ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES

VOLUME II
(IN SI UNITS)

By
Late Prof. R. C. Patel
B.E.TMech.) Hons., B E. (Elect.) Hons..
A.R.C.S.T. (Mech.) Hon., (Glasgow).
M Sc. (Birmingham),
F.I.E. (India), F.I.A.E. (India), M.I.S.T.E., M.I.F.M.. M.I.I.M.
Former Vice Chancellor
M.S. University of Baroda, BARODA.

AND

Late C. J. Karamchandani
D.M.E.E. (Karachi),
Senior Lecturer (Retd.).
Mechanical Engineering Department.
Polytechnic.
M.S. University of Baroda, BARODA.

Sixteenth Edition : 1997

ACHARYA PUBLICATIONS
Opp. Gandhi Nagar Gruh, Vadodara - 3 9 0 001
 A ll R ights R eserved b y the A uthors

This book or any part thereof, must not be reproduced in any form or translated
without the prior written permission from the Authors.

First Edition 1962

Second Edition 1966
Third Edition 1967
Fourth Edition 1968
Fifth Edition 1969
Sixth Edition 1972
Seventh Edition 1975
Eighth Edition 1977
Ninth Edition 1978
Tenth Edition 1980
Eleventh Edition 1983
Twelfth Edition 1986
Thirteenth Edition 1989
Fourteenth Edition 1992
Fifteenth Edition 1994
Sixteenth Edition 1997

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P ublished b y :
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 Preface to the Sixteenth Edition
It is a matter of great satisfaction to the author of this book that he is required to bring out
the Sixteenth Edition of this volume in such a short span of time. This by itself speaks in
favour of this book in regard to its usefulness and popularity among engineering students.

The author will very thankfully appreciate suggestions from readers for the improvement
of the book.

The author thanks Shri J. C. Shah of Acharya Publications, Vadodara and Shri Surendra
J. Shah of Parijat Printery, Ahmadabad, for getting the book printed so nicely and in time.

Vadodara
June, 1997 C. J. K a ra m ch a n d a n i
 Preface to the Second Edition

The second edition has been rewritten in M.KS. Units to comply with the decision of the All
India Council of Technical Education for change over in the System of Units. As most of the
Universities and State Technical Education Boards have switched over to M.K.S. Units, the authors
feel that this edition would be quite useful both to the teachers teaching the subject and to the
students.

The major part of the book is overhauled to enhance the utility of the book, by making it more
lucid in expression, more simplified in the subject matter and by suitable modification in the general
arrangement and addition of subject matter at some places without unduly increasing the size of
the book.

The authors take this opportunity of thanking all those who have been good enough to draw
our attention to some of the slips that had inadvertently crept in the first edition and those who
offered valuable suggestions and comments with a view to make the book really one of the best of
its kind. The authors will gratefully appreciate all constructive comments and suggestions from the
readers.

Before concluding, the authors feel it their duty to thank Sarvashri M.C. Karamchandani, B.E.
(Mech.), Hon., M.M. Patel, B.E.(Mech.), K. H. Patel, B.E. (Mech.), M.C. Shah, B.E. (Mech.), B.C.
Patel, D.M.E., B.C. Karamchandani, D.M.E., for checking the calculations and reading through the
proofs. Our thanks are also due to Shri Karkhanis for redrawing the sketches. Our sincere thanks
are also due to the publishers for getting the book published in time.

Baroda R. C. Patel
1st July, 1966 C. J. Karamchandani
 Preface to the First Edition
This volume is intended for the use of students preparing for the final diploma examinations
in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Universities and State Technical Boards.

Despite the fact that several books on this subject of Heat Engines have been written and
published, the long felt need of many Indian Diploma students for a Book covering completely the
Heat Engines Syllabus written in a simple style has led the authors to bring out this volume in the
form most suitable for Indian students preparing for the above examinations.

This book which is an outcome of a very long experience of the authors in the teaching of the
subject, has a special feature. Neat and simple diagrams to be found herein have gone a great way
in simplifying the subject matter and have made its presentation instructive and interesting.

Another useful feature of this book is a large number of examples at the end of each chapter,
which are fully worked out to inspire faith and confidence in the students, who otherwise cram
theory without understanding and fail to apply theory rightly and correctly in solving examples.
These worked out examples may help the students not only to understand clearly the basic
principles underlying them, but may also lead them to attempt without frustration the solution of
examples of varied types appearing in examination papers. The practice problems added at the end
of each chapter are for the benefit of students and the teachers who may use the book.

The authors found it more convenient to cover the entire Heat Engines Syllabus in three
volumes (Volume I, II and III). This has prevented the volume from being too bulky. Volume I is
intended, for the use of students preparing for the second year diploma examinations in Mechanical
and Electrical Engineering, Volume II for the final year diploma Examination in Electrical
Engineering, and Volumes II and III for the final year diploma Examination in Mechanical
Engineering.

Utmost care has been taken in numerical calculations. They are made with the aid of slide rule,
and no pains have been spared to avoid errors. And yet it is too much to be sure that all slips and
errors have been detected and rectified. Authors will, therefore, very thankfully appreciate
comments and suggestions from readers for the improvement of the book.

The authors will feel delighted and more than compensated if the book satisfies the end in view
and meets with the need of students.

Before concluding, the authors feel it their duty to thank Shri M.C. Karamchandani, B.E.
(Mech.) of the Polytechnic, Baroda for carefully going through the manuscript and checking it as
also for solving examples.

The authors also take this opportunity of expressing their thankfulness to Shri Jayantilal C.-
Shah of M/s. Acharya Book Depot, Baroda for getting the volume published so nicely and in time.

Baroda R. C. Patel
1st July, 1962 C. J. Karamchandani
 CONTENTS

Preface Pages

Chapter 1 Steam Condensers 1 -2 9

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Elements of a Steam Condensing Plant 2
1.3 Types 2
1.4 Jet Condensers 2
1.5. Surface ConderSers 5
1.6 Comparison of Jet and Surface Condensers 8
1.7 Sources of Air in Condensers 8
1.8 Measurement of Vacuum 8
1.9 Estimation of Quantity of Cooling Water 9
1.10 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 11
1.11 Vacuum Efficiency 14
1.12 Condenser Efficiency 16
1.13 Air Pumps 16
1.14 Cooling Water Supply 24
Tutorial-1 26
Chapter 2 Compound or Multiple Expansion Steam Engines 3 0 -5 2
2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Advantages 31
2.3 Types 31
2.4 Typical Terms 34
2.5 Estimation of Cylinder Dimensions 34
2.6 Methods of Governing 47
Tutorial-2 i 50
Chapter 3 Steam Engine And Boiler Trials 53-75
3.1 * Steam Engine Trials 53
3.2 Heat Balance Sheet 55
3.3 Steam Boiler Trials 64
3.4 Efficiency of Boiler 66
3.5 Heat Balance sheet for Boiler 66
Tutorial-3 71
■hapter 4 Modern Steam Generators 76-87
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 Water Tube Boilers 76
4.3 Materials of Construction 82
4.4 Advantages of High Pressure Boilers 82
4.5 Arrangement of Heating Surfaces 83
4.5.1 Bokaro Plant 84
4.5.2 Ramagundam Plant 84
4.5.3 Chandrapura Plant 85
4.5.4.Trombay Plant 85
Tutorial-4 86
 (vii)
Chapter 5 Air Standard Cycles 83 - 127
5.1 Introduction 88
5.2 Heat Engine 88
• 5.2.1 Types of heat engines 88
5.2.2 Available work of a cycle 88
5.2.3 Efficiency of a cycle 89
5.2.4 Air-Standard efficiency of a cycle 89
5.3 Thermodynamic Reversibility 89
5.3.1 Reversible cycle 90
5.4 Ideal Heat Engine Cycle 90
5.5 Carnot Cycle 91
5.6 Otto Cycle or Constant Volume Cycle 93
5.7 Diesel Cycle (Constant Pressure Cycle) 99
5.8 Dual-Combustion Cycle 105
5.9 Joule Cycle 109
5.10 Mean Effective Pressure (M.E.P.) 112
5.10.1 Otto Cycle 112
5.10.2 Diesel Cycle 115
5.10.3 Dual-Combustion Cycle 120
5.11 Actual Cycle Thermal Efficiency 122
Tutorial-5 122
Chapter 6 Internal Combustion Engines 128 - 169
6.1 Introduction 128
6.2 Advantages of Internal Combustion Engines over
External Combustion Engines 128 -
6.3 Development of I.C. Engines 129
6.4 Classification of I.C. Engines 129
6.5 Requirements of I.C. Engines 130
6.6 Scavenging Methods in two-stroke Cycle Engines 131
, 6.6.1 Crossflow scavenging 132
6.6.2 Full-loop or backflow scavenging 132
6.6.3 Uniflow scavenging 132
6.7 Handling of Volatile Liquid (Petrol) Fuels 132
6.7.1 Simple Carburettor 133
6.7.2 Zenith Carburettor 134
6.8 Handling of Heavy Fuel Oils (Methods of Fuel Oil Injection) 135
6.8.1 Fuel oil injection methods 135
6.8.2 Air injection 135
6.8.3 Solid injection 138
6.9 Comparison between Solid injection and Air injection 137
6.10 Compression-Ignition Combustion Chambers 137
6.11 Ignition Methods 139
6.11.1 Batteiy and coil ignition 139
6.11.2 Compression ignition 140
6.11.3 Hot-tube ignition 141
6.11.4 Hot bulb ignition. 141
6.11.5 Ignition lag or delay period 142
6.12 Methods of cooling I.C. Engine Cylinders 142
6.12.1 Air cooling 142
6.12.2 Water cooling 142
6.13 Merits and Demerits of the Cooling Systems 144
 (viii)
6.14 Methods of Governing I.C. Engines 145
6.14.1 Hit and miss method of governing 146
6.14.2 Quality method of governing 147
6.14.3 Quantity method of governing 150
6.14.4 Combination method of governing 151
6.15 Highest Useful Compression Ratio 151
6.15.1 Limiting compression Ratio 151
6.15.2 Pre-ignition 152
6.15.3 Detonation 152
6.15.4 Volumetric efficiency 152
6.15.5 Supercharging 153
6.16 Thermal Efficiency of I.C. Engines 154
Tutorial-6 165
Chapter 7 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 170 - 198
7.1 Objectives of Testing 170
7.2 Thermodynamic Tests 170
7.2.1 Measurement of Indicated power 170
7.2.2 Measurement of brake power 171
7.2.3 Morse test for mechanical efficiency 171
7.2.4 Measurement of rate of fuel consumption and its calorific value 172
7.2.5 Measurement of heat carried away by cylinder Jacket cooling water 173
7.2.6 Measurement of heat carried away by the exhaust gases 173
7.3 Heat Balance Account 175
7.4 Performance Plotting 176
7.4.1 Indicated M.E.P. 176
7.4.2 Indicated power 177
7.4.3 Friction power 177
7.4.4 Brake power 177
7.4.5 Mechanical efficiency 177
7.4.6 Brake M.E.P. 177
7.4.7 Torque 177
7.4.8 Brake specific fuel consumption 177
Tutorial-7 192
Chapter 8 Steam Nozzles 199 - 232
8.1 Introduction 199
8.2 General Forms of Nozzle Passages 199
8.3 Steam Nozzles 201
8.4 Flow through Steam Nozzles 202
8.4.1 Velocity of steam leaving nozzle 203
8.4.2 Mass of steam discharged 203
8.4.3 Critical pressure ratio 204
8.4.4 Areas of throat and exit for maximum discharge 206
8.4.5 Length of nozzle 207
8.5 Effect of Friction in a Nozzle 216
8.6 Steam Injector 224
Tutorial-8 228
Chapter 9 Steam Turbines 233 - 287
9.1 Introduction 233
9.2 Types of Steam Tur' ‘nes 234
9.3 Impulse Steam Turbine 236
9.3.1 Velocity diagram for moving blades f:36
 (ix)
9.3.2 Forces on the blade and work done 237
9.3.3 Effect of blade friction on velocity diagram 240
9.3.4 Simple De Laval turbine 241
9.3.5 Methods of reducing rotor speed or compounding of stages 247
9.3.6 Velocity-compounded impulse turbines 247
9.3.7 Efficiency of a velocity-compounded stage 248
9.3.8 Pressure-compounded impulse turbine 254
9.4 Reaction Steam Turbine 255
9.4.1 Velocity diagram for Parsons reaction turbine 257
9.4.2 Height of blades for reaction turbine 258
9.5 Re-heat Factor 261
9.6 Re-heating of Steam 263
9.7 Regenerative Feed Heating or Bleeding 266
9.8 Steam Turbine Governing 270
9.8.1 Throttle governing 270
9.8.2 Nozzle control govening 272
9.8.3 By-pass governing 273
9.9 Special Forms of Steam Turbines 274
9.9.1 Back-pressure turbine 274
9.9.2 Pass-out or extraction turbine 274
9.9.3 Exhaust or low-pressure turbine 275
9.10 Material of Construction in Steam Turbines 275
9.11 Steam Turbines for Power Generation 275
9.12 Other General Purpose Steam Turbines 276
9.12.1 Single casing condensing type 279
9.12.2 Single stage multi-stage condensing type 279
9.12.3 Radial flow double rotation turbine 279
9.13 Some Examples of Mechanical Drive Turbines 280
Tutorial-9 282
Steam Tables 289
 1
STEAM CONDENSERS
1.1 Introduction
Steam condensers are devices in which the exhaust steam from the steam engines
or steam turbines is condensed by means of cooling water. The condensate (condensed
steam) thus formed together with the air and other non-condensable gases is continuously
removed by pumps or similar other devices.
The primary object of a condenser is to maintain a very low back pressure on the
exhaust side of the piston of the
steam engine or the rotor of the
steam turbine. This enables the
steam to expand to a greater extent
which results in an increase in
available energy for converting into
mechanical work. The shaded area
in fig. 1-1 shows the increase in
work obtained by fitting a con-
denser to a non-condensing steam
engine. The secondary object of
a condenser is to supply to the
boiler pure and hot feed water, as
the condensed steam which is dis-
charged from the condenser and
Fig. 1-1. p—v diagram for non-condensing and condensing steam enginescollected in a hot-well, Can be
used over again as feed water for the boiler. Thus by fitting a condenser, the thermal
efficiency o f the steam power plant can be greatly increased and also the capacity, without
increasing size.
The condensation of steam in a closed vessel produces a partial vacuum by reason
of the great reduction in the volume of the low pressure steam or water vapour. If a
kilogram of dry steam at 1 01325 bar and with a volume of 1-6729 m3, contained in a
steam tight vessel, is condensed into water at a temperature of 100°C, the liquid would
q 1
occupy only 0001044 m . The volume of steam would be thus . part of the space
inside the vessel, and the pressure would fall to 0-2 bar. This means the back pressure
in the steam engine or steam turbine can be lowered from 1 01325 to 0-2 bar or even
less.
Steam engines, however, cannot take the advantage o f a very low vacuum in the
condenser because they are intermittent (non-continuous) flow machines and have to force
the expanded steam out of the cylinder through restricted exhaust ports and passages.
The lowest exhaust pressure, therefore, for most steam engines is 150 to 200 mm of
mercury, i.e. about 0-2 to 0-27 bar.
Steam turbines can, however, take advantage of very low vacuum because they are
continuous-flow machines and have large exhaust outlets through which the steam may
be discharged after expansion. Steam turbines may expand steam to a pressure of 25 mm
of mercury absolute or even less, i.e. about 0 034 bar.
2 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
1.2 Elem ents o f a Steam Condensing Plant
The main elements of a steam condensing plant are :
— a condenser in which the exhaust steam in condensed,
— supply of cooling or injection water, for condensing exhaust steam,
— a pump to circulate the cooling water in case of a surface condenser,
— a pump, called the wet air pump, to remove the condensed steam (condensate), the air,
and uncondensed water vapour and gases from the condenser (separate pumps may
be used to remove air and condensed steam),
— a hot-well, where the condensed steam can be discharged and from which the boiler feed
water is taken, and
— an arrangement (cooling pond or cooling tower) for cooling the circulation water when a
surface condenser is used and the supply of water is limited.
1.3 Types
Condensers may be classified broadly into two major groups according to the manner
in which the cooling water cools and condenses the exhaust steam; these are :
... Jet condensers, in which cooling water comes in direct contact with the exhaust
steam and the steam as a result is condensed. The condensing or cooling water
is usually sprayed into the exhaust steam so that rapid condensation of the steam
OCCU[S.
... Surface condensers, in which the cooling water and exhaust steam do not actually
mix; the cooling water passes through a number of tubes while the exhaust steam
passes over the outer surfaces of the tubes.
The most common type is a surface condenser which has the great advantage that
the condensate (condensed steam) is not thrown to waste but is returned to the boiler
through feed water system. A jet condenser is a much simpler* and less costly apparatus
than a surface condenser. The jet condenser should be installed where a cheap source
of boiler feed water is available.
1.4 Jet Condensers
There are three main types of jet condensers :
... Low-level condenser, in which the condensing chamber is at low level and overall
height of the unit is low enough so that condenser may be directly placed beneath
l the steam engine or steam turbine. Combined pump or separate pumps are
required to extract (remove) the cooling water, condensate, and air from the
condenser.
... High-level o r Barometric condenser, in which the condensing chamber is placed
at sufficiently high level (above 12 metres) above the point of discharge to enable
the water to drain away by gravity through the tail pipe. No water pump is required
to remove the condensate and cooling water, but an air pump is required to
remove air from the condenser.
... Ejector condenser, in which exhaust steam and water mix in a series of combining
cones, and the kinetic energy of water is utilised to assist in removing the
condensate and air from the condenser. The mixture is then discharged into the
hot-well against the pressure of atmosphere. No separate pump is required to
remove condensate and air.
Low-level Jet Condensers may be sub-divided according to the direction of flow of
water and exhaust steam as under :
STEAM CONDENSERS 3
— Counter flow je t condenser, in which exhaust steam and water flow in opposite directions;
exhaust steam enters at the bottom and flows upwards, while the water enters at the top
and flows downwards, the air pump is at the top.
— Parallel flow je t condenser, in which exhaust steam and waterflow in the same direction;
the steam and water enter at the top and fall together to the bottom where the mixture is
removed by an extraction pump. The parallel flow arrangement is generally best suited
for turbine work where the exhaust steam comes from the underside of the turbine.
The counter flo w je t condenser is normally arranged with two or three water trays
perforated with holes to break
the water in small jets. Suffi-
To d ry pump
cient water head is arranged
over the trays to ensure that
they are always full of water.
In the condenser (fig. 1-2), the
exhaust steam and any air
mixed with it, enter the lower
Injction | part of the condenser and rise
water sprays to the top through the falling
tra y to break water which enters at the side
up sprays near the top of the condenser.
Rapid condensation of exhaust
Exhaust steam steam takes place. The con-
irlet
densate and cooling water des-
Condenser cend through a vertical pipe
shell
to th e e x tra c tio n pum p
(generally of the centrifugal
type), which delivers water to
M Ur the hot-well. The boiler feed
pump returns some water to
the boiler, while the surplus
,. water flows by gravity back to
the colling pond. The air and
uncondensed water vapour is
withdrawn at the top of the
Hot well
Over flow condenser by a separate dry
pipe air pump or an ejector. The
Cooling j air pump required to remove
pond - 7 ___
777777777777777/5 air and uncondensed water
vapour will be of small capacity
for two reasons, firstly, it has
Fig. 1-2. Low-ievei counter flow jet condenser. to handle air and water vapour
alone, and secondly, it has to deal with smallervolume of air and water vapour since
the volume of air andwater vapour isreduced due to their cooling while rising through
the stream of cooling water. The cooling water is usually lifted from the source of supply
(water tank or cooling pond) to the condenser head (top) by means of the vacuum created
within the condenser. The greatest height to which water can be lifted by this means is
about 5-5 metres with a vacuum of about 710 mm of mercury in the condenser. A cooling
water pump is used when necessary, to aid in lifting the water to the condenser head.
In parallel flo w je t condensers, the cooling water and exhaust steam flow in the
same direction, downwards to the bottom of the condenser from where they are all
•♦02 ’
4 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
withdrawn by a single pump known as wet air pump and delivered to the hot-well. Since
the pump has to deal with the condensate, air and water vapour, the capacity of the
condenser to maintain vacuum is limited and the vacuum produced in such a condenser
will, therefore, be low. The exhaust steam enters either at the top or the side of the
condensing vessel and the cooling water enters immediately below. The cooling water is
usually lifted from the source of supply (water tank or cooling pond) to the injection head
by means of the vacuum created within the condenser as in the case of counter flow
jet condenser. A cooling water pump is used when necessary, to help in lifting the water
to the condenser head (top).
High-level or Barom etric Jet Condensers is so named because it is placed at a
height greater than that of water
barometer. If a long pipe, over 10 metres
in length, closed at one end, and filled
with water, inverted without spilling
(throwing out) any water, and the open
end submerged in an open tank of
water, the atmospheric pressure would
hold the water up in the pipe to a
height of 10 metres at sea level. This
fact is made use of in a barometric
condenser by making the tail pipe more
thanlO metres in height and thus making
it impossible for any vacuum in the
condenser, to cause the water to rise
high enough in the tail pipe and flood
the engine.
Figure 1-3 illustrates a high-level
counter flow jet condenser. The con-
denser is elevated at about 10.33 metres
above the hot-well, and in general
design it is similar to low-level counter
flow jet condenser. The water outlet of
tail pipe extends from the bottom of
the condenser to the ground level and
has its lower end immersed in the
hot-well. The exhaust steam enters the
lower part of the condenser through the
engine exhaust pipe and rises to the
top through the falling cooling water.
The cooling water enters atthe side near the top of the condenser. Rapid condensation
of exhauststeam takes place. Thecondensate and cooling water flow out of the condenser
by gravity into the hot-well. There is, thus, no need of a water extraction pump. The air
released from the condensed steam passes upwards through the descending (falling)
cold water and gets cooled. It is then removed by a separate dry air pump or an ejector
at the top of the condenser. The size of the dry air pump required is comparatively small
at it has not to handle the condensate.
Unless a supply of co olin g water under pressure is available, an injection water pump
will have to be provided in this type of condenser. The injection water pump will have
to first lift water through a head of about 12 metres, but after the vacuum is formed in
the condenser, the pump will have to lift water through a head of 12 — 5-5 = 6-5 (neires
STEAM CONDENSERS 5
only (5-5 metres being the lift of water due to vacuum formed in the condenser).
The principle of operation of Ejector condenser is that the momentum of flowing
water ejects (throws out) the condensate
Cooling water
inlet and air without the aid of a pump. A
common form of an ejector condenser
is shown in fig. 1-4. The condenser
consists of a central vertical tube in
which are fixed a number of cones or
converging nozzles.
The exhaust steam enters at the
left and surrounds this central tube.
In the central tube there are a number
of steam ports. The cooling water enters
the converging nozzle at the top under
a head from 5 to 6 metres and attains
high velocity while passing through it.
In flowing • past the steam ports the
water produces a vacuum. The vacuum
causes the exhaust steam and air to
flow through the ports in the tube and
mix with the cooling water. The exhaust
steam gets condensed, as a result of
which the vacuum is further increased.
The condensate and air then pass on
to the diverging cone where the kinetic
energy is partly transformed into pres-
sure energy so that the condensate and
air will be dischargedinto the hot-well
against the pressure of the atmosphere. The condenser acts as an air pump as well as
a condenser. This type of condenser is usually fitted with a non-return valve as shown,
to prevent a sudden backward rush of water into the engine exhaust pipe in case of
sudden failure of water supply to the condenser. To ensure satisfactory working under
all conditions of load, the ejector condenser must be supplied with cooling water at inlet
branch on the condenser of not less than 6 metres head of water. This head is usually
derived from a centrifugual pump or from overhead tank.
An ejector condenser requires more cooling water than any other type of jet cndenser.
The vacuum obtained is about 620 mm of mercury. It is a small jet condenser as
compared with other condensers and there being no pump, the first cost is low. It is
also simple and reliable but can be used ony for small power units.
1.5 Surface Condensers
Surface condensers may be sub-divided into :
... Surface condenser in which exhaust steam passes over a series of tubes through
which the cooling water is flowing.
... The evaporative surface condenser in which exhaust steam passes through a series
of tubes and water is allowed to flow in the form of thin film outside the tubes
while air passes upwards outside the tubes.
A surface condenser, as illustrated in fig. 1-5, consists of a cast iron shell, cylindrical
in shape and closed at each end to form a water box. A tube plate is located between
each cover head and the shell. A number of water tubes are fixed to the tube plates.
6 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
Exhaust steam

Cooling
water, Water box

Water
box

Cooling
water

To wet
air pump
Fig. 1-5. Two-flow surface condenser.

The exhaust steam from the engine enters at the top of the condenser and is condensed
by coming in contact with the cold surface of the tubes through which cooling water is
being circulated. The cooling water enters at one end of the tubes situated in the lower
half of the condenser and after flowing to the other end returns in the opposite direction
through the tubes situated in the upper half of the condenser. The resulting water from
the condensation of the exhaust steam and the air associated with the uncondensed
water vapour, are extracted from the bottom of the condenser where the temperature is
the lowest, so that the work of the wet air pump is reduced.
The surface condenser of this type requires two pumps, namely, wet* air pump to
remove air and condensate, and a water circulating pump to circulate the cooling water
under pressure through the tubes of the condenser. Steam driven reciprocating pumps
are used, but electric driven centrifugal pumps are used very extensively (commonly) for
circulating water and condensate removal. Steam ejectors are also sometimes used for
air removal.
Surface condensers may be classified as, two-flow or multi-flow condensers. Surface
condenser, as illustrated in fig. 1-5, is a two-flow condenser because the circulating water
traverses (travels) the whole length of the ‘condenser twice. By introducing more partitions
in the water boxes, the condenser may be converted into a three-flow condenser or even
four-flow condenser. The velocity of cooling should be increased with the increase of
number of flows. The rate of transmission of heat through the tubes to the circulating
water, increases with the increase of number of flows, but the power required to circulate
> the water is increased.
Another way of classifying surface condensers
is according to the direction of flow of exhaust
.A ir cooling steam viz. down-flow, central flow, inverted flow, etc.
/s e c t io n
w baffle Figure 1-6 shows a sectional view of a down
To air flow condenser. The exhaust team enters at the
extraction
pump top and flows downwards over the tubes through
which the cooling water is flowing. The exhaust
lUbes steam as a result is condensed and the condensate
■To condensate is extracted from the bottom by the condensate
extraction pump
extraction pump. The cooling water enters at one
Fig. 1-6 . Schematic view of a down flow surface end of the tubes situated in the lower half of the
condenser.
STEAM CONDENSERS 7
condenser and after flowing fo the other end returns in the opposite direction through
the tubes situated in the upper half of the condenser. The temperature of condensate,
therefore, decreases as the exhaust steam passes downwards, and hence partial pressure
of steam decreases from top to bottom of the condenser. The air exit is shielded from
the down stream of the condensate by means of a baffle plate, and thus air is extracted
with only a comperatively small amount of water vapour. As the air passes downwards,
it is progressively cooled and becomes denser (partial pressure of air increases) and
hence it is extracted from the lowest convenient point. In a condenser of this type,
therefore, the partial pressure of steam decreases, the partial pressure of air correspondingly
increases, as the mixture passes from top to the bottom of the condenser. The result of
all these effects is that the condensate temperature falls below the the exhaust steam
temperature which enters at the top. Thus, by cooling the air, the capacity of the air
pump is considerably reduced. (See illustrative problem-15).
In Central Flow Surface Condenser (fig. 1-7), the suction pipe of the air extraction
pump is placed in the centre of the tubes nest; this causes the condensate to flow
radially towards the centre as shown by the arrows in the figure. The condensate leaves
at the bottom where the condensate extraction pump is situated. The air is withdrawn
from the centre of the nest of tubes. This method is an improvement on the down flow
type as the exhaust steam is directed redially inward by a volute casing around the tubes
nest; it has thus access to the whole periphery of the tubes.
Where the supply of cold water is extremely limited, the evaporative condenser is

Tubes
To a ir
extraction
pump
Tocon den sate
extraction pump

Fig. 1-7. Sectional view of a central flow surface condenser. Fig. 1-8. Evaporative condenser.

the only suitable type which can be run on a minimum supply of cooling water, and even
without cooling water in cold weather and on light loads. Exhaust steam from the engine
is exhausted into a coil of grilled pipes or series of tubes, the outlet of which is connected
to the wet air pump (fig. 1-8). Cooling water is allowed to flow in a thin film over the
outside of the tubes. A natural or forced air current causes rapid evaporation of this film
of water.The effect of this is that not only the steam inside the tubes is condensed but
some of the cooling water is also evaporated on the outside of the tubes. The process
of evaporation cools the water. The film of water on the outside of the tubes is maintained
by allowing water to trickle (fail) over them continuously.
The water which is not evaporated falls into an open tank or collecting tank under
the condenser, from which it can be drawn by circulating water pump and used over
8 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
again.The evaporative condenser is placed outside In the op'en air. On account of nuisance
which would result from the production of clouds of steam, this type of condenser is
restricted to small power plants.
1.6 Com parison o f Jet and Surface Condensers
Jet condensers have low first cost, occupy small space, and attain high vacuum.
However, they have more air to remove which requires large air pumps. In large plants,
jet condensers are not used because, apart from the loss of the condensate, the power
consumption of jet condenser pumps and the first cost of the water and air pumps,
out-weigh the advantage of the high vacuum produced by them.
Surface condensers provide both higher vacuum and the recovery of the condensate.
The construction of surface condenser is more complicated, and its first cost is greater.
It occupies large space, and attention required is greater than in the case of a jet
condenser. It provides pure feed water for the boilers which out-weighs its disadvantages.
The necessity of having pure feed water for the boilers makes the use of a surface
condensers universal for marine services.
1.7 Sources o f A ir in Condensers
Following are the chief sources o f air found in condensers :
... Air leaks in condenser from atmosphere at the joints of the parts which are internally
under a pressure less than that of atmosphere- The amount of air leaking in,
mainly depends upon the accurate workmanship and can, with care in the design
and making of the-vacuum joints, be reduced to a very small quantity.
... Air also comes in with the steam from the boiler into which it enters dissolved in
feed water. The amount of air coming in depends upon the treatment the feed
water receives before it enters the boiler. The air entering through this source is
relatively small.
... In case of jet condensers, some air comes in with the injection water (cooling
water) in which it is dissolved.
In the surface condensers of well designed and properly maintained steam turbine
plants, the amount of air entering condensers is about 5 kg per 10,000 kg of steam.
With reciprocating steam engines, the air entering is about 15 kg per 10,000 kg of steam.
In case of jet condensers the amount of air dissolved in injection water is about 0-5
kg per 10,000 kg of water.
The important effects of presence of air in the condenser are as follows :
... With the increased amount of air in the condenser the condenser pressure or back
pressure is increased. This reduces the useful work done in the primemover.
Presence of air also lowers the partial pressure of steam and therefore lowers the
saturation temperature of steam. With the lowering of the saturation temperature,
the evaporation enthalpy (latent heat) of steam increases and therefore more
cooling water will be required in the condenser.
1.8 Measurement o f vacuum
The vacuum in a condenser is usually expressed in millimetres of mercury and it is
the difference between the barometric pressure (or barometric height) and absolute pressure
in condenser (fig. 1-9). In order to know the absolute pressure in the condenser, both
the vacuum gauge and barometer must be read. The difference between the barometer
and vacuum gauge readings will give the absolute pressure in the condenser.
Barornetric pressure is a variable quantity and varies from place to place. Hence, it
is more convenient for the purpose of comparison to refer vacuum gauge readings to a
STEAM CONDENSERS 9
muu3DV standard barometer of 760 mm of mercury (or 1-01325
9punp
bar).
Standard or corrected vacuum in mm of Hg.
= 760 mm of mercury - absolute pressure in
condenser in mm of Hg.
no0.°
= 760 mm of Hg -
Barometer reading Vacuum gauge reading] ...(1.1)
9)u)02dA in mm of Hg. “ in mm of Hg.
m. «'»uE29iq
lM w bno) —r* Since one standard atmosphere = 760 mm of Hg =
<e 1-01325 bar (101-325 kPa),
c * 3 760
U o
% 3 <d 1 bar = 1-01325 = 750 mm of Hg>
I
o
— J — LU
CD
£
CD 1-01325
Pressure equivalent of 1 mm of Hg =
760
YiuaisM-
= 0-001333 bar or = 0-1333 kPa.
Problem-1 : The vacuum guage reading in a condenser
is 714 mm o f Hg when the barometer reads 759 mm.
Fig. 1-9. Measurement of vacuum. In another case the vacuum is 709 mm o f Hg while the
barometer is 756 mm. Correct these vacuum gauge readings to the standard barometer
o f 760 mm.
If the barometric pressure is raised to 760 mm without any change in absolute
pressure in condenser, then mercury in the vacuum gauge will rise to (760 - 759) +
714 = 715 mm, i.e. the standard or corrected vacuum gauge reading is 715 mm o f Hg.
Similarly, corrected vacuum gauge reading in the second case will be
(760 - 756) + 709 = 713 mm o f Hg.
1.9 Estim ation o f Q uantity o f Cooling Water
To find the quantity of cooling water necessary to condense a given quantity of steam
is a problem of asimple heat exchange between two fluids.
Let mw m mass of cooling water required in kg per hr.,
ms m. mass of exhaust steam condensed in kg per hr.,
ts = saturation temperature of the exhaust steam (corresponding to the condenser
vacuum),
fc = temperature of the condensate leaving the condenser,
t-, m inlet temperature of cooling water,
t2 = outlet temperature of the cooling water,
x = dryness fraction of exhaust steam enerting the condenser,
L = enthalpy of evaporation of exhaust steam entering the condenser, in kJ/kg.
and
K = specific heat of cooling water = 4-187 kJ/kg K.
The exhaust steam entering the condenser is usually slightly wet even when steam
supplied to the steam engine or steam turbine is usually superheated^ The exhaust steam
(wet steam) on condensing gives up first all its evaporation enthalpy xL and then a
portion of its sensible enthalpy (ts - tc ) due to the coofing of the condensate below
the saturation temperature corresponding to the vacuum; this latter effect is due to air
which leaks into the condenser. The heat given up or lost by the exhaust steam per
10 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
hour in condensing is, therefore, equal to ms [xL + (fe - fc)] kJ/kg. The heat removed
or gained by cooling water per hour is equal to mw (fe - ti) kJ/kg.
Assuming that all the heat given up (lost) by wet exhaust steam in condensing is
removed (gained) by the cooling water, ,
i.e. heat lost by exhaust steam in kJ per hour = heat gained by cooling water in kJ
per hour.
i.e. ms[xL + (ts - tc)K\ = mw (fe - u) K
The mass of cooling water required per hour,
n u lx L * K it , - fc)] ....(1.2a)
K(fc - (i) k9™ '
and dryness fraction of exhaust steam entering the condenser,

...(1.2b)
* ' L
The above equations apply to surface condenser only. Since in je t condenser steam
and cooling water mix together, the temperature of the condensate fc will be the same
as that of the outlet temperature of cooling water fe, i.e. tc = te. The mass of cooling
water mw kg per hour that is necessary to condense ms kg of exhaust steam per hour
in case of a jet condenser will be given by the expression
_ ms[xL + K(ts - fe)] , ... (1.3a)
Wfc - h )— kg per hour,

and the dryness fraction o f exhaust steam entering the jet condenser,

- a) - K (U - fe ) ...( 1 .3 b )

x L
Problem-2 : In a surface condensing plant the following data were obtained :
Temperature o f exhaust steam entering the condenser ... 4267°C
Temperature o f condensate leaving the condenser ... 35°C
Inlet temperature o f cooling water ... 165°C
Outlet temperature o f cooling water ... 30°C
Quantity o f cooling water per hour ... 46,250 kg
Quantity o f condensate per hour ... 1,190 kg
Calculate the dryness fraction o f exhaust steam entering the condenser.
From steam (pressure) tables, pressure of steam corresponding to 42-67°C is 0 085
bar. .
From steam (pressure) tables, at 0.085 bar, L = 2,400-3 kJ/kg.
Let the unknown dryness fraction of exhaust steam entering the condenser = x.
Then, heat lost by one kg o f exhaust steam of dryness fraction x at 42-67°C (0 085
bar) in condensing to water at 42-67°C and in being cooled from 42-67°G to 35°C
= xL + K (ts - tc) = 2,400-3x + (42-67 - 35) x 4-187 kJ per kg of steam.
Heat removed or gained by cooling water per kg o f exhaust steam
= Mass of cooling water required to condense one kg exhaust steam x specific
heat of water x rise in temperature of cooling water.
STEAM CONDENSERS 11
mw 46 250
= — (t2 - fi) K * , ' (30 - 16-5)4-187 = 2,196-9 kJ per kg of exhaust steam.
rn§ i j 1yu
Neglecting losses,
heat lost by 1 kg of exhaust steam = heat gained by cooling water per kg of exhaust
steam
i.e. 2,400-3x + (42-67 - 35) 4-187 = 2,196-9
/. x m 0-902 (dryness fraction of exhaust steam entering the condenser)
Alternatively, using eqn. (1.2b), dryness fraction of exhaust steam entering the condenser,
mw
(t2 - t,)K - (fs - tc)K
x - 5

46 250
1 190 (30 " 16,5) 4 1 8 7 - (42 67 - 35)4*187
x = — *------------------------2 400 3---------------------------- = (same as before)

Problem-3 : The following particulars relate to a test o f a surface condenser o f a steam

turbine :
Absolute pressure o f exhaust steam, 0.06 bar; temperature o f condensate, 32°C;
temperature o f cooling water in the condenser at inlet and outlet, 15°C and 30°C respectively;
mass o f condenser cooling water per kg of steam, 32 kg. Assuming that all heat lost by
exhaust steam is taken up by cooling water, determine the dryness fraction o f the steam
as it enters the condenser. Take specific heat of water as 4167 kJ/kg K.
From steam (pressure) tables, at 0.06. bar, h = 151 -53 kJ/kg,
L = 2,415-9 kJ/kg, and ts = 36-16°C.
Heat lost by one kg of exhaust steam
= xL + K (ts - tc)
= x x 2,415-9 + 4-187 (36-16 - 32) =2,415-9x +17-418 kJ/kg of exhaust steam.
Heat removed or gained by cooling water per kgof exhaust steam ’
mw
x K (t2 - fj) = 32 x 4-187 x (3 0 -1 5 ) = 2,009-76 kJ per kg of exhaust steam
ms
Neglecting losses,
Heat lost by 1 kg exhaust steam = Heat gained by cooling water per ,kg of exhaust steam
i. e. 2,415-9x + 17-418 = 2,009-76
.*. x = 0-8246 (dryness fraction of steam entering the condenser)
1.10 Dalton’s Law o f Partial Pressures
Dalton's law states that in a mixture of perfect gases which do not react chemically
with one another, total pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum o f partial pressures
which each gas would exert\ if it separately occupied the whole volume, and was at the
same temperature as the mixture. In other words, in such a mixture each constituent gas
obeys its own characteristic (equation as if the other constituent gases were absent.
Let a mixture of gaseous substances be made up of.constituents a, b, c, etc Then,
according to Dalton’s law the total presure pm exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum
12 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
of the partial pressures. A partial pressure is the pressure which one constituent, such
as a, would exert if it alone occupied the whole volume (volume of the mixture), and
was at the same temperature as the mixture. We therefore have,
Pip = Pa + Pb + Pc +.......
If a mixture of gases a, b, c, etc. is contained in a volume v, each gas occupies
the whole volume v, exerts a partial pressure pa, pb, Pc, etc. and all the constituents
are at an absolute temperature T. Then, for any constituent such as a,
Pa x Va = ma X Ra X Ta
Pa x Va /Ha x Ra x Ta
or ma = -5 or va = --------- -----------
Fla x Ta Pa
Dalton's law holds good approximately for mixture o f gases and vapours which do
not combine chemically.
In steam condensers, we have mixture of steam (water vapour) and air, and the total
absolute pressure which exists in the condensers is the sum of the pressures exerted
by the steam and non-condensable gases. These non-condensable gases consist chiefly
of air and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is in extremely small quantity in comparison
with the air and may be neglected. We, therefore have p m = pa + Ps where, p m is the
total pressure in the condenser, p a is the partial pressure of air, and p s is the partial
pressure of steam.
If the effective volume of the condenser is v r r i, then according to Dalton’s law,
each constituent part occupies the whole volume at its partial pressure. We, therefore,
have v = vs = va where, vs is the volume of steam in m3, and va is the volume of air
in m3.
If the temperature of the mixture in the condenser is t°C,then according to Dalton’s
law, temperature of each constituent part will be the same as the temperature of the
mixture.
We, therefore, have f = ta - ts
where, ta is the temperature of air, and k is the temperature of steam.
The application of Dalton’s law of partial pressures to condensers and air pumps is
illustrated by the following problems :
Problem-4 : The vacuum in a steam condenser is 685 mm of mercury (barometer 760
mm) and the temperature is 28-96°C. What is partial presure of air present in the
condenser? If the volume of condenser steam space is 8 5 m3, what is the mass o f air
present in the condenser ? Take R = 0 287 kJ/kg K for air.
The combined pressure of steam and air in the condenser,
pm m 760 - 685 = 75 mm of Hg,
75
Or total absolute pressure in the condenser, p m = = 0-1 bar

( .. 1 bar = 750 mm of Hg)

; At 28-96°C, partial pressure of steam, p a = 0 04 bar [from steam (Pressure) tables.].
Hence, by Dalton's law, the partial pressure of air,
Pa = Pm - ps = 0-1 - 0 04 = 0 06 bar
By Dalton’s law, air and steam occupy the same volume at their partialpressure and
have the same temperature, and hence air present in the condenser will occupy a volume
of *8-5 m3 at 0 06 bar and will be at a temperature of 28-96°C.
STEAM CONDENSERS 13
Applying the characteristic euqation for air, pava = maRaTa,
PaVa (0 06 x 105)8-5
Mass of air, ma = -= ■= *--------- 1---------- = 0-5885 kg.
R a~a (0*287 X 103) (28-96 + 273)
Mass of air present in the condenser = 0-5885 kg.
Problem-5 : The temperature in a surface condenser is 42°C and the vacuum is 685
mm of mercury (barometer 749 mm). Correct the vacuum to a standard barometer o f
760 mm and determine the pressure of steam and air, and mass o f air associated with
one kg o f steam. Take R = 0-287 kJ/kg K for air.
If the barometer is raised from 749 to 760 mm of Hg without any change in absolute
pressure in condenser, then the mercury in the vacuum gauge will rise by 760 - 749 =
11 mm.
Corrected vacuum to standard barometer = 11 + 685 = 696 mm o f Hg.
Total pressure in the condenser, pm = 749 - 685 = 64 mm of Hg.
Now, 760 mm of Hg = 1 standard atmosphere = 1,01,325 pa = 1-01325 bar.

1 mm of Hg. = £ = 0-001333 bar.

Total pressure in the condenser, pm = 64 x 0-001333 = 0-08512 bar

From steam (temperature) tables, at 42°C, partial pressure of water vapour (steam),
ps = 0-08208 bar
Hence by Dalton's law, the partial pressure of air
Pa = Pm - Ps = 0-08512 - 0-08208 = 0-00304 bar
Specific volume of one kg of steam at 0-08208 bar (saturation temperature 42°C)
= 17-671 m3/kg. [from steam (temperature) tables]
By Dalton’s law, air and steam occupy the same volume at their partial pressureand
have the same temperature and hence the air present per kg of steam will occupy a
volume of 17-671 m at 0-00304 bar and will be at a temperature of 42°C.
From characteristic equation of air,
. (0 00304 » 105) » 17-671 . „
RaTa (0-287 * 103) x (42 + 273)
Problem -6 : A closed vessel of 0 7 n? capacity contains saturated water vapour and
air at a temperature o f 42-67°C and pressure of 0-127 bar. Due to further air leakage
into the vesel, the pressure rises to 0-28 bar and temperature falls to 37-63°C. Calculate
the mass o f air which has leaked in. Take R m 0287 kJ/kg K for air.
Initially : From steam (pressure) tables, at 42-67°C, partial pressure of water vapour
(steam), ps = 0-085 bar
Hence by Dalton’s law, the partial pressure of air,
pa = Pm - Ps = 0-127 - 0-085 = 0-042 bar
.-. Mass of air, present initially in the vessel of 0-7 m3 capacity,

maf , . ------(0 042 » 1° 5> * 0 7-------- 0-0325 kg.

RaTa (0-287 x 10 ) (42-67 + 273)
Finally, from steam (pressure) tables, at 37-63°C, partial pressure of steam
ps = 0-065 bar.
14 E LE M E N TS O FH E A TE N G IN E S V ol.il
Hence, by Dalton’s law, the partial pressure of air,
Pa = A n - Ps = 0-28 - 0 065 = 0-215 bar
.*. Mass of air present finally in the vessel of 0-7 m3 capacity,
PaVa ( 0-215 x 105) x 0-7
maf = 0-1688 kg
RaTa (0-287 x 10 3) (37-63 +273)
Hence, air leakage into the vessel = maf - rrhi = 0-1688 - 0-0325 = 0-1363 kg.
1.11 Vacuum E fficiency
In a steam condenser we have a mixture of steam and air, and the total pressure
which exists in the condenser is the sum of the partial pressures exerted by the steam
and air. With no air present in the condenser, the total absolute pressure in the condenser
would be equal to partial pressure of steam corresponding to the temperature of condenser,
and maximum vacuum would be obtained in the condenser. The ratio of the actual vacuum
obtained at the steam inlet to the condenser, to this maximum vacuum (or Ideal vacuum)
which could be obtained in a perfect condensing plant (with no air present) is called the
vacuum efficiency, i. e.
V a c u u m _______ Actual vacuum at the steam inlet to the condenser_____
efficiency Absolute pressure correspondending
[Barometric pressure] - to the temperature of
condensation
Absolute pressure in the ...(1.4)
[Barometric pressure] -
condenser
or
Abssolute pressure corresponcling
[Barometric pressure] -
to t<emperature of condensatic>n
If the absolute pressure of steam corresponding to the temperature of condensation
were equal to the absolute pressure in the condenser, the vacuum efficiency would be
100%. In fact, there will always be some air present in the condenser due to leakage
and dissolved air present in the steam entering the condenser. The value of vacuum
efficiency, therefore, depends upon the quantity of air removed from the condenser by
the air pump.
Problem-7 : Steam enters a condenser at 3288°C and with barometer standing at 760
mm o f Hg, a vacuum o f 685 mm of Hg was produced. Determine the vacuum efficiency.
From steam (Pressure) tables, at 32-88°C, partial pressure of steam
= 0-05 bar = 0-05 x 750 = 37-5 mm of Hg.
Using eqn. (1-4),
Actual vacuum
Vacuum efficiency =
Absolute pressure corresponding
Barometric to temperature of
pressure
condensation

685 685
= 0-9481 or 94-81 %
7 6 0 -(0 -0 5
X 750) 722-5
Actual vacuum
or Vacuum efficiency =
vacuum corresponding to saturation
temperature of condensate
Actual vacuum 685 = 0-9481 or 94-81 %(same as before).
Ideal vacuum 760 - 37-5
STEAM CONDENSERS 15
Problem-8 : In a surface condenser test the following observations were made :
Vacuum TOO mm o f Hg; barometer 765 mm o f Hg; mean temperature o f condensation
3&16°C; hotwell temperature 30°C; mass o f cooling water 47,500 kg/hour; inlet temperature
o f cooling water 17°C; outlet temperature o f cooling water 32°C; mass o f condensate
1,500 kg/hour. Find : (a) the mass of air present per m3 o f condenser volume, (b) the
state o f exhaust steam entering the condenser, and (c) the vacuum efficiency.
Take R = 0-287 kJ/kg K for air.
(a) Total or combined pressure of steam and air in the condenser,

Pm = - - - - 7-go^ ~ = 0 0867 bar

At 36-16°C, partial pressure of steam, ps = 0 06 bar [from steam (pressure) tables].
Hence, by Dalton’s law, partial pressure of air,
Pa = An - Ps = 0 0867 - 0 06 = 0 0267 bar
Applying the characteristic equation for air, pava = maRaTa,
Mass of air present per m3 of condenser volume,
ma . (0-0267 » 105) * 1------0.030, k
fUTm (0-287 x 103) x (36-16 * 273)
(b) Heat removed or gained by cooling water per kg o f exhaust steam

- — X (fe - /1 ) K = (32 - 17) X 4-187 = 1,988-83 kJ

ms i ,500
From steam (pressure) tables, pressure of steam corresponding to 36-16°C is 0-06 bar.
From steam (pressure) tables, at 0-06 bar, L = 2,415-9 kJ/kg. of steam.
Let the dryness fraction of steam entering the condenser be x. Then, heat given up
(lost) by one kg o f wet steam of dryness fraction x at 36-16°C (0-06 bar) in condensing
to water at 36-16°C and in being cooled from 36-16°C to 30°C
= xL + (ts - tc) K = 2,415-9x + (36-16 - 30) x 4-187 kJ/kg of exhaust steam.
Neglecting losses, heat lost by one kg of exhaust steam = heat gained by cooling
water per kg of exhaust steam.
i.e. 2,415-9 + (36-16 - 30) x 4-187 = 1,988-83
From which, x = 0-8126, i.e. exhaust steam entering the condenser is 81-26% dry.
Alternatively, using eqn. (1 -2b), dryness fraction of exhaust steam entering the condenser,

(fc - ft) K - (ts - tc) K

iTls

47 500
• (3 2 - 17) 4 1 8 7 - (36-16 - 30) X 4-187
x = —!------------------------ n n---------------------------- = 0-8126 (same as before)
2,415-9

(c) Using eqn, (1-4), Vacuum efficiency

_________________ Actual vacuum in mm of Hg_________________
Vacuum corresponding to temperature of condensation in mm of Hg
, Actual vacuum _ ------------700----------- = 700 = 0 9722 or 97-22%
Ideal vacuum 765 - (750 x 0-06) 765 - 45
16 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
1.12 Condenser E fficiency
There is no standard method of determining the efficiency of a condenser, but a
method adopted by the well known makers of steam turbines, Messers Parson & Co.,
has been widely used in engineering practice. By this method the thermal efficiency of
a condenser is stated as the ratio of the difference between the outlet and inlet temperatures
of cooling water, to the difference between the saturation temperature corresponding to
the absolute pressure in the condenser and inlet temperature of the cooling water, i.e.
Condenser Rise in temperature of cooling water___________ ...(1.5)
efficiency saturation temperature corresponding to Inlet temperature
the absolute pressure in the condenser of cooling water
Problem-9 The vacuum in a surface condenser is found lo be 707.5 mm o f Hg with
barometer reading 760 mm o f Hg. The cooling water enters the condenser 1at 15°C and
leaves at 36°C. Find the condenser efficiency.
Absolute pressure in the condenser = 760 - 707-5 * 52-5 mm of Hg
52-5
0-07 bar.
750
Saturation temperature corresponding to 0-07 bar is 39°C [from steam (Pressure)
tables].
Using eqn. (1-5), Condenser efficiency,
___________ Rise in temperature of cooling water___________
saturation temperature corresponding to inlet temperature
the absolute pressure in the condenser of cooling water
3 6 -1 5
0-875 or 87-5%
39 - 15
1.13 A ir Pumps
The primary function of an air pump is to maintain vacuum in the condenser, as
nearly as possible, equal to that corresponding to the exhaust steam temperature, by
removing air from the condenser. Another common but not essential function of the air
pump is to remove condensate together with the air from
Hofivary
v a /v g the condenser. An air pump which removes both air and
condensate is called a wet air pump, while one which
removes the moist air only is called a dry air pump.
Air pumps may be divided into :
(i) Reciprocating piston or bucket pumps, (ii) Rotary
pumps, which are generally dry pumps, (iii) Steam jet
air pumps (ejectors), which are generally dry pumps,
and (iv) Water jet pumps, which are always wet pumps.
A design of reciprocating piston or bucket wet air
pump which has been largely used and is highly efficient,
is the Edward’s air pump shown in fig. 1-10. In this
pump, foot and bucket valves are eliminated and the
condensate is arranged to flow by gravity from condenser
Cnmcal
bottom into the pump. The bucket or the piston has a conical
Fig. 1-10. Edward's air pump.
bottom which fits into the conical bottom of the pump
cylinder. On the down stroke of the piston, a partial
vacuum is produced above it, since the head discharge valves or delivery valves are
closed and sealed with water. Immediately the piston uncovers the ports, air and water
STEAM CONDENSERS 17
vapour rush into the space above the piston. With the further downward motion of the
piston, the conical part of the piston enters the condensate which has flowed into the
conical bottom of the pump from the condenser and drives it through the ports into the
barrel (pump cylinder) above the piston.
The rising piston traps the condensate, air and water vapour above the piston and
raises the pressure slightly over that of the atmosphere until the head discharge valves
open, The water vapour and air then pass to waste and the condensate gravitates to -
the hot-well.
Since the speed of reciprocating air pumps is very limited, they become very bulky
for higher vacuum or large powers. For this reason rotary dry air pumps and steam jet
air ejectors are widely used.
Rotary pump is a dry air pump and handles only air, although it is charged with
water for the purpose of its operation. The water and air is discharged through a diverging
cone which raises its pressure slightly greater than atmospheric. The water and air then
pass to a slightly elevated tank in which water is cooled and returned to the pump.
Steam je t operated air ejectors are almost universally used for the production of
high vacuum demanded in modem land condensing plants, owing to their simplicity the
small space occupied, and the absence of moving parts with the consequent reliability.
There are may types of ejectors now in the market and they all follow the same general
principle. Inthe simplest type of air ejector described below, the air is compressed in
two stages-thefirst stage compresses the air from condenser vacuum to about 650 mm
Hg vacuum, and the second stage compressing from this vacuum 650 mm Hg to
atmospheric pressure. Both stages follow the same
general principle, i.e. enthalpy of the steam is trans-
formed in a convergent-divergent steam nozzle into
kinetic energy. The rapidly moving jet of steam
entrains (drags) the air and non-condensable gases,
and the combined mass of entrained air and steam
Ajrinlet is discharged into a diffuser nozzle or diverging cone
where portion of kinetic energy is re-transformed into
pressure energy so that the air is discharged against
a pressure higher than the ejector suction pressure.
Figure 1-11 illustrates the simple type of air
ejector and is known as Lablanc’s steam air ejector.
The moist air from the condenser is drawn in at 1
and then compressed and discharged at not less
than atmospheric pressure.- Compression of air takes
place in two stages. In the first stage there is one
steam nozzle 2 and in the second stage there is a
group of steam nozzles 3. All steam nozzles are of
the De-Laval Type.
Steam generally at a pressure not less than 8
bar enters at 4, through a stop valve (not shown)
and supplies steam directly to the second stage
nozzles 3. The steam supply to the first stage nozzle
2 is through the steam pipe 5 in which there is a
controlling valve 6 . The steam expands in the nozzles
and comes out from them with a velocity of above
1,000 m/sec. and at a small absolute pressure de-
Fig. 1-11. Steam jet air ejector. pending upon the vacuum in the condenser.
18 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
The steam issuing from the nozzle 2. entrains (drags) the air and water vapour
entering at the air inlet 1. The whole mass of air, water vapour and steam is discharged
into the compression pipe with considerable velocity and a small pressure rise is obtained
in the diffuser or diverging cone 7. Before reaching the second stage, both air and steam
is compressed to about seven times the pressure in the space. 1 . Furthercompression
required takes place in the second stage, aided by the steam jets from the nozzles 3 .
The steam issuing from nozzles 3 entrains the total mass of air, vapour and steam
discharged from the first stage and compresses this mass along with its own steam in
the second stage diverging cone or diffuser to atmospheric pressure. The steam then#
enters the boiler feed tank where steam is condensed.
Problem-10 : The vacuum at the air extraction pipe in a condenser is 710 mm o f Hg
(barometer 760 mm o f Hg) and the temperature is 36- 16°C. The air leakage into the
condenser is 4 kg per 10,000 kg o f steam. Determine : (a) the volume o f air to be dealt
with by the a ir pump per kg o f steam entering the condenser, and (b) the mass o f water
vapour associated with this air. Take R = 0-287 kJ/kg K for air.
(a) Absolute pressure in the condenser,
pm = 760 - 710 = 50 mm of Hg = 50/750 = 0 0667 bar.
From steam (pressure) tables, at 36-16°C, partial pressure of steam, p s - 0-06 bar.
Hence by Dalton’s law, partial pressure of air,
Pa = Pm - Ps = 0 0667 - 0 06 = a 0067 bar.
Mass of air leaking per kg of steam, ma = 4/10,000 = 0 0004 kg.
Applying the characteristic equation 'for air, pava = maRaTa,
maRaTa 0 0004 x (0-287 x 10 3) x (36*16 + 273)
Volume of air, va = ----------- ----------------- *------------------------------------- L
P* (00067 x 10s)
= 0 053 m3/kg o f steam
(b) By Dalton’s law.0-053 m3 is also the volume of water vapour.
From steam (Pressure) tables, specific volume of steam at 0 -06 bar = 23-739 m3/kg.

Hence, mass of water vapour (steam) associated with this air = g o ^ g • 0:00223 kg.

Problem-11 : The temperature o f steam entering a surface condenser is53-97°C and

the temperature o f a ir pump suction is 45-81 °C. The barometer reading is 757 mm o f Hg.
Find : (a) the condenser vacuum,
(b) the water vapour pressure and the air pressure near the air pump suction and,
(c) If the effective capacity o f the dry air pump on the suction stroke is 8-5 m per
minute, find the mass o f air entering the condenser per minute and the mass of
steam carried over per minute in the air discharged from the air pump.
Take R = 0-287 kJ/kg K for air.
(a) From steam (pressure) tables, at 53-97°C, partial pressure of steam p s = 0-15 bar.
Partial pressure of air at steam inlet is very small and can be neglected. Hence, the
total pressure in the condenser (pm) may be taken as 0-15 bar.
Hence, the condenser pressure = 0-15 x 750 = 112-5 mm of Hg.
/. Condenser vacuum = 757 - 112-5 = 644-5 mm of Hg.
(b) From steam (Pressure) tables, partial pressure of steam, ps at 45-81 °C = 0-1 bar.
Hence, by Dalton’s law, the partial pressure of air at suction,
STEAM CONDENSERS 19
Pa = pm — ps - 0-15 - 0-1 - 0 05 bar.
(c) Assuming that the air pump deals with moist air only and not with condensate
(diy air pump), the mass of air ma is given by p*va = maRaTa
i.e. (105 X 0*05) x 8-5 - m« X (0-287 x 103) x (45-81 + 273)
Mass of air entering condenser, ma - 0-4654 kg per min.
By Dalton’s law, volume of steam entering the pump per minute is also 8-5 m .
From steam (pressure) tables, specific volume of steam at 0-1 bar - 14-674 m3.

Mass of 8 -5m3 of steam per minute = {4 574 “ 0-5793 kg/min.

Mass of the steam carried over in the air discharged = 0-5793 kg/m in.
Problem-12 : A surface condenser deals with 12,500 kg o f steam per hour. The leakage
air in the system amounts to 1 kg per 2,500 kg o f steam. The vacuum in the air pump
suction is 705 mm o f Hg (barometer 760 mm o f Hg) and the temperature is 34*C.
Compute the suction capacity o f the wet a ir pump which removes both air and condensed
steam in rri3 per minute, taking volumetric efficiency o f the air pump as 80 percent.
If the a ir pump is single-acting and runs at 1 r.p.s. and piston stroke is 1-25 times
the diameter o f the pump, find the dimensions o f the air pump.
Take R = 0-287 kJ/kg K for air.
From steam (temperature) tables, at 34°C, partial pressure of steam, ps m 0-05324 bar.
Combined absolute pressure of steam and air in the condenser,
Pm = 760 - 705 = 55 mm Hg = 55 x 0-001333 - 0-07315 bar.
Hence, by Dalton's law, the partial pressure of air,
pa — Pm — Pa — 0-07315 - 0-05324 - 0-01991 bar.
12 500
Mass of air leakage in the condenser per min, m* = 2*500 x 6 0 * 0-0834 k9-
Applying the characteristic equation for air, pava - maRaTa,
Volume of air leakage in the condenser per minute,
_ maRaTa _ 0-0834 x (0-287 x 103) x (34 + 273) = g ^ m3
Pa " (0-01991 x 10?)
12 500
Mass of steam condensed per min. = — ^ — kg

As density of water is 1,000 kg/m3, volume of condensate/min.

= J60 2’? L * 0-2083 m3

x 1,000
Volume of mixture actually discharged by wet air pump/min.
= 3-691 + 0-2083 = 3-8993 m3
3-8993 o
Suction (or swept) capacity of wet air pump per min. = -■ ■ = 4-874 m
O*o
6
Suction capacity of wet air pump per stroke = — x- — = 81,223 cm3

.-. ? (? x 1-25 d = 81,233

4
V *

03
20 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II

4 x 81 233 3. /'
1-25 x 3*14 “ “ 43-583 cm (diameter of air pump),
and air pump piston stroke, I = 43-583 x 1-25 = 5448 cm
Problem-13 : A je t condenser has to condense 3,800 kg o f steam per hour. The volume
o f the injection water used is 290 m3/hour and its initial temperature is 25°C. The volume
o f air at atmospheric pressure dissolved in the injection water is 5 % o f the volume o f
water. The air which comes in with the steam and that which leaks into the condenser
amounts to 5 kg per 10,000 kg o f steam. The vacuum in the air pump suction is 675
mm o f Hg (barometer 760 mm o f Hg) and the temperature o f condensate is 36- 15m C.
Determine the suction capacity o f the wet a ir pump in m3 minute to remove the air
and water from the condenser. The volumetric efficiency of the air pump is 80% and the
mass o f one m3 of. a ir at 0°C and atmospheric pressure o f 1-01325 bar (N.T.P) is 1-293 kg.
760 - 675
Total pressure (of steam and air) in the condenser, pm = — --- = 0-1133 bar
750
From steam (pressure) tables, partial pressure of steam, ps at 36-16°C is 0-06 bar.
Hence, from Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the partial pressure of air,
pa = Pm - Ps = 0-1133 - 0 06 = 0-0533 bar
volume of air dissojved in the injection
= 290 x - 5 - = 14-5 m3/hr.
water at atmospheric pressure and 25°C I uu
Volume of this air at N.T.P. (0°C and atmospheric pressure 1-01325 bar) dissolved
1-01325 x 14-5 1-01325 x va\
in the injection water is given by
(25 + 273) (0 + 273)
vai =13-28 m3 per hr.
Volume of air dissolved in injection water at N.T.P., v&\ = 13-28 m3/hr.
5
Mass of leakage air = 3,800 x —— ~ - 1-9 kg/hr.
1UjLKJU
1*9 3
Volume of this leakage air at N.T.P., Va2 = ” 1-47 m /^ r-

_ . , , . . u.. . . . * n Va) + Va2 13-28+1-47 n<J. CQm 3

Total volume of air per minute at N.T.P. = — ------- = 0-2458 m

This volume (0-2458 m3) of air at 1-01325 bar and 0°C (N.T.P.).
Volume of this air (va) at 0-0533 bar and 36-16°C is given by
1-01325 x 0-2458 0-0533 x va
0 + 273 , “ 36-16 +273
Va = 5-292 m3/min.
3 800 3
Volume of condensate per min. = ’ .. = 0-0633 m .
60 X 1,000
290 3
Volume of injection water per min. = = 4-833 m
Volume of mixture (air, condensate and injection water) actually discharge per min.
= 5-292 + 0-0633 + 4-833 = 10-1883 m3.
10*1883 3
Suction capacity of the wet air pump =— ^ — = 12-735 m /m in
 STEAM CONDENSERS 21
It may be noted that the volume of condensate is negligible in comparison with the
volume of injection (cooling) water and air.
Problem -14 : A condenser is to deal with steam o f dryness fraction 0 9 5 and temperature
37-63°C, a t the rate o f 5,000 kg/hr. If the estimated air leakage is 5 kg/hr., determine :
(i) the water flow lost from the feed circuit in kg per-hr., (ii) the air pump capacity in
m3 per hr., and (Hi) the additional heat required to be supplied in the boiler in kg/hr. as
a result o f undercooling for condensate temperatures o f 36-16°C, 3288°C, 3062°C and
28 08°C. Take R = 0 2 8 7 kJ/kg K for air.
The total absolute pressure at entry to the condenser is equal to the sum of partial
pressure of air and saturation pressure of steam entering the condenser. This total pressure
is assumed as constant throughout the condenser, since the velocity of steam flow is .
small.
Referring to fig. 1-12,
Exhaust steam At 37-63°C, partial pressure of steam,
01376/0 0*95 dry ps = 0 065 bar, and specific volume of dry saturated
steam at 37-63°C, vs = 22-014 m3/kg (from steam
tables). The total volume of steam entering the con-
denser/hr.,
v = x x vs x 5,000
= 0-95 x 22-014 x 5,000 = 1,04,600 m3/hr.
Air associated with this steam at 37-63°C is 5 kg.
By Dalton’s law, the associated air volume is equal
to volume of steam.
Hence, air volume, va = 1,04,600 m3/hr.
maRaTa
Now, partial pressure of air, pa = — - —

at3&l6:3238:3<5-62:&0&*C _ 5 x (0-287 x 103) x (37-63 + 273)

1,04,600 x 105
= 0-0000422 bar

Total pressure in the condenser, pm = ps + pa = 0-065 +0-0000422 =0-06504 bar

This pressure (pm) is constant throughout the condenser.
When condensate temperature is 3616°C :
A t 36-16°C, partial pressure of steam and specific volum e of steam (from stearfi
pressure tables) are : ps = 0-06 bar and vs = 23-739 m3/kg respectively.
Hence, partial pressure of air, pa - Pm - Ps - 0-06504 - 0-06 = 0-00504 bar
The am ount of air, ma to be extracted is 5 kg/hr.
Using ideal gas equation fo r air,
. i_ maRaTa 5 x (0-287 x 103) x (36-16+ 273) ---------
Volum e of air per hr., va= -------------= ------ *------------------ 1— 1—*------------ L = 880-25 m3/hr.
Pa 0-00504 x 105
Hence, a ir pump capacity per hour = 880-25 m3.
By D alton’s's law, volum e of steam per hour is also 880-25 m .
Specific volum e o f dry saturated steam, vs at 36-16°C = 23-739m3/kg.
22 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II

The amount of steam flow lost with this air = -§P°'25 ka/hr
Vs ‘

Amount of steam flow lost from feed circuit, ms = = 37-1 kg per hr.
#oy
_ - ms 37-1
.-. The ratio, — = ——1 - 7-42
ma 5
The steam is entering the condenser at 37* 63cC. The condensate temperature is
36-16°. Therefore condensate is cooled below saturation temperature, i.e. 37-63°C. The
cooling of condensate below saturation temperature is known as undercooling. As a result
of this, additional heat to be supplied in the boiler will increase.
At 36-16°C, the additional amount of heat supplied.
= 5,(XX) x (37-63 - 36-16) x 4-187 - 30,800 kJ/hr.
Similarly, calculations can be made for the condensate temperatures of 32-88°, 30-62°C
and 28-08°C and results be tabulated as under :
Condensate temp., °C 36-16 32-88 30-62 28-08
Air pump capacity, m3/hr 880-25 291-85 207-08 15978
Water flow lost from the circuit, kg/hr.37-1 10-35 6-51 4-37
ms/ma 7-42 2-07 1-302 0-874
Additional heat required to be
supplied in boiler, kJ/hr. 30,800 99,400 1,46,800 2,00,000
The following effects o f the reduction in condensate temperature can be derived from
the above table :
— Water flow lost from the feed circuit decreases with decrease in condensate temperature,
— Air pump capacity decreases with decrease in condensate temperature. This reduces
the power required for driving air pump,
— Additional heat is supplied in the boiler, as a result of reduced temperature of feed water.
This decreases the efficiency of the cycle.
Evidently a compromise must be made between the conflicting requirements of lesser
loss of feed water, low capacity of airpump, and high condensate temperature, i. e. low
capacity of air pump without undercooling. This is made possible by using down flow
surface condenser as shown in fig. 1-6. Further improvement in performance can be
obtained by using central flow surface condenser as shown in fig. 1-7. In this type of
condenser, condensate temperature approaches that of the steam at inlet.
Problem-15 : A steam condenser fitted with separate air and condensate pumps, has
portion o f tubes near the air pump suction screened off and the condenser tubes at this
point contain the coldest water. Explain the object o f this arrangement.
In such a condenser, the temperature o f entering steam is 37-63°C, o f the condensate
is 3&16°C, and o f the air entering the pump is 35-58°C. If the quantity o f air entering
the condenser is 2-25 kg/hour, calculate the volume o f air dealt with by the air pump in
m3/hour. Compare this with the amount o f air to be handled using a combined air and
condensate pump. Assume constant vacuum throughout the condenser, and condensate
temperature to be unaltered. Take R = 0287 kJ/kg K for air.
Referring to fig. 1-13, from steam (Pressure) tables, at 37-63°C, partial pressure of
steam, ps = 0-065 bar.
The partial pressure of air at entiy is very small and can be neglected. Hence, total
pressure in the condenser (pm) may be taken as 0-065 bar.
STEAM CONDENSERS 23
A t air pump suction temperature is 35-58°C.
Exhaust steam
At 35-58°C, partial pressure of steam, ps =
0 055 bar [from steam (pressure) tables].
Tubes .*. From Dalton’s law of partial pressures, partial
pressure of air,
A ir cooling
Pa = Pm - Ps = 0 065 - 0-055 = 0-01 bar.
's t ir
Applying the characteristic equation for air,
^j^T o dry •. , PaVa = maRaTa,
a ir pump Volume of air at air pump suction to be dealt
1 5 -5 *t with by the air pump,

„ To
- condensate pum* maRaTa 2-25 x (0-287 x 103) (35-58 + 273)
36-16 X
v* 0-01 x 105
Fig. 1-13. Surface condenser fitted with air cooling
section baffle. - 199-266 m3/hour.
When the condenser is not screened
A t condensate extraction pump, temperature is 3&16°C.
At 36-16°C, partial pressure of steam, Ps = 0-06 bar [from steam (pressure), tables].
Partial pressure of air (if cooling had not been provided),
Pa = Pm - Ps = 0-065 — 0-06 = 0-005 bar.
Applying the characteristic equation for air, pava = maRaTa,
Volume of air to be dealt with by the air pump,
. " M * . 2-25 »(0-287 x IQ3) (36-16 + 273) _ ^ ^ m3/h o u f
P« 0-005 x 105
Thus the capacity of air pump is reduced to about half, by screening a section o f
tubes (that is, the air is cooled) near the air pump suction.
Problem-16 : Explain the benefit of fitting an air cooling section to the steam condenser.
In a surface condenser, a section of the tubes near by pump is screened o ff from
steam so that air is cooled to a temperature below that of the condensate, separate
extraction pumps being provided to deal with air and condensate respectively. The steam
condensed per hour is 4,500 kg and the air leakage is 4 kg per hour. The temperature
o f the steam entering the condenser is 3288°C, temperature o f condensate at entrance
to the air cooler is 30-62°C, and the temperature at the air pump suction is 26-19°C.
Assuming a constant vacuum throughout the condenser, find : (a) the volume o f air
in m3 to be dealt with by the air pump per hour, (b) the mass o f the steam condensed
in the air cooler per minute, and (c) the percentage reduction in the air pump capacity
following the cooling o f the air. Take R = 0287 kJ/kg K for air.
(a) From steam (pressure) tables, at 32-88°C, partial pressure of steam, ps = 0-05
bar and specific volume of steam = 28-192 m3/kg.
.*. Total volume of dry steam per hour = 28-192 x 4,500 = 1,26,864 m3, and
from Dalton’s law, this volume is also the volume of 4 kg of air per hour.
Applying the characteristic equation for air, pava = maRaTai partial pressure of air,
maffaTa 4 x (0-287 x 103) (32-88 + 273) -
pa = ------------= *---- -------- *-»---------------- 1 = 0-0000276 bar, which is negligib e.
105 x 1,26,864
24 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
Hence the total pressure, pm in the condenser may be taken as 0*05 bar.
A t a ir pump suction, temperature is 26-19°C.
Partial pressure of steam at 26-19°C, ps = 0034 bar (from steam pressure tables).
.*. From Dalton’s law of partial pressure, partial pressure of air,
Pa = Pm - Ps = 0 05 - 0 034 = 0 016 bar.
Applying the characteristic equation for air, pava = maRaTai
Volume of air to be dealt with by the air pump,
va « = - * -(0287 x 103) (26-19 + 273) _ ^ m W
Pa 0 016 x 105
(b) According to Dalton’s law, 214*67 m3 is also the volume of steam. Specific volume
of steam at 26*19°C (0*034 bar) = 40*572 m3/kg (from steam tables).
Hence, mass of steam mixed or _ 214*67 n-08fl2 k
removed with the air per minute 60 x 40*572 “ ®
When condenser is not screened.
A t entrance to air cooler, condensate temperature is 30-62°C.
Partial pressure of steam at 30*62°C, ps m 0*044 bar [from steam (pressure) tables].
/. Partial pressure of air (if cooling had not been provided)
Pa = Pm - Ps = 0*05 - 0*044 - 0*006 bar
Applying the characteristic equation for air, pava = maRaTa
Volume of air to be dealt with by the air pump,
v,a _ m° R* T* » 4 x (0*287 x 103) x (30*62 + _273) =q f a
Pa (0*006 X 105)
And from Dalton’s law, this volume (580*92 m3 per hr.) is also the volume of steam
per hour.
Specific volume of steam at 30*62°C (0*044 bar) = 31*806 m3/kg (from steam tables)
580*92
.*. Mass of steam associated with air per minute = — g g s - 0*3044 kg.
oU x ol'oUb
.*. Mass of steam condensed in the air cooler per minute
= 0*3044 - 0*0882 = 0*2162 kg.
. > Percentage reduction in the air pump 580*92 - 214*67 o*6305 or 63*05%
' ' capacity due to cooling of air 580*92 ° ^ ^
The air cooling section reduces the required capacity o f the air pump and the mass
o f water vapour removed by the air pump.
The benefit of fitting an air cooling section to the condenser is explained on page 7.
1.14 Cooling Water Supply
In marine practice and land practice adjacent to sea, the sea provides an ideal source
of cooling water. In land practice, a river or canal may provide an ample supply of cooling
water, for which reason, large power stations are built on the banks of -rivers.
Where the supply of condensing water is limited, as when supplied by wells or brought
from a water supply undertaking, it may be cooled and used again. This may be done
in various ways. Where the adjacent land is cheap, a large open water cooling spray
pond can be installed, into which warm condensing water from the surface condenser is
STEAM CONDENSERS 25
led at one end and with-
drawn from the other end
after being cooled. The cool-
ing effect is mainly due to
evaporation from the surface
of water, and may be in-
creased by a system of
piping and spray nozzles
over the cooling pond, from
which the warm water is
B= allowed to issue out as a
777^ fine spray (fig. 1-14). The
disadvantage o f a spray
0=
pond, however, is that a
7773 large amount o f water may
Sectional elevation be lost in windy weather.
Fig. 1-14. Cooling pond with spray nozzles.
The most compact ar-
rangement is water cooling tower which can be of the open or closed type. In the closed
or chimney type of cooler, which is commonly used, the troughs and hurdles are fixed
within a casingmade of timber, steel or ferro-concrete. The casing is provided with large
air openings near the base. Air enters at these openings and rises upward by natural
draught.Most of the cooling towers are provided with chimneys, the purpose of which is
to create an upward current of air, although in restricted places, forced fan draught is
some times employed. Fan draught is also used in tropics, where the air and water
temperature difference is so small, that a reversal of air current might occur if natural
draught water were depended upon.
Wooden and steel towers are usually of rectangular section, some 25 to 30 metres
high, while largest reinforced concrete towers are built 50 metres high. These are of
circular cross-section and can be made of double hyperbolic (longitudinal section) in order
to obtain a venturi effect. This produces air velocity increasing to maximum at the smallest
cross-section of the tower where the warm water is introduced.
In the ferro-concrete hyperbolic cooling tower, il-
lustrated in fig. 1-15, the hot condensing water is
pumped to troughs which are placed about 10 metres
above the ground level. Nozzles situated in the bottom
of the troughs, project the water on to spray cups,
which thin out jets of water into sheets. These sheets
of water break up under the action of gravity and
hurdles, and fall into a pond or tank situated below the
tower. The falling water gives up its heat to the rising
column of air.
The cooling tower is built over a tank into which
cooling water collects. The cooling water is pumped
from the tank and returned to the condenser. Make up
water must be supplied with all these cooling arrange-
ments and in the case of cooling towers, some 3 to
Fig. 1*15. Ferro-concrete hyperbolic 5 P6'0®'1* <* "a y have to be replaced.
coding tower. Of the methods, the cooling pond is much cheaper,
but the cooling results obtained from the cooling towers, are better.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
Tutorial -1
Delete the phrase which is not applicable from tie folowing statements :
(i) The primary object of a condenser is to maintain a very low/high backpressure on theexhaust side
of the steam engine or steam turbine.
(ii) The fewest possible exhaust pressure in case of a condensing steam turbine plant is less^iigher than
that of a condensing steam engine. *
(ill) A jet condenser is a much simpler and less costly/complicated and more costly piece of apparatus as
compared to a surface condenser.
(iv) In case of a marine steam power plant a jet condenser / a surface condenser is used.
.(>4 Locomotive steam engines are generally condensing / non-condensing engines.
(vi) In a surface condenser, the exhaust steam and the cooling water do not/do come in direct contact.
(vii) The work output of steam engine will increase if its back pressure is increased/decreased.
[(i) high, (ii) higher, (iii) complicated and more costly, (iv) a jet condenser, (v) condensing, (vi) do, (vii) increased]
Fill inthe blanks to complete Ihe folowing statements :
(i) A vessel having vacuum of 60 cm of Hg will have absolute pressureequal t o ______ mm of Hgwhen
barometer reads 750 mm of Hg.
(ii) A pump which extracts both air and condensate from the condenser is known a s pump.
(iii) A pump which extracts moist air only from the condenser is known a s pump.
(iv) Ih e vacuum gauge reading in a condenser is 713 mm of Hg when Ih e ‘barometer reads 758 mm of
Hg. The corrected vacuum gauge reading to standard barometer of 760 mm in this case i s mm
of Hg.
(v) By Dalton's law, air and steam occupy the same at their partial pressures and have Ihe same
temperature.
(vi) The secondary object of a condenser is to supply to the ___ pure and hot feed water.
[ (I) 150, (ii) wet air, (Hi) dry air, (iv) 715, (v) volume, (vi) boiler]
Indicate the correct answer out of the suggested groups of phrases :
(i) Air from a condenser is extracted from
(a) the coldest zone in the condenser
(b) Ihe hottest zone in the condenser
(c) any where in the condenser
(d) the centre of the condenser.
(ii) Air from a condenser is extracted from Ihe coldest zone because
(a) the amount of air to be handled by the air pump willbe low
(b) the air removed from the coldest zone will containleastwater vapour
(c) less work is required to operate the air pump
(d) air pump of lower quality can be used.
(iii) Vacuum efficiency of condenser would be 100% if
(a) there were no air present in Ihe condenser
(b) there were maximum air present in Ihe condenser
(c) the temperature of condensate fails below saturation temperature
(d) the condenser is of surface type.
(iv) In surface condensers provided on steam turbines, 1he amount of air leakage should not exceed
(a) 10 kg/10,000 kg of steam condensed
(b) 5 kg/10,000 kg of steam condensed
(c) 10 kg/1,000 kg of steam condensed
. (d) 5 kg/1,000 kg of steam condensed.
(v) In surface condensers provided on steam engines, 1he amount of air leakage is about
(a) 5 kg/10,000 kg of steam condensed
(b) 10 kg/10,000 kg of steam condensed
(c) 15 kg/10,000 kg of steam condensed
(d) 20 kg/10,000 kg of steam condensed.
f(i) a, (ii) b, (iii) a, (iv) b. (v) c]
STEAM CONDENSERS 27
4. What Is the function of a condenser in a modem steam condensing power plant*
The vacuum in the condenser is 716 mm of Hg when the barometer reads 748 mm. in another case
the vacuum in the condenser is 705 mm of Hg when the barometer reads 754 mm. Correct these vacuum
gauge readings to a standard barometer of 760 mm.
[728 mm; 711 mm]
5. Stale the different types of steam -condensers. Sketch and described the working of any one of them.
The following particulars relate to a test of the surface condenser of a steam turbine :
Absolute pressure of the exhaust steam entering the condenser, 0-06 bar; temperature of condensate,
32’C; temperature of cooling water at inlet and outlet, 15*C and 30*C; respectively; mass of coding water
per kg of steam, 32 kg. Assuming that all the heat lost by the exhaust steam is taken up by the cooling
water, determine the drynes fraction of the steam as it enters the condenser.
[0825]
6. Taking the data of the proceeding problem except the final temperature of the cooling water is to be taken
to apply to a jet condenser, calculate the mass of injection (cooling) water required per kg of exhaust
steam.
[32-15 kg]
7. Compare the merits and demerits of surface condensers over jet condensers.
Exhaust steam having a dryness fraction of 0.85, enters a surface condenser at a pressure of 0-1 bar
and is condensed to water at 38*C. The coding water enters at 15*C and leaves at 30*C. Calculate the
- mass of cooling water required per kg of exhaust steam.
(32-9 kg]
8. (a) Enumerate the sources of air leakage in a steam condenser. Briefly state the effects of air leakage into
a condenser.
(b) Explain Dalton's law of partial pressures as applied to the condenser of a steam plant
9. The temperature in a condenser is 37’C (corresponding saturation pressure is 0-06281 bar) and the vacuum
is 700 mm of Hg (barometer 755-2 mm Hg). Correct the vacuum gauge reading to a standard barometer
of 760 mm of Hg and hence determine ; (i) the partial pressures of steam and air, and (ii) the mass of
air associated with one kg of steam. Take R = 0-287 kJ/kg K for air.
[704-8 mm Hg; (i) 0-06281 bar, 0-010606 bar, (ii) 0-27104 kg]
10. (a) What do you understand by ‘partial pressure' as applied to the condenser of a steam plant and what
Is the law connecting them ?
(b) A closed vessel of 0-35 m3 capacity contains saturated water vapour and air at a temperature of 42-67‘C
and pressure of 0-1336 bar. Due to further air leakage into the vessel, the pressure rises to 0-253 bar
and temperature falls to 36-16*C. Calculate the mass of air which has leaked in. Take R = 0£87
kJ/kg K for air. v -
(0-0573 kg]
11. State the law of partial pressures and show how it applies to the condenser of a steam plant
The following observations were made on a condensing plant in which the temperature of condensation
was. measured directly by thermometers : the recorded vacuum was 710 mm of Hg (barometer 765 mm),
mean temperature of condensation 35-58'C, temperature of hot-well 28*C, mass of condensate per hour
2,000 kg, mass of cooling water per hour 64,000 kg, inlet temperature of coding water 14-5’C, outlet
temperature of coding water 30*C.
Find : (a) the state of steam entering the condenser, and (b) the mass of air present per m ' of
condenser volume.
[84-52% dry; (b) 0-0207 kg|
12. In a surface condenser, the following data were .obtained :
. Temperature of exhaust steam entering the condenser, 42-67*C; temperature of condensate leaving the
condenser; 35*C; inlet temperature of condenser cooling water 17-5 C; outlet temperature of condenser
coding water, 31 *C; quantity of condenser coding water per hour, 46,250 kg; quantity of condensate per
hour, 1,190 kg. Calculate the dryness fraction d exhaust steam entering the condenser.
(0-903)
13. What do you understand by the term Vacuum Efficiency’ of a condensing plant ?
The vacuum at the steam inlet to a condenser is found to be 710 mm of Hg (barometer 760 mm)
and the temperature d steam in the condenser is 36-16*C. Find the vacuum efficiency. [993 %]
14. Define the term- "Vacuum efficiency'd condenser. On what factors does this efficiency depend T
Steam enters a condenser at a temperature of 35-58‘C and the barometer standing at 749 mm, a
28 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
vacuum of 703 mm of Hg was produced. Determine the vacuum efficiency.
[99-34%]
15. (a) Explain fully the importance of a low vacuum in steam turbine practice.
(b) In a particular steam power plant, air is believed to leak into the condenser. To check whether this
is so, the plant is run until the conditions are steady and then the steam supply from the engine is
shut off; simultaneously the air and condensate extraction pumps are closed down, so that the condenser
is isolated. At shut down, the temperature and vacuum are observed to be 39*C and 702 mm of
mercury respectively. After five minutes these values were 26-19*C and 483 mm of mercury. The
barometer reads 757 mm of mercury. The effective volume of the condenser is 0-57 m3.
Determine from the data, the mass of air leakage into the condenser during Ihe observed period.
Assume R « 0-287 kJ/kg K for air.
[0-2178 kg]
16. Define the term 'condenser efficiehcy* of a steam condensing plant
The following data were obtained from a test of a surface condenser :
Inlet temperature of circulating water ... 21 *C
Outlet temperature of circulating water ... 35’C
Vacuum in the condenser ... 707.5 mm Hg
Barometer ... 760 mmHg
Determine the efficiency of the condenser.
[77-78%]
17. Enumerate the sources of air leakage in a condenser and describe briefly with suitable sketches any one
method you know for extracting air from a condenser.
The temperature of the steam entering a surface condenser is 45-81 *C and the temperature at the air
pump suction is 42-67*C. The barometer reading is 754 mm of mercury. Find : (a) the condenser vacuum,
and (b) the vapour pressure and the air pressure near to the air pump suction.
If the effective capacity of the air pump on the suction stroke is 11 m3 per minute find : (i) the mass
of air entering the condenser per minute, and (ii) the mass of steam carried over per minute in the air
discharged from the air pump.
Assume that the air pump deals with moist air only and not with the condensate.
[(a) 679 mm Hg; (b) 0.085 bar; 0-015 bar; (i) 0-18033 kg/min; (II) 0-6433 kgAnin.]
18. (a) Describe in detail the various methods used in steam power condensing plants to obtain the highest
possible vacuum.
(b) Discuss the factors which may influence the efficiency of a condensing plant
(c) The vacuum at the air extraction pump ina condenser is 706 mm of mercury (barometer 760 mm)
and the temperature is 37-63*C. The air leakage into the condenser is 5 kg per 10,000 kg of steam.
Determine : (i) the volume of air to be dealt with by the dry air pump per kg of steam entering the
condenser, and (ii) the mass of water vapour associated with this air.
[(i) 0-0637 m3, (ii) 0-0029 kg]
19. (a) What is the function of an air pump in a steam power condensing plant ?
(b) A surface condenser deals with 5,000 kg of steam per hour. The air leakage into the condenser is 0.5
kg per 1,000 kg of steam. The vacuum in the air pump suction is 670 mm of mercury (barometer 755
mm of mercury) and the temperature is 34*C (corresponding saturation pressure from steam tables Is
0-05324 bar). Find the volumetric efficiency of a single-acting air pump required to remove the condensate
and air having cylinder diameter of 24 cm and stroke of 40 cm. The speed of the air pump is 1 r.p.s.
[64-21%]
20. What factor contribute to loss of efficiency in a surface condenser ?
The air pump, for the removal of the air and condensed steam, for a surface condenser is single-acting
and has a diameter of 40 cm and a stroke of 60 mm. The air pump speed is 60 r.p.m. The mass of the
condensed steam per minute is 75 kg. The pressure in the air pump suction is 0-06 bar and the temperature
is 32-88*C (corresponding saturation pressure is 0 05 bar). Taking the volumetric efficiency of the air pump
as 80 per cent calculate the mass of air passing through the air pump per 10,000 kg of steam condensed.
(5-406 kg]
21. Make a neat diagrammatic sketch of a barometric jet condenser and exp|ain its working.
A condenser of this type deals with 400 kg of steam per hour, maintaining a vacuum of 625-75 mm
of mercury-, the barometer standing at 754 mm. The entering steam has a dryness fraction of 0-95 and
the air leakage amounts to 0-3 kg per 100 kg of steam. The cooling water has an initial temperature of
STEAM CONDENSERS 29
15*C and the mixture of water and condensate leaves at 37*C. The temperature at the air pump suction
is 42-67*C.
Determine : (i) the mass of water vapour removed along with the air per hour, and (ii) the mass of
cooling water required per hour.
[(0 0-7069 kg; (ii) 10,005 kg]
22. Describe with a neat sketch the working of a two-flow surface steam condenser.
Exhaust steam having a dryness fraction of 0-8 enters a surface steam condenser where the vacuum
is 695-25 mm of mercury (barometer 759 mm) and is condensed to water at 37-63*C. The temperature of
hot-well is 32-9*C. The circulating water enters at 15'5*C and leaves at 30*C. Determine : (a) the mass of
the air extracted per kg of steam, (b) the mass of circulating water required per kg of steam, and (c) the
vacuum efficiency.
[(a) 0-494 kg; (b) 32 27 kg; (c) 97-9%]
23. Describe briefly, with sketches, some form of a surface condenser.
Steam consumption of a turbine installation is 40,000 kg perhour, thequantity of airleaking in is 24
kg per hour, and the swept volume of air pump is 17.4 m per min.
Find the volumetric efficiency of the dry air pump when the vacuum in the airpump suction is725
mm of Hg (barometer 770 mm) and temperature is 26-19*C.
Take R = 0-287 kJ/kg for air.
[75-92%]
24. Make a diagrammatic sketch of a counter-flow low level jet condenser and explain itsworking.
25. Describe briefly, with the aid of a sketch, any one type of condenser air pump.
26. Make a neat diagrammatic sketch of a two-flow surface condenser with an air pump and explain its working.
27. Describe, with neat sketches, a modern surface steam condenser showing how the air is cooled before K
enters the air extraction pump.
28. Describe and arrangement suitable for reducing the water vapour loss at the air extraction of a condenser.
29. What is undercooling in a surface condenser ?State its merits and demerits.
30. What do you understand by 'undercooling' in a surface condenser ? Discuss its effect on the following :
(i) power required for air extraction pump,
00 make-up water required, and
(iii) efficiency of the cycle.
31. Explain the benefit of fitting an air cooling section to the steam condenser.
In a surface condenser a section of tubes near the pump suction is screened off so that the air is
cooled to a temperature below that of the condensate, separate extraction pumps being provided to deaf
with air and condensate respectively. The steam condensed per hour is 15,000 kg and air leakage is 12
kg per hour. The temperature of the steam entering the condenser is 32.88*C, temperature of condensate
at entrance of the air cooler is 30.62*C, and the temperature at the air pump suction is 25-16*C. Assuming
a constant vacuum throughout the condenser, find :
(a) the mass of steam condensed in the cooler per hour,
(b) the volume of air in m3 per hour to be dealt with by the airpump, when thecondenser isnot screened
and,
(c) The percentage reduction in the air pump capacity folbwing the cooling of the air.
[(a) 41 -522 kg, (b) 1,743 m3, (c) 67-27]
32. Describe, with a neat sketch, the operation of :
(0 an evaporative condenser, (ii) an ejector condenser, (iii) a steam jet air ejector, (iv) Edward's air pump,
and (v) a high-level jet condenser.
33. What is the function of cooling tower in a modem condensing plant ?Describe with sketches theconstruction
and working of any one type of cooling tower.
 2
COMPOUND
STEAM ENGINES

