistor structure.

A phototransistor can be either a two-lead or a three-lead device. In the

three-lead configuration,the base lead is brought out so that the device can
be used as a conventional BJT with or without the additional light-sensitivity
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feature. In the two-lead configuration, the base is not electrically available,

and the device can be used only with light as the input. In many
applications, the phototransistor is used in the two-lead version.

a phototransistor with a biasing circuit and typical collector characteristic

curves. Notice that each individual curve on the graph corresponds to a
certain value of light intensity (in this case, the units are mW/cm  2) and that
the collector current increases with light intensity.

Phototransistors are not sensitive to all light but only to light within a
certain range of  wavelengths. They are most sensitive to particular
wavelengths in the red and infrared part of the spectrum, as shown by the
peak of the infrared spectral response curve in above Figure:

Applications of phototransistor
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Phototransistors are used in a variety of applications. A light-operated relay

circuit is  The phototransistor Q1 drives the BJT Q2. When there is
sufficient  incident light on Q1, transistor Q2 is driven into saturation, and
collector current through the relay coil energizes the relay. The diode across
the relay coil prevents, by its limiting action, a large voltage transient from
occurring at the collector of Q2 when the transistor turns off.

A circuit in which a relay is deactivated by incident light on  the

phototransistor. When there is insufficient light, transistor Q2 is biased on,
keeping  the relay energized. When there is sufficient light, phototransistor
Q1 turns on; this  pulls the base of Q2 low, thus turning Q2 off and de-
energizing the relay.

            

Optocouplers:
An optocouplers use an LED optically coupled to a photodiode or a
phototransistor in a single package. Two basic types are LED -to-photodiode
and LED-to-phototransistor,as shown in above Figure. Examples of typical
packages are shown Figure:

Basic optocouplers:

        

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A key parameter in optocouplers is the CTR  (current transfer ration). The

CTR is an indication of how efficiently a signal is coupled from input to
output and id expressed as the ratio of a change in the LED current to the
corresponding change in the photodiode or phototransistor current. It is
usually expressed as a percentage.

 Examples of optocoupler packages:

A key parameter in optocouplers is the CTR (current transfer ratio). The CTR
is an indirection of how efficiently a signal is coupled from input to output
and is expressed as the  ratio of a change in the LED current to the
corresponding change in the photodiode or  phototransistor current. It is
usually expressed as a percentage.

CTR versus IF for a typical optocoupler:

Typical graph of CTR versus forward LED current. For this case, it varies from
about 50% to about 110%.

Optocouplers are used to isolate sections of a circuit that are incompatible

in terms of  the voltage levels or currents required. For example, they are
used to protect hospital  patients  from shock when they are connected to
monitoring instruments or other devices. They are also used to isolate low-

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current control or signal circuits from noisy power supply circuits or higher-

current motor and machine circuits.

Transistor Categories and

Packaging:
BJT s are available in a wide range of package types for various applications.
Those with mounting studs or heat sinks are usually power transistors. Low-
power and medium-power transistors are usually found in smaller metal or
plastic cases. Still  another package classification is for high-frequency
devices. You should be familiar  with common transistor packages and be
able to identify the emitter, base, and collector terminals.

Transistor Categories:
Manufacturers generally classify bipolar junction transistors into three broad
categories:  general-purpose/small-signal devices, power devices, and RF
(radio frequency/microwave) devices. Although each of these categories, to
a large degree, has its own unique package types, you will find certain types
of packages used in more than one device category. Let’s look at transistor
packages for each of the three categories so that you will be able
to  recognize a transistor when you see one on a circuit board and have a
good idea of what general category it is in.

General-Purpose/Small-Signal
Transistors:
General-purpose/small-signal transistors  are generally used for low- or
medium-power amplifiers or switching circuits. The packages  are either
plastic or metal cases. Certain types of packages contain multiple
transistors.  two common plastic cases and a metal can package. multiple-
transistor packages. Some of the multiple-transistor packages such as the
dual in-line (DIP) and the small-outline (SO) are the same as those used  for
many integrated circuits. Typical pin connections are shown so you can
identify the emitter, base, and collector.

Power Transistors:
Power transistors are used to handle large currents (typically more than 1 A)
and/or large voltages. For example, the final audio stage in a stereo system
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uses a power transistor amplifier to drive the speakers. Some common

package are shown in Figure:

Plastic and metal cases for general-purpose/small-signal transistors. Pin

configurations may vary. Examples of multiple-transistor packages:

Examples of power transistor and packages:  

Greatly enlarged cutaway view of tiny transistor chip mounted in

the encapsulated package. The metal tab or the metal case is common to
the collector and is thermally connected to a heat sink for heat dissipation.
Notice in part (e) how the small transistor chip is mounted inside the much
larger package.

RF Transistors:
RF transistors are designed to operate at extremely high frequencies and are
commonly used for various purposes in communications systems and

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other high-frequency applications. Their unusual shapes and lead

configurations are designed to optimize certain high-frequency parameters.

Troubleshooting:
As you already know, a critical skill in electronics work is the ability to
identify a circuit malfunction and to isolate the failure to a single
component if necessary. In this section, the basics of troubleshooting
transistor bias circuits and testing individual transistors are covered.  