2.1 Introduction
A simple steam engine may be defined as one in which each of the engine cylinder
receives steam direct from the boiler, and exhausts into the atmosphere or into a condenser.
In modern steam engine practice high pressure steam is used, as the use of such a
steam gives greater efficiency, and the plant requires less floor space per unit power
developed. But if high pressure steam is used with a large range of expansion in a
single-cylinder engine, serious difficulties and disadvantages follow. To overcome the
difficulties and obtain certain advantages, compound or multiple-expansion steam engines
are built.
Compound engine is one in which the steam from the boiler expands to a certain
extent in one cylinder and then exhausts into a larger cylinder, where the expansion may
be completed. The first cylinder is called the high-pressure or H.P. cylinder, while the
second is called the low-pressure or LP . cylinder. A compound steam engine with two
cylinders is called duplex steam engine.
The expansion of the steam may be carried out in three or even four cylinders in
succession as in the case of triple expansion or quadruple expansion engines. The H.P.
cylinder, in such a case, is that in which the first expansion stage is performed and the
L.P. cylinder is that in which the last expansion stage is performed. The cylinders between
H.P. and L.P. cylinders are known as intermediate pressure cylinders or I.P. cylinders.
Compound steam engines are generally condensing engines.
The main objections to working the high pressure steam through large range of
4 expansion in a single-cylinder are :
... The cylinder must have a large volume for the required amount of expansion and
it must be sufficiently strong to withstand safely the maximum pressure. The
working parts of the engine have to be made large enough to transmit the
maximum load. Therefore, a single-cylinder engine is excessively heavy and costly
in proportion to the power developed.
... If the high pressure steam is expanded down to the condenser pressure in one
cylinder, the stroke of the piston will be very large.
... The large range of steam pressure (pressure difference) between the initial pressure
and exhaust pressure, causes a correspondingly large range of temperature in
-the cylinder. This causes condensation of steam since the high pressure hot steam
will come in contact with relatively cold cylinder during admission period. Conden-
sation of steam is a source of loss of power and also causes mechanical trouble
in the cylinder. The accumulation of water in the clearance space might cause
excessive pressure to break the cylinder head.
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 31
2J2 Advantages
The following are the advantages of multiple-expansion (compound) steam engines :
... Temperature range in each cylinder is reduced, with a corresponding reduction in
initial cylinder condensation and temperature stresses. The temperature range is
the difference between the highest and lowest temperatures of steam within the
cylinder.
... Re-evaporation of moisture at the end of expansion stroke in H.P. cylinderd adds
to the live steam supply to L.P. cylinder.
... If simple engine is to utilise the same expansion ratio as a compound engine, its
cylinder will have to be made strong enough to withstand the high pressure steam
and large enough to accommodate the large volume of low pressure steam at
the end of expansion. The thickness required for cylinder walls depends on the
maximum pressure to which they are subjected and the diameter of the cylinder.
In compound engine the high-pressure cylinder only is subjected to maximum
pressure, but its diameter is small. This results in reduction in total weight of
cylinders.
... The uniformity of turning moment is improved due to the possible out of phase
crank arrangement (different pistons are coupled to separate cranks) and also due
to the fact that the pressure difference at the beginning and end of the strokes
is reduced and in turn reduces the maximum load on the piston.
... Better mechanical balance is achieved, which allows adoption of higher speeds.
The higher speed gives improved thermal economy.
... The forces on the working parts are reduced as the forces are distributed over
more components of the engine.
... The leakage of steam past the pistons and valves is reduced due to the reduced
pressure difference across them.
... The steam can be re-heated after expansion in one cylinder before entering the
next cylinder which will reduce cylinder condensation.
... The compound steam engine may start in any position which is an advantage for
locomotives and marine engines.
... The engine may be modified to run at reduced load, at the time of breakdown.
This is an advantage for marine propulsion.
2.3 Types
Compound steam engines may be divided into two main classes, namely,
— Tandem compound steam engine, and
- Cross compound steam engine.
Cross compound steam engines
may be further classified as
Woolfe type and Receiver type
compound steam engines.
In Tandem Type of compound
* steam engine, the cylinders are so
arranged that they have a common
axis, have a common piston rod and
st*am from boiitr working on the same crank (fig.
(oi Schematic’tiagram 2-1 a). These cylinders may be
Fig. 2-1. (a) Schematic diagram
32 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
regarded as having cranks at zero
degree to each other. The exhaust
from the H.P. cylinder passes directly
into the L.P. cylinder, as both the
pistons are at the end of their strokes
at the same time. As the cycles of
the two cylinders are in phase, the
maximum turning moment, due to
each cylinder, will act at the same
time as shown in fig: 2-1 b. The
turning moment in this type of engine
9(f 135* iwf 225* 270* is, therefore, not uniform which is a
A n g u la r p o s i ti o n of c r a n h — disadvantage. Since the torque is
(b) turning monfrnt diagram not uniform, a larger flywheel is re-
(b) Turning moment diagram quired. However, the tandem ar-
Fig. 2-1. Tandem type compound steam engine, rangem ent gives constructional
economy in view of the fewer components (parts) of the engine.
In W oolfe Type of compound steam engine, the cylinders are arranged side by side
with their axis parallel to each other as shown in fig. 2-2. In an engine of this type with
two cylinders, the cranks of the two cylinders are at 180° to each other. The piston of
the H.P. and L.P. cylinders, begin and end their strokes together. The time during which
the exhaust takes place in the H.P. cylinder coincides more or less with the time of
admission of steam to the L.P. cylinder. The exhaust steam from the H.P. cylinder passes
directly into the L.P. cylinder. The expansion is therefore, continuous during he stroke.
Since the two cranks are at 180° to each other, the two cycles are in phase and this
causes large variation in the turning moment on the crankshaft. This is the same
disadvantage as in the case of tandem type engine.
In Receiver Type of compound steam engine, cranks of the two cylinder are placed
at 90° to each other. The arrangement of cylinders is same as in the Woolfe type, As
the cranks are at 90° to each other, steam from the H.P. cylinder cannot, exhaust directly
into the L.P. cylinder. In order to overcome this difficulty, a container known as receiver
is used (fig. 2-3). The H.P. cylinder exhausts steam into this receiver while the L.P.
Receiver
H R cylin d er /L P. cylinder
,t V 7 -14 ■ ' VI
5
c H R cylinder L.R cylinder

o
JO
i 1
jm .
*
C
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u
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I— r \ 'U
*I
E
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t t o
w.
o
.o J J J e S
at 6
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.C
IX
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mm 111 oS
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l- w
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, K
til
'= 33 E? "3
a
C
_
Ot/t
£ o_r
-C
X
.•X’ursi Ui
1 r
-Piston
rods
Q- w
(1,2)
Hg. 2-2. Schematic diagram of a Woolfe
type compound steam engine. to
Fig. 2-3. Schematic diagram of a receiver type compound
steam engine having cranks at 90s each other.
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 33
cylinder draws steam from the receiver. The receiver acts as a reservoir. The resultant
turning moment (fig. 2-4a) in the receiver type compound engine is more uniform as the
two cycles are out of phase by 90°, which is an advantage. With three-cylinder engine,
the cranks are arranged at 120° to each other, which will result in still more uniform
turning moment on the engine crankshaft as shown in fig. 2-4b.

---------------------------- ■ i— —

L o w p i e s s u r e d l e a d c e n t r e s - f .

^ V - R e s u l t a n t X

% \ t o i r q u e / > ] M
' N \

l
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A \ T /
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i g h \ > O W ' \ e a n \ > y /

E e s s u r e
J K 7 4•
\ t p r ) * s s u ^ , e \ u i r q u e
V '
z *
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V t X. i \
X / \ /
• w

H i g h
( C
p r e
e n
s s
t r e
u r e d e a d
. . m

s i

0* 45* 90° 135° 180° 225° 270

A n g u lar position of crank
(a) Two cylinders having cranks at 90* to each other.

■ f - r — I ------------------- \ ’ i n
R e s u I t a n t t o n u e , M e a n t o r q u e

I
j /

i J

' S j g h p r e s s u r e d e d d c e r i t r e s j h p r e s s u r e c u o f f
f H i !

V
■v ■V k
/
*
\
/ V
/ " * N
« •
/ \ / *
\ • /
\ # « / \ •
0
% / > >

\
• c N
> i
a/ 9 •
• / i
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Z3 •
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) ] % \
O' % \
• / 0

</
4 $ V 0
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>
/ > V /
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yh
\ / \ •

N (\
•
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■«*

I . P . " H . R V L . R

0* 30* 60* 90* 120° 1SOT 180* 210° 240° 270* 300* 330* 36Cf
A n g u la r position of crank ----------►

(b) Three cylinders having cranks at 120* to each other.

Fig. 2-4. Turning moment diagrams of Receiver type compound steam engine.
34 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
The receiver should be large enough to keep the pressure in it fairly constant The
volume of receiver should be about 1-5 times the H.P. cylinder volume. The receiver is
often jacketed to reduce condensation and the jacket is supplied with steam direct from
the boiler.
The number of cylinders provided in a Multi-cylinder compound steam engine, will
depend upon the total range of pressure through which the steam is to be expanded.
Simple engines are usually non-condensing with initial pressure ranging from 6 to 7 bar.
The two cylinder compound.condensing engines may have initial pressures ranging from
7 to 10 bar and triple expansion engines fromIO to 15 bar. The initial pressure in
quadruple expansion engine may be from 15 to 25 bar.
urn
The L.P. release pressure for condensing engine may vary from 0*7 to 0*9 bar and
for non-condensing engines may vary from 1-4 to 1-8 bar.
In very large engines, for example, when the diameter of L.P. cylinder exceeds 2-9
metres, it is customary to fit two L.P. cylinders thereby producing a four-cylinder triple
expansion engine. One H.P. cylinder and two L.P. cylinders are also used on high speed
engines. The famous Webb’s compounded locomotive engine had the reverse of the
arrangement, i.e. it had two H.P. cylinders and one L.P. cylinder.
- 2.4 Typical Terms
Before estimation of cylinder dimensions of a compound steam engine, following typical
terms should be understood.
Cylinder volume ratio - It is the ratio of the displacement or swept volume of the
low-pressure cylinder to that of the high-pressure cylinder. Where the strokes of the two
cylinders are the same, the cylinder volume ratio may be taken as the square of the
ratio of cylinder diameters. The cylinder volume ratio in compound steam engines varies
from about 2 to 1 to about 8 to 1. %
Total ratio of expansion or ratio of expansion for the whole engine - It is the
ratio of the final volume of the steam in the L.P. cylinder to its volume at cut-off in the
H.P. cylinder.
Free or unresisted expansion - It is the expansion of the steam in the receiver
and passages between cylinders. It is measured
by the mean difference between the pressures
along the exhaust line of the H.P. cylinder and
that along the admission line of L.P. cylinder.
Terminal drop - It is the difference between
the pressure in the H.P. cylinder at release and
the average receiver pressure.
2.5 Estimation of Cylinder Dimensions
The problem of estimation of cylinder di-
mensions presents considerable difficulty to be-
ginners. Fig. 2-5 represents the hypothetical
pressure-volume diagram for the complete ex-
pansion in H.P. cylinder in a two-cylinder, non-
receiver type, com pound steam engine,
neglecting clearance and compression.
IT In the absence of condensation and other
losses, L.P. cylinder can be regarded as capable
Fig. 2-5. Combined theoretical indicator diagram for
non-receiver type, two cylinder compound steam
of developing combined power of the H.P. and
engine with complete expansion in H.P. cylinder L.P. cylinders, when supplied with same mass
and incomplete expansion in L.P. cylinder. of high pressure steam as originally supplied to
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 35
the H.P. cylinder. Thus, combined diagram a b c e f g can be regarded as produced
by continuous expansion be in L.P. cylinder, so that the swept volume of L.P. cylinder
at cut-off (d c) is equal to the total swept volume of the H.P. cylinder. The average
height o f the combined indicator diagram is termed as the mean effective pressure referred
to the low-pressure cylinder.
' In practice, however, for reasons which will appear later, there is generally a pressure
drop (P2 - P 3) between the high-pressure cylinder
release and the receiver, as shown in fig. 2-6.
The loss of work due to unresisted expansion
in the receiver is shown shaded in fig 2-6.
Although this drop of pressure after release of
H.P. cylinder is wasteful, yet it is partly counter-
balanced by the drying effect on the steam
which it produces.
Let p 1 = initial steam pressure in bar,
p2 = release pressure in H.P. cylinder in bar,
p3 m receiver pressure in bar,
p4 m release pressure in L.P. cylinder in bar,
pb = condenser pressure in bar,
v1 m volume at cut-off in H.P. cylinder in m3,
v2 = Volume of H.P. cylinder in m3,
Fig. 2*6. Combined theoretical indicator diagram for v3 = Volume at cut-off in L.P. cylinder in m3,
two-cylinder compound steam engine fitted with receiver
and with incomplete expansion in both cylinder. v4 = Volume of L.P. cylinder in m
I = Length of piston stroke in m,
N = Speed of the engine in r.p.s.,
d: = Diameter of H.P. cylinder in m, and
= Diameter of L.P. cylinder in m.
Then, neglecting clearance volume,

H.P. cylinder volume, vg X I

and L.P. cylinder volume, va * —(cfe)2 x /

Va
Cylinder volume ratio or ratio of cylinder volumes, r = —

vz.
Ratio of expansion in H.P. cylinder, n
vi
Va
Ratio of expansion in L.P. cylinder, =—

Va
Ratio of expansion for whole engine or total number of expansion, R - —

As expansion is assumed hyperbolic, p iv j = p2 Vg = P3V3 - P4V4 = constant.

Va V4 V\ ( d b \2
Cylinder volumeratio, r = — - — x — = —
1 V2 VI Vfc Ic fll
04
36 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
1
or = total, expansion ratio (R) x cut-off in H.P. cylinder
\ /
i.e. Cylinder volume ratio, r =
V4total ratio of expansion, R
V2 ratio of expansion in H.P. cylinder, n
The M.E.P. referred to the L.P. cylinder may be calculated from the equation

M.E.P. = 1 P^i (1 + log* R) - pb bar ... (2 . 1)

if pi and pb are in bar

where, f = overall diagram factor for the combined indicator diagram.

Using this M.E.P., indicated power of the double-acting engine
...(2 .2 )
(105 x M.E.P.) x ^(Cfe)2 x / x N x 2
kW
1,000
In the design of an engine, the power, speed N, initial pressure p i and back pressure
Pb are usually known. So in eqns. (2.1) and (2.2), with a tentative value of the diagram
factor f, there are but two unknowns - the length of the piston stroke, I and diameter
of L.P. cylinder, cfe
Now, the length of stroke is determined from the known rotational speed N, and
permissible rubbing speed of the piston. As it stands today, it is not advisable to run
the steam engines with piston speed in excess of 5 metres/sec.
Average piston = 2 I N m/sec. ... (2.3)
Thus, from eqns. (2.1), (2.2) and (2.3), the L.P. cylinder diameter cfe and stroke I
can be evaluated.
In order to determine the cylinder bore (diameter), d i of H.P. cylinder, two conditions
are desirable :
— Equal development of work by the H.P. and L.P. cylinders to give a uniform tuning
moment, and
— The initial load on the piston exerted by the steam at the commencement of stroke should
be the same for two cylinders.
The two conditions just mentioned cannot be simultaneously satisfied when the
expansion curve is continuous, as shown in fig. 2-5. Hence, a compromise is made by
having a pressure drop at release (p2 - p 3) in the H.P. cylinder as shown fig. 2-6. This
causes a loss of energy due to unresisted expansion in the receiver.
For equal work done in each cylinder (fig. 2-6),
fw ... (2.4)
P i v\ 1 + loge - P3V2 f P3V3 1 + loge pbV4
V3l
Dividing hroughout by V2, we get,
V4
V1 - P3 x — = P3 x — 1 * loge m - P bX
1 + lo9® (tvti ’ ft! IS VS

V3 V4 VA
= P3 x — x — - Pb x
r V4 VS 1 + VS
... (2.5)
“ (1 + loge (ri)| - p3 = r H (1 + loge (r2)} - pb

i.e. For equal work to be done in the two cylinders,

Mean effective pressure of H.P. cylinder
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 37
s Mean effective pressure of L.P. cylinder x cylinder volume ratio.
For equal initial loads on the two piston (fig. 2-6),

(Pi - P3) x |( c fi) 2 (P3 - Pb) x ^ (cfe)2

i.e. pi - P3 « (P3 - pb) m

i.e. pi - P3 - (P3 - Pb) r ... (2.6)

Thus, by using eqns. (2.4), (2 5) or (2.6), the value of cylinder volume ratio, r can
be calculated and hence the diameter of H.P. cylinder, du
Problem-1 : A compound steam engine develops indicated power o f 147 kW at 1-5 r.p.s.
when taking in steam at 9-5 bar and exhausting it at 0 1 6 bar. Cut-off in the H.P.
cylinder takes place at 0 4 5 stroke, and the ratio o f low-pressure to high-pressure cylinder
volumes is 3-2. Calculate the cylinder dimensions o f the engine, Assume an overall
diagram factor o f 0 7 5 and an average piston speed o f 2 25 metres per second. The
strokes are equal in the two cylinders.
Estimate the fraction o f stroke at which cut-off should take place in the L.P. cylinder
for approximately equal initial loads on both pistons, and state the resulting receiver
pressure. Neglect clearance and assume hyperbolic expansion.
Referring to fig. 2-7,
VI Vd
— = 0-45, — = r = 3-2
V2. V£
Total expansion ratio,
* . * m * x * . r x f1
V1 Vz V1
1
- 3-2 X = 7-1
0-45
Average piston speed = 2 I N
i.e. 2-25 = 2 x / x 1-5
.-. Piston stroke, I = 075 m i.e. 75 cm.
Fig. 2-7.
Total indicated power developed by the engine
10f> x 2 x f x W V4
p iv ih + log® - PbVA
1,000 V|

10° X 2 x 0*75 x 1-5

i.e. 147 = 1,000 -- -" [9 5 V||1+ loge 7-1) - 0-16 x 7-1 v,]
v<[ • 0 0242 m

NOW, — = 0-45 - 0 0242 x = 0 054 m

V2 = 0-45 0-45

But, V2 - 5 ( ^ ) 2 x I i.e. 0054 = ^ ( d , f x 0-75

Hence (c/i)2 = 0 0917 m2 and dr = 0-303 m, i.e. 30-3 cm (dia. of H.P. cylinder)
*4
Now, — = 3-2 v2 x 3-2 = 0 054 x 3-2 = 0-173 m3
38 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II

But, VA = ^ ( d 2f x I i.e. 0-173 = ^(cfc,)2 x 0-75

Hence, (d ,)2 = 0-2937 m2 and d2 = 0-542 m i.e. 54-2 cm (dia. of H.P. cylinder).
Considering equal initial loads on the two pistons.

(P i - P 3) x ^ ( d i ) 2 - (P i - pb) x ^ (c fe )2

'-e- (Pi - i) 2 x I = (Ps - Pb) ^(cfe)2 x I i-e. P y - f r = f a - P b ) ^

i.e. 9-5 - P3 = (P3 - 0-16) 3-2 Receiver pressure, P3 = 2-38 bar
Considering points of cut-off in H.P. and L.P. cylinders on hyperbolic curve,
P\V| = P3V3
i.e. 9-5 x 0-0242 = 2-38 x v3 Hence, v3 = 0-0966 m3.

Cut-off in L.P. cylinder, « ^ 73* = 0-56 °* stroke-

Problem-2 : A double-acting, two-cylinder, compound steam engine receives steam, at a

pressure o f 7 5 bar and exhausts into a condenser at a pressure o f 0 3 bar. The cylinder
volume ratio is 4 to 1 and cut-off in the H.P. cylinder takes place at half stroke. Draw
the hypothetical indicator diagram for the engine, assuming the expansion to be hyperbolic
and neglecting the clearance.
Calculate thefraction o f thestroke at which cut-offmust take place in the L.P.
cylinder, if the initial loads on the twopiston areto be equal. Also find themean effective
pressure o f each cylinder referred to the L.P. cylinder and the percentage loss o f work
due to the incomplete expansion in the H.P. cylinder. The strokes are equal in the two
cylinders.
V, Vo
Referring to fig. 2-8, p-| = 7-5 bar; p^ = 0-3 bar; — = 0-5 or j| - — = 2, and
V2 V|
%

r ** — = 4 (where r = ratio of cylinder volumes).

v2
o va vi A „
.-. R - — = — x — = r x n = 4 x 2 = 8 = ratio of expansion for the whole engine.
Vi Vz V2
p 1
For equal initial loads on the two pistons,

P i - P3 = (P3 - Pb)

i.e. 7-5 - P3 = (P3 - 0-3) 4

Receiver pressure, p$ = 1-74 bar
Now, P4 V4 = P\V-\
i.e. P4 = Pi — = 7-5 x ^ = 0-9375 bar
x
1^4 o
and P3V3 = P4 V4, i.e. cut-off in L.P. cylinder,
^ = — = ° 9375- = 0-5388 of stroke.
V4 P3 1’74
Ratio of expansion in L.P. cylinder,

*2 = — = — --------- 1-85
Fig. 2-8. 12V3 0-5388

*
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 39

Pi [1 + log® ri] - p3
Pm h.p.
n
7-5
[1 + loge2] -1 *7 4 - 4-61 bar (M.E.P. of H.P. cylinder)

M.E.P. of H.P. cylinder referred to L.P. cylinder

= 4-61 x — = 4-61 x 4 - 1*15 bar.

V4 4
P3 1-74
Pm ip. [ 1 + loge r2 ] - p b [1 + loge 1-85] - 0-3 - 1-22 bar.
r2 ‘ ~ 1-85
.-. Total M.E.P. referred to L.P. cylinder = 1-15 + 1*22 = 2-37 bar.
Work lost due to incomplete expansion in H.P. cylinder is shown by the shaded area
of fig. 2*8.
Overall M.E.P. (considering whole diagram including shaded area or considering overall
diagram) referred to L.P. cylinder

= ^ [1 + loge R] - Pb = n r [ 1 + loge 8 ] - 0-3 = 2-59 bar. .

H o
.*. Loss of M.E.P. due to incomplete expansion in H.P. cylinder
= 2-59 - 2-37 = 0-22 bar
.-. Percentage loss of work due to incomplete expansion in H.P. cylinder
0-22
x 100 - 8 49%
259
Problem-3 : The following data apply to a 'two-cylinder, double-acting, condensing compound
steam *engine :
Steam supply pressure ... 125 bar
Ratio o f cylinder volumes ... 3 6 to 1
Back pressure in L P. cylinder ... 0 2 bar
Cut-off in H.P. cylinder ... 0 4 o f the stroke
Cut-off in L.P. cylinder ...2/3rd o f the stroke.
P Estimate the ratio o f work done and ratio of
initial load on the pistons in H.P. and L.P. cylinders.
Assume hyperbolic expansion. Neglect the effect of
clearance and compression.
^ Referring to fig. 2-9, ratio of work done in H.P.
\ / and L.P. cylinders

pi vi 1 + logel—
V\ - P3V2
. Va
P3 V3 1 + ogJ— - PbVA
^ V3 \

p^v^ 1 + loge - P3V2

a (a s P3V3 = p i^ l)
’ VA]
pivi 1 + loge - PbVA
,1*
Volume Dividing throughout by V2, ratio of work done
Fig. 2-9.
40 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
... (1)
loge
a I
1 + - P3

fV4
1 + loge Pb x “
VS
-
yi u; 1
But, — = cut-off ratio in H.P. cylinder = 0-4, —
VS 1 V4 cylinder volume ratio 3*6
va . 3
— = expansion ratio in L.P. cylinder = —

Applying hyperbolic relation, between points of cut-off in H.P. and L.P. cylinders,
V\ V3
P1V| = P3V3 i.e. pi x — x * pg x — x V4

i.e. 12*5 x 0 4 x vz = pa x x V4
O
12-5
0-4 X 3 X vs I 2 5 x Q'4 x 3 x - 2 08 bar
.*. Receiver pressure, p 3 =
2 V4 2 3-6
Substituting the values the eqn, (i), we have,

12-5 x 0-4 1 +log« - 2 08

Ratio of work done in
1 19
H.P. and L.P. cylinders
12-5 x 0-4 1 log - 0-2 x 3-6

Ratio of initial loads on the H.P. and L.P. pistons is given by

_ ( P ' - P ^ W 2 * 1 ± (p, - g ) . * a 125 - 2-8 „ _ L . r5 4

(P 3 -P d ^ (« )2 (P3 - P b ) ^ ( < k f x l * * 2-08-02. 06

Problem-4 : Estimate the dimensions o f a compound steam engine to develop indicated

power o f 93-8 kW at 4 r.p.s. with following particulars : initial pressure 8-5 bar; back
pressure 0-3 bar; allowable piston speed 2-5 m/sec.; cylinder volume ratio 3-5; overall
diagram factor 0-85; cut-off in H.P. cylinder at 0 4 stroke. If the point o f cut-off in the
L.P. cylinder is at 0 5 3 stroke, determine the receiver pressure and compare the initial
loads &n the two pistons. Assume no clearance and hyperbolic expansion.
P
' vy V*
Referring to fig. 2-10, — 0-4, 3-5.
vs vs "
pw-ac VA _VA
_ v
V\ vs v\
3-5
8-75
0-4
M.E.P. of the whole engine referred to L.P.
cylinder is calculated by using eqn. (2.1),

M.E.P. = f ^ ( 1 + loge (/=?)} - Pb

8-5
= 0-85 j1 + log* (8-75)} - 0-3
8-75
V = 2-36 bar.
Volume
Fig. 2-10.
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 41

2 x 105 x M.E.P. x ^ (Cfe)2 x I x N

Using eqn. (2.2), indicated power = kW
1,000
(where 2IN = average piston speed = 2-5 m/sec.)

105 x 2-36 x ^(<fc)2 x 2-5

i.e. 93-8 -
1,000
(cfe)2 - 0-2025 and cfe = V0-2025 = 0-45 m i.e. 45 cm (dia. of L.P. cylinder)
_ va (c h f
Cylinder volume ratio, — = h r as stroke ofboth pistons is same.
v* A
dz 45
.-. Diameter of H.P. cylinder, d i = .. ■ . =f = - = = = 24 cm
1 Vcylinder volume ratio V 35
Piston speed = 2 x I x N = 2-5, i.e., 2 x 1 x 4 = 2 5
Hence, I = 0-3125 m, i.e., 31-25 cm
Using hyperbolic relationships for points of cut-off in H.P and L.P. cylinders,
P3V3 = p i vi
V1 V| Va
i.e. P3 p i X— = pi X — x —
r V3 V4 V3
1 1
P3 - 8-5 x - 1 83 bar
8-75 0-53

Initial load on high-pressure piston p i - P3 f dA = 8 -5 -1 -8 3 1

1 24
Initial load on low-pressure piston p i- pt tfe = 1 -8 3 -0 -3 X 3-5
Problem-5 : A double-acting compound steam engine is required to give indicated power
o f 302 kW at 25. r.p.s with a stream supply at 125 bar and exhaust at 0-3 bar. Take
the total number o f expansions as .8-4, ratio o f cylinder volumes 4 2 to 1, stroke equal
to two-thirds o f the L.P. cylinder diameter, overall diagram factor 0-66. Assume hyperbolic
expansion and neglect effect o f clearance.
Allowing for a pressure loss o f 0-35 bar in the receiver between the two cylinders,
find the cylinder diameters, common stroke and L.P. cut-off, if the initial loads on the
two pistons are to be equal.
Referring to fig 2-11, p i = 12-5 bar,
Va VA
Pb = 0-3 bar, R = — = 8-4, — = 4-2
pu-= c ^ v\ vz
Using eqn. (2.1), M.E.P. referred to L.P. cylinder

= f ^ (1 + loge R) - pb bar

12-5
= 0-66 (1 + loge 8-4) - 0-3
8-4
= 2-87 bar.
yy Using eqn. (2.2), Indicated power
Volume 2 x 105 x M.E.P. x ^ (d z f x l x N
________________ 4 _______
kW
1,000
Fig. 2-11.
42 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II

2 x 105 x 2-87 x d z f x % cfe x 2-5

i.e., 302 ■
1,000
(<fc)3 ■ 0-403 m3 and cfe = vb-403 = 0-738 m, i.e. 7 3 8 cm (dia. of L.P. cylinder)
dz 0-738
Diameter of H.P. cylinder, d i = - 0-36 m, i.e. 36 cm
Vcylinder volume ratio 4-2
2 2
Length of piston stroke, I « — cfe - — x 0-738 0-49 m, i.e. 49 cm,
w o
Referring to fig. 2-11, let p3 = admission pressure of L.P. cylinder,
then {p3 + 0-35) will be exhaust pressure of H.P. cylinder.
Since the initial loads on both pistons are same,
V4
p i — (PS + 0-35) = (p3 - pb)
vs
i.e., 12-5 - (p3 + 0-35) = (P3 - 0-3) 4-2
p3 = 2-58 bar
AS P1V1 = P4V4,

04 « pi X — - 12-5 X - 1-49 bar.

r va 8-4
Now, P3V 3 as P 4 V 4

149
Cut-off in L.P. cylinder, — - — 0-577 of stroke.
7 V4 /!3 2-58
Problem-6 : A double-acting compound steam engine receives steam at 10 bar and
exhausts a t 0-3 bar. The overall expansion ratio is 10 to 1 and expansion is hyperbolic.
The engine runs at 200 r.p.m. with an overall diagram factor o f 0-7 and a mechanical
efficiency o f 80% when developing brake power o f 150 kW. Determine : (a) the swept
volume o f the LP . cylinder, and (b) the swept volume o f the H.P. cylinder for equal work
to be done in the two cylinders. Neglect clearance and receiver losses.
(a) Referring to fig. 2-12,
V3
The overall expansion ratio, R = — = 10
KH> V\
IX
and overall diagram factor, f - 0-7.
' ! \ «1 200
I i V - p* ’ c W = -go r.p.s.
J 1 \
f 1
2 t 1 A Using eqn. (2.1), M.E.P. referred to L.P.
i2
cylinder
a9mw i
\
1
1 f [Pi (1 + log* R) - Pb
R
O. ! LP. ! ^ 5 |3
: S = 0-7 ^ ( 1 + loge 10) - 0-3 2-1 bar
0*3
Let V3 = swept volume of L.P. cy inder in m'.3 .
• \•
1
------------- 1------------ •V Total indicated power in kW
Volume 150 105 x 2-1 X V3 X 2 X 200/60
0-8 1,000
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 43
.*. V3 - 0*134 m 3 (swept volume of L.P. cylinder).
(b) For equal work to be done in the two cylinders, neglecting receiver losses, area
of p - v diagram of the H.P. cylinder = area of p - v diagram of the L.P. cylinder.

l.e. pi vi + pi vi log® —
'vs\ , (V3\
- pzvz - pzvz + P 2 VSlog® — - P4V3

...(0
pi vi 1 + log® - pzvz - pzvz 1 + log* - P4V5
■5
Since the curve 1 - 2 - 3 is hyperbolic, p iv i - p& 2
Dividing eqn. (0 by p iv i, we have
P4V3
1 + log®
^vsj " P ivi
VS1 V31 0-3 x 10
••• lo9® ITTI 1 07
v \f - «09a
-
10 x 1
vs vz (v *r
A log® x — 0-7 i.e. log® 07
vi ts 00134 + 0134
2
(vs)
.-. 2 014 - (as log® 2 014 = 0-7)
0 0134 x 01 34
.v (vs) * 0-00384 and vs = VO-00384 - 0-062 m . (swept volume o f H.P. cylinder)
Problem-7 : Find the ratio of diameters o f the cylinders o f a two-cylinder compound
steam engine in order that the work done by each cylinder should be the same. Assume
a hypothetical diagram, viz., expansion pv = constant, range o f expansion 10 to 1 bar,
exhaust at 0-35 bar and the stroke o f each piston to be the same. Neglect clearance
and receiver losses.
For equal work done in each cylinder, neglecting receiver losses, the p - v area of
the H.P. and L.P. cylinders must be equal.
Let volume of the L.P. cylinder be denoted by V3.
P Referring to fig. 2-13, p /v r = p3va

••• * - ( f ) » - (t s ) 19
Work done in H.P. cylinder

= p iv i + piV| log®r~J - 02*2

- p iv i lo g ® jS j Isince p iv i = pevsl
(0
Work done in L.P. cylinder
'va'
= P2V& + pzvz log® - PbV*
vs
p iv i 1 + log® - P6VJ
00
Fig. 2-13. Hypothetical indicator diagram. («) •

Equating eqns. (i) & (ii) for equal work to be done in the two cylinders,

Pi VI lo9« - pi VI 1 + log® - ptvs

44 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
va v \\
/. p iv i 1 + loge — x — - PbV3
V2 V2
Substituting for vi in terms of vq and numerical values of pi and pb, we have,
t 1 V3
10 X 1 + log® = 0 -35 V3
* * 1 0 (vi>)2

i.e. 1 + loge _L x = 0-35

10 /.^ 2
o *r
f tgV
.*. 2 log®. V r M . - 0-65 i.e. loge - - 0-325
10 [m N 2 ?
1 0
H .

1 1
■
10 v* e,0-325 0-384
= 0-722

« VT5 x 0-722 - 2-288 (cylinder volume ratio).

f (* > 2 * i
Now, — - 2-288
vs
*« *)2 X /

dz
— m V2-288 - 1-51 (ratio of diameters of cylinders)

Problem -8 : A two-cylinder compound, double-acting, steam engine is required to develop

brake power o f 58•75 kW at 6 r.p.s when supplied with steam at 18 bar and exhausting
to a condenser a t O 18 bar. Cut-off ratio in both the cylinders is to be 04. The stroke
length for both the cylinders is 25 cm. Estimate suitable cylinder diameters to 'develop
equal riork. Neglect clearance and assume hyperbolic expansion. Take mechanical efficiency
as 85% and diagram factor for each cylinder as 08.
Referring to fig. 2-14 for equal work done in both the cylinders,

pi vi . 1 # loge [-— I - P3V3 P3V3 1 + loge I - PbVA,

V*1
Dividing throughout by V2,
V± ys VA] VA
Pi V& 1 + loge — I - P3 * p3 1 + loge - Pb
ml VS V 3 V&
Substituting pava = p in ,
V\ VA
1 * loge P - P i - Pi 1 + l0 9 e rV3j
r - Pb
vz VZ
vi VZ VA
,0 9® TT " l0 9« T I * P3 - Pb X
, e - * § V1 V3 vz
VA
i.e. 18 x 0-4 Jloge 2-5 - loge 2 - P3 - Pb x —
•5 ]
(0
*• ?3 * Pb * T T * 0 Hence, p3 = pb x
VZ ' Z

Considering points of cut-off in H.P. and L.P. cylinders on hyperbolic curve,

p rv; = P3V3
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 45
i.e., 18 x 0-4vfc = p3 x 0-4v4
P
VA 18
Vz = p3
va
Substituting value of — in eqn. (i)
vz
J8
P3 « pb X
P3
i.e. (ps) = 0-18 x 18
ps = 1-8 bar.
Indicated power developed in H.P. cylinder
58-75
= 34-56 kW
V 2 x 0-85
Work done per stroke in the H.P. cylinder
Fig. 2-14. T4 .KG
= 2-88 kJ or 2,880 J per stroke.

Work done per stroke in the H.P. cylinder

(v z \
- 1 0 5 x f pi V^| 1 + loge ■- P3VZ
pr
fVz\
105 x f x vz 1 + loge - P3
Vi

i.e. 2,880 = 10° x 0-8 x V2 18 x 0-4.

1 + ,09e 0 4
- 1-8
vz « 0-0031 m .
25
But, vz = ^ ( < * f x / i.e. 0-0031 = * 100

/. « * )z 0-0518 and ch = V0-0158 0-125 m i.e. 12-5 cm (H.P. cylinder diameter).

V4 18
As shown earlier,
vz " P3

f (< k f X I
v* volume of L.P. cylinder
’ vs * volume of H.P. cylinder -tfl}
X /

18
iH P3
dz = d-\ V ~ = 12-5 V 3 ? = 39-53 cm (L.P. cylinder diameter).
P3 1-8
Problem-9 : A two-cylinder compound steam engine has an expansion ratio o f 9 and
the stroke o f both cylinders is the same. The cut-off in the high-pressure cylinder takes
place at half stroke. The engine is supplied with steam at 7 bar, and the condenser
pressure is 0-15 bar. Assuming a common hyperbolic expansion curve for the two cylinders
and neglecting effect o f clearance and compression, find the percentage cut-off in the
low-pressure cylinder and the receiver pressure so that the work shall be equally distributed
between the cylinders.
 a
46 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. fl
Referring to fig. 2-15, for equal work done in the two cylinders,
P iv i 1 + loge vz - P3VZ * P3V3 1 + log« - pbW
vi
Since p 1Vl = p3V3

P ivi
1 + log® h r - P3V2 - Pi Vi 1 + log®
Dividing by p iv i throughout, we have
a - PbV4

P3V2 PbVA
1 ♦ K > a .® 1 + loge ( t t I -
VI - P i VI V3 Pi VI
vsi ^ P3V£ _ P6V4
*’• ,09e vj” " ,09e “ P iv i " p i V | ... (i)
P3VS P3V& V5 Vfc V| _ V1
Now, x — - 2 x —
P i V| P3V3 IS VI ts vs
v4 v4 V| V[
and — - — x — 9 x
VS V| tS VS
Substituting the values in eqn. (i),
v i' fvi 0-15 x 9
log0 (2 ) - loge 9 - f - 2 1 -f
V3 ts
(2 tS V|
lOQe 1 ^ -7 7 1 - 2 - f - 0-1925
i 9 Vi V9
rVi VS^
■ o g ^ to 1925
Volume , ts V|
Fig. 2-15. = - 1 -3 1 1 6

By trial and error, — 5-4

V|
_vs
Then, cut-off in L.P. cylinder, — X — - 5 -4 X -J- « 0 -6 or 60%
V4 V| V4 9

NOW, P3VS = p i vi
V| 1
P3 Pi x — - 7 x -=-r * 1-296 bar (receiver pressure),
vs 5*4 n
Problem-10 : The following data refer to a triple expansion steam engine required to
develop indicated power o f 2,940 kW with a piston speed o f 220 metres per minute :
Initial steam pressure 16 bar; exhaust pressure 0-15 bar; cylinder volume ratios 1 :
2 4 : 7-2; total ratio o f expansion 18; overall diagram factor 0-6. Assuming equal initial
loading on each piston, determine approximate values for : (a) cylinder diameters, (b)
mean receiver pressures, and (c) cut-off points in each cylinder. Assume hyperbolic
expansions with ideal receiver pressure conditions, and neglect clearance and compression
effects.
Referring to fig. 2-16, let vs = 1 unit. As vz : va : ts :: 1 : 2-4 : 7-2,
then V4 = 2-4 units and ts = 7-2 units.
~ vs vs 7-2
Now, R « — vi - — • = 0 4 unit.
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 47
(a) M.E.P. referred to L.P. cylinder
P
Pi
= f — (1 + log e R) - pb bar

= 0-6 [16
^ (1 + loge 18) - 0-15

= 1-98 bar
Indicated power
n 105 * M.E.P. X S L .P . X I X N X 2 . . . .
= 2,940 = ----------------- . ---------------- kW
1,000
220
But, 2IN = piston speed = m/sec.
60
2,940 x 1,000 x 60 2
aL.p. ■ — ---------------------- = 4-05 m
103 x 1-98 x 220
x 4-5
d L.P. = 2-27 m or 227 cm
Fig. 2-16. Jl
dLP. 227 . , S Le. 227
d H .P . =
- = 84-o cm. and d/_p = 131 cm.
V *
V2 v V4 2-4
(b) For equal initial loads on each piston, (p\ - ps) vs = (P3 - ps) V4 = (ps - Pb) vfe
i.e. (16 — ps) 1 = {P3 - P5) 2-4 = (ps - 0-15) 7-2
16 - pa = 7-2 ps - 7-2 x 0-15
17-08 - 7-2 ps .» (0
Now, 2-4 (P3 - Ps) = 7 -2 p5 - 7-2 x 0-15
Substituting the value of pa from eqn.(i),
2-4 (17 08 - 7-2ps) - 2-4ps = 7-2ps - 108
40-992 - 17-28 ps - 2-4 ps = 7-2 ps - 108
.*. ps = 1-562 bar (L.P. receiver pressure).
Substituting the value of pg in eqn. (i),
P3 = 17-08 - 7-5 ps = 17-08 - 7-2 x 1-562 = 5-83 bar (l.P. receiver pressure)
Vi 0-4
(c) H.P. cut-off = — = — = 0-4
V"2 1
Now, pyVy = P3V3
i.e. 16 x 0-4 = 5-83 x V3 V3 = 1-109 units.
1-109
l.P. cut-off = — = -LzL^ = 0-458
v4 2-4
Again, p ,v, = P5V5
i.e. 16 x 0-4 = 1-562 x V5 1/5 = 4-098 units.

L.P. cut-off = — = = 0-57

v6 7-2
2.6 Methods o f Governing
There are three methods of governing compound steam engines. These are :
... Throttle governing-redudng the steam supply pressure in the H.P. cylinder,
48 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
... Cut-off governing on H.P. cylinder-varying the point of cut-off in the H.P. cylinder,
and
... Cut-off governing on LP . cylinder-varying the point of cut-off in the L.P. cylinder!
In T h ro ttle G overning, the initial pressure in the H.P. cylinder is reduced by throttling
the steam before entering the H.P. cylinder and the points of cut-off in both cylinders

Volume — »- Volume — m
(a) Throttle governing (t>) Cut-off governing on
HP cylinder
Fig. 2-17.
remain unaltered. The effect of this will be to reduce the admission pressure to the L.P.
cylinder. Fig. 2-17(a) represents the hypothetical indicator diagram for a two-cylinder
compound steam engine where area 1 -2 -3 -4 is the H.P. cylinder diagram and area
4~ 3 -5 -6 -7 is the L.P. cylinder diagram.
Let the steam supply pressure be reduced from pr to p r’. The admission to the H.P.
cylinder is represented by Y -2 '\ the point of cut-off 2 ’ must be vertically under 2 , as the
cut-off volume is the same. The new expansion curve will now be 2’-3 ’-5 ’ as shown
dotted. As the cylinder volume of the H.P. cylinder is the same, exhaust on H.P. cylinder
will begin at 3’, where 3* is vertically under 3. The new indicator diagram for L.P. cylinder
is represented by 4’-3 ’- 5 ’-6 -7 .
It may be noted from fig. 2 -1 7(a) that the effect of throttle governing is to reduce
the work done in both the cylinders, the greater reduction taking place in H.P. cylinder.
Further, since the governing is by throttling, the steam consumption of the engine in
kilograms per hour will follow Willan’s law.
In C ut-off G overning on H.P. Cylinder, the point of cut-off in the H.P cylinder is
varied. Referring to fig 2-17(b), 1 -2 -3 -4 is the H.P. indicator diagram area and 4 -3 -S -6 -7
is the L.P. indicator diagram area at full load. With the decrease of load, the cut-off in
the H.P. cylinder takes place earlier, say at point 2’. The expansion in H.P. cylinder is
continued upto point 3’ and from 3’ to 5’ in the L.P. cylinder. The exhaust pressure of
the H.P. cylinder is reduced. The work done in H.P. cylinder is now given by the area
1—2 ’- 3 ’- 4 ’p and the work done in the L.P. cylinder is represented by the area 4’-3 ’-5 ’-6 -7 .
It may be noted that the effect of cut-off governing on H.P. cylinder is to reduce the
work done in L.P. cylinder, while there is very little change in the work done by the H.P.
cylinder. This is because the reduction in H.P. work done due to early cut-off is compensated
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 49

P P

(o) Loter cut-off (b) Eorlier cut-off

Hg. 2-18. Cut-off governing in L.P. cylinder.

by the decrease of exhaust pressure of H.P. cylinder.
From the efficiency point of view, power control by varying the point o f cut-off is to
be preferred to throttle governing; because the available pressure drop and hence enthalpy
drop is not reduced.
Cut-off Governing on L.P. Cylinder makes very little reduction in the total work
done by the engine. Referring to fig. 2-18 (a), let the action of governor cause later
cut-off say at a. Thus, the exhaust pressure of the H.P. cylinder is reduced. As the
volume of the H.P. cylinder is same as before, there must be a sudden pressure drop
at release from 3 to 3’ at constant volume. The area of the H.P. diagram is now
1 -2 -3 -3 ’—4’ and has correspondingly increased. The area of L.P. cylinder is now 4’-a -5 -6 -7
and has correspondingly reduced. This alters the ratio of work done in the two cylinders.
If the cut-off in the L.P. cylinder takes place at a point earlier than point 3 [fig. 2-18
(b)], the L.P. cylinder will now take in a small volume of steam; this will increase the
exhaust pressure of the H.P. cylinder. But high pressure cylinder steam must expand
down to 3, as the cylinder volume is the same; thus, the H.P. cylinder will release against
a higher pressure than that in the cylinder. The exhaust stroke will tend to compress the
steam back to. 3’ before exhausting along the line 3’-4 ’.
It may be noted that earlier cut-off in L.P. cylinder makes very little difference in the
total work produced by the two cylinders together, but the work done by the H.P. cylinder
is reduced, while the work done in the L.P. cylinder is increased.
Thus, it may be summarised that governing by controlling cut-off in the H.P. cylinder
is the best, from the point of view of maintaining the efficiency of the engine at part
loads. As seen earlier, its baS effect is to reduce the proportion of the work done in the
L.P. cylinder at part loads. With condensing engines, at very light loads, this may cause
the average pressure in the L.P. cylinder to tall below that necessary to overcome the
back pressure and frictional resistances, thus reducing the efficiency of the engine.
To• counteract this disparity of work, the cut-off in the L.P. cylinder should take place
earlier so as to build up the exhaust pressure of H.P. (or admission pressure of L.P.),
thereby increasing the L.P. work at the expense of that of the H.P. This variation in L.P.
50 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
cut-off will not affect steam consumption or the total work done.
Thus, it is advisable to operate cut-off governing on the H.P. and L.P. cylinders
together to achieve the best results.
Tutorial-2
1. (a) What are the main objections to working the high pressuresteam through largerange of expansion in
a single cylinder ?
(b) What do you mean by a compound steam engine ?
2. (a) Give reasons for compounding steam engines.
(b) State the advantages of a compound steam engine as compared to simple steam engine.
3. (a) Classify compound steam engines and state their main characteristics.
(b) Explain, with the help of sketches, the working of a receiver type compound steam engine.
4. Explain the following terms as applied to compound steam engines : •
(i) cylinder volume ratio, (ii) total ratio of expansion, (iii) free or unresisted expansion, (iv) terminal drop,
and (v) M.E.P. referred to L.P. cylinder.
5. What is meant by "M.E.P. referred to L.P. cylinder" ?
In a two-cylinder compound steam engine, the admission pressure ot the H.P. cylinder is 7-5 bar and
cut-off takes place at 0-6 stroke. The release pressure in the L.P. cylinder is 0-8 bar. The condenser
pressure is 0-2 bar. If the initial loads on the two pistons are equal and expansion curve is assumed to
be hyperbolic, estimate the ratio of cylinder volumes, the mean pressure in the receiver, and the point of
cut-off in the L.P. cylinder.
[Ratio of cylinder volumes = 5-63; Mean pressure in receiver = 1-3 bar; Cut-off in LP. cylinder =0-615]
6. What are the differences between "cross-compounding" and "WooNe-compounding* of a steamengine ?
Explain this with the help of neat sketches.
7. Explain briefly the advantage of compounding in steam engines.
A compound double-acting steam engine develops brake power of 704 kW at 2 r.p.s. when taking in
steam at 14 bar and exhausting it at 0-2 bar (20kPa). Cut-off in H.P. cylinder takes place at 0-5 of the
stroke and the ratio of cylinder voluqpes is 3-5. Assuming a diagram factor of 0-75, mechanical efficiency
of 80 per cent and piston speed of 3 metres per sec., calculate the H.P. and L.P. cylinder diameters and
Ihe stroke.
Find the fraction of stroke at which cut-off takes place in L.P. cylinder for equal initial loads on both
the pistons. Assume hyperbolic expansion and neglect effect of clearance.
[Dia. of H.P. cylinder = 50 cm; Dia, of LP. cylinder ■ 93 -54 cm;
Length of piston stroke = 75 cm; Cut-off in L.P. cylinder = 0-61 ]
8. In a two-cylinder compound steam engine, the admission pressure of H.P. cylinder is 7.5 bar and cut-off
takes place at 0-6 stroke. The release pressure in the L.P. cylinder is 0-8 bar and the condenser pressure
is 0-2 bar. If the initial loads on the two pistons are equal and the curve of expansion is pv1'2 = constant,
estimate the cylinder volume ratio, the mean pressure in Ihe receiver, the point of cut-off in the L.P. cylinder,
and Ihe ratio of the work done in the two cylinders.
[Cylinder volume ratio = 3-87; Mean pressure in receiver = 1 7 bar;
Cut-off in L.P. cylinder - 0-534; Ratio of work done H.P./L.P. ■ 0-506]
9. Discuss the causes of loss of thermal efficiency in compound steam engines.
A compound, double-acting steam engine is required to develop indicatedpower of 370 kW at 2 r.p.s.
The steam supply is at 8.5 bar and the condenser pressure is 0-3- bar, Cut-off in HP. cylinder takes place
at 0-4 of stroke, ratio of cylinder volumes is 3-5, piston speed is 2-5 metres per sec. and diagram factor
is 0-85. If the cut-off in L.P. cylinder takes place at 0-475 of the stroke, determine the dimensions of the
cylinders, and compare theinitial loads on the two pistons. Assume hyperbolic expansion and neglect
clearance.
[Stroke = 62-5 cm; Dia. of H.P. cylinder = 47-78 cm; Dia. of
L.P. cylinder = 89-4 cm; Ratio of initial loads; H.P./L.P. = 1.052]
10. The following data refer to a double-acting compound steam engine required to give brake power of 299-4
kW at 3-33 r.p.s. (200 r.p.m.) with a mechanical efficiency of 80% :
Steam supply pressure, 15 bar; back pressure, 0-3 bar; cut-off in H.P. cylinder, at 0-4stroke; total ratio
of expansion, 10; piston speed, 200 metres/min; overall diagram factor, 0-75.
Assuming equal initial loading on each piston, determine : (i) the H.P. and L.P. cylinder diameters, (ii)
the piston stroke, (iii) the receiver pressure, (iv) Ihe release pressure in L.P. and H.P. cylinders; (v) Ihe
cut-off in LP. cylinder, (vi) the mean effective pressure in H.P. cylinder (vii) Ihe mean effective pressure
COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 51
in L.P. cylinder, (viii) the overall mean effective pressure referred to L.P. cylinder considering overall
diagram, (ix) the mean effective pressure of each cylinder referred to Ihe L.P. cylinder, (x) the total mean
effective pressure referred to L.P. cylinder, (xi) the percentage loss of work due to incomplete expansion
in the H.P. cylinder, and (xii) the ratio of work done in the two cylinders.
Assume hyperbolic expansion and H.P. diagram factor = L.P. diagram factor = overall diagram factor.
Neglect effect of clearance.
[(i) D . h .p = 32 cm, D l ,p ,= 64 cm; (ii) 50 cm; (iii) Receiver pressure = 3-24 bar; (iv) Release pressures,
L.P. = 1-5 bar, H.P. = 6 bar; (v) 0-463 of stroke; (vi) 6-19 bar (vii) 1-76 bar; (viii) 3-49 bar;
(ix) H.P. m.e.p. = 1-55 bar, L.P. m.e.p. = 1-76 bar (x) 3-31 bar;
/ UD 1
(xi) 5-16%; (xii) Ratio of work done, - t t t ]
L. r i I'lw
11. The following particulars relate to a non-condensing compound steam engine : H.P. cylinder bore, 40 cm;
L.P. cylinder bore, 75 cm; stroke of each piston 100 cm; steam supply pressure; 15 bar; back pressure,
1-5 bar; cut-off in H.P. cylinder,0-55 stroke; cutoff in L.P. cylinder; 0.35 stroke; speed; 3 r.p.s. Take a
diagram factor of 0-65 for eachcylinder, assume hyperbolic expansion and neglect effect of clearance.
Estimate : (a) the pressure dropat release in H.P. cylinder, and (b) the indicatedpower of each cylinder.
((a) 1-55 bar; (b) Indicated power of H.P. cylinder = 317-43 kW, Indicated power of L.P. cylinder = 572-56 kW]
12. Distinguish between Woolfe compound steam engines and receiver compound steam engines.
A compound steam engine is to develop indicated power of 93-75 kW at 1-83 r.p.s, Steam is supplied
at 7-5 bar and condenser pressure is 0-2 bar. Assuming hyperbolic expansion and total expansion ratio of
15, a diagram factor of 0-7 and neglecting clearance and receiver losses, determine the diameters of the
H.P. and L.P.cylinders so that they may develop equal power. Stroke of each piston is equal to L.P. cylinder
diameter.
• [Dia. of H.P. cylinder = 38-65 cm; Dia. of L.P. cylinder = 65-5 cm]
13. A compound steam engine receives steam at a pressure of 9 bar and exhausts into 1he condenser at 1
bar. The L.P. cylinder release pressure is 2 bar and the stroke of each piston is the same. Assuming
hypothetical indicator diagram, find the ratio of cylinder diameters, if the work done in the two cylinders is
equality shared. Neglect clearance and receiver losses.
11-28]
14. Find the ratio of the diameters of the cylinders of a two-cylinder compound steam engine in order that the
work done by each cylinder should be the same. Assume a hypothetical indicator diagram, viz pv = constant,
range of expansion 9-5 to 2 bar and exhaust at 1 bar, and the stroke of each piston to be the same.
Neglect clearance and receiver losses.
(1-304]
15. A compound steam engine is to develop indicated power of 120 kW at 2.3 r.p.s. The steam supply is at
8-5 bar and the condenser pressure is 0-3 bar. Assuming hyperbolic expansion and total ratio of expansion
of 6, a diagram factor of 0-7, calculate the H.P. and LP . cylinder diameters so that 1he power is equally
divided between the two cylinders. Stroke of each piston may be taken equal to 1-2 times the diameter
of L.P. cylinder. Assume no pressure drop at release in H.P. cylinder and neglect effect of clearance.
(Dia. of H.P. cylinder = 36-8 cm; Dia. of L.P. cylinder = 47-4 cm]
16. In a two cylinder compound steam engine, the ratio of cylinder volumes is 5 and the totaf ratio of expansion
is 10. The initial steam pressure is 10 bar and the back pressure is 0-4 bar. Assuming a common hyperbolic
expansion curve for the two cylinders and equal distribution of work between the cylinders compare the
initial loads on the pistons. Neglect the effect of clearance and compression. [equal]
17. A triple-expansion steam engine is required to develop indicated power of 3,750 kW at 1.5 r.p.s. under
the following conditions :
Pressure in H.P. steam chest ... 14 bar
Cut-off in H.P. cylinder 0-7 stroke
Average piston speed 3-67 m per sec.
Vacuum 700 mm of Hg
Barometer ' 760 mm of Hg
Using ratio ofcylinder volumes of 1 : 3 : 7-5 and a diagram factor of 0-63, determine the dimensions
of thecylinders. If the initial loads on the pistons are equal, estimate the mean receiver pressures for the
engine. Assume hyperbolic expansion and neglect effect of clearance.
[Dia. of H.P. cylinder = 80 cm, Dia. of l.P. cylinder = 138-5 cm, Dia of L.P. cylinder = 219 cm;
Length of stroke = 122 cm; Mean receiver pressure in 1st receiver = 4-5 bar,
, Mean receiver pressure in 2nd receiver = 1-345 bar]
52 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
18. Estimate the diameters of the cylinders for a quadruple expansion marine steam engine to develop indicated
power of 9,000 kW with a piston, speed of 5 metres per second under the following conditions :
Pressure in steam chest 16 bar; condenser pressure 0-15 bar; total ratio of expansion 14; overall
diagram factor 0-65.
Rnd also the point of cut-off in the H.P. cylinder. Assume hyperbolic expansion with ratio of cylinder
volumes of 1 : 2 - 1 : 4-4 : 9. Neglect effect of clearance.
[Dia. of H.P. cylinder = 99 cm; Dia. of 1st I.P. cylinder = 143-5 cm; Dia. of 2nd I.P. cylinder = 208 cm;
Dia. of L.P. cylinder = 297 cm; Cut-off in H.P. cylinder = 0-643]
19. (a) Whatare the various methods of governing employed in compound steam engines ?
(b) What will be the effect of the following on the distribution of power between the two cylinders of a
compound steam engine.
(i) Varying the cut-off in H.P. cylinder,
(ii) Varying the cut-off in L.P. cylinder, and
(iii) Throttling of inlet steam.
Explain with the help of suitable diagrams wherever necessary.
20. What are the main factors to be considered in deciding the sizes of the cylinders in a compound steam
engine ?
21. Explain briefly the effect on the distribution of the work between the two cylinders when governing is carried
out
(a) by throttling, and
(b) by cut-off.
 3
STEAM ENGINE
AND
BOILER TRIALS
3.1 Steam Engine Trials
Engine trials are carried out for the purpose of comparing actual engine performance
with theoretical or ideal performance. Trials are also carried out when the manufacturers
have entered into agreement and guaranteed specified efficiency and maximum capacity
(output) of the engine. The tests in this case are made to verify the guaranteed steam
consumption per indicated power per hour or per brake power per hour under specified
steam supply pressure and condenser vacuum.
For complete steam engine trial, it is necessary to measure losses in addition to the
part of the heat converted into useful work and also to draw up a heat balance account.
Such trials have been the direct cause of, and incentive to, the improvement in engines
throughout the period of their development. This interest created a demand for authentic
(trustworthy) records of engine performance which could only be satisfied by exhaustive
trials carried out on steam plants. The measurements necessary to determine the thermal
efficiency (brake and indicated) and to draw up complete heat balance sheet are :
— Indicated power (if possible),
— Brake power,
— Steam consumption in kilograms per hour,
— Pressure of steam supply at engine stop valve,
— Condition of steam supply at engine stop valve i.e. dryness fraction of steam if wet steam
is used or temperature of steam if superheated steam is used,
— Temperature and pressure of exhaust steam,
— Quantity of condenser cooling or circulating water per hour, and
— Inlet and outlet temperatures of condenser cooling water.
When proper precautions are taken, it is possible to estimate the indicated power
of a steam engine with great accuracy by taking indicator diagrams. In order to have the
pressure inside the indicator cylinder same as the pressure inside the engine cylinder,
the connecting pipe between the indicator and engine cylinder should be as short and
straight as possible and of large bore. For double-acting steam engines, a separate
indicator diagram should be taken for each end of the cylinder. Indicator diagrams taken
from a double-acting cross-compound steam engine are shown in fig. 3-1. Before taking
a diagram, the steam should be allowed to blow through freely in order to clear out
condensed steam which may have collected in the pipes. Then the indicator cord is
coupled up to the reducing gear. The pencil should be lightly pressed against the paper
for about twenty seconds and the diagram is taken. The atmospheric line should then
be drawn and the indicator cord uncoupled. The mean effective pressure is then calculated
by measuring the area of the indicator diagram by means of a planimeter or by the
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
method of mean ordinates.
The brake measures the work available
for use external to the engine itself, and helps
to assess the useful power available known
as brake power. The type of dynamometer
which should be used will depend upon the
^A tm o sp h e ric line size of the engine under test. For comparatively
(a) HP.cylinder small powers, an ordinary rope brake may be
used with success, but for large powers, several
alternatives are possible. A very convenient
method is to couple up the engine directly to
electric dynamo whose efficiency is known at
all loads. The output from the dynamo is very
easily measured and the brake power of the
(b) L P. cylinder engine estimated from the known efficiency of
the dynamo. If a dynamo is not available and
Fig. 3 - 1 . indicator diagrams from the power is too large to be measured by a
cross-compound steam engine. rope brake, a hydraulic brake may be used,
while for large engines (marine engines) torsional (transmission) dynamometer may be
used.
The steam consum ption is best measured by condensing and weighing the exhaust
steam. This is very easy in case of a condensing engine, fitted with a surface condenser.
For a non-condensing engine, the steam consumption can only be measured by using a
boiler solelyto supply the steam to the engine under test; the steam consumption is,
estimated bydeducting from the measured boiler feed, the sum of (i) the steam condensed
in the steam pipes, (ii) the steam used for driving the feed pump, and (iii) the leakage
of steam from the steam pipes.
When saturated steam (or wet steam) is used, its pressure and dryness fraction
should be measured close to the engine side of the stop valve. Thedryness fraction can
be estimated by using a combined separating and throttling calorimeter if the steam is
very wet, or by using a throttling calorimeter if the steam is nearly dry: In determining
the dryness fraction of steam, great care should be taken in getting a proper sample of
steam supplied to the engine. If superheated steam is used, the pressure and temperature
of steam should be measured close to the engine side of the stop valve.
The pressure in the condenser is measured by taking vacuum gauge and the barometer
readings. The vacuum gauge reading should be taken at every five minutes and the
barometer readings at the beginning and at the end ofthe trial. The temperature of
exhaust steam is measured by taking the temperature of water discharged from the air
pump. The temperature of exhaust steam is also known as the temperature of condensate
or hot-well temperature.
The quantity of condenser cooling water used per hour is measured by taking reading
of the hook gauge to give the head of water in the water channel every five minutes.
Then for a right-angled V-notch,
Q = 1*418 (Ai)5/2 (assuming Cd = 0-6) ...(3.1)
where, Q = cubic metres of water flowing per second, and
h = head of water over the notch in metres.
The quantity of condenser cooling water also may be measured by calibrated tanks.
The inlet and outlet temperatures of condenser cooling water are measured by reading
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 55
the thermometers fitted in the inlet and outlet water pipes every ten minutes.
3.2 Heal Balance Sheet
In a trial of any heat engine, the distribution of the heat supplied per minute or per
hour is required. This appears in the heat balance sheet or heat account sheet. In order
to complete a heat balance sheet for a steam engine, the engine should be tested over
a period o f time under conditions o f constant load and constant steam supply. A ll the
measurements listed earlier should be taken at regular interval o f time. On the completion
o f the trial, the necessary data should be averaged out and a heat account sheet should
be drawn up as follows :
[ Heat supptied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %
Heat in steam supplied — Heat equivalent of brake power
— Heat removed by condenser
cooling water
— Heat remaining in condensate -
— Heat remaining in jacket drain
— Heat lost by radiation, leakage,
error of measurement, etc.
(by difference)
Total Total

Note : The heat equivalent o f the friction power is hot included in the above balance
sheet on the right hand side because it is possible that some o f the frictional heat will
re-appear in the steam and eventually appear as heat removed from the condenser. Thus,
the right hand side o f the heat balance sheet should include the brake power and not
the indicated power.
Various items in heat balance'sheet can be estimated as follows0 :
Heat supplied per minute (measured above 0°C) :
Let H i = Enthalpy in kJ per kg of steam at engine stop valve condition,
ms = mass of steam supplied to the cylinder per min., and
my m mass of steam supplied to the cylinder jacket per min.
Then, gross heat supplied to the engine (measured above 0°C)
= ( ms + my) x Hi kJ/min. ...(3.2)
Heat expenditure per m inute:
(1) Heat equivalent o f brake power or heat converted into useful work :
Heat equivalent of brake power per min. = brake power x 60 kJ/min. ...(3.3)
(2) Heat remove by condenser cooling water I
Let mw = mass of condenser cooling water per min.; and
te - ti = rise in temperature of condenser cooling water.
Then, heat removed by condenser cooling water per minute
- mw x 4-187 x ( fe - f i ) kJ/min.
(where 4-187 kJ/kg K is the specific heat of water (Kj) ...(3.4)
(3) Heat remaining in condensate or heat to hot-well (measured above 0°C) :
Let h2 = Enthalpy in kJ per kg of condensate (water) in the hot-well, and
ms = mass of condensate per minute.
Then, heat remaining in condensate per min.
56 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
= ms x 4-187 x ( tc - 0 ) kJ/min. ...(3.5)
where, tc is the temperature of condensate in hot-well in °C
Heat rejected in exhaust steam per minute
= heat removed by condenser cooling water + heat to hot-well
= mw x 4-187 x ( f2 - U ) + ms x 4-187x( tc- 0 ) kJ/min. ...(3.6)
(4) Heat remaining in jacket drain (measured above0°C) :
Let h2 = Enthalpy in kJ per kg of water from jacket drain at the temperature measured,
and
mj a* mass of steam supplied to jacket per min.
Then, heat remaining in jacket drain per min.
- my x 4-187 x ( tj - 0 ) kJ/min. ...(3.7)
where, tj is the temperature of condensed waterin jacket drain in°C.
(5) Heat lost by radiation, leakage, error of observation, etc. (bydifference) :
This is obtained by the difference between gross heat supplied and the sum of items
(1), (2), (3) and (4).
Problem-1 : The following data was obtained during a test on a single-cylinder, double-acting
steam engine having 20 cm cylinder diameter and 25 cm stroke ;
M.E.P. (from indicator diagrarrij ... 250 kPa
Speed 5 r.p.s.
Effective radius of brake wheel 38 cm
Net brake load 1,360 newtons
Steam consumption 3-55 kg/min.
Steam supply pressure at engine stop valve 8 bar
Dryness fraction o f steam at engine stop valve 0 97
Condenser cooling water 110 kg/min.
Temperature rise of condenser cooling water 14°C
Condensate temperature 40°C
Calculate : (a) the brake power, (b) the indicated power, (c) the mechanical efficiency, •
(d) the specific steam consumption in kg per kW-hr., (e) the brake thermal efficiency,
and (f) the indicated thermal efficiency.
Draw up a heat balance sheet for the engine in kJ/min. and in percentages.
(a) Brake power = (W - S) R 2 n N
= 1,360 x 0-38 x 2 k x 5 = 16,236 watts or 16-236 kW
(b) Indicated power = 2 x pm x a x Ix N
= 2 X (250 X 103) X (0-7854 x (0-2)2) x 0-25 x 5
= 19,635 watts or 19-635 kW

(c) Mechanical efficiency, , B .r3 » f.P ow--r- - = 0-8268 or 82-68%

v' im indicted power 19-635
3*55 x 60
(d) Specific steam consumption = —^9.236 ~ = "*3-12 kg/kW-hr.

Gross heat supplied per minute :

At 8 bar, h = 721-11 kJ/kg and L = 2,048 kJ/kg (from steam tables).
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 57
Heat in steam supplied per min. measured above 0°C at engine stop valve
* ms X Hi - ms ( h + xL ) - 3-55 ( 721-11 + 0-97 x 2,048) * 9,612 kJ/min.
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power per minute = 16-236 x 60 = 974-2 kJ
(2) Heat removed by condenser cooling water per minute
= mw x ( fe - ft ) x 4-187 - 110 x 14 x 4-187 = 6,448 kJ
(3) Heat to hot-well or heat remaining in condensate above 0 °C per min.
= ms x ( tc - 0 ) x 4-187 = 3-55 ( 40 - 0 ) x 4-187 = 594-6 kJ
(heat rejected in exhaust steam per min. = 6,448 + 594-6 = 7,042-6 kJ)
(4) Heat lost by radiation, error, etc. per minute (by difference)
= 9,612 - (974-2 + 6,448 + 594-6) = 1,595-2 kJ
Heat balance sheet w ith 0*C as Datum
I” ""”" Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ % |
Heat in steam supplied 9,612 100 (1) Heat equivalent of brake power 794-2 10-13
(2) Heat removed by condenser 6,448 67 08
cooling water
(3) Heat to hot-well 594-6 6-19
(4) Heat lost by radiation error of 1,595-2 16-60
measurements etc. (by dif-
ference)
Total 9,612 100 •Total 9,612 100

(e) Net heat supplied per minute = gross heat supplied per min. - heat to hot-well per min.
= 9,612 - 594-6 = 9,017-4 kJ
„ , ~ ..... Heat equivalent of brake power per min.
Brake thermal efficiency, ri/> = ---------------- | ■ . r r®----------
1 1 Net heat supplied per mm.
974-2
= 0-108 or 10 -8 %
9,017-4
Brake thermal efficiency
(f) Indicated thermal efficiency, ty
Mechanical efficiency

° '108 = 0-1307 or 13 07%

0-8268
Problem-2 : The following readings were taken during a trial o f a single-cylinder,
double-acting steam engine having a cylinder diameter o f 58 cm and stroke o f 85 cm :
Piston rod diameter .. 9 cm
Speed 158 r.p.m.
Mean effective pressure (cover end) 2 52 bar
Mean effective pressure (crank end) 2 5 8 bar
Brake power developed 224 kW
Steam supply pressure 10 bar
Steam supply temperature 234°C
Condenser cooling water flow 1,700 kg/min.
Inlet temperature of condenser cooling water 15°C
58 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
Outlet temperature o f condenser cooling water .. 28°C
Mass o f condensate collected .. 2,760 kg/hr.
Condensate temperature .. 38°C
Condenser Vacuum .. 637-5 mm Hg
Barometer reading .. 750 mm Hg
Kp o f superheated steam „ 2 -1 kJ/kg K
Calculate the mechanical and indicated thermal efficiencies o f the engine and draw
up a heat balance sheet in kJ/min. and in percentage. Also estimate the dryness fraction
o f the steam entering the condenser.

Piston area (cover end) = — .(58)2 - 2,640 cm2 = 0-264 m2

Piston area (crank end) = ^ (58^ - 9?) - 2,580 cm2 - 0258 m2

Indicated powerBngine = indicated powercover + indicated powerCrank

K 158 c 158
(2-52 x 10?) x 0*264 x 0-85 x (2-58 x 105) x 0-258 x 0-85 x
60 60

= 2,97,900 watts = 297-9 kW

Mechanical efficiency, Tim - , - 0-7519 or 75-19%

7 1 Indicated power 297-9
At 10 bar, Hs = 2,778-1 kJ/kg, ts = 179-91 °C (from steam tables).
Enthalpy of 1 kg of superheated steam measured above 0°C,
H i = Hs + Kp (tsup - ts) = 2,778-1 + 2-1 (234 - 179-91) = 2,891*7 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy of 1 kg condensate (water) above 0°C,
h2 = (38 - 0) X 4*187 = 159*1 kJ/kg.
Net heat supplied (difference in enthalpy) per kg of steam
= H i - h2 = 2,891*7 - 159-1 = 2,732-6 kJ/kg.
P 7R 0
Net heat supplied per minute = ms (Hi - h2) - — x 2,732-6 kJ/min.

indicated thermal efficiency - Heat indh; ? f P°wef

7 Net heat supplied perm ia
Indicated power x 60 297-9 x 60 ..
ms (H, - hz) 2,760
x 2,732*6

Gross heat supplied per minute :

2 760
Heat in stearfl supplied per minute = ms x Hi « ~ 60"™ x 2,891 7 “ 1»33'018
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power per min. = 224 x 60 = 13,440 kJ
(2 ) Heat removed by condenser cooling water per min.
= m * x ( fe x f1 ) x 4-187 - 1,700 X (2 8 -1 5 ) x 4*187 = 92,533 kJ
(3) Heat remaining in condensate above 0°C per min.
9 7 fi0
= ms x (fc -0 ) x 4*187 - x (38 - 0 ) x 4*187 - 7,319 kJ
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 59
(4) Heat lost by radiation, error, etc. (by difference) per min.
= 1,33,018 - (13,440 + 92,533 + 7,319) = 19,726 kJ
" Heat balance sheet with 0°C as Datu;7i
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ % |
Heat in steam supplied 1,33,018 100 (1) Heat equivalent of brake power 13,440 10-1
(2) Heat removed by condenser 92,533 69-57
cooling water
(3) Heat remaining in condensate 7,319 5-50
(4) Heat lost by radiation error of 19,726 14-83
m easurem ents etc. (by
difference)
Total 1,33,018 100 Total 1,33,018 100
112-5
Condenser pressure = 750 - 637-5 = 112-5 mm of Hg = - — - 0-15 bar.

At 0-15 bar, L = 2,373-1 kJ/kg and ts = 53-97°C (from steam tables).

Using eqn. (1.2a),
heat lost by exhaust steam/hr. = heat gained by condenser cooling water/hr.
ms [XL + ( ts - tc) K] - mw x ( fe ** I ) K
i.e. 2,760 [2,373-1 x + (53-97 - 38) 4-187] = 1,700 x 60 x (2 8 - 15 ) 4-187
/. x = 0-82 (dryness fraction of exhaust steam)
Problem-3 : The following data was obtained during a test on a single-cylinder,double-acting
steam engine having 20 cm cylinder diameter and 25 cm stroke : Mean effective pressure
from indicator diagram, 2 5 bar; speed, 5 r.p.s.; effective radius of brake wheel, 38 cm;
net brake load, 1,340 newtons; steam consumption, 3 6 kg/min.; steam supply pressure
at engine stop valve, 8 bar; dryness fraction of steam at engine stop valve, 0-9; condenser
cooling water, 110 kg/min.; temperature rise of condenser cooling water, 14°C; condenser
pressure, 0-1 bar (10 kPa); hot-well temperature, 40X). Take specific heat o f water as
4-187 kJ/kg K and calculate : (a) the brake power, (b) the indicated power, (c) the
mechanical efficiency, (d) the brake thermal efficiency, (e) the indicated thermal efficiency,
and (f) the brake power steam consumption in kg per kW-hour. Also draw up a heat
balance sheet in kJ/min. and in percentages.
(a) Brake power = (IV - S) R 2 x N

= 1,340 x ^ x 2 x 3-14 x 5 = 15,990 watts or 15-99 kW

1uu
(b) Indicated power = pm x a x l x N x 2
2
= 105 x 2-5 x ^ x ^ x 5 x 2 = 19,635 or 19-635 kW

(c) Mechanical efficiency, = ■ ^ ra^e P0^ r - = = 0-8143 or 81-43%

' ' Indicated power 19-635
(d) Gross heat supplied per minute :
At 8bar, h = 721-11 kJ/kg, L = 2,048 -kJ/kg (from steam tables).
Heat in steam supplied per min. measured above 0°C at engine stopvalve
= ms x Hi = ms (h + xL ) = 3-6(721-11 + 0-9 x 2,048) = 9,231-52 kJ/min.
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power/min. = 15-99 x 60 = 959-4 kJ/min.
60 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
(2) Heat removed by condenser cooling waterpermin.
= m w X 4-187 x ( f e - / i ) = 110 x 4-187 x 14 = 6,447-98 kJ/min.

(3) Heat to hot-well or heat remaining in condensate above 0 °C per min.

= ms X 4-187 X ( f c - 0 ) = 3-6 X 4-187 (40 - 0) = 602-93 kJ/min.
(4) Heat lost by radiation, error, etc. per min (by difference)
= 9,231-52 - (959-4 + 6,447-98 + 602-93) = 1,221-21 kJ/min.
Net heat supplied per min. = Gross heat supplied/min. - heat to hot-well/min.
= 9,231-52 - 602-93 = 8,628-59 kJ/min.

B r a k e t h e r m a l e f f l., r , „ . H e a t 01 P o w e f . P e r m l n -
Net heat supplied per mm.
959-4
0-1112 or 11 -12%
8,628-59
(e) Indicated thermal efficiency, . Heal « F ^ e n t of indicated power/min
' ' Net heat supplied per min
19-635 x 60
. 0-1366 or 13-66%
8,628-59
3 6 x 60
(f) Brake power steam consumption in kg/kW-hr. = = 13-51 kg/kW-hr.
l b-yy
Heat balance sheet w ith 0°C as Datum
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ % |
Heat in steam supplied 9,231 -52 100 (1) Heat to brake power 959-4 10-40
(2) Heat removed by condenser 6,447-98 69-84
cooling
(3) Heat to hot-well 602-93 6-53
(4) Heat lost by radiation error etc. 1,221-21 13-23
(by difference)
Total 9,231 -52 100 Total 9,231 -52 100

Problem-4 : During a test on a single-cylinder, double-acting jacketed steam engine, the

following observations were made :
. Indicated power, 26 kW; brake power, 21; pressure of steam supplied, 6 bar, quality
o f steam supplied, 5% wet; mass of steam used in engine cylinder, 325 kg/hour; mass
o f steam used in Jacket, 30 kg/hour; condensate temperature, 40eC; temperature o f jacket
drain, 140°C; condenser cooling water, 10,200 kg/hour; temperature rise of condenser
cooling water, 15°C. Taking specific heat o f water as 4187 kJ/kg K, draw up a heat
balance sheet in kJ/min. and in percentage. Calculate the indicated thermal efficiency
when the heat o f jacket drain is not available to the boiler as feed water heat.
What will be the percentage improvement in the indicated thermal efficiency if the
heat o f the jacket drain is also available to the feed water ?
At 6 bar, h = 670-56 kJ/kg, L = 2,086-3 kJ/kg (from steam tables).
Enthalpy of 1 kg of wet steam measured above 0 °C,
H i = h + xL = 670-56 + 0-95 x 2,086-3 = 2,652-54 kJ/kg.
Total mass of steam supplied to engine per min.
= mass of steam used in engine cylinder/min. plus mass of steam used in jacket/min.
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 61
ms + rrij 325 + 30 355
kg per min.
~ 60 " 60 = 60
Gross heat supplied per minute :
ms + mt 355
Heat supplied to engine per min. = 1 x H, = x 2,652-54 = 15,6942 kJ/min.
60 ' 60
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power per min. = 21 x 60 = 1,260 kJ/min.
(2) Heat removed by condenser cooling water per min.
10,200
= mw x 4-187 x (fe - fi) = x 4-187 x 15 = 10,676-85 kJ/min.
60
(3) Heat remaining in condensate per min.
325
= ms x 4-187 x (tc - 0) = x 4-187 x (40 - 0) = 907-2 kJ/min.
60
(4) Heat remaining in jacket drain per min.
30
= my x 4-187 x (fy-0 ) = ^ x 4-187 x (140 - 0) - 293-09 kJ/min.

(5) Heat lost by radiation, error, etc. per min. (by difference)
= 15,694-2 - (1,260 + 10,676-85 + 907-2 + 293 09) = 2,557-06 kJ/min.
Heat balance sheet with 0°C as Datum
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %
Heat in steam supplied 15,694-2 100 (1) Heat equivalent of brake power 1,260 803
(2) Heat removed by condenser 10,676-85 68-04
cooling water
(3) Heat remaining in condensate 907-2 5-78
(4) Heat remaining in jacket drain 293-09 1-86
(5) Heat tost by radiation error etc. 2,557-06 16-29
(by difference)
Total 15,694-2 100 Total 15,694-2 100

Indicated thermal efficiency when heat of condensate and heat of cylinder jacket drain
is available to boiler as feed water heat
Heat equivalent of indicated power per min
Net heat supplied per min.
_______ 26 x 60_______ 1,560 _ nin7R
" 15,694-2-(907-2+ 293-09) 14,493-93 " «
Indicated thermal efficiency when heat of condensate is only available to boiler as
26 x 60 1,560
feed water heat = = 0-1055 or 10-55%
15,694-2-907-2 14,787
Percentage improvement in indicated thermal efficiency when heat of jacket drain is
also available to boiler as feed water heat
* IW -J W . m . 0-019 or 1-9%
10-55 10-55
Problem-5 : The following observation were recorded during a trial on a jacketed
double-acting compound steam engine supplied, with dry saturated steam :
62 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
H.P. cylinder diameter ... 23 cm
L. P. cylinder diameter ... 40 cm
Stroke ... 58 cm
M.E.P. in H.P. cylinder ... 2 4 6 bar
M.E.P. in L.P. cylinder ... 1'39 bar
Average engine speed ... 92.4 r.p.m.
Brake-torque ... 4,150 N.m
• 'Steam pressure during admission ... 6-5 bar
Receiver pressure ... 2 8 bar
Condenser vacuum ... 610 mm o f Hg
Barometer reading ... 760 mm o f Hg
Steam measured as discharged from air pump ... 8 kg/min.
Discharge from cylinder jacket drain ... 0-86 kg/min.
Discharge from receiver jacket drain ... 049 kg/min.
Mass o f condenser cooling water ... 274 kg/min.
f Temperature rise of condenser cooling water ... 15°C
Temperature of condensate ... 53°C
Draw up a heat balance account giving heat quantities in kJ per minute and in
ircentages. Estimate also the mechanical and brake thermal efficiencies o f the engine.
indicated power of both cylinders (engine) = (pm1 a; + Pm2^2) * 1 * N x 2
= [(2-46 x 105) x 0-7854 x (0-23f + (1-39 x 105) x 0-7854 x (0-4)2]
92-4
x 0-58 x x 2 = 49,462 watts « 49-462 kW
60
92-4
Brake power of the engine = Torque x 2 n N = 4,150 x 2n x -z ^ -

= 40,156 watts = 40-156 kW

At 6-5 bar (from steam tables), enthalpy per kg of dry saturated steam H1 = 2,760 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy per kg of condensate (water) from condenser,
h2 = (53 - 0) 4-187 = 221-9 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy per kg of condensate (water) from the receiver jacket drain at 2-8 bar is
551-48 kJ/kg (from steam tables), and
Enthalpy per kg of condensate (water) from cylinder jacket drain at 6-5 bar is 684-28
kJ/kg (from steam tables).
Total mass of steam supplied = 8 + 0-86 + 0-49 = 9-35 kg/min.

Gross heat supplied per minute :

Heat in steam supplied = 9-35 x 2,760 = 25,806 kJ/min.
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power = 40-156 x 60 = 2,409-5 kJ/min.
(2) Heat removed by condenser cooling water = 274 x 15 x 4-187 = 17,208-6 kJ/min.
(3) Heat remaining in condensate above °C = 8(53 - 0) x 4-187 = 1,775-3 kJ/min.
(4) Heat remaining in cylinder jacket drain above 0°C = 0-86 x 684-28 = 588-5 kJ/min.
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 63
(5) Heat remaining in receiver jacket drain above 0°C = 0*49 x 551 -48 - 270*2 kJ/min.
(6 ) Heat lost by radiation, error, etc. (by difference)
= 25,806 - (2,409*6 + 17,20*6 + 1,775*3 + 588*5 + 270*2) = 3,554 kJ/min.
Heat Balance sheet with 0 °C as Datum
j Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ
% 1

Heat in steam supplied 25,806 100 (1) To useful work brake (power) 2,409-4 934
(2) To condenser cooling water 1,7208-6 66-68
(3) To condensate 1,775-3 6-88
(4) To cylinder jacket drain 586-5 2-28
(5) To receiver jacket drain 270-2 1-05
(6) To radiation error of measure- 3,554-0 13-77
ment etc.
•
(by difference)
Total 25,806 100 Total 25,806 100

Mechanical efficiency x]m = . * 0*8118 or 81*18%

7 1 Indicated power 49-462
Assuming that heat of receiver jacket and cylinder jacket drains and heat of condensate
(from condenser) is available to the boiler feed water,
Net heat supplied = 25,808 - (270-2 + 588-5 + 1,775*3) = 23,172 kJ/min.
_ , „ ,„ . Heat equivalent of brake power per min
Brake thermal efficiency, rib -V- - - — ---------------- r 11---------
1 1
* -----------------------------
Net heat supplied per mm

= ■ l l f l f = 0-104 or 10-4%
23,172
Probtem -6 : A steam jacketed condensing steam engine working with dry saturated steam
a t an initial temperature o f 12327°C, develops brake power o f 74 k.W. The air pump
discharges 1,150 kg o f water per hour to the hot-well at a temperature o f 50°C. The
condenser cooling water supplied per hour is 18,500 kg and its rise in temperature is
35°C. Neglecting radiation losses, find : (a) the heat received by the working steam from
die jacket, and (b) assuming that the jacket to be supplied with boiler steam and only
enthalpy o f evaporation (latent heat) o f the jacket steam to be given up to working steam,
find the mass o f cylinder jacket steam used per kilogram o f cylinder feed.
(a) Absolute pressure of steam corresponding to the saturation temperature of 123-27°C
is 2.2 bar, and enthalpy (Hi) of dry saturated steam at 2*2 bar is 2,711 kJ/kg.
and enthalpy Of evaporation Li = 2,193-4 kJ/kg (from steam tables).
Now, heat supplied by the boiler steam entering the cylinder per min.

= ^ X Hi = X 2,711 « 51,961 kJ/min.

60 60
(1) Brake power heat equivalent = 74 x 60 = 4,440 kJ/min.
18 500
(2) Heat removed by condenser cooling water = — — x 35 x 4-187 - 45,185 kJ/min.
DU
1 150
(3) Heat to hot-well = J j^ ( 5 0 - 0) x 4-187 * 4,013 kJ/min.
,6 0
Heat rejected in exhaust steam = 45,185 + 4,013 = 49,198 kJ/min.
(4) Neglecting radiation losses, heat received by the working steam from the cylinder
64 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
jacket steam per min.
= heat supplied by the working steam entering the cylinder minus
heat to brake power + heat rejected in exhaust steam
= 51,961 - (4,440 + 49,198) = -1,677 kJ/m in.
Negative sign indicates that heat is received by the working steam from the cylinder
jacket steam.
(b) Now assuming that the cylinder jacket to be supplied with boiler steam at 2.2
bar and only enthalpy o f evaporation (latent heat) o f cylinder jacket steam to be
given up to working steam,'
^ p m ip /ja
Mass of jacket steam used per hour, my » — * « 45-87 kg
I 90 H
(2,193-4 kJ/kg is the enthalpy of evaporation of 1 kg of steam at 2-2 bar from steam
tables),
Mass of cylinder jacket stream used per kg of the cylinder feed (or working
steam),

m ' - t t ! - 0 3 9 9 “ 9

3.3 Steam B oiler T rials

Boiler trials are carried out to determine the thermal efficiency of the boiler and to
draw up the heat balance account. Boiler trials are also carried out to verify the guaranteed
maximum evaporative capacity of the boiler. For complete boiler trial, it is necessary to
measure losses in addition to the heat utilised in raising steam. Such trials have been
the direct cause of and incentive to the improvement of boilers. The measurements
necessary to determine the thermal efficiency of a boiler and to draw up the heat balance
account for a boiler are :
— Rate of fuel consumption, i.e. mass of fuel burned/hr.,
— Calorific value and chemical analysis of fuel after proper sampling,
— Rate of water evaporation, i.e. mass of water evaporated/hr.,
— Pressure of steam at the boiler stop valve,
— Condition of steam at the boiler stop valve, i.e. dryness fraction of steam if there is no
superheater, or temperature of steam if there is a superheater,
— Feed water temperature,
— Flue gases temperature,
— Analysis of flue gases,
— Mass of ashes and determination of their calorific value after proper sampling, and
— Measurement of pressure, temperature and humidity of air.
To obtain the best results from a trial on the steam boiler, special attention must be
paid to the method of stoking. The method of starting and stopping the trial, and the
duration of the trial are also of great importance. The decisions regarding these, entirely
depend upon the conditions under which the boiler has to work.
The following method of starting and stopping the trial will generally be found the
most convenient :
The boiler should be kept running on load for some time in order to get settled down
to working conditions. About fifteen minutes before the trial commences, the fire should
be cleaned and all ashes and clinker removed. Then, at the start o f the trial the thickness
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 65
o f the fire, the steam pressure and the temperature of the flue gases should immediately
be noted. The water level be marked by tying a piece of string around the gauge glass,
and the feed pump should be stopped. A t the end of the trial, the thickness o f the fire,
the steam pressure and the temperature o f the flue gases should be same as that at
the start o f the trial. If the water levels of the feed water tank and boiler water tank and
boiler water gauge glass is the same at the end as at the start of the trial, the working
of result is much simplified.
The duration of the trial will depend chiefly upon the magnitude of the error likely to
be made in judging the thickness and condition of the fire at the start and end of the
trial, as compared to the mass of fuel fired during the trial. The duration o f trial should
not, as a rule, be less than six hours.
The following measurements and readings should be taken to determine the thermal
efficiency and to draw up the heat balance account for the boiler :
1. The fuel should be weighted out in convenient lots of, from 20 to 400 kg depending
upon the capacity of the boiler. This should be done by using two boxes. At the time
of commencement of the trial, the first lot (box) should be emptied on the floor and
stoking commenced. A complete record of time of emptying the boxes may be kept on
a log sheet.
2. A sample should be taken from every lot of fuel weighted out and towards the
end of the trial the samples should be broken up into small pieces and well mixed, and
two representative samples be taken - one for the determination of its calorific value (by
using' the Bomb calorimeter) and the other for chemical analysis.
3. Some sort of volumetric measurement is used for measuring the feed water supplied
to the boiler. Various methods may be adopted for the purpose. For small size boilers,
one feed tank is used, while for large size boilers, two tanks may be used, each fitted
with a gauge-glass and accurately calibrated. Just before the trial commences the feed
pump should be stopped and the water level in the feed tank should be marked and
recorded if only one feed tank is used. The feed pump is then started. The difference
in water levels at the start and end of the trial gives the amount of feed water used. In
case if two tanks are used, just before the commencement of the trial, No. 1 tank should
be filled up, the boiler being fed from No. 2 tank. At the beginning of the trial the boiler
is fed from No. 1 tank and No. 2 tank being filled up. The number of refilling of tanks
depends totally on the size of the boiler and the duration of the trial.
4. Readings should be taken every five minutes of the steam pressure gauge.
5. Measurements regarding condition of steam at the boiler stop valve are done
exactly in similar manner as for condition of steam at engine stop valve described earlier
in this chapter under steam engine trial.
6 . The temperature of feed water supplied to the boiler is measured at regular time
interval of 10 minutes by means of ordinary mercury glass thermometer. For the purpose
of calculation of feed water temperature, average reading of the temperature is considered.
7. The temperature of the flue gases is most accurately measured by a pyrometer.
This should be placed at the bottom of the chimney and near the damper on the chimney
side. Readings are taken at regular time interval of 10 minutes and average value is
taken into account for the purpose of calculation of heat carried away by the flue gases.
8 . The sample of flue gases should be taken just on the chimney side of the damper
at the same place at which the temperature of flue gases is measured. When the boiler
under test is fired by mechanical stokers, the flue gas sample may be drawn directly
into the analysing apparatus, but when firing is by hand, continuous collection is necessary
66 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
to secure an average sample. When great accuracy is required, the flue gases should
■)e collected over mercury, but distilled water which has been saturated with common
salt, or water with a layer of oil on the top, will give results accurate enough for most
purposes. The flue gas is conveniently analysed on the spot by means of Orsat apparatus
described in chapter 7 of volume I.
9. The amount of ashes formed during the trial period is obtained by weighing the
ashes formed in the ash pit at the end of trial. As in the case of fuel, representative
sample of the ash is obtained and its calorific value is determined by using the Bomb
calorimeter.
10. Average values of temperature and pressure of the boiler house are obtained by
reading a thermometer and a barometer at regular time interval of 10 minutes, in order
to estimate the humidity (moisture) in the air of the boiler house, reatings of the dry
and wet bulb thermometers are taken at regular time interval.
3.4 Efficiency of Boiler
The thermal efficiency of boiler is expressed by the ratio :
Heat transferred to feed water in converting it into steam per kg of fuel
Heat released by complete combustion of one kg of fuel
The available heat in one kilogram of fuel as fired will not be the calorific value of
one kilogram of fuel, unless of course the fuel is dry. The moisture present in the fuel
has to be evaporated and superheated to the temperature of the flue gases, and the
amount of heat so utilised is lost. The effect of moisture in air supply may also have
an appreciable effect on the performance of a boiler, as this moisture has to be heated,
evaporated and superheated, the heat so utilised being lost in the flue gases. The amount
of this heat may be estimated from the readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometers.
It w ill be found that the heat absorbed in superheating the water vapour (moisture) in
the air is negligibly small and may be neglected.
The actual available heat supplied to the boiler per kilogram of coal
= calorific value of 1 kg of dry coal as fired - (heat absorbed by the moisture in 1
kg of dry coal as fired) - (heat absorbed by the moisture in the mass of air supplied
per kg of coal).
The lower caloric value o f fuel was formerly used in estimating the boiler thermal
efficiency, but now the gross value (higher calorific value) is recommended.
3.5 Heat Balance Sheet for Boiler
The various items of the heat balance sheet for a boiler test are as follows :
Heat balance sheet per kg of coal fired
i Heat supplied by 1 kg of coal kJ % Heat expenditure per kg of coal kJ % I
Head supplied (1) Heat utilized in steam formation
(2) Heat carried away by products
of combustion (dry flue gases)
(3) Heat carried away by excess air •• ••
(4) Heat lost in evaporating and
superheating the moisture in the
coal and the water vapour
form ed due to burning of
hydrogen in coal
(5) Heat lost by incomplete com-
bustion
STEAM ENGINE & BOILERS TRIALS 67
(6) Heat lost by unbumt carbon in
ash
(7) Unmeasured losses such as
those due to radiation, escape
of unburnt hydrocarbons,
superheating the moisture in air,
losses in hot ashes, error of
observation, etc. (by difference)
Total Total
The effect of transferring the heat loss due to moisture in the coal from the debit
(heat expenditure) side to the credit (heat supplied) side of the heat balance sheet is to
raise the efficiency slightly, and for practical purpose the difference may be considered
very small.
The method of estimating the various items of heat balance sheet is illustrated by
the following problems :
Problem-7 : The following data was obtained in a steam boiler trial :
Feed water supplied per hour 690 kg at 28°C, steam produced 0 9 7 dry at 8 bar,
coal fired per hour 91 kg of calorific value 27,200 kJ/kg, ash and unburnt coal collected
from beneath the fire bars 7 5 kg/hour o f calorific value 2,760 kJ/kg, mass o f flue gases
per kg of coal burnt 173 kg, temperature of flue gases 325°C, room temperature 17°C,
and the specific heat of the flue gases 1026 kJ/kg K.
Estimate : (a) the boiler efficiency (b) the percentage heat carried away by the flue
gases, (c) the percentage heat loss in ashes, and (d) the percentage heat loss unaccounted
for.
Explain what may have actually happened to the heat included under unaccounted
losses.
(a) Heat supplied to the boiler per hour = 91 x 27,200 = 24,75,200 kJ/hr.
At 8 bar, h = 721-1 kJ/kg, L = 2,048 kJ/kg (from steam tables).
Enthalpy of wet steam, m U\ m hy * xL^ = 721-1 + 0-97 x 2,048 = 2,707-67 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy of feed water at 28°C, /^ = 28 x 4-187 = 117-24 kJ/kg.
Heat utilised in steam formation per hour
= mass of steam produced per hr. x (Hi - hz)
= 690 (2,707-67 - 117-24) = 17,87,396 kJ/hr.
_ „. . Heat utilized in steam formation per hr.
Boiler efficiency = Heat supplied to th'e boiler pe, hr.- '
17,87,396
= 0-7221 bar or 72-21%
24,75,200
(b) Heat carried away by the flue gases = mg x Kp (tg -
where, mg = mass of flue gases = 17-3 kg/kg of coal fired,
tg = temperature of flue gases = 325°C,
tr = room temperature = 17°C, and

Kp = specific heat of flue gases = 1-026 kJ/kg K.

.-. Heat carried away by the flue gases
= 17-3 x 1-026(325 - 17) = 5,467 kJ/kg of coal.
Hence, percentage heat carried away by the flue gases per kg of coal fired
06
68 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
5,467
x 100 = 201%
27,200
Heating value of ash in kJ/hr.
(C) Percentage heat loss in ashes =
Heat supplied to the boiler in kJ/hr.
7-5 x 2,760 1QQ o*836%
' 24,75,200 X 100 0 836/0
(d) Percentage heat loss unaccounted for (by difference)
= 100 - (72*21 + 20*1 + 0*836) = 6 854%
Heat loss unaccounted for, includes error of observation and unmeasured losses such
as those due to radiation, escape of unburnt hydrocarbons, superheating of moisture in
air and coal, loss in hot ashes, etc.
Problem -8 : The following particulars refer to a boiler trial in which it was not convenient
to measure the amount o f water evaporated :
Percentage analysis o f dry coal on mass basis : C, 85*5; H2, 3-9; O2, 3-6; Ash 7
Percentage analysis o f dry flue gases by volume : CO2, 1 1 -6; CO, 0-6; O2, 8; N2,
79 8
Percentage analysis o f ash collected in ash pit C, 15; Ash, 85
Higher C.V. o f dry coal per kg 33,900 kJ
Moisture in coal as fired 2 %
Temperature o f the flue gases 310°C
Temperature o f the boiler room 24°C.
Mean specific heat o f dry flue gases 1026 kJ/kg K
Specific heat o f air 0-997 kJ/kg K
Barometric pressure (atmospheric) 1 bar
Specific heat o f superheated water vapour 2 kJ/kg K
Calorific value o f carbon burnt to CO2 per kg 34,125 kJ
Calorific value o f carbon burnt to CO per kg 10,175 kJ
Assuming a radiation loss o f 7 per cent, draw up a heat balance sheet for the boiler
and determine its thermal efficiency.
Considering one kg of coal as fired,
Gross heat supplied = 0-98 x 33,900 = 33,222 kJ per kg.
Heat expenditure per kg o f coal as fired :
(2) As one kg of coal fired contains 0*07 kg of ash, the mass of carbon in association
15
with 0*07 kg of ash in the ash pit is = 0*07 x — = 0 0123 kg.
00
.*. Mass of caron taking part in combustion per kg of coal fired
= (0-855 x 0-98) x 0 0123 * 0-827 kg. i.e. 82*7% on mass basis,
A/C
Mass of air supplied per kg of coal fired - '+ " Cfej

where, N, C1 and Cz are percentages of Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide andCarbon

monoxide by volume in flue gas, and C is the percentage ofcarbonincoalon mass
basis.
79-8 x 82-7
Mass of air supplied = = 16-4 kg per kg of coal fired.
33(11-6 + 0-6)
STEAM ENGINE & BOILERS TRIALS 69
Total mass of flue gases per kg of coal fired = 16-4 + (1 - 0 07) = 17-33 kg
Minimum quantity of air theoretically required per kg of coal

= (2-66C + 8 H ) ^ - (2-66 x 0-827 + 8 x 0-039 x 0-98)4-35 = 10-45 kg.

Excess air supplied per kg of coal fired = 16-4 - 10-45 = 5-95 kg.
Mass (/7y of moisture and water vapour per kg of coal fired.
= 0-02 + (9 x 0-039 x 0-98) = 0-371 kg.
Mass (/77g) of dry products of combustion per kg of coal fired
= 17-33 - 5-95 - 0-371 = 11-01 kg.
Heat carried away by dry products of combustion = mg x Kp x (tg - tf)
= 11 01 x 1-026 (310 - 24) = 3,230-6 kJ/kg of coal fired.
(3) Heat carried away by excess air
= 5-95 x 0-997 (310 - 24) = 1,696-5 kJ/kg of coal fired.
(4) Heat carried away by water vapour in the products of com bustion =
ms x (Hsup —ho)
= 0-371 [2,675-5 + 2(310 - 99-63) - 24 x 4-187] = 1,112 kJ per kg of coal fired.
(5) We next require the proportion of carbon burned to C 0 2 and COrespectively.
12
In 11-6 x 44 parts of CO2 on mass basis, there are 11-6 x 44 x — = 11-6 x 12
parts of carbon on mass basis.
12
In 0-6 x 28 parts of CO on mass basis, there are 0-6 x 28 x — = 0-6 x 12
parts of carbon on mass basis.

.*. Proportion of carbon burnt to CO = 777% - * If, = 0-0492

r ( 11-6 + 0 -6 ) 12
.-. Mass of carbon burnt to CO in one kg of coalfired
= 0-855 x 0-98x 0-0492 = 0-0412 kg
Hence, heat lost through incomplete combustion per kg of coal fired
= 0-0412 (34,125 - 10,175) = 986-7 kJ per kg of coal fired
(6 ) Heat carried away by unburnt carbon in the ash pit per kg of coal fired
= 0-0123 x 34,125 = 419-7 kJ per kg of coal fired
(7) Heat lost by radiation (assumed) = 0-07 x33,222 = 2,325-5 kJ per kg of coal
fired.
.-. Total heat loss = 3,230-6 + 1,696-5 + 1,112-0 + 986-7 + 419-7 + 2,325-5
= 9,771 kJ/kg of coal fired
(1) Thus, heat utilized in steam formation per kg of coal fired (by difference)
= 33,222 - 9,771 = 23,451 kJ per kg of coal fired
Thermal efficiency of the boiler
Heat utilized in steam formation per kg of coal
Gross heat supplied per kg of coal
Q'i 4K1
• 335s * 07059 or 7059,4
70 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
Heat balance sheet per kg o f coal fired
Heat supplied by kJ Heat expenditure/kg of coal kJ
1 kg of coal
Heat supplied 33,222 (1) Heat utilized in steam formation (by difference) 23,451 0
(2) Heat carried away by dry products of combustion 3,230-6
(3) Heat carried away by excess air 1,696-5
*
(4) Heat lost in evaporating and superheated moisture 1,112-0
in coal and water formed by combustion of hydrogen
in coal
(5) Heat lost through incomplete combustion 986-7
(6) Heat carried away by unbumt carbon in ash pit 419-7
(7) Heat tost by radiation, error, etc. (assumed) 2,325-5
Total 32,222 Total 33,222
Problem-9 : The following data was obtained during a trial o f a steam boiler :
Feed water temperature, 75°C; mass o f feed water supplied per hour, 4,900 kg; steam
pressure, 11 bar; dryness fraction o f steam, 0-9; coal fired per hour, 490 kg; higher
calorific value o f 1 kg o f dry coal, 35,600 kJ/kg; moisture in coal, 4% on mass basis;
temperature o f flue gases, 300°C; boiler house temperature, 16°C; barometric (atmospheric)
pressure 1 bar; analysis o f dry coal on mass basis, C = 89%; H2 = 3%; ash = 4%;
and other matter = 4%; analysis o f flue gases by volume, CO2 = 109%; CO = 1-1 %;
O2 = 7% and N2 = 81%. Take specific heat of dry flue gases as 1 kJ/kg K and Kp of
superheated steam as 2 kJ/kg K. Draw the heat balance sheet for the boiler per kg of
coal fired. What is the thermal efficiency o f the boiler ?
Heat supplied per kg of coal = (1 - 004) 35,600 = 34,176 kJ per kg of coal
At 11 bar, h = 781-34 kJ/kg, L = 2,000-4 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
(1) Heat utilized per kg of steam at 11 bar and 0-9 dry = Hi -
= (/7i + X1L1) - te = (781-34 + 0-9 x 2,000-4) - 75 x 4-187 = 2,267-67 kJ/kg.
Hence, heat utilized per kg of coal fired
4,900
x 2,267-67 = 22,676-7 kJ/kg of coal.
490
NC
(2) Mass of air supplied per kg of coal fired =
33(Ci + C2)
where, N, C1 and C2 are percentages of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
by volume in flue gases, and C is the percentage of carbon in coal on mass basis.

Mass of air supplied = " 1 7 7 M <g ° f 0031 f*red

Mass of dry flue gases per kg of coal fired, mg = 17-7 + (0-89 x 0-96) = 18-57 kg.
Thus, heat carried away by dry flue gases per kg of coal fired
= mg x Kp ( t g — tr ) = 18-57 x 1 x (300 - 16) = 5,273-88 kJ/kg of coal fired.
(3) Mass of moisture in coal and water vapor formed due to combustion of hydrogen
in coal per kg of coal fired
= ms = m + (9 H2) = 0 04 + (9 X 0 03) = 0-31 kg.
Heat carried away by moisture in coal and water vapour formed in flue gases due
to burning of hydrogen in the coal = ms (Hsup - ho)
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 71
where, m& = mass of steam (0-31 kg) formed per kg of coal fired,
Hs up = enthalpy of 1 kg of superheated steam at the temperature of flue gases
(300°C) and at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, and
ho = Enthalpy (sensible heat) of 1 kg of water at the boiler room temperature
(16°C).
Now, m $ x (hkup - ho) = ms [{Hs + Kp (feup — 0} — to]
= 0-31 [{2,675-5 + 2 (300 - 99-63)} - 16 x 4-187] = 932-87 kJ/kg of coal fired.
(4) Heat lost by radiation, error, etc. (by diff.)
= 34,176 - (22,676-7 + 5,273-88 + 932- 87) = 5,292-55 kJ/kg of coal fired.
Heat balance sheet per kg of coal fired
Heat supplied by kJ Heat expenditure per kg of coal kJ
1 kg of coal
Heat supplied 34,176 (1) Heat utilized in steam formation 22,676-7
(2) Heat carried away by dry flue gases. 5,27388
(3) Heat lost in evaporating and superheating 932-87
moisture in coal and water vapour formed
due to combustion of hydrogen in coal.
(4) Unmeasured losses such as those due 5,292-55
to radiation, escape of unbumt hydrocar-
bons, losses in hot ashes error of ob-
servation etc. (by difference)
Total 34,176 Total 34,176

^ .« . Heat utilized in steam formation per kg of coal

Thermal efficiency of the boiler = --------~ ------- r —r--r—; , --------
7 Gross heat supplied
supplied per
per kg
kg of coal
22,676-7
= 0-6638 or 66-38%
34,176
Tutorial -3
1. Delete the phrase which is not applicable from the following statements :
(i) Steam engines are generally single/double acting.
(ii) Live steam from the boiler/exhaust steam is passed through cylinder jacket.
(iii) Indicated power of a steam engine is estimated by taking indicator diagram/ using adynamometer.
(iv) Mean effective pressure on cover end and crank end of a double-acting steam engine are/are not the
same.
(v) Thermal efficiency of steam engine is/is not improved when heat of jacket drain is also available to
boiler feed water in addition to heat of condensate.
[(i) Single, (i) Exhaust steam, (iii) Using a dynamometer, (iv) are, (v) is not]
2. Fill in the blanks to complete the following statements :
(i) Brake specific steam consumption is expressed as _____ .
(ii) The rate of steam consumption of a condensing engine ie best measured by condensing the exhaust
steam and the condensate.
(iii) Thermal efficiency of a boiler is defined as the ratio of heat utilized in 'feteam formation per kg of coal
and ____ .
(iv) Boiler house instruments may be broadly divided into : (a) those which give information about performance,
and (b) those which help — the performance.
[(kg/kW-hr, (ii) weighing, (iii) gross heat supplied per kg of coal, (iv) to control]
3. Indicate the correct phrase out of phrases given in the following :
(i) Thermal efficiency of a well maintained boiler will be of the order of
(a) 20% (b) 40% (c) 60% (d) 75% (e},90%
(ii) Maximum energy loss in a boiler occurs due to
72 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
(a) flue gases (b) ash content (c) radiation losses (d) incomplete combustion.
(iii) The temperature of the flue gases is most accurately measured by
(a) a thermometer (b) a thermocouple (c) a pyrometer.
(iv) The object of steam boiler trial is
(a) to estimate steam raising capacity of the boiler when working at a definite pressure.
(b) to determine the thermal efficiency ofthe boiler when working at a definite pressure.
(c) to draw up a heat balance sheet for the boiler.
(d) all the three objects mentioned above.
[(0 e, (ii) a, (iii) c, (iv) d]
4. In a test on single-cylinder, double-acting condensing steam engine, the following observations were made :
Indicated power, 24 KW; brake power; 20 kW; steam supply at 5-5 bar with 12*C superheat; Kp of
superheated steam, 2-3 kJ/kg K; condenser vacuum, 647-5 mm of Hg when barometer reads 760 mm of
Hg; steam used per hour, 300 kg; temperature of condensate; 40*C; cooling water for condenser, 7,800
kg per hour; temperature rise of condenser cooling water, 20*C.
Estimate : (a) the indicated thermal efficiency and (b) the dryness fraction of steam entering the
condenser. Assume that all the heat given up by steam in the condenser is gained by condenser cooling
water.
Also draw up a heat balance sheet for the engine in kJ/min.
[(a) 11-02%; (b) 0-893
I Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ
Heat in steam supplied 13,903 (1) To brake power 1,200
(2) To condenser cooling water 10,886-2
(3) To condensate 837-4
(4) To radiation etc. 9794
Total 13,903 Total 13,903-0
5. The following data relate to a test on a compound double-acting steam engine :
Cylinder Cylinder Stroke M.E.P. Inlet steam Exhaust steam
diameter cm bar pressure
cm bar
Pressure Temperature
bar *C
H. P. 21 15 3 14 205 —
L. P. 33 15 09 — — 05
Steam consumption 9-3 kg/min,; condensate temperature, 66*C; speed 550 r.p.m.; brake torque, 750
N.m; condenser cooling water flow, 470 kg/min,; temperature rise of condenser cooling water, 10*C.
Ignoring piston rod areas, calculate : (a) the indicated power, (b) the mechanical efficiency, and (c) the
efficiency ratio on the indicated power basis. Also draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ/minute.
[49-743 kW; (b) 86 84% (c) 56-72%
| Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ
Heat in steam supplied 26,140-9 (1) To brake power 2,591-8
(2) To condenser cooling water 19,678 9
(3) To condensate 2,570-0
(4) To radiation etc. 1,300-2
Total 26,140-9 Total 26,140-9
6. The following observation were made during a trial of jacketed steam engine :
Supply steam pressure ... 13 bar
Dryness fraction of steam supplied ... 0.98
Mass of steam supplied to the cylinder ... 20 kg/min.
Mass of steam supplied to the cylinder jacket ... 2-5 kg/min.
Brake power ... 130 kW
Indicated power ... 160 kW
Condenser cooling water ... 450 kg/min.
Rise in temperature of condenser cooling water ... 22*C
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 73
Temperature of condensate ... 50*C
Temperature of cylinder jacket drain ... 185*C
Draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ/min. and determine the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine
assuming that the heat of condensate and cylinder jacket drain is available to the feed water.
fo/= 17-23%

j Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ

Heat in steam supplied 61,834 (1) To Brake power 7,800
(2) To condenser cooling water 41,451
(3) To condensate 4,187
(4) To cylinder jacket drain 1,937
(5) To radiation etc. 6,459
Total 61,834 Total 61,834
7. During a test on a Jacketed steam engine, the following observations were made :
Indicated power, 90 KW; brake power, 72 kW; pressure of steam supplied 14 bar; quality of steam
supplied 10% wet; mass of steam used in the engine cylinder 900 kg/ hour; mass of steam used in Jacket,
100 kg/hour; condensate temperature, 60*C; cooling water for condenser, 15,500 kg/hour; inlet temperature
of cooling water for condenser, 26*C; outlet temperature of cooling water for condenser, 55*C. Taking specific
heat of water as 4-187 kJ/kg K, draw a heat balance sheet in kJ per minute and on percentage basis.
Calculate the indicated thermal efficiency when the heat of Jacket drain is not available to the boiler feed
water. What will be the percentage improvement in the indicated thermal efficiency if the heat of the Jacket
drain is also available to the feed water ?
[13-68%; 3-65%

| Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %

Heat in steam supplied 43,233-83 100 (1) To brake power 4,320 9-99
(2) To condenser cooling water 31,360 72-54
(3) To condensate 3,768-3 8-72
(4) To Jacket drains 1,383-83 32
(5) To radiation error etc. 2,401 -7 5-55
Total 43,233-83 100 Total 43,233-83 100
8. The following observations were made in a trial on a jacketed, double-acting compound steam engine supplied
with dry saturated steam at 11 bar :
Cylinder Piston stroke Cylinder diameter Mean effective pressure
H. P. 60 cm 23 cm 2-8 bar
L.P. 60 cm 40 cm 1-1 bar
Speed, 87-5 r.p.m.; Brake torque, 4,300 N.m; Water from cylinder jacket drain, 1 kg/minute; Condensate,
8-5 kg/minute; Temperature of condensate, 45*C; Condenser cooling water, 160 kg/minute; Rise in temperature
of condenser cooling water, 30*C.
Calculate : the brake power, the indicated power, the brake thermal efficiency, and indicated thermal
efficiency assuming the heat of condensate and cylinder jacket drain in available to the feed water, and
make out a heat balance sheet in kJ/min.
[Brake power = 39-4 kW; Indicated power = 44-548 kW;
i]b - 9-83%; r|/ - 11-12%
j Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ
Heat in steam supplied 26,426 (1) To brake power (useful work) 2,364
(2) To condenser cooling water 20,098
(3) To condensate 1,601-5
(4) To cylinder jacket drain 781-34
(5) To radiation, etc. 1,581-16
Total 26,426 Total 26,426
74 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
9. The following are the average readings taken during a trial on a double-acting steam engine :
^Stroke, 30 cm; Cylinder diameter, 21-6 cm; Mean speed, 123-9 r.p.m.; Area of indicator diagram, 6-52
cm ; Length of indicator diagram, 6-6 cm; Strength of indicator spring, 85 kPa per cm; Coal consumption,
0-252 kg/min.; Calorific value of coal, 35,200 kJ per kg; Condenser cooling water, 46-2 kg/min.; Rise in
temperature of condenser cooling water, 28-9*C; Load on brake, 457 newtons; Spring balance reading, 66
newtons; Radius of brake wheel, 60 cm; Steam used per min., 2-51 kg; Steam pressure, 3 bar; steam
supply, dry saturated; Condenser pressure, 0-2 bar.
Calculate the indicated power, brake power, mechanical and indicated thermal efficiencies of the engine,
and overall efficiency of the steam plant from coal to brake. Draw up a percentage heat balance sheet for
the engine cylinder.
pndicated power = 3-814 kW; Brake power = 3-044 kW,
rim =78-76; t i/= 3-68%; 2-06%
| Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ. % |
Heat in steam supplied 6,840-5 % (1) To Brake power 182-6 2-67
(2) To condensing cooling water 5,590-4 81-72
(3) To condensate 626-4 916
(4) To radiation etc. 441-1 6-45
Total 6,840-5 100 Total 6,840-5 100

10. What are the purposes of steam engine trials ? Whatmeasurements are necessary in enginetrials to
determine the thermal efficiency and to draw up heat balance sheet ? Draw up a typical heat balance
sheet on percentage basis of an average steam engine.

11. The following observations and deductions are taken from a report of a trial of a boiler plant, consisting
of six Lancashire boilers and an economiser :
Calorific value of coal per kg.4 30,000 kJ; mass of feed water per kg of dry coal, 9-1 kg; Equivalent
evaporation from and at 100*C per kg of dry coal, 9-6 kg; Temperature of feed water to economiser, 12*C;
Temperature of feed water to boiler, 105*C; Air temperature, 13*C; Temperature of flue gases entering the
economiser, 370*C; Mass of flue gases entering economiser 18-2 kg per kg of dry coal; Mean specific heat
of the flue gases, 1-05 kJ/kg K.
Find : (a) the efficiency of the boilers alone, (b) the efficiency of the economiser alone, and (c) .the
efficiency of the whole boiler plant.
[(a) 72-23%; (b) 51 -94% (c) 84 04%]
12. In a boiler trial the following quantities were obtained : Coal burned per hour, 48 kg; Calorificvalue of
coal, 31,200 kJ/kg. Feed water per hour, 387 kg; Temperature of feed water, 20*C; Pressure of steam,
8-5 bar, Dryness fraction of steam, 0-99; Ash and unbumt coal collected from beneath fire bars, 4 kg/hour
of the calorific value 2,850 kJ/kg; Mass of flue gases per kg of coal burned, 17-3 kg; Temperature of flue
gases; 340*C'; Room temperature, 16*C; Specific heat of flue gases, 1-026 kJ/kg K.
Estimate : (a) the thermal efficiency of the boiler, (b) the percentage heat carried away bythe flue
gases, (c) the percentage heat loss in ashes, and (d) the percentage heat loss unaccounted for.
[(a) 68-93%; (b) 18-43% (c) 0-76% (d) 11-88%]
13. In a boiler trial, 445 kg of coal were consumed per hour. The mass of water evaporated per hour was
4,150 kg. The steam pressure was 10 bar and dryness fraction of steam was 0-98. The coal contained 4
per cent of moisture on mass basis. The feed water temperature was 50*C. Calorific value of one kilogram
of dry coal was 35,000 kJ. The boiler house temperature was 15*C and the temperature of the chimney
gases was 280*C. Take specific heat of dry flue gases as 1-005 kJ/kg K and Kp of superheated steam
as 2 kJ/kg K.
Analysis of dry coal on mass basis : C = 86%; Hz - 4% ash = 5%; and other matter = 5%.
Analysis of dry flue gases by volume :
CO2 = 10-4%; CO = 1-2%; 02 = 9-1%; and N2 = 79-3 (by difference)
Determine the thermal efficiency of the boiler and draw up a heat balance sheet for the boiler per kg
of coal fired on percentage basis.
[70-18%
STEAM ENGINE & BOILER TRIALS 75
Heat supplied by 1 kg of kJ % Heat expenditure per kg of coal kJ %
coal
Heat supplied 33,600 100 (1) To steam 23,580 70-18
(2) To dry flue gases 4,774 14-21
(3) To water vapour in flue gases 654 1 95
(4) To radiation unmeasured losses 4,592 1366
etc. (By difference)
Total 33,600 100 Total 33,600 100
14. The following particulars relate to a boiler trial in which it was not convenient to measure the amount of
water evaporated :
Percentage analysis of dry coal on mass basis : C, 83;H2, 5; 02, 4; Ash, etc., 8
Percentage analysis of dry flue gases by volume :
CO2, 10-1; CO,0-3; O2, 9-3 and N2 (by difference), 80-3
Percentage analysis of ash collected in ash pit : C, 14; ash, 86
Higher calorific value of dry coal per kg . 34,000 kJ
Moisture in coal as burned . 2%
Temperature of the flue gases . 330’C
Temperature of boiler room . 17*C;
Mean specific heat of flue gases . 1 005 kJ/kg K
Specific heat of air . 1 kJ/kg K
Specific heat of superheated water vapour . 2 kJ/kg K
Calorific value of C burnt to CO2 per kg . 33,830 kJ
Calorific value of C burnt to CO per kg . 10,130 kJ
Assuming radiation loss of 6%, draw up a percentage heat balance sheet for the boiler and determine
its thermal efficiency.
[Thermal efficiency = 68-68%
Heat supplied by 1 kg of dry kJ % Heat expenditure per kg of coal kJ %
coed
Heat supplied 33,320 100 (1) Steam (by difference) 22,884 68 68
(2) Dry flue gases 3,605 10-82
(3) Water vapour in flue gases 1,413 4-24
(4) Excess air 2,423 727
(5) Incomplete combustion 556 1-67
(6) Unburnt carbon in ash 440 132
(7) Radiation (assumed) 1,999 6-00
Total 33,320 100 Total 33,320 100
 4
MODERN
STEAM GENERATORS
4.1 Introduction
Boiler is a container into which water is fed, and by the application of heat, it is
evaporated into steam. In early designs, the boiler was a simple shell with a feed pipe
and steam outlet, mounted on a brick setting. Fuel was burnt on a grate within the setting
and the heat so released was directed over the lower shell surface before most of it
went out.
Soon the designers realized that heating a single shell is inefficient and it was
necessary to bring more of water into close contact with heat. One way, is to direct flue
gases through tubes in the boiler shell. Such a '“fire-tube design’ not only increases the
heating surface but also distributes area of steam formation more uniformly.
Second way is water-tube design. It consists of one or more relatively small drums
with number of tubes in which water-steam mixture circulates. Heat flows from flue gases
outside tubes to the mixture. Thus sub-division of pressure parts make possible construction
of large capacity and high pressure boilers.
Fire-tube boilers and simple water-tube boilers are described in detail in chapter-8 of
volume-l. Fire-tube boilers are limited to a maximum design working pressure of 25 bar
and steam generating capacity of 25 tonnes per hour. Conventional water-tubes boilers
work upto steam pressures of about 70 bar and 250°C superheat with a steam generating
capacity of 40 tonnes per hour.
Shell or fire-tube boilers are cheaper than water-tube boilers but they are suitable for
low pressures and low output. There is no such limit to water-tube boilers. Water-tube
boiler can be erected at site from easily transportable parts. They are flexible from
constructional point of view. They are capable of quick steam generation and their
constructional design can be varied to suit a wide range of situations. Furnace of a
water-tube boiler is not limited to cylindrical form. Therefore, water-tube boilers are generally
preferred for high pressure high duty performance.
The present-day demand for higher power outputs from the thermal power plants
requires high pressure high duty boilers. A high pressure boiler is much more than an
* assembly of certain components like burners, superheaters, air heaters, etc. The functions
of these components are inter-related. The quality of coal and the operating conditions
have a great influence on the types of components to be selected and more than that,
they influence the philosophy underlying the general design. For increasing the steam
pressure and the rate of steam generation of a boiler, forced circulation of water and/or
steam and radiant heat transfer from the furnace to the water were considered essential.
4.2 Water-Tube Boilers
Introduction of water-tube boilers dates back to the eighteenth century. The last twenty
five years have been a period of significant change in their design and construction.
MODERN STEAM GENERATORS 77
Horizontal water-tube boilers with vertical or slightly inclined sectional headers having
a longitudinal or transverse drum (fig.4-1), were quite popular during first quarter of the
twentieth century. Now-a-days they are not built, as they can not cope up with high
pressure and high duties demanded from modern boilers.

Fig. 4-1 .Horizontal water-tube boiler. Fig. 4-2. Bent tube boiler.

Bent tube boilers (fig. 4-2) are more flexible in construction. Where head room is
limited, they can be made wide and low or narrow, and high where floor space is limited.
Thus, their overall dimensions can be adjusted according the space available.
As the demand for large capacity and high pressure boilers grew, the demand for
more active furnace cooling methods increased. Water cooled furnace walls were developed
because of increasing rate of heat transfer in furnace proper. Water from drum is supplied
to lower header as shown in fig. 4-2. Steam is actively generated in walls, to rise to
upper drum where it separates from boiler water.
In a simple water-tube circuit, steam bubbles are formed on the heated side. The
resulting steam-water mixture weighs less than cooler water on the unheated side and
thus free convective currents (circulation) are established. In drum, steam bubbles rise to
water surface and steam is generated in this manner. Free circulative currents are affected
by two factors :
- Difference in density between water and steam-water mixture, and
- Frictional forces opposing circulation.
At a higher pressure, the effect of first factor reduces and thus forced circulation is
inevitable. Also the forced circulation increases the rate of heat transfer thus permitting
higher rate of steam generation and reduction in overall size of the boiler. Thus, large
capacity boilers are possible. Even recently, designers have gone one step further to
increase the boiler capacity by adopting once-through boiler. It consists of a single tube
(no drum) into which goes feed water and out of which comes saturated or superheated
steam. In actual units (boilers), the theoretical single circuit becomes a number of parrallel
circuits. At pressures below critical, a “once through unit” may have a separator to deliver
saturated steam to the superheater and to return collected moisture to the feed pump suction.
The “once through” cycle is, of course, ideally suited for pressures above critical point
where water turns to steam without actually boiling. At critical pressure, the density of
 78 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
water and steam is same and hence natural convective flow does not take place at
critical pressure. Thus, the use of natural circulation is limited to sub-critical boilers upto
about 140 bar boiler pressure and use of forced circulation becomes essential for higher
pressures. High water velocities rather than high gas velocities are suitable, as a smaller
quantity of fluid is dealt with and increase in pressure can be more easily attained than
gas. Hence, the tubes of smaller diameter may be used for a boiler of a given output.
If the flow takes place through one continuous tube, large pressure drop takes place
due to friction. This can be
reduced by arranging the flow to
Chimney-. Blower pass through parallel system of
Air preheat' tubing.
Feedpump The best examples of high
Water pressure boilers are :
from
hot well — La Mont boiler,
Economiser
Pump Hot air — Benson boiler,
speed
control — Loeffler boiler,
Superheater
Storage and *>o»Moin steam — Schmidt-Hartmann boiler,
' separating and
drum Convective — Velox boiler.
evaporator
LaM ont b o ile r is a first
Circulating Combustion forced circulation boiler intro-
„ pump chamber
duced by LaMont in 1925. This
boiler is of the water-tube type
Radiant and is used in Europe and
evaporator
or water walls America. Water circulation and
Fig. 4-3. La Mont boiler.
schematic location of different
components of the boiler are
shown in fig. 4-3.
This boiler incorporates water
circulation in tubes surrounded
by gases. Water is supplied
through an economiser to a
separating and storage drum
which contains a feed regulator
that controls the speed of the
feed pump. Most of the sensible
heat is supplied to the feed water
passing through the economiser.
From the drum a centrifugal
pump circulates about 8 to 10
tim es the quantity of water
evaporated. This large quantity
of water circulated prevents the
tubes from being overheated. The
circulating pump passes water
first to radiant evaporator or water
wall (of which the sides for the
.combustion chamber are com-
posed). Then steam and water
MODERN STEAM GENERATORS 79
pass to convective evaporator and again to the drum. From the drum the released steam
then passes to the superheater.
This boiler is capable of generating 40 to 50 tonnes of superheated steam per hour
at about 500°C and 120 to 130 bar pressure.
This boiler has the advantage of flexibility of design, compactness and small size of
drum, it generally resembles a natural circulation boiler. Formation and attachment of
bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes of LaMount boiler reduces the heat
flow and steam generation as it offers high thermal resistance than water film. Mark
Benson argued that if the boiler pressure was raised to the critical value (220-9 bar), the
steam and water would have the same density, and therefore danger of bubble formation
can be eliminated
Fig-4-4 shows the layout sketch of a Benson boiler. Benson boilers are drumless
or “once through” type. Feed water is pumped through the economiser, radiant and
convective evaporators, and superheater. The boiler pressure is critical pressure and hence
water turns to steam directly without actually boiling.
If distilled water is not used, heavy deposits of salt occur in the transformation zone
from water into steam. To avoid this difficulty, the evaporator is flushed out after every
4,000 working hours to remove salt. Because of the reduced value of entropy at the
critical pressure, the steam rapidly becomes wet when it is expanded in a turbine, thereby
causing erosion of the blading. To obviate erosion and to provide a more moderate
working pressure, the steam is throttled to a pressure of about 150 bar.
From the figure, it appears that the boiler consists of a single tube of great length,
but actually it consists of many parallel circuits which yield a thermal efficiency of about
90%. Benson boilers of 150 tonnes of steam per hour generating capacity at 50 MPa
(500 bar) pressure and 650°C temperature have been constructed and are in use. The
main advantages of the Benson boiler
Chimney- are :
Blower — Absence of drums reduces the total
A ir preheater.
weight of boiler and hence low cost
t = of transport,
— The boiler can be erected easily and
- P - quickly,
Feedpump
— Operation is economical, and
fHot
c Economiser
— Quick starting and can reach full
a ir i Main capacity operation within 10 minutes
Convention - steam from start.
superheater
Loeffler B oiler uses circulation of
1 Radiant steam instead of water. Thus, the difficulty
-1superheater experienced in La Mont boiler, a deposition
Steam 0- HP of salt and sediment in boiler tubes, is
circulating avoided. This boiler has advantages of
pump
forced circulation and indirect heating. In
this boiler, steam is used as heat carrying
and heat absorbing medium.
Feed A line diagram of Loeffler boiler is
Evaporator drumr shown in fig. 4-5. This boiler has econo-
miser and superheater units in the pathk
Drain of gases from furnace to chimney. The '
Fig. 4-5. Loeffler boiler.
80 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
evaporator drum is outside the boiler. A portion of main superheated steam (about 35%)
is tapped off for external use, whilst the remainder passes on to the evaporator drum,
where, by giving up its superheat to water coming from economiser, steam is generated
equal to the steam tapped off. The steam circulating pump draws the saturated steam
from the evaporator drum and is passed through the radiant and convective superheaters.
The nozzles distributing the superheated steam throughout the water in the drum are
of special design to avoid priming and noise. This boiler can carry higher salt concentrations
than any other type and is more compact than indirectly heated natural circulation boilers.
These qualities make this boiler fit for land or sea transport power generation. Loeffle
boilers of generating capacity 90 tonnes per hour and pressure 125 bar are in use.
Like Loeffler boiler, Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler is also high pressure indirectly heated
Pressure
boiler. The arrangement of the
gouge boiler components is shown in
b /o p o ro lo fig. 4-6. This boiler is very similar
drum to an electric transformer. Two
Prim ary pressures are used to effect an
circuit —
interchange of energy. In the pri-
mary circuit, steam at pressure
Secordcry
circuit -- 100 bar is produced from distilled
water. This steam is passed
through submerged heating coil,
Feed preheater-
located in the evaporator drum.
The high pressure steam of pri-
mary circuit possesses sufficient
thermal heat to produce steam
I Hot air at pressure 60 bar with a heat
Primary
Feed pump evaporator transfer rate of 2,900 watts/m2oC.
This main steam is passed
Feedtank through a superheater placed in
^ or the uptake and then to the ap-
hot wed
plication point*. The condensate
of high pressure primary circuit
Fig. 4-6. Schmidt-Hartmann boiler. steam is circulated through the
water drum where feed water is heated to its saturation temperature.
In the primary circuit, natural circulation is used which is sufficient to produce the
desired rate of heat transfer in conjunction with high gas velocities. In this way, circulating
velocities of 0-5 to 0-8 metre per second for thermo-siphon head of about 2-5 to 10
metres are possible.
As a safeguard against leakage or the safety valve lifting, a combined pressure gauge
and thermometer are fitted to the primary circuit. An arrangement is provided for making
distilled water of the primary circuit. Main advantages of the Schmidt-Hartmann boiler are :
... Due to distilled water in the primary circuit, there is rare chance of overheating
or burning of the high heated components as there is no danger of salt deposition.
... There is no chance of interruption to the circulation either by rust or other material,
due to use of distilled water in the primary circuit.
... Feed water is external to the heating coil and hence it is easy to brush off salt
deposits, just by removing the heating coil from the evaporator drum.
... Due to high thermal and water capacity, wide fluctuations of load are allowed
without undue priming or abnormal increase in the primary pressure.
MODERN STEAM GENERATORS 81
... The absence of water risers in the drum, and the moderate temperature difference
across the heating coil, allows evaporation to proceed without priming.
When the velocity of gas exceeds the velocity of sound, the heat is transferred from
the gas at a much greater rate than the rate achieved with subsonic flow. This fact is
used in the Velox Boiler to achieve the large amount of heat transfer from the given
surface area.
. In the velox boiler, air is compressed to 2-5 bar pressure by an air compressor run
by a gas turbine, before supplying to the combustion chamber as shown in fig. 4-7. The

Steam

Fig. 4-7. Velox boiler.

object of this compression is to secure a supersonic velocity of the gases passing through
the combustion chamber and gas tubes. As a result of this high rate of heat release (32
to 40 million kJ per m3 of combustion chamber volume) is achieved and hence this boiler
is a very compact one. The steam generating capacity of this boiler is limited to about
100 tonnes per hour because large power (brake power of about 4,400 kW) is required
to run the air compressor at this output.
Fuel and air are injected downwards into a vertical combustion chamber which consists
of annulus gas tubes and annulus water tubes (fire tube principle). On reaching the
bottom of the combustion chamber, the products of combustion are deflected upwards
into the evaporator tubes which consist of an outer annulus through which 10 to 20 times
the water evaporated is circulated at a high velocity (this prevents the overheating of the
metal walls). This way heat is transferred from gases to the water at a very high rate.
The mixture of water and steam thus formed then passes into a separator from which
the separated steam passes to the superheater and finally to the application point. The
water removed from steam in the separator is again passed through the water tubes
along with preheated feed water coming from economiser. The gases coming out from
82 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
the evaporator tubes are first passed over the superheater tubes and are then led to the
gas turbine. The power output of the gas turbine is supplied to drive the compressor,
and the exhaust gases coming out from the gas turbine are passed through the economiser
before going to the atmosphere.
Advantages of Velox boiler over similar boiler are :
... Very high rate of heat transfer,
... Compact steam generating unit of great flexibility,
... Capable of quick starting, even though the separating drum has a storage capacity
of about one-eighth of the maximum hourly output,
... Low excess air is required as compressed air is used and the problem of draught
is simplified,
... The control is entirely automatic, and
... A thermal efficiency of about 90 to 95% is maintained over a wide range of load.
4.3 Materials of Construction
Modern boilers consist of steel tubes of various dimensions, shape and thickness.
The material used is of great importance as it has to withstand high temperatures and
pressures. Low-carbon steel, is used in most water-tube boilers operating between 270°C
and 400°C. Medium-carbon steel, with 0.35% maximum of carbon, permits higher stresses
than low-carbqn steel at temperature upto 500°C
For superheater tubes, alloy steels are required as they have to resist temperatures
above 500°C. These may contain chromium, chromium-molybdenum and chromium-nickel.
They may be of ferric structure or, for the highest temperature at which modern boilers
operate, of an austenitic structure.
Steamless tubes or electric-resistance welded tubes are used in water-tube boilers.
Electric-resistance welded tubes are becoming increasingly popular for most applications,
except for high pressures where wall thickness makes the use of steamless tubes more
practical.
4.4 Advantages of High pressure Boilers
The principal advantages of high pressure boilers are as under :
... Greater freedom for disposing of the heating surfaces and hence greater evaporation
for a given size.
... Reduction in the number of drums required.
... Smaller bore tubes, and therefore lighter tubes.
... Lighter for a given output.
... Rapid changes of load can be met without the use of complicated, or delicate
control devices.
... Using external supply of power, a very rapid start from cold is possible. Hence
the boiler is suitable for carrying peak loads, or for stand-by purposes in hydraulic
stations.
... Tendency of scale formation is eliminated due to high velocity of water through
the tubes.
... Due to uniform heating of all parts, the danger of overheating is reduced and
thermal stress problem is simplified.
Against above advantages, the high cost of the pumping equipment, the power required
to run the pumps, and safety of the boiler are some of the limitations to be kept in mind.
MODERN STEAM GENERATORS 83
4.5 Arrangement of Heating Surfaces
Commonly used furnace layout for pulverised fuel boilers is shown in fig. 4-8. Three
zones are seen in the elevation of a boiler in 'th is
figure. In zone I, the heat transfer is by a radiation
and it includes the space marked R + C which can
receive heat by convection as well as radiation if
i r -------------------- 1
; i Zone I I suitable heat transfer surface is introduced into the
|R*C| convectior • path. In zone II and III, the main mode of heat transfer
is convection. Gas temperatures are high in zone II.
iZone | Clear cut demarcation cannot be made even though
zone III is essentially treated as a low temperature
} - i 11 zone. In order to achieve the complete combustion of
•Zone * fuel, opportunity must be given to the combustible
constituents of the fuel to interact with oxygen. This
opportunity, however, decreases rapidly as the reaction
proceeds towards completion. In order to ensure com-
plete combustion of fuel, it becomes essential to supply
Fig. 4-8. excess air. The supply of excess air and turbulence
assume a greater significance in the final stages of combustion. The presence of excess
air reduces the boiler efficiency. With increased surface contact between fuel and air and
with created turbulence, the demand of excess air is very limited in a pulverised fuel
fired furnace relative to stoker fired furnace.
A very high flame temperature is produced by hot turbulent air coupled with low
excess air. At this temperature, ash is always in a molten stage. Metal temperature of
all heat transfer surfaces are less than the ash fusion temperature. In order to reduce
the possibility of this molten ash solidifying on tube surfaces, the use of convective heat
transfer should be avoided as long as the gas temperature are higher than ash fusion
temperature. Till then the heat transfer must be by radiation only. Zone I has radiant
heat transfer surfaces. The furnace exit gas temperature has a profound bearing on the
safe operation of the unit. This should be as high as possible so as to give a good
temperature potential for the heat transfer surfaces to be located in convective zone, but
at the same time, it should be lower than ash fusion temperature to avoid slag deposition.
Roughly about 50 per cent of the heat liberated during combustion is absorbed in the
radiant zone. This value increases with a fall in ash fusion temperature, rise in air
temperature or fall in excess air. If a low ash-fusion-temperature coal is fired jn a furnace
designed for high ash-fusion-temperature coal, operational and maintenance problems are
created. During radiation heat transfer, the tube metal temperature should be as low as
feasible in order to have a smaller furnace. Relative to superheaters, evaporators offer
lower metal temperature and hence the evaporator is the most appropriate component to
be located in the radiant zone.
Slagging should not be ignored in zone II, where the gas temperatures are fairly high
and convection is the mode of heat transfer. Sometimes panels and platens are located
before this zone II so as to bring down the gas temperature to a safer level. These
panels and platens can be evaporator or superheater. Panels are heat transfer surfaces
at a considerably greater distance from each other. Panels permit large radiant heat
absorption. Platens are heat transfer surfaces which are closer to each other. In platens,
heat transfer takes place by convection and radiation.
Because of higher metal temperatures, superheater elements are more expensive than
evaporator surfaces and hence it is desirable to put limit to superheater surfaces. Thus,
this high temperature convection zone (zone II) is the most appropriate zone for superheaters.
07 ! -
84 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
In zone III, the gas temperatures are relatively low. Location of superheaters in this
zone makes them expensive due to lower temperature potentials. So the heat recovery
units like economiser and air heater are most appropriate for this temperature convection zone.
With increase in operating pressure, the superheat temperature increases. Usually
beyond 100 bar pressure, reheat becomes necessary. The proportion of the heat generated
in the furnace and absorbed in the various components like economiser, evaporator,
superheater and reheater are listed in table 4 - 1 .
Table 4-1
Pressure Temperature Approximate % of energy distribution
bar *C
Economiser Evaporator Superheater Reheater
and Preheater
63 480 12 64 24 -
90 510 9-9 62-1 28 -

130 540 27 55-5 28-3 13-5

170 565 3-6 48-7 34-4 13-3
From table-4-1, it is seen that the major parameters which influence the orientation
of heat transfer surfaces are pressure and temperature. In support of this fact, features
of four representative boilers working in power plants in India are discussed below. The
particulars of the operating of the four high pressure boilers are given in table 4.2.
Table 4-2
Power plant Pressure Temperature Rate of steam Output
bar *C generation MW
tonnes/hr.
Bokaro (two boilers) 62-5 485 136 25 -f 25 3 50
Ramagundam 90 515 280 66
Chandrapura 135 540 435 140
Trombay 178-5 570 480 150

4.5.1 Bokaro Plant The operating conditions are comparable with the data given
at no.1 of the table 4-1. The arrangement of components
is shown in fig. 4.9. The superheater requires about 24
per cent energy where as the evaporator needs 64 per
cent. Therefore, the entire furnace is water cooled (E i)
and remaining part of the evaporator (E2) is kept in the
latter portion of zone II as tubes between two drums.
For these operating conditions two drum construction is
conventional. However, it is possible to have water cooled
platens and panels instead of two drum arrangement
but this arrangement if used excessively, can lead to
lower gas temperature at zone II, which may be un-
desirable for superheater. The superheater in this boiler
is a convective heat transfer type. Baffles are provided
to increase the gas velocities.
4.5.2 Ramagundam Plant : The arrangement of
components of this boiler is shown in fig. 4-10. Relative
to the Bokaro plant, the evaporator duty is only slightly
lower. Entire furnace walls (Ei) and convective tubes
MODERN STEAM GENERATORS 85

Fig. 4-10. Layout of Ramagundam plant. Fig- 4-11. Layout of Chandrapura plant.

between two drums (E^) form the evaporator surface. The low temperature section of the
superheater (S7) is introduced as widely spaced platens and the finishing stage of the
superheater (S2) is away from the flame. There are no baffles in the gas flow path.
4.5.3 Chandrapura Plant : The arrangement of components of this boiler is shown
in fig. 4-11. This boiler has significantly higher operating conditions, and reheat of the
steam is adopted. As the evaporator duty is considerably reduced, it is not necessary to
locate the evaporator in zone II as was needed for Bokaro and Ramagundam boiler
plants. The furnace walls are totally covered with evaporator (E?) ' and a small portion of
the evaporator is placed as radiant platens (E^ near the upper front wall. All the space
of zone II is occupied by the superheater and reheater which need nearly 42 percent of
rromwat«r walls the energy. A part of the superheater (S7) is platen.
The reheater (RH) and a part of superheater (S2) is
pendant. The bulk of the superheater is located as
three horizontal banks (S) in the rear pass. It is
interesting to note that the space occupied by the
two drum arrangement of Bokaro and Ramagundam
boiler plants is now utilised by the superheater.
4.5.4 Trombay Plant : This boiler has higher
pressure and temperature as compared to boilers
discussed above. The arrangement of components of
this boiler is shown in fig. 4-12.
In this boiler evaporator duty is decreased and
superheater and reheater duty is increased. All the
superheater and reheater elements cannot be located
in zone II, and on other side the evaporator does
not need all the energy available in zone I. Therefore,
some of the superheater elements must be located
in zone I. The evaporator is located in the furnace
wall (E). In the upper front wall some of the radiant
86 ELEMENTS OF HEAT ENGINES Vol. II
surface (R) is actually reheater. Widely spaced panels (Sj) and platens (S2) are superheater
elements. The reheaters are located between the superheater elements. The unit has
controlled circulation with pump (P). The rear pass or zone III consists of horizontal banks
(S) of superheater elements. The important point to be noted is that superheater elements
have entered zone I in a big way.
Tutorial - 4
1. What do you understand by high pressure high duty boilers ?
2. Explain general features of water-tube boilers.
3. What are the trends observed in the design, construction and operation of modern steamgenerators ?
4. Describe giving illustrations, the development which has taken place in water-tube boilers to attain highei
operating pressure and higher steaming capacity.
5. Explain arrangement of components and working of La Mont boiler.
6. Sketch a layout and explain arrangement of components and working of Benson boiler.
7. Explain the construction and working of Loeffler boiler.
8. Sketch a layout, and explain arrangement of components and working of Schmidt Hartmann boiler.
9. What are the main advantages of Schmidt-Hartmann boiler ?
10. Sketch a layout, and explain arrangement of components and working of Veloxboiler.
11. What are the main advantages of Velox boiler ?
12. Discuss the materials of construction of modern high pressure boilers.
13. What are the advantages of high pressure boilers ?
14. Sketch a layout for a pulverised fuel boiler, showing important zones and explain efficient use of heat
transfer surfaces.
15. Discuss most suitable arrangement of superheaters and reheaters in modern high pressure boilers.
16. Sketch a layout for pulverised fuel boiler and divide it into three zones according to intensity oftemperature.
In this layout, show radiation heat transfer and convection heat transfer surfaces andhence discuss suitable
location of evaporators, superheaters, economisers, and reheaters.
17. Give particulars and general arrangement of components of the boilers at the following power plants :
(i) Bokaro, (ii) Ramagundum, (iii) Chandrapura, and (iv) Trombay.
18. Delete the phrase which is not applicable to complete the following statements :
(i) Water-tube/fire-tube principle is preferred for high pressure boilers.
(ii) In all modem high pressure boilers, the water circulation ismaintained withthe help of a pump/natural
circulation due to density difference.
(iii) At critical pressure, the density of water and steam is different/same.
(iv) In Loeffier/La Mont boiler, heat of steam is used for evaporation of water.
(v) La Mont/Benson boiler is drumless.
(vi) Natural water circulation by convection in water tube boilers, increases/decreases with increase in
pressure.
(vii) When the velocity of gas exceeds the velocity of sound, the heat transferred from the gas is at much
greater/smaller rate than the rate achieved with subsonic flow.
(viii) Gas turbine and air compressor unit is provided in La Mont/Velox boiler.
(ix) High temperature zone in a boiler is suitable for superheater/economiser.
(Delete : 0 fire-tube, (ii) natural circulation due to density difference, (iii) different, (iv) La Mont
(v) La Mont, (vi) increases, (vii) smaller, (viii) La Mont, (ix) economiser.]
19. Fill in the blanks in the following statements :
(i)______ and _______ are indirectly heated boilers.
(ii) ______ boiler is drumless and once through type.
(iii) Maximum energy loss in a boiler occurs due to ______ .
(iv) A supercritical boiler is one that operates above the pressure and temperature of ______ bar and
*C.
(v) In ______ boiler, two pressures are used to effect interchange of energy.
[(i) Loeffler, Schmidt-Hartmann; (ii) Benson; (iii) flue gases; (iv) 220.9 and 374.14 (v) Schmidt-Hartmann.]
20. Indicate the correct answer by selecting correct phrase in each of the following statements :
MODERN STEAM GENERATORS 87
(I) Benson boiler has
(a) no drum, (b) one drum, (c) two drums, (d) three drums.
(ii) In a boiler, whose walls are lined wjth water tubes, transference of heat to tubes is mainly by
(a) convection, (b) conduction, (c) radiation, (d) combination of above modes.
(iii) Indirect heating and evaporation of water, is the underlying thermodynamic principle of
(a) La Mont boiler, (b) Benson boiler, (c) Loeffler boiler, (d) Velox boiler.
(iv) Velocity of gases exceeds the velocity of sound in
(a) La Mont boiler, (b) Benson boiler, (c) Loeffler boiler, (d) Velox boiler.
(v) Due to highvelocity of water throughtubes, the tendency of scale formation is
(a) increased, (b) eliminated, (c) not affected.
[(i) a (ii) c, (iii) c, (iv) d, (v) b]

»
 5
AIR-STANDARD CYCLES
5.1 Introduction
A heat engine cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes through which a working
fluid (working substance) passes in a certain sequence. At the completion of the cycle,
the working fluid returns to its original condition, i.e., the working fluid at the end of the
cycle has the same pressure, volume, temperature and internal energy that it had at the
beginning of the cycle. Somewhere during every cycle, heat is received by the working
fluid. It is, then, the object of the cycle to convert as much of this heat energy as
possible into useful work. The heat energy which is not converted, isrejected by the
working fluid during some process of the cycle.
5.2 Heat Engine
Any machine designed to carry out a thermodynamic cycle, and thus converts heat
energy supplied to it into mechanical energy, is called a heat engine. Hence, the cycle
it operates on is known as a heat engine cycle. Heat engine is generally made up of a
piston and cylinder, together with the following main elements :

(i) a hot body, serving as a source of heat which is received during the cycle,
(ii) a cold body, whose function is to receive the heat rejected during the cycle, and
(iii) a working fluid (working substance), which receives heat directly from the hot
body, rejects to the cold body, does external work on the piston during expansion,
and have work done upon it by the piston during compression. The working
substance may be steam, air, or mixture of fuel and air.
5.2.1 Types o f heat engines : Heat engines may be of the following types :
(i) Steam engine, and steam turbine, in which the working fluid (working substance)
is steam,
(ii) Hot air engine, in which the working fluid is air, and
(iii) Internal combustion engine, and gas turbine, in which the working fluid is a mixture
of gases and air, or products of combustion of fuel oil and air.
The cycles which will be presented in this chapter are ideal cycles which will apply
to the last two types of heat engines, i.e., hot air engines and internal combustion engines
including gas turbines. The ideal cycles which apply to the first type (i.e., steam engine)
are described in chapter 9 of Volume I.
5.2.2 Available w ork o f cycle : As stated above, it is evident that the function of
any heat engine cycle is to receive heat from some external source — the hot body, and
transform as much of this heat as possible into mechanical energy. The amount of heat
which is transformed into mechanical energy is known as available energy of the cycle.
It is equal to the difference between the heat received during the cycle from the hot
body and the heat rejected during the cycle to the cold body, in the absence of any
other losses. This statement is of course a direct consequence of the law of conservation
of energy.

"4
 Air-Standard Cycles 89
Let Q = available energy fordoingwork per cycle in heat units,
Q i = heat received during each cycle from the hot body in heat units, and
Q2 = heat rejected during each cycle to the cold body in heatunits.
Then, Q = Q i - Q2 in heatunits. ...(5.1)
Every cycle contains thermodynamic processes involving both expansion and compression
processes. During the former (expansion), work is done upon the piston by the gas while
during the latter (compression), work is done on the gas by the piston. The difference
between the work done by the gas and the work done on the gas during the complete
cycle is called the net available work of the cycle. It is necessarily equal to the available
energy for doing work per cycle.
If W = net work done during the cycle in heat units,
then, W m Q = Q i - Q2 in heat units. ...(5.2)
5.2.3 Efficiency of a cycle : The thermal efficiency of a heat engine cycle is defined
as the ratio of the available heat energy of the cycle for doing work to the heat received
during the cycle from the hot body. It is usually denoted by the letter rj (eta),
. . Heat equivalent of the net work done per cycle ...(5.3)
i.e., ciency, r\ * Heat received during the cycle from the hot body
Q Qi - Qz W
Thus, using eqns. (5.1) and (5.2), i\ - ^ ^

The definition of efficiency given above is applicable to any type of heat engine cycle.
Hence, the expression for the efficiency given by the eqn. (5.3) is known as theoretical
or ideal thermal efficiency of the cycle, as it does not take into account any practical
losses which do occur in the actual running of the engine.
5.2.4 Air-standard efficiency of a cycle : In order to compare the thermal efficiency
of actual internal combustion engine cycles, the engineer needs some standard to serve
as a yard-stick. The yard-stick used is the theoretical thermal efficiency of the engine
working on ideal cycle, using air as the working fluid. The theoretical thermal efficiency
of the ideal cycle is known as the air-standard efficiency, since it is worked out on the
basis of the working fluid being air throughout the cycle, i.e., the effect of calorific value
of fuel used is eliminated, and the heat is supplied by bringing a hot body in contact
with the end of the cylinder. Thermal efficiency of the ideal cycle can be worked out
before the engine is constructed and hence indicates the maximum approachable efficiency
of the completed engine. Should the actual indicated thermal efficiency of the completed
engine not closely approach this efficiency (air-standard efficiency), alterations and im-
provements may be made to bring about the desired result. It may be noted that actual
engine can never give thermal efficiency as high as the air-standard efficiency when
operated on the same cycle as air engine. Actual indicated thermal efficiency of a well
designed and well constructed internal combustion engine, when properly operated, should
be atleast two-third of air-standard efficiency.
5.3 Thermodynamic Reversibility
In chapter 2 of volume 1, we have defined eight thermodynamic process; any one
of these processes which can be operated in a reverse direction is known as reversible
process. The factors which make a process irreversible are : (i) temperature difference
required for heat to flow, and (ii) fluid friction. Thus, for an operation to be thermodynamically
reversible, following conditions should be satisfied ;
(i) The temperature of the hot body supplying the heat must at any instant be the
same as that of working fluid which receives the heat. If the source of heat is at a
90 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
higher temperature than the working fluid, heat will be transferred to the latter (working
fluid), but when the process is reversed, heat must flow from the working fluid back into
the hot body, which is at a higher temperature. This is contrary to the second law of
thermodynamics. It follows that the operation could not be reversed. Thus, for an operation
to be thermodynamically reversible, there cannot be temperature difference between the
hot body and the working fluid during the transfer of heat. Flow of heat to or from the
working fluid without finite temperature drop implies perfect exchange or infinitely slow
process. This is known as external reversibility.
(ii) Friction between the fluid and the walls of the container and viscous friction of
the fluid can never be eliminated in a thermodynamic process. The energy lost in
overcoming the frictional forces is regenerated into heat. When any thermodynamic process
is reversed, say from expansion to compression, friction effect cannot be reversed, i.e.,
friction heat cannot be absorbed back into the fluid. Thus, for an operation to be
thermodynamically reversible, fluid friction must be absent. This is known as internal
reversibility.
It will be seen from the above that the concept of thermodynamic reversibility is purely
hypothetical, because the transfer of heat becomes less as the condition of reversibility
is approached, and fluid friction can never be completely eliminated. Thus any thermodynamic
process can be reversed, if external and internal reversibility is assumed. It may be noted
that the basic requirement for throttling process is friction. Thus, throttling process is not
reversible. A frictionless adiabatic operation is reversible. All other thermodynamic processes
are reversible if external and internal reversibility is assumed.
5.3.1 Reversible cycle : For thermodynamic cycle to be reversible, it must consist
of reversible processes only. When a cycle is reversed, all the processes are performed
in the reversed direction. A heat engine cycle takes heat from the hot body and rejects
portion of it to a cold body, and converts remaining quantity of heat into mechanical
work. When this cycle is reversed, heat will be absorbed from the cold body and rejected
to a hot body. This will necessitate external work to be supplied. This reversed cycle is
known as heat pump or refrigerating machine.
A reversible cycle should not be confused with a mechanically reversible engine.
Steam engine can be made to revolve in a reversed direction by mechanically altering
the valve settings but this does not reverse the cycle on which the engine works. A
reversed engine merely rotates in the opposite direction, but a reversed cycleconverts
a power producing engine into a heat pump or refrigerator.
It may be noted that an engine working on reversible cycle is the most efficient
engine.
5.4 Ideal Heat Engine Cycle
There are number of ideal heat engine cycles made up of some of the following
processes in which
(a) heat is taken in or rejected at constant temperature (isothermal compression or
expansion),
(b) heat is taken in or rejected at constant pressure,
(c) heat.is taken in or rejected at constant volume, and
(d) compression and expansion are frictionless adiabatic (isentropic).
Only five principal ideal heat engine cycles will be described in this chapter which
may be summarised as follows :
(i) The constant temperature cycle : Here, heat is taken in and rejected at constant
temperature, and compression and expansion being frictionless adiabatic or isentropic.
 Air-Standard Cycles 91
This cycle is known as Carnot cycle.
(ii) The constant volume cycle : In this, heat is taken in and rejected at constant
volume, and compression and expansion being frictionless adiabatic. This cycle is
known as Otto cycle.
(iii) The modified constant pressure cycle : In this, heat is taken in at constant
pressure and rejected at constant volume, and compression and expansion being
frictionless adiabatic. This ^cycle is know as Diesel cycle.
(iv) The dual-combustion or mixed cycle• : Here, heat is partly taken in at constant
volume and then at constant pressure and heat is rejected at constant volume,
and compression and expansion being frictionless adiabatic. This cycle is sometimes
known as semi-Diesel cycle.
(v) The (true) constant pressure cycle : In this, heat is taken in and rejected at
constant pressure, and compression and expansion being frictionless adiabatic.
This cycle is known as Joule cycle.
5.5 Carnot Cycle
This cycle was brought out in 1824 by a French engineer named Sadi Carnot. Although
its limitations are such that no heat engine has ever been constructed to use it. This
cycle theoretically permits the conversion of the maximum quantity of heat energy into
mechanical energy, as being a reversible cycle. In other words, it gives the maximum
efficiency that is possible to obtain in a heat engine. Hence, its usefulness lies in the
comparison which it affords with other heat engines, giving as it does under the conditions,
the maximum efficiency that they would like to approach.
Nprv-condyctor An engine operating on this ideal cycle,
Cylinder head r cylinder ana piston would require a cylinder and a piston of
perfectly non-conducting material, a cylinder
' / / / / / / / /7 7 m head that will conduct heat perfectly, and
z z
three other elements that can be brought
into contact with the conducting cylinder
head at AB as shown in fig. 5-1, as
occasion demands. These three elements
a re : (a) the hot body, always at temperature
T it the source of heat energy supplied to
(a) the working fluid (air), (b) the non-conducting
cover to fit the cylinder at AB, and (c) the
cold body, maintained at a temperature 7>,
the minimum temperature of the.cycle. The
element (cold body) receives the heat that
is rejected from the working fluid (air).
Consider one kg of air at temperature
T r as the working fluid in the engine cylinder.
Let point a (fig. 5-1 b) represent the state
of the working fluid as regards pressure p»
and volume va at absolute temperature Ti.
Isothermal expansion : At point a, the
tbody at temperature Ti is brought in contact
\> with the cylinder head at AB and heat is
Volume —-- supplied at temperature Ti to the working
(b) fluid (air). This causes the air to expand
Fig. 5-1. p-v diagram of Carnot cyeto.
92 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
isothermally along the curve a-b from volume va to vb until point b is reached. This point
is the end of isothermal expansion. The temperature through this process ab has been
maintained constant at Ti. As the air expands, it forces the piston outward thus doing
work on the piston.
Adiabatic expansion : At point b, the hot body is removed and replaced by the
non-conductor cover. Since all the elements of the engine which are now in contact with
the working fluid (air) are non-conductors, no heat can be added or abstracted from the
air. The air now expands adiabatically along curve b-c, doing work on the piston at the
expense of its internal energy. Consequently the temperature falls from 7V to .7? and the
volume increases from vb to vc. At point c, the piston is at the end of tne outward
stroke.
Isothermal compression : At point c, the non-conducting cover is removed and the
cold body at temperature T2 is brought in contact with the conducting cylinder head at
AB. The piston now moves inward compressing the air isothermally along the curve c-d
from volume vc to \/<t, until point d is reached. During this compression, the heat which
is rejected by the air goes into the cold body. This makes the isothermal compression
at constant temperature T2 possible.
Adiabatic compression : At point d the cold body is removed and the non-conducting
cover again takes the position at AB. The air is now adiabatically compressed along the
curve d-a, until it reaches the starting point a of the cycle, where it resumes its initial
conditions of temperature, pressure and volume, and the piston is returned to the end
of the stroke.
Since no transfer of heat occurs during both adiabatic operations, then by the law of
conservation of energy, the difference between the heat received and heat rejected must
be equal to the net work done. Now for any non-flow thermodynamic process,
Heat added = work done + change in internal energy.
Since during isothermal expansion process a-b the temperature does not change
neither will the internal energy change.
Heat added (supplied) during operation a-b = work done

- paVa loge f ~ j - RTy log® ( r i) per kg of air

where n = isothermal expansion ratio — .