Troubleshooting a Biased Transistor:

Several faults can occur in a simple transistor bias circuit. Possible faults are
open bias resistors,open or resistive connections, shorted connections, and
opens or shorts internal to the transistor itself. A basic transistor bias circuit
with all voltages referenced  to ground. The two bias voltages are V  BB 3 V
and V  CC 9 V. The correct  voltage  measurements at the base and collector
are shown. Analytically, these voltages are verified as follows. A βDC  = 200 is
taken as midway between the minimum and maximum  values of h  FE given
on the datasheet for the 2N3904.  A different h  FE (βDC),of course, will
produce different results for the given circuit.

A basic transistor bias circuit.

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Several faults that can occur in the circuit and the accompanying
symptoms.  Symptoms are shown in terms of measured voltages that are
incorrect.If a transistor circuit is not operating correctly, it is a good idea to
verify that V CC and ground are connected and operating. A simple check at
the top of the collector resistor and  at the collector itself will quickly
ascertain if V  CC is present and if the transistor is conducting normally or is
in cutoff or saturation. If it is in cutoff, the collector voltage will equal V CC; if
it is in saturation, the collector voltage will be near zero. Another
faulty  measurement can be seen if there is an open in the collector path.
The term floating point refers to a point in the circuit that is not electrically
connected to ground or a “solid” voltage.  Normally, very small and
sometimes fluctuating voltages in the μV to low mV range  are generally
measured at floating points.  The faults  are typical but do not  represent all
possible faults that may occur.

Testing a Transistor with a DMM:

A digital multi-meter can be used as a fast and simple way to check a
transistor for open or shorted junctions. For this test, you can view the
transistor as two diodes connected for both npn and pnp transistors. The
base-collector junction is one diode and the base-emitter junction is the
other. Examples of faults and symptoms in the basic transistor bias circuit.

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A transistor viewed as two diodes:

Recall that a good diode will show an extremely high resistance (or open)
with reverse  bias and a very low resistance with forward bias. A defective
open diode will show an extremely  high resistance (or open) for both
forward and reverse bias. A defective shorted or  resistive diode will show
zero or a very low resistance for both forward and reverse bias.  An open
diode is the most common type of failure. Since the transistor pn junctions
are, in effect diodes, the same basic characteristics apply.

The DMM Diode Test Position:

Many digital multi-meters (DMMs) have a diode test position that provides
a convenient way to test a transistor. A typical DMM, has a small diode
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symbol to mark the position of the function switch.When set to diode test,

the meter provides an internal voltage sufficient to forward-bias and
reverse-bias a transistor junction. Typical DMM test of a properly
functioning npn transistor. Leads are reversed for a pnp transistor.

When the Transistor Is Not Defective:

The red (positive) lead of the  meter is connected to the base of an npn
transistor and the black (negative) lead is connected  to the emitter to
forward-bias the base-emitter junction. If the junction is good, you will get
a reading of between approximately 0.6 V and 0.8 V, with 0.7 V being typical
for forward bias.

The leads are switched to reverse-bias the base-emitter junction, as shown.

If the transistor is working properly, you will typically get an OL indication.

The process just described is repeated for the base-collector junction. For a

pnp transistor, the polarity of the meter leads are reversed for each test.

When the Transistor Is Defective:

When a transistor has failed with an open junction or internal connection,
you get an open circuit voltage reading (OL) for both the forward-bias and
the reverse-bias conditions for that junction. If a junction is shorted, the
meter reads 0 V in both forward- and reverse-bias tests, as indicated in part
(b). Some DMMs provide a test socket on their front panel for testing a
transistor for the h FE (β DC) values. If the transistor is inserted improperly in
the socket or if it is not functioning properly due to a faulty junction or
internal connection, a typical meter will flash a 1 or display a 0. If a value of
β DC within the normal range for the specific transistor is displayed, the
device is functioning properly. The normal range of βDC can be determined
from the datasheet.

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Checking a Transistor with the OHMs

Function:
DMMs that do not have a diode test position or an h FE socket can be used
to test a transistor for open or shorted junctions by setting the function
switch to an OHMs range. For the forward-bias check of a good
transistor pn junction, you will get a resistance reading that can vary
depending on the meter’s internal battery. Many DMMs do not have
sufficient voltage on the OHMs range to fully forward-bias a junction, and
you may get a reading of from several hundred to several thousand ohms.
For the reverse-bias check of a good transistor, you will get an out-of-range
indication on most DMMs because the reverse resistance is too high to
measure. An out-of-range indication may be a flashing 1 or a display of
dashes, depending on the particular DMM. Even though you may not get
accurate forward and reverse resistance readings on a DMM, the relative
readings are sufficient to indicate a properly functioning transistor
pn junction. The out-of-range indication shows that the reverse resistance is
very high, as you expect. The reading of a few hundred to a few thousand
ohms for forward bias indicates that the forward resistance is small
compared to the reverse resistance, as you expect. Testing a defective npn
transistor.Leads are reversed for a pnp transistor.  

Transistor Testers:
An individual transistor can be tested either in-circuit or out-of-circuit with a
transistor  tester. For example, let’s say that an amplifier on a particular
printed circuit (PC) board has malfunctioned. Good troubleshooting practice
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dictates that you do not unsolder a component from a circuit board unless

you are reasonably sure that it is bad or you simply cannot  isolate the
problem down to a single component. When components are removed,
there is a risk of damage to the PC board contacts and traces.

You can perform an in-circuit check of the transistor using a transistor tester
similar to the one. The three clip-leads are connected to the transistor
terminals and the tester gives a positive indication if the transistor is good.
Transistor tester (courtesy of B + K Precision).

 Tags A Simple Application of a Transistor Switch applications of BJT

Applications of phototransistor bipolar junction transistor BJT characteristics of BJT

The  BJT As A Switch

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