Heat rejected during operation c-d

' n (vc\
m pcVc loge | ~ - RTz logete) per kg of air
Vd
\
vc
where r2 = isothermal compression ratio
Vd
As stated above, the net work done per kg of air is the difference between the heat
supplied and heat rejected.
Net work done * RT\ loge (fi) - RTz loge (rz)
= R [7i loge (fl) - Tz loge (fc) ] per kg of air ...(5.4)
Using temperature and volume relationship for adiabatic process and considering
adiabatic expansion b-c (fig. 5-1),
Higher temperature _ _1 j Tb _ Y- 1
Lower temperature Tc Ivb
 Air-Standard Cycles 93
and Tc = Td = 7"?

...(i)
Ta Vd\
Similarly, for adiabatic compression d - a, - jr
Va

Since, Ta = Ti and Td = 72,

(Vd 1
Tz * Va
... . .... Vc Vd Vc Vb .
From (i) and (ii), — * — o r— = — i.e., & = fr
w ' ' Vb Va Vd Va
From eqn.(5.4), Networkdone = R [7 iloge ( n ) - 7 2 loge (r2) ] per kg of air
= R (T\ - Ti) loge (n ) per kg of air. ...(5.5)
„ ^ r—... . Net work done per kg of air
But, Efficiency = ,, — . _ rx ... a———
1 Heat supplied per kg of air
R (T i - Tz) loge (n > K - Tz 1 Tz
/? 7 ilo g e (fi) " 7i " Ti -(5 .6 )
Problem - 1 : While undergoing a Carnot cycle, the working fluid receives heat at
a temperature o f 317°C and rejects heat at a temperature of 22°C. Find the theoretical
efficiency o fthe cycle. If the engine working on this cycle absorbs 2,100 kJ/min. from
the hotbody,calculate the net work done in kJ per sec. and the theoretical power of
the engine.
Referring to fig. 5-1, 7/ = 317 + 273 = 590 K; T2 = 22 + 273 = 295 K
Using eqn. (5.6),
j2 295
Theoretical efficiency of the Carnot cycle, ri = 1 - — = 1 - — r = 0-5 i.e. 50%
/1 5yu
. Work done per minute
iciency - ^ eat SUpp|jecj per minute
* _ Work done per minute
i.e.. 0.5 = --------------- --------------
 2,100
Work one per minute = 0-5 x 2,100 = 1,050 kJ/min. or 17.5 kJ/sec
Since, one kW = 1 kJ/sec,
Theoretical power of the engine = 17.5 kW.
5.6 Otto Cycle (Constant Volume Cycle)
This ideal heat engine cycle was proposedin 1862 byBean de Rochas.In 1876 Dr.
Otto designed an engine to operate on this cycle. The Otto engine immediately became
so successful from a commercial stand point, that its name was affixed to the cycle used
by it. This cycle is in use in all gas and petrol engines together with many types of oil
engines.
The ideal p - v and 7 - 0 diagrams of this cycle are shown in fig 5-2. In working
out the air-standard efficiency of the cycle, the following assumptions are made :
(i) The working fluid (working substance) in the engine cylinder is air, and it behaves
as a perfect gas, i.e., it obeys the gas laws andhas constant specific heats.
(ii) The air is compressed adiabatically (without friction) according to law
94 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

p vy - C |where 7 ■ 4n the engine cylinder during the compression stroke.

(iii) The heat is supplied to the air at constant volume by bringing a hot body iri
contact with the end of the engine cylinder.
(iv) The air expands in the engine cylinderadiabatically (withoutfriction) during the
expansion stroke.
(v) The heat is rejected from the air at constant volume bybringing a cold body in
contact with the end of the engine cylinder.

Fig. 5-2. p-vand T o diagrams of Otto cycle.

Consider one kilogram of air in the engine cylinder at point (1). This air is compressed
adiabatically to point (2 ), at which condition the hot body is placed in contact with the
end of the cylinder. Heat is now supplied at constant volume, and temperature and
pressure rise; this operation is represented by (2-3). The hot body is then removed and
the air expands adiabatically to point (4). During this process, work is done on the piston.
At point (4), the cold body is placed at the end of the cylinder. Heat is now rejected at
constant volume, resulting in drop of temperature and pressure. This operation is represented
by (4-1). The cold* body is then removed after the air is brought to its original state
(condition). The cycle is thus completed.
The cycle consists of two constant volume processes and two frictionless adiabatic
processes. The heat is supplied during constant volume process (2-3) and rejected during^
constant volume process (4-1). There is no exchange of heat during the two frictionless
adiabatics (1-2) and (3-4).
Heat supplied during constant volume operation (2-3) = Kv ( T3 - T2) heat units/kg of air.
Heat rejected during constant volume operation (4-1) = Kv (T4 - Ti) heat units/kg of air.
Net work done = Heat supplied - Heat rejected
= Kv ( T3 - T2) - Kv ( Ta - T i) heat units per kg of air.
. Net work done per kg of air
ciency, 11 - Heat supplied per kg of air
Kv ( Tz - T2) - Kv (Ta - Ti) r 4 - Ti
Kv (T3 - r 2) 7b - 72 (5 7 )
 Air-Standard Cycles 95
Considering adiabatic compression (1-2),

y : = f-^ -j't~ 1 = (a)y ~ 1 (where r = ratio of compression)

Higher temperature ( 7*2) . . Y_ 1

Lower temperature (7 i) *
/. r 2 « Ti ( 0 Y_ 1
Again considering adiabatic expansion (3-4),
y- 1
(r)Y (as = vi and V3 = V2)
Ta ~ v& VS
Higher temperature ( 73) Y_ 1
0 Lower temperature (T a ) *

T3 = 74 (a) y ' 1 - 0j)

Substituting values of Tz and 73 from (i) and (ii) in eqn. (5.7), we get,
Ta - 7i
Air-standard efficiency = 1 --------------- 5--------------- —r
(A .S .E .) 74(/)Y" - 7 i ( 0 Y" 1
' 1 74 - 7i 1 1 ...( 5 .8 )

( 0 Y_ 1 (74 -
7i) ( / ) Y_1
From eqn. ( 5 . 8 ) , it is seen that the air-standard efficiency of I.C. engines working on
Otto cycle is a function of the compression ratio (/) only. The following table gives the
value of air-standard efficiency for various ratios of compression :
Ratio of compression, 2.0 3.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
r

Percentage air-standard 24.51 35.42 42.56 45.21 47.47 49.44 51.16 52.70 54.00 55.34 56.46
efficiency ( Y = 1.4)

The air-standard efficiency expression, t ] = 1 j- can also be expressed in terms

of temperatures Ti and 72.

From (i), - ^ = ( /) Y“ 1

Air-standard efficiency = 1 — = 1--5 -* ...(5.9

72 Tz Tz
7i

From eqn. (5.9), it should be observed that T2 is not the highest temperature of the
cycle, and therefore the efficiency is less than Carnot, which, for the temperature range
obtaining, would be 1 - or " - f t where Ta is the highest temperature of the Otto
cycle.
The eqn. (5.8) shows, that higher thermal efficiency can be obtained with higher
compression ratio, and smaller the difference between T3 and 7 ? , the more closely is
the Carnot efficiency approached, but at the expense of reduction in net work done per
kg of air.
Problem - 2 : In an ideal Otto cycle engine, the temperature and pressure at the
beginning of compression are 4&C and 100 kPa respectively and the temperature at the
96 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
end o f adiabatic compression is 323°C. If the temperature at the end o f constant volume
heat addition is 1,500eC, calculate : (a) the compression ratio,' (b) the air-standard efficiency,
and (c) the temperature and pressure at the end o f adiabatic expansion. Assume y as
1.4 for air.
(a) Referring to fig. 5-3, pr = 100 kPa,
T i = 43 + 273 = 316 Kj-
72 = 323 + 273 = 596 K;
7*3 = 1,500 + 273 = 1,773 K.
Referring to fig. 5-3 and considering adiabatic compression (1-2),
72 JCLlr-i 1~ 1
7*1
to
\
72
i.e. (i) Y - 1
7i

Compression ratio,
1 1
f596 1 .4 - 1
r-
316
= ( 1.886)2'5 = 4.87

(b) Using eqn. (5.8), Air-standard ef-

ficiency (A.S.E.)

- 1 -
1 =
.
1- 1
( /) Y' 1 (4-87)',0 -4
Volume 1
* 1- 0- 4695 or 46- 95%
1-884

Alternatively, using eqn. (5.9),

Fig. 5-3. p-vdiagram of Otto cycle.

Air-standard efficiency 1 - -=r- = 1 - - 0- 4695 or 46.95% (same as before)

#2 5Ub

(c) Now, h ' - M ' . <4-87)” * - SM73

P2 = pi x 9-173 - 100 x 9-173 = 917-3 kPa
P2VS P3V3
From constant volume heat addition (2-3),
7b
.. P3 7|
Hence, as V2 = V3, — = w
P2 72

p3 = p2 x — = 917- 3 x (323 + 273)

= 2,729 kPa
T2
Considering adiabatic expansion (3-4) of fig. 5-3, P3V3 Y = P4 V4 Y
p3 p3 2,729 2,729 = 297-5 kPa
.1 P4 =
V4 \Y to (4- 87) 14 9-173
V3
 Air-Standard Cycles 97
73 'v4\y- 1
Considering adiabatic expansion (3-4) of fig. 5-3, -
V3
r3 Ts = 1 ,77 f - - « . 941K or U = 668 ° C
74 -
v-4VT-1 = -1
(4- 87),0-4 1-884

H
Problem - 3 : In an engine working on the ideal Otto cycle, the pressure and
temperature at the beginning o f compression are 100 kPa and 40°C respectively. If the
air-standard efficiency of the engine is 50%, determine; (i) the compression ratio, and (ii)
the pressure and temperature at the end o f adiabatic compression. Assume y for air as
1.4.
Referring to fig. 5.3, p i = 100 kPa, Ti = 40 + 273 = 313 K.
(i) Using eqn. (5.8),

Air-standard efficiency - 1 - - (where r= compression ratio)

y -1
to
i.e. 0.5 = 1 - 0-4
O
••• M 0' 4 - 2
log2 = 0 301
Taking logs of both the sides, log r = = 0-7525
0- 4 0-4
r = 5- 656 (compression ratio)
P2
Referring to fig. 5-3 and considering adiabatic compression (1-2), ^ -
*
P2 T z r = p i* W
= 100 x (5-656)1' 4 = 1,131 kPa
Again referring to fig. 5-3 and considering
72 / v i \ y - 1
adiabatic compression (1-2 ), - —
YZ\
/iV Y-1
■72 = Tt x = 7i x ( I) '

= 313 x (5- 656) = 626 K or tz

= 353°C
Problem - 4 : An engine working on
the ideal Otto cycle, has a clearance volume
of 0.03m3 and swept volume o f 0.12 rr?
The pressure and temperature at the begin-
ning o f compression are 100 kPa and 100°C
respectively. If the pressure at the end of
V constant volume heat addition is 2,500 kPa,
calculate : (a) the air-standard efficiency of
the cycle, and (b) the temperatures at the
salient (key) points of the cycle. Assume
y = 1.4 for air.
Fig. 5-4. p-v diagram of Otto cycle.
9d Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
(a) Referring to fig. 5-4, p 1 = 1 bar; p3 = 25 bar;
r r = 100 + 273 = 373 K; v2 = 0.03 m3\ Vj - v2 = 0.12 m3'
Compression ratio,
clearance volume + swept volume
v2 clearance volume
0 03 + ' 0 - 12
= 5
003
Using eqn. (5.8), Air-standard efficiency
= 1 -
1 =
.1 -
1
0- 4
( 0 Y~ 1 (5)'
= 0- 475 or 47- 5%
(b) Referring to fig. 5-4 and considering adiabatic compression (1-2),
Pz t e l

P^ K
Y _= p, x (r)Y = 10 x (5)1‘ 4 = 9-52 bar
P2 = P1 x

Again from adiabatic compression (1-2), Y-1

- e r - »

“ T2 = T-, X ( a) y_1 = 373 X (5) ° '4 = 710 K or t2 = 437°C

P2V2 P3V3
From constantvolume heat addition (2-3),

,, Tj ft
Hence, as v2 = v3-=- = —
’b P?
-r-
73 - T2T x - Ps- 710n x ^ 25 = 1,865 K or f3 = 1,592°C

Considering adiabatic expansion (3-4),

7a
7-4 N
Ta =
(0 Y-1
Adiabatics
1,865
V i _ = 980 K or <4 - 707°C
(5) 0 4
Pressure

Problem - 5 : An air engine works on

the ideal cycle in which heat is received
and rejected at constant volume. The pres-
sure and temperature at the beginning of
compression are 100 kPa and 40°C respec-
tively. The pressure at the end o f adiabatic
Volume — —► compression is 15 times that at start. If the
temperature reached at the end of constant
Rg. 5.5. p - v diagram of Otto cycle. volume heat addition is 1,947°C, find : (a)
 Air-Standard Cycles 99
the heat supplied per kg o f air, (b) the air-standard efficiency, (c) the work done per kg
o f air, and (d) the pressure and temperature at the end o f adiabatic expansion. Take Kv
= 0.7165 kJ/kg K and 7 = 1.4 for air.

Referring to fig. 5.5, p i = 100 kPa;

p 2 = 15pi - 15 x 100 = 1,500 kPa;
Ti = 40 + 273 = 313 K;
T3 = 1,947 + 273 = 2,220 K; and 7 = 1.4

(a) Considering adiabatic compression (1-2),

I ■(f)V ■* 72- r” { f p 1
0-4
72 = 313 x p ^ f j 1' 4 - 313 * 2-169 - 678-9 K

Heat supplied per kg of air = Kv ( 73 - 7 2 )

« 0.7165 (2,200 - 678.9) = 1,104.2 kJ/kg o f air

(b) Using eqn. (5.9), Air-standard efficiency = 1 - y - = 1 - ■ 0-535 or 53.5%

(c) Now, Air-standard efficiency (A.S.E.) . H^ a s ^ X ^ k g ^ r

Work done per kg of air = A.S.E. x Heat supplied per kg of air
= 0- 535 X 1 ,104-2 = 590.75 kj/kg o f air.
PZVz P3V3
(d) From constant volume heat addition (2-3),
72 73
,, p3 I3 , _ 73
Hence as V2 = V3 , — - -=-i.e, pz= pz * -=-
P2. >2 '2
P3 * 1,500 x = 4,948 kPa

From adiabatic compression (1-2) and adiabatic expansion (3 - 4),

£2 m T p3 (V 4 \'t p2 P3 . .
and — = — — = — (as vi = V4 and V2 = V3)
pi " I V2 P4 (va Pi P4

p4 = x ps = x 4,948 = 329.6 kPa.

D4 V4 pi vt
From constant volume heat rejection (4-1), - t - j—

Hence, as V4 = vj, ^ = Q-
74 Ti

.-. 74 = — x 7i = x 313 - 1,031-6 K or t* = 758.6°C

pi 100
5.7 Diesel Cycle (Constant Pressure Cycle)
Internal combustion engines of today, operate on heat engine cycles which approximate
either the ideal Otto cycle or the ideal Diesel cycle. In 1897, Dr. Rudolph Diesel constructed
0*
100 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
the first successful Diesel engine. This engine was designed to operate on a new heat
engine cycle devised by him and hence is known as Diesel cycle. Diesel engines have1
been used to a considerable extent in stationary marine and locomotive practice.
The ideal p - v and T - <J> diagrams of the cycle are shown in fig. 5-6.
In working out the air-standard efficiency of this cycle, the following assumptions are
made :
(i) The working fluid in the engine cylinder is air and it behaves as a perfect gas,
' i.e., it obeys the gas laws and has constant specific heats.
(ii) The air is compressed adiabatically (without friction) in the engine cylinder during
the compression stroke.
(iii) Heat is supplied to the air at constant pressure by bringing a hot body in contact
with the end of the cylinder.
(iv) The air expands in the engine cylinder adiabatically (without friction) during
expansion stroke.
(v) Heat is abstracted from the working substance at constant volume by bringing a
cold body in contact with the end of the cylinder.

Fig. 5.6. p—v and T—<pdiagrams of Diesel cycle.

Imagine the cylinder to contain 1 kg of air at point (1). This air is compressed
adiabatically to point (2) by the piston during its inward stroke. The air now occupies the
clearance volume. The heat is then supplied at constant pressure by bringing a hot body
in contact with the end of the cylinder. At point (3) the hot body is removed and the
supply of heat is stopped. This point is known as the point of cut-off. The air now
expands adiabatically to point (4). During this process, work is done on the piston. The
air now occupies the whole cylinder volume. The cold body is then placed at the end
of the cylinder and heat is abstracted from the working substance at constant volume
until the pressure falls to point (1). This operation is represented by (4-1). The cold body
is removed after the air is brought to its original condition (1). The cycle is thus completed.
The cycle consists of two adiabatic processes, one constant pressure process and
one constant volume process. Heat is supplied during constant pressure process (2-3)
 Internal Combustion Engines 101
and heat is rejected during constant volume process (4-1). There is no exchange of heat
during adiabatic processes (1-2) and (3-4)
Heat supplied during constant pressure process (2-3) = Kp (T j - T2) heat units per
kg of air.
Heat rejected during constant volume process (4-1) = KV(T4 - Ti) heat units per kg of air.
Net work done by the air = Heat supplied - Heat rejected
= Kp (T j - T£ - Kv (T4 - Tj) heat units per kg of air.
. « „ . Net work done per kg of air
A.S. efficiency, rj = —— :------- r.~ - r —, a , .
Heat supplied per kg of air
= ftp (T3 - r 2) - kv m - Tq
kp (T3 - T2)
. kv T4 - T, M 1 T4 - 7| ...(5.10)
“ 1 ” T~ X "=7= W = ' X^ T-
kp /3 - /2 Y '3 ~ *2
Vi v3
Letcompression ratio, — = r and cut-off ratio, — = p

v4 v4 v2 ^ v2 r ...(5.11)
Then, expansion ratio, — = — x — = — x — = —
v3 v2 v3 v2 v3 p
Fb Vo P3 V3
From constant pressure heat addition (2-3), —=— = —=—
'2 '3
T3 v3 T3 ■••(i)
Hence, as pz = £ 3 , -=- = — = p .*. T2 = —
'2 *® P
T2
From adiabatic compression (1-2), -=-
'1

r, -
■ w ’ - 1
.(iii)
Substituting value of T2 from (i) in (ii), we get, 7| =
P (r) Y - 1

T3
From adiabatic expansion (3-4), -=- Y - 1 = Y - 1

•4 \ J/
1 7-3 ( p ) ' -< M
.-. T4 = ------------ r— or T4 = —
( r ) T_1 p (0 Y
Substituting values of T2, Tj and T4 from (i), (iii) and (iv) in eqn. (5.10), we get,
7*3 ( p ) T _ T3

Air-standard efficiency = 1 - — x ------------ P £ r )------

V T
13 -
102 Elements of Heat Engines Vol.

(P )T
1 1
A.S.E. - 1 -
(O 1 -1

= 1- (P )Y - 1
(O P~ 1

1- (p )Y - 1
...(5.12)
( ry Y (P - 1)
This expression is the air-standard efficiency of the Diesel cycle. It will be noted from
the expression (5.12), that the air-standard efficiency of the Diesel cycle depends upon
the value of r and p. The efficiency increases as r is increased and decreases as p is
increased.

The factor ( P ) T- 1 depends upon the value of cut-off ratio and is greater than
„ Y (P - 1 ),
unity; hence the air-standard efficiency of the Diesel cycle for a given compression ratio
Y- 1
is less than 1 - j , which is the efficiency of Otto cycle.

Problem - 6 An engine working on Diesel cycle has a compression ratio o f 15

and cut-off takes place a t 5% o f the stroke. Find the air-standard efficiency. Assume
value o f y = 1.4 for air.
' Referring to fig. 5-7,
b Compression ratio, r
- * -1 5 vi - 15i&
V2.
Now, stroke volume
= n - vs = 15ve - vz - 14vg
v3 = 5% of stroke volume + clearance
volume.
5
V3 * x 14 ♦ vz • 1.7 vz
100
IQ Y lvz
Cut-off ratio, p - — =1.7
r vz vz
Using eqn. (5,12), Air-standard efficiency
1 ( P ) Y- 1
* 1-
Volume ( 0 Y‘ 1 Y (P “ 1 )
1 d - 7 ) 1' 4 - 1
- 1 -
,0 -4 1-4 ( 1 * 7 - 1 )
(15)
Fig. 5-7. p-vdiagram of Diesel cycle. = 0 - 625 or 62' 5%
Problem - 7 : An air engine works on the following cycle: A iris taken in at atmospheric pressure
o f 110 kPa and temperature of 16°C, and is compressed adiabatically, the pressure at the end
of the stroke being 3,500 kPa. Heat is taken in at constant pressure, the expansion afterwards
takes place adiabatically, the ratio of expansion being 5. The air is exhausted at the end o f the
 Air-Standard Cycles 103
stroke, the heat is assumed to be rejected at constant volume. Find the ideal thermal efficiency.
Take the specific heats o f air as kp = 1.0035 kJ/kg K and kv = 0.7165 kJ/kg K.
Kp_ 10035
Here, y ■ * 7 7 * 0-286, - = - t - 0-715;
1-4 and ^-----
Kv ~ 0-7165 y
1-4 y '*4
p i = 110 kPa; p2 = p3 = 3,500 kPa; Ti = 273 + 16 = 289 K.
Referring to fig. 5-8 and considering adiabatic, compression (1-2),
P2 v i\ Y
^ - - « (O
pi vs
.0 -7 1 5
( 3,500 \
1110)
11 • 8 ( compression ratio )
VA
Also the ratio of expansion, — - 5
v*
(given).
/ vs'
Using eqn. (5.11), cut-off ratio I— =

Ratio of compression
p * Ratio of expansion

- = 2 -36
5
Considering adiabatic compression (1-2),
1 .0 -2 8 6
Tg Pz 3,500 \
-2-69
7i Pi 1 10 J
.*.72- Ti x 2-69 = 289 x 2-69 = 778K.

From constant pressure heat addition

P2V2 p3V3
(2 -3 ),
72 73
,. 73 V*
Hence, as 02 = 03 , = —
Tz vz
T V3
T 3 --« Ti 2- 36 x 778= 1,838 K.

Ta ( V 3\ y - '
Considering adiabatic expansion (3-4), -=? = f-ry
73

Ta = 73 x ( * ) y - 1 1,838 x 1,838 x 0-524 = 960 K.

V4 s ) 0-4
Now, heat supplied per kg of air
= kp (T3 - T2) = 1.0035 (1,838 - 778) = 1,063.71 kJ per kg of air, and heat rejected
per kg of air = kv (T4 - Ti) = 0.7165 (960 - 289) = 480.7 kJ per kg of air.
Hence, heat converted to work or work done per kg of air
= kp ( 73 - T2) - kv (74 - Ti) = 1,063.71 - 480.7 = 583.01 kJ/kg of air.
104 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Ideal thermal efficiency of Air standard efficiency
= , work done per kg. of air 583- 01
heat supplied per kg. of air 1,063.7 '
Alternatively, using eqn. (5.12), the ideal thermal efficiency or air-standard efficiency.

A.S.E. - 1 - (P)7- 1
(0 7( P “ 1)j
Here, ratio of compression, r = 11.8, cut-off ratio, p - 2.36, y 1-4.
On substitution of values in eqn. (5.12), we get,
1 (2-36)1' 4 - 1
Air standard efficiency * 1 - 1-4-1
( 11 * 8 ) 1 - 4 ( 2 - 3 6 - 1)
3- 3 2 - 1
- 1 - 0- 371
1- 904
= 1 - 0.4517 = 0.5483 i.e. 54.83% (same as before )
Problem - 8 : The following data relate to a theoretical Diesel cycle, using air as
the working fluid :
Pressure at the end o f suction stroke ...100 kPa
Temperature at the end o f suction stroke ...30°C
Temperature at the end o f constant pressure heat addition ... 1,500°C
Compression ratio ...16
Specific heat o f air at constant pressure ...1.005 kJ/KgK
Specific heat o f air at constant volume ...0.7115 kJ/kg K
Find : (a) the percentage o f stroke at which cut-off takes place, (b) the temperature
at the end o f expansion stroke, and (c) the ideal thermal efficiency.
1005
Here, pi - 100 kPa; fi - 30° C; fa = 1,500° C; — = r« 16; ^ 1* 41
VZ Kv 0-7115
(a) Referring to fig. 5-9 and considering adiabatic compression 1-2,

‘ P Tz /Vl\Y~ 1
M or
r, -
72 - Ti x ( a) Y~ 1

72 - (30 + 273) x (16)°'41

- 303 x 3-117 - 945 K.
From constant pressure heat addition (2-3),
pzvz P3V3
72 “ 73
V3 Tz
Hence, as pz - P3 , — - j r

V3 = (1i 500+_273) _ 1 876 ^ 1 • 876 vz

Vz 945

Now percentage of the stroke at which cut-off

takes place
 Air-Standard Cycles 105
Volume at cut-off - Clearance volume
x 100
Stroke volume
vs - vz __ 1-876vg - vz
= ----------- x 100 = ——------------- x 100 = 5.84%
Vy - Vz 16 vz - vs

. > V4 V4 VZ Vt Vfc
' ' 1$ VZ V3 Vz VS
( as V4 = v i )
Va 1
Expansion ratio, — - 16 x - 8-529
va 1*876
From adiabatic expansion (3 - 4),

73 r3
a Ta =
Ta T-1

1,773 1,773
74 - = 736 K or 74 = 463°C
(8 - 529)°’ 41 2* 408
(c) Heat supplied = kp ( T3 - T2 ) = 1.005 ( 1,773 - 945 ) = 832.14 kJ/kg of air.
Heat rejected = kv ( Ta - Ti ) = 0.7115 ( 736 - 303 ) = 308.07 kJ/kg of air.
.*. Heat converted to work or work done = 832.14 - 308.07 = 524.07 kJ/kg of air.
.. .. . .. . Work done per kg of air 524-07 a CoqC „ , M o*
Now, ideal thermal eff. I = 77— ------- — f — 7 -r- = OQO — = 0- 6286 or 62.86 %
or A.S. efficiency J Heat supplied per kg of air 832-14
5.8 Dual-combustion Cycle
This cycle is known as a dual-combustion or mixed cycle because the heat is taken
in partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. This cycle is used in modern
high speed oil engines and is a combination of Otto and Diesel cycles. Engines working
on this cycle are sometimes called Semi-Diesel engines.
The ideal p - v and 7 - <j» diagrams for this cycle are shown in fig. 5-10. In working
out the air-standard efficiency of this cycle the following assumptions are made :
49 3 .0 0 0 ' S-

\\
•*
_3, L, 7
V-O 2 A 0
a'
AV* 7

\r 28
000
I 2.1
i *■5
Adi abat cs <

VA
\ 3
u rA
M 21 fc
M

Lj
7 C.o^A
£
a, 1,000
1 U1
<
- X)1
7 I
1
0 - 4 __ r ..
L 10 0 02 .0-4 06 0-8 1-0 1-2
Volume V Entropy —<£>
Fig. 5-10. p-v and T-a diagrams of dual-combustion cycle.
106 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. Ii
(i) The working fluid in the engine cylinder is air and behaves as a perfect gas, i.e.,
it obeys gas laws and has constant specific heats.
(ii) The working fluid is compressed in the engine cylinder adiabatically (without friction)
during compression stroke.
(iii) Heat is partly supplied at constant volume to the working fluid by bringing a hot
body in contact with the end of the cylinder. The source of heat is still maintained while
the piston moves outward during the working stroke and the remaining heat is supplied
to the working fluid at constant pressure. The hot body is then removed after the first
portion of the working stroke is completed.
(iv) The working fluid expands in the engine cylinder adiabatically (without friction)
during the expansion stroke.
(v) Heat is abstracted from the working fluid (substance) at constant volume by bringing
a cold body in contact with the end of the cylinder.
Imagine the cylinder to contain one kg of air at point (1). This air is compressed
adiabatically to point (2) by the piston during its inward stroke. The air now occupies the
clearance volume. The heat is then supplied at constant volume by bringing a hot body
in contact with the end of the cylinder. This operation is represented by line (2-3). The
hot body is still maintained at the end of the cylinder during first portion of the working
stroke and heat is supplied at constant pressure. This operation is represented by line
(3-4). The hot body is then removed and the supply of heat is stopped at point 4. The
air now expands adiabatically to point (5). During this process work is done on the piston.
The air now occupies the whole cylinder volume. The cold body is then placed at the
end of the cylinder and heat is abstracted from the working fluid at constant volume until
the pressure falls to point (1). This operation is represented by line (5-1). The cold body
is then removed and air is brought to its original condition(1). The cycle is thuscompleted.
This cycle consists of two adiabatic processes, two constant volumeprocesses and
one constant pressure process. Heat is supplied during constant volume process (2-3)
and constant pressure process (3-4). Heat is rejected during constant volume process
(5-1). There is no exchange of heat during the adiabatics (1-2) and (4-5). Referring to
fig. 5-10,
Heat supplied = kv (T3 - T2) + kp ( T4 - T3) heat units/kg of air and
Heat rejected = ky (Ts - Ti) heat units/kg of air.
Net work done = kv ( T3 - T2) + kp (T4 - T3) - kv (T s - Ti) heat units/kg of air.
_ Work done/kg of air
Heat supplied/kg of air

kv (Tz - Tz) + kp (Ta - 73) - kv (Ts - 7j)

kv (Tz - Tz) + kp (T* - Tz)
_ kv (Ts - Ti)
kv (Tz - Tz) + kp (TA - Tz)
(T5 - Ti) - ( 5-13)
(Tz - Tz) + y(T 4 - Tz)
Vi V4
Letcompression ratio, — = r andcut-off ratio, — - p,

Then, expansion ratio, — * — x - — (asvs = vi and v2 = V3)

r va vz va p
 Air-Standard Cycles 107

Let pressure ratio or explosion ratio, * P

, 0 2 Vfc P3 V3
From constant volume heat addition (2-3), ^ * y3

..(0
Hence, as ■ P ** ^2
*2 p2
V4
From constant pressure heat addition (3-4), S - - — « p or 74 - p 73

7s y —1 v 72
From adiabatic compression (1-2), -= -• (/)T or 7i
(/) y- 1
73
Substituing value of Tz from (i) in (HQ. we 9et» Ti ■ -(iv)
PM ’ ' 1
VS\ T“ 1 M Y* 1
From adiabatic expansion (4-5), I—
Pi
Ta Ta (p) Y~ 1
.•* r 5 TvFT
M’ - 1 ..(v)
w
Substituting value of Ta from (ii) in (v), we get,
Tsm p 7b (p)T" 1 pT 7b ...(vi)
( / ) y_ 1
Substituting values of T2, Ta, Ti and Ts from (i), (ii), (iv) and (vi) in eqn. (5.13), we get,
Pr r3 r3

Air-standard efficiency « 1 - (O’ - 1 ' P M ’ ’ 1

1.
'W'

(A.S.E.)
~£
S'
+

M
\
p?
/
1
' PM’- 1
1 - j + Y (P -1 )

T—-i
1 -
Y- 1 '
(I) n ♦ Y ( P - 1)
( 1 ‘ f)
1- ..(5.14)
P ( P ) T ~ 1

(6 Y- 1 ( P - 1) + P Y (P - 1)
This is the air-standard efficiency of the dual-combustion cycle.
Now, in eqn. (5.14)>Jf pressure ratio, p - 1, i.e. p 3 - pz,

A S .E - 1 - (p)r - i y
y- 1
7 < p - 1)J
(0
which is the expression of the A.S.E. of the Diesel cycle.
/
108 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Again, in eqn. (5.14), if cut-off ratio, p= 1, i.e. v3 - vAi
1 (P- 1)
AS.E. = 1 -
(p- 1) + P y ( 0 )

= 1 - Iz J L = 1-
1 P- 1
to' t o Y" 1
which is the expression of the Air-standard efficiency (A.S.E.) of the Otto cycle.
Problem - 9 : An oil engine working on the dual-combustion cycle has a cylinder
diameter o f 25 cm and stroke o f 36 cm. The clearance volume is 1,600 cmf3 and cut-off
takes place at 5 per cent o f the stroke. The explosion pressure ratio is 1.4. Find the
air-standard efficiency o f the engine. Assume y = 1.4 for air.

Stroke volume, vs m ^ x I = ^ (25)2 x 36 = 17,600 cm3,

Clearance volume, vc = 1,600 cm (given).

1,600 + 17,600
Compression ratio, r = = 12
1,600
« » vc + (0* 05 vS) 1,600+ (0 05 x 17,600)
Cut-off ratio, p » ------------------------ ' 1' 55

Explosion pressure ratio, p - 1-4 (given).

1 P(P)Y- 1
Using eqn. (5.14), Air-standard efficiency - 1 -
( P - 1 ) + py ( p - 1 )
1-4(1- 55)1‘ 4 - 1
= 1 -
( 12)°’ 4 (1 • 4 —1) + 1-4 x 1-4 ( 1 - 5 5 - 1 )
1 [ 2- 6 8 - 1
= 1 = 0- 605 or 60- 5 %•
2- 7 0-4 + 1-08
Problem —10 : In an engine working on the ideal dual-combustion cycle, the temperature and
pressure at the beginning o f compression are 100°C and 100 kPa respectively. The compression
ratio is 10:1. If the maximum pressure is limited
to 7,000 kPa and 1,675 kJ o f heat is supplied
per kg of air, determine the temperatures at
salient (key) points of the cycle and the air
standard efficiency of the engine. Assume
kp = 101 kJ/kg K and
Kv = 0-716 kJ/kg ACfor air.
Here, p 1 = 100 kPa; •
T, = 100 + 273 = 373K; .
p3 = p4 = 7,000 kPa;
^1 kp 1- 01
r = = 1 0 ; y = 7^ = ' ■“ = 1-41
1*2 ky 0*716
Referring to fig 5-11, and considering
adiabatic compression (1-2),
= (r) Y-1
Y - 1
Fig. 5.11. p-v diagram of dual-combustion cycle. x (0
 Air-Standard Cycles 109

- 373 x (10) ° '41 - 958-8 K or fe = 685.8#C.

^ f -{£)’ w* ■pi(^)T
•*. pz - P i(0 Y - 100 X (10)1 41 = 2,570 kPa
pzvz P3V3
From constant volume heat addition (2-3),
7b
.. 73 P3 - - p3
Hence, as V2 = va, — or 73 = 72 x —
12 P2 Pz
7 non
.-. 73 - 958 • 8 X - 2,612 K or fe - 2,339 C
£,570 •
Heat added at constant volume (2-3) per kg. of air
= Kv (73 - 72) = 0.716 (2,612 - 958.8) = 1,183.7 kJ/kg of air.
Heat added at constant pressure (3-4) per kg of air
■ 1,675 - 1,183.7 = 491.3 kJ per kg of air = kp (7* - Tj)

i.e., 74 - 73 + - 2,612 + = 3,098 K or U = 2,825°C.

Kp 1• Ol
P3 V3 O4 V4
From constajit pressure heat addition (3-4), j = ~ r

Hence, a s p 3 = p 4 , — = -=^ = ■ 1-186 - p (cut-off ratio).

<3 £ ,bl <L
74
From adiabatic expansion (4-5), y r =
v4 ' " - i r

7s ------- 3 ,09 o. 47 = 1,293 K or ts = 1,020°C

/f\ / 10 ‘
W l 1’186J
Heat rejected at constant volume (5-1) per kg of air
= Kv (75 - Ti) = 0.716 ( 1,293 - 373 ) = 658.72 kJ/kg of air
Work done per kg of air = Heat supplied per kg of air - Heat rejected per kg
of air
= 1,675 - 658.72 = 1,016.28 kJ/kg of air.
A. . Work done per kg of air 1,016-28 „ „ „ „ „ __
Air-standard efficiency = .. .------- — 7— -—r = ■ = 0-6067 or 60.67%
7 Heat supplied per kg of air 1,675
5.9 Joule Cycle
In 1851, Dr. Joule proposed to use a cycle in which heat was received and rejected
at constant pressure and called this cycle as constant pressure cycle. This cycle is used
in gas turbine plant of the constant pressure type. In the year 1873, Mr. Brayton used
Joule air cycle in open cycle constant pressure gas turbine plants and hence Joule cycle
is also known as Brayton cycle. This Joule ( or Brayton ) cycle, used in gas turbine
plants, is described in Volume III.
The cycle, consisting of two constant pressure processes ( 2-3 ) and ( 4-1 ), and
two adiabatic processes ( 3-4 ) and ( 1-2 ), was suggested by Joule for use in hot air
engine. The engine consists of an expansion cylinder, a compression cylinder, a heating
chamber maintained at temperature 7 ? by means of a heater, and cooling chamber
110 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
^ maintained at temperature 7* by means of
cooling water.
The cycle of operation is as follows :
Cold air from cooling chamber at
temperature Ti is drawn in the compression
cylinder. This operation is represented by
(a-1) on the p - v diagram as shown in
fig. 5-12. The air is now compressed adiabati-
cally to temperature T2 and delivered through
a valve to a heater where it is heated from
temperature 7> to T3 at constant pressure,
increasing its volume from V2 to V3. This
hot air passes into the working or expansion
cylinder where it is allowed to expand
adiabatically until its pressure and tempera-
Fig. 5 - 12 . p-v diagram of Joule cycle. ture fall to p 4 andT4 respectively. During
this operation, work is done on the piston, provides excesswork and alsodrives the
compressor.This operation is represented by ( 3-4 ). During the return stroke of the
piston ofthe expansioncylinder, the low temperature air at T4 is delivered through a
valve to a cooling chamber where it is further cooled at constant pressure from T4 to
Ti. The cycle is thus completed.
Work done by the air on the piston of the expansion cylinder is given by the area
b-3-4-a; the work done on the air in the compression cylinder is given by the area
b-2-1-a. Hence, the net work done per cycle is represented by the area 1-2-3-4. Heat
supplied per kg of air = kp (T3 - T2) heat units. Heat rejected per kg of air
= Kp (T4 - Ti) heat units..
Since there is no exchange of heat during the frictionless adiabatic processes,
Net work done = Heat supplied-Heat rejected
= kp (T3 - T2) - kp (T4 - Ti) heat units per kg of air.
.. x ... . . Work done per kg of air
Air-standard efficiency = v r— — f — 7—r-
' Heat supplied per kg of air
kP(Ts - T2) - kp {j4 - Ti) Ta - Ti ...5.15
kp (T3 - T2) ~ T3 - 72
Now, since the adiabatic expansion and adiabatic compression both take place between
the same terminal pressure (same pressure ratio), the ratio of compression and expansion
are equal. Calling this common ratio r, we have,

or Tz = Ti (r) Y_1

r3
Similarly, -=^ = (1) Y“ 1 or 73 = T4 (1) Y 1
*4
Substituting the values of 7? and T3 in the eqn. (5-15) we get,
74 - Ti
Air-standard efficiency = 1 -
74(/)y" 1 - 7 ,( /) y - 1
1
= 1 - ...(5.16)
1
(/)'
 Air-Standard Cycles 111

The efficiency expression, 1 —j can also be expressed in terms of temperatures

T3 and T4

We know that = (r) Y_1 or = — -—r

Ta w 73 (0 Y

Substituting the value of — ^—7 in the eqn. (5-15), we get,

( 0 Y_1
Air-standard efficiency - 1 - ...(5-17a)
73 73
• Now, though T3 is the maximum temperature, T4 is greater than the minimum
temperature TV, so that efficiency of this cycle is less than Carnot cycle efficiency when
operating between same limits of maximum and minimum temperatures.
The expression of air-standard efficiency, as given in eqn. 5-16, is in terms of volume
ratio . It can also be given in terms of pressure ratio | rp * as under :

. 1 ..(5-17b)
Air-standard efficiency = 1 ------ — —
(rp) Y

- T, - ( C • (S)¥ - 1 - ® " ' ^ -

Although no engine was constructed to work on this cycle, the reversed cycle, i.e.,
Joule air engine reversed in direction was extensively used in refrigeration for a number
of years. The reversed Joule cycle, known as Bell-Coleman cycle, is described in volume
III.
Problem —11 : A gas turbine working on Joule cycle takes in air at an atmospheric pressure
o f 110 kPa and 20°C. The air is compressed adiabatically to a pressure of 300 kPa in the
compressor. Heat is then added at constant pressure in combustion chamber and then
expanded adiabatically to atmospheric pressure in the turbine. If the maximum temperature is
limited to 550°C, find the air-standard efficiency o f the cycle. Assume kp = 0.9965 kJ/kg andy
= 1.4 for air.
Referring to fig. 5-12, p i = 110 kpa; Tj = 20 + 273 = 293 K;
P2 = P3 = 300 kPa; 73 = 550 + 273 = 323 K.

^ = (r)Yand — = (r)Y
P4 w pi w
P3 p 2 300 , . .. ,
' P4 - T 10 ( ratl° expansion = ration of compression )
Y - 1 0 4
CO

Q
O

From adiabatic expansion ( 3 - 4 ) , Y 1- 4

1 0 0
\ /

73 823
- T i ‘ T 5S ‘ T 3K = 6 1 7 7K

Using eqn. (5.17a), Air-standard efficiency = - - - — - - — - 0.25 or 25%

# 3 8 2 3
112 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
5.10 Mean Effective Pressure (M.E.P.)
The mean effective pressure (M.E.P.) of a cycle or heat engine is the average net
pressure in newtons per unit area that operates on the piston throughout its stroke. It is
then the average height of the p-v diagram of the cycle or indicator diagram of any
actual engine.

Fig. 5-13. Explanation of mean effective pressure. Fig. 5-14. p-v diagram of Otto cycle.

In fig. 5-13, a-b-c-d shows the p-v diagram and a-e-f-g the equivalent rectangular
diagram. The area of the rectangle a-e-f-g is equal to area of indicator diagram a-b-c-d.
Since the area of the p-v diagram is equal to the net work of the cycle in kJ, it is
evident that,
wMT-n Work done per cycle in kJ . ,..,2
M.E.P. -----------------^ — 1-----------x kPa or kN/m
Displacement volume in m
_ Work done per cycle in kJ|(ra Qf KN/m2 ...(5.18)
va - ve in m
where, va = total cylinder volume in m3,
ve = clearance volume in m3, and
va - ve = piston displacement volume in m3'
The mean effective pressure of the ideal cycles used in modern internal combustion
engines is obtained as follows :
5.10.1 O tto cycle : The p - v diagram of the ideal Otto cycle is shown in fig. 5-14.
Work done per cycle = Area 1-2-3-4
= area under adiabatic expansion (3-4) minus area under adiabatic compression (1-2)
P3V3 - P4V4 P2VZ - P1V1
kJ
7- 1 Y- 1
where, pressure are in kPa and volumes in m3
Work done per cycle in kJ
Ideal M.E.P. = kPa or kN/m ...(5.19)
vi - V2 in m3
where, vi - V2 = piston displacement volume in m .
 Air-Standard Cycles 113
Problem - 12 : Show that the ideal M.E.P. o f the Otto cycle is given by

pi r( p - 1> (r 1)
(r- 1 ) ( t - 1 )
where, p i = pressure at the beginning o f
compression,
r = compression ratio, and
p = ratio o f maximum pressure to
compression pressure.
Pressure

Referring to fig. 5-15,

pz ly±
f. pz - p i ( r ) Y
Pi “ K
Now, P p3 - pz p - pi ( r ) YP
— v- P2

P4 va

Fig. 5-15. p-v diagram of Otto cycle. _ ^ _ = p irlp

(O r (0 Y

Now, — = r v*i = rvz = va

vz
V3 = V2
Work done per cycle = are 1 -2 -3 -4
= area under (3-4) minus area under (2-1)
P3V3 - PAVA _ PZVZ - P i VI
( Y - 1) ‘ ( Y - 1)
_ area of the diagram _ Work done per cycle
length of diagram " (vi - V2)

1 (P 3 V 3 - P a v a )- (Pzvz - P 1 V1)
(vi - vg) ( Y - 1)
1 ( p i (1) Yp Vz - pi p vs r ) - (p i (1) Y vg - pi r vg)
vz ( r - 1) (Y - 1)
1 (pi ( r ) Yp - pi p r ) - (pi ( r ) Y- Pi •)
( r - r)
1

m
-<

mk
1

P1 r
_

(r- 1) (y - 1)
p i r ( p - 1) (rY~ 1 - 1)
( r - 1) (Y- 1)
Problem - 13 : In an ideal Otto cycle the charge taken in is assumed to be air at
a temperature of 20°C and a pressure of 110 kPa. If the clearance volume is 25 per
114 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
cent o f the swept volume and the temperature at the end o f the constant volume heat
addition is 1,440°C, find the ideal mean effective pressure in kPa. Take y - 1-4 for air.
Referring to fig. 5-16.
p 1 = 110 kPa; f, = 20°C; t3 = 1,440°C.
Swept volume = vy = v2 and clearance
volume = v2.
Now, v2 = 0.25 (v, - v£ i.e.,
1.25 v2 = 0.25 Vi
Vt
— - 5 (Compression ratio)

Considering adiabatic compression (1.2),

Pz ,1*4
( 0 Y- (5)
P1 yz
Pz = Pi x (5)1' 4
- 110 x 9-518 - 1,047 kPa
Considering adiabatic compression
(1-2), >
Tz Y- 1 1-4- 1
= ( i) y~ 1 " (5)

Fig. 5.16. p -v diagram of Otto cycle. /. Tz - 7i x (5)°’ 4 - 293 x 1- 905 - 558 K

P3K3 PzY2
From constant volume process ( 2-3 ),

P3 T$
Hence, as v3 * v2 ,
Pz
(1,440 + 273)
. PS - PJ x ^ - 1,047 x ^ - 3,214-17 kPa
558

Ps (Va )
Considering adiabatic expansions (3-4), — - - (O
x*/
P3 3,214-17 3,2147
Pa - = 337-69 kPa
1-4 9 . 518
(0Y (5)
Pav3 - P4 V4 Pzv2 - Pi Vi
Work done per cycle *= kJ
y- 1 Y- 1
3,214-17 Vz - 337-69 x 5v2 1,047Vz - 110 x 5v2
" 1-4-1 " 1-4-1
= v2 x 2 ,580- 42 kJ
Work done per cycle in kJ
Ideal M.E.P. = --------------- c----- 1— 5------ kPa
(vi - v2) in m
„ ,x
2,580-42 kpa
V2 X 4
Problem — 14 : An engine working on the ideal Otto cycle has a clearance volume
 Air-Standard Cycles 115
o f 0.03 m3 and swept volume o f 0.12 m3. If the heat supplied at constant volume is
145 kJ per cycle, calculate the ideal mean effective pressure in kPa. Take y 1.4 for air.
Clearance volume + Swept volume 0-03 + 0-12
Compression ratio, r — —c----------- = -----— ---------- 5
Clearance volume 0-03
1 _ 1
Air-standard efficiency 1 - 1 - - 0- 475 or 47- 5 %
\0- 4
<r)T_ 1 (5)'
Work done per cycle in kJ
Again, air-standard efficiency
Heat supplied per cycle in kJ
n Work done per cycle in kJ
I.e., U- 475 - 145

. Work done per cycle = 145 x 0 - 475 = 68 - 88 kJ

Work done per cycle in kJ 68 - 88
Ideal M.E.P. = 574 kPa
Swept volume in m3 0-12
5.10.2 Diesel cycle: The p - v diagram of the ideal Diesel cycle is shown in fig. 5-17.
Work done per cycle = Area 1-2-3-4 •
= area under (2-3) + area under (3-4) minus area under ( 2-1 )
(P3V3- P4V4] pzvz — p i Vi
P2(V3- V2) + kJ
Y- 1 r t -1

where, pressures are in kPa and volumes

in m3.
Ideal M.E.P.
Work done per cycle in kJ
kPa
(v i - V2) in m ...(5.20)
PV=const.
where, v i - V2 = piston in m displacement
volume in m3.
Problem - 1 5 : A Diesel engine, working
on an ideal cycle, has a compression ratio
o f 14 and takes in a charge o f air at a
pressure o f 108 kPa and temperature of
30°C. If the cut-off takes place at 5 per
cent of the stroke, fin d : (i) the ideal thermal
Volume----- efficiency, and (ii) the ideal mean effective
pressure o f the cycle in kPa.
Fig. 5-17. p-v diagram of ideal Diesel cycle Take y = 1.4 and kv = 0.718 kJ/kg K.
for air.
Referring to fig. 5-17, p i = 108 kPa, 7r = 30 + 273 = 303 K.

Kp - 1-4 x 0-718 = 1-005 kJ/kg K

« 1 4 -o ^ 5
vi
Let clearance volume = vz; — = r= 14 v i = 14 v2 = va
vz

Again, i* = vz + -^55 (^1 - v^) = vz + ^ (13 vz) = 1- 65 vz ; - j | - p = 1-65

09
116 Elements of Heat Engines Vol.

Pz
From adiabatic compression ( 1-2 ),
Pi

Pz = Pi x = Pi X ( r ) Y= 108 X (14)1 4 = 108 X 40-23 = 4,345 kPa

v2
xf 1
From ,adiabatic compression (1-2), -=- =
M 'Si
••• 72 = 7, ( r ) Y_ 1 = 303 x (14)0-4 = 871K
P3V3 P2V2
From constant pressure process ( 2-3 ), —=— ■ ■
'3 '2
T3 v3
Hence, as p$ - p2 = — =1-65
’ 12 v2
T3 m T2 x 1-65 = 871 x 1-65 - 1,437 K

P3 14 \ 1-4
From adiabatic expansion ( 3-4 ), — = (8- 485)1' 4 - 19-95
1-65 v2\
A
P3 = 4,345
P4 = 19-95 = 19-95 - 217-8 kPa

r3 /v4\ Y - 1 Y - 1

Considering adiabatic expansion (3-4), - |—

t4 ^3
Tz 1,437 1,437
r ,= = 610 K
m Y - 1
( 14 I
0 4 2- 355
l?> IH
Heat supplied per kg of air = kp {T3 - T2) = 1.005 ( 1,437 - 871 ) = 868.8 kJ/kg of air
Hear rejected per kg of air = kv (T4 - Ti) = 0.718 ( 610 - 303 ) = 220.4 kJ/kg of air
. Heat converted into work in kJ per kg of air
Ideal therma efficiency = ------ —— --------- .. .. , ,------; r , -■?------
1 Heat supplied in kJ per kg of air
868- 8 - 220- 4
= 0-6125 or 61 - 2 5 %
868-8
(ii) Referring to fig. 5-17, work done per cycle = Area 1 -2 -3 -4
= area under ( 2-3 ) plus are under ( 3-4 ) minus area under ( 2-1 )
P3V3 - P4 V4 P 2 ^ - P M kJ
Work done/cycle ■ P2 {V3 ~ v2) +
Y -1 Y -1
„ _ ___ 4,345 x 1-65 - 217-8 x 14 4,345 x f - 108 x 141
= v2 4,345 x 0- 65 + -----------. " 1 4_1
= V2 x 6,041-75 kJ
Work done per cycle in kJ . 0„
Using eqn. (5.20), Ideal M.E.P. = ----------------- K----- 1----------- ~ kPa
stroke volume (Vt - v2) in m
v2 x 6,041-75
- —--------h - — = 464.75 kPa
v2 x 13
Problem - 1 6 : In an ideal Diesel cycle, the pressure and temperature at the commencement
of the compression stroke are 95 kPa and 15°C. The pressure at the end of the adiabatic
 Air-Standard Cycles 117
end o f the adiabatic compression is 3,800
kPa, and it is 1,125 kPa when the piston
displaces 25% o f the stroke volume.
Find :
(a) the maximum temperature reached
in the cycle,
(b) the ideal thermal efficiency,
prttsur*

(c) the ideal m.e.p., and

(d) approximate percentage o f expansion
stroke at which cut-off takes place.
Take y = 1.4 and kv = 0.718 kJ/kg K
for air.
Referring to fig. 5-18,
p i = 95 kPa; t i = 15°C;
p2 = p3 = 3,800 kPa ;
p4 = 1,125 kPa.

Fig. 5-18. p-v diagram of ideal Diesel cycle <3 > T * t 1 4 * o £ i

/. kp « 1- 4 x 0-718-1-005 kJ/kg K
Referring to fig. 5-18 and considering adiabatic compression (1-2),

P2 f t ! ' 7
Pi - S i - « ■

Let the clearance volume be unity then vi = 14, v2 = 1, vs = 14, and stroke volume
= V1 - V2 = 13
25% of the stroke volume - 0-25 x 13 * 3-25. Hence, V4 - 3-25 + 1 = 4-25
Considering points 3 and 4 adiabatic expansion (3-4), p3 Vi1 - pA V4Y

P3= l m va (p i)
or —
P 4
H v& P 4

VA 4- 25 4- 25
V3> 1 = 1-78
2- 382
3,800\ 1- 4
PA 95
Y- 1
To ( v\\ Y- 1
Considering adiabatic compression (1-2), - ^ = — | = (r)

T2 = Ti x (/) Y " 1 = 288 x (14)1 4 " 1 = 827K

pzvz P3 V3
From constant pressure heat addition (2-3),
72 73
,. Tz V<3
Hence, as pz * pa - —
/2 Vz
118 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
1-78
7a 72 X 7s - 827 X „ = 1.472K or 73 = 1,199 C
VZ 1
r- 1
73
(b) Considering adiabatic expansions (3-5), y
5 -
73 1,472
A 75 - 645 K
/V 5^ Y - 1
I 14
vs ( 1* 78J
\ )
Heat supplied per kg of air = kp (T3 - T2) = 1.005 (1,472 - 827) = 648.2kJ/kg of air
Heat rejected perkg of air = kv (7s - Tr) = 0.718 (645 - 288) = 256.2kJ/kg of air

Ideal thermal efficiency = ^ converted work in kJ per kg of air

Heat supplied in kJ per kg of air
648-2 - 256-2 __
- * 0-6047 or 60.47%
648-2

P3
(c) From adiabatic expansion (3-5),
P5 '(3)
P3 3,800 3,800
••• ps « - 2 1 2 kPa
1*4 17*95
fv s \T •f 1 4 I
1*78
w

Referring to fig. 5-18, ideal work done per cycle = Area 1 -2 -3 -5

= area under (2-3) plus area under (3-5) minus area under (2-1)
P3V3 - J35V5 pzvz - pivV
02 (V3 - Vfc) + kJ
7 -1 7 -1
3,800 x 1*78 - 212 x 14 3,800 x 1 - 95 x 14
vz 3,800(1*78 - 1) +
0* 4 ” 0* 4
■ vz, x 6,0 29 kJ . 1
, Work done per cycle in kJ
Using eqn. (5.20), Ideal M.E.P. ------------------ — 1----------------3 kPa
Stroke volume (v i - vi) in m
vz x 6,029 ,_
- — ------- -- = 463.77 kPa
vz X 13
*
(d) Percentage of expansion stroke at which cut-off takes place
volume at cut- o ff- clearance volume
x 100
stroke volume
vz - vz 1-78 - 1
x 100 = x 100 = 6%
vi - vz 13
Problem - 17 : Show that ideal M.E.P. o f the Diesel cycle is given by ;

Pi ( I) ’ [ y (p - 1) - t t 1 (Pr - 1)]
(1 - 1) (r - 1)
where, pr = Pressure at the beginning of the compression,
 Air-Standard Cycles 119
n = Compression ratio, and p =
Cut=off ratio.
Referring to fig. 5-19,
Y
P2 _ rvV
Pi
*• P2 = Pi (0 Y
Y
W
^ = s
P4 V3 ,pj
P3 (P)'
•• P4 *
O '1
— r . Vj = fVS = V4
vs
V3
= p Vz

Voiumo Work done per cycle = Area 1-2 -3 -4

= area under ( 2 -3 ) plus area
under (3-4) minus area under ( 2-1 )
Fig. 5-1 d. p-v diagram of ideal Diesel cycle
P3V3- p4V4 pzvz - pi V|
= P3 (V5 - vs) +
Y- 1 Y- 1

.. . Mp p Area of diagram Work done per cycle

■ = Length of diagram = vi - v2
1 p3Vft - P4V4 P 2 VS - P 1 V1
ps (v& - vs) +
- vs 7 -1 7 -1
1 P3 P VS - p4 VST P 2 VS - p i TVS
P3 ( p vs - vs) +
Vz (r - 1) Y - 1 Y - 1
1 fi? P ~ P 4 T P2 - pi f
P3 ( P “ 1) + 1 -
r- 1 7 - 1 y 1 "

1 P 3 (P - 1)(Y- 1) + (P 3 p - p4/~)- (pz - pi /•)

( f - 1) Y - 1

1 P3( p - 1) ( Y - 1)+ (P 3 P " P 3 P Y r 1“ Y) - (P2 - ^ r 1_Y)

( r - 1) Y- 1
1 1+ p * r 1- * - 1 + r 1 “ ?)
CL

P3 ( P Y“ P -
i

( r - 1) (Y- 1>
^ ( P Y - Y - P ^ 1' 7 ^ 1^ )
( r - 1) (•Y - D

P 3 [Y (P - 1 ) - ' 1 ~ Y ( p Y ~ 1)]
. " (Y - D ( r - 1)

P i ( Q Y T y ( p - 1 ) - ( r ) 1~ Y ( P Y - 1)]
( Y - 1) ( r - 1)
Problem - 18 : The mean effective pressure of ideal Diesel cycle engine is 6.1 bar.
120 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
If the pressure at the beginning o f compression is 1 bar and the compression ratio is
13, determine the cut-off ratio. Assume y = 1.4 for. air.
Using the expression of ideal "M.E.P. of diesel cycle derived earlier (vide problem-17)
Idear M.E.P.
P i t o * [ T ( p - D - ( 0 , ^ , ( P r - 1)1
( i - 1) ( r - 1)
where, p i = Pressure at the beginning of compression,
r = Compression ratio, and p = Cut-off ratio.

Referring to fig. 5-19, p i = 1 bar; — = r = 13; ideal M.E.P. = 6.1 bar; y * 1.4
vz
On substitution of the values, we get
&1 _ 1 » (13)' 4 [ 1 4 ( p - 1) - (13)~°~4 ( p 1 4 - 1)1
(1-4 - 1) (13 - 1)
36- 27 [ 1- 4 ( p - 1) - 0-3584 (p 14 - 1)1
4- 8
6-1 x 4- 8
or . 1 4 p - 1-4 - 0- 3584p1 4 + 0-3548
36-27
or 1-8493 1-4 p - 0- 3584 p 1-4
or 1- 4 p - 0- 3584 p1’ 4 - 1-8493 = 0
By trial and error method putting p = 2, we get
(1-4 x 2) - 0-3584 (2)1’ 4 - 1-8493 * 0 or 2.8 - 0.9458 - 1.8493 » 0
Thus cut-off ratio, p s 2
5.10.3 Dual-Combustion cycle : The p - v diagram of ideal cycle is shown in fig. |
5-20. Work done per cycle = Area 1-2-3-4-5 = area under ( 3-4 ) + area under ( 4-5 ) '
minus area under ( 2-1 ). ■* i

P3 -
P4V4 - P5V5
V3) +
Pzvz - pi Vi kJ
7 -1 Y -1
where pressures are in kPa and volumes in m3*
,.,rn Work done per cycle in kJ . _ ...(5.21) i
.-. Ideal M-E-P- = --------------- — 1— =--------- kPa
(v i - V2) is m
where ( vi - v?) = piston displace- i|
ment volume in m *
Problem - 1 9 : A compression-ig-
nition engine, working on the dual-com- (
bustion cycle, has a compression ratio i)
o f 10 and two-thirds of the total heat !
supplied is taken in at constant volume if
and the remainder at constant pressure, t?
The maximum pressure in the cycle is j
4200 kPa and the pressure and tempera- i
ture at the beginning o f compression i
are 105 kPa and 303 K respectively, i
Assuming the working fluid to be air i
Fig. 5-20. p-v diagram of ideal dual-combustion cycle
 Air-Standard Cycles 121
throughout the cycle, find the ideal mean
effective pressure o f the cycle in kPa.
► Assume kp = 1.0035 kJ/kg K, Kv =
0.7165 kJ/kg K and y = 14 for air.
Referring to fig. 5-21,
p3 = p4 = 4,200 kPa; p i = 105 kPa;

Ti = 303 K; — « r * 10
vz
Then, v i * 10 V2 * r and
swept volume = v i - V2 = 9 v2.
From adiabatic compression ( 1-2 ),
t- 1
72 Y-1
Ti * (vsj " (l>
/. 72 = 71 X ( /) Y ' 1

Volume ■ - 303 x (10)°‘4 = 761-1 K

From adiabatic compression (1-2),

P2
Hg. 5-21. p-v diagram of ideal dual-combustion cycle
Pi

v p z pi x (r)Y = 105 x (10)1'4 = 2,637-6 kPa

Pzvz P3 vs
From constant volume heat addition ( 2-3),
72 73
,, P3 73 . 4,200 73
Hence, as vs * vs, ^ ^ i.e., 2 ggy.g - 761.., 73 = 1 ,211-9 K

Heat supplied at constant volume per kg of air

= kv (73 - T2) = 0.7165 ( 1211.9 - 761.1) = 323 kJ/kg of air
Heat supplied at constant pressure per kg of air

■ kp ( 1% « % ) m ^ x 323 - 161-5 kJ/kg of air.

161.5 = kp ( T4 - 73 ) = 1.0035 ( 74 - 1,211.9 )

Ta = 1,372.8 K
P3 P 4 V4
From constant pressure heat addition ( 3 - 4 ),
73
. V4 74 1,372-8
i 'once, as ps = 1-132 - p ( cut-off ratio)
" 7b 1,211-9
= 1.132 V3 = 1.132 V2

P4 vs
From adiabtu: expansion ( 4-5), ^ - |—
v4j
P4 4,200 ■inn.1 a I/Dn
122 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Work done per cycle = area 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
= area under ( 3-4 ) plus area under ( 4-5 ) minus area under (2-1 ).
_ .. P 4 V4 - P5V5 P2V2 - P 1 V1
P a (v 4 - v3) + — : ■■— - — — — kJ

4,200x 1 - 1 3 2 - 199-14x 10 2,637-6x 1 - 105x 101

= v2 4,200 x 0-132 + ----------- — ---------------------- ^ --------------

= 3,507.6 v2 kJ
Ideal M.E.P. = -W o rk done per cycle in kJ kRa
Swept volume in m (v j - v2)
3 ,507-6^2
= 389.73 kPa.
9vb

5.11 Actual Cycle Thermal Efficiency

Most of the internal combustion engines of today are designed to follow as closely
as possible the Ideal Otto and Diesel cycles. That they can not follow exactly these ideal
cycles and hence operate with thermal efficiencies lower than those of ideal cycle is
evident when one thinks of some of the practical limitations that are involved. For instance,
both ideal cycles use an adiabatic compression and an adiabatic expansion. The adiabatic
process requires that no heat be added or rejected throughout its duration and hence
requires that the working substance be surrounded by a material that is a perfect
non-conductor of heat. The cast iron cylinders of actual engines are conductors of heat
and hence the process carried on within them can only approach or approximate the
adiabatic. For this reason combined with others, an expansion or compression carried out
in the actual engine follows a polytropic process whose value of index n in the equation
p\P = constant is about 1.35 instead of 1.4 as in a ideal adiabatic (isentropic) process.
The combustion in the actual Otto cycle engines cannot be instantaneous as it is in
the ideal Otto cycle. This results in a sloping combustion line on p - v diagram (indicator
diagram), that tends to decrease the area of the diagram and the effect of this is to
produce a lower actual thermal efficiency. Similarly, in the actual Diesel engine cycle,
there is a similar tendency in that the combustion line instead of being maintained
horizontal as in the ideal Diesel cycle, tends to slope downward.
The efficiency of the ideal cycle is known as the air-standard efficiency, since it is
worked out, on the basis of the working substance being air throughout the cycle.
Therefore, the specific heats for air are used. It is evident'that this is in variance with
the actual cycle. In the actual engine, the working substance is not air but may contain
a proportion of gases whose specific heats at constant pressure* and constant volume do
not bear the same relation as in the case of air.
In the ideal cycle, the specific heat of working substance (air ) is considered constant
throughout the whole range of temperature. The specific heat of any gas varies with
temperature. Therefore, in actual engine the temperature and pressure to which the working
substance will be raised, will be lower than would be the case with constant specific
heats. Therefore, the area of indicator diagram will be less and the effect of this is to
produce lower actual thermal efficiency.
The total effect of all these differences is to produce thermal efficiency of the actual
cycle much less than the ideal or air-standard efficiency.
 Air-Standard Cycles 123
Tutorial -5
1.' Delete the phrase which is not applicable in the following statements :
(i) The air-standard efficiency of a Diesel cycle having fixed compression ratio will decrease / increase
with increase in cut-off ratio.
(ii) The air-standard efficiency of an I.C. engine decreases / increases with increase in compression ratio.
(iii) In a Diesel cycle, the ratio of volume of cylinder at the point of cut-off and clearance volume is known
as cut-off ratio/compression ratio.
(iv) In a Diesel cycle, heat is rejected at constant volume/constant pressure.
(v) Indicated thermal efficiency of well designed and well constructed I.C. engine, when properly operated,
will be about one-third/two-third of air-stancard efficiency.
(vi) The most efficient engine is that which works on a reversible/an irreversiblecycle.
[ (i) increase, (ii) decreases, (iii) compression ratio,
(iv) constant pressure, (v) one-third, (vi) an irreversible ]
2. Fill in the blanks in the following statements :
(i) For theromodynamic cycle to be reversible it must consists o f ________ processes only.
00 In Otto cycle, heat is added at constant________ .
(iii) In Diesel cycle, heat is added at constant________ .
(iv) The theoretical thermal efficiency of the ideal cycle using air as the working fluid isknown a s _________.
(v) Joule cycle is used in gas turbine plant o f _______ type.
(vi) The mean effective pressure of a (Jycle or heat engine is th e ________ pressure in newtons per unit
area that operates on the piston throughout its stroke. j
(vii) Cut-off ratio of a Diesel cycle i s _______ than unity.
(viii) Dual-combustion cycle is used i n ________engines.
[ (i) reversible, (ii) volume, (iii) pressure, (iv) air-stand-
ard efficiency, (v) the constant pressure, (vi) average
net, (vii) greater, (viii) modem high speed oil ]
3. Indicate the correct answer by choosing correct phrase out of the following statements: *
(i) Air-standard efficiency of Otto cycle is expressed as

i - ( i p

(c « ,-(i)V
where, r is the compression ratio and y is the ratio of the specific heats of air.
(ii) For the same compression ratio,
(a) both Otto cycle and Diesel cycle are equally efficient
(b) Efficiency of Otto cycle is more than that of the Diesel cycle.
(c) Efficiency of Diesel cycle is more than that of the Otto cycle.
(iii) In an engine working on ideal Otto,.cycle, combustion takes place
(a) at constant pressure.
(b) at constant volume.
(c) partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure.
(d) at constant temperature.
(iv) Dual-combustion cycle is also known as
(a) Otto cycle, (b) Diesel cycle, (c) Semi-Diesel cycle, (d) Joule cycle.
(v) Thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle is

(c) h - t 2 (d) r , - t 2
(vi) In an air-standard cycle,
124 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
(a) all processes are reversible.
(b) all processes are irreversible.
(c) two processes are reversible and other processes are irreversible.
(d) reversibility and irreversibility is not important *
(vii) Efficiency of a Diesel cycle
... , I
(a) increases as compression ratio is increased and decreases as cut-offratio is increased.
(b) increases with increase in both compression ratio and cut-off ratio.
(c) decreases with increase in both compression ratio andcut-off ratio.
(d) decreases as compression ratio is increased and increasesas cut-off ratio is increased.
(viii) Joule cycle consists of
(a) two isentropic and two isothermal operations.
(b) two isentropic and two constant pressure operations.
(c) two isentropic and two constant volume operations.
(d) two isothermal and two constant pressure operations.
(ix) Compression ratio of an I.C. engine is the ratio of
(a) the volume of air in the cylinder before compression stroke and volume ofair in the cylinder after
compression stroke.
(b) volume displaced by piston per stroke and clearance volume.
(c) pressure after compression and pressure before compression.
(d) temperature after compression and temperature before compression.
(x) Joule cycle is used in :
(a) petrol, engine.
(b) diesel engine.
(c) constant pressure type gas turbine plant.
(d) gas engine.
I (i) c, (ii) b, (iii) b, (iv) c, (v) b, (vi) a, (vii) a, (viii) b,;
(ix) a, (x) c ]
4. The temperaturelimits for a Carnot cycle using air as working fluid are 420*C and 10*C. Calculate the
efficiency of the cycle and the ratio of adiabatic expansion. Take y = 1.4 for air
[59.16%; 9 . 38 : 1)
5. Define the term ‘Air-Standard Efficiency’ as applied to an internal combustion engine.
A petrol engine working on Otto cycle has a cylinder diameter of 10 cm and stroke of 15 cm. The
clearance volume is 250 cm . Find the ideal thermal efficiency ( air-standard efficiency ) of the engine.
Take y = 1.4 for air.
[50.17% }
6. (a) Obtain an expression for the air-standard efficiency of an internal combustion engine working on the
Otto cycle in terms of the ratio of compression r and the ratio of the specific heats of air y.
In an engine working on the ideal Otto cycle, the temperatures at the beginning and the end of
adiabatic compression are 100*C and 473*C respectively. Find the compression ratio and the air-standard
efficiency of the engine. Take y = 1.4 for air.
[/-= 5.656; 50%]
(b) Establish an expression for the air-standard efficiency of an engine working on the Otto cycle. If an
engine working on this cycle and using air as the working fluid has its compression ratio raised from
5 to 6, find the percentage increase in ideal thermal efficiency. Take y * 1.4 for air.
[ 7.75% }
7. Show that the efficiency of an air engine working on the constant volume cycle is given by
1- |— 1 where, r is the compression ratio and y is the ratio of the specific heats of air.

8. Describe the constant volume cycle for an air engine.

Calculate the air-standard efficiency (theoretical thermal efficiency) of this cycle when the pressure at the
end of compression is 15 times that at the start.
If in the above case the initial temperature of air is 40*C and maximum temperature is 1,677*C, find :(i)
the heat supplied per kg of air, and (ii) the work done per kg of air. Take y - 1.4 and kv = 0.7165 kJ/
 Air-Standard Cycles 125
K for air.
[ 53.88%; (i) 910.6 kJ/kg; (ii) 490.6 kJ/kg ]
9. In eyi ideal Otto cycle engine the compression and expansion follow the adiabatic law with the value of y
as 1.4. The pressure, temperature, and volume at the beginning of the compression are 100 kPa, 40*C
and 0.03 m3 respectively. The pressure at the end of compression is 750 kPa and that at the end of
constant volume heat addition is 1,900 kPa. Calculate the temperatures at the end of (i) adiabatic compression,
(ii) constant volume heat addition, and (iii) adiabatic expansion. Also find the compression ratio and the
air-standard efficiency of the engine Take kv = 0.7165 kJ/kg K for air.
Sketch the pressure • volume and temperature - entropy diagrams for the cycle.
[ (i) 284*C; (ii) 1,138*C; (iii) 519.7*C; 4.224; 43.82% ]
10. (a) Sketch the ideal indicator diagrams for the Otto, Diesel and dual-combustion cycles.
A Diesel engine has a cylinder diameter of 17 cm and a stroke of 25 cm. The clearance volume
is 450 cm3 and cut-off takes place at 6% of the stroke. Find the air-standard efficiency of the engine.
Take Y = 1.4 for air. [60.1%]

(b) Obtain the formula for the ideal efficiency of the Diesel cycle in terms of the volume ratios, assuming
constant specific heats.
Find the percentage loss in the ideal thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle engine with compression
ratio of 15, by delaying the cut-off from 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the stroke. Take y = 1-4 for
®ir* (6.6% ]
11. Derive an expression for the thermal efficiency of an internal combustion engine working on the ideal Diesel
cycle.
12. A Diesel engine working on the ideal cycle draws In air at a pressure of 110 kPa and temperature of 288
K. The air is compressed adiabatically to 3.5 MPa (3,500 kPa). Heat is taken in atconstantpressure and
expansion takes place adiabatically, the ratio of expansion being 5. The air is exhausted atthe end of the
stroke at constant volume. Calculate : (i) the temperatures at the salient (key) points of the cycle, (ii) the
heat received per kg of working fluid, (iii) theheat rejectedper kg of working fluid, (iv) the work done per
kg of working fluid, and(v) the idea thermal efficiency. Take kp = 1.0035 kJ/kg K, kv = 0.7165 kJ/kg K
and y = 1-4 for air.
I (i) 500.9*C, 1,559.6*C; 689.5*C; (ii) 1,062.41 kJ/kg; (iii)'
483.28 kJ/kg; (iv) 579.13 kJ/kg; (v) 54.51% ]
13. Describe the ideal air cycle for the Diesel engine receiving heat at constant pressure and rejecting heat
at constant volume. Show that the efficiency of this cycle is less than that of the constant volume cycle
for the same compression ratio.
14. (a) In an ideal Diesel cycle the temperatures at the beginning and end of compression are 57*C and
603*C respectively, whilst those at the beginning and end of expansion are 1,950'C and 870*C
respectively. Determine per kg of working fluid for which R = 0.287 kJ/kg K and y = 1.4, (a) the heat
received in kJ, (b) the heat rejectedin kJ,(c) the work done in kJ, and (d) the ideal thermal efficiency.
If the compression ratio is 14:1 and the pressure at the beginning of compression is 100 kPa,
determine the maximum pressure in the cycle.
[ (a) 1,343 kJ/kg; (b) 583 kJ/kg: (c) 760 kJ/kg; (d) 56.59%; 4,023 kPa ]
(b) Sketch the pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams for the ideal Diesel cycle and describe
the sequence of operations.
In an ideal Diesel cycle, the temperatures at the beginning and end of compression are 32*C and
615’C respectively. If the temperature at the end of constant pressure heat addition is, 1,780*C,
determine : (a) the value of the compression ratio, (b) the percentage of the working stroke at which
cut-off takes place, and (c) the ideal thermal efficiency. Assume y = 1-4 and kp = 0.997 kJ/kg K for
air.
( (a) r = 14.4; (b) 9.78%; (c) 58.19%J
15. Show that the efficiency of an air engine working on the Diesel cycle may be expressed as :
* 1 .1 (P)T- 1
( f ) r - 1 Y P - 1

where, r is the compression ratio, p is the’ cut-off ratio, and y is the ratio of the specific heats of air.
16. Derive an expression for the air-standard efficiency of an oil engine working on the Diesel cycle, stating
clearly the assumptions made.
State the reasons why the actual thermal efficiency of an internal combustion engine is lower than its
air-standard efficiency.
17. Show that in an engine working on the dual-combustion cycle and using air as the working fluid, the
126 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
air-standard efficiency is given by the expression

1 - 1 P(p)T~ 1
(A)7 ' 1 (p- 1 ) + py ( P - D
where, r = compression ratio, p = explosion ratio, p = cut-off ratio, and y = ratio of specific heats of air.
18. An oil engine working on Ihe dual-combustion cycle has a cylinder diameter of 20 cm and a stroke of 40
cm. The compression ratio is 13.5 and the explosion or pressure ratio obtained from indicator diagram is
1.42. From the indicator diagram it was found that cut-off occurred at 5.1% of the stroke. Find the air-standard
efficiency of the engine. Assume y = 1.4 for air.
I 61.58% ]
19. A high speed Diesel engine working on ideal dual-combustion cycle, takes in air at a pressure of 100 kPa
and the temperature of 50°C and compresses it adiabatically to 1/i 4th of its original volume. At the end of
the compression■the heat is added in such a manner that during the first stage, the pressure increases
at constant volume to twice the pressure of the adiabatic compression, and during the second stage following
the constant volume heat addition, the volume is increased twice the clearance volume at constant pressure.
The air is then allowed to expand adiabatically to the end of the stroke where it is exhausted, heat being
rejected at constant volume. Calculate (i) the'temperatures at the salient (key) points of Ihe cycle, and (ii)
the ideal thermal efficiency. Take kp = 0.992$ kJ/kg K and kv = 0.7076 kJ/kg K for air.
Sketch the pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams for the cycle.
I (i) 655.3#C, 1,583.6,C, 3,440.2°C, 1,432‘C, (ii) 60.87% ]
20. In a compression-ignition engine working on ideal dual-combustion cycle, the pressure and temperature at
Ihe beginning of compression are 1 bar and 127°C respectively. The pressure at the end of compression
is 30 bar and the maximum pressure of the cycle is 50 bar. During combustion, half of the heat is added
at constant volume and half at constant pressure. Both the compression and expansion curves are adiabatic
and heat is rejected at constant volume. Calculate the tenfperatures at the salient (key) points of the cycle
and the ideal thermal efficiency. Take kp = 0.9965 kJ/kg K and Kv = 0.7118 KJ/kg K for air throughout
the cycle.
[ 783.8°C, 1,488“C, 1,991'C, 674.3°C; 61.14% ]
21. A high speed Diesel engine working on the ideal dual-combustion cycle has compression ratio of 11. The
pressure and temperature before compression are 100 kPa and 90°C respectively. If the maximum pressure
in the cycle is 5,000 kPa and the constant pressure heat addition continues for 1/201h of the stroke, find
the work done per kg of air and the ideal thermal efficiency. Take kp = 0.9965 kJ/kg K and kv = 0.7118
kJ/kg K for air.
Sketch the pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams for the cycle. [ 787 kj/kg; 59.52% ]
22. Calculate Ihe air-standard efficiency of a gas turbine plant working on Joule cycle between 103 kPa and
412 kPa. If minimum and maximum temperatures in the cycle are 27°C and 527°C respectively, find
temperatures after isentropic compression and after isentropic expansion. Take y = 1.4 for air.
( 32.7%, 172.5-C, 265.72°C ]
23. Show that the ideal M.E.P. of the Otto cycle is given by the expression :

pi r ( P - 1)( r 1 - 1)

(r- 1) ( y - 1)
where, p» = pressure at the beginning of compression, r = compression ratio, and p = ratio of maximum
pressure to compression pressure.
24. A petrol engine with supply pressure and temperature of 100 kPa and 40°C respectively and working on
ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 5.8. Heat supplied at constant volume per kilogram of charge
is 586 kJ. Find the pressures and temperatures at the salient (key) points of Ihe ideal cyde, if the
compression and expansion law is pv1• * constant. Calculate also the theoretical mean effective pressure.
Take kv = 0.712 k'J/kg K for air.
( 1,171 kPa, 2,696 kPa; 230.2 kPa; 359.26°C, 1,182.62°C, 447.6°C; M.E.P. = 401 kPa ]
25. Show that the ideal M.E.P. of the Diesel cyde may be expressed as

p^ ( r ) ' ' [ y ( P - 1 ) - C i * " T ( p T_ 1)]

(Y- D ( r ~ 1)
where, pi = pressure at the beginning of compression,
r = compression ratio, and p = cut-off ratio,
26. An air. engine works on ideal cycle in which heat is received at constant pressure and rejected at constant
volume. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of the, compression stroke are 100 kPa and 15*C
 Air-Standard Cycles 127*
respectively. The compression ratio is 15.3 and expansion ratio is 7. If the law of adiabatic compression
and expansion is pv14 = constant, calculate : (i) the ideal thermal efficiency, and (ii) the ideal mean effective
pressure of the cycle. Take kp = 0.994 kJ/kg K and kv = 0.709 kJ/kg K for air.
[ (i) 59.87% ; (ii) M.E.P. = 791.3 kPa ]
27. An air engine working on ideal cycle in which heat is received at constant pressure and rejected at constant
voitime. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression stroke are 100 kPa and 40*C
respectively. The compression ratio is 13 and cut-off ratio is 2. If the compression and expansion curves
are adiabatic, calculate the ideal mean effective pressure of the cycle and its ideal thermal efficiency.
Take kp = 1.0035 kJ/kg K, ky m 0.7165 kJ/kg K and y = 1.4 for air.
[ M.E.P. = 613.68 kPa ; 58.08% ]
28. A Diesel engine works on the ideal cycle with a compression ratio of 14 and with cut-off taking place at
10% of the stroke. The pressure at the beginning of compression is 100 kPa. Calculate the ideal thermal
efficiency and ideal mean effective pressure of the cycle. Take y = 1.4 for air.
[ 57.86% ; M.E.P. = 813.58 kPa ]
29. The compression ratio of an engine working on the dual-combustion cycle is 9 to 1 and the maximum
pressure is 3,900 kPa. The temperature at the beginning of compression is 95*C and at the end of
expansion is 545*C. Considering the ideal cycle with air as the working fluid and assuming that the pressure
at the beginning of compression is 100 kPa, find (a) the ideal thermal efficiency, and (b) the ideal mean
effective pressure of the cycle. Take kp = 0.9965 kJ/kg K and kv = 0.7118 kJ/kg K for air.
[ (a) 57.98% ; (b) M.E.P. = 475.6 kPa ]
 6
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
6.1 Introduction
Heat engines may be divided into two main classes, according to where combustion
of fuel takes place. In one class, the combustion of fuel takes place entirely outside the
working cylinder. Such engines may be called external combustion engines. The most
common examples of this class are steam engines and steam turbines, where the working
substance is steam. In an external combustion engine the power is produced in two
stages. The energy released from the fuel is first utilized to evaporate water in a boiler
and then the steam so produced is made to act on the piston of the steam engine or
on the blades of the steam turbine, producing external power. If the combustion of fuel
takes place inside the engine cylinder, so that the products of combustion directly act on
the piston or blades, we have the engines of the second class — the so called internal
combustion engines. Diesel, gas and petrol engines and gas turbines are the common
examples of this type, where the working substance is products of combustion.
6.2 Advantages of Internal Combustion Engines over External Combustion Engines
Internal combustion engines have certain advantages over the external combustion
engines. In steam engine plant, the heat of combustion generated in the boiler furnace
passes through the shell or tubes of the boiler to the water on the other side, thus
generating the steam. In most modern steam generators in which the boiler is equipped
with superheater, economiser, etc., about 20% of the heat is wasted during the process
by radiation and by loss up the chimney. The proportion of the total heat going to an
engine which can be converted into work depends upon the range of temperature of
working substance, and in a steam engine this range is small, not exceeding 150°C when
saturated steam is used, and about 280°C when superheated steam is used.
Consequently, a steam plant (steam turbine or steam engine) not only loses much
of its heat up the chimney, but also is able to convert only a small part of heat that
goes to the engine into work. In the best modern steam engines and steam turbines,
only about 20 to 30 per cent of the heat going to the engines is converted into work
i.e. about 15 to 25 per cent of the heat of combustion of fuel is converted into work in
the modern best steam plants, i.e. the overall efficiency of the modern steam plants is
about 15 to 25 per cent. The ordinary steam engine does not convert into work more
than 8 to 10 per cent of heat of combustion of fuel. The steam plant after shut down
requires considerable time and fuel before the plant can again be put in operation. If the
boiler is kept running (so as to maintain steam pressure while the engine is not working),
a considerable amount of fuel will be wasted. I. C. engine can be started and stopped
within a few minutes.
In an internal combustion engine, where the fuel is a gas or volatile fuel (petrol),
there is no apparatus corresponding to a boiler, and no loss corresponding to the boiler
losses. If the fuel is coal, it is usually converted into gas before it is used in an internal
combustion engine; this necessitates the use of a gas producer, in which some of the
heat will be lost, though not as much as in the case of the boiler.
In an internal combustion engine, the charge (air mixed with combustible gas or
 Internal Combustion Engines 129
vaporized liquid in correct proportion) is drawn into the cylinder by the piston. The mixture
after being compressed into clearance space is ignited by an electric spark, so that the
explosive combustion takes place while the volume of the charge is nearly constant. The
heat thus internally developed gives the working medium a high temperature and pressure,
and then expansion of the gas occurs and work is done as the piston advances. When
the expansion is complete, gases are cleared from the engine cylinder in order to make
way for fresh charge.
Considering thermodynamically, internal combustion engines have the advantage over
the steam engines and steam turbines, that the working medium takes in heat (by its
own combustion) at a very high temperature. In the combustion of the charge, a temperature
of about 2,200°C is reached. The full thermodynamic advantage of a high temperature
could not be reached in practice, for the cylinder walls if allowed to reach this high
temperature would soon be destroyed. Lubrication of piston would also be impossible
hence the cylinder is generally water jacketted to keep the cylinder walls and other engine
parts cool. With large internal combustion engine the difficulty is to keep the cylinder and
the piston cool, while with steam engine the cylinder should be kept hot to reduce the
bsses due to condensation o f steam. The average temperature at which the heat is
received in an internal combustion engine is far above that at which heat is received
fry the working medium of a steam engine or steam turbine. On the other hand, the
internal combustion engines do not discharge heat at as low a temperature as do steam
engines and steam turbines. But the actual working range of temperature is so large that
an I.C. engine converts into work two or three times more of heat energy of the fuel
than is realised by any steam engine or steam turbine. A good I.C. engine will convert
about 35 to 40 per cent o f energy o f fuel into work, the best steam engine will convert
not more than 20 per cent and best steam turbine will convert not more than 30 per
cent o f the heat o f combustion o f fuel into work.
High efficiency and absence o f auxiliary apparatus such as futnaces, boilers, condensers,
make the I.C. engines relatively light and compact for its output. In addition to these
advantages, the I.C. engine has become one of the most reliable devices serving mankind.
I.C. engines are almost main source of power for aircraft, road vehicles and tractors. Of
the new locomotives ordered now-a-days in England and America, over 90 per cent are
powered (driven) by Diesel engines. I.C. engines are very useful in marine service where
space is of great importance.
6.3 Development of I.C. Engines
Around 1878, many experimental I.C. engines were constructed. The first really
successful engine did not appear, however, until 1879, when a German engineer, Dr.
Otto, built famous Otto gas engine. The operating cycle of this engine was based upon
principles first laid down in 1860 by a French engineers named Bea de Rochas. The
majority of modern I.C. engines operate according to these principles.
The development of the well known Diesel engine began around 1893 by Rudolf Diesel.
Although this engine differs in many important respects from the Otto engine, the operating
cycle of modern high speed engines is thermodynamically very similar to the Otto cycle.
6.4 Classification of I.C. Engines
Internal combustion engines may be classified according to :
(i) Cycle o f operation (the number o f strokes required to complete the cycle) •—
two - stroke cycle engine and four-stroke cycle engine.
(ii) Cycle o f combustion - Otto cycle engine (combustion at constant volume), Diesel
cycle engine (combustion at constant pressure), and dual-combustion cycle
130 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II \
engine or semi-Diesel cycle engine (combustion partly at constant volume and
partly at constant pressure).
(iii) Arrangement o f cylinders - horizontal engine, vertical engine, V-type engine,
radial engine, etc.
Civ) Number o f cylinders - single cylinder engine and multi-cylinder engine.
(v) Action o f products o f combustion upon the piston - single-acting engine and
double-acting engine.
(vi) Speed o f the engine - low speed, medium speed and high speed engine.
(vii) Type o f fuel - Diesel oil engine, petrol engine, gas engine, light oil (kerosene)
engine.
(viii) Method o f igniting fuel - spark ignition and compression ignition (C.l.) engine.
(ix) Method o f cooling the cylinder - air cooled engine and water cooled engine.
(x) Method o f governing the engine - hit and miss,, quality and quantity governed
engine.
(xi) Method e f fuel supply to the engine cylinder - carburettor engine, air injection
engine and solid or airless injection engine.
(xii) Suction pressure - naturally aspirated engine and supercharged engine.
(xiii) Their uses - stationary engine, portable engine, marine engine, automobile
engine, tractor engine, aero-engine, etc.
For example, an engine may be described as an oil engine, but it can be more
properly described as : 20 brake power, Diesel two-stroke cycle, horizontal, single cylinder,
single-acting, high speed, solid injection, compression ignition, water cooled, quality governed,
naturally aspirated, stationary engine.
6.5 Requirem ents o f I.C. Engines *
In any I.C. engine the following requirements must be met :
(i) The charge of fuel and air in correct proportion must be supplied to the engine.
(ii) The fuel and air o r'a ir only must be compressed either before or after the
mixing takes place. ■
(iii) The compressed mixture must be ignited, and the resulting expansion of
combustion products is used to drive the engine mechanism.
(iv) The combustion products must be cleared from the engine cylinder when their
expansion is complete, in order to make room for the fresh charge to enter
the cylinder.
Cycles o f operation : Two methods are used to carry out the above mentioned
processes in an I.C. engine, namely, the four-stroke cycle and two-stroke cycle. If an
engine requires four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the flywheel to complete
the cycle, it is termed a four-stroke cycle engine. If on the other hand, the cycle (all the
processes) is completed in two strokes of the piston or in one revolution of the flywheel,
then the engine is termed a two-stroke cycle engine. Majority of the I.C. engines operate
on the four-stroke cycle. For detailed description of two-stroke and four-stroke cycle
engines, refer volume I, Chapter 10.
Cycles o f combustion : Engines which draw in mixture of fuel and air during the
suction stroke and ignite the compressed mixture by means of a timed electric spark or
small hot spot and burn the mixture while the piston remains close to the top dead centre
(constant volume burning), are called Otto cycle engines. Otto cycle or constant volume
cycle engines may be two-stroke or four-stroke. Gas, petrol, light and heavy oil engines
 Internal Combustion Engines 131
use this cycle. This cycle is very popular in two-stroke petrol and oil engines.
In Diesel cycle engines, only air is drawn in and compressed to pressure of about
35 bar by the piston during the compression stroke, the fuel oil being pumped in the
cylinder when the compression is complete. In this way the fuel is fired by coming in
contact with the high pressure hot air. A Diesel engine needs no spark plug or a separate
ignition equipment. Diesel cycle is known as constant pressure cycle because the burning
of the fuel takes place at constant pressure. Diesel cycle is much used in heavy oil
engines. Diesel cycle may be two-stroke or four—stroke.
In dual-combustion cycle engine, only air is drawn in the cylinder during the suction
stroke. This air is then compressed into a hot combustion chamber or hot bulb at the
end of the cylinder during the compression stroke, to a pressure of about 28 bar. The
heat of the compressed air together with the heat of the hot combustion chamber is
sufficient to ignite the fuel. The fuel is injected or sprayed into the hot combustion chamber
just before the end of the compression stroke where it immediately ignites. The injection
of fuel is continued during the first part of the working stroke until the point of cut-off is
reached, which is regulated by the governor.
The burning of fuel at first takes place at constant volume and continues to burn at
constant pressure during the first part of the working stroke. The cycle is known as dual
combustion cycle or Mixed cycle because the heat is taken in partly at constant volume
and partly at constant pressure. Dual-combustion cycle engines may be two-stroke or
four-stroke. Engines working on this cycle are sometimes known as semi-Diesel engines.
This cycle is much used in heavy oil engines. Modern high speed Diesel engines operate
on this cycle. For detailed description o f Otto cycle and Diesel cycle engines, refer volume
1, chapter X.
6.6 Scavenging Methods in Two-stroke Cycle Engines
The clearing or sweeping out of the exhaust gases from the combustion chamber of
the cylinder is termed scavenging.
It is necessary that the cylinder should not have any trace of the burnt (exhaust)
gases because they may mix with the fresh incoming charge and reduce its strength.
Power will be lost if the fresh charge is diluted by the exhaust gases.

Etitoust valve

Cylinder f

Exhaust
Scqvengt
777 air
'! s
' o Piston 0 .2 )
/o

(a) Crossflow (b)Fult-loop or backflow (c) U niflow

10 Fig. 6-1. Different methods of scavenging in two-stroke cycle engines.

132 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
In a four-stroke cycle engine the exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder by
the incoming piston, but in a two-stroke cycle engine scavenging is necessary, since the
piston does not help in forcing out the burnt gases from the cylinder. In a two-stroke
cycle engine the scavenging is carried out with the help of incoming fresh charge (fuel-air
mixture) or air which is partially compressed before it is admitted to the cylinder. The
fresh charge or air, being at a higher pressure than exhaust gases, pushes out the gases
through the exhaust passages. This is possible because admission of the fresh charge
and removal of the exhaust gases are taking place at the same time in a two-stroke
cycle engine. In order to prevent the fresh charge of fuel-air mixture from entering the
exhaust ports and passing out through it, the charge is deflected upwards by the deflector
or baffle provided on the crown of the piston [fig. 6-1 (a)]. The possibility of losing some
of the entering charge which consists of fuel and air is only with two-stroke Otto cycle
engines. In a two-stroke Diesel cycle engine, air alone is admitted into the cylinder which
helps in the scavenging work.
The scavenging methods in two-stroke cycle engines are :
6.6.1 C rossflow scavenging : The admission (or scavenge) ports are provided on
the sides of the cylinder and the exhaust ports are kept on the opposite cylinder wall.
The charge or air entering through the scavenge ports is directed upwards which pushes
out the exhaust gases through oppositely situated exhaust ports as shown in fig. 6-1 (a).
6.6.2 Full-loop or backflow scavenging : The exhaust ports and scavenge ports
are provided on the same side of the cylinder wall and the exhaust ports are situated
just above the scavenge ports as shown in fig 6-1 (b). This method is particularly suitable
for double—acting C. engines.
6.6.3 U niflow scavenging : Scavenging ports are provided on one side of the cylinder
wall, and exhaust valvec are kept in the cylinder head for the removal of the exhaust
gases. Here the scavenge air and the exhaust gases move in the same upward direction
as shown in fig. 6-1 j . The mixture or air requires to be compressed before it is
admitted to cylinder so that it will help in scavenging the cylinder.
The scavenging air or mixture is produced in the following three ways :
(i) Crankcase compression : A mixture of vaporized fuel and air, or air alone in case
of a Diesel engine, is compi. sed in the gas-tight crank case of the engine, bythe back
of the piston during its working or outward stroke. The compressed mixture or air then
enters the cylinder through scavenge or transfer port. This method is known as crankcase
scavenging and is used in small size engines.
(ii) Cylinder compression : The mixture or air is compressed at the non-working end
of the cylinder by the back of the engine piston during its outward stroke. In such a
case the non-working end of the cylinder is also a closed one with a suction valve
provided at this end to admit the mixture of air and fuel or air for compression. The
partially compressed charge is then admitted to the working end of the cylinder through
the transfer port.
(iii) Separate compression ; A separate compressor, either driven from the engine
crank shaft or using outside power, may be provided to supply compressed air to the
cylinder. For an Otto cycle engine (gas engine), separate valves may be provided for the
admission of compressed air and gas. In such a case the air enters first, which will
scavenge the cylinder. The air is then followed by gas and more air for combustion. In
this method the question of loss of power due to some of the fresh mixture going out
along with the exhaust gases does not arise, since only compressed air is used for
scavenging. This method is the best and used in all large engines.
 Internal Combustion Engines 133
6.7 Handling of V olatile Liquid (Petrol) Fuels
The term carburation is applied to the process of vaporizing liquid hydrocarbon fuels.
Spirit fuels such as petrol, benzol and alcohol, vaporize slightly at atmospheric conditions.
Hence, the engine suction is sufficient to vaporize these fuels and no preheating is
necessary. In case of oil fuels, such as light oil and paraffin, vaporization of the liquid
is doneby preheating in a vaporizer with the help of exhaust gases.
The apparatus used for vaporizing petrol and other spirit fuels is called a carburettor;
in this apparatus no heating is necessary. Carburettors are constructed chiefly for gasoline
fuels, though some are made for volatile fuels such as kerosene or alcohol. Fundamentally
the carburettor must fulfil the following main functions :
(i) To maintain a small reserve of petrol at a constant head.
(ii)To give correct proportion of petrol to air at all speeds and according to varying
load requirements of the engine.
(iii) To vaporize the petrol and to produce homogeneous air-fuel mixture.
(iv) To supply a comparatively richer mixture during slow running or idling periods
and at starting.
(v) To supply a special rich mixture when the engine is to be accelerated by
opening the throttle valve suddenly.
6.7.1 Simple carburettor : The simplest design of a carburettor is simple carburettor
which consists of a single jet situated in the centre of the choke tube and to which fuel
is supplied at a constant level from a float chamber as shown in fig. 6-2.
Petrol enters the float chamber through a filter and a valve. The level of petrol is
maintained constant at correct height by the float. When the correct level is reached, the
float rises and forces the needle valve downwards and shuts off the petrol supply.
The suction of the engine causes air supply to rush through the choke which is shaped as
a venturi cone. The choke tube surrounding the top of the jet is reduced in diameter, so as to
increase the velocity of airat this point and reduce its pressure (pressure will be less than
atmospheric). Atmospheric pressure existson the top of the float chamber which is produced
by an air vent hole. The difference between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure around
the top of the jet causes the petrol
to flow into air stream at the throat
of the choke tube and gets
vaporized. Tip of the fuel jet is
placed higher (about 1.5 mm) than
the normal level of petrol in the float
chamber, in order to avoid leakage
of petrol when there is no air flow or
when the engine is at rest.
A carburettor of this type (fig. 6-2),
would give a rich mixture as the
engine speed increases and weak
mixture as the engine speed
decreases. Assume that the throat
of the choke tube and jet have been
so designed as to permit the pas-
sage of fifteen parts of air and one
part of petrol by weight under certain
conditions of suction. A mixture of
proper proportion will be drawn into
134 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
the engine cylinder. It is natural to suppose that as the speed of the engine increases, flow of
petrol and air will increase in the same proportion. Such, however, is not case. Petrol is more
responsive to suction than air. The laws governing the flow of liquids from a jet and air through
the venturi cone are not the same, for one is a liquid and the other is a gas. Consequently, as
the engine speed increases, the flow of petrol into engine cylinder increases faster than the
flow of air, the mixture becoming too rich at the high speeds. Thus in a given example, if the
velocity of air past (just over) the jet be doubled, the flow of the petrol will be increased by about
2 i times.

6.7.2 Zenith carburettor : Many different devices have been used for balancing or

Fig. 6-3. Diagrammatic sketch of Zenith carburettor.

compensating the action of the single jet, so as to secure a constant mixture strength.
One of the simplest and most satisfactory of these devices is the use of two jets, the
main fuel jet and the compensating jet, shown in fig. 6-3.
The compensation is effected by means of an additional jet called the compensating
jet. Fixed amount of petrol from the float chamber is permitted to flow by gravity through
the metering jet into the well, open to atmosphere. The supply to the well is not affected
by the suction of the engine, because suction is destroyed by the open well. As the
engine speed increases, more air is drawn through the carburettor, while the amount of
petrol drawn through the compensating jet remains the same and therefore the mixture
grows leaner (weaker) and leaner. By combining this compensating device with single jet,
we secure the compound nozzle giving us a constant mixture strength.
In addition to giving a correct proportion of petrol and air at all speeds, a carburettor
should also provide a suitable mixture for starting and slow running or idling. The provision
is also made in the Zenith carburettor by providing a separate starting je t which automatically
comes into action for slow running or for starting, when the throttle valve is only slightly
open. In that case, air velocity in the choke tube is not sufficient to operate the main
 Internal Combustion Engines 135
je t but in the contracted passage around the slightly open throttle valve, there is sufficient
air velocity to operate the starting je t through a by-pass near the edge o f throttle. As
the engine speed increases and throttle valve is opened a certain amount, the air velocity
at the mouth o f the by-pass is not sufficient to operate the starting je t and it automatically
goes out o f action. The a ir supply to the starting je t is controlled by a pointed screw,
so that any strength o f 'm ixture can be adjusted for starting.
Provision is also made in the Zenith carburettor for supplying 100% excess of petrol
for 3 or 4 cycles when the engine is accelerated and the throttle is suddenly opened.
When the engine is running with throttle full open, the well fed by the gravity is normally
dry but when idling or slow running, the well fills up to nearly the level in the float
chamber. So as soon as the throttle is opened, the sudden depression caused by the
inflow of air to the induction system, draws in the whole contents of the well in the
induction system and provides momentarily an over-rich mixture. Fig. 6-3 shows diagram-
matically the Zenith carburettor with a compensating jet, and idling and starting jet.
6.8 Handling o f Heavy Fuel O ils (Methods o f Fuel Injection)
The purpose of fuel injection device is to inject the exact quantity of fuel in the
engine cylinder at the proper moment of the working cycle and in a state most suitable
for combustion. The main requirements which the injection system must, therefore fulfil
are: (a) accurate metering of small quantity of fuel oil needed to develop the desired
power, (b) correctly timing the beginning and end of fuel injection period. Injection should
begin at the required moment so that the maximum power and fuel economy may result.
Early injection delays ignition because the temperature of the charge at the instant is not
high. Excessive delay in injection results in poor fuel economy, reduction of power, smoky
exhaust and noisy operation of the engine, (c) control of rate of fuel injection, (d)
atomisation of the fuel to facilitate proper combustion and (e) uniform distribution of fuel
in the combustion space.
The fuel injection equipment, therefore, consists of the following units :
(i) a governor to regulate the fuel oil supply according to load,
(ii) a fuel pump or injection pump to deliver fuel oil under pressure,
(iii) an injection nozzle (valve) or atomiser to inject fuel oil into the cylinder in a
finely atomised state, and
(iv) an air compressor in the case of air injection engines.
6.8.1 Fuel oil injection methods : Engines working on constant pressure (Diesel) or
dual-combustion (Semi-Diesel) cycle both of which require pure air for compression, must
have external source of forcing the oil into the cylinder. For these types of engines, there
are two distinct methods of fuel injection - air injection and airless injection. The latter
method is known under different names such as mechanical injection or solid injection.
6.8.2 A ir injection : In this method of fuel injection, the fuel is injected through the
nozzle (valve) by means of compressed air of a much higher pressure than that produced
in the engine cylinder at the end of compression stroke. A measured quantity of fuel oH
is pumped into an annular space provided in the bottom of injection valve and an air
pressure of about 60 bar is applied to it. When the injection valve is opened by the cam
and rocker lever arrangement, the fuel is driven into the combustion space at the high
velocity by the high pressure air. The high pressure air is supplied from storage air
bottles, which are kept charged (filled) by the air compressor driven by the engine itself.
Fig. 6-4 shows a mechanically operated air injection valve. The valve consists of a
plain spindle a with a conical seating and held against its seating by a very stiff spring
(not shown). Immediately surrounding the valve spindle is a light and long atomising tube
136 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
b which also rests on a coned seating d, but the seating is fluted or grooved in order
to permit the passage of fuel and air past it.
Above the seating are a number of perforated
discs e through which fuel and air are driven.
f Fuel The long atomising tube b is placed in the
passage
valve body g which fits into an opening in
the cylinder head h
The fuel oil from the fuel pump enters
the fuel passage while the air from the injection
bottle enters the air passage c. Thus,,air
and oil are forced into the same concentric
area just above the discs e. The fuel valve
is constantly exposed to the high pressure
injection air, whereas the fuel is deposited
above the discs just slightly before the needle
valve a opens. At the proper moment in the
engine cycle, the needle valve a is mechani-
cally lifted by means of rocker and cam
arrangement. The high pressure air then rushes
Fig. 6-4. Mechanically operated air injection valve. to w ard s th e Cylinder C arrying W ith it th e Oil.
The oil is forced through small openings (holes) in the discs e and broken in small
particles. The fuel-air mixture is injected into the combustion chamber space through a
central orifice in flame plate f. The flame plate has one central opening through which
oil and air pass at a very high velocity, by means of which the fuel is atomised and
distributed evenly in the combustion chamber.
6.8.3 Solid injection : Solid injection is also termed as airless or mechanical injection.
This method employs mechanically operated fuel pump which meteres out correctly the
quantity of fuel required for the working stroke,
Spring force and to inject it through a fuel injection nozzle
Fuel passage under high pressure with a view to atomise
it or break into very small particles and to
inject the fuel particles at a high velocity into
the mass of compressed air in the combustion
space. The fuel injection pressure varies from
100 to 125 bar and in some cases even more
than this. The desired pressure is produced
by the fuel pump of the plunger type, shown
in fig. 6-19.
Figs. 6-5 and 6-18 show section of a solid
injection Bosch fuel spray valve or atomiser.
The nozzle is usually built with one or more
holes through which the fuel sprays into the
cylinder at high velocity. The holes in the
nozzle body are carefully drilled to direct the
Pressure spray in the cylinder most advantageoulsy.
chamber
Immediately behind the hole or holes, is a
nozzle valve which is held on its seat by a
very stiff adjustable spring force. The pressure
at which the nozzle valve will lift, depends
'*ice upon the amount of compression placed upon
Fig. 6-5. Sectional view of a solid injection Bosch fuel
nozzel.
 Internal Combustion Engines 137
the spring which is adjustable by means of adjusting screw (fig 6-18). The nozzle valve
is usually set by a set-screw to open at 100 to 125 bar pressure. A feeler pin passes
through the centre of compression screw, which enables the functioning of the nozzle
valve to be felt while the engine is running-slight knock indicating that the nozzle is in
operation. Any slight leakage of fuel that may accumulate above the valve, can be taken
away to a drain tank by means of a pipe connected to leak-off nipple (fig 6-18).
The valve remains sealed (closed) until the motion of the fuel pump plunger on the
delivery stroke builds up a sufficient pressure in the injection line. When the high pressure
fuel oil in the pressure chamber (shown clearly in fig 6-5) overcomes the spring force,
the valve is lifted off its seat. As soon as the communication to the engine cylinder or
combustion chamber is reached, the pressure is suddenly released and the valve under
the action of spring comes back to its seat, pushing the oil in front of it through one or
more holes with a very high velocity.
The fuel pump (fig 6-19) has two main functions to perform - it must start the injection
at the proper crank angle, late in the compression stroke, and it must force the oil through
the nozzle and into the cylinder the exact quantity of fuel needed to develop the requisite
(required) power.
6.9 Comparison between Solid Injection and Air Injection
Following are the advantages Of solid injection :
(i) The quantity of fuel is metered out correctly.
(ii) The system possess simplicity and it is very suitable for high duty engines.
Following are the disadvantages o f solid injection :
(i) Penetration of fuel is not as perfect as with air injection.
(ii) Brake mean effective pressure obtained is not as high as that obtained with
air injection.
(iii) Fuel and pipe line some times give injection timings troubles on light loads.
This is due to the elasticity of the fuel and pipe lines.
Following are the advantages of air injection :
(i) More power is obtained with the same cylinder size. This is possible because
more fuel can be burned by the additional air available with injection air.
(ii) Combustion takes place at approximately constant pressure as a result of better
atomisation and penetration of the fuel.
(iii) It is possible to control effectively the rate of admission of the fuel by varying
the pressure of the injection air.
(iv) Extreme accuracy is not required in the manufacture of the fuel pump.
Following are the disadvantages of air injection:
(i) It is necessary to have a compressor for keeping the air bottles charged, and
large power is absorbed in driving it (compressor).
(ii) The weight of the machinery is increased and the system is expensive and
complicated.
The mechanical injection ( or solid injection ), which has become possible due to the
precise manufacture of fuel injection pump and nozzle, is now widely used and has driven
out the air injection system from the field.
6.10 Compression-ignition Combustion Chambers
For efficient combustion of a fuel it is necessary that each particle of atmoised fuel
138 ElementsofHeatEnginesVol.il
enijected into the cylinder head shall find the necessaiy amount of heated air to complete
its combustion. This object can be achieved by mixing thoroughly, by. some means, the
atomised fuel and air necessary for combustion. This mixing of the fuel particles with air
is known as turbulence. Turbulence increases the flame velocity and is roughly proportional
to gas velocity and therefore to the engine speed. It also accelerates chemical action by
intimate mixing of fuel and oxygen molecules. With proper turbulence, weak mixture can
be burnt more s a tis fa c to rily .^

Fuel nozzle -

Piston

(a ) Open combustion chamber with (b) Pre-combustion chamber-

direct spray*
Fig. 6 -6 . Combustion chambers.

A high relative velocity between the air and fuel is necessary to have rapid combustion
of the fuel. This object is fulfilled in some cases (i) by having combustion chamber so
designed as to give sufficient turbulence to the air to bring practically all its oxygen into
the vicinity of the fuel stream from the injection nozzle. The fuel is injected directly into
the combustion chamber, (ii) by having a separate combustion chamber, known as
pre-combustion chamber, into which the fuel is injected and, (iii) by having combustion
chambers with an air cell or energy cell.
The first method is known as open chamber or direct method (fig. 6-6a). The fuel is
sprayed directly in the combustion chamber at high pressure and velocity, so that it can
penetrate the mass of compressed air. The fuel distributes itself throughout the air in the
cylinder. The distribution and mixing of fuel with air is effected chiefly by the fuel injector
( nozzle ). In some cases the deflector is provided on the inlet valve to give swirl to
the air during the suction stroke. This gives higher velocity to air, and the swirling air
sets up a certain amount of turbulence. The rate of pressure rise is moderate and on
account of this engine runs smoothly. Direct injection makes possible the starting of the
engine from cold. Open chambers are suitable for moderate and low speed engines.
In the second method, the fuel is injected into an auxiliary or pre-combustion chamber
(fig. 6-6b ) and not directly into the main combustion chamber. The fuel burns in two
stages, partly in the pre-combustion chamber and partly in the main combustion space.
The rise in pressure in the pre-combustion chamber, forces at high velocity the products
of combustion and the remaining fuel into the main combustion chamber.
40

There is, however, a loss of heat in this type of combustion chamber and since
combustion virtually is taking place in two stages, the thermal efficiency obtained is not
the same as is given by the direct injection. It has the advantage that inferior fuels can
 Internal Combustion Engines 139
be burned at moderate injection pressures. However, starting from cold is more difficult
than the direct injection type.
6.11 Ignition Methods
The energy of the fuel of I.C. engine is locked up in fuel in the form of chemical
energy. Some means have to be employed whereby this energy can be released and

Sparkplug Rotor arm-

. rotates ot
N r \ 2

| Ignition switch Distributor

Earth -= -B a tU ry
Contact
breaker
cam

Fig. 6-7. Battery and coil ignition of four cylinder, four-stroke cycle petrol engine.
made available to run the engine. In addition to the fuel for the purpose of combustion,
two things are necessary - the oxygen supplied in air and some means for igniting the
fuel. All petrol and gas engines use electric spark ignition. Diesel engines, on the other
hand, use the heat of compression alone to ignite the fuel. Before the successful introduction
of spark ignition, petrol and gas engines used hot-tube ignition.
Electric spark ignition is used practically on all gas and petrol engines. The function
of an electrical ignition system is to produce high voltage spark and to deliver it to the
spark plugs at regular intervals and at the correct time with respect to the piston position.
A high tension voltage of about 15,000 volts is normally required to ignite the mixture or
air and fuel vapour in the cylinder. The high tension voltage supply is obtained from a
magneto system or a battery and coil ignition system.
The ignition is performed by the supply of a high voltage of 15,000 volts across the
electrodes of a spark plug placed in the combustion space of the cylinder. Air and gas
separate the two electrodes of the spark gap and offer large resistance to the flow of
electric current. When heavy voltage is applied to the two electrodes of the spark plug
which are separated by air, the air is subjected to electric strain. The strain increases
with the increasing voltage till a point is reached when the voltage is sufficient to break
down the resistance of the air. As soon as the resistance of the air breaks down, the
high voltage spark jumps across the gap between the two electrodes and ignites the
air-fuel mixture.
6.11.1 Battery and coil ignition : The ignition circuit for a four-cylinder petrol engine
working on the four-stroke cycle is shown in fig. 6-7. The primary circuit consists of a
12 volt battery, ignition switch, primary winding of the coil and contact breaker. The
secondary circuit consists of the secondary winding of the coil, distributor and four spark
plugs. The primary winding of the coil consists of a comparatively few turns of coarse
(thick) wire around the iron core. Around this is wrapped the secondary winding consisting
140 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
of a large number of turns of very fine wire. The contact breaker is worked by a contact
breaker cam fitted on a shaft driven by the engine.
To begin with, the ignition switch is put on and the engine is cranked. When the
contacts touch, the current flows from the battery through the switch, through the primary
winding of the induction coil, to the contact breaker points and return to the battery
through the ground (earth). A condenser is connected across the terminals of the breaker
points. This prevents excessive arcing at the breaker points and thereby prolongs the life
of contact breaker points. Immediately after this the moving contact breaker cam break
opens the contact. The breaking of the primary circuit causes a change of magnetic field
and thTs induces a very high voltage in the secondary winding coil. The ratio of number
of turns of secondary to primary has been so adjusted to give a voltage of about 15,000
volts across secondary terminals. This high tension voltage passes to the distributor and
thence to the individual spark plugs which are screwed in the cylinder head. The high
tension voltage is applied across the spark plug gap (approximately 1 mm). Due to high
voltage, the spark jumps across the spark plug gap causing ignition of fuel-air mixture.

In multi-cylinder engines there being more than one cylinder, a high tension voltage
has to be applied in turn to various spark plugs. For this purpose the distributor is used.
The high tension voltage is brought to a rotating terminal (known as rotor arm) which in
moving, contacts a definite order (i.e., 1-3-4-2) with various points in the distributor i.e.
(1-3-4-2) as shown in fig. 6-7.
Both the rotor arm and contact breaker get their motion through the same mechanism
driven by the engine. Every instant when the rotor arm is on one of the contacts, at
that time the contact breaker cam must break the contact and therefore, the motion of
the rotor arm has to be synchronized with that of the contact breakers. For this purpose
the contact breaker mechanism is housed in the body of the distributor. The contact
breaker cam must have as many projections as there are number of cylinders. The speed
of the rotor arm and the contact breaker cam must be half the speed of the engine in
case of four-stroke cycle engines.

From the distributor 4 wires are connected to 4 spark plugs. The induction coil is
grounded on the high tension circuit and plugs are grounded by mounting them in the
engine metal. As the spark or current is conducted from the high tension lead of the
coil to the centre of the distributor and then from any four points of the distributor to
the plug electrodes, the spark will jump over the air gap at the plug points and return
through the ground to the coil.
It takes some time after the occurance of the spark for the fuel-air mixture to ignite
and release heat, so that arrangements must be made for spark to occur before the top
dead corrtre. Such an operation is called advancing the spark. In variable speed engines,
the angle turned through by the crank ignition delay period varies with the engine speed,
and it is, therefore, necessary to have* a device to increase the angle of advance as
the speed increases. This is usually carried out automatically by a small centrifugal
governor which "alters the angular position of the cam operating the contact breaker.
In magneto ignition system, the magneto may consist of magnets rotating in fixed
coils or coils rotating in fixed magnets. In this system, no battery is required.
6.11.2 Com pression ignition : The original Diesel engines were heavy and of slow
speed. The modern high speed and light Diesel engines differ in design so materially
from the original Diesel engines that the term compression-ignition engine is employed to
distinguish the modern Diesel units from the old types.
 Internal Combustion Engines 141
The compression-ignition (C.l.) engine does not rely upon a spark from an external
source for ignition but utilises the high temperature produced at the end of the compression
stroke to produce ignition of the
fuel. The C.l. engine is fed with
Products of
combustion air alone during the suction
from burner stroke. Consequently absence of
fuel during compression, enables
“s N Water Jocket to obtain much higher compres-
sion ratio ranging from 12 to 20.
Porcelain The higher compression of the
ignition tube air results in higher temperature
Adjustable X Cylinder at the end of the compression,
burner tube which is sufficient to ignite the
vEx plosive fuel. The fuel is injected in the
Products of :.**jr»ixtur*
combustion from form of a fine spray into the hot
previous explosion air which is compressed to a
pressure much more higher than
Gas supply that in petrol or gas engine.
The C.l. engines are cold
starting engines but much trouble
is experienced in starting them
Fig. 6-8. Hot tube ignition.
in cold weather. To overcome
this, some engines are provided with hot tube in the cylinder head, which can be heated
to warm the combustion chamber of the cylinder, while some engines are fitted with
electric heated plugs for starting purposes. The heating is not necessary once the engine
starts and obtainsgeneralrunning temperature conditions.
6.11.3 Hottube ig n itio n : In this form of ignition, a porcelain tube is provided in
the combustion chamber of the
engine cylinder as shown in fig.
6-8. Before staring the engine.the
tube is heated to a red hot by
uot by. D a burner or blow lamp. The re-
quired temperature for the igni-
tion of the charge is attained
partly by the heat of the hot
Spray tube. Once the engine is started,
nozzle tub© Wj|| be kept hot by the
combustion of the fuel in the
cylinder. The burner or blow
lamp, therefore, is not required
after starting the engine. The
electric spark ignition was used
F*g6 -9 • Hot bult> ignition. on earliest gas engines which
was then replaced by the hot tube.The hot tube ignition is used in gas and light oil
engines.
6.11.4 Hot bulb ignition : In this system a chamber of bulb shape is attached to
the cylinder head as shown in fig. 6-9. This chamber is unjacketed and is heated by a
blow lamp before staring the engine. The fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber
at the end of the compression stroke and ignition takes place partly due to heat of the
compressed charge of air and partly due to heat of the hot bulb.
142 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. It
The blow lamp is removed after the engine takes up its speed. The ignition then
goes on due to the combined effect of compression heat and the heat retained by the
combustion chamber from the previous cycle. This method of ignition is used in semi-Diesel
engines, where heavy oils can be successful dealt with. The system is also known as
surface ignition or hot combustion chamber ignition.
6.11.5 Ignition lag o r Delay period : It is the time taken to heat the fuel particles,
turn them into vapour, and start combustion after the ignition is begun or initiated. This
means there is a time lag between the first ignition of the fuel and the beginning of the
actual combustion process which also means that there is a tim e interval in the process
of chemical reaction which prepares the molecules of the fuel to ignite.
This time interval is found to occur with all fuels. The length of the delay period
depends upon various factors, such as pressure, temperature, rate of fuel injection and
the nature of the fuel. The delay period may spread over about 10 degrees movement
of the crank in case of compression-ignition engines.
6.12 Methods o f C ooling I.C. Engine C ylinders
Very high temperature is developed in the cylinder of an I.C. engine as a result of the combustion
taking place inside the cylinder. It is, therefore, necessary to carry away some of the heat from
the cylinder to avoid injury to the metal of the cylinder and piston. If the cylinder is not cooled,
the seizure (jamming) of piston in the cylinder would occur as a result the piston and its rings
becoming too hot; also it would not be possible to lubricate the piston since the heat would burn
any lubricant that may be used. The walls of the cylinder must be cooled so that the charge
may be compressed without danger of pre-ignition and the temperature must be maintained
within fairly close limits to achieve the desired compression ratio and therefore, maximum power.
Too much cooling, on the other hand will reduce the thermal efficiency of the engine and cause
waste of fuel due to improper vaporization of the fuel. Heat equivalent of about 80 per cent of
the brake power developed has to be extracted away through the cylinder walls. The object of
cooling is achieved by the use of any of the methods, namely direct or air cooling, and indirect
or water cooling.
6.12.1 A ir cooling : This is the simplest method in which the heat is taken away
by the air flowing over and around the cylinder. In this method, cooling fins are cast on
the cylinder head and cylinder barrel with the object of providing additional conductive
and radiating surface as illustrated in fig 6-10. The cooling fins or circumferential flanges
are arranged so that they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The current of
air for cooling the fins may be obtained
either from a fan driven by the engine or
by movement of the engine itself, as in the
Admission case of motor cycle engines, automobile
engines, or aero-plane engines.
6.12.2 Water cooling : In this method,
the advantage of superior conductive and
convective properties of water is taken. The
cylinder is provided with an annular space
called water jacket ( fig. 6-11) through which
water is circulated continuously. The water
jacket should cover the entire length of the
piston stroke to avoid unequal expansion in
Cooling fins the cylinder bore and burning of lubrication
oil. The water space should be wide in large
cylinders, and cleaning doors should be
Fig. 6-10. Section of an air-cooled cylinder
 Fig. 6-11. Section of a water cooled cylinder. Fig. 6-12.. Gravity or thermo-siphon system of circulation
provided for cleaning water jacket. The life of the cylinder can be increased if the cleaning
is done at the intervals of four to eight weeks.
There are two methods of obtaining the circulation of water in use, namely gravity
circulation and forced circulation. Gravity circulation, also called thermo-siphon circulation,
is based on the fact that when water is heated its density decreases and it tends to
rise, the colder particles sinking in the place of rising ones. Circulation is obtained if the
water is heated at one point and cooled at another.
Fig. 6-12 shows the gravity circulation system for a small horizontal engine. Water is
heated in cylinder jacket j and flows to the tank t where it is cooled by radiation, gradually
descending to the bottom, and flows back to the engine.
Fig. 6-13 shows the gravity circulation (thermo-siphon circulation) as applied to an
automobile engine. To obtain
proper water circulation, the con-
nection between the engine
cylinder jacket and the radiator
should have very small resis-
tance to the water flow and be
wide, short and have as few
bends as possible. When the
temperature difference is small,
the circulation of water is slow,
as at light loads. At heavy loads,
water in jackets may boil. This
system is used only in small
engines where simplicity is of
great importance.
The circulation of water in
the thermo-siphon system is
slow. It, is, therefore, necessary
Fig. 6-13. Gravity or thermo-siphon circulation system of automobile engine.tO USe a pump to maintain cir-
culation. of cooling water in large and medium size engines. The pufnp should be of the
centrifugal type, as it allows the free passing of water through it, if it stops working for
any reason.
144 Elements of Heal Engines Vol. II
The advantage of forced circulation is the ease of controlling the jacket temperature
by regulating the opening of the valve between pump and the engine. Fig. 6-14 shows
a pump circulation system in an automobile engine with a centrifugal pump and automatic
temperature control by a by-pass with valve operated by a thermostat element.
Water cooling is more effective that air cooling, for the heat conducted away from a
surface surrounded by water is about one hundred times more than that conducted away
from a similar surface surrounded by air. But the rate of heat flow depends entirely on
the motion of air and water. The temperature of water leaving the jacket should be about
65°C for best economy. Too low a temperature leads to loss of efficiency and too high
a temperature interferes with the lubrication of the cylinder.

In large Diesel and gas engines, it is usual to cool thepistons andexhaust valves
with water to prevent pre-ignition. For this purpose special pipes are provided to circulate
the water through the hollow pistons and exhaust valves.
6.13 Merits and demerits of the Cooling Systems
The advantages o f air cooling system are :
(i) Simplicity and lightness of the system,
(ii) Radiator is not required,
(iii) No danger from freezing of water in cold climate,
(iv) Reduction in warming up period,
(v) Unit cylinder construction is used in case of multi-cylinder air-cooled engines
(i.e., separate cylinder block is used for each cylinder). Hence, in multi-cylinder
air-cooled engine, only damaged cylinder can be replaced while in multi-cylinder
water cooled engine, whole cylinder block has to be replaced,
(vi) Less influenced by damage. A small hole in radiator or tubing means break
down of working of water-cooled engine while the loss of several fins of air-cooled
engine, practically can continue its operation. This is very important when used
for military purpose, and
(vii) Easy maintenance.
 Internal Combustion Engines 145
The disadvantages o f air cooling system are :
(i) Air cooling being not so effective as water cooling, the resulting higher working
temperature of the cylinder limits the compression ratio to a lower value than
with water cooling.
(ii) The fan, if used for air circulation, absorbs about 5 per cent of the engine
power.
(iii) The different portions of the cylinder are not unitormally cooled; the front portion
being cooled more than the rear (back) portion. This results in some degree
of distortion (twisting out) of shape.
(iv) The lubricating oil of air-cooled engine runs hotter and so an oil cooler may
be required.
(v) The air-cooled engine is more prone (inclined) to distortion and so running
clearances have to be increased which gives rise to noisier running. In addition,
the fins are liable to resonate (give noise) while water cooling (requiring a
jacket) helps to damp out the noise. Thus, the air-cooled engine is nosier than
the water cooled engine.
The advantages o f water cooling system are :
(i) Cooling is more efficient and thus higher compression ratio is permitted.
(ii) Uniform cooling is attained.
The disadvantages o f water cooling system are :
(i) With thermo-siphon system, large quantity of cooling water is required owning
to slow rate of circulation.
(ii) Necessary radiator installation and its maintenance is required.
(iii) Water freezing causes trouble in very cold weather.
(iv) Water circulating pump consumes power.
6.14 M ethods of Governing I.C. Engines
The purpose of governor is to keep the engine running at a desired speed regardless
of the changes in the load carried by the engine. If the load on the engine decreases,
the speed of the engine will begin to increase, if the fuel supply is not decreased. As
the speed of the engine increases, the centrifugal force on the rotating weights of the
governor also increases and moves the control sleeve, together with the fuel regulating
mechanism, in the direction of less fuel supply thereby the speed is brought to the rated
value. If on the other hand, the load on the engine increases, the engine will begin to
slow down because the fuel supply is not sufficient for the increased load. As the speed
of the engine decreases, the centrifugal force on the rotating weights on the governor
will also decrease and will move the control sleeve, together with the fuel regulating
mechanism, in the direction of more fuel supply.
The methods of governing I.C. engines are :
(i) Completely cutting-off the fuel ^supply for one or more cycles - This is called
hit and miss method.
(ii) Varying the supply of fuel to the cylinder per cycle - This is called quality
method because the ratio of fuel to air or quality of mixture is altered.
(iii) Varying the supply of air as well as the supply of fuel, the ratio of air to fuel
is kept approximately constant so that quality of mixture remains approximately
constant but quantity of fuel-air mixture supplied to the cylinder in each cycle
is varied - This is called quantity method.
146 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
(iv) Combination of the quality and quantity methods - This is called combination
method.
6.14.1 H it and m iss m ethod o f governing : The system as the name implies consists
in omitting an explosion occasionally when the speed rises above the mean speed. The
lesser the load on the engine, the greater is the number of explosions omitted. The usual
method of missing an explosion is to omit the opening of the gas valve in the case of
gas engines, and putting the plunger of the fuel oil pump out of action in case of oil
engines, so that no fuel is admitted and the engine performs an idle stroke.
With hit and miss method of governing, there is a working stroke for every cycle
under condition of maximum load. At lighter loads, when the speed increases, the governor
mechanism acts to prevent admission of the charge of fuel occasionally and there is no
explosion, causing the engine to miss. This loss of power decreases the speed of the
engine; the governor mechanism opens the inlet valve, an explosion or hit occurs and
the engine receives the power stroke. With this method of governing, the engine operates
either under condition of maximum efficiency or does not fire at all. Hit and miss governing
gives better economy at light loads than other methods. The great disadvantage of this
method is the absence of turning effort on the crankshaft during the idle cycle, necessitating
a very heavy flywheel to avoid considerable variation of speed. This method may be
used for engines which do not require close speed regulation and with small size engines
of less than 40 brake power.
Fig. 6-15 shows the principle of hit and miss governing as applied to gas engines.
The cam C on the cam shaft lifts the end A of the lever ABD once in two revolutions,
and the knife edge J opens the gas valve unless the speed is above normal.
When the speed exceeds the normal, the governor weights fly further outwards and
lift the end F of the lever FGH which moves the knife edge J to the right thus causing
it to miss the opening of the gas valve. As applied to oil engines the mechanism is
same, but it is the plunger of the fuel pump, instead of gas valve, which is put out of
action.
Cylinder body

Fig. 6-15. Hit and miss governing as applied to gas engines. Fig. 6-16. Hit and miss as applied
to oil engines.
Fig. 6-16 shows the principle of hit and miss governing as applied to oil engines.
 Internal Combustion Engines 147
The cam on the cam shaft operates the end A of the lever ABE once in two revolutions
and the pecker piece P strikes the distance piece D hung against the outer end of the
fuel pump plunger. When the speed of the governor exceeds a certain limit, due to
reduction in load, the governor raises the distance piece D so that the pecker piece P
misses it. In this way the fuel pump is put out of action until the speed is reduced
sufficiently and D drops back in position.
6.14.2 Quality method of governing : As applied to gas engines, the quality governing
is effected by reducing the quantity of gas supply to the engine. This is done by varying
the lift of the gas valve. Another simple method is to have a throttle valve operated by
the governor in the gas passage leading to the admission valve of the gas engine.
As applied to oil engines, the quality governing is effected by varying the amount of
fuel oil entering the engine cylinder per cycle. This is done by :
(i) Altering the stroke of the fuel pump plunger under the action of the governor and
so varying the oil supply to suit the load on the engine.
(ii) Having a control valve on the delivery side of
the fuel pump which opens under the control of the
governor after a part of delivery stroke has been
performed. Here, oil is delivered during the first part
of the delivery stroke and returned to the suction side
during the remainder part of the delivery stroke.
(iii) Keeping the suction valve of the fuel pump
held open by levers under the control of the governor,
during the first part of the delivery stroke. Hence the
oil is returned to the fuel pump during the first part
of the delivery stroke and delivered to the injection
nozzle during the remainder part of the delivery stroke.
At light loads this suction valve may be kept open for
almost the whole delivery stroke. This is the general
practice in Diesel engines. This method is generally
known as spill method, since the oil is “spilled” (fall)
back to the fuel pump from oil sump (tank). The general
principle of the simple spill valve will be understood
by reference to fig. 6-17.
Oil pipe -•tU
from supply A is a rotating shaft which drives the pump plunger
tanl< P. EG represents a lever which may oscillate about
tt1 i’k . ... . either E or G. F is a rpoint between
Fig. 6-17. Quality governing by spill method . .. (
E and G,’ to which
as applied to oil engines. is connected a light spindle with lever L. The end of
the lever L is under the stem of the suction valve S.
The shaft H is under the control of the governor. It will be evident that as F moves up
under the control of governor, the suction valve will seat (close) late, with the result that
less of the fuel pump stroke will be effective and a less amount of oil will reach the
spray nozzle. The fuel pump plunger stroke is generally much longer than is necessary
to deliver the full amount of oil needed at full engine load.
(iv) By altering the angular position of the helical groove of the fuel pump plunger
relative to the suction port and thereby varying the effective stroke (part of the stroke
for which oil is delivered) of the plunger. This is a general practice in modem solid
injection, compression-ignition, high speed engines.
The principle ofgoverning will be understood with reference to fig. 6-19(a). Fuel oil
flows to thefuel pump undergravity when the fuel pump plunger P uncovers the suction
148 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
ports B and C on the downward stroke. The space above the plunger is filled with oil
at the beginning of the upward stroke. During the first part of the upward or delivery
stroke, a small quantity of oil is forced back into the suction space, until the plunger
closes both the suction port holes B and C. From then on, the fuel is put under pressure
and pump plunger begins to force it through the delivery valve and fuel line into the
atomiser (Fig. 6-18a).
Feeling pin
Protecting cap
Adjusting
screw
Spring cap nut
Spring

Spindle

B.D.C. End of injection. b .D.C. End of inject ion. Stop

Storting position Normol lood position
( b) Quality governing by varying the effective stroke
of the plunger as applied to oil engines.
Fig. 6-18.
Delivery begins as soon as the plunger has covered the port holes on the way up and
ends as the sloping edge E of the helical groove D opens the port hole C (Fig.6-19a)
on the right hand side and permits the fuel to escape from the pressure space above
the plunger and the port hole C, to the suction space. The pressure is then relieved and
the delivery stops. The plunger P is rotated by the rack shown in fig. 6-19(b). The toothed
rack is moved in or out by the governor. Thus by rotating the plunger, i.e., by altering
 Internal Combustion Engines 149
the angular position of the helical groove D of the fuel pump plunger, relative to the
suction port C, the length of the effective stroke for which oil is delivered is varied and
hence the amount of fuel delivered to the engines is also varied.

In the two views (starting position) at the left [ fig. 6-18(b) ], the plunger is shown
in the position for maximum delivery, in which the edge of the helical groove does not

: ■— Plunger cylinder

(a) Bosch fuel pump plunger.

(b) Bosch fuel pump assembly-
Fig. 6-19.
open the port hole on the right hand side at all. The next two views show the position
of the plunger for medium delivery of fuel (normal load position), and the one at right
(stop position) shows the position when no fuel is delivered.
In quality governing there being no restriction to the amount of air admitted, the same
mass of charge is taken into the cylinder; hence pressure reached at the end of the
compression is the same. Theoretically the thermal efficiency is, however, unchanged
being dependent on the compression ratio. At light loads, the efficiency generally drops
because of the difficulty of getting ignition and rapid combustion with weak mixture. Its
chief, advantage is a mechanical one, where high speeds are used; as at high speed
the intprlaj Of the reciprocating parts becomes considerable, and unless met by a constant
compression pressure, the engine does not run smoothly.
Quality governing is chiefly used where the engine is to be worked at or near the
full load.
150 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
6.14.3Q uantity m ethod o f governing : Quantity governing may be accomplished by
varying the amount of mixture enteringthe cylinder, while the proportion of fuel to air
and number of working cycles are constant.
It is applied to petrol engines by
/T h r o t t le vaive
having a throttle valve in the pipe leading
Z Z Z Z Z 2 ZZ
from the carburettor to the engine
cylinder ( fig. 6-20 ). The automobile
To engine Mixture from engine is hand governed by a quantity
cylinSer —*car Dureitor (throttle) control of the charge entering
the cylinders, the proportion of petrol to
air remaining the same for a given
EZZZZZZSZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ carburettor adjustment.
It is applied to gas engine in various
ways. The gas and air supplied may
Fig. 6-20. Quantity governing throttle control as applied to each be throttled by Separate valves in
petrol engines. the gas and air passages leading to
the admission valve or after passing through the mixing valve, the air and gas together
may be throttled by a single valve just before reaching the admission valve. Another
method is to regulate the lift of the admission valve. This method of governing is illustrated
in fig.6-21. The cam on the cam-shaft moves one end of the valve through a fixed

Governor lever

Spring - - Movable fulcrum

Mixture valve Camshaft

Fig. 6-21. Quantity governing as applied to gas engines by varying the lift of the admission valve.
 Internal Combustion Engines 151
distance, but the distance moved by the other end of the valve lever, which opens the
admission and gas valve, depends upon the position of the movable fulcrum. The fulcrum
is not fixed but is moved by the governor through governor levers to a position suitable
for the load on the engine. Thus, the lift (opening) of the admission valve, suitable for
the load, is regulated by changing the position of the movable fulcrum.
th e efficiency of internal combustion engine chiefly depends upon having a high
compression pressure. The mixture drawn into the cylinder in this system of governing
(quantity governing) is less than the full charge and the pressure at the end of compression
is reduced and the efficiency is, therefore, slightly less. An advantage of this system is
that the mixture being of constant composition, there is little trouble in igniting the mixture
even with no load. The combustion of the mixture is less rapid at low compression and,
therefore, the ignition should be a little earlier at light loads. In some engines, the governor
advances the spark as well reduces the quantity of mixture at light loads. Advancing the
spark means the ignition takes place when the crank is on the top dead centre. If the
spark is advanced too far, complete ignition may take place before the crank reaches
the top dead centre and cause a back explosion.
6.14.4 Com bination method o f governing : The governing of an engine may be
obtained by combining two or more of the above methods. For instance, quality or quantity
governing at high loads has been successfully combined with hit and miss governing at
low loads. Also quality governing at high loads is used with quantity governing at low
loads. The latter system is economical and gives close governing.
6.15 Highest Useful Com pression Ratio
Compression ratio is the ratio of the volume of the cylinder at the beginning of the
compression stroke to the volume at the end of the compression stroke, or
Compression ratio r - V°*ume swePt by the piston + Clearance volume
\ Clearance volume
From thermodynamic considerations, it has been found that the ideal thermal efficiency
(air-standard efficiency) of an engine running on any cycle improves as the compression
ratio is increased. Fig. 6-22 is a graph showing variation of air-standard efficiency of an
engine working on the Otto cycle with compression ratio. It is also found that the mean
effective pressure on the engine piston increases with the increase in compression ratio.
A higher compression ratio also causes an acceleration in the rate of combustion. The
higher compression ratio can be Obtained
by reducing the clearance space, that is,
the combustion space. The smaller the
volume of the combustion space the less
amount of exhaust gases it will retain, which
will result in less dilution of the fresh mixture.
This means more un'form burning of the
charge, and more power produced. Higher
compression ratio produces higher tempera-
ture and pressure, which increases the rate
of combustion. Hence, higher speed is pos-
sible and weaker mixtures can also be
burnt.
6.15.1 Lim iting com pression ratio :
Com pression ratio From the above considerations it would
Fig. 6-22. Graph showing variation of air-standard efficiency appear that a higher Compression ratio is
with compression ratio for Otto cycle engines. available. However, a limit has to be set
152 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

to the higher compression ratio for engines in whose cylinder, mixture of air and fuel gas
or fuel vapour is compressed together. If the compression pressure is too high, in such
a case the resulting temperature during compression stroke is also high enough to ignite
the charge before the end of the compression stroke.
In a petrol engine, mixture of petrol vapour and air is compressed. Higher compres-
sion ratio in a petrol engine will therefore, cause pre-ignition of the charge resulting irr the
loss of power and possible mechanical damage to the engine. Such a consequence has
to be avoided by limiting the compression ratio according to the nature of fuel used. The
safe compression ratio can be higher with the lower percentage of hydrogen in the fuel.
The safe compression ratio for Otto cycle engine can be somewhat raised, by
spraying a small quantity of water directly into the cylinder during the suction stroke or
into the vapouriser resulting in lower compression temperature.
As far as pre-ignition is concerned, there can be no limit to the compression ratio in
Diesel engines, where air alone is compressed. But even with this kind of engine, too
high value of compression ratio will require very small clearance space. Thus, the value
of limiting compression ratio in Diesel engines will depend upon minimum mechanical
clearance necessary between piston and cylinder head for safety consideration.
6.15.2 P re-ignition : In an engine running on Otto cycle, the combustion during the
normal working is initiated by an electric spark. The spark is timed to occur at a definite
point just before the end of the compression stroke. The ignition of the charge should not
occur before this spark is introduced in the cylinder. If the ignition starts, due to any
other reason, when the piston is still doing its compression stroke, it is known as pre-
ignition. Pre-ignition will develop excessive pressure before the end of compression
stroke, tending to push the piston in the direction opposite to which it is moving. This will
result in loss of power and violent thumping and may stop the engine or do mechanical
damage to the engine. The pre-ignition may occur on account of higher compression
ratio, over-heated sparking plug points, or incandescent (glowing with heat) carbon
deposited on the surface to the cylinder or spark plugs. It may also be due to faulty
timing of the spark production.
6.15.3 Detonation : Detonation, pinking or knocking is the name given to violent
waves produced within the cylinder of a.spark ignition engine. The noise produced is like
that produced by a sharp ringing blow upon the metal of the cylinder.
The region in which the detonation occurs is far away from the spark plug, and is
known as the detonation zone. After the spark is produced, there is a rise of temperature
and pressure due to the combustion of the ignited fuel. This rise of temperature and
pressure both combine to increase the velocity of flame, compressing the unburnt portion
of the charge of the detonation zone. Finally, the temperature in the detonation zone
reaches such a high value that chemical reaction occurs at a far greater rate than the
advancing flame. Before the flame completes its course across the combustion chamber,
the whole mass of remaining unburnt charge ignites instantaneously without external
assistance (auto-ignition). This spontaneous ignition of a portion of the charge, sets
rapidly moving high pressure waves that hit cylinder walls with such violence that the
cylinder wall gives out a loud pulsating noise, called knocking or pinking. It is this noise,
that expresses or indicates detonation.
If the detonation wave is violent, it may even break the piston. Its other effect is to
overheat the spark plug points so as to prepare way for pre-ignition. Detonation'arid pre-
ignition are two distinct phenomena. Pre-ignition occurs before the spark takes place
while detonation occurs just after the spark.
6.15.4 Volum etric efficiency : The power developed by an I.C. engine depends on
 Internal Combustion Engines 153
the mass of mixture of fuel and air or air only which is present in the cylinder at the
end of suction stroke. The mass of mixture of air present depends upon the breathing
efficiency of the engine. The breathing (inhaling) efficiency is measured by the volumetric
efficiency of the engine.
The volumetric efficiency of an I.C. engine is the ratio of the charge taken in (inhaled)
during the suction stroke at normal temperature and pressure to the volume swept by
the piston, or
w . _»• • Volume of fresh charge aspirated per stroke at N.T.P.
Volumetric efficiency = ----------------- — ------ a— J '. — r .---------------------
Volume swept by the piston
In case of petrol and oil engines, the charge aspirated or taken in per stroke should
be replaced by air aspirated per stroke.
In case of gas engines, the charge aspirated per stroke should be replaced by mixture
of gas and air aspirated per stroke.
This ratio enables comparison of the respiratory performance of an actual engine with
the ideal engine. An ideal engine is assumed to aspirate and fill completely the swept
volume with the charge at normal temperature and pressure. The difference between the
actual charge drawn into the cylinder per stroke and the swept volume is due to the
reasons stated below :
(i) The suction pressure is less than the atmospheric pressure because of the
resistance of the inlet valves and passages. Therefore, the mass of charge
drawn in is less than that if atmospheric pressure were maintained.
(ii) The internal passages and surfaces of the engine being hot, the charge is
heated as it enters the cylinder. The increase in temperature of the charge,
reduces mass of charge that enters the cylinder.
(iii) Any gases left in the clearance space of the engine cylinder at the end of the
exhaust stroke, are at a pressure above atmospheric and they will expand
during the suction stroke to the intake pressure before the new charge begins
to enter. The volume of fresh charge taken in during the suction stroke is,
therefore, reduced.
(iv) The mass of the charge drawn in at high altitudes is decreased below that
which would be drawn in at sea level, as the pressure of the atmosphere
decreases with altitude and consequently the density of the atmospheric air
decreases.
The volumetric efficiency on an I.C. engine also decreases with the increase in engine
speed. The faster the engine runs, the greater will be throttling of the incoming charge
through valves and passages, and lower will be the volumetric efficiency.
The volumetric efficiency of I.C. engine under normal conditions should be of the
order of 70 to 80 per cent.
6.15.5 Supercharging : In an ordinary engine, air-fuel mixture or air only is admitted
to the cylinder at atmospheric pressure and is known as a naturally aspirated or normally
aspirated engine. Supercharging is the forcing of the mixture of fuel and air or air only
to the cylinder during the suction stroke under pressure with the air pump or compressor,
called supercharger, in order to increase the mass or density of the mixture or air admitted
to the cylinder. When supercharging is used, the engine is known as supercharged engine.
In a petrol engine, the supercharger is generally so fitted that it draws air from
atmosphere through the carburettor, compresses the resulting mixture (petrol and air), and
then delivers it to the cylinder through the induction system (inlet pipe).
154 ElementsofHeat Engines Vol. II
Both the spark ignition (S.l.) and compression ignition (C.l.) engines may be supercharged.
The amount of supercharging that can be used with S.l. engine is limited by the detonation
of the fuel. In the C.l. engine, on the other hand, supercharging is provided to prevent
knocking and is limited by the thermal and mechanical stresses and size and power of
the supercharger.
The object of supercharging is to increase the power output of an engine, it is,
therefore called boosting. Supercharging is employed in the following cases for :
(i) maintaining the power output of an engine working at high altitudes, such as
in aero-engines. At high altitude less oxygen is available for combustion of fuel.
(ii) reducing the bulk of the engine to fit into a limited space, such as in marine
engines (ships).
(iii) reducing the mass of the engine per indicated power developed, such as in
aero-engines (aeroplanes).
(iv) increasing the existing power of an engir.e when the necessity of increasing its
power arises.
(v) counteracting the drop in volumetric efficiency which may be due to high altitude,
as in the case of aero-engines, or due to high speed as in the case of racing
car engines.
(vi) having better air turbulence (bringing air and fuel in contact quickly), and hence
more complete combustion, which results in greater power, reduced specific fuel
consumption, and smooth running of the engine.
Superchargers : The increased air pressure (supercharging) is obtained by using a
compressor which is known as a supercharger.
The compressor may be a reciprocating compressor, a positive displacement rotary
compressor (roots blower, vane type blower, etc.) or a non-positive displacement rotary
compressor (centrifugal compressor). In practice, generally reciprocating compressor is not
preferred, but roots blower, vane type blower or centrifugal compressor is preferred. The
supercharger may be driven by the engine through a gear train, belt or chain driven, or
direct coupling to the shaft of the engine. This absorbs power from the engine. In such
a case, the engine is known as mechanically supercharged engine. The supercharger
(centrifugal compressor) may also be driven by an exhaust gas turbine. The set of
supercharger (compressor and exhaust gas turbine) is known as turbocharger and the
engine is known as turbocharged engine. Advantage of turbocharged engine is that
supercharger does not absorb power from the engine itself but some energy of exhaust
gases (which is, otherwise, going to be wasted) is converted into mechanical energy in
the exhaust gas turbine and is used to drive the supercharger (compressor).
6.16 Thermal Efficiency of I.C. Engines
No engine can convert all the heat energy supplied by fuel to it into work. The
fraction which is converted, is thermal efficiency of the engine. The basis upon which the
efficiency is calculated may be indicated power or brake power.
Indicated thermal efficiency : This efficiency is designated by ^ i and is defined as
the ratio,
Heat equivalent of power produced in the cylinders (indicated power) per unit time
T1/ = ’ Heat supplied to the engine in unit time
The unit of heat and unit of time must be same for the heat equivalent ofpower
produced and heat supplied to the engine. This is very important.
 Internal Combustion Engines 155
Indicated power x 3 ,600 ..(6.1)
" mt x C.V.
where, mt = mass of fuel oil supplied in kg per hour,
= fuel consumption in litres per hour x specific gravity of fuel, and
C.V. = calorific value of fuel oil in kJ/kg.
In case of gas engine,
. . . . . . . . „. . Indicated power x 3,600 ...(6.2)
Indicated thermal efficiency, m = ---------r r ^ — t t t .— —
Vg X C.V.
where, Vg = volume of gas supplied in m3 per hour, and
C.V. = calorific value of gas in kJ/m3,
. Brake thermal efficiency : This efficiency is designated by r\b and isdefined as the
ratio,
Heat equivalent of brake power per unit time
* Heat supplied to the engine in unit time
Brake power x 3,600 ...(6.3)
mf x C.V.
where, mt = mass of fuel oil supplied in kg per hour, and
C.V. = calorific value of fuel oil in kJ/kg.
Brake thermal efficiency is also termed as overall efficiency.
Relative efficiency : This efficiency is designated by % and is defined as the ratio,
r ] i __________ Indicated thermal efficiency________ ...(6.4)
Tjideai " Air-standard efficiency or ideal thermal efficiency
and shows how close the actual engine comes to the theoretically possible performance.
Relative efficiency (tv) of an engine operation on the constant volume cycle
Indicated thermal efficiency
i — l - -
m *-1 .
Relative efficiency on the basis o f brake thermal efficiency (iv) is defined as the ratio,
rib _ j _________ Brake thermal efficiency__________ . ...(6.5)
rjideal * Air-standard efficiency or ideal thermal efficiency
Problem - 1 : A four-stroke cycle, four-cylinder, petrol engine has 6-25 cm cylinder
diameter and 9-5 cm stroke.
On test it develops a torque o f 640 N.m when running at 50 r. p. s.. If the clearance
volume in each cylinder is 63 5 cm3, the brake thermal efficiency ratio based on the
air-standard cycle is 0-5 and calorific value o f petrol is 44,800 kJ/kg,determine thepetrol
consumption in litres per hour and the brake mean effective pressure. Take y = 14 for
air aqd specific gravity of petrol as 0-73.
Clearance volume, Vc = 63-5 cm3 (given);

Stroke volume Vs = " i (? x I = (6-25)2 x 9-5 * 292 cm3

Compression ratio, r = Vs * Vc = 292 * 63 5 - 5-58

Vc 63*5
Using eqn. (5.8),
156 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

Air-standard efficiency - 1 - — — - = 1 -----—— = 1 - —J— = 0-497 or 49-7%

(r)Y ' 1 (5-58) 1"
Using eqn. ( 6.5),

Relative efficiency on the basisj _ Brake thermal efficiency

of brake thermal efficiency = Air-standard efficiency
. 5 qBrake thermal efficiency
' = 0-497
Brake thermal efficiency, rj/, = 0-5 x 0-497 = 0-2485 or 24-85%
Now, brake power (engine) = T x 2k x A/= 640 x 2n x 50 - 20,106watts
- 20-106 kW
Brake thermal efficiency, - Heat equivalentot brake power in k j /sec.
^ X C.V. in kJ/Kg.
3,600
20-106 x 3,600
i.e. 0-2485 =
rrif x 44,800

mf “ (>248? x 44GW 0 " 6‘ 508 kg/hr (Petr0' consumPtion in kg/hr.)

6*508
Petrol consumption in litres per hour = - - - = 8-915 litres/hour
U* ( o

» I power* per cylinder

Brake .• ^ 20-106
= — .
—— - b.m.e.p. x a x ./ x n

(where b.m.e.p. = brake mean effective pressure inkPa, andbrake power per cylinde
in kW.
20-106 L n(6-25\2 9-5 50
' —4~ * b m e p- * 4 (l0 0 J X 100 X T
b.m.e.p. = ------------ 20-106 x4_x_2 = 68gg kRa
4 x j i x (0-0625) x 0-095 x 50
Problem — 2 : A gas; engine, working on the four-stroke cycle, uses 15 m o f gas
per hour at a temperature of 28 °C and at a pressure o f 100 mm of water above the
atmospheric pressure of 720 mm Hg. The gas has calorific value of 19,000 kJ/rr? measured
at 760 mm Hg and temperature of 0°C (N.T.P). The indicated power is 176 kW and the
compression ratio is 6 5 to I.Find :
(i) the indicated thermal efficiency, (ii) the ideal thermal efficiency ( y = 1-4J, and
(iii) the relative efficiency of the engine
0) p 7 = 720 + = 727-35 mm Hg; V1 = 15 m3 per hour;
7i * 28 + 273 = 301 K;
p2 = 760 mm Hg; T2 = 0 + 273 = 273 K;
Gas consumption (V2) per hour at N.T.P. (at 760 mm Hg and 0°C) is to be determined.
Pi Pz V2
Now, _ - = -^=—
11 i2
 Internal Combustion Engines 157
Pi T2 Hr. 727-35 273
V2 . V, * - x - jr - 15 X x ^ - 13-02 m /hr.

Heat supplied per hour = 13-02 x 19,000 = 2,47,380 kJ/hr,

Work done per hour = 17-6 x 3,600 = 63,360 kJ/hr.
, x a xl_ , „ . Work done per hour'in kJ
Indicated thermal efficiency = Heat suppliedper hour in kJ

63,360 = 0-2561 or 25-61%

2,47,380
(ii) Using eqn. (5.8), Ideal thermal efficiency (air-standard efficiency)

m 1 - — 5—r - 1 ------- 1777 - 1 - 0-473 - 0-527 or 52-7%

a - 1
(iii) Using eqn. ( 6.4), Relative efficiency,
Indicated thermal efficiency 25-61
m Ideal thermal efficiency 52-7
Problem - 3 : A trial carried on a four-stroke, single-cylinder gas engine, governed
by hit and miss method o f governing, gave the following results :
Cylinder diameter, 30 cm; Piston stroke, 50 cm; Clearance volume, 6,750 cni3;
Explosions per minute, 100, Indicated mean effective pressure, 780 kPa; Net load on the
brake, 1,900 newtons; Brake diameter, 1-5 m; Rope diameter, 2 5 cm; Speed, 240 r.p.m.;
Gas used, 30 m3 per hour; Calorific value o f gas, 20,500 kJ/m3 .
Determine : (a) the brake power, (b) the indicated power, (c) the mechanical efficiency,
(d) theindicated thermal efficiency, (e) the compression ratio, (f)the air-standard efficiency,
(g)the relative efficiency, and (h) the brake mean effective pressure. Take
7 = 1• 4 for air

(a) Effective radius of brake, R * ~ ^ = 0-7625 metre

Brake power = ( W - S) x 2j i R x N watts

= 1,900 x 2 x 3-14 x 0-7625 x = ~

60
= 36,416 watts = 3 6 - 4 1 6 kW.
(b) Indicated power = pm x a x I x n watts

3. jt / 30 \2 50 100
- (780 x 10 ) x - x j x — x ^

m 45,922 watts = 45 922 kW.

(c) Mechanical efficiency = , = 0-7929 or 79-29%

1 Indicated power 45-922
(d) Indicated thermal efficiency - ^ e q u iv a le n t ot Indicated power in KJ per sec.

3600 X C V' in kJ/SeC'

45-922 x 3,600
= 0-2688 or 26-88%
30 x zu.suu
OU 20,500
\A _
+i_ Vc
tA
(e) Compression ratio,r =
Vc
158 Elements of Heat Engines Vol.

^ » ~ x c ^ x / - ~ x (30)2 x 50 - 35,350 cm3 ; vc - 6,750 cm3 (given).

Vs + Vc 35,350 + 6,750
r - m 6 237
vc 6,750
1 1
(1) Air standard efficiency - 1 - 1 1 - 0-52 or 52%
-

(6-237)'0-4
- 1 208
(0Y
/_x Indicated thermal efficiency 0-2688 „
(g) Relative efficiency - — —— -— - - .--------L - - 0-517 or 51.7%
1 Air-standard efficiency 0-52
(h) Brake mean effective pressure ( b.m.e.p. )
= Indicated mean effective x Mechanical
efficiency
= 780 x 0-7929 = 618.45 kPa
Problem - 4 : A Diesel engine has a
compression ratio o f 14 : 1 and the fuel is
cut-off at 0 08 o f the stroke. If the relative
efficiency is 052, estimate the consumption
o f fuel in litre o f calorific value 44,000 kJ/kg
which would be required per kW-hour based
on indicated power. Take the specific gravity
o f fuel as 0 82 and *y = 14 for air.
Referring to fig. 6-23,
V3 - V2 = 0 08 ( V1 - V2 )
= 0 08 ( 14 V2 - V2 ) = 1-04 v2
V3 ■ 2 04 vz

.-. C ut-offratio, p =* — = 1- ■- 204

K vz vz

and compression ratio, r - — * 14 (given).

Using eqn. ( 5.12), Air-standard efficiency

1 (.P)y - 1
1 -
y (p - 1)

1 (2-04)1’4 - 1
A.S.E. 1 - 0-408 - 0-592 or 59-2%
(14)1 "4 " 1 14(2-4 - 1 )
Indicated thermal efficiency = Air-standard efficiency x Relative efficiency
~V . 0-592 x 0-52 - 0-307 or 30-7%
Heat equivalent of indicated power in kJ/sec.
Indicated thermal efficiency
Mf
x C.V.in kJ/sec.
3,600
1
i.e., 0-307 - (Taking indicated power as 1 Kw)
Mf
x C.V.
3,600
1 x 3,600 0-2665 kg per kW-hr.
Mf
0-307 x 44,000
 Internal Combustion Engines 159
Fuel consumption in litre per kW-hr based on indicated power
0*2665 _ ___ ... „ . . . .
* o»o = 0*325 litre/kW -hr.
0*82
Problem - 5 : A single-acting, four - stroke Diesel engine develops 37 kW at 210
r.p.m. The mean effective pressure is 740 kPa, compression ratio is 15, fuel is cut-off
at 5% o f stroke, calorific value o f fuel is 43,000 kJ/kg, relative efficiency is 55%. Calculate:
(a) the cylinder diameter, if stroke to bore ratio is 15, (b) the indicated thermal efficiency,
and (c) the fuel consumption in litres/hr. Take y = 14 for air and specific gravity o f fuel
as 0-82.
(a) Indicated power = pm x a x I x N kW (where pm is in kPa)
/ H ‘2 1*5 d 210
i.e. 37 - 740 x 0*7854 x x —— x
JOOj 100 60 X 2
.-. d3 = 24,253*8
Cylinder diameter, d = ^24,253-8 = 28*95 cm
\A
(b) Referring to fig. 6-23, compression ratio, r - — - 1 5 .*. v\ - 15v^
vz
Now, stroke volume, vs = vi - V2 = 15 V2 - v2 = 14 v2
' 5
va = 5% of stroke volume + clearance volume = f - ^ r x 14 + vz - 1*7 vz
100
Cut-off ratio, p = — = 1 7 ^ = 1-7
Vz V2
(P )Y - 1
Using eqn. (5.12), Air-standard efficiency = 1 - 1
(/)Y_1
1*4
1 1 (1*7) - 1
1 - ------ — x —— ------------
(15)°4 * 1 -4 (1 7 "- 1)
= 1 - 0*3895 = 0*6105 or 61*05%
.. . AS _ . .. . Indicated thermal efficiency
Using eqn. (6.4), Relative efficiency, rir = — ^ ^ —— .--------L
J ' Air-standard efficiency
. Q55 indicated thermal efficiency
’ “ 0-6105
Indicated thermal efficiency = 0*55 x 0*6105 = 0*3358 or 33-58%
(c) Indicated thermal efficiency . Heat equivalent of indicated power in kJ/sec.
^ rx C.V. in kJ/sec.
3,600
37 x 3,600
i.e., 0*3358
mi x 43,000
„ 37 x 3,600 floor- i /u
f 0*3358 x 43,000 - ^
- 9-225
/. Fuel consumption = - - - n- = 11*25 litres/hour

Problem - 6 : A Diesel engine has a relative efficiency of 0 55 on the brake. If the

compression ratio is 13-8, the expansion ratio is 7-4 and the calorific value o f fuel oil is
160 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
44,000 kJ/kg, calculate the fuel oil consumption in litre per kW-hour based on brake
power. Take y = 14 for air and specific gravity of fuel oil as 0-81.

Compression ratio, r = 13*8; Cut-off ratio, p = P°mPre?s*onratio 1?^ 1-864

Expansion ratio 7-4

Air-standard efficiency = 1 - (P )Y - 1
(4 1 Y ( p - 1)

= 1 -
1 (1-864)1 4 - 1
(13- 8) 1 - 4 - 1 1-4(1- 864 - 1 )
1
* 1 - 2 i6 * i f ! 0-8M * °'598 0r59'8%
... It} . . . Brake thermal efficiency
Using eqn. (6.5), Relative efficiency on brake = - r -.— -— -—- - ■ . L
Air-standard efficiency
n Br ake thermal efficiency
I e- = 0-598
.-. Brake thermal efficiency, = 0-55 x 0-598 = 0-33 or 33%
_ . - , „. . Heat equivalent of brake power in kJ/sec.
Brake thermal efficiency, ri», = ---------3——----------------- c---------------------
Mf
x C.V. in kJ/sec.
3,600
1
i.e., 0-33 = — (Taking brake power as 1 kW}
Mf
x 44,000
3,600
1 x 3,600
= 0-2479 kg/kW-hour based on brake power
0-33 x 44,000
0-2479
.-. Fuel oil consumption = = 0-3061 litre/kW -hour based on brake power
0*81
Problem - 7 : A four-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine is to be designed to develop
indicated power of 40 kW at 50 r.p.s. The bore and stroke are to be equal, the compression
ratio Is to be 5 and the law of compression
, 4 .pg
P and expansion may be taken as pv =
C. Assuming the suction pressure and
temperature to be 100 kPa and 100°C
respectively, and that on ignition the cyl-
inder pressure rises instantaneously to 3-5
times the compression pressure, calculate
the diameter of cylinder.
Referring to fig. 6-24,
p i = 100 kPa,
P3 = 3-5 p2, and r = 5.
Let clearance volume = V2,
then vi = V4 = 5 V2 and V2 = v j. 1
Considering polytropic comprd^slbH f-2,
d Iv \ n •
^ = [—L| = (rtn = (5)1 28 = 7-847
Pi
 Internal Combustion Engines 161
p2 = p1 x 7-847
- 100 X 7-847 * 784-7 kPa.
p3
Now, — - 3-5 (given ) i.e„ p3 - p2 x 3 5

p3 • 784-7 x 3-5 = 2,746-45 kPa

P3
Considering polytropic expansion 3 - 4 , — - ,V^ = ( i)n * ( 5)1'28 - 7-847
Pa
P3 2,746-45 .
P« * 7 W T 8 4 7 - ‘
Work done per cycle = area 1-2-3-4
= area under ( 3 - 4 .) minus area under ( 2 - 1 )
P3 v3 " P4 v4 Pz vz ~ Pi
n - 1 n - 1
2,746-45 x 1 - 350 x 5 784-7 x 1 - 100 x 5
1-28 - 1 1-28 - 1
= 2,542 v2 kJ
IYI ^ p _ Area of the diagram \
Length of the diagram
Work done per cycle in kJ
v1 - v2 in m3
2 ,542vP
- — ----- = 635-5 kPa
2
40
Indicated power per cylinder = — «10 kW

But indicated power = pm x a x I x n watts

i.e., (1 0 x 103) . (635-5 x 10>) x i ( ^ ) 2x ^ x f

. # . 10 103 X 4 (10)4 X
X 102 X 2 _ 002 ^
103 x 635-5 x 3-14 x 50
Diameter of cylinder, d = ^802-1 = 9-292 cm.
Problem - 8 : A Diesel engine working on four-stroke cycle has a bore of 30 cm
and stroke 40 cm and runs at 5 r.p.s. If the compression ratio is 14 and cut-offtakes
place at 5% o f the stroke, estimate the mean effective pressure o f the cycle and indicated
power o f the engine.
Assume compression index as 14 and expansion index as 13. The pressure at the
beginning o f compression is 100 kPa.
Referring to fig. 6-25, let clearance volume = V2, then v/ = 14 vz - va

Again, vz = vz + (vi - vz)

162 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
5
=* V!2 + J q q x 131/2 - 1-65VS

Considering polytropic compression 1*2,

s ■( f • «
P2 = Pi x (l)n
= 100 x (14)1'4 - 4,023 kPa
■r P3 - P i - 4,023 kPa

Considering polytropic expansion 3-4,

Fig. 6-25. 1-3

P3 14U2 \
(8-47) 1-3 16-12
p4 V3 1*65vs I

P3 4,023
P4 249-6 kPa
16-12 16-12
Work done per cycle = area 1-2-3-4
= area under ( 2-3 ) + area under ( 3-4 ) minus area under (2-1 )
P3 Ifr - P4 V4 p2 VS " P i VI
P2(V3 - V^) +
n .1 n - 1
4,023 x 1-65 - 249-6 x 14 4,023 x 1 - 100 x 14
V2 4,023(1-65 - 1) +
1-3 - 1 1-4 - 1
= V2 [ 2,615 + 10,478-7 - 6,557-5 ] = 6,536-2 V2 kJ
... u rn Area of the diagram Work per cycle in kJ . _
Using eqn. (5-18) M.E.P. - -— *----- = -f^ — 1— r kPa
Length of the diagram ~~ ^ vi - V2
(where v i - V2 is displacement volume in m )
)
6,536-2 vz
— = 502-78 kPa
13V2
Indicated power Pm x a x I x n kW
x „>2 ~ 5
- 502-78 X ^ (0 -3r x 0-4 X | = 35 54 kW

Problem - 9 : The following data relate to a twin-cylinder, four-stroke, Diesel engine

working on the constant pressure cycle :
Ratio of compression ... 15
Ratio of expansion ... 8
Speed ... 5 r.p.s.
Efficiency ratio or relative efficiency ... 0.6
Consumption of fuel oil per minute ... 0.43 litre
Specific gravity of fuel oil ... 0.81
 Internal Combustion Engines 163
Calorific value o f fuel oil ... 42,000 kJ/kg
Diameter o f cylinder ... 30 cm
Piston stroke ... 45 cm
Y for air ... 1.4
Find : (a) the indicated power o f the engine, and (b) the indicated mean effective
pressure.
(a) Cut-off ratio, p - Compression ratio « _
' ' Expansion ratio 8
1 (P)Y - 1
Air-standard efficiency, 1 -

Y (P - 1)
1 (1-875)1 4 - 1
= 1 -
0-4 1-4(1 -875 - 1)
(15)'
1 2-41 - 1
1 - 0-611 or 61-1%
2-96 1-4 x 0-875
Indicated thermal efficiency = Air-standard efficiency x Relative efficiency
= 0.611 X 0-6 = 0-367 or 36-7%
. . . .. _ . „ . Indicated power x 3,600
ndicated thermal efficiency = ------------- —— ---------- ’■-----
1 mf x C-V-
n _ Indicated power x 3,600
i.e., 0-367 - ^Q43 ^ 0 81^ x qq x 42 000
, t . . 0-367 x (0-43 x 0-81) x 60 x 42,000 ....
Indicated power of engine = *----------—— ^------------------'■-------= 89 23 kW
3,600
89*23
(b) Indicated power per cylinder = —- — = 44-615 kW

Indicated power (per cylinder) = pm x a x I x n

,2
l i t 30 \ 45 5
I.e., 44-615 = Pnt x — e ——- x —
4 ^ 100 J 100 2
44-615 x 2
:. Indicated mean effective pressure, pm = 561-22 kPa
0-7854 x (0-3)* x 0-45 x 5
Problem - 10 : From the following data determine the cylinder diameter and stroke
of piston o f a four-cylinder, four-stroke Otto cycle engine :
Brake power ... 15 kW
Mechanical efficiency ... 80%
Suction pressure ... 94 kPa
Maximum explosion pressure ... 2,400 kPa
Ratio of compression ... 5
Index o f compression curve ... 1.35
Index of expansion curve ... 1.3
Speed ... 1,000 r.p.m.
Stroke : Bore ... 1.4 : 1
Referring to fig. 6-26,
12
164 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Vf m 5 V2 $ V2 m V3 ; V4 m 5 V2 | p i m 94 kPa ; p3 = 2,400 kPa

Considering polytropic compression (1-2), ^ - |~ j (0r [where 1-35]

pz = pi x (i)n = 94 x (5)1 35 = 826 kPa

Considering polytropic expansion ( 3-4 ), 5 N - (O' [where n = -1-3]

v */
p4 = - 296 kPa
(r)n (5)1 3
Work done per cycle = area 1-2-3-4 = area under (3-4) minus area under (2-1)
P3 V3 - p4 VA PZVZ - Pi V1
n - 1 n - 1
[2,400 x 1 - 296 x 5 826 x 1 - 94 x 5
-
1-3 - 1 1-35 - 1
= H2 3,066- 7 - 1,017-1 ] = vz 2,049- 6 kJ

Using eqn. ( 5-18 ),

^ ^ p _ Area of the diagram
Length of the diagram
Work done per cycle in kJ
“ o KPS
( V1 - v2\ m
2,049-6 vz
= 512-4 kPa
4 Vz

Mechanical efficiency = ,
7 Indicated power
Indicated power of engine

- f0-8
t - 18 75 kW
Fig. 6-26.
18-75
Indicated power per cylinder = ——— kW

Indicated power/cylinder = pm x a x / x n

18-75 ................ ........ ( d T 1-4 d 1,000

I.e. — = 512-4 x 0-7854 x [— ] x — x
v100J
18-75 x 60 x 2 x 104 x 100 = 998-4
A d3 =
4 x 512-4 x 0-7854 x 1-4 x 1,000
.-. Diameter of cylinder, d = ^998-4 = 10 cm
.-. Piston stroke, / = 1-4 d = 10 x 1 4 = 14 cm
Problem —11 : A single-cylinder, four-stroke oil engine working on the dual-combustion
cycle has a cylinder diameter of 20 cm and a stroke of 40 cm. The compression ratio
is 13-5 and the pressure ratio is 1-42. From the indicator diagram it was found that cut-off
 Internal Combustion Engines 165
occured at 5-1 per cent o f the stroke. If the relative efficiency js 0 6 and the calorific
value o f fuel oil is 42,000 kJ/kg and the fuel oil consumption is 5 kg/hour, calculate the
indicated power o f the engine, if it runs at 7 r.p.s. Also calculate the indicated mean
effective pressure. Take y - 14 for air.

Stroke volume, vrs = ^ x a f 2 x / = ^ x (20)2 x 40 = 12,560 cm3

vc * vs
Compression ratio, r = ---------- ( where v is clearance volume )

vc + 12,560
i.e. 13-5 = vc = 1,005 cm

vc + 0051 vs 1,005 + 0051 x 12,560

Cut-off ratio, p = = 1-64
1,005
Pressure ratio, p = 1-42 ( given ); r =13 *5
Using eqn. (5.14), Air-standard efficiency (A.S.E.)
1 p(p)r - 1
= 1 -

(P - 1) + P y (p - 1)
1-42 ( 1 . 6 4 ) " - 1

= 1 -
0-4
f 1-42 - 1 ) + 1-42 x 1-4(1-64 - 1 )
O 3- 5)
1 2 - 84 - 1
1 = -
2- 832 0-42 + 1-272
= 1 - 0-3842 = 0-6158 or 61 58%
Indicated thermal efficiency = Air standard efficiency x Relative efficiency
= 0-6158 x 0-6 = 0-3695 or 36-95%
Indicated power x 3 ,600
Indicated thermal efficiency =
rrif x C.V.
Indicated power x 3,600
i.e., 0-3695 =
5 x 42,000
. j- * 0-3695 x 5 x 42,600
.-. Indicated power = ----------- _ = 21-56 kW
OjbvJU
Now, indicated power = pm x a x I x n kW

i.e., 21-56 = pm x 0-7854 x (0-2)2 x 0-4 x |

21-56 x 2
Pm ~ = 490 2 kPa.
0-7854 x (0-2r x 0-4 x 7
Tutorial - 6
1. Delete the phrase which is not applicable in the following statements :
(i) A petrol engine works on Otto cycle/Diesel cycle.
(ii) A two-stroke cycle I.C. engine completes its cycle in one revolution/two revolutions of the crank shaft.
(iii) A four-stroke cycle I.C. engine completes its cycle in one revolution/two revolutions of the crank shaft.
(iv) A carburettor is used in petrol/Diesel engine.
(v) During idling the S.l. (spark ignition) engineneeds weak/rich mixture.
166 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
(vi) During starting the S.I. engine needs weak/rich mixture.
(vii) In a Diesel/petrol engine, the charge during suction stroke consists of air only.
(viii) Diesel engine employs quantity/quality method of governing.
(ix) Petrol engine employs quantity/quality method of governing.
(x) Modem Diesel engines employ air injection/solid injection method of fuel injection.
(xi) Air cooling is more/less effective than water cooling.
(xii) In a Diesel engine, the fuel is ignited by spark/heat of compressed air.
(xiii) The volumetric efficiency of an I.C. engine decreases/increases with the increase in engine speed.
[ Delete : (<) Diesel cycle, (ii) two revolutions, (iii) *one
revolution, (iv) Diesel, (v) weak, (vi) weak, (vii) petrol,
(viii) quantity, (ix) quality, (x) air injection, (xi) more, (xii)
spark, (xiii) increases ]
2. Fill in the blanks to complete the following statements :
(i) The efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is ________ than lhat of a four-stroke cycle I.C. engine.
(ii) The compression ratio of a Diesel engine is ________ than that of a petrol engine.
(iii) Diesel engine are also known as ________ engines.
(iv) Petrol engines are also known as ________ engines.
(v) The air-fuel ratio for a chemically correct mixture is about ________.
(vi) The process of sweeping out exhaust gases from the combustion chamber of the cylinder is known
as ________ .
(vii) The process of adding certain chemical to the fuel for suppressing detonation is known as ________
and the chemicals added are called ________ .
(viii) For engines of motor cycles, scooters and mopeds, the cooling system employed is ________ .
(ix) Hit and miss method of governing is used for small size ________ engines.
(x) In petrol engine if the ignition starts, due to any reason other than spark, when the piston is still
doing its compression stroke, the ignition is known as ________ .
(xi) ' Octane number refers t o _________ property of Otto engine fuels.
(xii) Cetane number refers to ________ of Diesel fuels and is a measure of the Diesel knocking tendency.
(xiii) Diesel knock is caused by too long a ________ between the initial injection of fuel and the commencement
of burning of the fuel.
(xiv) As compared to petrol engines, Diesel engines are ________ suitable for supercharging.
( (i) less, (ii) more, (iii) compression - ignition, (iv)
spark ignition, (v) 15, (vi) scavenging, (vii) doping,
dopes, (viii) air cooling, (ix) gas and oil, (x) pre-ignition,
(xi) anti-knocking, (xii) ignition quality, (xiii) delay period,
(xiv) more ]
3. Indicate the correct answer by selecting the proper phrase to complete the following statements :
(i) The firing order in a four-cylinder petrol engine is
(a) 1-2-3-4, (b) 1-3-4-2, (c) 1-2-4-3, (d) 1-4-3-2.
(ii) In a Diesel engine the fuel is injected
(a) during the suction stroke,
(b) at the start of compression stroke,
(c) at the end of compression stroke,
(d) some degrees before the end of compression stroke,
(e) at the end of expansion stroke.
(iii) In a petrol engine the pressure at the end of compression is of the order of
(a) 35 to 45 bar (b) 25 to 35 bar, (c) 14 to 25 bar, (d) 7 to 14 bar.
(iv) The firing order of a six-cylinder I.C. engine is
(a) 1-5-3-6-2-4, (b) 6-5-4-1-2-3, (c) 1-2-3-4-5-6, (d) 1-5-2-4-3-6.
(v) Method of governing employed in a compresslon-ignition engine is
(a) hit and miss, (b) quality, (c) quantity, (d) combination of quantity and quality.
(vi) In S.I. (spark ignition) engines the secondary winding of the ignition coil generates a voltage of
(a) 1,000 to 5,000 volts, (b) 5,000 to 9,000 volts, (c) 9,000 to 12,000 volts, (d) 12,000 to 20,000
volts.
 Internal Combustion Engines 167
(vii) The maximum temperature in the I.C. engine cylinder is of the order of
(a) 2,000 to 2,500*C, (b) 1,500 to 2,000*C, (c)1,000 to 1,500*C, (d) 500 to 1,000*C.
(viii) The sysjpm of lubrication employed in a crankcase scavenged two-stroke cycle petrol engine is :
(a) splash lubrication, (b) petrol or mist lubrication, (c) pressure lubrication,
(d) combined splash and pressure lubrication.
(ix) Pre-ignition in an Otto cycle engine
(a) increases efficiency, (b) increases power, (c) causes reduced- efficiency and less power,
(d) increases efficiency and power, (e) decreases efficiency and increases power.
(x) A reduction in the ignition delay period
(a) reduces diesel knock, (b) increases diesel knock, (c) results in incomplete combustion,
(d) causes reduced efficiency and loss of power.
(xi) The speed of the cam shaft of a four-stroke cycle I.C. engine running at 4,000 r.p.m. is
(a) 1,000 r.p.m., (b) 2,000 r.p.m., (c) 3,000 r.p.m., (d) 4,000 r.p.m.
(xii) The Morse test gives
(a) brake thermal efficiency of a multi-cylinder I.C. engine,
(b) mechanical efficiency of a multi-cylinder I.C. engine.
(c) B.S.F.C. (brake specific fuel consumption ) of a multi-cylinder I.C. engine,
(d) air-fuel ratio of a multi-cylinder I.C. engine.
(xiii) Compression ratio for a petrol engine, without use of dope is usually
(a) 5, (b) 10, (c) 15, (d) 20.
(xiv) In a petrol engine, maximum efficiency occurs when air-fuel ratio is
(a) chemically correct,
(b) lower than that required for complete combustion,
(c) higher than that required for complete combustion,
(d) none of the above.
(xv) A petrol engine, gives maximum power when air-fuel ratio is
(a) chemically correct,
(b) lower than that required for complete combustion.
(c) higher than that required for complete combustion.
(d) none of the above.
[ (0 b, (ii) d, (iii) d, (iv) a, (v) b, (vi) d, (vii) a, (viii) b,
(ix) c, (x) a, (xi) b, (xii) b, (xiii) a, (xiv) c, (xv) b J.
4. Explain briefly the cycle of operation of (i) a four-stroke cycle petrol engine, and (ii) a four-stroke cycle
Diesel engine. Draw indicator and valve timing diagrams for each case.
5. Sketch a typical valve timing diagram of a four-stroke cycle high-speed Diesel engine.
6 . Describe, with the help of. a net sketch, two-stroke cycle Diesel engine. Sketch the indicator diagram of
such an engine, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the two-stroke cycle, compared with the
four-stroke cycle operations.
7. Describe, with a neat sketch, the working of a two-stroke cycle petrol engine, giving probable indicator and
valve timing diagrams.
8 . Describe briefly the principal method adopted for charging and exhausting cylinders of two-stroke cycle
engines.
9. What are the most common methods of governing the speed of small size gas engines ? Illustrate your
answer by means of sketches.
10. (a) Describe briefly, with the help of sketches, the different methods of governing employed in internal
combustion engines.
(b) Describe briefly, with'*a neat sketch, any one type of quality governing as applied to oil engines.
(c) Differentiate clearly between the quality and the quantity governing as applied to I.C. engines.
11. (a) Describe with sketches any one type of fuel pump for a high speed compression-ignition engine,
explaining carefully how the amount of oil is adjusted according to the load.
(b) Sketch and describe a fuel valve working on the solid injection system.
12. Compare from every aspect, solid injection with air injection as a means of supplying the fuel to
compression-ignition engines.
 168 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
If one method is superior to the other, why is it not in general use ?
13. Enumerate the essential function of a carburettor. Explain briefly, giving suitable sketches, the working of
any one type of carburettor. Show clearly the cievices incorporated in K for *
(i) smooth running when idling,
(ii) ensuring correct mixture strength at all loads and speeds of the engine, and
(iii) supplying large quantity of rieh mixture during the accelerating period.
14. Describe in detail the ignitjon system used in multi-cylinder petrol engines.
15. (a) Describe briefly the various methods of ignition used in internal combustion engines.
(b) Give a wiring diagram for battery ignition system. Explain briefly the function of a condenser in the
system.
• 16. Write short notes on the following giving neat sketches wherever necessary :
(0 Air cooling versus water cooling for I.C. engines.
(ii) Scavenging of two-stroke cycle I.C. engines.
(iii) Factors affecting volumetric efficiency of I.C. engines.
(iv) Methods of ignition used in a multi-cylinder petrol engines.
(v) Quantity governing applied to gas engine.
(vi) Supercharging of I.C. engines.
(vii) Methods of fuel injection employed in Diesel engines and their relative merits and demerits.
17. Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the following :
(i) Any one method of governing employed in I.C. engines.
(ii) Any one method of fuel injection for compression-ignition engines.
(iii) Cooling system of motor car engines.
(iv) Methods of scavenging employed in two-stroke engines.
(v) Fuel injection pump of Diesel engine.
(vi) Any one system of ignition used in Otto cycle engines.
18. Write short notes on the following : (i) Carburettor; (ii) Methods of cooling I.C.engines; (iii) Methods of
fuel injection in a Diesel engine; (iv) Methods of governing used in I.C. engines; (v) Methods of ignition
used in I.C. engines.
19. Sketch and explain any fuel mixing or fuel injecting device used in I.C. engines.
20. Compare an engine working on Otto cyclewith an engine working on Diesel cycle from the following po
of view : (i) Fuel, (ii) Working cycle, (iii) Method of fuel injection, (iv) Method of fuel ignition, (v) Speed,
(vi) Method of governing.
21. What do you understand by the terms ’detonation* and ‘pre-ignition* as applied to internal combustion
engines ?
22. A trial carried out on a four-stroke cycle, single-cylinder gas engine gave the following results :
Cylinder diameter, 30 cm; piston stroke, 53 cm; clearancevolume, 9,200 cm3, explosions per minute,
110; indicated mean effective pressure, 700 kPa; gas used, 28 m3 per hour; calorific value of gas, 19,000
kJ/m3,
Determine : (a) the compression ratio,, (b) the indicated thermal efficiency, (c) the air-standard efficiency
(assume y = 1 - 4 for air), and (d) the relative efficiency.
[ (a) r = 5; (b) T)f = 31-92%; (c) A.S.E. = 47-5%; (d) r\, = 67-2% ]
23.A single-cylinder, four-stroke oil engine working on Otto cycle has bore of 18 cm and stroke of 36 cm.
The clearance volume is 1,800 m
During a test the fuel oil consumption was 4-5 litres per hour; the engine speed 300 r.p.m.; the indicator
diagram area 4-25 cm2; length of indicator diagram 6-25 cm; and indicator spring rating 1,000 kPa per cm.
If the fuel oil has a calorific value of 43,500 kJ/kg and specific gravity of 0-8, calculate : (0 the indicated
thermal efficiency, (ii) the air-standard efficiency, and (iii) the relative efficiency. Take y = 1-4 for air.
V { (i) r\i = 35-8% ; (ii) A.S.E. = 51-46% ; (iii) t|, = 69-57% )
24. A petrol engine working on Ottocycle has clearance volume of 20% of the stroke volume. The engine fj
consumes 8-25 litres of petrol per hour when developing indicated power of 24 kW. The specific gravity of 4
petrol is 0-76 and its calorific value is 44,000 kJ/kg. Determine (i) the indicated thermal efficiency, (ii) the 1
air-standard efficiency, and (iii) the relative efficiency of the engine. Take y = 1-4 for air.
[ (i) ti/ = 31-32%; (iij A.S.E. = 51-15%; (iii) r\i = 61-239fc J »!
•>5 . The following particularsrefer to a petrol engine working on four-stroke, Otto cycle principle : Jj
v
• V
J

* i
 internal Combustion Engines 169
Diameter of the cylinder 7 5 cm; stroke 9 cm; clearance volume 81 cm3; indicatedpowerdeveloped 21
kW; specific gravity of petrol 0-76; calorific value of petrol 44,000 kJ/kg. Calculate :(a) the air-standard
efficiency, and (b) the petrol consumption inlitres/hour, if the relative efficiency of the engine is 65%. Take
Y = 1-4 for air.
[ (a) A.S.E. = 5088%; (b) 6-836 litres/hour ]
26. A six cylinder, four-stroke cycle, petrol engine is to be designed to produce brake power of 320 kW at 40
r.p.s. The stroke to bore ratio is to be 1-25 to 1. Assuming a mechanical efficiency of 80% and indicated
mean effective pressure of 950 kPa, determine the required cylinder bore and stroke.
If the compression ratio of the engine is to be 6-5, determine the petrol consumption in litres per hour
and petrol consumption in litre per kW-hr based on brake power. Take the relative efficiency as 0-55 and
calorific value of petrol as 44,000 kJ/kg. Take specific gravity of petrol as 0-76, and y = 1-4 for air.
[ d = 15-3 cm; I = 19-125 cm; 148-5 litres/hour; 0-3711 litre/kW-hr. J
27. A Diesel engine has a relative efficiency of 0-58 on the brake. If the compression ratio is 14 and the
expansion ratio is 7 and the calorific value of oil is 44,000 kJ/kg, find : (i) the air-standard efficiency, (ii)
the brake thermal efficiency, and (iii) the consumption of oil in litre per kW-hour on brake power basis.
Take y = 1-4 for air and specific gravity of oil as 0-8.
I (i) 59-3%; 00 34-4%; (iii) 0-2973 litre/kW-hr. )
28. A gas engine of 25 cm bore, 45 cm stroke, has a compression ratio of 4-5. At the beginning of compression
the charge in the cylinder is at 100 kPa. The law of compression is pv = constant, and the law of
expansion is pv1 = constant. If the pressure is trebled during constant volume explosion, find the mean
effective pressure on the piston and the indicated poyver developed, if the engine makes 85 explosions per
minute.
[ 535 84 kPa; 17-755 kW ]
29. A Diesel engine working on the four-stroke cycle has a bore of 25 cm and stroke of 35 cm, runs at 4
r.p.s. If the compression ratio is 14 and the cut-off ratio is 2-2, estimate the indicated mean effective
pressure in kPa and the indicated power of the engine. Assume the law of compression to be pv1'32 =
constant and the law of expansion is pv135 = constant. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of
compression are 100 kPa and 100*C respectively. Calculate also the temperatures at the salient (key) points
of the cycle.
[ i.m.e.p. = 604-92 kPa; indicated power = 20-79 kW; 595*C, 1,637*C, 727*C ]
30. A single-acting, four-stroke cycle Diesel engine develops indicated power of 30 kW at 200 r.p.m. The mean
effective pressure is 700 kPa, compression ratio is 14, fuel is cut-off at 6 % of the stroke, y = 1*4 for air,
calorific value of fuel is 43,000 kJ/kg, relative efficiency is 58%. Calculate (0 the cylinder diameter if stroke
to bore ratio is 1-25, (ii) the air-standard efficiency, (iii) the indicated thermal efficiency, (iv) the fuel
consumption is litres per hour, and (v) the fuel consumption in litre per kW-hour based on indicated power.
Take specific gravity of fuel as 0-8.
[ (i) 29-7 cm; (ii) 60-45%; (iii) 35-06%; (iv) 8-95 litres/hour; (v) 0-2983 litre/kW-hr. )
31. A four-stroke oil engine working on dual-combustion cycle has a cylinder diameter of 24 cm and a stroke
of 35 cm. The clearance volume is 1,615 cm3, cut-off takes place at 6 per cent of the stroke and the
pressure ratio is 1-5. If the relative efficiency is 0-6 and the calorific value of oil is 42,000 kJ/kg and oil
consumption is 4-8 kg/hr., calculate the indicated power of the engine. Also calculate the indicated mean
effective pressure in kPa if the engine runs at 5 r.p.s. Take y = 1-4. for air.
[ Indicated power = 19-647 kW; i.m.e.p. = 496-33 kPa ]
 7
TESTING OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
7.1 Objectives of Testing
In general, the purposes of testing an internal combustion engine are :
(i) to obtain information about the engine which cannot be determined by calculations,
(ii) to confirm data used in design, the validity of which is in doubt, and
(iii) to satisfy the customer as to the rated power output with the guaranteed fuel
consumption.
The majority of tests on internal combustion engines are carried out for commercial
purposes in order to check the following :
(i) rated power (brake power) with the guaranteed fuel consumption (kg/kW-hr.),
(ii) the quantity of lubricating oil required on brake power basis per kW-hr.,
(iii) the quantity of cooling water required on brake power basis in kg per kW-hr.,
(iv) the steadiness of the engine when loaded at different loads, and
(v) the overload carrying capacity of the engine.
7.2 Thermodynamic Tests
Complete thermodynamic tests are quite different from the commercial tests. They are
carried out for the purpose of comparing actual results with the theoretical or ideal
performance. For such tests it is necessary to measure losses in addition to the useful
part of the energy, and also to draw up a heat balance account. Such trials have been (
the direct cause of, and incentive to, the improvement in heat engines throughout the
period of their development. This interest created a demand for authentic records of
engine performance, which could only be satisfied by exhaustive trials carefully observed ;j
and calculated. The measurements necessary to determine the mechanical and thermal j
efficiencies of the engine and to draw up the heat balance account are :
(i) Indicated power (if possible); |
(ii) Brake power;
(iii) Morse test for mechanical efficiency in case of multi-cylinder high speed engines;
(iv) Rate of fuel consumption and its calorific value;
(v) Rate of flow of cooling water and its rise of temperature, for calculating the j
heat carried away by jacket cooling water; !
(vi) Heat carried away by the exhaust gases - this is estimated either directly by }
exhaust gas calorimeter or by measuring air consumption and temperature of M
exhaust gases, and engine room temperature. j
7.2.1 Measurement of indicated power : It is extremely difficult to determine the ti
indicated power, especially when moderate or high engine speeds are used. The strength 1
of the spring to be used in the indicator must be carefully chosen. The ratio of maximum if
pressure in the engine cylinder to the mean pressure during the cycle in an I.C. engine *
is much greater than that of any other heat engine. For gas and petrol engine, the i
i
i
i
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 171
explosion causes the maximum pressure to be reached practically instantaneously. Thus,
to prevent vibrations being set up, the spring used must be stiff but at the same time
it should give enough height of the indicator diagram. The production of true volume
scale is often hindered by the absence or inaccessibility of any suitable point of attachment
for the indicator cord, so that it may transmit the piston movement, such as is provided
by the cross-head of a steam engine. Any miniature crank or cam device attached to
the crank shaft must be phased with considerable accuracy, while slackness, inertia and
elasticity in the mechanism may give very serious results.
The piston and pencil element used in steam engine practice is useless except at
very low speeds, the rate of pressure rise causing violent oscillatlbns which cannot be
damped without introducing errors. The replacement of the piston by a diaphragm and
the use of high optical or electrical magnification of its deflection, reduce the oscillation
problem but fatigue of the diaphragm metal and change of its calibration by heat are
both likely to occur. If the diaphragm is separated from the cylinder by means of a cock
except during actual recording, these troubles may be reduced, but likely to be replaced
by others due to surges of the gas pressure in the connecting passages, and even when
these are short the time taken for a change of pressure in the cylinder to reach and
deflect the diaphragm, may introduce a phase lag which is serious at high engine speeds.
For rapid determination of the mean effective pressure, a planimeter may be used,
being quite accurate enough forv all ordinary practically purposes.
The remaining data required for the calculation of the indicated power are the number
of explosions or power strokes per minute and the dimensions of the engine cylinder.
The number of explosions per minute is best given by means of a counter arranged to
be actuated from the gas valve, particularly if the engine is governed by the hit and miss
method.
Owing to the difficulties of accurate measurement, particularly at high speeds, there
is an increasing tendency to disregard indicated power and rely on brake power\ as a
power measurement.
7.2.2 Measurement o f brake power : There is very little difficulty in measuring this
quantity accurately if ordinary precautions are taken. This may be obtained by the use
of either a mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or air brake, etc. The difference between the
indicated power and brake power is known as the mechanical or friction loss, and includes
the negative loop of the indicator diagram. The following method is adopted to determine
the friction power so that the indicated power may be accurately determined.
Motoring test : An approximate value of friction power may be found immediately
following a period of running, by measuring the power required to motor the engine (the
engine is driven by an electric motor) at the requisite speed and with the ignition switched
off. Such a test should be carried out as near as maximum operating temperature possible,
the viscosity of the lubricant rising very considerably with a fall of temperature. Unfjprtunately
the thin film of lubricant on the cylinder wall, the shearing of which is the cause of about
half the total engine friction, suffers considerable deterioration by heat and oxidation while
the engine is running, and on switching off the ignition, this damaged oil on which the
piston normally operates, is rapidly washed from the walls and replaced by oil in good
condition. The power required to motor the engine thus falls very rapidly within perhaps
two minutes, after which it begins to rise slowly owing to the cooling of wails. A reasonable
accurate determination of running friction is, therefore, very difficult, if not impossible with
normal test equipment.
7.2.3. “ Morse” test fo r mechanical efficiency : For multi-cylinder high speed engine
the Morse test is available, and is less open to objection that the simple motoring test.
172 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
The method o f finding indicated power o f one cylinder o f a multi-cylinder I.C. engine
without the use o f a high speed indicator is known as the Morse test. The engine is
first run under the required condition of load, speed, temperature, etc., and the brake
power is measured accurately. Each cylinder is then cut-out in turn; the brake load being
rapidly adjusted in each case to bring the engine speed back to the specified value at
the given angle of advance and throttle settling.
The fundamental assumptions are that the friction and pumping power of the cut-out
cylinder remains the same after cutting out as they were when the cylinder was fully
operative (developing power). This would not be a correct assumption if it were not for
the fact that it is possible to carry this test in a very short span of time. It should only
take a few seconds to cut out one cylinder and adjust the brake load to keep the speed
constant. Over this short period the assumption may be considered reasonable. After
cutting out one cylinder, the engine should be allowed to run on all cylinders fora short
while, before cutting out the next cylinder.
Suppose we have a four-cylinder petrol engine loaded with a hydraulic brake
(dynamometer) to measure its brake power. At any given speed with all the four cylinders
firing (developing power), the brake power should be accurately measured, Then,
Indicated power 4 cylinders = Brake power 4 cylinders + Friction power 4 cylinders (i)
If one cylinder is cut out (spark plug lead is shorted) so that it develops no power,
the engine speed will fall. The brake load should then bereduced so thatthe engine
speed increases again to the original given speed. The engineis nowdeveloping power
in three cylinders, whereas the friction power of all the four cylinders remains the same
as already discussed.
Then, the brake power should be measured with the decreased load, i.e., with three
cylinders developing power.
Then, l.P. 3 cylinders = B.P. 3 cylinders + F.P. 4 cylinders •••(••)
Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get,
l.P. 4 cylinders " l.P. 3 cylinders ~ B.P. 4 cylinders - B.P. 3 cylinders
where, B.P. = Brake power, l.P. = Indicated power and F.P., = Frictionpower.
But, l.P. 4 cylinder - l.P. 3 cylinders is the l.P. of the cylinder that was cut out and
hence may be calculated as the difference in readings of B.P. measured when all cylinders
were firing and when one cylinder was cut out (i.e., only three cylinders were firing).
By cutting out each cylinder in turn, the l.P. of each cylinder can be determined and
the indicated power of the whole engine is then sum of I.P.’s of the separate cylinders.
The friction power is given by : total l.P. - total B.P. and the mechanical efficiency is
given by dividing the total B.P. by the total l.P. (see illustrative problem No. 10).
7.2.4 Measurement o f rate o f fuel consum ption and its calorific value : This is
very easily measured for small capacity engine by noting the time taken to consume a
given volume of fuel, although strictly speaking it is the mass of the oil that is required.
A simple device, in which two special glass bulbs, one of about 100 c.c. capacity and
the other 200 c.c. capacity, may be connected by three-way cocks to the fuel tank and
the engine fuel supply line. Three-way cocks help to fill the one bulb when the other is
feeding the engine. To reduce the fuel consumption to a mass basis,, the specific gravity
of the fuel oil should be determined, at the temperature of the oil during the trial.
For bigger size oil engine, the simplest and the most accurate method of obtaining
the fuel consumption is to support the fuel tank on a weighing machine and supply fuel
to the engine. The rate of fuel consumption is then obtained by subtracting the mass of
the fuel and tank at the end of the trial, from that at the beginning, the time taken to
 Testing of internal Combustion Engines 173
discharge this mass of fuel being noted.
The most reliable method of measuring the gas consumption of a gas engine is to
pass the gas through a graduated gas holder from which it is drawn by the engine. This
is more accurate than the use of a gas meter. The temperature and pressure o f the gas
should be taken, so that the volume used may be reduced to normal or standard
temperature and pressure.
A trial of half an hour or even less should suffice, if the engine has settled down to
its working conditions.
The heat engine trials committee has recommended to use the gross or higher calorific
value of the fuel for the calculation of thermal efficiency and drawing up the heat balance
sheet. The higher calorific value for oil fuel can be determined by using Bomb calorimeter
and that for gaseous fuel by using Junkers gas calorimeter. v
I
7.2.5 Measurement of heat carried away by cylinder jacket cooling water : In
ordinary internal combustion engines, the circulation of cylinder jacket cooling water is
maintained by means of natural gravitational current of water or by forced circulation from
a pump. In measuring the heat carried away by the jacket water it is necessary to
measure the rate of flow of jacket cooling water and also the inlet and outlet temperatures
of water. The rate of water circulated in the cylinder jacket is measured by means of
water meter fitted in the inlet pipe or by collecting the outflow water in a measuring
vessel in a given time interval. The measuring vessel should be supplied with gauge
glass reading either in litres or kilograms, or it may be carried on a weighing machine
and the mass of water collected in a given time obtained directly. In order to determine
the temperature difference all that is necessary is to have two reasonably accurate mercury
thermometers which should be inserted in suitable pockets arranged on the inlet and
outlet pipes close to the engine.
Let, mw = mass of cylinder jacket cooling water supplied in kg per minute,
ti m inlet temperature of jacket cooling water, °C,
fe = outlet temperature of jacket cooling water, °C, and
K = specific heat of water, kJ/kg K.
Then, heat carried away by cylinder jacket cooling water per minute
= mass of cooling water per min. x specific heat of water x risein temperature
of cooling water
= mw x K x (fe - ft) kJ/min. ..(7.1)
There is no reliable method of measuring directly the heat carried away by the air
flowing over an air cooled engine and therefore this quantity should be included in the
radiation losses, i.e., in the last item of the heat balance sheet.
7.2.6 Measurement of heat carried away by the exhaust gases : In the actual
determination of heat carried away by exhaust gases, we are concerned with three
quantities, namely the temperature of exhaust gases and room temperature, the mass of
exhaust gases, and the mean specific heat of exhaust gases.
Temperature of exhaust gases : The temperature of exhaust gases (tg) as they leave
the engine cylinder can be measured by a thermometer known as pyrometer. It works
on the principle that when two dissimilar metals are joined together, heating will cause
a flow of'electricity. The thermo-couple is encased in a tube which is screwed into the
exhaust connection of the cylinder. Two wires lead from the thermo-couple to a milli-voltmeter
which indicates the minute e.m.f. created by the flow of electricity. The dial of the
pyrometer is marked in terms of temperature degrees instead of milli-volts, having been
174 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
calibrated by the makers. The warmer the gases, the greater will be the e.m.f. ( milli-volts)
and the pyrometer dial will read higher temperature.
Mass o f exhaust gases : The mass of exhaust gases may be calculated from the
measured air consumption by air-box orifice method or by air flow meter in a given time
and the fuel consumption in the same time.
Air-fuel ratio - Air consumption per minute
Fuel consumption per minute
Mass of exhaust gases per minute = Air consumption per min. + Fuel consumption
per min.
It is also possible to estimate the air-fuel ratio and the mass of exhaust gases per
kg of fuel from the volumetric analysis of exhaust gases by Orsat apparatus and the
ultimate analysis of fuel on mass basis.
Mass of air supplied per kg of N x C
= m kg ( say )
fuel or air-fuel ratio 33 (C, x q>)
where, N, C1 and C2 are percentages of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
by volume in exhaust gases and C is percentage of carbon in fuel on mass basis.
Mass of exhaust gases per kgof fuel = (. m + 1 ) kg.
Mass of exhaust gases per minute (mg) = (m + 1 ) x mass of fuelper min. in
kg.
Mean specific heat of exhaust gases : The mean specific heat of exhaust products
(gases) can be calculated from the knowledge of the constituent products, by allowing
the appropriate proportion of specific heat of each constituent.
The value of mean specific heat of exhaust gases (Ap) can be assumed with sufficient
accuracy as 1 005 kJ/kg K.
The engine room temperature (Q and pressure of the engine room air are measured
with ordinary mercury thermometer and mercury barometer respectively. In order to estimate
the amount of moisture present in the air it is necessary to read temperatures of dry
bulb and wet bulb thermometers.
mass of exhaust gases per min.
(mg) x specific heat of exhaust
Then, heat carried away by
gases {kp) x [exhaust gases
exhaust gases per min.
temperature (tg) - engine room
temperature (/>)]

- mg x kp x {tg « tr) kJ/min. ... (7.2)

Exhaust gas calorimeter : A direct measurement of the total heat carriedaway b y
the exhaust gases may be made by the use of exhaust gas calorimeter shown in fig.
7-4. This consists of a vessel containing a number of tubes through which water^ is
passing. The exhaufet gases pass over these tubes and are thereby cooled. By measuring
the temperature of exhaust gases leaving the calorimeter and rise in temperature of water
and the quantity of water, the heat carried away by exhaust gases can be calculated
(See illustrative problem No.2).
Heat absorbed by water in the exhaust gases calorimeter
Total heat carried aw ay^
per min. + Heat carried by exhaust gases leaving the
by exhaust gases per
.calorimeter per min. in kJ/min. — (7-3)
min. ’ * Rate of flow of water in exhaust gas calorimeter per min.
x rise in temperature of water x specific heat of water +
mass of exhaust gases per min. x specific heat of exhaust
gases x [ exhaust gas temp, at exit from calorimeter —
room temp. ] kJ/min.
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 175
A ir consumption : The usual method for measurement of air consumption is to ensure
that all the air supplied to the engine is
Facing for standard derived exclusively from an air box or tank
nozzle
Orificc- C (fig. 7-1) which is connected to the induction
system of the engine by an air tight pipe
To ----
engine^—I - of a diameter well in excess of that required
theoretically for the predicted air flow. A box
itself must be air tight. A sharp edged orifice
is fitted to the pipe and the pressure dif-
Manometer t ference across it is ftieasured by means of
Spare
orifice a water manometer as shown in fig. 7-1.
plate
As it is usually desirable to keep the
calculations simple it is necessary to keep
Baffle the water manometer reading down to about
15 cm of water pressure difference, in which
•■Anti-pulsating case the variation in the density of the air
tank across the orifice is negligible. The air box
or tank should have internal baffle so as
to avoid any air pulsations, and its volume
_ ©
\
Calibrating orifice
should be large enough in relation to the
total capacity of the engine to be tested
(standard nozzle) (say 200 to 600 times the total capacity),
Fig. 7-1. Air box or tank for air flow measurement. to prevent undue pressure pulsations.
7.3 Heat Balance Account
In a thermodynamic trial of any heat engine, the distribution of the heat supplied per
minute or per hour is required. This appears in the heat balance or heat account. In
order to complete a heat balance sheet for an internal combustion engine cylinder, the
engine should be tested over a period of time under conditions of constant load and
speed. All the measurements listed earlier should be taken at regular interval of time. At
the completion of the trial the necessary data should be averaged out and a heat account
drawn up as follows :
Heat balance sheet in kJ per minute
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ ' %
Heat supplied by com- 100 (1) Heat equivalent of
bustion of fuel brake power ft
(2) Heat lost to jacket
cooling water
(3) Heat lost to exhaust
gases (wet)
(4) Heat lost to radia-
V
tion,errors of observa-
tion, etc. (by
difference)
Total 100 Total 100

Note : As discussed earlier the heat equivalent of the friction power is not included
in the heat balance on the right hand side because most of the heat absorbed in friction
will reappear in the jacket cooling water. The heat taken away by the jacket cooling water
is already included in the heat balance, and the. same amount energy must not be
included twice. Some frictional heat will also appear in the heat carried away by exhaust
1

176 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

gases, the remainder being included in the last item of heat balance, i.e., heat lost to
radiation, etc. This applies to alltypes of internal combustion engines.
There are wide variationsinthe relative proportions of the above losses,depending
upon the type, size, and operating conditions of the engine under consideration. For an
automobile engine operating on the Otto cycle, the distribution of heat may be : heat
converted into work about 25%, heat to the jacket cooling water 25%, heat carried away
by exhaust gases 35%, and radiation and other losses 15%. For a Diesel engine, the
distribution of heat may be :heat converted into work about 30%, heat to the jacket
cooling water 30%, heat carriedaway by exhaust gases 30%, and radiation and other
losses 10%.
The method of estimating the various items in the heat balance sheet is illustrated
by solved problems.
7.4 Perform ance P lotting
AhmuU’. It is customary to show the per-
. , 1 7 5 U o
. • formance of a variable speed engine
<50 ,>20 by plotting its characteristics against
engine speed in r.p.m. The two chief
| 125*100 characteristics are : brake power and
Mechank:a( et i , *
brake specific fuel consumption (kg
00 I s o of fuel per kW-hr). It is, however,
f- / vo
desirable to study those factors that
753=60
o influence these two characteristics;
! 50 si 40 &
Y
A and auxiliary characteristics, such as
Z volumetric efficiency, indicated mean
25 20 effective pressure, brake mean ef-
\ •x is i
fective pressure, torque, indicated
0 0
1000 2000
r 3000 4000
power, friction power and mechanical
efficiency are often plotted. Typical
performance curves are shown in
0-60 140
fig. 7-2.
£0-55 | 120 V olum etric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is a measure
^0-50 100 of the perfection of the induction
f process, and may be defined as the
I 0-4 5 £ 60 ratio of the volume of the induced
V a
charge measured under conditions
* 040 | 60
O approaching the engine, to the piston
0*35 40 displacement. The first characteristic
4000 that should be studied is volumetric
efficiency, as the power output
Fig. 7-2. Typical performance curves for an automatic engine at full depends directly on the amount of
throttle. charge drawn into the cylinder. The
shape of the volumetric efficiency curve depends on the timing of the intake valve. The
volumetric efficiency is the highest at medium speeds, say from 1,200 to 2,000 r.p.m.,
as shown in fig. 7-2. It falls gradually as the speed increases or decreases.
7.4.1 Indicated m.e.p. : Although volumetric efficiency is an important factor in
determining the indicated m.e.p. produced by an infernal combustion engine, the heating
value of the charge and the indicated thermal efficiency are equally important. The heating
value of the charge will vary only if the air-fuel ratio it varied. As the engine is not
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 177
designed for full load operation at very low speed, a poor thermal efficiency results. In
general, the i.m.e.p. of an internal combustion engine follows the volumetric efficiency
curve rather closely, but at low speeds it falls off a little more than does the volumetric
efficiency.
7.4.2. Indicated power : For a given engine, the indicated power is directly proportional
to the product of the i.m.e.p and r.p.m. At low and moderate speeds, there is a slight
change in i.m.e.p. Hence, over this range, the indicated power curve is almost a straight
line, the indicated power being practically proportional to the r.p.m. At higher speeds the
decrease in i.m.e.p. causes the indicated power to fall away from a straight line; and at
very high speeds, the i.m.e.p. falls off faster than the r.p.m. (speed) and the indicated
power decreases.
7.4.3 Friction power : The friction power of a given engine is a function of the
product of the frictional resistance and the r.p.m. The major portion of the engine friction
in an I.C. engine is the friction between the rings and cylinder walls, and between piston
and cylinder walls. With the thick oil film between them, the frictional resistance is directly
proportional to the speed. Frictional power should increase faster than the speed. Test
results show that this is true.
7.4.4 Brake power : The brake power is the difference between the indicated power
and friction power. As the friction power increases faster than the speed, the brake power
reaches a maximum value at a speed somewhat lower than that of maximum indicated
power. The speed for maximum brake power is known as the peak speed of the engine.
This is the speed at which automobile engines are usually rated.
7.4.5 Mechanical efficiency : Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake power and
indicated power, or ratio of the brake power to the sum of the brake power and friction
power. Since the friction power increases faster than the speed and since the brake
power fails to increase as fast as speed, the mechanical efficiency must decrease as the
speed increases. The decrease is gradual at low speeds, but becomes very rapid at high
speeds.
7.4.6 Brake M.E.P. As it is difficult to determine accurately either the indicated m.e.p.
or the indicated power for a high speed I.C. engine, the brake m.e.p. is calculated and
used instead. Brake m.e.p. is equ2l
100 0-85 to the product of the indicated m.e.p.
and mechanical efficiency. Hence,
the curve for brake m.e.p. is quite
similar in shape to that for the
i.m.e.p., but it falls off faster at high
speeds as shown in fig. 7-2.
7.4.7 Torque : Torque is the
turning effort produced by an engine.
For a given engine, torque is a
direct function of brake m.e.p. and
as such, the torque curve must have
the same shape as the brake m.e.p.
.0-10
0 20 40 60 80 100 -120 curve.
Percentage of rated load 7.4.8 Brake specific fuel con-
sum ption : It is the mass of a fuel
Fig. 7-3. Typical curves of brake specific fuel consumption and required per kW-hour on brake power
mechanical efficiency for constant speed engines. basjs B rake specjfjc ^ consum p_

tion (b.s.f.c.) is inversely proportional to brake thermal efficiency. Since indicated thermal
178 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
efficiency falls off at low speeds, the b.s.f.c. becomes relatively high. At high speeds
although the indicated thermal efficiency remains high, the excessive frictional losses cause
decrease in the brake thermal efficiency and increase in b.s.f.c. Although the curves (fig.
7-2) that have been discussed are those of a variable speed spark-ignition engine, the
curves for a Diesel engine (compression-ignition engine) are similar.
For a constant speed engine, the curve most commonly plotted is the brake specific
fuel consumption versus load, although curves of mechanical and thermal efficiencies may
also be plotted as shown in fig. 7-3. For both the Diesel and spark-ignition types of
engines, the brake specific fuel consumption increases at heavy loads, primarily because
of the large amount of incomplete combustion that accompanies the low air-fuel ratio
used, to obtain the heavy loads. A light loads, the brake fuel rates for both types of
engines become rather large, prim arily. because the friction power being substantially
constant at a given speed, a large portion of the indicated power output is lost at light
loads. Hence, much more fuel must be used per kW-hour on brake power basis at light
loads.
Problem - 1 : The following observations were made during a test on a two-stroke
cycle oil engine :
Cylinder dimensions - 20 cm bore, 25 cm stroke ; speed, 6 r.p.s.; effective brake
drum diameter, 1.2 metres; net brke load, 440 newtons; indicated mean effective pressure,
280 kPa; fuel oil consumption, 3.6 kg/hr.; calorific value o f fuel oil, 42,500 kJ/kg; mass
o f jacket cooling water per hour, 468 kg; rise in temperature o f jacket cooling water,
28°C; air used per kg of fuel oil, 34 kg; temperature o f air in test house, 30°C; temperature
o f exhaust gases, 400°C; mean specific heat o f exhaust gases, 1 H.J/kg K.
Calculate : (a) the brake power, (b) the indicated power, (c) the mechanical efficiency,
(d) the brake mean effective pressure, and (e) brake power fuel consumption in kg per
kW-hr. Draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ/min. and as percentages o f the heat supplied
to the engine. Calculate also the brake thermal efficiency o f the engine.
(a) Brake power = (W - S ) x R x 2 x x N watts
= 440 x 0-6 x 2 x 3-14 x 6 - 9,948 watts or 9948 kW
(b) Indicated power - pm x a x I x n watts

= 13,188 watts or 13-188 kW.

(d) Brake m.e.p. = Indicated m.e.p. x mech. efficiency

= 280 X 0-7541 = 211-15 kPa
(e) Fuel consumption in kg per kW-hr. on brake power basis

= 3-6 = 0-3616 kg/kW-hr.

9-948
Heat supplied per minute :
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel per min.

- x 42,500 = 2,550 kJ/min.

Heat expenditure per minute :

 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 179
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power per min.
= brake power x 60 = 9-948 x 60 = 596-88 kJ/min.
(2) Using eqn. (7.1), heat lost to jacket cooling water per min.
= mass of cooling water per min. x specific heat of water x rise in
temperature of jacket cooling water
468
- mw X K X (f2 - fi) - x 4-187 X 28 = 914-5 kJ/min.
60
(3) 1 kg of fuel combines with 34 kg of air and produces 35 kg of exhaust gases
i.e. 1 kg of fuel produces 35 kg of exhaust gases.
Now, as 1 kg of fuel produces 35 kg of exhaust gases,
3*6 3a6
— kg of fuel per minute will produce — x 35 = 2-1 kg of exhaust gases/min.

Using eqn. (7.2),

Heat lost to exhaust gases/min. (wet)
= mass of exhaust gases/min. x specific heat of exhaust gases x (exhaust gas
temp. - room temp.)
- mg X kp X (tg - tr) = 2-1 X 1 X (400 - 30) = 777 kJ/min.
(4) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. per min. (by difference)
= 2,550 - ( 596-88 + 914-5 + 777 ) = 216-62 kJ/min.
Heat balance sheet in kJ/minute
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %
Heat supplied by com- 2,550 100 (1) Heat equivalent of 596-88 23 41
bustion of fuel brake power
(2) Heat lost to jacket 914-5 35-86
cooling water
(3) Heat lost to exhaust 777 30-47
gases (wet)
(4) Heat lost to radia- 261-62 10-26
tion,errors of observa-
tion.etc. (by
difference)
Total 2,550 100 Total 2,550 100

_ . xl_ , . Heat equivalent of brake power per mm.

Brake thermal efficiency = -3- r ,— r— — c— :— c------------------
J Heat supplied per min.
9-948 X 60 nnnAA __
= — — —— = 0-2341 or 23-41 %
2,550
Problem - 2 : In a test o f an oil engine running under full load conditions, the
following results were obtained :
Brake power, 185 kW; Fuel consumption, 5-5 kg/hr; Calorific value of fuel oil, 43,000
kJ per kg; Inlet and outlet temperatures of cylinder circulating water, 15-5°C and 712°C
respectively; Rate o f flow o f cylinder circulating water, 4 6 kg/min.; Inlet and outlet
temperatures of water to exhaust gas calorimeter, 15-5°C and 54 4°C respectively; Rate
of flow of water through calorimeter, 81 kg pei min.; Temperature o f exhaust gases
leaving the calorimeter, 8 2 2 eC; Room temperature, 17°C; Air-fuel ratio on mass basis,
20. Take the mean specific heat o f exhaust gases including vapour as 1005 kJ/kg K.
Draw up a heat balance sheet for the test on one minute basis and as percentages
13
180 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
of the heat supplied to the engine.
Heat supplied per minute :
5-5
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel - — x 43,000 3,942 kJ/min.

Heat expenditure per minute :

(1) Heat equivalent of brake power = 18-5 x 60 » 1,110 kJ/min.
(2) Heat lost to cylinder jacket circulating water
= 4-6 x 4-187 x (71-2 - 15-5) - 1,072-8 kJ/min.
(3) (a) Heat absorbed by water in the exhaust gas calorimeter
- 8-1 x 4-187 x (54-4 - 15-5) - 1,312-5 kJ/min.
(b) Heat remaining in exhaust gases leaving the exhaust gas calorimeter

= x 21 j x 1-005 x (82-2 - 17) = 126-1 kJ/min.

Using eqn. (7.3), total heat carried away by exhaust gases (wet) = (a) + (b)
= 1,312-5 + 126-1 = 1,438-6 kJ/min.
(4) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. (by difference)
= 3,942 - ( 1,110 + 1,072-8 + 1,438-6 ) = 320-6 kJ/min.
Exhaust
gas inlet
Exhaust calorimeter

tater
Wat
outlet
I rfll—
L rp

5* •<*C ^
:5 £ = "

Water
l i r u s inlet 155 C

ura,n
¥
Exhaust gas
Fig. 7-4. Exhaust gas calorimeter. outlet 82-2*C
Heat balance sheet in kJ/minute
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %
Heat supplied by 3,942 100 (1) Heat equivalent of 1,110-0 28 16
combustion of fuel oil brake power
(2) Heat lost to jacket 1,072-8 27-22
cooling water
(3) Heat lost to exhaust 1,438 6 36-50
gases (wet)
(4) Heat lost to radia-
tion,errors,etc.
(by difference) 320-6 812

Total 3,942 100 Total 3,942 100-00

 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 181
Note : Heat to friction = indicated power - brake power, reappears partly in the heat
to jacket cooling water and partly in exhaust gases and radiation.
Problem - 3 : The following readings were taken during a test on a single-cylinder,
four-stroke cycle oil engine : Cylinder bore, 20 cm; Stroke length, 35 cm; Indicated mean
effective pressure, 700 kPa; Engine speed, 4 r.p.s; Fuel oil used per hour, 3-5 kg; Calorific
value o f oil, 46,000 kJ/kg; Brake torque,. 450 N.m; Mass o f jacket cooling water per
minute, 5 kg; Rise in temperature o f jacket cooling water, 40°C; Mass o f air supplied per
minute, 1-35 kg; Temperature o f exhaust gases, 340°C; Room temperature, 15°C; Mean
specific heat o f dry exhaust gases, 1 kJ/kg K; Hydrogen in fuel, 13 5% on mass basis,
kp o f steam in exhaust gases, 2-3 kJ/kg K.
Calculate the mechanical and indicated thermal efficiencies and brake power fuel
consumption in kg per kW-hr. Also draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ/min. and as
percentages of the heat supplied to the engine.
Indicated power - pm x a x I x n watts
2
= (700 X 103) X ^ X ~ X | = 15,400 watts or 15-4 kW

Brake power = (W - S) R x 2 i x W watts

=* T x 2x x N watts
- 450 X 2 X 3-14 X • 4 - 11,304
w watts or 11-304 kW
.. . . . . Brake power 11-304
Mechanical efficiency - 7—=——5--------- = =0-734 or 73-4%
1 Indicated power 15-4
Indicated thermal efficiency - Heat equivalent of indicated power in kJ per min.
Heat supplied in kJ per min.
15 4 -* - 60 = 0-3443 or 34-43%
f f x 46,000
Q.C
Fuel consumption in kg per kW-hr. on brake power basis = -7- — — = o-31 kg/kW -hr
11 -304
Heat supplied per minute :
3 .5
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel = — x 46,000 = 2,683-3 kJ/min.
ou
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power - 11-304 x 60 = 678-24 kJ/min.
(2) Heat lost to jacket cooling water = 5 x 4-187 x 40 = 837-4 kJ/min.
(3) Mass of wet exhaust gases per minute
= mass of air per min. + mass of fuel per min.

= 1-35 + —| =1-4083 kg per min.

2 H2 + O2 = 2 H2O
1+8 = 9 i.e., one kg of H2 produces 9 kg of H2O
Mass of H2O produced per kg of fuel burnt = 9 x H2 = 9 x 0-135 =1-215 kg
per kg of fuel.
Mass of H2O (steam) produced per minute
= 1-215 x mass of fuel per minute
182 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
3.5
= 1-215 x — = 0 0709 kg per min.

I.e., mass of steam in wet exhaust gases = 0-0709 kg per min.

Mass of dry exhaust gases per minute
= mass of w et exhaust gases/min. - mass of steam in wet exhaust gases/min.
= 1-4083 - 0-0709 = 1-3374 kg.
.*. Heat lost to dry exhaust gases min. = mass of dry exhaust gases x specific heat
of dry exhaust gases x ( exhaust gas temp. - room temp. )
= 1-3374 x 1 x (340 - 15) = 434-66 kJ/min.
(4) Assuming that the steam in exhaust gases exists as superheated steam at
atmospheric pressure ( 1-01325 bar ) and at exhaust gas temperature,
Enthalpy of 1 kg of steam = HSUp - h
= [ Hs + kp ( t sup — ts ) ] — h
= [2,676-1 + 2-3(340 - 100)] - 15 x 4-187 - 3,165-3 kJ/kg
Heat lost to steam in exhaust gases per min.
= ma^fe of steam per min. x enthalpy of 1 kg of steam
= 0-0709 x 3,165-3 = 224-42 kJ/min.
(5) Heat lost to radiation, error of observation, etc. per min. (by difference)
= 2,683-3 - (678-24 + 837-4 + 434-66 + 224-42)= 508-58 kJ/min.

Heat balance sheet in kJ/minute

Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %
Heat supplied by corrv 2,683.3 100 (1) Brake power heat 678 24 25 29
bustion of fuel oil equivalent
(2) Heat lost to jacket 837-4 31-2
cooling water
(3^ Heat lost to dry ex- 434-66 16 2
haust gases
(4) Heat lost to steam 224 42 836
in exhaust gases
(5) Heat lost to radia- 508-58 18 95
tion,etc. (by dif-
ference)
Total 2,6833 100 Toted 2,683-3 100

Problem — 4 : A four-stroke, solid injection, Diesel engine coupled to a single-phase ii

A.C. generator gave the following data during a trial o f 45 minutes duration :
Fuel oil used ... 2 9 kg
Calorific value of fuel oil ... 46,900 kJ/kg
Analysis of fuel oil on mass basis ... C, 86%; H2, 10%; other i
matter, 4%
Percentage analysis o f dry exhaust gases by volume ... CO2, 7-6; CO, 0-4; O2, !
6; N2. 86
Mass o f cylinder jacket cooling water ... 260 kg
Room and cylinder jacket water inlet temperature 26 °C
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 183
Temperature o f water leaving cylinder jacket ... 73°C
Temperature o f exhaust gases 290°C
Engine speed 250 r.p.m.
Generator voltage and current 440 V, *25 Amp.
Efficiency o f generator 92%

Soon after the test the engine was motored by the dynamo taking current from the
mains : Applied voltage - 440 V; Current - 7.8 Amp.; Speed - 250 r.p.m.; Efficiency o f
the generator as motor - 92%

Draw up a heat balance sheet on percentage basis assuming that the steam in the
exhaust gases is at atmospheric pressure (1-01325 bar). Calculate the mechanical efficiency
o f the engine. Take kp o f dry exhaust gases as 1 kJ/kg K and kp o f steam as 2-1 kJ/kg
K

Heat supplied per 45 minutes :

Heat supplied by combustion of fuel = 2-9 x 46,900 = 1,36,010 kJ/ 45 min.
Heat expenditure per 45 minutes :
440 x 25
(1) Brake power=— —---— — =11-957 kW
s7 K 0-92 x 1,000
Heat equivalent of brake power = 11-957 x 60 x 45 - 32,284 kJ/45 min.
(2) Heat lost to jacket cooling water = 260 x 4-187(73 - 26) = 51,165 kJ/45 min.
NC
(3) The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel = __ _------
3 3 ( G i + C 2)

where N, C i, C2 are percentages of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide

by volume in exhaust gases, and C is the percentage of carbon in fuel oil on
mass basis.
86 x 86
Mass of airsupplied per kg of fuel = — —— ---- — — = 28 kg.
M 33(7-6 + 0-4) a
Out of the above air, oxygen used for combustion of hydrogen
= 0 - 1 x 8 = 0-8 kg.
.*. Remaining air forming dry exhaust gases = 28 - 0.8 = 27-2 kg
Hence mass of dry products of combustion ( exhaust gases )
= 27-2 + 0-86 = 28-06 kg/kg of fuel.
Mass of dry exhaust gases/45 min. = 2-9 x 28 06 = 81-4 kg/45 min.
Thus, heat lost to dry exhaust gases = 81-4 x 1 x (290 - 26) = 21,490 kJ/45 min.
(4) Heat lost to steam in exhaust gases per 45 min.
= [mass of fuel/45 min x 9 Hz] x [Hs + kp (tSUp - ts) - h]
= [2-9 x (9 x 0-1)] x [2,676-1 + 2-1 (290 - 100) - 26 x 4-187]
= 7,741-8 kJ/45 min.
(5) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observations, etc. (obtained by difference)
= 1,36,010 - ( 32,284 + 51,165 + 21,490 + 7,741-8 ) = 23,329-2 kJ/45 min.
184 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Heat balance sheet in kJ per 45 minutes
Heat supplied per kJ % Heat expenditure per 45 kJ %
45 min. min.
Heat supplied by com- 1,36,010 100 (1) Heat equivalent of 32,284 23-74
bustion of fuel oil Brake power
(2) Heat lost to jacket 51,165 37-62
cooling water
(3) Heat lost to dry ex- ■ 21,490 15 80
halist gases
(4) Heat lost to steam 7,741-8 5-69
in exhaust gases
(5) Heat lost to radia- 23,329-2 17-15
tion,errors of observa-
tion,etc. (by differe-
nce)
Total 1,36,010 100 Total 1,36,010 100

_ ... , . 440 x 7-8 x 0*92 0. ,...

Friction power of the engine --------- ———------- = 3-157 kW
I |U U U

>i . _**■ • Brake power

Mechanical efficiency r\m = ;--------------- r ------------
7 1 Brake power + Friction power
11-957 11-957 __________

Problem - 5 : A six-cylinder, four-stroke Diesel engine has a bore to stroke ratio o f

360 : 500 mm. During the trial, following results were obtained :
Mean area o f the indicator diagram, 7 8 crrf; length of the indicator diagram, 7-5 cm;
spring number, 700 kPa per cm o f compression; brake torque, 14,000 N.m; speed, 8
r.p.s.; fuel consumption, 240 kg/hr; calorific value o f fuel oil, 44,000 kJ/kg; jacket cooling
water used, 320 kg/minute; rise in temperature of the cooling water,40°C; piston cooling
oil (specific heat, 2.1 kJ/kg K) used, 140 kg/min., with a temperature rise o f 28°C. The
exhaust gases give up all their heat to 300 kg/minute o f water circulating through the
exhaust gas calorimeter and raises its temperature through 42°C.
Calculate the brake specific fuel consumption in kg per kW-hour and mechanical
efficiency o f the engine and draw up a heat balance sheet o f the engine on the basis
o f 1 kg of fuel oil.
7*8
Indicated mean effective pressure, = pm = — x 700 * 728 kPa
7*5
Indicated power per cylinder = pm x a x I x n kW

= 728 x [0-7854 x (0-36)2]x 0-5 x | - 148-2 kW

Total indicated power developed by six cylinders =148-2 x 6 = 889-2 kW

Brake power = T x 2n x N = 4,000 x 2j i x 8 = 7,03,720 watts = 703-72 kW
240
Brake specific fuel consumption ( B.S.F.C. ) = 7 — — = 0-341 kg/kW-hr.

,. , . , ^ . Brake power 703-72 _

Mechanical efficiency - . .. . ,.^ r = QQfc - = 0-7914 or 79-14%
1 Indicated power 889-2
Heat supplied per kg o f fuel oil :
(1) Heat supplied per kg of fuel oil = 1 x 44,000 =44,000 kJ/kg of fuel
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 185
Heat expenditure per kg o f fuel oil :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power per Kg o f fuel oil

= 703-72 x 60 x 240 = 10,556 kJ/kg

320 x 60
(2) Mass of jacket cooling water used per kg of fuel oil = — — -— = 80 kg.

Heat lost to cylinder jacket cooling water per kg o f fuel oil '
= 80 x 4-187 x 40 = 13,398 kJ/kg.
140 x 60
(3) Mass of piston cooling oil used per kg o f fuel oil =— — = 35 kg

Heat lost to piston cooling oil per kg of fuel oil = 35x 2-1 x 28 =2,058 kJ/kg
(4) Mass of water circulated in exhaust gas calorimeter per kg of fuel oil
300 x 60 .
240 9
Heat lost to exhaust gases per kg o f fuel oil = 75 x 4-187 x 42 = 13,189 kJ/kg
(5) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. per kg o f fuel oil (by difference)
= 44,000 - (10,556 + 13,398 + 2,058 + 13,189) = 4,789 kJ/kg

Heat balance sheet per kg o f fuel oil

Heat supplied per kg of fuel oil kJ Heat expenditure per kg of fuel oil kJ
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel oil 44,000 (1) Heat equivalent of brake power 10,566
(2) Heat lost to jacket cooling water 13,398
(3) Heat lost to piston cooling oil 2,058
(4) Heat lost to exhaust gases ( wet ) 13,189
(5) Heat lost to radiation, errors of 4,789
observation, etc. (by difference)
Total 44,000 Total 44,000

Problem - 6 : A single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle gas engine o f 25 cm bore and 36

cm stroke, with hit and miss governing, was tested with the following results :
Duration of trial, one hour; net load on the brake, 1,200 newtons; effective radius of
the brake wheel, 0.6 metre; total number of revolutions, 14,400; total number of explosions,
6,600; mean effective pressure from indicator diagram, 700 kPa; gas used, 13 7 m3 at
normal temperature ( 0°C ) and pressure ( 760 mm Hg ); calorific value o f gas at normal
temperature and pressure, 20,000 kJ/m3 ; mass o f cooling water passing through the
jacket, 600 kg; temperature of jacket cooling water at inlet 15°C and at outlet 50°C; mass
of exhaust gases, 210 kg; temperature o f exhaust gases, 400°C; room temperature, 15°C;
mean specific heat of exhaust gases 1 kJ/kg K.
Calculate the thermal efficiency on indicated power and brake power basis, and draw
up a heat balance sheet for the test on one minute basis in kJ and as percentages of
the heat supplied to the engine.
Brake power = ( W - S ) x R x 2 j i x N watts
14 400
= 1,200 x 0-6 x 2 x 3-14 x = 18,086 watts or 18-086 kW
o.oOO
186 Elements of Heat Engines Vol.
Indicated power * pm x a x I x n watts
2 .
TC /25\ 36 6,600
(700 x 103) x X . j-. j-J
4 100 _ 100 3,600
m 26,666 watts or 26-666 kW

Indicated therm al efficiency - lnd lca lf P°w ef « M S 9

' Vg X C.V.
26 666 x 3,600
- 0-2978 or 2978%
13-7 x 20,000
Brake thermal efficiency - Brake power x 3 , 600
1 Vg X C.V.
18 086 x 3,600
0-2376 or 2376%
13-7 x 20,000
Heat supplied per minute :
13-7
Heat in gas supplied X 20,000 - 4,566-67 kJ/min.
60
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power - 18 086 x 60 * 1,085-16 kJ/min.
(2) Heat carried away by jacket cooling water
600
x 4-187 (50 - 15) = 1,465-45 kJ/min.
60
(3) Heat carried away by exhaust gases (wet)
210
x 1 x (400 - 15) = 1,347-4 kJ/min.
60
(4) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. (by difference)
= 4,566-67 - ( 1,085-16 + 1,465-45 + 1,347-4 ) = 668-66 kJ/min.
Heat balance sheet in kJ per minute
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %
Heat supplied by com* 4,566-67 100 (1) Heat equivalent of 1,085-16 23-77
bustion of gas brake power
(2) Heat lost to jacket 1,465-45 32-09
cooling water
(3) Heat lost to exhaust 1,347-4 29-51
gases (wet)
(4) Heat lost to radia- 668-66 14.63
tion, errors of obser-
vation,etc. (by
difference)
Total 4,566-67 100 Total 4,566 67 100-00

Problem - 7 : The following observations were made during a trial o f a single-cylind6r,

'four-stroke cycle gas engine having cylinder bore 15 cm and stroke 24 cm :
Duration of trial ... one hour
Engine speed ... 5 r.p.s.
Total number o f explosions ... 8,880
Mean effective pressure ... 590 kPa
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 187
Net load on brake 350 newtons
Effective diameter o f brake wheel . 0-9 metre
Total gas consumption at N.T.P. . 4.5 m3
Calorific value o f gas at N.T.P. . 18,000 kJ/m3
Density o f gas at N.T.P. . 0-97 kg/m3
Total air consumed . 4 7 5 rrt3
Density o f air at N.T.P. . 1293 kg/m3
Pressure o f air . 725 mm Hg
Temperature o f air . 15°C
Temperature of exhaust gases . 350°C
Specific heat o f exhaust gases . 1.05 kJ/kg K
Mass o f jacket cooling water . 165 kg
Rise in temperature o f jacket cooling water ...34°C
Calculate the mechanical and the overall efficiency. Also draw up a heat balance
sheet on one minute basis.
8 880
Number of explosions per minute - * - = 1 4 8

Indicated power = pm x a x / x n kW

= 590 x [0-7854 x (0-15)2 ] x 0-24 x = 6-172 kW

Brake power - (W - S ) x n D x N = 350 x n x 0-9 x 5 = 4,948 watts = 4.948 kW

Mechanical efficiency, rim , ^ P°W6r

Indicated power - H I ; - 0-8017 or 80-17%
6-172
Heat supplied per minute :
4-5 3
Gas used per minute = — = 0-075 m
DU
Heat in gas supplied per minute = 0-075 x 18,000 = 0 ,3 5 0 kJ/min.
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power per min. = 4-948 x 60 = 296-9 kJ/min.
(2) Heat carried away by jacket coolinq water per minute
165
x 4-187 x 34 = 391-5 kJ/min.
60
(3) Absolute pressure of air, p i m 725 mm of Hg;
Absolute temperature of air, Ti = 15 + 273 = 288 K;
Volume of air consumed per hour, v\ = 47-5 m3.
Volume of air consumed per hour at 760 mm Hg and 0°C (N.T.P.), v2 is to be J *
determined.
p iv i pzvz
Now, .-. Volume of air used per hour at 760 mm Hg and 0°C (N.T.P.),

V2 = v\ x — x = 47-5 x x = 42-9 m3 per'hour.

PZ 11 / dU doo
:. Mass of air used Der minute,
188 Elements of Heat Engines Vol.
42-9
/T7i = density of air at N.T.P. x v2 - 1-293 x = 0-927 kg.
60
Mass of gas consumed per minute, m2 = 0-97 x 0075 = 0-0728 kg.
.-. Mass of exhaust gases produced per minute,
mg = m j + m2 = 0-927 + 0-0728 = 0-9998 kg. 0
Heat lost to exhaust gases per minute (wet)
= mg x sp. heat of exhaust gases x (exhaust gas temp. - room temp.)
= 0-9998 x 1-05 x (350 - 15) = 351-7 kJ/min.
(4) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. (obtained by difference)
= 1,350 - ( 296-9 + 391-5 + 351-7 ) = 309-9 kJ/min.
Heat balance sheet in kJ per minute
Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/m in. kJ
Heat supplied by combustion of gas 1,350 (1) Heat equivalent of brake power 296-9
(2) Heat lost to jacket cooling water 391-5
(3) Heat lost to exhaust gases ( wet ) 351 -7
(4) Heat lost to radiation, errors of 309.9
observation, etc. (by difference)
Toted 1,350 Total 1,350
i, ~s . /u i i xc * vBrake power heat equivalent in kJ per hr.
Overall efficiency ( brake thermal efficiency ) = ---------^ . . .------ — c------
Heat supplied in kJ per hr.
4-948 x 3,600
= 0-22 or 22%
4-5 x 18,000
Problem - 8 : A single-cylinder, 4-stroke cycle gas engine o f 20 cm bore and 38
cm stroke, with hit and miss governing, was tested with the following results :
Barometer, 720 mm of Hg; Atmospheric and gas temperatures, 17°C; Gas consumption
0153 m3/minute at 8 8 mm of water above atmospheric pressure; Calorific value of gas
18,000 kJ/m3 at N.T.P.; Density of gas 0.61 kg/m at N.T.P.; Hydrogen content in gas,
13% on mass basis; A ir used, 145 kg per minute; Kp of dry exhaust gases, 105 kJ/kgK;
Exhaust gas temperature, 400°C; Kp of
steam, 21 kJ/kg K :
M.E.P. - Positive loop = 560 kPa at firing;
M.E.P. - Negative loop = 26 5 kPa at firing;
M.E.P. - Negative loop = 36 7 kPa at
missing;
Speed, 285 r.p.m., Explosions per min-
ute, 114; Brake-torque, 335 N.m; Cylinder
jacket cooling water, 4 5 kg/minute; Rise
in temperature of jacket cooling water,
40°C.
Calculate the percentages of the in-
dicated power which are used for pumping
and for mechanical friction, and draw up
a percentage heat balance sheet.
The p -v diagram ( fig. 7-5 ) consists
of two enclosed areas. The negative loop,
Fig. 7-5. t
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 189
i.e. smaller enclosed area dea gives the pumping loss due to admission of fresh charge
and removal of exhaust gases. The larger area abed ( positive loop ) represents the
gross work done by the piston during the cycle ( when firing ). The negative loop work
( indicated power) is to be deducted from the gross work ( indicated power) developed
to get the net work done ( indicated power ). The pumping loop (negative loop ) is
shown much exaggerated in the fig. 7-5.
Indicated power - pm x a x I x n kW
(where n = no. of explosions per sec.)
Positive loop indicated power or gross indicated power when firing ( hit )

= 560 x [ 0-7854 x (0-2)2 ] x 0-38 x ^ • 12-702 kW

Negative loop indicated power or pumping Indicated power when firing ( hit )

= 26-5 x [ 0-7854 x (0-2)2 ] x 0-38 x ~ = 0-601 kW

Indicated power = pm x I x a x m (where m = no. of missed explosions/sec.)

Negative loop indicated poweror pumping indicated power when not firing (miss)

= 36-7 x ^ x J (7 ^ :) x (H I - = 0-208 kW
100 4 ^100j ^120 60 j
Hence, total pumping indicated power(when firing and not firing)
= 0-601 + 0-208 = 0-809 kW
Hence, pumping indicated power is

x 100 = 6-37% of positive loop indicated power or gross indicated power

12*702 v
fndicated power (net) developed = Positive loop indicated power ( or gross indicated
power ) - total pumping indicated power
= 12-702 - 0-809 = 11-893 kW

Brake power = 2k x N x T - 2k x —— x 335 = 9,998 watts = 9-998 kW

Friction power = Indicated power (net) - brake power = 11-893 - 9-998 = 1-895 kW
Hence, mechanical friction power is,

1 V 7 0 2 x 100 = 14-92% of positive loop indicated power or gross indicated power

Heat supplied per minute :

g.Q _
Gas pressure, pi = —— + 720 = 720-646 mm of Hg; vi = 0-153 m ; 7j = 290 K;
lO’O
P2 = 760 mm of Hg; T2 = 273 K; V2 is to be determined.
Now, o, » _ .
n 12 pz x 7i

N.T.P. gas consumption, V2 = " 7602x*29()X 273 = 0138 m3 min-

Heat supplied = 0-138 x 18,000 = 2,484 kJ/min.
Heat expenditure per minute :
(1) Heat equivalent of brake power = 9-998 x 60 = 600 kJ/min.
 190 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
(2) Heat lost to jacket cooling water = 4-5 x 4-187 x 40 = 753-7 kJ/min.
(3) Mass of fuel gas 0-138 x 0-61 = 0-0842 kg/min, mass of air = 1-45 kg/min.
(given).
Mass of exhaust gases (including water vapour) = 1-45 + 0-0842 = 1-5342 kc^min.
Now, mass of water vapour (steam) of combustion per min.
= (9H2) x mass of fuel gas per min. - (9 x 0-13) x 0-0842 = 0-0985 kg/min.
Hence, mass of dry exhaust gases per min.
= mass of wet exhaust gases/min. - mass of water vapour/min.
= 1-5342 - 0-0985 = 1-4357 kg/min.
Heat lost to dry exhaust gases per min. = 1-4357 x 1-05 x (400 - 17) - 577-4
kJ/min.
(4) Assuming the partial pressure of the water vapour as 0-07 bar,
at 0-07 bar, Hs = 2,572-5 kJ/kg, ts = 39°C (from steam tables).
Enthalpy of 1 kg of water vapour = Hs + Kp (t sup - ts) - h
- 2,572-5 + 2-1 (400 - 39) - (17 x 4-187) « 3,259-4 kJ per kg
Heat lost to water vapour (steam) per min.
= mass of steam formed per min x enthalpy of one kg of steam
= 0-0985 x 3,259-4 = 321 kJ/min.
(5) Heat lost to radiation, errors of observation, etc. (obtained by difference) per min.
= 2,484 - ( 600 + 753-7 + 577-4 + 321 ) = 231-9 kJ/min.
Heat balance sheet in kJ per minute
Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min kJ %
Heat supplied by 2,484 100 ,, (1) To brake power 600 24-15
combustion of gas (2) To jacket cooling 7537 30.34
water
(3) To dry exhaust gases 577-4 23-25
(4) To steam 321 12-92
(5) To radiation, errors 231 9 9.34
of observation, etc.
( by difference )
Total 2,484 100 Total 2,484 100

Problem - 9 : A single-cylinder, four-stroke, gas engine with explosion in every cycle,

used 0-23 m3/min. of gas during a test. The pressure and temperature o f gas at the
meter being 75 mm o f water and 17°C respectively. The calorific value o f the gas is
18,800 kJ/m3 at N.T.P. The air consumption was 2 8 5 kg/min. The barometer reading
was 743 mm of Hg. The bore of cylinder is 25 cm and stroke 48 cm. The engine is
running at 240 r.p.m.
Estimate the volumetric efficiency of the engine relative to air at N.T.P. (a) taking air
and gas mixture into account, and (b) taking air only into account. Assume the volume
per kg of air at N.T.P. as 07734 m .
75
Absolute pressure of gas at the meter = 743 + = 743 + 5-51 = 748-51 mm of Hg.
3
Gas used per min. at 748-51 mm of Hg and 17°C is 0-23 m
Gas used per min. at N.T.P. (760 mm Hg and 0°C)

i
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 191

- 0,23 * x (2732? 17) = 0 213 m3 P® m ia

Volume of gas used per stroke at N.T.P. = » 0 00178 m

Now, volume of air used per stroke at N.T.P. = x 0-7734 = 0 01836 m3

' 120
a Volume of air-gas mixture used per stroke at N.T.P.
= 0 01836 + 0 00178 = 0 02014 m3
Now, stroke volume (swept volume per stroke)

- T i ' Me3Sm>
(a) Considering that the cylinder is occupied by air-gas mixture,
... . „. . Volume of air-gas mixture per stroke at N.T.P.
Volumetric efficiency = -------------- -—= -— J---------r _ ,----------------
7 Swept volume per stroke
002014
- 00236 ’ a847 ° r M 7 %
(b) Considering that the cylinder is occupied by air only,
. Volume of air per stroke at N.T.P.
Volumetric efficiency = ------=— —— P------------— --------
Swept volume per stroke

= " 7" ^ = 0-779 or 77-9% *

0-0236
Problem - 10 : The following results were obtained during a Morse test on a
four-stroke cycle petrol engine :
Brake power developed with all cylinders working .. 1&2 kW
Brake power developed with cylinder No.1 cut-out .. 115 kW
Brake power developed with cylinder No.2 cut-out m 116 kW
Brake power developed with cylinder No.3 cut-out .. 11 68 kW
Brake power developed with cylinder No.4 cut-out .* 1157 kW
Calculate the mechanical efficiency of the engine. What is the indicated thermal
efficiency o f the engine, if the engine uses 7 litres o f petrol per hour o f calorific value
of 42,000 kJ/kg and the specific gravity o f petrol is 0-72 ?
When one cylinder is cut-out, the net brake power that we obtain at the shaft is less
than the sum of brake power developed by each of the three cylinders, because out of
the total brake power developed, some brake power is used , in overcoming the friction
of the cylinder that is cut-out.
Let B i, B2, B3 and 64 be the brake power of cylinder No. 1,2,3 and 4 respectively,
and Fu F2, F3, and F4 be the friction power of cylinder No. 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
Then, total brake power of the engine is
B1 + B2 + B3 + 64 =16-2 kW with all cylinders working ... (a)
- F1 + B2+ B3 + B4 = 11-5 kW with cylinder No. 1 cut-out ... (b)
B1 - F2 + B3 + B4 = 11-6 kW with cylinder No. 2 cut-out ...(c)
B1 + B2 - F3 + B4 m 11-68 kW with cylinder No. 3 cut-out ... (d)
B1 + B2 + B3 - F4 = 1 1 -57 kW with cylinder No. 4 cut-out ... (e)
 192 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Subtracting by turn (b), (c), (d) and (e) from (a), we get,
B i + F i = 16*2 —11*5 = 4-70 kW Indicated poweri
B2 + F2 = 16*2 —11-6 = 4-60 kW Indicated power2
B3 + F3 = 16-2 —11*68 = 4*52 kW Indicated powers
B4 + F4 = 16*2 —11*57 = 4*63 kW Indicated powe.r4
Total indicated power developed = 18*45 kW

Mechanical efficiency, - i f ! " 0878 “ 878,4

Indicated thermal efficiency. ,,, - ~ 3,6° °

18*45 x 3,600 _ 0.3138 „ 31 38%

(7 x 0-72) x 42,000
T u to ria l-7
1. Delete the phrase which is not apfdicable in the following statements :
(i) Indicated power of an I.C. engine is greater/smaller than brake power.
, Brake power , Indicated power
(in Mechanical efficiency of an engine is -— \ ------------------ / —- —- --------
Indicated power Brake power
(iii) Indicated power of an I.C. engine is measured by an indicator / a dynamometer.
(iv) Brake power of an I.C.engine is measured by an indicator / a dynamometer.
(v) Morse test enables us to find the indicated power of a single-cylinder/a multi-cylinder I.C. engine without
using an indicator.
N
(vi) Number of cycles per min. in case of a four-stroke cycle, I.C. engine is equal to — / N, where N is
r.p.m. of the engine.
(vii) In case of a supercharged I.C. engine, the pressure during the suction stroke is higher/lower than the
existing atmospheric pressure.
(viii) The quantity of burnt gases left in the two-stroke cycle I.C. engine cylinder is more/less than that left
in the four-stroke cycle engine cylinder.
(ix) The warm-up performance of an air-cooled I.C. engine is poor/good as compared to a water-cooled
engine.
(x) For an I.C. engine, friction power increases/decreases with increase in the speed of the engine.

I Delete : (i) smaller, (ii) P°Ver, (iii) a dynamo-

1 Brake power
meter, (iv) an indicator, (v) a single-cylinder, (vi) N, (vii)
lower, (viii) less, (ix) poor, (x) decreases ]
2. Fill in the blanks in the following statements :
(i) The ratio of brake power to indicated power of an I.C. engine is known as _______ efficiency.
(ii) Two-stroke cycle I.C. engine gives one working stroke for every _______ revolution of the crankshaft.
(iii) Complete actual indicator diagram of an I.C. engine consists o f _______ loops.
(iv) In Diesel engines due to higher compression ratio, the temperature at the end of compression is
sufficient to _______ the fuel oil which is injected at the end of compression stroke.
(v) In petrol engine using fuel having fixed octane rating, increese in compression ratio will ^_______ the
knocking tendency.
[ (i) mechanical, 09 one, (iii) two, (iv) ignite, (v) increase j
3. Indicate the correct answer by selecting the proper phrase in the following :
(i) More test is used to determine the mechanical efficiency of
(a) single-cylinder S.I. engine, (b) single-cylinder C.l. engine, (c) multi-cylinder I.C. engine.
(ii) An I.C. engine will develop maximum torque when rt :
(a) develops maximum power, (b) runs at maximum speed, (c) runs at speed lower than that
at which maximum power is developed.
(iii) For part load operation,
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 193
(a) C.l. engine is economical, (b) S.I. engine is economical, (c) both of the above engines are
equally economical, (d) none of the above.
(iv) The automobile engines generally utilise batteries having voltage of :
(a) 3 V, (b) 6 V, (c) 12 V, (d) 24 V. '
(v) In a Diesel engine, fi'ai injection pressure required is approximately :
(a) 25 bar, (b) 100 bar, (c) 500 bar, (d) 1,000 bar.
(vi) For same power and same speed, theflywheel of a four-stroke cycle I.C. engine as compared to
two-stroke cycle I.C. engine will be :
\a) smaller, (b) bigger, (c) of the same size.
(vii) For a four-stroke cycle I.C. engine thereis :
(a) one power stroke for every one revolution of the crankshaft,
(b) one power stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft,
(c) one power stroke for every four revolutions of the crankshaft,
(d) one power stroke for every half revolution of the crankshaft
(viii) Brake specific fuel consumption of a Diesel engine is generally :
(a) less than that of a petrol engine,
(b) more than*that of a petrol engine,
(c) equal to that of a petrol engine,
(d) unpredictable.
fix) In petrol engines using petrol of fixed octane number, i.x.ease in compression ratio will :
(a) increase the knocking tendency,
(b) decrease the knocking tendency,
(c) have no effect on the knocking tendency.
(x) A petrol engine develops maximum power when it is supplied with air-fuel ratio of :
(a) 17.5 to 18.5, (b) 16 to 17, (c) 12.5 to 13-5, (d) 10-5 to 11-5
[ (0 c, (ii) c, (iii) a, (iv) c, (v) b, (vi) b, (vii) b, (viii) a, (ix) a, (x) c ]
4. Describe briefly how you would conduct the indicated power test on a small I.C. engine, listing clearly all
the observations you would take.
The following observations were recorded during a trial of a four-stroke cycle, single-cylinder oil
engine : Duration of trial, 30 min.; Oil consumption, 5.5 litres; Calorific value of oil, 42,000 kJ/kg; Specific
gravity of oil, 0.8; Average area of the indicator diagram, 8-4 cm2; Length of indicator diagram, 8-4 cm;
Indicator spring scale, 550 kPa/cm; Brake bad, 1,700 newtons; Spring balance reading, 200 newtons;
Effective brake wheel diameter, 1-5 metres; Speed, 200 r.p.m.; Cylinder diameter, 30 cm; Stroke,. 45 cm;
Jacket cooling water, 11 kg per minute; Temperature rise of cylinder jacket cooling water, 36*C.
Calculate : (a) the indicated power, (b) the brake power, (c)' the mechanical efficiency, (d) the
specific fuel consumption in kg/kW-hr. based on brake power, and (e) the indicated thermal efficiency.
Draw up a heat balance sheet for the test on one minute basis in kJ.
I (a) 29-158 kW; (b) 23 562 kW; (c) 80-11% ; (d) 0-372 kg per kW-hr.; (e) 28-4% ]

Heat supplied per min. kJ Heat expenditure/mifl. kJ

Heat supplied by combustion of fuel 6,160 (1) To Brake power 1,413.7
(2) To Jacket cooling water 1,658-1
(3) To exhaust,radiation,errors of 3,088-2
observation,etc. (by difference)
Total 6,160 Total 6,160-0
5. Describe briefly how you would conduct the brake power test on a small I.C. engine, listing clearly all the
observations you would take.
During the trial of a single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle oil engine, the following results were obtained : Cylinder
diameter, 20 cm; Stroke, 40 cm; Indicated mean effective pressure, 600 kPa; Brake-torque, 415 N.m; Speed,
250 r.p.m.; Oil consumption, 5-25 litres per hour; Specific gravity of oil, 0-8; Calorific value of the fuel oil,
47,500 kJ/kg; Jacket cooling water, 4-5 kg per minute; Rise in temperature of jacket cooling water, 50*C;
Air used per kg of oil, 31 kg; Temperature of exhaust gases, 400*C, Room temperature, 20*C; M6 an
specific heat of exhaust gases, 1-005 kJ/kg K.
Calculate, the indicated power, the brake power and the brake mean effective pressure and draw up a
194 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/min. What are the principal heat losses which are not accounted for
in the heat balance sheet ?.
__________________________________________ [ 15.708 kW; 10-865 kW; 415 kPa J
Heat supplied/min. ia .. Heat expenditure/min. kJ
I^dat supplied by combustion of fuel 3,325 ( 1) .To Brake power 651-9
' . (2) To jacket cooling water 942.1
(3) To exhaust gases (wet) 855-5
(4) To radiation, errors of observation, 875.5
etc. (by difference)
Total 3,325 Total 3,325-0
6 . A trial carried out on a four-stroke cycle, single-cylinder oil engine working on Otto cycle gave the following
results :
Cylinder diameter, 18 cm; stroke, 36 cm; Clearance volume, 1,830 cm3; Speed, 280 r.p.m.; Area of indicator
diagram, 4-25 cm8; Length of indicator diagram, 6-25 cm; Spring strength, 1,000 kPa/cm; Net brake lo
600 newtons; Effective brake wheel diameter, 1-2 m; Fuel used per hour, 4-25 litres; Specific gravity of
fuel oil, 0-8; Calorific value of fuel oil, 43,000 kJ/kg; Mass of Jacket cooling water, 7 kg/min; Rise in
temperature of Jacket cooling water, 27*C; Air used per kg of fuel, 34 kg; Exhaust gas temperature, 410*C;
Room temperature, 30*C; Specific heat of exhaust gases, 1-005 kJ/kg K.
Calculate : (a) the mechanical efficiency, (b) the indicated thermal efficiency,(c) the air-standard efficiency,
and (d) the relative efficiency. Assume y = 1-4 for air.
Draw up a heat balance sheet for the test in kJ/min.
I (a) T)m = 72-62% ; (b) t)/ = 35-79% ; (c) A.S.E. = 51-15% ; (d) t|r = 69-97% J

Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ

Heat supplied by combustion of fuel 2,436-7 (1) To Brake power 633-4
(2) To Jacket cooling water 791-3
(3) To exhaust gases (wet) 757-4
(4) To radiation, errors of observation, 254.6
. etc. (by difference)
Total 2,436-7 Total 2,4367
7. In a test of an oil engine under full load condition the following results were obtained : indicated power,
33 kW; brake power, 26 kW; Fuel used, 10-5 litres per hour; Calorific value of fuel of oil, 43,000 kJ per
kg; Specific gravity of fuel oil, 0 -8 ; Inlet and outlet temperatures of cylinder jacket cooling water, 15*C and
70*C; Rate of flow of cylinder jacket cooling water, 7 kg per minute; Inlet and outlet temperatures of water
to exhaust gas calorimeter, 15*C and 55*C; Rate of flow of water through exhaust gas calorimeter, 12-5
kg per minute; Final temperature of exhaust gases, 82*C; Room temperature, 17*C; Air-fuel ratio on mass
basis, 20; Mean specific heat of exhaust gases including water vapour, 1-005 kJ/kg K. Draw up a heat
balance sheet for the test in kJ per minute and estimate the thermal and mechanical efficiencies.
[ 11/ = 32-89%; t\b = 2591%; rjm = 78-79% ]

Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ

Heat supplied by combustion of fuel oil 6,020 (1) To Brake power 1,560
(2) To jacket cooling water 1,612
(3) To exhaust gases (wet) 2,285-6
(4) To radiation,errors of obser- • 562-4
vation.etc. (by difference)
Total 6,020 Total 6,020•
8 . A six-cylinder, four-stroke cycle, Diesel engine of 34 cm diameter and 38 cm stroke, gave the following
results : r.p.m. 350; brake power 175 kW; i.m.e.p. 380 kPa; fuel used per hour 54 litres of calorific value
44,800 kJ/kg; specific gravity of fuel oil 0-815; hydrogen content in fuel 14% on mass basis; air consumption
38 kg/min.; jacket cooling water used 60-2 kg/min. with a temperature rise of 31*C; piston cooling oil of
specific heat 2-1 kJ/kg K used, 32 kg/min. with a temperature rise of 20*C; exhaust gas temperature 190*C;
room temperature 20*C; specific heat of dry exhaust gases 1-005 kJ/kg K; kp of steam in exhaust gases
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 195
2 kJ/kg K; partial pressure of steam in exhaust gases 0-07 bar. Calculate the mechanical efficiency of the
engine and draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ per miqute indicating, the items which may include friction
losses.
[ rim = 76-8%

Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ

Heat supplied by combustion of fuel 32,860 . (1) To brake power 10,500.0
* (2) To jacket cooling water 7,813-8
* (3) To piston cooling oil 1,344-0
* (4) To dry exhaust gases 6,460-4
* (5) To steam in exhaust gases 2,579-3
* (6) To radiation .errors of observation, 4,162-5
etc. (by difference)
Total 32,860 Total 32,860

* These items may include friction. ]

9 . A four-stroke cycle gas engine has a cylinder diameter of 27 cm and piston stroke of 45 cm. The effective
diameter of the brake wheel is 1-62 metres. The observations made in a test of the engine were as follows:
Duration of test 40 minutes; Total no. of revolutions 8,080; Total no of explosions 3,230; Net load on the
brake 920 newtons; Indicated mean effective pressure 575 kPa; Gas used 7-7 m3 ; Pressure of gas at
meter 130 mm of water above atmospheric pressure; Gas temperature 15’C; Height of barometer 750 mm
of Hg; Calorific value’ of gas, 19,500 kJ/m3 at normal temperature ( 0’C ) and pressure ( 760 mm Hg);
Mass of jacket cooling water 183 kg; Rise in temperature of jacket cooling water 50*C.
Calculate the indicated power, brake power and draw up a heat balance sheet for the test in k j per minute.
{ 19-938 kW; 15.764 kW ]

Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ

Heat supplied by combustion of gas 3,556 8 (1) To brake power 945-8
(2) To jacket cooling water 957-8
(3) To exhaust,radiation,errors of 1,653-2
observation,etc. (by difference)
Total 3,5568 Total 3,556 8
t— .....■- - ........................................ .... . ... *3
10. The following results were obtained in a test on a gas engine : Gas used 0-125 m per minute at N.T.P.;
Calorific value of gas 16,700 kJ/m3 at N.T.P.; Density of gas 0-64 kg per m3 at N.T.P.; Air used 1-52 kg
per minute; Specific heat of exhaust gases 1-005 kJ/kg K; Temperature of exhaust gases 397*C; Room
temperature 17*C; Jacket cooling water per minute 6 kg; Rise in temperature of Jacket cooling water 26’C;
Indicated power 9-51 kW; Brake power 7-5 kW. Calculate the mechanical efficiency of the engine and draw
up a heat balance sheet for the trial on one minute basis in kJ.
[ r»m = 78 95% J

Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ

Heat supplied by combustion of gas 2,087-5 (1) To Brake power 450
(2) To jacket cooling water 653.2
(3) To exhaust gases (wet) 611
(4) To radiation, errors of observation, 373.3
etc. (by difference)
Total 2,087-5 Total 2,087-5
11. Describe briefly the method of determining the indicated power of a multi-cylinder petrol engine by cutting
out one cylinder at a time. State the assumptions made.
A four-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine is running on a brake having a radius of 1 metre. When all the
four cylinders are firing, the r.p.m. is 1,400. The net brake load is 145 newtons. When spark plug of each
cylinder is short circuited in turn, the net loads on the brake are 100, 103, 102 and 99.5 newtons respectively.
The speed is maintained constant throughout the test. Estimate the indicated power and mechanical efficiency
of the engine when all the cylinders are firing. If the cylinder bore is 9 cm and stroke is 12 cm, what is
14
196 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
brake mean effective pressure ? [ 25-73 kW; 82-65% ; 596-3 kPa ]
12. During a trial on a single-cylinder oil engine having cylinder diameter of 30 cm., stroke 45 cm, and working
on the four-stroke cycle, the following observations were made :
Duration of trial one hour; total fuel oil used 8-1 kg; calorific value of fuel oil 44,800 kJ/kg; total no. of
revolutions 12,600; mean effective pressure 690 kPa; net load on thebrake 1,550 newtons; diameter of
the brake wheel drum 1-78 metres; thickness of the brake belt 2 cm; jacket cooling water circulated 550
litres; inlet temperature of cooling water 16*C; outlet temperature of cooling water 61 *C. Estimate the indicated
thermal efficiency and brake thermal efficiency of engine. Draw up a percentage heat balance sheet for
the trial.
I i]i = 38-1%; T)6 = 30-34% J
Heat supplied per minute kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %
Heat supplied by 6,048 100 (1) To brake power 1.839.7 30.41
combustion of fuel oil
(2) To jacket cooling 1.727.7 28.56
water
(3) To exhaust,radiation, 2,480-6 41-03
errors of observa-
tions,etc. (by
difference)
Total 6,048 100 Total 6,048 100
13. A trial of one hour duration on a petrol engine gave the following results :
Brake power 15 kW; Petrol consumption 6-4 litres; Specific gravity of petrol 0-74; Hydrogen content in
petrol 15% on mass basis; Calorific value of petrol 44,400 kJ/kg; Fuel air-ratio 1 : 1 5 ; Temperature of
exhaust gases 415*C; Room temperature 27*C; Specific heat of dry exhaust gases 1-005 kJ/kg K; Partial
pressure of steam in exhaust gases 0-07 bar; Kp of steam 2-1 kJ/kg K; Mass of water passing through
the cylinder jackets 270 litres; Rise in temperature of jacket cooling water 50*C.
At the end of the trial the engine was motored and the input power was 4 kW. Calculate the mechanical
efficiency of engine and draw up a heat balance sheet for the trial on one minute basis and as percentage
of the heat supplied to the engine.
[i)m = 78-95% ]

Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %

Heat supplied by (1) To brake power 900 25 68
combustion of fuel oil 3,504-6 100 (2) To jacket cooling 942-1 26 88
water
(3) To dry exhaust gases 450-8 1286
(4) To steam in exhaust 3476 992
gases
(5) To radiation,errors of 864-1 24 66
observation, etc.
(by difference)
Total 3,504-6 100 Total 3,5046 100
14. A single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle gas engine has a bore to stroke ratio of 250/380 mm. During the trial
the following results were noted :
Duration of trial 60 minutes; Effective brake load 1,300 newtons: Effective circumference of the brake
wheel 3-8 metres; Total no. of revolutions 13,500; Total no. of explosions 6,000; Indicated m.e.p. 700 kPa;
Total fuel gas used 16 m3; Temperature of fuel gas 15‘C; Pressure of fuel gas above atmospheric pressure
200 mm of water; Barometer reading 742 mm of Hg; Calorific value of fuel gas at N.T.P. (0*C and 760
mm of Hg) 20,500 kJ/m3; Density of fuel gas at N.T.P. 0 8 kg/m3; Hydrogen content in fuel gas on mass
basis 14%; Total mass of air used 210 kg; Exhaust gas temperature 400’ C: Specific heat of dry exhaust
gases 1 005 kJ/kg K; Kp of steam 2-1 kJAg K; Total mass of cylinder jacket cooling water 600 kg: Rise
in temperature of jacket cooling water 35’C.
Draw up a heat balance sheet on one minute basis and as percentages of the heat supplied to the
engine, assuming that the steam in the exhaust gases is at atmospheric pressure. Also calculate the
indicated power, brake power and mechanical efficiency of the engine.
[ 21 762 kW; 18-525 kW; 85-13 %)
 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines 197

Heat supplied/min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %

Heat supplied by (1) To brake power 1,111-5 21-54
combustion of gas 5,160 100 (2) To jacket cooling 1,465-5 28-41
water
(3) To dry exhaust gases 1,334 25 85
(4) To steam in exhaust 8226 15-94
gases
(5) To radiation,errors of 426-4 826
observation, etc.
(by difference)
Total 5,160 100 Total 5,160 100
15. The following observations were made during a trial of a single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle gas engine having
cylinder diameter 18 cm and stroke 24 cm :
Duration of trial one hour; Total number of revolutions 18,000; Total number of explosions 8,800; i.m.e.p.
590 kPa; Net load on the brake wheel 400 newtons; Effective diameter of brake wheel 1 metre; Total gas
used at N.T.P. 4-5 m3 •Calorific value of gas at N.T.P. 18,800 kJ/m3; Density of gas at N.T.P. 0-96 kg/m3;
Total air used 71-25 m ; Pressure of air 720 mm of Hg; Temperature of air 15*C; Density of air at N.T.P.
1-293 kg/m3; Temperature of exhaust gases 350*C; Room temperature 15*C; Specific heat of exhaust gases
1-005 kJ/kg K; Total mass of cylinder jacket cooling water 160 kg; Rise in temperature of jacket cooling
water 35*C.
Calculate the mechanical efficiency and indicated thermal efficiency of the engine. Also draw up a heat
balance sheet in kJ on one minute basis.
[ rim = 70-68%; T)/- 37-83% ]

Heat supplied./min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ

Heat supplied by (1) To brake power 3770
combustion of gas 1,410 (2) To jacket cooling water 3908
(3) To exhaust gases (wet) 488 5
(4) To radiation,errors of 153-7
observation, etc. (by difference)
Total 1,410 Total 1,410-0
16. The following reading were taken during a test on single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle oil engine :
Cylinder diameter . 280 mm
Stroke length . 425 mm
Gross i.m.e.p. .. 724 kPa
Pumping i.m.e.p. . 40 kPa
Engine speed . 200 r.p.m.
Net load on the brake . 1,300 newtons
Effective diameter of the brake . 1,6 meters
Fuel oil uSed per hour . 9 kg
Calorific value of fuel oil . 42,000 kJ/kg
Rate of jacket cooling water per minute . 11 kg
Temperature rise of jacket cooling water . 36*C
Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel oil ■ 35 kg
Temperature of exhaust gases . 375‘C
Room temperature . 15*C
Hydrogen content in fuel on mass basis . 14%
Partial pressure of steam in exhaust gases . 0 07 bar
198 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Mean specific heat of dry exhaust gases ... 1 005 kJ/kg K
Kp of steam ... 2-1 kJ/kg K
Draw up a heat balance sheet in kJ/minute, indicating which items may include friction losses. Calculate also
the indicated power, brake power, mechanical efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency and overall efficiency
of the engine.
[29-833 kW; 21-784 kW; i|m = 73% ; i|/= 28-14%; »u>= 20-74%
I
Heat supplied/min. kJ Heat expenditure/min. kJ
Heat supplied by . (1) To Brake power 1,306-9
combustion of fuel oil 6,300 * (2) To jacket cooling water 1,658-1
* (3) To dry exhaust gases 1,885-3
* (4) To steam in exhaust gases 607-7
* (5) To radiation,errors of observa- 842-0 ;
tion.etc. (by difference)
Total 6,300 Total 6,300
* These items may include friction losses ]
17. A four-stroke cycle Diesel oil engine gave Ihe following data during a trial of 50 minutes duration :
Brake power, 37 kW; Fuel used, 10 kg; Calorific value of fuel oil, 46,000 kJ/kg; Air used per kg of
oil, 35; Temperature of exhaust gases, 380°C, Room temperature, 20°C; Specific heat of exhaust gases,
1-005 kJ/kg K; Mass of jacket cooling water circulated, 750 kg; Temperatures of jacket cooling water at
inlet and outlet, 20 SC and 70°C respectively. Draw up a heat balance sheet for the test
(i) in kJ per minute, (ii) in MJ per hour, (iii) in MJ per 50 minutes, and (iv) in kJ per kg of fuel oil.
[ (i) Heat supplied, 9,200; Heat expenditure : To brake power, 2,220; To cooling water, 3,140; To exhaust,
2,605; To radiation, etc. (by diff.), 1,235
(ii) Heat supplied, 552; Heat expenditure : To B.P., 133-2; To cooling water, 188-4; To exhaust, 156-3: To
radiation, etc. (by diff.), 74-1
(iii) Heat supplied, 460; Heat expenditure : To B.P., 111; To cooling water, 157; To exhaust, 130-25; To
radiation, etc. (by diff.), 61-75
(iv) Heat supplied, 46,000; Heat expenditure : To B.P., 11 ,100 ; To cooling water, 15,700; To exhaust,
13,025; To radiation, etc. (by diff.), 6,175 ]
18. A two-stroke oil engine gave the following results at full load : Speed, 6 r.p.s.; Net brake load, 600 newtons;
Effective brake wheel radius, 0-55 metre; Indicated mean effective pressure, 275 kPa; Fuel oil consumption,
4-25 kg per hour; Jacket cooling water, 480 kg per hour; Temperatures of Jacket cooling water at inlet
and outlet, 20 °Cand 45°C; Temperature of exhaust gases, 370°C.
The following data also apply to the above test : Cylinder diameter, 22 cm; stroke, 28 cm; Calorific
value of fuel oil, 42,000 kJ/kg; Hydrogen content in fuel oil, 15% on mass basis; Mean specific heat of
dry exhaust gases, 1 kJ/kg K; Kp of steam, 2-1 kJ/kg K. Assume that the steam in exhaust gases exists
as super-heated steam at atmospheric pressure and at exhaust gas temperature.
Calculate the indicated power, the brake power and draw up a heat balance sheet for the test in
kJ/minute and as percentages of the heat supplied to the engine. Also calculate the indicated thermal
efficiency and brake power fuel consumption in kg/kW-hr.
[ 17-569 kW; 12-434 kW; 35-43%; 0 3418 kg/kW-hr,

Heat supplied per min. kJ % Heat expenditure/min. kJ %

Heat supplied by (1) To brake power 746-04 25-08

combustion of fuel oil 2,975 100 (2) To jacket cooling water 837-4
2 8 ,5
(3) To dry exhaust gases 483 95 16 27
(4) To steam in exhaust gases 302 03 10-15
(5) To radiation,errors of 605 58 2035
observation, etc. (by difference)
2.975 100 Total 2,975 100-00
Total
 8
STEAM NOZZLES
8.1 Introduction
In the impulse steam turbine, the overall transformation of heat into mechanical work
is accomplished in two distinct steps. The available energy of steam is first changed into
kinetic energy, and this kinetic energy is then transformed into mechanical work. The first
of these steps, viz., the transformation of available energy into kinetic energy is dealt
with in this chapter.
A nozzle is a passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the potential energy
of the steam is converted into kinetic energy. The increase of velocity of the steam jet
at the exit of the nozzle is obtained due to decrease in enthalpy (total heat content) of
the steam. The nozzle is so shaped that it will perform this conversion of energy with
minimum loss.
8.2 General Forms of Nozzle Passages
A nozzle is an element whose primary function is to convert enthalpy (total heat)
energy into kinetic energy. When the steam flows through a suitably shaped nozzle from
zone of high pressure to one at low pressure, its velocity and specific volume both will
increase.
The equation of the continuity of mass may be written thus :
...(8.1)

where m m mass flow in kg/sec.,

V = velocity of steam in m/sec.,
A = area of cross-section in m , and
v = specific volume of steam in m3/kg.

In order to allow the expansion to take place properly, the area at any section of
the nozzle must be such that it will accomodate the steam whatever volume and velocity
may prevail at that point.

As the mass flow (m) is same at all sections of the nozzle, area of cross-section
(A) varies as —. The manner in which both V and v vary depends upon the properties
of the substance flowing. Hence, the contour of the passage of nozzle depends upon
the nature of the substance flowing.
For example, consider a liquid- a substance whose specific volume v remains almost
constant with change of pressure. The value of will go on increasing with change of
pressure. Thus, from eqn. (8.1), the area of cross-section should decrease with the
decrease of pressure. Fig. 8-1 (a) illustrates the proper contour of longitudinal section of
200 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
a nozzle suitable for liquid. This also can represent convergent nozzle for a fluid whose
peculiarity is that while both velocity and specific volume increase, the rate of specific
volume increase is less than that of the velocity, thus resulting in increasing value of

v'

Fig. 8-1. General forms of Nozzles.

Fig. 8-1 (b) represents the correct contour for some hypothetical substance for which
both velocity and specific volume increase at the same rate, so that their ratio — is a
v
constant at all points. The area of cross-section should therefore, be constant at all points, •
and the nozzle becomes a plain tube.

Fig. 8-1 (c) represents a divergent nozzle for a fluid whose peculiarity is that —
decreases with the drop of pressure, i.e., specific volume increases at a faster rate than
velocity with the drop of pressure. The area of cross-section should increase as the
pressure decreases.
Table 8-1
Properties of steam at various pressures when expanding dry saturated steam from
14 bar to 0.15 bar through a nozzle, assuming frictionless adiabatic flow.
Pressure Dryness Enthalpy Velocity Specific Discharge Area Diameter
P fraction drop V Volume per unit A D
bar X Hi - HZ m/sec. v» area m2 metre
kJ m3/kg kg/m2

14 1-000 - - - - - -

12 0-988 38-6 278 0-1633 1,723 0-00058 00272

10 0.974 84-1 410 0-1944 2,165 0-00046 0-0242

7 0-950 164-7 574 0-2729 •2,214 0-00045 xO-0239

3-5 0-908 309 786 0-5243 1,651 0-00061 00279

1-5 0-872 441-2 939 1-1593 929 0 0011 0-0374

070 0-840 555-6 1,054 2-365 531 0-00188 0-049

0-15 0-790 736-7 1,214 10-022 153 00065 0091

* Maximum discharge per unit area x Smallest diameter

Fig. 8-1 (d) shows the general shape of convergent-divergent nozzle suitable for gases
and vapours. It can be shown that in practice, while velocity and specific volume both
increase from the start, velocity first increases faster than the specific volume, but after
 Steam Nozzles 201
a certain critical point, specific volume increases more rapidly than velocity. Hence the
V •
yalue of — first increases to maximum and then decreases, necessitating a nozzle of
convergent-divergent form. The above statement may be verified by referring to table 8-1,
which shows the properties of steam at various pressures when expanding dry saturated
steam from 14 bar to 0-15 bar through a nozzle, assuming frictionless adiabatic flow.
8.3 Steam Nozzles
The mass flow per second for wet steam, at a given pressure during expansion is
given by
AV AV . . ...(8.2)
m = — = — kg/sec. ' 7
v xvs
where A = Area of cross-section in m2,
V = Velocity of steam in m/sec,
vs = Specific volume of dry saturated steam, m3/kg,
x = Dryness fraction of steam, and
v = x v$ = Specific volume of wet steam, m3/kg.
Asthe mass of steam per second (m) passing through any section of the nozzle
must be constant, the area of cross-section (A) of nozzle will varyaccording to the
V V V
variation of — i.e., product of A and — is constant. If the factor — increases with
xvs xvs xvs
the drop in pressure, the cross-sectional area should decrease and hence a convergent
shaped nozzle. The decrease of the factor — with pressure drop will require increasing
cross-sectional area to maintain mass flow constant and hence the divergent shaped
nozzle.

Sonic
Subsonic I
H region h — Supersonic region

I.Entrance 2 . Throat 3. E xit 1. Entrance

2 Exit

X Q ) Converging-diverging nozzie (b) Converging nozzle

Fig. 8-2. Longitudinal sectional view of steam nozzles.

In practice at first the nozzie cross-section tapers to a smaller section in order to

202 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

allow for increasing value of — ; after this smallest diameter is reached, it will diverge

to a larger cross-section. The smallest section of the nozzle is known as the throat.
A nozzle which first converges to throat and then diverges, as in fig. 8-2(a), is termed
/p?\
as converging-diverging nozzle. It is used for higher pressure ratio — .
l pV
Some form of nozzles finish at the throat and no diverging portion is fitted; this type
shown in fig. 8-2(b), is known as converging nozzle. In this the greatest area is at the
entrance and minimum area is at the exit which is also the throat of the nozzle. This
Pz
nozzle is used when the pressure ratio, — is less than 0.58 (critical).
Pi
8.4 Flow Through Steam Nozzles
From the point of view of thermodynamics, the steam flow through nozzles may be
spoken as adiabatic expansion. During the flow of steam through the nozzle, heat is
neither supplied nor rejected. Moreover, as the steam expands from high pressure to low
pressure, the heat energy is converted into kinetic energy, i.e., work is done in expanding
to increase the kinetic energy. Thus the expansion of steam through a nozzle is an
adiabatic, and the flow of steam through nozzle is regarded as an adiabatic flow.
It should be noted that the expansion of steam through a nozzle is not a free
expansion, and the steam is not throttled, because it has a large velocity at the end of
the expansion. Work is done by the expanding steam in producing this kinetic energy.
In practice, some kinetic energy is lost in overcoming the friction between the steam
and the side of the nozzle and also internal friction, which will tend to regenerate heat.
The heat thus formed tends to dry the steam. About 10% to 15% of the enthalpy drop
from inlet to exit is lost in friction. The effect of this friction, in resisting the flow and in
drying the steam, must be taken into account in the design of steam nozzles, as it makes
an appreciable difference in the results.
Another complication in the design of steam through a nozzle is due to a phenomenon
known as supersaturation; this is due to a time lagin the condensation of the steam
during the expansion. The expansion takes place very rapidly and if the steam is initially
dry or superheated, it should become wet as the pressure falls, because the expansion
is adiabatic. During expansion the steam does not have time to condense, but remains
in an unnatural dry or superheated state, then at a certain instant, it suddenly condenses
to its natural state. See illustrative problem no. 14.
Thus, the flow of steam through a nozzle may be regarded as either an ideal adiabatic
(isentropic) flow, or adiabatic flow modified by friction and supersaturation.
I.f friction is negligible, three steps are essential in the process of expansion from
pressure P; to p2 :
(i) Driving of steam upto the nozzle inlet from the boiler. The ‘flow-work’doneonthe
steam is p 1vl and results in similar volume of steam being forced through the exit to
make room for fresh charge (steam).
(ii) Expansion of steam through the nozzle while pressure changes from p, to p?, the
work done being' ^ y (p\ v^ - pzv2)
where n is the index of the isentropic expansion,
v-i = vulumeoccupied _by 1 kg of steam at entrance to nozzle, and
v2 = volume occupied by 1 kg of steam as it leaves the nozzle.
 Steam Nozzles 203
Alternatively, this work done is equal to the change of internal energy, m - \l 2 as
during isentropic expansion work is done at the cost of internal energy.
(iii) Displacement of the steam from the low pressure zone by an equal volume
diseharged from the nozzle. This work amounts to P2 V2 which is equal to the final flow
work spent in forcing the steam out to make room for fresh charge (steam).
Thus, the new work done in increasing kinetic energy of the steam,
1
W ■ p iv i + (P1V1 - PZV2) - P2.V2.
n - 1

W - - J - (Pi VI - Pzvz) - (8.3)

This is same as the work done during Rankine cycle.

Alternatively, W = p\v\ + (m - n2) - pzvz
= (p iv i + m ) - 0*2 + P2VS) * H\ Hz. ...(8.4)
where, H i and H2 are the values of initial and final enthalpies allowing for the states
of superheatingor wetness as the case may be. This isexactly equivalent to the enthalpy
drop equivalent to the work done during the Rankine cycle. The value ofH i - H2 may
be found very rapidly from the Mollier chart (H - 4> chart) or more slowly but with greater
accuracy from the steam tables.
In the design of steam nozzles the calculations to be made are :
(i) the actual velocity attained by the steam at the exit,
(ii) the minimum cross-sectional area (throat area) required for a given mass flow per
second,
(iii) the exit area, if the nozzle is converging-diverging, and
(iv) the general shape of the nozzle - axial length.
8.4.1 Velocity of steam leaving nozzle : The gain of kinetic energy is equal to the
enthalpy drop of the steam. The initial velocity of the steam entering the nozzle (or
velocity of approach) may be neglected as being relatively very small compared with exit
velocity.
For isentropic (frictionless adiabatic ) flow and considering one kilogram of steam

2 x 1,000 = ^ = H

where H is enthalpy drop in kJ/kg and V = velocity of steam leaving the nozzle in
m/sec.
V = V2 X 1.000H = 44-72 VH m /sec. ... (8.5)
Let the available enthalpy drop after deducting frictional loss be kH,
i.e. | | — k ) H fe the friction loss,
Then, V ~ 44-72 VJ<H m/sec. ...(8.6)
If the frictional loss in the nozzle is 15 per cent of the enthalpy drop, then k - 0.85.
8.4.2 Mass of steam discharged : The mass flow of steam in kg per second through
a cross-sectional area A and at a pressure p2 can be written as
AV2
m = —— where v2 = specific volume of steam at pressure p2.
204 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

But vs = vi ( Q - Y = v\ ( P f \ ' n
,P2 Pi ...(8.7)
where, vi = specific volume of steam at pressure p i.
Using the value of velocity V from eqns. (8.3.) and (8.5),

n A_ n P2.V2.
m 2,000 (p iv i - pzvz) V 2,000 pi vi 1 -
vz n - 1 vz n - 1 p^v^
Putting the value of V2 from eqn. (8.7), we get,

A n - 1'
m r V 2 , « » 7r f T p , 1 .(« '
P z \- -
V1 — p>
n
Pi
2 n + 1
m ooo— x vi n - \E£ ... (8. 8)
n - 1 Pi p i,

8.4.3 Critical pressure ratio : Using eqn. (8.8), the rate of mass flow per unit area
is given by
n + 1 2
m f£g n -
A
-V I
000—n S
- -1r * ~vi
The mass flow per unit area has the maximum value at the throat which has minimum
area, the value of pressure ratio fP2\ at the throat can be evaluated from the above
,Pi
m
expression corresponding to the maximum value of - j.

All the items of this equation are constant with the exception of the ratio
/? + r
— is maximum when [ ( £ ) ; - (£] n is the maximum.
A
AH
(P2S
Differentiating the above expression with respect to and equating to zero for a
\* /
maximum discharge per unit area
n + 1
P 2 \- (& = 0
n -
Pl Pi,
a i m
Pi
2 P2 2 . 1 n + 1 P2
n
n Pi n Pi
2 - n 2- n
P2 n + 1 n + 1 fart
"once, or
Pi n Pi Pi
n
n + 1 p2 n - 1
P2. or —- =
’.'cm 'which • (8 9 )
Pi Pi
 Steam Nozzles 205

^ is known as critical pressure ratio and depends upon the value of index n.

The following approximate values of index n and corresponding values of critical

Dressure ratios may be noted :
Value of index n for Nozzle critical pressure ratio

Initial condition of steam isentropic expansion n

P2 f 2 n- 1
Pi ( n + 1

Superheated or supersaturated 1-300 0-546

Dry saturated 1-135 0-578

Wet 1-113 0-582 -

Dr. Zeuner has suggested a well known equation for value of n in the adiabatic
expansion of steam viz. n = 1-035 + 0-1x i, where xi is the initial dryness fraction of
steam.
The eqn. (8.9) gives the ratio between the throat pressure [p2) and the inlet pressure
(pr) for a maximum discharge per unit area through the nozzle. The mass flow being
constant for all sections of nozzle, maximum discharge per unit area occurs at the section

(a) (b)
Fig. 8-3.
having minimum area, i.e., at the throat. The area of thtoat of all steam nozzle should
be designed on this ratio. This pressure ratio at the throat is known as critical pressure
ratio. The pressure at which the area is minimum and discharge per unit area is maximum
is termed as the critical pressure.
The implication of the existence of a critical pressure in nozzle flow may be expressed
in another way. Suppose we have two vessels A and B. A containing steam at a high
and steady pressure pu Suppose that the pressure in B may be varied at will. A and
B are connected by a diaphragm containing a convergent nozzle, as shown in fig. 8-3(a).
Assume at first that p2 is equal to pu then there is no flow of str-am through the
nozzle. Now let p2 be gradually reduced. The discharge m through the nozzle will increase
as shown by the curve of fig. 8-3(b). As the pressure p2 approaches the critical value,
the discharge rate gradually approaches its maximum value, and when p2 is reduced
below the critical value, the discharge rate does not increase but remains at the same
value as that at the critical pressure. The extraordinary result that p2 can be reduced
206 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
well below the critical pressure without influencing the mass flow was first discovered by
R.D. Napier.
Another explanation can be visualised as follows : the critical pressure will givevelocity
of steam at the throat equal to the velocity of the sound (sonic velocity). Theflow of
steam in the convergent portion of the nozzle is sub-sonic. Thus, to increase the velocity
of steam above sonic velocity (super sonic) by expanding steam below critical pressure,
divergent portion is necessary [ fig- 8-2(a) ]•
8.4.4 Areas o f throat and exit fo r maximum discharge : The first step is to estimate
the critical pressure or throat pressure for the given initial condition of steam.
(1) If the nozzle is convergent, the nozzle terminates at the throat, hence the throat
is the exit end or mouth of the nozzle.
Next, using the Mollier ( H - <t>) chart, the enthalpy drop can be calculated by drawing
a vertical line to represent the isentropic expansion from p i to p2 ( p2 is throat pressure).
Read off from the H - $ chart the value of enthalpies H i and Hz or enthalpy drop
H i - H2 and dryness fraction x i as shown in fig. 8-4.
Then, for throat, enthalpy drop from entry to throat, Ht = H i - H2 kJ/kg, and velocity
at throat, V2 = 44-72 VFTt m/sec.

Then, mass flow, m = — kg/sec. (if steam is wet at throat)

where A2 = throat area.

The value of v& (specific volume of dry saturated steam ) at pressure p2 can be
obtained from the steam tables.
A2V2 ...(8.11)
If the steam is superheated at throat, m ------- kg/sec.

As the mass of discharge m is

known, the area A2 (throat area) can
be calculated.
(2) If the nozzle is convergent-diver-
gent, calculation of throat area is the
same as for the convergent nozzle in
which case the value of p2 is critical
pressure. As the back pressure in this
nozzle is lower than critical pressure,
the vertical line on the H - $ chart is
> extended up to the given back pressure
o> P3 at the exit as shown in fig. 8-4.
The value of enthalpy H3 and the
Entropy dryness fraction X3 at exit are read off
directly from the H - O chart.
Fig. 8-4. H - <pdiagram.

For the exit or mouth of the nozzle, enthalpy drop from entry to exit,
He = H i - H3 kJ/kg and velocity at exit,
V3 = 44-72 m/sec.
 Steam Nozzles 207
...(8.12)
Then, mass flow, m = - kg/sec.
X3Vsa
The value of Vs3 at pressure p3 can be obtained directly from the steam tables. As
the mass of discharge m is known, the exit area A3 can be calculated by uising eqn.
(8.12).
Similarly, for any pressure p along the nozzle axis, steam velocity and then the
cross-sectional area can be evaluated.

(cl

Fig. 8-5.

8.4.5 Length o f nozzle : The length of the convergent portion should be short in
order to reduce the surface friction, and normally a length of about 6 mm will be found
adequate. This rapid change in the area is possible because the convergence of the
walls of a passage tends to stabilize the flow as shown in fig. 8-5 (a).
In the divergent portion, high velocity steam has tendency, on account of inertia, to
flow along the axis in a form of a circular jet of sectional area equal to throat area. If
the divergence is rapid, steam will not occupy the increased area provided. Thus, steam
may pass out through the divergent point without drop of pressure as shown in fig. 8.5(b).
To avoid this, divergent portion should have sufficient length so that steam has enough
time to occupy the full cross-sectional area provided, thus resulting in desired drop of
pressure and increase in kinetic energy. This necessitates gradual increase in area. It is
found satisfactory in practice to make the length of the nozzle from throat to exit such
that the included cone angle is about 10° as shown in fig. 8-5(c).
Problem - 1 : A convergent-divergent nozzle for a steam turbine has to deliver steam
under a supply condition of 11 bar with 100°C superheat and a back pressure of 0.15
bar. If the outlet area of the nozzle is 9.7 cm2, determine using steam tables, the mass
of steam discharged per hour. If the turbine converts 60% of the total enthalpy drop into
useful work, determine the power delivered by the turbine. Neglect the effect of friction
in the nozzle. Take Kp of superheated steam as 2.3 kJ/kg K.
From Steam Tables
p ts Vs h L H <fv
bar *c m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K kJ/kg K
11 184-09 — 781-34 2,000-4 2,781-7 2-1792 6-5536 |
015 53-97 10-022 225-94 2,373-1 2,599-1 0-7549 8-0085

Let suffixes 1 and 3 represent conditions at entry and exit of the nozzle.
206 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Entropy before expansion = Entropy after expansion
$1 ■ <l>3

I.e. 4>S1 + kp loge - 4>w3 + X3 (4>s3 - <J>w3 )

Is

i.e., 6-5536 + 2-3 log® ~ ^ 2 7 ^ = 0,7549 + * (8 0085 " O'7549)

.*. 6-5536 + 2-3 x 0-1976 - 0-7549 + 7*2536 x *3
6- 5536+ 0 -4 5 4 5 - 0-7549 6-2432
X3“ 7- 2536 " 7- 2536
i.e., X3 = 0-862 (dryness fraction at exit)
Enthalpy, H i = Hs + kp (T sup - Ts) = 2,781-7 + 2-3 (100) = 3,011-7 kJ/kg
Enthalpy, H3 = /)3 + X3 L3 = 225-94 + 0-862 x 2,373-1 = 2,271-6 kJ/kg
Enthalpy drop from inlet to exit,
He = H i - H3 m 3,011-7 - 2,271-6 = 740-1 kJ/kg.
Using eqn. (8.5), Velocity at exit, V3 = 44-72 yfHe = 44-72 v740-1 = 1,216-6 m/sec.
r- _ *• •*. A3 V3
For mass continuity, m = -------------------------------------

= - ■- 9 7 * 1,216'6------- = 0-1366 kg/sec.

104 x (10-022 x 0-862)

Mass of steam discharged per hour = 0-1366 x 3,600 = 491-76 kg/hour.

Useful work done per kg of steam = 0-6 x 740-1 = 444-06 kJ/kg.
Power delivered = 444 06 x 0-1366 = 60-66 kJ/sec. or 6066 kW
Note : The enthalpy drop from inlet to exit (Hi - H3) and the final dryness fraction
(x3) can be found directly from H - <t> chart by the method as shown in fig. 8-6.
Problem - 2 : A convergent-divergent nozzle is required to discharge 350 kg of steam per hour.
The nozzle is supplied with steam at 8.5 bar and 90% dry and discharges against a back
pressure of 0.4 bar. Neglecting the effect o f friction, find the throat and exit diameters.
Let suffixes, 1,2 and 3 represent conditions at entry, throat and exit of the nozzle
respectively as shown in fig. 8-6.
As the steam is initially wet, critical or throat pressure,
pz * 0-582 x pi = 0-582 x 8-5 = 4-95 bar.
As shown in fig. 8-6, vertical line 1-2-3 is drawn. The values read off from the
H - <1> chart (Mollier chart) are :
Enthalpy drop from entry to throat, Ht = H i - H2 = 102 kJ/kg,
Enthalpy drop from entry to exit, He = H i - H3* 456 kJ/kg,
Dryness fraction of steam at throat, X2 = 0-87 and
Dryness fraction of steam at exit, X3= 0-777
Velocity at throat, V2 = 44.72 VWt = 44-72 VW2 = 452 m/sec. [ eqn. (8.5) ]
Specific volume of dry saturated steam at 4.95 bar ( by arithmetical interpolation from
steam tables), vS2 = 0.3785 m3/kg.
.*. Actual volume of wet steam at throat,
vz = x2 x Vs2 - 0-87 x 0-3785 = 0-33 m3/kg.
 Steam Nozzles 209
AzVz
For mass continuity, m = kg/sec. [ eqn. (8 .2 ) ]
V2
350 Az x 452
i.e.,
3,600 ~ o-33 x 104
350 x 0-33 x 10*
Az = = 0-71 cm'
3,600 x 452

71 x 4
/. Throat diameter, Dz = 0-951 cm i.e., 9-51 mm
ji
Similarly velocity at exit,
V3 = 44-72 V456 = 955 m/sec.
Specific volume of dry saturated steam at 0.4 bar ( from steam tables),

Actual volume of wet steam

at exit, V3 = X3 x Vs3
= 0-777 X 3-993 = 3-11 m3/kg.
S i Again for mass continuity,

ir
A3 V3 [eqn. (8 .2 ) ]
m =
V3

r J lX \ 350 A3 x 955
1 y i.e.,
3,600 3-11 x 104

L1
i \ f +.
y \ % 350x3-11 x 10*
\3 A3 =
£H,j" . Is + 955 x 3,600
... y
o
tz rI N
\ ** = 3-16 cm2
/
Ui Exit diameter, D3 =

3-16 x 4
E n tro p y - 2-01 cm i.e., 201 mm
n
Fig. 8-6. H - 1\ diagram. Problem - 3 : An impulse tur-
bine which is to develop 175 kW with probable steam consumption o f 11 kg per kW-hour
is supplied with dry saturated steam at 10 bar. Find the number o f nozzles each of about
6 mm diameter at the throat that will be required for the purpose and estimate the exact
diameters at the throat and exit of the nozzles. The condenser pressure is 0.15 bar.
Neglect the effect of friction in nozzles. Assume index of expansion as 1.135.

Let suffixes, 1, 2 and 3 represent conditions at entry, throat and exit of the nozzle.
n
Pz 2 \n - 1
From eqn. (8.9),
Pi n + 1
1-135
Pz 0-135
Putting n = 1-135, — * ( 2 ) = (0-936)84 = 0-578
^2-135J
Critical or throat pressure, pz = 0-578 x pi = 0-578 x 10 = 5-78 bar.
Enthalpy drop fiom entry to throat, Ht = H i - H 2 = 122 kJ/kg and
210 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Dryness fraction of steam at throat, X2 = 0*957 (from H - 4> chart).
Velocity at throat, Vz = 44-72 yfFTt = 44-72 V122 = 494 m/sec.,
From steam tables at 5-78 bar, Vs2 = 0-327 m3/kg by arithmetical interpolation.
Specific volume at throat, vz - x Vs2 = 0-957 x 0-327 m3/kg.
,2
x 494
A z V z ____ 10
For mass continuity, m - = 0-0446 kg/sec.
^ 104 x 0-957 x 0-327

Steam consumption per sec. = — = 0-5347 kg/sec.

U|OUU
0*5347
Number of nozzles required = = 11-99 say 12
0-0446

11-99
Exact diameter at throat, D2 = 6 V = 5-997 mm.
12
For exit :
Enthalpy drop from entry to exit, He = H i - H3 = 655 kJ/kg and
Dryness fraction of steam at exit, X3 = 0-85 ( from H - 4> chart).
Velocity at exit, Va = 44-72 VTfe = 44-72 V655 = 1,145 m/sec.
From steam tables at 0.15 bar, 1/*, = 10-022 m3/kg.
.-. Taking the number of nozzles as 12,
0-5347
Mass of steam per nozzle = = 0-0446 kg/sec.
12
A3 V3 mv3 m x Vsa x X3
Again for mass continuity, m = or A 3
~w V*
0-0446 x (10-022 x 0-85) x
Aa = = 3-646 cm
1,145

Exact diameter at exit, O3 .V

3-646 x 4
n
5: 2-155 cm i.e., 21-55 mm.

Problem - 4 : Steam expands from 17 bar and 80°C superheat to 0 7 bar in a

Entrance « CK«r

Fig. 8-7
convergent-divergent nozzle. Assuming that the expansion is frictionless adiabatic, and the
steam discharged is 0 25 kg/sec., calculate the diameters o f the sections of nozzle (i) at
a point where the pressure is 9-5 bar, and (ii) at exit.
Take Kp of superheated steam as 2-3 kJ/kg K.
Referring to fig. 8-7,
 Steam Nozzles 211
Let suffixes, 1,2 and 3 represent conditions at entrance, section of the nozzle where
pressure is 9-5 bar and exit respectively.
As the steam is initially superheated,
critical or throat pressure = 0-546 x p-( = 0-546 x 17 = 9-28 bar.
It means that the nozzle is still converging where the pressure is 9-5 bar.
(1) For section of the nozzle where the pressure is 9-5 bar :
Enthalpy drop from entry to section of nozzle, where the pressure is 9-5 bar,
H f - H2 = 140 kJ/kg ( from H - <I> chart);
Temperature of steam, t2 = 213°C (from H - <t> chart).
At 9-5 bar, saturation temperature, ts = 177-69°C (from steam tables).
.% Steam at section where pressure is 9-5 bar is superheated, i.e., steam is still
superheated after expansion.
At 9.5 bar, vs2 = 0.2042 m3/kg (from steam tables).
Specific volume at 9-5 bar and 213°C,

* ‘ ^ * W ' 0 2 0 4 2 x " 0 2 2 ^

Velocity at section, where pressure is 9-5 bar, V2 = 44-72 V140 = 529 m/sec.
A2V2
For mass continuity, m =
v2

^ (£W2 * 529
i.e., 0-25 =
0-22 x 104

- « * - ■ >«•
.-. Diameter, = V1 -324 = 1-15 cm i.e., 11-5 mm
Diameter of the section of the nozzle at a point where the pressure is 9-5 bar
= 11-5 mm.
(ii) For exit : •
From H - <I> chart, Enthalpy drop from inlet to exit, He = H-, - H3 = 600 kJ/kg and
dryness fraction, x3 = 0.89.
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44-72 V7-7J = 44-72 V600 = 1,095 m/sec.
From steam tables, at 0-7 bar, = 2-365 m3/kg.
Specific volume at exit, v3 = x3 x = 0-89 x 2-365 m3/kg.
^3^3
For mass continuity, m = -------
v3
* Jt . „ .2 1 m x v3 0-25 x (0-89 x 2-365J
----------------------------------W 5 ------------------------

n2 0-25 x 0-89 x 2-365 x 104 x 4

m ------------------ i " , 1,095------------------ 612
.-. Exit diameter, D3 = V6-12 = 2-47 cm, i.e., 24-7 mm.
Problem - 5 : A convergent-divergent nozzle is supplied with dry saturated steam
at 11 bar. If the divergent portion of the nozzle is 6 cm long and the throat diameter is
15
212 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
8 mm, determine the semi-cone angle o f the divergent part o f the nozzle so that the
steam may leave the nozzle at 0-4 bar. Neglect the effect o f friction in the nozzle.
For throat :
Let suffixes, 1, 2 and 3 represent conditions at entry, throat and exit of the nozzle.
As the steam supplied is initially dry saturated,
Critical or throat pressure, pz = 0-578 x p i - 0-578 x 11 = 6-36 bar.
From H - $ chart, Enthalpy drop from entry to throat, Ht = H i - H2 = 113 kJ/kg
and dryness fraction of steam at throat, X2 = 0-96.
Velocity at throat,
V2 = 44-72 VJTt
= 44-72 x 113
= 475 rrVsec.
From steam tables at
6.36 bar, vS2 = 0-2995
m3/kg.
.-. Specific volume at
throat, vz= xzx vsz
Fig. 8-8. = 0-96 X 0-2995 m3/kg.
For mass continuity,

1(475
m = = 0-083 kg/sec.
^ 0-96 x 0-2995 x 104
For exit :
From H - O chart, Enthalpy drop from entry to exit, He = H i - H3 = 540 kJ/kg and
dryness fraction of steam at exit, X3 = 0-834
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44-72 VFfe = 44-72 V540 = 1,039 m/sec.
From steam tables at 0-4 bar, Vs3 = 3-993 m3/kg
Specific volume at exit, V3 - X3 x Vs3 = 0-834 x 3-993 m3/kg.
A3 V3
For mass continuity, m =
V3
1 m x vs 0-083 x (0-834 x 3-993)
Vz 1,039

x2 0-083 x 0-834 x 3-993 x 10* x 4

(0 3 ) = --------------- = 3-39
71 x 1,039
.-. Exit diameter, D3 = V3-39 = 1-84 cm, i.e., 18-4 mm.
D3 - Dz 18-4 - 8
Referring to fig. 8-8, tan a = ----- = 6 ^ 1Q = 0-0866 i

Semi-cone angle, a = 4° - 57’ j

Problem - 6 : Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 8.5 bar enters a convergent-divergent [
nozzle, and leaves at a pressure of 15 bar. ;
If the flow is frictionless adiabatic and the corresponding expansion index is 1135, \
find using steam tables, the ratio of the cross-sectional area at exit to that at the throat, i
 Steam Nozzles 213
Let suffixes 1, 2 and 3 represent conditions at entry, throat and exit of the nozzle
respectively.
n

1 -1 3 5

pz = 0-578 x p, = 0-578 x 8-5 = 4-91 bar

A t 8-5 bar, from steam tables, <I>S = 6-6421 kJ/kg K, H = 2,771-6kJ/kg,
At 4.91 bar, from steam tables by arithmetical interpolation, h = 636 kJ/kg
L = 2,110 kJ/kg, <DW = 1-8550 kJ/kg K, <DS = 6-860kJ/kg K, vs = 0-38 m3/kg;
A t 1.5 bar, from steam tables, h = 467-11 kJ/kg, L= 2,226-5 kJ/kg,
<t>w = 1-4336 kJ/kg K, 4 >s = 72233 kJ/kg K, vs = 1-1593 m3/kg.
For throat :
Entropy before expansion = Entropy after expansion
<J>1 = <1)^2 + X2 (*52 - ^ 1*2)
i.e., 6-6421 = 1-8550 + x2 ( 6-860 - 1-8550 )

Hz = hz + x2L2 = 636 + 0-956 x 2,110 = 2,653-16 kJ/kg

Enthalpy drop from entry to throat,
Ht = H1 - H2 = 2,771-6 - 2,653-16 = 118-44 kJ/kg.
Velocity at throat, V2 = 44-72 V i 18-44 - 487 m/sec.
A2Vz Az V2
For mass continuity, m =
v2 ~ (x2 x vH)
* •
m x (0-956 x 0-38)
487
For exit :
Now, <!>! = + x3 (a>s3 - O ^ )
i.e., 6-6421 = 1-4336 + *3 (7-2233 - 1-4336)

H3 = h3 + x 3 L3 = 467-11 + 0-9 x 2,226-5 = 2,470-96 kJ/kg.

.1 Enthalpy drop from entry to exit,
He = H1 - H3 = 2,771 -6 - 2,470-96 = 300-64 kJ/kg
Velocity at exit, V3 - 44-72 V300-64 = 775 m/sec.

A , , m 11 <*» - y* > = SL « (0-9 » 1-1593) = 0.001346

. 0 001346 m
214 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
, Area at exit 0001346m
” Area at throat " 0 000746m = {
Problem - 7 : Assuming frictionless adiabatic flow through a converging-diverging
nozzle, show that the maximum discharge per unit area at the throat is given by :
n + 1
n - 1
V 1,000 n PL kg per sec. per m2
V1 n ♦ 1
where, n is the index o f expansion,
i 1
p i is the initial pressure o f steam in kPa, and
v i is the specific volume o f steam in m3/kg at the initial pressure.
The flow or discharge per unit area through the nozzle throat is given by eqn. (8 .8),

2 n + 1’
m n pi ( P2> n /P2) n
Ar 2 ,0 0 0 — Q—r
A n - 1 vi (P lj ( p ij

This will be maximum when — = (— — 7 ]” 1

Pi \n + 1
f pz'
Substituting this value of in the above equation, we get,

2 n n + 1 n
x
m 2 \n * n - 1 n n - 1
A
. V 1,000 n —
V1 n - 1 n + 1
2
n + 11
^

n + 1

V Pi /
1,000 n —
2
vi In - 1
' 2
n + 1
\n - 1
1 2
( n + 1;
r -,|

V Pi I 2
1,000 n — 1
2
vi I n - 1 1 I n- + 1
\ n - 1
n + 1 / 2

l n + 1 , /7 + 1

2 \n- 1
n -1

in + 1J
n + n + 1

. V 1,000 Pi / • 2 2
vi 1n - %j I n * 1
\n -
n + 1
2 \n - 1 n - 1
- 1

2 - n - 1

.V
n +
2 2 n - 1
Pi- / 2 -
1
1 ,000/1 — -

vi In - 1 1 In + 1 n +1

n +_
Pi 2 -
1,000 n n + 1
vi In - 1 1 In + 1
 Steam Nozzles 215
n ■f 1
m n - 1 / n + 1
- V 1,000 n — - 1
A vi n - 1 n + 1

= V 1,000 n — 1

- V l , 0 0 0 n ^ ( 7r ^ p ' kg per sec. per m2.

Problem Assuriting frictionless adiabatic flow through a converging-diverging nozzle,
oblem - 8 : Assuming
show that for the maximum discharge, the velocity o f steam at throat is given b y :
Vz * V2.000— '^—7 p ivt m/sec.
n + 1
where n is the index o f expansion,
p i is the initial pressure o f steam in kPa, and
v i is the specific volume o f steam in m3/kg at theinitial pressure.
For isentropic (frictionless adiabatic) flow, neglecting initial velocity of steam and
considering one kilogram of steam, the velocity of steam atthroat, V2 is given by
Vz
= H i - H2 or V2 = V 2.000 (Hi - Hz)
2,000
Considering p v n = constant, a law of isentropic expansion of steam in the nozzle,
the above expression of V2 can be written as
n
Vz = V 2 ,000
n - 1 (P1V1 - Pz*z)

.V 2,000
n
n - 1r
1^
(4
I
pzvz)
7 pi vi 1 - - —
p iv i

( £2 n
But — - from p iv in = p2v2n
V1 pi

n - 1
Vz = VV 2,000
n
n - 1
P 1V1 1 -
( Pz)
Pi
n

n
n - 1
For maximum discharge, — = 2
Pi n + 1

n n - 1
a / n n - 1
x ----------
r i Vz = V 2,000 n - 1 p iv i 1 -
n + 1

2,000 _ n . pivi Jl -
n - 1 n + 1j
216 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

= ^2,000 — pivi x ^ 4
n - r n + 1

^ = V 2, o o o _ ^ — m/sec.
n + 1r
Problem - 9 : Dry saturated steam enters a nozzle at pressure of 10 bar and with
an initial velocity o f 90 m/sec. The outlet pressure is 6 bar and outlet velocity is 435
m/sec. The heat loss from the nozzle is 6 3 kJ per kg of steam flow. Calculatethe
dryness fraction and the area at the exit, if the area at the inlet is 1256 cm2.
Steady flow energy equation per kg of steam flow through the nozzle at inletand
outlet can be written as
V \2 Vz2
+ 2 ^0 0 - * + 2^00+ losses
where, H i and H2 are enthalpies at inlet and outlet, kJ/kg, and
Vi and V2 are velocities at inlet and outlet, m/sec.
H i = enthalpy of dry saturated steam at 10 bar = 2778-1 kJ/kg (from steam tables).

2 '7781 + S o - * + * 63
Hz = 2,778-1 + 4-05 - 94-61 - 6-3 - 2,681-24 kJ/kg.
As steam is dry saturated at inlet it will be wet at outlet. Let its dryness fraction be X2 .
Hz m hz + xzLz [ at 6 bar, h2 = 670-56 kJ/kg, L2 = 2,086-3 kJ/kg (from steam tables)].
i.e., 2,681-24 = 670-56 + X2 x 2086-3 *
- * „ 2,681 -24 - .67056 =
" 2,086-3
vi = vsi = 0-1944 m3/kg at 10 bar ( from steam tables).
vS2 = 0-3157 m3/kg at 6 bar ( from steam tables ).
V2 = X2 X Vs2 = 0-964 X 0-3157 = 0-3043 m3/kg at 6 bar.
Now, for mass flow continuity,

kg/sec.
v\ vz
Az va Vi
'A y ~ vi X Vz
Az 0-3043 90
= 0-3239
" Ay 0-1944 435
But A 1 = 12-56 cm2 (area at inlet )
Az = 0-3239 x 12-56 = 4-068 cm2 (area at exit )
8.5 Effect of Friction in a Nozzle
As stated earlier, the length of the converging part of the converging-diverging nozzle
is very small compared with that of divergent part. Thus, most of friction in the
converging-diverging nozzle occurs in the divergent part, i.e., between the throat and the
exit. The effect of friction is to reduce the available enthalpy drop for conversion into
kinetic energy by about 10 to 15 per cent. The equation for the velocity is then written
 Steam Nozzles 217
V - 44-72 V7(H m per sec.
where k is the coefficient which allows for friction loss,
. _ Actual or useful enthalpy drop
' ’’ * Isentropic enthalpy drop
It is sometimes termed as nozzle efficiency.
Or, if the initial velocity of the steam entering the nozzle can be neglected compared
with the final velocity, the nozzle efficiency can also be expressed as
____________________________ V 2 ____________________________
2,000 x (Isentropic enthalpy drop, H)
The kinetic energy lost in friction is transformed into heat which tends to dry or
superheat the steam. Thus, it (friction) will affect the final condition of the steam issuing
from the nozzle. Its effect can be represented on the H - $ diagram.
Referring to fig. 8-9, let point A represent the initial condition of steam and expansion
takes place from pressure p i to p2. Vertical line AB represents isentropic expansion. The
AC
total enthalpy drop AB is reduced by friction to AC such that — = k.

From the known value of k, point C on the diagram can be obtained. But the
expansion must end on the same pres-
sure line p2. Hence CD is drawn horizon-
tally to meet p2 pressure line at D.
Then the point D represents the final
condition of steam after expansion. It
may be noted that dryness fraction at
D is greater than that at B. Thus, the
effect of friction has been partly to dry
the steam.

Actually, drying effect of the friction

will occur throughout the whole expan-
sion, so that the actual expansion would
be represented by the dotted line AD
( fig. 8-9 ).

Entropy *■
Fig. 8-9 The effect of friction in a nozzle.
Similar effect is produced if the initial condition of steam is superheated as represented
by point E and expansion takes place wholly or partly in the superheated region. It will
be noted that the effect of friction is to further superheat the steam at the end of
expansion. The actual expansion is represented by the dotted line EH and the resulting
(actual) enthalpy drop is the distance EG.
It thus follows that the effect of friction in the nozzle is to reduce the velocity of the
steam and to increase its final dryness fraction or degree of superheat.
Problem - 10 : Steam is supplied at a dryness fraction of 0.97 and 11 bar pressure
to a convergent-divergent nozzle and expands down to a back pressure o f 0.3 bar. The
throat area of the nozzle is 5 err? and 12 per cent of the total enthalpy drop is lost in
the divergent part. Determine : (a) steam flow in kg per sec. and (b) the nozzle outlet
area.
218 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Let suffixes, 1, 2 and 3 represent conditions at entry, throat and exit of the nozzle.
As the steam is wet initially, critical or throat pressure,
Pz = 0-582 X p^ = 0-582 x 11 = 6-4 bar.
From steam tables:
p U vt h L H 4>.
bar *C m3lkg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg K kJ/kg K
11 - 0-17753 781-34 2,000-4 2,781-7 2-1792 6-5536
6-4 - 0-297 681-6 2,078 2,759-6 1.9566 6.7383
0-3 - 5-229 289-23 2,336-1 2,625-3 0-9439 7-7686
(a) For throat :
<E>1 - 4>2
$*1 + X1 (4>s1 - <!>**) - 0 * 2 + X2 (&s2 - 4>*v2)
i.e., 2-1792 + 0-97 (6-5536 - 2-1792) = 1-9566 +X2 (6-7383 - 1-9566)
/. 2-1792 + 4-2432 = 1-9566 + 4-7817 x X2
.-. X2 (dryness fraction at throat ) = 0-934
Enthalpy, H i = h i + X 1L 1 =781-34 + 0-97 x 2,000-4 = 2,722-09 kJ/kg
Enthalpy, H2 = te + X2 L2 = 681-6 + 0-934 x 2,078 = 2,622-45 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy drop from inlet to throat, Ht = H i - H2 = 2,722-09 - 2,622-45 = 99-64 kJ/kg.
Velocity at throat, V2 = 44-72 yfFft = 44-72 V99-64 = 446-3 m/sec.
Specific volume at throat, V2 = X2 x Vs2 = 0-934 x 0-297 = 0-2774 m3/kg.
For mass continuity, m - - 5 x 446 3 _ 0 8044 kg/sec.
V2 104 x 0-2774
(b) For exit :
<I>1 = $3
<f>viA + X\ (<t>si - 4>mi) = 4>w3 + X3(<I>s3 -
i.e., 2-1792 + 0-97 (6-5536 - 2-1792 ) = 0-9439 +X 3 (7-7686 - 0-9439)
.-. 2-1792 + 4-2432 = 0-9439 + 6-8247 x x3
« X3 = 6-4224 - 0-9439 _ q.8028 (dryness fraction at exit)
** 6-8247 x 1
Enthalpy, H i = 2,722-09 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy, H3 = h3 + X3 L3 = 289-23+ 0-8028 x 2,336-1 = 2,164-23 kJ/kg
Enthalpy drop from inlet to exit.
He = H i - H3 = 2,722-09 - 2,164-23 = 557-86 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy drop after considering friction in the divergent part
- 0-88 x 557-86 = 490-92 kJ/kg.
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44-72 V490-92= 990m/sec.
Specific volume at exit, vs - X3 x Vs3 = 0-8028 x 5-229 m3.kg
_ A3V3
For mass continuity, m ^ —
 Steam Nozzles 219

m x va 104 X 0-8044 x (0-8028 x 5-229) . 3 4 - 3 cm2 (outlet area).

As 990
V3
Problem - 11 : Steam enters a group of convergent-divergent nozzles at 21 bar and
270°C, the discharge pressure being 0.07 bar. The expansion is in equilibrium throughout
and the loss o f friction in the converging portion, o f the nozzle is negligible, but the loss
by friction in the divergent section o f the nozzle is equivalent to 10 per cent o f the
enthalpy drop available in that section (i.e., enthalpy drop available in the divergent
section).
Calculate the total throat and exit areas in err?, to discharge 14 kg o f steam per
second. Sketch enthalpy-entropy (H - O) chart and show on it the various stages of
expansion.
Let suffixes 1, 2 and 3 represent conditions at entry, throat and exit of the nozzle
respectively as shown in fig: 8 - 10 .
As the steam is initially superheated, critical or throat pressure, *
pz * 0-546 x pi * 0-546 x 21 = 11 -47 bar. ^
A sketch ( fig 8-10) of the readings taken from the H - <E> chart is given.
Isentropic enthalpy drop from throat to exit = 770 kJ/kg ( from H = 4> chart).
The actual (useful) enthalpy drop from throat to exit is 90% of the isentropic enthalpy
drop.
Actual enthalpy drop after allowing for friction in the divergent section
- 0-9 X 770 - 693 kJ/kg.
For th ro a t: Enthalpy drop,
Ht = H i - H2 = 140 kJ/kg ( from H - 4> chart ).
Temperature of steam at throat, te = 194°C ( from H - 4> chart ), i.e., steam is
H superheated at the throat.
At 11.47 bar ( from steam
J^J70C
1 tables by arithmetical interpola-
T tion), ts2 = 186°C and
o
/_19£C_ vS2 = 0.17 m3/kg.
JL / 2
Specific volume at throat,
TsupZ
Vz - Vs2 x
Ts2
194 + 273
= 0-17
qj 186 + 273
%o .3,
= 0-173 m /kg.
Velocity at throat,

A
o
-C V2 = 44-72 VJTt
& = 44-72 VT40 = 529 m/sec.
%
For mass continuity,
i A2 V2
m = -------
vz
Az x 529
<*> i.e., 14 = ---------------- 7
Entropy 0-173 x 104
Fig. 8 10. H - qpdiagram.
220 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

Total area of nozzles at throat, A2 = X °529 * 1° = 45,78 cm2

For exit :
Actual enthalpy drop from entry to exit, He = H1 - H3 = 833 kJ/kg, and dryness
fraction after reheating, x3 ■ 0- 817 ( from H - <t> chart ).
At 0.07 bar, vs3 = 20.53 m3/kg ( from steam tables ).
Specific volume at exit, v3 = x 3 x V& = 0.817 x 20.53 m3/kg.
Velocity at exit, V3 = 44-72 y/TQ = 44-72 V833 = 1,291 m/sec.
*3^3
For mass continuity, m -------
v3
A3 x 1291
i.e., 14 = j
(0-817 x 20-53) x 104
_ . . x . . . , ’ 14 x 0-817 x 2053 x 104 2
Total area of nozzles at exit, A3 = T291 = C
Problem - 1 2 : A convergent divergent nozzle is required to pass 1.8 kg o f steam
per sec. A t inlet the steam pressure and actual temperature are 7 bar and 186.2°C
respectively and the speed is 75 m/sec. Expansion is stable throughout tothe exit pressure
o f 1.1 bar. There is no loss by friction in the converging section of thenozzle but loss
by friction between throat and outlet is equivalent to 70 kJ/kg of steam. Calculate, assuming
throat pressure o f 4 bar :
(a) the required area of throat in crrr,
(b) the required area of outlet in crrr, and
(c) the overall efficiency of the nozzle, based jon the heat drop between the actual
inlet pressure and temperature and the outlet pressure.
Let suffixes, 1, 2 and 3 represent conditions at inlet, throat and exit (outlet) of the
nozzle respectively as shown in fig. 8 -11 .
(1) Referring to fig. 8-11.
For throat :
Throat pressure, p‘2 = 4 bar ( given) and velocity of steam at entry,
Vy = 75 m/sec. ( given ).
Enthalpy drop from inlet to throat,
Ht = Hf - H2 = 110 kJ/kg
and dryness fraction,
x2 = 0-985 (from /-/-<!> chart).

Now' 2 * 1 .000— - H
where V1 = velocity of steam at inlet,
V2 = velocity of steam at throat, and
H = enthalpy drop from entry to throat.

ie - = 110.. From which, velocity at throat, V2 = 475 m/sec.

2 x 1000
At 4 bar, vs2 = 0-4625 m3/kg ( from steam tables ).
 Steam Nozzles 221
Specific volume at throat,
v2 = x2 x vs2 = 0-985 x 0-4625 m3.kg.
A 2V2 .
For mass continuity, m = i.e.,
v2
Az x 475
1-8
(0-985 x 0-4625) x 104
Area of throat,
1-8 x 0-985 x 0-4625 x 10 4
An =
475
= 17.3 cm

(b) For exit :

Isentropic enthalpy drop from inlet to
E n tro p y exit
Fig. 8-11. H. q>diagram. = H i - Ham 330 kJ/kg.
(from H - <1> chart).
Actual (useful) enthalpy drop ( H i - H3 ) after allowing for friction in the divergent part
= 330 - 70 = 260 kJ/kg.
(V3f - (V if (V3f - (75f .
Now, = Enthalpy drop, H i.e* - 260
2 x 1,000 ~ r/ 2 x 1,000
From which, velocity of steam at exit from the nozzle, V3 = 725 m/sec.
Reheated condition at exit or dryness fraction at exit, x3 = 0.948 ( from H - <t> chart).
At 1.1‘ bar, = 1-5495 m3/kg ( from steam tables ).
Specific volume at exit, v3 = x3 x = 0.948 x 1-5495 m3/kg.
^ 3^3 :_ a Ag x 725
For mass continuity, m - i.e., 1-8 * —
v3 0-948 x 1-5495 x 10^
1-8 x 0-948 x 1-5495 x 104
.-. Area of outlet (exit), A3 = = 36.47 cm-
725

(c) Overall efficiency of nozzle - |nsA^ t ropteTnm a lp y T p “ M = 0 788'U " 78'8/%

Problem - 13 : The nozzles in the stage of an impulse turbine receive steam at 17
bar with 80°C superheat and the pressure in the wheel is 9.5 bar. If there are 16 nozzles,
find the cross-sectional area at exit of each nozzle for the total discharge o f 280 kg per
minute. Assume nozzle efficiency of 88 per cent.
If the steam had a velocity of 120 m/sec. at entry to the nozzles, by how much
would the discharge be increased ?
Let suffixes 1 and 2 represent conditions at inlet and exit of the nozzle.
As the steam is initially superheated,
critical or throat pressure = 0-546 x pi = 0-546 x 17 = 9-28 bar.
Since the exit pressure (p^ is greater than the critical pressure, the nozzles are convergent.
From Mollier chart, isentropic enthalpy drop from inlet to exit,
222 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
He = H i - H2 = 1310 kJ/kg.
Actual enthalpy drop after allowing for friction 0-88 x 131 - 115*3 kJ/kg.
Neglecting the velocity o f approach :
Velocity of steam at exit, V2 = 44*72 V115*3 = 480*0 m/sec.
From Mollier chart, steam at the end of expansion ( at 9*5 b a r ) has a temperature
of 222°C (taking friction into account).
At 9*5 bar, vS2 = 0*2042 m3/kg, ts2 = 177*69°C (from steam tables).
Specific volume of steam at 9*5 bar and 222°C,

VZ - 0*2042 X « 0*224 m3/kg

1177*69 + 2731 a

For mass continuity, m ■ ^ ^ 2

Vz
m x vz
Area at exit for one nozzle, Az
V2 x No. of nozzle
280 x 0*224 X 104 ... •
__ . A ■ iw o cm
60 x 480*0 x 16
Considering velocity at inlet or velocity o f approach ( Vi ) o f 120 m/sec. :
(V z')2 - (V i)2
Now, A ,, = actual enthalpy drop, H
c. X I jLKJvJ

(V z')2 - ( 120)2 o.
i e- 2 x 1,000 - 1153 •• > ■ 2'45’° ° °
.-. V2 ' « 495 m/sec. (Velocity of steam at exit)
Since there is no increase in specific volume, the discharge is directly proportional
to velocity.
. .. . Vz' - Vz 495 - 480*0 _
Increase in discharge ----- —------ x 100 ------ 7— -r— x = 3*13%.
Vz 480* 0

Problem - 14 : Steam expands through a nozzle under supersaturated adiabatic

conditions, from an initial pressure o f 8 bar and a temperature o f 210°C, to a final
pressure o f 2 bar, Determine :
(i) the final condition o f the steam, (ii) the exit velocity o f the steam, (iii) the degree
of undercooling, and (iv) the degree of supersaturation at the end of expansion.
Compare the mass flow through the above nozzle with one in which the expansion
takes place under conditions o f thermal equilibrium.
For the supersaturated state you may use the following relationship :
v - 0 , 2 3 3 ~ 19*01' py1 3 _ constant; and ^13 = constant
n •£
W (7 )T
where, v is the specific volume in m3/kg, H is the enthalpy in kJ/kg, p is the pressure
in kPa and T is the absolute temperature.
Take kp of superheated steam as 2 3 kJ/kg K.
Expansion under supersaturated conditions ( metastable flow ) :
 Steam Nozzles 223
From Steam ta b le s :

p U vt h L H «>s

bar *c m3lkg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK kJ/kg K

8 170-43 0-2404 721-11 2048 2769-1 2-0411 6-6628

2 120-23 0-8857 504-7 2201-9 2706-7 1-5301 7-1271

(i) Let suffixes 1 and 2 represent the initial and final conditions respectively.
From steam tables, steam enthalpy, H i = 2769-1 + 2-3 (210 - 170-43) = 2,860 kJ/kg.
^ _ 0 -2 3 3 ( M - 1 9 4 0 ) _ 0 -2 3 3 (2 ,8 6 0 - 1940) = Q2? ^
pi 800 |
From given equation p /v r 1-3 = P2V2 13
1 1
\ 1* 3 8\ ^ a
- 0-27 —j = 0-7843 m /kg (specific volume at exit).

B u t, V , « 0233 1^ > i.e ., 0 -7 8 4 3 -

From which, steam enthalpy, H2 = 2,613 kJ/kg.

At 2 bar, h = 504-7 kJ/kg, L = 2,201-9 kJ/kg (from steam tables).
H z * hz 2,613 - 504-7
Dryness fraction at exit, xz = — ;------- . — = 0-9575
Lz 2,201 •»
(ii) Actual enthalpy drop from inletto exit,
He = H i - H2 = 2,860 - 2,613 = 247 kJ/kg
Then, velocity at exit, V2 - 44-72 VH1 - Hz = 44-72 V247 = 703 m/sec.
(iii) Now, Ti = 273 + 210 = 483 K.
Pi 8 Pz 2
From given equation i.e .,---------------------- r r
(T i)T (Tz)T (483)T (Tz)T
From which temperature after supersaturation, T2 = 350-8 K,
then, t2 = 350-8 - 273 = 77-8°C (actual temperature).
Saturation temperature at 2 bar = 120-23°C (from steam tables)
Degree of undercooling is the difference between the normal saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure and the actual temperature.

Degree of undercooling = 120-23 - 77-8 = 42.43° C

(iv) Saturation pressure corresponding to 77-8°C = 0-43 bar (from steam tables by
arithmetical interpolation).
Degree of supersaturation
____________Pressure after supersaturation _________ _ 2 _ „
Saturation pressure corresponding to the undercooled temp. * 0-43
Expansion under supersaturated condition :
AzVz
For mass continuity, mz » -------- ( where Az is the exit area )
224 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

■ ~0-7843^ - 896 * * k9'SeC'

Expansion under conditions o f the thermal equilibrium (stable flow)
For adiabatic flow,
Entropy before'expansion, Oi = Entropy after expansion, <J>2
/ TSUp1>
Osi + kp log©
I T s a t1 )

210 + 273
i.e., 6-6628 + 2-3 “ 15301 + ^ < 71271 ~ 15301)
6-6628 + 2-3 x 0-0855 - 1-5301 + Xu x 5-597
6-8595 - 1-5301
X2 -------- 5 I5 9 7 --------“ 0-952 (dryness fraction at exit)

Steam enthalpy, Hz - hz + xzLz- 504-7 + 0-952 x 2,201-9 - 2,603 kJ/kg.

Steam enthalpy, hh « 2,769-1 + 2-3(210 - 170-43) - 2,860 kJ/kg.
Insentropic enthalpy drop from inlet to exit, H i - H2 = 2,860 - 2,603 = 257 kJ/kg
Velocity at exit, V2 = 44-72 VH1- Hz = 44-72 V257 = 717 m/sec.
From steam tables at 2 bar, Vs2 = 0-8857 m3/kg.
vz ■ X2 * Vs2 0-952 x 0-8857 m3/kg

For mass community, ms ------- * ( where A2 is the exit area )

VZ Xz X Vg2
Az x 717 „ .
“ 0-952 X 0-8857 = kg/sec.
Increase of discharge due to supersaturated flow = 896 A2 - 850 A2 = 46 A2 kg/sec.
46 Ao
Increase in discharge due to supersaturated flow - x 100 - 5-41%
ODU
Thus, supersaturated flow increases the discharge by 5-41%.
It should be noted that the effect of supersaturated flow (compared with flow under
the conditions of thermal equilibrium) is :
Reduction in the enthalpy drop, which will cause corresponding reduction in velocity,
the dryness fraction at exit is higher, and
the rate of discharge is increased.
8.6 Steam Injector
A steam injector utilises the kinetic energy of a steam jet for increasing the pressure
and velocity of corresponding quantity of water; they are frequently used for forcing the
water into steam boilers under pressure. The action of the injector is illustrated diagram-
matically in fig. 8 - 12 .
Steam from the boiler is supplied to the convergent nozzle A, and this steam issuing
there from with a high velocity into the mixing cone, is condensed by the cold water
flowing from the feed water tank E‘.
This tank may be either above or below the level of the injector. Owing to conversion
of enthalpy of evaporation (latent heat) of steam to kinetic energy, the mixture of water
and condensate has a high velocity at B. Thus, mixture issuing from the nozzle B, then
flows through the divergent delivery nozzle or diffuser C, in which its kinetic energy is
 Steam Nozzles 225

Fig. 8-12. Principle of steam injector.

reduced and converted to pressure energy, until on leaving at D, this pressure energy
is sufficient to overcome boiler pressure and to lift the water through the height L2, and
the water enters the boiler. The pressure of water at D must be about 25 per cent higher
than the boiler pressure in order to overcome all resistances. Because of the gap between
the nozzles B and C, provided for excess water which may overflow during the starting
of the injector, the pressure in the gap is nearly atmospheric.
Let Mw = Mass of the water per kg of steam entering at A' in kg/sec.,
Vs = Velocity of steam leaving the nozzle at A in m/sec,
Vw = Velocity of water entering at A' in m/sec., and
Vm = Velocity of mixture leaving nozzle at B in m/sec.
Applying the principle of conversion of momentum to the mixing of the steam jet and
water supply, per kilogram of steam supplied to the nozzle. Then,

[ Momentum of [ Momentum of [ Momentum

steam entering + water entering = of m ixture «Q
combining nozzle] combining nozzle] leaving com- ui
bining nozzle ] x
i.e., 1 x Vs + Mw Vw * (1 + Mw) Vm
or Vs + Mw Vw ® (1 + Mw) Vm
If the water level in the tank E is below the level of the injector, then
Vs - Mw Vw m (1 + Mw) Vm
Vs - V,m ...(8.13)
Hence, Mw =
Vm ± Vw
according to whether the water supply level is below or above the injector level. This
formula gives the amount of water injected per kilogram of steam if the velocities are
known.
The velocity of steam Vs from the nozzle may be found by assuming that the steam
expands isentropically (frictionless adiabatic ) from the initial condition to the back pressure
p2. Using enthalpy-entropy (Mollier) chart or by calculation, the enthalpy drop, H in the
226 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
nozzle can be found. Then, Vs - 44- 72 V h
The velocity of water, Vw entering the annular space A' will be given by the equation,
Vw = V2gXT
To find the velocity o f mixture, Vm leaving nozzle B :
Let pm = pressure at B in kPa, and
w = density of warm water at B in kg/m3.
Due to the presence of the gap between nozzles Band C, the pressure pm of the
water in the throat of B may be taken as atmospheric, say 101 -33 kPa,and as the water
is warm its density may be taken as 995 kg/m . - \
2
Then, the total energy, kJ per kilogram of water at B - +
w ^,uuu
This energy must be enough to lift the water through a height Lz metres at the
delivery end and inject it into the boiler. The final pressure on leaving at D must therefore
be some what greater than this height ( Lz ) plus the boiler pressure.

At D the pressure energy of 1 kg of water is — + -rn rn ^

IV I |UUU
where p is the absolute pressure of steam in the boiler in kPa.
t, Pm Vm2
Vm o
p a ,.
g V2
Then, - — +
w 2,000 * -c-
w
+ -
1,000 Lz + 2,000
V2
The water ultimately comes to rest in the boiler and the kinetic energy o nnn may
fafUUU
be taken equal to the pressure energy due to addition of, say, 9-3 metres to the lift L2,
which approximately corresponds to V = 13-5 m/sec. and to an addition of about 90 kPa
to the boiler pressure.

Hence _ P._ + —2— x L2 + — 2— x 9.3

Hence, g55 gg5 1,000 1,000

V,m
(8.14)

If the actual delivery is to be M kilogram of water per sec. and Ms kg of condensed

steam per second,

Then, M + Ms = M f l +

Let ab = area of throat of B in cm2, and db = diameter of throat of B in cm,

Then, m [ 1 + -77-) = — Yp- where v = 7 -■ = ~

MwJ 104 y ^ 995

104 m ( i +
1 Mwl 1 \/3 b x 4 *
••• 3 6 --------- 995 4 and* - V — — ...(8 .1 5 )
Let aa = area of throat of A in cm ,
da = diameter of throat of A in cm, and
vs = volume of wet steam after expansion in the nozzle A in m /kg,
 Steam Nozzles 227

then, Ms -
10 v,

104 M x Vs . , \/B a x 4 , „ .„ x
. aa = rr~ and da = V — .... (8.16)
M W x Vs 31
The heat balance per kilogram o f steam may be determined as follows :
Let Hs = enthalpy per kilogram of steam entering the .injector,
hw = enthalpy per kilogram of water supplied to injector,
hm = enthalpy per kilogram of water leaving at B.
Then,
Heat supplied + Heat supplied ± Kinetic energy
in steam in w ater. of water at A’

= Heat in mixture + Kinetic energy of

at B mixture at B

Mw Vw2 (M w + 1) ?
i.e., 1 x Hs + Mw hw ± g qqq (Mw + 1 )hm + —2 0 0 0 — m ••• ( 8 .1 7 )
according to whether, the water supplylevel isbelow the injector level.
From this equation the temperature of the mixture may be found by taking hm equal
to temperature of mixture multiplied by specific heat of water, i.e., 4-187 kJ/kg K.
Problem - 15 : An injector is required to deliver 100 kg o f water per minute from
a tank whose constant water level is 1-2 metres below the level o f the injector, into a
boiler in which the steam pressure is 14 bar. The water level in the boiler is 1-5 metres
above the level o f the injector. The steam for the injector is to be taken from the same
boiler and it is assumed as dry saturated. The temperature o f the water in the supply
tank is 1S°C. Find : (a) the mass o f water taken from the supply tank per kg o f steam,
(b) the diameter of the throat o f the mixing nozzle (c) the diameter o f the throat o f steam
nozzle, and (d) the temperature o f water leaving the injector. Neglect the radiation losses.
(a) Referring to fig. 8-12, throat pressure, p i = 0-578 x 14 = 8-08 bar.
A M 4 bar, Hs = 2 ,7 9 0 kJ/kg and 4>s = 6-4693 (from steam tables)
At 8-08 bar, (by arithmetical interpolation),
0*1 - 2 -0 5 , Osi = 6-66, hi = 7 2 3 kJ/kg.
Li = 2,047 kJ/kg, vsi = 0-237 m3/kg (from steam tables).
4>s = Owl + Xi (Osl — ^w l)
6-4693 = 2-05 + xi (6- 6 6 - 2- 0 5 ) xi 0- 9 6
H i = /Ji + X\ L\ = 7 2 3 + 0-96 x 2 ,0 4 7 = 2 ,6 8 8 kJ/kg
.-. Vs = 44-72 V2,7 9 0 - 2 ,6 8 8 = 44-72 VT02 = 4 5 2 rrVsec. (velocity of steam)
Now, Vw = V2g L1
- V2 x 9-81 x 1-2
- V23-55 = 4-85 m/sec. (velocity of water entering injector)
Using eqn. ( 8.14 ), velocity of mixture leaving nozzle,

Vm
955 1,000 1,000
•6
228 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

[(1,400 - 101-33) 9-81 _ 9-81

Vm = y / 2,000 ---------------------- + x 1-5 + ——— x 9-3
995 1,000 1,000

= V2.822 = 53-1 m/sec.

Using eqn. (8.13), mass of water,
Vs - Vm 452 - 53-1 „
Mw - ----- - ——----— - = 6 88 kg/kg o f steam.
Vm+ Vw 53-1 + 4-85 *
(b) Using eqn. (8.15), areaof the throat of mixing nozzie,
, 1_\ in 4 1 0 0 /. 1
1 + m J 10 * l o 11 + 6-88 2
ab = 104 M 1 = 0-361 cm
995 Vm 995 x 53-1
_ -^0 3 6 1 x 4
... db = V ^ '— * VO-46 = 0-678 cm (dia. of throat of mixing nozzle)
(c) Specific volume at throat of steam nozzle, = xi x vsi = 0-96 x 0-237
= 0-228 m3/kg.
Using eqn. (8.16), area of the throat of steam nozzle,

in 4 M „ 104 x x 0- 228
10 M x VS 60 - __ 2
aa = —q t j —■ ------— — m 1-22 cnrr
Mw x Vs 6- 88 x 452

.-. da = V - - —■x = V i -553 = 1-246 cm (dia. of throat of steam nozzle).

Jt
(d) Using eqn. (8.17),
P
i u a /i h M W VW ( M w + 1) t/ 2
1 x Hs + Mw hw 2~000~ = + ^ —2 000—

o-,™ 6-88 (4-85)2 (6-88 + 1) (53-1)2

1 x 2790 + 6-88 x 4-187 x 15 - ---- 2 000 = ( + 1)/7m + ------- 2^)00------
2,790 + 432-1 - 0 081 = 7-88 hm + 11-1
3,210-9 . ...
hm = 7 88 = 407-5 kJ/kg

i_et tm be the temperature of water leaving the injector. Then,

407-5 = 4-187 (tm - 0)
tm = 97-3°C (Temp, of water leaving the injector).
T u to ria l- 8
1 Delete .the phrase which is not applicable in the following statements :
(i) When the steam flows through a correctly shaped nozzle, its velocity and specific volume both will
decrease/increase.
(ii) The flow of steam in the convergent portion of the steam nozzle is subsonic/supersonic.
(iii) Friction isof negligible magnitude between entry and throat/between throat and exit of the nozzle.
(iv) Ina steam nozzle, as the pressure of steam decreases, velocity of steam decreases/increases.
(v) The length of the converging part of a convergent-divergent steam nozzle is short/long as compared
with the length of its diverging part.
(vi) The effect of friction is to reduce/increase the available enthalpy drop for conversion into kinetic energy.
(vii) The nozzle critical pressure ratio for initially dry saturated steam is 0-578/0-582
 Steam Nozzles 229
[ Delete : (i) decrease, (ii) supersonic, (iii) between
throat and exit, (iv) decreases, (v) long, (vi) to increase,
(vii) 0-582 ]
2 Fill in the blanks in the following statements :
(i) During an adiabatic process with friction, does not remain constant.
(ii) The smallest section of the convergent-divergent nozzle is known as th e ______ .
(iii) Discharge through a nozzle will be ______ when the ratio of pressure at throat to pressure at entry
reaches th e value.
(iv) The effect of friction in nozzles is to reduce the ______ .
(v) ratio depends on the value of index, n for isentropic expansion of steam through the nozzle.
(vi) The value of index n for isentropic expansion of initially superheated steam is ______ .
P2
(vii) The cntical pressure ratio, — = ______ .

(viii) The pressure of steam at which the area of the nozzle is minimum and the discharge per unit area
is maximum is termed as ______ .
(ix) A nozzle which first converges to throat and then diverges is termed as _____ nozzle.
(x) The flow of steam in the convergent portion of the nozzle is ______ .
(xi) Friction reduces the enthalpy drop in a steam nozzle by ______ per cent.
(xii) Friction is of ______ magnitude between entry and throat as most of the friction occurs between the
throat and exit of the nozzle.
(xiii) The supersaturated flow is also called th e flow.
(xiv) A steam injector utilises the kinetic energy of steam jet for ______ the pressure and velocity of
corresponding quantity of water.
(xv) Steam injectors are frequently used for forcing th e into steam boilers under pressure.
I (i) entropy, (ii) throat, (iii) maximum, critical, (iv) enthal-
py drop, (v) critical pressure, (vi) 1-3, (vii) f ^ j n - 1.
(viii) critical pressure, (ix) convergent-divergent nozzle,
(x) subsonic, (xi) 4 to 15, (xii) negligible, (xiii)metas-
table, (xiv) increasing, (xv) feed water ]
3 Indicate the correct answer by selecting correct phrases from each of the following :
(i) The value of index n for isentropicexpansion of superheated steam through the nozzle is
(a) 1-4, (b) 1-3, (c) 1-135, (d) 1-113

(ii) Critical pressure ratio — for steam nozzle in terms of index n for isentropic expansion isgiven by :
Pi

- (^ r “> ( ^ r ■ w f
(iii) For a convergent-divergent nozzle, the mass flow rate remains constant, if the ratio of exit pressure
and inlet pressure is
(a) more than critical pressure ratio, (b) less than critical pressure ratio, (c) unity, (d) infinity.
(iv) For a convergent-divergent nozzle, critical pressure ratio occurs when
(a) nozzle efficiency is maximum,
(b) friction is zero,
(c) decrease in ratio of exit pressure and inlet pressure does not increasesteamflowrate.
(v) The kinetic energy lost in friction is transformed into heat which tends to
(a) dry or superheat the steam,
(b) cool or condense the steam,
(c) increase the pressure of the steam,
(d) decrease the specific volume of steam.
(vi) The velocity of steam in the divergent portion of a convergent-divergent nozzle is
(a) subsonic, (b) sonic, (c) supersonic.
(vii) Semi-cone angle of the divergent part of the convergent-divergent steam nozzle is of the order of
(a) 3* to 10*, (b) 13* to 20*, (c) 23* to 30‘, (d) 33* to 40*.
230 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
[ (i) b, (ii) a, (iii) b, (iv) c, (v) a, (vi) 'c, (vii) a ]
4 What is the function of a steam nozzle ? Mention the types of nozzles, you know.
Steam flows through a properly designed nozzle and the pressure drops from 12 bar to 0-15 bar.
Assuming frictionless adiabatic flow, calculate the dryness fraction and velocity of steam as it leaves the
nozzle, when the steam at the higher pressure is (a) dry saturated, and (b) superheated by 60*0.
[ (a) 0-7952 dry, 1,159 m/sec; (b) 0.834 dry, 1,197-5
m/sec. ]
5 What do you understand by the term critical pressure as applied to steam nozzles ?
Dry saturated steam at pressure of 700 kPa is expanded in a convergent-divergent nozzle to 100 kPa.
The mass of steam passing through the nozzle is 270 kg per hour. Assuming the flow to be frictionless
adiabatic, determine the throat and exit diameters .[ 0-966 cm; 1-332 cm ]
6 Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 12 bar is supplied to a convergent-divergent nozzle and is delivered
at a pressure of 0-15 bar. Determine the diameters at the throat and exit of the nozzle if the delivery of
steam is 18 kg per minute. Assume frictionless adiabatic flow. [ 1-486 cm; 5-125 cm ]
7 Calculatethe diameters at the throat and exit of a nozzle which is to discharge 150 kg of steam per hour.
The steam supply to the nozzle is dry saturated at a pressure of 5 bar and the pressure at exit is 0-6
bar. Assume index of expansion for steam as 1-135. Neglect effect of friction
[ 0-849 cm; 1-24 cm ]
8 Explain the term “critical pressure" as applied to steam nozzles. Why are the turbine nozzles made diver*
gent after the throat ?
Steam is supplied at a dryness fraction of 0-95 and pressure of 14 bar to a convergent-divergent nozzle
and expands down to a back pressure of 0-4 bar. The outlet area of Ihe nozzle is 10 cm2. Assuming
frictionless adiabtic flow through the nozzle, determine :
(a) the steam flow in kg per hour, and
(b) the diameter of the nozzle at throat. [ (a) 1,196.3 kg; (b) 1-458 cm ]
9 A convergent-divergent nozzle is required to discharge 300 kg of steam per hour. The nozzle is supplied
with steam at a pressure of 10 bar and 90 per cent dry and discharges against a back pressure of 0-3
bar. Assuming frictionless adiabtic flow, determine the throat and exit diameters.
[ 0- 842 cm; 2- 047 cm ]
10. Steam is supplied at a dryness fraction of 0.97 and 10 bar to a convengent-divergent nozzle and expands
down to a back pressure of 0.3 bar. The throat area is 5 cm . Assuming frictionless diabetic flow, determine:
(a) The steam flow in kg. per minute, and
(b) The nozzle outlet area. [ (a) 43.37 kg.; (b) 29.28 cm2 ]
11 A nozzle is required to discharge 8 kg of steam per minute. The nozzle is supplied with steam at 11 bar
and 200°C and discharges against a back pressure of 0-7 bar. Assuming frictionless adiabtic flow, determine:
(a) the throat area, (b) the exit velocity and (c) the exit area. Take Kp of superheated steam as 2-1 kJ/kgK.
[ (a) 0-848 cm2; (b) 963-6 m/sec; (c)2-875 cm2 ]
12 Steam expands from 13 bar and 10°C superheat to 1-4 bar in a convergent-divergent nozzle. The mass
of steam passing through the nozzle is 1,800 kg per hour. Assuming the flow to be frictionless adiabatic,
determine the condition of steam and the diameters of the nozzle at Ihe throat and exit. Assume that for
maximum discharge the throat pressure is 7 bar. Take kp of superheated steam as 2-1 kJ/kg K.
[ (a) 0-964 dry, 1-854 cm; 0-879 dry, 2-802 cm ]
13 Show that 1he maximum discharge of steam per unit area, through a nozzle, takes place, when the ra-
tio of the steam pressure at the throat to the inlet steam pressure is

. where n is the index of adiabatic expansion.

ln + V
Calculate the discharge in kg/m2 at the throat of a nozzle, supplied with dry saturated steam at 700
kpa [ 1020-9 kg/m ]
14 From first principles, prove that maximum discharge in a steam nozzle per ifnit area at the throat is
given by
n.-f 1
V 1,000 n ^ 2
vi I n + 1
n - 1

where, pi = Initial pressure of steam in kPa,

v-i = Volume of steam in m3/kg at the initial pressure, and
 Steam Nozzles 231
n a Index of expansion.
15 A convergent-divergent nozzle is supplied with dry saturated steam at 1,200 kPa. If the divergent portion
of the nozzle is 11 cm long and the throat diameter is 1-2 cm, determine the semi-vertical angle of the
cone so that steam may leave the nozzle at 15 kPa. Assume frictionless adiabatic flow. [ 7*-33' ]
16 (a) Draw the 'discharge versus ratio of pressures at outlet to inlet” curve for a convergent steam nozzle.
Discuss the physical significance of critical pressure ratio.
(b) Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 8 bar enters a convergent-divergent nozzle and leaves it at a
pressure of 1-5 bar. If the flow is isentropic and the corresponding expansion index is 1-135, find the ratio
of cross-sectional areas at exit and throat for maximum discharge. [ 1-592 ]
17 Dry saturated steam at 1-8 bar is allowed to discharge through a long convergent nozzle into the atmosphere.
Taking atmospheric pressure as 1 bar, calculate the mass of steam which should be discharged per second
if the exit diameter of the nozzle is 1-2 cm. Neglect friction in the nozzle.
If the mass of steam actually discharged be 94% of the calculated mass, estimate the percentage of
enthalpy drop which is wasted in friction. [ 0-0309 kg/sec; 11-7% ]
18 Explain the term ‘ Nozzle efficiency*.
A convergent-divergent nozzle is to pas 4,000 kg of steam per hour. Initially the steam is 0-98 dry at
21 bar and finally it is at 0-7 bar. Assuming that the friction loss in the divergent part is 18 per cent of
the total isentropic enthalpy drop, determine the required areas of the throat and outlet
{ 3-688 cm2; 23-453 cm2 ]
19 A convergent-divergent nozzle is required to pass 360 kg of steam per hour with a pressure drop from 13
bar to 0-15 bar. The steam at the higher pressure is dry saturated. Assuming that the frictional resistance
occurs only between throat and exit and is equivalent to 13 per cent of the total isentropic enthalpy drop,
determine the diameters at the throat and exit. [ 0-827 cm; 3-114 cm ]
20 A convergent-divergent nozzle is to be designed to discharge 0-075 kg of steam per second into a vessel
in which the pressure is 1-4 bar, when nozzle is supplied with steam at 7 bar and also superheated to
200*C. Find the throat and exit diameters on the assumption that the friction loss in the divergent part is
10% of the total insentropic enthalpy drop. Take kp of superheated steam as 2-3 kJ/kg K.
[ 0-971 cm; 1-245 cm ]
21 Steam at a pressure of 10 bar and a dryness friction of 0-97 is to be discharged through a convergent-divergent
nozzle to a back pressure of 0-15 bar. The mass flow rate through the nozzle is at a rate of 8 kg/kW-hr.
If the turbine develops 150 kW, determine : (i) the throat pressure, (ii) the number of nozzle required, the
diameter of nozzle at throat being 6-5 mm, and (iii) suitable exit diameter of the nozzle, assuming that
10% of the overall isentropic enthalpy drop reheats the steam in the divergent portion of the nozzle.
[ (i) 5-82 ban (ii) 7; (iii) 2-175 cm J
22 (a) State what is meant by expansion of steam (i) under stable adiabatic conditions, and (ii) under conditions
of supersaturation.
(b) Discuss the causes of supersaturated flow in nozzles.
(c) Explain what is meant by the supersaturated expansion of steam and give some idea of the limits
within which this condition is possible.
(d) Steam is expanded in a nozzle from an initial pressure of 10 bar and a temperature 200*C, to a final
pressure of 2-5 bar. The expansion is supersaturated.
Determine : (a) the final condition of steam, (b) the exit velocity of steam, (c) the degree of undercooling,
(d) the degree of supersaturation, (e) the actual enthalpy drop, and (f) the insentropic enthalpy drop.
Compare the mass flow through the above nozzle with one ,in which expansion takes place under
conditions of the thermal equilibrium.
For supersaturated conditions use the following relationship :
V - 0 233(H - 1,940) 13 _ constant; an(j — = constant.
P —
(7)3
where v is the specific volume in m /kg, H is the steam enthalpy in kJ per kg, p is the pressure in
kPa, and T is the absolute temperature. ,
Take kp of superheated steam as 2-3 kJ/kg K.
[ (a) 0-938 dry; (b) 696-77 m/sec; (c) 56-69*C
(d) 7-764, (e) 242-76 kJ/kg; (f) 254-71 kJ/kg; 9-48% )
23 Describe with a neat sketch the working of a steam injector used for a locomotive boiler.
Derive the formula for the amount of water injected into the boiler per kilogram of steam.
24 An injector is required to deliver 100 kg of water per minute from a tank whose constant water level is
232 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
1-2 metres below the level of the injector into a boiler in which the steam pressure is 4 bar. The water
level in the boiler is 1-5 metres above the level of the injector. The steam for the injector is to be taken
from the same boiler and it is to be assumed as dry saturated. The temperature of the water in the supply
tank is 15*C. Find : (a) the mass of water taken from the supply tank per kg of steam, (b) the diameter
of the throat of the mixing nozzle, (c) the diameter of the throat of thesteamnozzle, and (d) the temperature
of the water leaving the injector. Neglect the radiation losses.
[ (a) 12-395 kg; (b) 0-9 cm ; (c) 1-708 cm; (d) 62-6*C ]
25 Write short notes on the following, illustrating your answers with neat sketches wherever necessary :
(a) Types of steam nozzles,
(b) Effect of friction on the flow of steam through convergent-divergentsteamnozzles.
(c) Effect of supersaturated flow in steam nozzles, and
(d) Steam injector.
 9
STEAM TURBINES
9.1 Introduction
From the early days of the reciprocating steam engines, many attempts were made
to develop power from steam without the necessity of the reciprocating mechanism. Modern
steam turbine is the result of these efforts. The steam turbine differs from the reciprocating
steam engine, both in mechanical construction and in the manner in which power is
generated from the steam.
In the reciprocating steam engine a to and fro motion is imparted to the engine piston
by the pressure of the steam acting upon It, and this reciprocating motion is converted
into rotary motionat the crankshaft through the medium of the crosshead, connecting rod
and crank. Theexpansive property of the steam is not utilized to the fullest, even in the
best types of multi-expansion steam engines.
In the steam turbine, rotary motion is imparted directly to the shaft by means of high
velocity steam jets striking the
blades fixed on the rim of a wheel
which is fastened to the shaft. The
turbine is much simpler in mechani-
r N on ■condtntinf tH ftm cal construction, and it utilizes the
a re a / • » • $ • 4 - 5 't kinetic or velocity energy of the
§ fCondtftr'iftj e n jix t steam instead of pressure only.
ja area /M Y 7 7 The expansive property of the
8 A /o n -e n u fe ttfify JurSha steam is almost utilized in the
§ are* i i-g-9-l
turbine (fig. 9-1) either in the ad-
£ C b n d e n fin j
m turbine, _ , mission nozzles or in the turbine
Afn>. O ccr*a.j-2>*-Sl
blading.
9 -S c m
tJj.oh Steam turbines are capable of
O expanding the steam to the lowest
Vo/t/me. X* exhaust pressure obtainable in the
Fig. 9-1. Comparison of gain in work by fitting condenser to a condenser because they are
reciprocating steam engine and steam turbine. steady flow machines and many
have large exhaust outlets (with no valves) through which the spent (used) steam must
be discharged. Steam engines, however, are intermittent (non-continuous) flow machines
and must force the expanded steam out through the relatively small exhaust valve. The
lowest practical exhaust pressure for most steam engines is therefore 15 to 20 cm of
mercury absolute (i.e. 0-2 to 0-3 bar). Steam turbines may expand steam to 2-5 cm of
mercury absolute pressure or less.
The main advantages of steam turbine over the reciprocating steam engine ace as
follows :
(i) With the turbine much higher speeds may be developed, and a far greater speed
range is possible than in the case of the reciprocating steam engine. Because of
this, turbine units are much smaller for same power than reciprocating steam
234 . Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
engine units and this in turn means, less floor space is required and may be
built to produce very large power.
(ii) Since the turbine is a rotary machine, perfect balancing is possible. This means
foundation of the turbine is lighter and smaller.
(iii) The ability of turbine to use high pressure and superheated steam and uniflow
direction of steam flow through the turbine, combined with its greater range of
expansion and ability to utilize a high vacuum to greater advantage, make the
steam turbine much more efficient and economical than the reciprocating steam
engine for power generation. The mechanical friction losses are very small in case
of turbine. The thermal efficiency of the steam turbine therefore is over 30%
compared with about 16% efficiency of the best steam engine.
(iv) The working of the turbine is much smoother than that of the steam engine. The
speed of rotation (r.p.m.) is uniform. The torque produced by the turbine is uniform
and there is practically no vibration.
(v) As no internal lubrication is heeded, highly superheated steam can be used and
exhaust steam contains no lubricating oil.
The steam turbine when properly designed and constructed, is the most durable
prime-mover.
The reciprocating steam engine still possesses certain advantages over the steam turbine
where frequent stopping, starting, reversing or change of speed may be necessary or where
engines are required to operate non-condensing. Mine hoists, locomotives, drilling engines for
wells and some types of mill and factory engines are preferably of the reciprocating type for the
above reasons. The turbine is a constant high speed machine and really must be operated
condensing in order to take full advantage of its greater range of steam expansion.
9.2 Types of Steam Turbines
Steam turbines may be classified into three main types according to the working
principles, namely, impulse turbines, reaction turbines and combined turbines (im-
pulse-reaction turbines).

(a ) (b ) C«>
Fig. 9-2.

(a) Diagrammatic view of a simple impulse turbine.

(b) Arrangement of blades and nozzle for a simple impulse turbine.
(c) Simple reaction wheel. ■
 Steam Turbines 235
H ie turbines in which complete process of expansion of steam takes place in stationary
nozzle and the velocity energy is converted into mechanical work on the turbine blades,
are known as impulse turbines.

An impulse turbine depends almost wholly for its operation on the impulsive force of
high velocity steam jet or jets. The high velocity steam jets are obtained by expansion
of the steam in the stationary nozzles only, and the steam then passes at high velocity
through the moving blades with no drop in pressure but a gradual reduction in velocity.
In short, in purely impulse turbines the rotary motion of the shaft is obtained by having
high velocity jets of steam directed against the blades attached to the rim of the turbine
wheel or rotor. Fig. 9-2(a) illustrates diagrammatic view of a simple impulse turbine. Fig.
9 -2 (b) shows the arrangement of blades on the rotor and diaphragm carrying convergent-
divergent nozzle. The nozzle axis is inclined at a fixed angle to the tangent of the rotor
wheel.
A pure reaction turbine [fig. 9-2(c)] is one in which the drop of pressure with expansion
and generation of kinetic energy takes place in the moving blades. The steam jets leave
the moving blades at greater velocities than those at which they enter these blades. The
jets of steam from the moving blades react on the blades and turn them round.

The passages through the moving blades are made convergent so that the steam
expands while passing through them, which causes the steam to leave the blades at
higher velocity than that at which it entered. The backward motion of the blades is similar
to the recoil of a gun when fired. A pure reaction turbine is of little practical importance.
In modem reaction turbines both the impulse and reaction principles work together.
The pressure drop is effected partly in the fixed guide blades which are designed to work
as nozzles and partly- in the moving blades which are also so designed that expansion
of the steam takes place in them. The high velocity issuing jet from the fixed guide
blades, produces an impulse on the moving blades and the jet coming out at still higher
velocity from the moving blades produces a reaction. Therefore, part of the work is due
to impulse and the remainder due to the reaction. However, these turbines work more
on reaction principle than on impulse. These turbines are generally called reaction turbines
but the more correct term should be impulse-reaction turbines. A very good example of
reaction turbine is a Parsons turbine. In a reaction turbine, the stationary blades and the
moving blades are virtually convergent nozzles so that the steam passing through them
suffers a fall in pressure.
The circumferential speed of the moving blades is kept the same as the velocity of
the steam that enters the blades. This ensures that the steam will flow into the blades
without striking them.
Steam turbines may further he classified according to their position of shaft, nature of steam
supply, direction of steam flow, construction and arrangement of blades and wheels, and number
of stages in expansion. Thus, steam turbines may be further classified (i) according to the
position of shaft axis, they are horizontal or vertical, (ii) according to their nature of steam supply
and use to which steam is put, they are high-pressure or low-pressure, and bleeder-or extraction,
(iii) according to the direction of steam flow, they are axial, radial, tangential, single-flow or
double-flow, (iv) according to their construction and arrangement of blades and wheels, they
are pressure compounded or velocity compounded, and (v) according to number of stages, they
are single-stage, two-stage, etc.
As an example of the use of these classifications, we might describe a particular
turbine as a horizontal, high-pressure, axial flow, reaction, two-stage, condensing turbine.
236 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
9.3 Impulse-Steam Turbine
It has been already pointed out that the essential parts of an impulse turbine are the
nozzles and blades. In nozzle the expansive property of the steam is utilized to produce
a jet of steam moving with very high velocity. The function of the blades is to change
the direction and hence momentum of the jet or jets of steam and so to produce a force
which will rotate the blades. It is a matter of prime importance that we should be able
to estimate th ^ propelling force that would be applied to a turbine rotor under any given
set of conditions. This will also help to estimate the work done and hence the power.
Since the force is due to a change of momentum caused mainly by the change in the
direction of flow, it becomes essential to draw velocity diagram showing how the velocity
of the steam varies during its passage through the blades.
9.3.1 V elocity diagram fo r m oving blades : Fig. 9-3(a) shows the nozzle and blades
either of single-stage impulse turbine or of one stage of a multi-stage turbine. Steam
enters the nozzle at pressure p0 and issues from nozzle at pressure p i. The velocity of
the steam at the nozzle exit is V i and it is at an angle a i to the tangent of the wheel
at the entrance to the moving blades. The tangential component of entering steam Vwi

o u t l et
TRtAMGLE

m
Fig. 9-3. Velocity diagram.
commonly known as velocity o f whirl, does work on the blades. The axial component
Vai of the entering steam jet does not work on the blades because it is perpendicular
to the direction of the motion of the blades. This component is also known as the velocity
of the flow or axial velocity, and it is responsible for the flow of steam through the
turbine. Change of velocity in this component causes an axial thrust on the rotor.
As the blade is moving with a tangential velocity u m/sec., the entering jet will have
relative velocity of the blades of \Zri which makes an angle of Pi to the wheel tangent.
This relative velocity may be obtained by subtracting the vector of blade velocity (Jj from
velocity of steam (Vi) i.e. = V{ - u. This is shown in fig. 9-3 (b) for velocity triangle
at inlet. In order to avoid shock at entry, vector I'm must be tangential to the blade tip
at entry, i.e. Pi must be equal to the angle of blade at entrance.
A similar vector diagram is shown at the outlet tip of the moving blade. The steam
glides off the blade with a relative velocity of Vfe inclined at an angle p2 to the tangent;
by adding the vector of blade velocity (d) to W2, the absolute velocity of the leaving
 Steam Turbines 237
steam (V2) is obtained. Its inclination is a2 to the tangent. Having obtained the vector
V2 its tangential component or velocity
of whirl V*2 and also its axial component
or velocity of flow Va2 can be drawn.
This completes velocity diagram at exit.
For convenience in solving problems
on turbine blades, it is usual to combine
the two velocity diagrams of fig. 9-3(b)
on a common base representing the
blade velocity u. This has been done
in fig. 9-4, which shows the complete
velocity diagram. This is obtained by
turning the inlet diagram through 180°,
and by superimposing it on the outlet
diagram so that vector u coincides for
both diagrams.
Fig. 9-4. Combined velocity diagram.
In an impulse turbine the relative
velocity at inlet Vri has the same magnitude as the relative velocity at outlet Vfe if friction
is neglected. This is so as there is no fall in steam pressure as it flows over the blades
i.e. Vri = Vr2. The length of the vector Vfc may be obtained by drawing a circular arc
of radius Vri and centred at B.
It will be noticed that the horizontal distance between the apexes of the inlet and
outlet diagrams represented by the distance EF, is the vector difference of Vwi and Vw2 ,
Or change o f velocity of whirl
= Vwi ± Vw2 = EF
9.3.2 Forces on the blade and work done : Since Vi(AC) is the initial absolute
velocity and V2 (AD) is the final absolute velocity of the steam, the change of velocity
which the steam undergoes in passing through the blades is represented by the vector
CD (when the apexes of inlet and outlet triangles are joined) = vector (V2 - Vi) of fig.
9-4.
In general the vector ( V2 - Vi) will not be parallel to u, so that only the tangential
component Vw will do useful work; whilst the normal component (Vai - Va2) produces
an end thrust on the rotor.
Let m = steam flow through blades in kg per sec.
From Newton’s second law of motion,
Tangential force on wheel = mass x acceleration in tangential direction
change of velocity
= mass x a—------------J-
time
= mass per sec x change of velocity
= m (V w1 - V*z) N ...(9 .1 )
It should be noticed from fig. 9-4 that VW2 is actually negative as the steam is
discharged in the opposite direction to the blade motion. This means that the values of
Vwi and VW2 are added together in eqn. (9.1). Thus writing eqn. (9.1) in a more general
way,
Tangential force on wheel « m (V w1 ± Vwz) N . . . (9.2)
+ ve sign is to be used when VW2 and u are in opposite direction as shown in fig.
238 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
9.4 and < ve sign is to be used when VW and u are in same direction as shown in
fig. 9-9.
Work done on blade = force x distance travelled.
- m (V wi ± Vw2) x u N.m/sec. or Joules/sec. . . . (9.3)

Power developed by the wheel - —- * ^-77 ^7 : ^**2^ kJ/sec. or kW ” '

1 |U U U

This power is termed as the rim power to distinguish it from the actual power
transmitted to the shaft.
Blade efficiency : Since available energy of the steam entering the blade is,

■
Work done on the blades
the efficiency of the blade alone, r\b
Energy supplied to the blades
m x (VWi ± V W )u
1 ,0 0 0 2 l #( VWi ± VW) ...(9 .5 )
m (V i )2 (Vi ) 2
2,000
The blade efficiency is also called diagram efficiency as this is obtained with the help
of velocity diagrams.
Stage efficiency : If H i and H2 be the enthalpies before and after expansion through
the nozzle, then (Hi - Hz) is the enthalpy drop (H) in kJ/kg through a stage of fixed
blade rings and moving blade rings.
. Work done on blade per kg of steam
age icie cy, rjs = jo ta i energy supplied per stage per kg of steam
u (Vyvl # VW)
1,000 u(Vw 1 + VW) • • • (9.6)
(Hi - Hz) 1,000 H

. _ . 2,000 2,000 (Vi)

Now, nozzle efficiency = ?
P I - H i) H 2,000 H

Blade efficiency x nozzle efficiency = 2 u (^» i + j j s x (W}

(( V
^ rr f 2,000 H
U ( VvA + VW)
- Stage efficiency
1,000 H
Axial thrust : The axial thrust on the wheel is due to the difference between the
velocities of flow at entrance and outlet.
Axial force on wheel = mass x acceleration in axial direction
= mass per sec. x change of axial velocity
= m(Va 1 - Vaz) N ...(9 .7 )
The axial force or axial thrust or end thrust on the wheel must be balanced or must
be taken by a thrust bearing. It may be noted from eqn. (9.7) that the axial thrust is
zero if Vai = Va2.
Energy converted to heat by blade friction :
 Steam Turbines 239
Energy converted to . Loss of knietic energy
heat by blade friction s during flow over blade

- m t o o o - m ^ 5 5 o k J /s e c - • • • <a 8 >

where m is steam flow per second.

Problem-1 : Steam issues from the nozzle o f a simple impulse turbine with a velocity
o f 900 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 20°, the mean diameter o f the blades is %5 cm and
the speed o f rotation is 20,000 r.p.m. mThe mass flow through the turbine nozzles and
blading is 0.18 kg o f steam per sec. Draw the velocity diagram and derive or calculate
the following : (a) Tangential force on blades, (b) Axial force on blades, (c) Power
developed by the turbine wheel, (d) Efficiency o f the blading, and (e) Inlet angles of

Fig. 9-5. Velocity diagram.

blades for shockless inflow o f steam.
Assume that the outlet angle o f the blades is equal to the inlet angle and frictional
losses are negligible.

Blade speed, u= -?■% *■N = Jtx_ 2 5 x 20’^ )Q = 262 m/sec.

^ 60 100 60
The velocity inlet triangle ABC (fig.9-5) may now be constructed to some convenient
scale and the following results are obtained graphically (a graphical solution is to be
preferred, although calculation is equally possible) :
Relative velocity at entrance, Vr\ = 650 m/sec.,
Axial velocity at inlet, Vai = 307-8 m/sec.,
Tangential component at inlet, Vwi = 835-7 m/sec., and
Inlet blade angle, pi = 28-2°.
Since friction losses are negligible, V& = Vri = 650 m/sec.
Also the outlet blade angle, 02 - Pi = 28-2°.
The velocity exit triangle ABD may now be constructed. The additional results obtained
240 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
are :
Ve2 = Vai = 3 0 7 - 8 m/sec., and Vwz = 310*8 m/sec.
(a) Using eqn. (9.2)
Tangential force on blades - m x (Vwi + Vw2)
= 0-18 x (835-7+ 310-8)- 206 37 N
(b) As there is no change in axial component of velocity, i.e. Va\ = Vg2 , the axial
force on blades is zero.
(c) From eqn. (9.4),

Power developed by the wheel - — - — - ^-

1,000
, M L * (835-7 + 310-8)262 _ w
1,000 - 3*1 1 KW

(d) From eqn. (9.5),

Efficiency of the blading, r\b = —! ^ VvA + YzSH

(V i)2
2 x 262 (835-7 + 310-8) ____ ____
= 1 z L - 0-742 or 74-2%
(900)
(e) Inlet angles of blades (for shockless inflow of steam), Pi = 28-2° (from velocity
diagram).

9.3.3 Effect o f blade fric tio n on velocity diagram : In an impulse turbine the relative

Fig. 9-6. Combined velocity diagram considering friction losses.

velocity will remain unaltered as it passes over the blades, if friction is neglected. In
practice the flow of steam over the blades is resisted by friction. The effect of this friction
is to reduce the relative velocity of steam as it passes over the blades. In general, there
is a loss of 10 to 15 per cent in the relative velocity. Owing to friction in the blades,
Vxz is less than Vri and we may write,
 Steam Turbines 241
Vr2 = kVr-\ where, k represents the blade velocity coefficient or friction factor.
Thevelocitydiagram of fig. 9-4can be modified to allow for this blade friction by
making Vrz= k Vri; this modification is shown in fig. 9-6. In this diagram the inlet diagram
is first drawn and the point C’ on the BC is
h c is u . marked such that BC’ = kVr\. With compass
centred on B, and arc of radius BC’ is drawn to
cut line BD at D. Line BD is drawn at given
angle and AD is joined. The line AD then
represents absolute velocity Vz.
It will be noticed that the effect of the blade
friction is to reduce V2, and consequently reduce
Vw2. This in turn will cause reduction in the work
done per kg of steam and blade efficiency.
9.3.4 Sim ple
turbine was the first impulse turbine successfully
built in 1889. This is the simplest turbine in form.
Fig. 9-7. De Laval turbine. It has single impulse wheel on which steam jets
impinge from several nozzles arranged around the
circumference. A view of this turbine is illustrated in fig. 9-7. The steam is expanded in
nozzles which are inclined to the wheel tangent at an angle of about 20°. The smallest
De Laval turbine con-
structed has a wheel
diameter of 12.5 cm and
a speed of 30,000 r.p.m.
It is most suitable for
low pressure steam
supply. The blades are
made symmetrical with
angles of about 30° at
inlet and outlet. The
power developed is
about 5 kW and the
blade speed is 200 m
per sec. It has spherical
bearings. Helical gear-
ing is used to reduce
Fig. 9-8. Velocity diagram for De Laval turbine. th e high ro ta tio n a l
speed of the wheel to a practical value, withoutundue noise or friction losses.
The velocity diagram for the De Laval blade is shown in fig. 9-8. Assuming no friction
losses for the flow over the blades,

Energy supplied per kg of steam = kJ.

2,000

Energy rejected per kg of steam =

(Vzf kJ.
2,000
m 2 - (Vz)2
Hence, work done per kg of steam = kJ.
2,000
It may be noted that the work done is maximum when V2 is maximum i.e. when
angle az is 90°.
242 Elements of Heal Engines Vol. II
Considering A ABD and A ECB, Vri = Vfe (neglecting friction), also
L BAD = i. BEC = 90° (for maximum efficiency), and 61 - 62 (for the De Laval
blade).
Hence, A ABD = A ECB.

AB = BE or AB « \ EA, i.e. u = - m V' cos a1 • • • (9<9)

2 2 2
Also Vz = AD = EC = Vi sin a i . . . (9 .10)
Now, blade efficiency, . Work done on the blade____
Kinetic energy supplied to the blade

(v n l (^ 2) 2
m 2,OQp ~ 2000 _ ( V\ ) 2 - (Vz)2 _ (\ZQ2 - (\^ s in a i)2
( V i) 2 * W )2 “ (Vy)2
2,000
- 1 - sin2 a i - cos2 a i • • • (9-11)
This is the maximum efficiency as o.z has been assumed to be 90°. Putting a i equal
to 20°, which is the value adopted in this turbine,
Maximum blade efficiency = cos2 20° = 0*883 or 88-3%.
This is the theoretical value of the blade efficiency, the actual efficiency is only about
55%.
Although the original machine was great success for mathematicians, it suffered from
many defects which made it compare unfavourably with reciprocating engines. The speed
o f this wheel is too high to be o f practical use. The chief development of modern turbines
has been to devise efficient methods to reduce this high speed; the methods used, such
as compounding for velocity and pressure, will be dealt with later in this chapter.
Problem -2 : The rotor o f an impulse turbine is 60 cm diameter and runs at 9,600
r.p.m. The nozzles are at 20° to the plane, o f the wheel, and the steam leaves them at
600 m/sec. The blades outlet angle are 30° and the friction factor is 0-8. Calculate the
power developed per kg o f steam per second and the diagram efficiency.

Fig. 9-9. Velocity diagram.

 Steam Turbines 243

Blade velocity, u = K^ x = 301-5 m/sec.

The velocity diagram may now be constructed to some convenient scale as shown
in fig. 9-9. A graphical solution is to be preferred, although calculation is equally possible.
The inlet triangle ABC is readily constructed consisting of u = 301-5 m/sec,
a i - 20° and Vi = 600 rrVec.
Hence from velocity diagram, Vri = 332 m/sec.
Since friction factor is 0-8, Ife « 0-8 ■ l | | - 0-8 x 332 = 265-6 m/sec.
The exit triangle ABD can now be completed by drawing V& = 265-6 m/sec at 30°
to u at B.
Hence from velocity diagram, Vwi - Vw2 = 497-32 m/sec.
From eqn. (9.4),

Power developed - kW

. 1 “ 49] * L * 3015 = 150 kW

1,000
From eqn. (9.5),
Diagram efficiency, r\b - 2u(VWi Vwz)
S f

. 2 s m m **s m . ^ or ^
(600)
Problem -3 ; An impulse turbine with a single row wheel is to develop 99-3 kW, the
blade speed being 150 m/sec.
A mass o f 2 kg o f steam per
second is to flow from the noz-
zles at a speed o f 350 m/sec.
The velocity coefficient o f the
blades may be assumed to be
0-8 while the steam is to flow
axially after passing through the
blades ring. Determine the noz-
zle angle, and the blade angles
at inlet and exit assuming no
shock. E stim a te a lso the
diagram efficiency o f the blad-
ing.
It is best to sketch the
complete velocity diagram,
using the available data, before
attempting solution. As the
Fig. 9*10. Velocity diagram.
steam flows axially at exit, i.e.,
at right angle to the plane of the wheel, then angle BAD is 90° (fig. 9-10). It may be
noted that the triangles cannot yet be constructed. The magnitude of Vwi ± Vwz can be
calculated from eqn. (9.4).

From eqn. (9.4), power developed = ^

244 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

2 (Vw\ ± 1^)150
i.e. 99-3 =
1,000
VvA ± VW = 331 m/sec.
As the flow at exit is axial, Vw2 = 0 VWi = 331 m/sec.
The inlet triangle ABC can be constructed to some convenient scale using
V] = 350 m/sec., u = 150 m/sec, and Vwi = ‘ 331 m/sec.
Hence from the inlet triangle ABC, Vri = 213 m/sec., required nozzle angle,
a i = 18-7°, and required inlet blade angle, Pi = 31*75*.
V/2 = 0-8 Vn = 0-8 x 213 - 170-4 m/sec.
Now, exit triangle ABD can be completed.
Hence, from the diagram, required exit blade angle, 02 - 28-3*.
Using eqn. (9.5),
2 u ( VWi + Vv/z)
Diagram efficiency, r\b =
( Y if
2 x 150.x 331
- 0-81 or 81%
(350)2
Problem -4 : The steam leaves the nozzle o f a single-stage impulse wheel turbine
at 900 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 20°, the blade angles are 30° at inlet and outlet, and
friction factor is 0-8.
Calculate : (a) the blade velocjfy, and (b) the steam flow in kg per hour if the power
developed by the turbine is 257'kW.
(a) The velocity inlet triangle may be drawn as shown in fig. 9-11 by making u to
any suitable length, say 3
cm, and setting up the given
angles. The Jength of Vi can
then be measured and the
scale of the diagram found,
since Vi = 900 m/sec.
Hence, blade velocity, u =
312 m/sec.
(b) From the inlet triangle
ABC, Vri = 625 m/sec.
.-. V& - 0-8 Vri
= 0-8 x 625
= 500 m/sec.
Now the exit triangle
ABD can be completed by
drawing V& = 500 m/sec. at
Fig. 9-11. Velocity diagram
%
30° to u at B.
Hence, VVi + Vw2 = 966-7 m/sec. (from velocity diagram).
m ( Vw] + l/wg) u
Using eqn. (9.4), power developed in kW =
1,000
 Steam Turbines 245
m x 966-7 x 312 257 x 1,000
i.e. 257 m = 0-852 kg/sec.
1,000 966-7 x 312
Steam flow per hour = 0-852 x 3,600 = 3,067-2 kg/hr.
Problem -5 : The outlet area o f the nozzles in a simple impulse turbine is 15-5 err?
and the steam leaves them 0-91 dry at 1-4 bar and at 920 m/sec. The blade angles are
30° at inlet and exit, and the blade velocity is 0-25 of the steam velocity at the exit from
the nozzle. The friction factor is 0-8. Find : (a) the nozzle angle, (b) the power developed,
(c) the diagram efficiency, and (d) the axial thrust on the blading.

Fig. 9-12. Velocity diagram.

The velocity triangles may be constructed as shown in fig. 9-12 to some convenient
scale.
(a) In the velocity diagram (fig. 9-12), u = 0-25 x 920 = 230 m/sec. may be drawn.
At B, the inlet blade angle of 30° is drawn. With A as centre and radius equal to 920
rrVsec., an arc is drawn to cut the line (drawn at 30°) at C. The inlet triangle ABC can
now be completed. Hence, from the velocity inlet triangle ABC, the required nozzle angle,
a i = 23° and Vri = 7 1 5 m/sec.
.-. V/2 = 0-8 Va = 0-8 x 715 = 572 m/sec.
The exit triangle ABD can be completed by drawing Ife = 572 m/sec. at 30° to u
at B.
Hence, from velocity diagram, Vwi + VW = 1,113 m./sec., Vai = 359 m/sec., and
Va2 = 286 m/sec.
At 1-4 bar, from steam tables,vs = 1-2366 m /kg.
^ „ .. . . . . AV 15-5 x 920
Steam flow through blades, m = — = —A - ------------------------- = 1-267 kg/sec.
W* 104 x 0-91 x 1-2366
(b) From eqn. (9.4), Power developed
m(Vw\ + Vw2)jj kW ^ 1-267 x 1/113 x 230 = 324 kW
1,000 1,000
(c) From eqn. (9.5),
2 u(Vw\ + Vwz)
Diagram efficiency, r\b =
(V/1)2
246 Elements of Heat Engines Vol.
2 x 230 x 1,113
Vb - 0-605 or 60-5%
x2
(920)'
(d) From eqn. (9.7),
Axial thrust on the blading = m (V a1 - Va2) - 1-267(359 - 286) = 925 N
Problem -6 : -A single stage impulse rotor has a blade ring diameter o f 57-5 cm and
rotates at a speed o f 10,000 r.p.m. The nozzles are inclined at 20* to the direction of
motion o f the blades and the velocity o f the issuing steam is 1,050 m/sec. Determine
the inlet blade angle in order that the steam shall enter the blades passage without
shdck. Assume a friction coefficient o f the blading equal to 0-85 and that the inlet and
outlet angles are equal. Find also : (a) the power developed at the blades for a steam
supply o f 1,350 kg per hour, (b) the diagram efficiency, and (c) the loss o f kinetic energy
due to blade friction.

. \

Fig. 9*13. Velocity diagram.

*D N n . S7-5 x W O . „ nVSec_
Blade speed, u =
60 100 " 60
The inlet triangle ABC (fig. 9-13), may now be constructed to some convenient scale
and the following results are obtained :
Relative velocity at entrance, Vri = 775 m/sec.
Tangential component at inlet, Vwi = 986 m/sec. and inlet blade angle Pi - 27-6°
Also the blade outlet angle, 02 - Pi = 27-6°
Since Vr2 = 0-85 Vr1 V/2 = 0-85 x 775 = 658 m/sec.
The exit triangle ABD can now be completed by drawing Ife = 658 m/sec. at 27-6°
to u at B.
Hence, from velocity diagram, Vw2 = 284 m/sec. and \ZW1 + Vw2 = 1,270 m/sec.
(a) From eqn. (9.4),
m (Vwi + Vwz)u
Power developed =
1,000 kw
1,350 x 1,270 x 300
= 142 8 kW
3,600 x 1,000
 Steam Turbines 247
(b) From eqn. (9.5),
rv w • 2 l/ ( W l + Vvi/2:)
Diagram efficiency, r\b = — y 2—

2 x 300 x 1,270 M
= ---------------- r-5----- m 0-692 or 69*2%
(1,050)
(c) From eqn. (9.8),

Loss of K.E due to blade friction - &— ( Vn) 2 - (Vr2)2 kJ/sec.

2 x 1 ,0 0 0

- 3 ,6 0 0 « ^ 1 ,0 0 0 1(775)2 - «658>a> =31'4 « * > »

9.3.5 Methods of reducing rotor speed or compounding of stages : The simple
impulse turbine is shown diagrammatically in fig. 9-14. The lower part of the figure shows
a longitudinal section through the upper half of the turbine, the middle portion shows a
development of the nozzle and blading, while the top portion of the diagram shows
approximately how the absolute pressure and absolute velocity of steam vary from point
to point during the passage of the steam through the turbine.
If the steam is expanded from the boiler pressure to the condenser pressure, its
velocity is extremely high, i.e. about 1,050 m per second. As shown earlier, the velocity
of blade for maximum blade efficiency should be about one half of the steam velocity,
i.e. about 525 m«per second. In practice, the maximum blade velocity reached in this
type of simple single-stage turbine is about 450 m per sec. As this type of turbine is
only employed for relatively small powers, the diameter of rotor is kept fairly small and
as a result the rotational speed is very high, reaching 30,000 r.p.m. In practice very few
machines are required to be driven at such a high speed, and it is usually necessary
to reduce the speed by gearing. Such gearing will be of undue proportions.
One of the chief objects in the development of the steam turbine is to reduce the
high speed of the rotor to practical limits. Several methods are used to reduce this high
rotor speed. All of these methods consist of a multiple system of rotors in series, keyed
on a common shaft and the steam pressure or the steam velocity is absorbed in stages
as it flows over the rotor blades. This is known as compounding. The following are chief
methods for reducing the rotor speed :
9.3.6 Velocity-Compounded impulse turbines : This type of turbine consists of a
nozzle or sets of nozzles and a wheel fitted with two or more rows of moving blades.
The illustration shown in fig. 9-15 has two-rings of moving blades on the rotor and such
a wheel is sometimes referred to as a “two-row wheel”. There are also a number of
guide or stationary blades' arranged between the moving blades and set in the reverse
manner as shown in fig. 9-15.
Steam entering the nozzle expands from the initial pressure down to the exhaust
pressure, and resulting steam velocity is then utilized by as many sets of rotor blade
rings as are necessary. On passing through the first ring of moving blades, the steam
gives up only a part of its kinetic energy and issues from this ring of blades with a fairly
high velocity. It then enters the guide blades (stationary blades) and is redirected by them
into the second ring of moving blades. There is a slight drop in velocity in the fixed
guide blades due to friction. In passing through the second ring of moving blades the
steam suffers a change of momentum and gives up another portion of its kinetic energy
to the rotor. In case of three-row rotor, steam further passes through the next ring of
stationary blades and then through the third ring of moving blades and subsequently
248 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II

in *•*
Jnmovinq blades
v«i«city
0f 5 t l
Icavlny
Pr«jjur*
o f steam
C nttrinj
Pressure
o f steam,
enterifljj

Veiot
o f steam
entering V«l o£i ty*-*J| ^' Condenser
o r^ e ^ fg j^ lS f^ L S l pressure

Moving
bltdrj
Exhaust
4 team
Livesteom Live stea m (caWns
entering cnteritg Stationary
blade

Shaft

Fig. 9-14. Diagrammatic arrangement of simple impulse Fig. 9-15. Two • stage velocity-com pounded
turbine showing variation of velocity and pressure of impulse turbine.
steam as it flows over the blades.

leaves the wheel and enters the condenser. It may be noted that a two-row wheel is
more efficient than the three-row wheel.
In fig. 9-15 (top portion), the curves of velocity and pressure are shown plotted on
a base representing the axis of
the turbine. It will be noticed
from the pressure curve that all
the pressure drop takes place
in the nozzle ring, and the pres-
sure remains constant as the
steam flows over the blades.
This method of velocity stag-
ing is known as Curtis principle.
9.3.7 Ef ficiency of a
velocity-compounded stage :
The complete velocity diagram
(fig. 9-16) for a stage consisting
of a two moving blades and one
fixed blade ring will consists of
two diagrams, one for each set
Fig. 9-16. Velocity diagram.
 Steam Turbines 249
of moving blades. Let us assume that the blading is symmetrical (01 = p2) and steam
loses 10% of its velocity when passing over a blade and also blade velocity (u), nozzle
angle* (a i), velocity of steam discharged from nozzle (Vi) are known.
Let AC represent Vi, the velocity of the steam leaving the nozzles and entering the
first row of moving blades. The inlet diagram is first drawn and then line BD of an
unknown length is drawn at the correct angle 02- Mark off on line BC a friction loss of
relative velocity CC\ Then BC’ equals 0-9 BC = 0-9 tfeu With compass centred on B,
draw an arc of radius BC‘ to cut BD at D. Then BD = Ife = 0-9 BC. By joining A and
D the line AD representing Vz is obtained.
The steam now flows over the fixed blade ring and will lose 10% of its velocity during
the passage. Hence mark off DD’ to be 0-1 of the absolute velocity V*.* Thus steam
enters the second set of moving blades with absolute velocity AE (shown dotted) at an
angle a i T h e steam now flows over the second moving blades and loses 10% of its
relative velocity. Hence, the relative velocity of steam at entry to second set of moving
blades is BE' = 0-9 BE at an inlet angle p i, i.e. same angle as that for the first set of
moving blades. The relative velocity of steam at exit from second set of moving blades
is BF m 0*9 BE = BE' at blade exit angle 02- The absolute velocity of steam at exit
from the second gioving blades is AF (shown dotted) at an angle a 2
It should be noted that
02 = angle of discharge from first moving blade
= inlet angle of fixed blade,
a i = outlet angle of fixed blade, and
02 ' = angle of discharge from second moving blade.
Work done on first set of moving blades per kg of steam
= u (GH) = u(Vw\ ± Vw2) N.m or Joules
Work done on second set of moving blades per kg of steam
- u ( G ' H ') « u(V wi ' ± VvJZ) N.m or Joules
Total work done per stage per kg of steam = u(GH + G ' H ' ) N.m or Joules.
_ ...___ , . m x (GH + G ' H') u ....
Power developed per stage N ■. rvv. *— kW
I |UUU
where, m = steam flow through blade in kg per sec.
... . u(GH + G ' H') 2u ( G H + G ' H ' )
Diagram or blade efficiency —* = — -— -

Stage efficiency =

where, H = enthalpy drop in nozzles in kJ/kg

Total axial thrust = m[(Va1 - Va2) + (Vg \' - Va2 ') ] N
Same method may be repeated for velocity diagram, if the stage consists of more
than two turbine pairs.
Problem -7 : In a two-stage velocity-compounded impulse turbine, the steam issues
from the nozzles at a speed o f 800 m/sec. The moving blade angles at entrance and
exit are 30° and the blade speed is 180 m/sec. Assuming that the steam enters the
blades without loss or shock and the coefficient of friction for the moving and fixed blades
is 0-88, find :
250 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
(i) the angle o f the nozzle,
(ii) the angle o f the fixed blades discharging tip,
(iii) the total work done on the blades per kg o f steam', and
(iv) the blade or diagram efficiency for the stage.

Fig. 9-17. Velocity diagram.

Refer fig. 9-17 for velocity diagram. This can be drawn to some convenient scale
from the following data :
= 180 m/sec., AC(Vi) = 800 m/sec., pi = 30°, = p2 = 30°, and
BD(Vt2) = 0-88 8C(Vm) for the first set of moving blades.
• AE for second moving blade ring = 0-88 AD of first moving blade ring.
B E ’ = 0-88 BE for the second moving blade ring.
The velocity diagram can now be drawn from these values, and the following values
can be scaled off the diagram :
(i) a i = 225° (nozzle angle).
(ii) a i' - 16° (angle of the fixed blade discharging tip).
(iii) For first moving blade, GH - Vw\ + VW - 1,032 m/sec.
For second moving blade, G ’ H ' - Vw\' - V w i' - 330 m/sec.
Total work done per stage per kg of steam - u(GH + G ' H ' )
m 180 x (1,032 + 330) = 2,45,160 N.m or Joules per kg o f steam
 Steam Turbines 251

(iv) Blade or diagram efficiency = 2 U(GH+ Q £t_)

(Vi)2
= 2 x 180(1»032 ± 33°) , o-766 or 76-6%
(800)
Problem-8 : A velocity - compounded impulse turbine has two rows o f moving blades
with a fixed row o f guide blades between them. The steam leaves the nozzles a t 900
m/sec. in a direction at 18° to the plane o f the rotation, the blade speed is 150 m/sec.
and the blade outlet angles are : first moving 24°, fixed 26° and second moving 30°.
The friction factor is 0-9 for a ll rows.
Draw the velocity diagram to as large a scale as possible and from it determine the
total change in velocity o f whirl and the tangential thrust on the rotor if the steam supply
’ 4,500 kg/hr.
Refer fig. 9-18 for velocity diagram. This can be drawn to some convenient scale
from the following data :
AB(u) = 150 m/sec., AC(V t| = 900 m/sec., p2 = 24°, outlet angle of second moving
blade, 0 2 ' = 30°, a j = 18°, a i ' = 26°, and friction factor of 0-9 for all rows.
The following values can be scaled off the velocity diagram :
For first moving blade, VWi + Vw2 - 1,320 m/sec., and
for second moving blade, V w i' + Vwz' = 556 m/sec.
Total change in velocity of whirl = 1,320 + 556 = 1,876 m/sec.
For first moving blade, Va\ - Va2 = 0, and
for second moving blade, \Zai ' - Va2 ' = 53 m/sec.
252 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Tangential thrust on the rotor = m (0 + 53)

- w * 53 - 66 25 N
Velocity diagram for axial discharge : The efficiency of a stage of an impulse turbine
is a maximum when the final discharge of the steam is axial, i.e. when the angle of
discharge for the second moving blade, 0 2 ' - 90°.
In such a case the velocity diagram should be solved in the reverse direction to
obtain the blade angles.
Referring to fig. 9-19, draw the blade velocity AB(u) to any convenient length. This
gives the blade velocity to an unknown scale. Then triangle ABF’ is drawn with angle
B A F = 90° (axial discharge) and angle A B F = p2. This gives outlet diagram A B F for
the second row of moving blades to an unknown scale. Then working in reverse direction
we get the inlet diagram ABE for the second row of moving blades. Then outlet diagram
ABD for the first row o f moving blades is completed, and again working in the reverse
direction, the inlet velocity diagram ABC, for the first row of moving blades is obtained.
Then velocity of steam (Vi) discharged from the nozzle is measured. The construction
of velocity diagram is explained in the illustrative problem no.9.
As this velocity of the steam, Vi is known, the scale of the whole diagram can be
obtained. The blade velocity can be obtained by measuring the length AB. Also the blade
angles a i ' and 012 and the nozzle angle a i can be obtained from the velocity diagram.
Problem-9 : Steam is supplied to an impulse turbine at a pressure o f 12 bar and
superheated to 250°C. The pressure in the wheel chamber is 5 5 bar, and in the chamber
there are two rings o f moving blades separated by fixed blades. The tip o f the moving
blades are inclined 30° to the plane o f the motion. Assuming a 10 per cent friction loss
in the nozzle and also reduction o f 8 per cent in the velocity o f the steam relative to
the blade due to frictional resistance in passing through a blade ring, determine the speed
o f the blade, so that the final velocity o f discharge shall be axial. State what should be
the inclination o f the nozzle to the plane of motion o f the blades. Also find out the steam
consumption in kg per kW-hour, the diagram efficiency, and the stage efficiency.
Since the pressure drop in the nozzle is from 12 bar and 250°C to 5*5 bar, the total
enthalpy drop is 163-5 kJ/kg from H - O chart or Mollier diagram.
The velocity of steam leaving the nozzle,
Vi - 44-72 Vactual enthalpy drop
. 44-72 VO-9 x total enthalpy drop = 44-72 VO-9 x 163-5 - 542-5 m/sec.
The velocity diagram (fig. 9-19 on the next page) can now be drawn starting from
the final velocity of the steam on leaving the second ring of moving blades.
Referring to fig. 9-19, draw blade velocity u(AB) to any convenient length. Then draw
triangle ABF’ with angle BAF’ = 90° (axial discharge) and angle ABF’ = 0 2 * 30°. This
gives triangle ABF’ to an unknown scale.
t
Make B E ' - B E ' being drawn at 30° to AB, and join AE . Then, as F B is

8 per cent less than BE , the figure ABE F is the velocity diagram for the second ring
o f the moving blades drawn to an unknown scale yet to be determined.

Produce B E ' and make AD = With centre A and radius AD , cut BF

 Steam Turbines 253

716 9 W ***
2 6 0 .5 in /se * -

b la d e

f * t km

Fig. 9-19. Velocity diagram.

D B
produced at D and join AD . Produce BE to make BC = Q^j/>- W/Y/j centre B and

radius BC, cut B E ' produced at C. Join AC. Then the figure ABCD will be the velocity
diagram for the first ring of moving blades, and AC represents the velocity of steam
discharged from the nozzle. As the value of velocity of steam, Vi is calculated at the
beginning of the problem, the scale of the whole diagram can now be obtained by
measuring length AC which is found to be 17-7 cm.
Vi 542-5
.-. Scale of the velocity diagram, 1 cm - * ~yp? ” 3°'65 m/sec. v

Hence, blade velocity, u = AB x velocity diagram scale = 4 x 30-65 = 122-6 m/sec.

From velocity diagram,
fixed blade angles are : a i ' = 16-^ , 02 = 42°,
1•
Nozzle angle, a i = 231,

Vwi + Vw2 = 716-9 m/sec., and Vwi + V'wc = 260-5 m/sec.

m x u x \[Vw 1 + VV2) + (Vivi ' + Viv2 *)]
Now, power in kW =
1,000
M x 122-6 x (716-9 + 260-5)
i.e. 1 =
1,000 x 3,600
254 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
( where M is steam consumption in kg per kW-hour)
1,000 x 3,600
M = « 30 04kg/kW-hr.
122-6(716-9 + 260-5)
2 x u - [(VWi + Vwz) + (VWi
Diagram efficiency =
w r -
_ 2 x 122-6 x (7 1 6 -9 + 260-5)
0-8143 or 81-43%
(542 -5)2

Stage efficiency -
u[(Vrt + V«2 ) + (VWl ' * Vwz')]
1 ,0 0 0 x H
(where, H is enthalpy drop in the nozzle in kJ/kg)
122-6(716-9 + 260-5)
- 0-733 or 73-3%
1,000 x 163-5
9.3.8 Pressure-com pounded im pulse turbine : It is obvious that by arranging the
expansion ofthe steam in a number of steps, we could arrange a number of simple
impulse turbines inseries on the same shaft, allowing the exhaust steam from one turbine
to enter the nozzles of the succeeding (next) turbine. Each of the simple impulse turbine
would then be termed astage of the turbine, each stage containing a set of nozzles
and blades.This isequivalent to splitting up the whole pressure drop into a series of
smallerpressure drops; hence the term “Pressure compounding”.
The nozzles are usually fitted into partitions, termed
as diaphragms, which separate one wheel chamber
"7 l"\ {' ' wwA from the next. Expansion of steam takes place wholly
i\ aj m in the nozzles, the space between any two diaphragms
Aretxyr, being filled with steam at constant pressure. The
OfftMHc
mmiertof pressures on either side of any diaphragm are therefore
different. Hence, steam will tend to leak through the
space between the bore of the diaphragmand the
surface of the shaft. Special devices are fitted to
minimise these leakages.
The pressure compounding causes a smaller trans-
formation of heat energy into kinetic energy to take
place in each stage as compared to the simple impulse
turbine. Hence, steam velocities with pressure com-
pounding are much lower, with the result that blade
velocities and rotational speed may be lowered. It is
fairly clear that the speed may be reduced at will,
simply by increasing the number of stages, but for
very low speed the number of stages may become
excessive.
In the fig. 9-20, curves of velocity and pressure
are plotted on a base representing the axis of the
turbine. It will be noticed that the total pressure drop
Fig. 9-20 Pressure-compounded impulse of the steam does not take place in the first nozzle
ring, but is divided equally between the two nozzle
rings, and the pressure remains constant during the flow over the moving blades; hence
the turbine is an impulse turbine.
Pressure compounding produces the most efficient, although the most expensive
 Steam Turbines 255
turbine; so in order to make a compromise between efficiency and first cost, it is customary
to combine velocity compounding and pressure compounding.
This type of turbine was developed by the late Professor A. Rateau of Paris and Dr.
Zoelly of Zurich.
Pressure - velocity compounded impulse turbine : Another type of impulse turbine is
the pressure - velocity compounded turbine. In this turbine both previous two methods
are utilized. Total pressure drop of the steam is divided into stages and the velocity in
each stage is also compounded.
In this turbine each stage has two or more rows of moving blades and one or more
rows of stationary blades, the moving and stationary blades being placed alternately. Each
stage is separated from the adjacent stage by a diaphragm containing nozzles. A ring
of nozzles is fitted at the commencement of each stage. It is thus compounded both for
pressure and velocity.
This method has the advantage of allowing a bigger pressure drop in each stage
and consequently less stages are necessary. Hence, a shorter or more compact turbine
will be obtained for a given pressure drop.
The pressure-velocity compounded turbine is comparatively simple in construction and
is more compact than the multi-stage pressure compounded impulse turbine. Unfortunately
its efficiency is not so high.
This method of pressure-velocity compounding is used in the Curtis turbine.
9.4. Reaction Steam Turbine
Though all turbines employ both the impulse and reaction principles to some extent,

L
OADM
fe
Vf

MOTM
CT
ONt

Fig. 9-21. Parson's type reaction turbine.

256 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
there is one turbine in which the reaction principle predominates sufficiently to have it
commonly described as reaction turbine. The turbine bears the name of its inventor, the
late Sir Charles A. Parson. This type, the Parson’s reaction turbine, is shown in section
in fig. 9-21.
In operation, steam enters the turbine through a double seated throttle valve, which
is controlled by a governor driven from a worm gear on the main shaft, and passes in
succession through the rings of fixed and moving blades until it reaches the end of the
turbine cylinder and passes to the exhaust.
In passing through each ring of blades, the steam drops in pressure and increases in
volume. To allow for this increased volume and keep the velocity of steam uniform, the blade
ring areas are increased in steps. The blade rings between one step and next form an expansion
group, and all the blade rings of particular group have the same external and internal radius.
In the turbine shown in fig. 9-21, there are 12 expansion groups.
is * 2nd 3 rd In impulse turbines, the steam
3*STATI0MiMty pressure on the back and front
STAGE STAGE STAGE
N«M0VIN6 of a set of moving blades is the
S M S M S M same and any thrust exerted by
the steam in the direction of the
rotor axis is negligible. In the
reaction turbine, this thrust is con-
siderable owing to the fall of pres-
sure w ith in the blades and
difference between the blade
sizes in the various steps. Dummy
pistons and thrust bearings are
used to balance this axial thrust.
l 1• » T •i The face of dummy piston D on
VELOCITY W\ the right is exposed to entering
'm iSB!
s
w
OF JTEAM high pressure steam, while the
r
Am
* Wr I hV*
e n t e r ing face of dummy piston D on the
'm $& SB left is under steam pressure con-
Si
m
veyed by pipe (not shown) from

m
t.. between the third and fourth ex-
m *L"i *C1 pansions. The back of the dummy
piston on the left is under pressure
M O V IN G 6 L A D E S
conveyed by pipe (not shown)
from between sixth and seventh
EXMAUST expansions. The rotor is a steel
TfAK
fcAVIKG forging, and the dummy pistons
are solid with it.
Fig. 9-22 shows diagrammatic
arrangement of three-stage, axial-
flow, impulse - reaction turbine.
It also indicates roughly how the
blade height increases as the
specific volume of the steam in-
creases with reduction in pres-
sure; also how the pressure falls
gradually as the steam passes
. ,„ . . .. . ., through the groups of blades. It
Fig. 9-22. Three-stage axial-flow impulse-reaction turbine. ** ° r
 Steam Turbines 257
will be observed from the diagram that there is a pressure drop across each row of
blades, fixed and moving. This is of considerable practical importance, specially at the
high pressure end of the turbine where the pressure drop is greatest, because this
difference of pressure tends to force some steam through the clearance space between
the moving blades and casing, and between the fixed blades and the rotor. The available
energy possessed by this leaking steam is partly lost.
The steam velocities in this type of turbine are comparatively moderate, the maximum
being according to. the theory, about equal to the blade velocity. In practice, the steam
velocity is commonly arranged to be greater than the blade velocity in order to reduce
somewhat the total number of blades rows. The leaving loss for this type of turbine is
normally about the same as for the multi-stage impulse turbine having single row wheels.
This type of turbine has been, and continues to be, very successful in practice.
9.4.1 V elocity diagram fo r Parson’s reaction turbine : In the reaction turbine, steam
expands continuously in the fixed guide blades and moving- blades. As its velocity and
volume increase, increased area between the blades is required. This is obtained by

Fig. 9-23. Velocity diagram.

using a tapered rotor with progressively increasing blade heights.
Steam is directed against the moving blades by fixed guide blades, with velocity Vi,
at an angle a t. If the blade velocity is u m/sec, the relative velocity is Vri. The steam
expands between the moving blades, increasing its velocity and leaving with relative V&,
and exit blade angle 02. approximately equal to its entrance velocity V\ and entrance
angle a i respectively. Compounding the relative velocity Vr2 with the blade velocity u,
which it has while on the blades, the absolute exit velocity V2 is obtained.
In a Parsons reaction turbine the fixed and moving blades are made indentical, i.e.
a i and 02 are equal, also 01 and 02 are equal. The velocity diagram from these blades
will therefore, be symmetrical about a vertical central line.
In order to draw the velocity diagram (fig. 9-23), AB is drawn to represent the blade
speed to a suitable scale. AC and BD are drawn at 20° to AB; andBC and AD at 35°
to AB; the points C and D are at the intersection of these lines.
Referring to the fig. 9-23, the heat supplied to the turbine pair is the enthalpy drop
of the steam during its passage over the pair; this is obtained from the Mollier diagram
(H - <J> chart), the expansion being assumed isentropic. Then,
Work done per pair per kg of steam = (V ^ + Vv^)u = EF x AB N.m or Joules
Work done per sec. per pair = m (EF x AB) N.m per sec.or Joules per sec.
where, m = mass of steam flowing over blades in kg per sec.

Power developed per pair = 171 kW

258 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Work done per pair per kg of steam EF x AB
Efficiency
Enthalpy drop per pair 1,000 H
where, H is the enthalpy drop per turbine pair in kJ/kg.
Problem -10 : In reaction turbine the fixed and moving blades are o f the same shape
but are reversed in direction. The angles o f the receiving tips are 35* and o f the discharging
tips 20°. Find the power developed per pair o f blades for a steam consumption o f 1-1
kg per sec. when the blade speed is 50 m/sec. If the enthalpy drop in the pair is 9 5
kJ per kg, find efficiency o f the pair.
The velocity diagram may be
constructed to some convenient
scale as shown in fig. 9-24.
From the diagram,
{Vw\ + Vwz) - EF - 155
m/sec.
Work done per pair per kg
of steam = u {V wi + Vwz)
= 50 x 155
= 7,750 N.m or Joules
m x u(Vw 1 + Vwz)
Power developed per pair = [From eqn. (9.4)]
1,000
1-1 x 7,750
= 8525 kW
1,000
From eqn. (9.6),
F ff ic ie n c v Work done per pair per kg of steam
™ " 1,000 H

■ 7
x y*5 = 0816 or 81-6% (efficiency of the pair)
1 ,uvju
9.4.2 Height of blades fo r reaction turbine : In a reaction turbine the area through which
steam flows will always be full of steam. Fig. 9*25 shows the end view of one.set of blades.
Let d = rotor drum diameter in metres,
h = height of blades in metres = kd
(where, k = design constant)
= 0 08 to 0-1 (usually 0*083)
then, A - area of flow
= n x mean diameter at the mean
circumference of blades x height
■ ji (d + h) h
m ji (d + kd) k d
= ji(1 + k )k (d )‘ 0)

Vf
Now, m = mass in kg/sec. =
XVS
where, Vf = velocity of flow in m/sec. and
vs = specific volume of steam entering the stage in m /kg.
 Steam Turbines 259
_ ji(1 + A) k ( d ) 2 ..
m " — xvh * f - (9-12)
Let n be the speed of wheel in revolutions/minute, then,

Blade speed, u « m/sec.

oO
But, the velocity diagram shown in fig. 9-23 is similar for all blade rings of this turbine,
as the blades are similar throughout. Therefore, Vt is proportiohal to u. Hence,
(Vw\ * Vw2) is proportional to u.
Let Vf = k i u . . . (ii)
and (W i + Vwz) - *2 u . . . . (iii)
where, k i and kz are constants that can be obtained from velocity diagram.
Then, substituting these values in eqn. (9.12),
n(1 + k ) k ( d ) 2 , T
m - ----- x * ■ ...(9 .1 3 )

Work done per pair - m (V w1 + Vwz) u - m k z i? Joules/sec.

.*. Power developed per pair - kW . . . (9 .14)

1 |UUU
Problem-11 : A low pressure reaction turbine running at 600 r.p.m. is supplied with
14 kg of steam/sec. Find the drum diameter and the height o f the blades at the section
o f the turbine where pressure is 1-o bar and dryness is 09, if the discharge angle o f
the blade is 20* and the bladevelocity is 0 7 o f the relative velocity o f the steam at
outlet of the blade. Assume that theblade height is to be-j^th o fdrum diameter.

From steam tables, at 1 bar, vs = 1-694 m3/kg.

», re (d + h )h Vf •••(•)
Now, m - — -------- — -
xvs
The velocity diagram will be geometrically similar to fig. 9-23, but the scale is not
known. Measuring from the velocity diagram, W - 0-5 u,
also u, ” 1* +■ M mJ d+ A) | 600
X
60 [ 12] 60
Substituting the values of m, Vf and u in (i), we have

14 - - 3 1 7 (d )3
0-9 x 1-694

* = 1-64 m i.e. 164 cm (drum diameter)

3-17
d 1 *6 4
/. h m — * . 0-137 m i.e. 13-7 cm (blade height)

Prcblem -12 : A group o f reaction blading consists o f three fixed and three moving
jje g s all o f the same height, and the mean blade speed o f the moving rings is 65 m/sec.
For the mean moving ring the inlet absolute and relative velocities are 80 and 30 m/sec.
respectively and the specific volume is 0156 rrP/kg. Determine for a flow o f 2 2 5 kg/sec.:
(a) the required area o f blade annulus, (b) the power developed by the group, (c) the
required enthalpy drop for the group if the steam expands with an efficiency ratio o f 08.
18
260 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Assume that both fixed and moving blades are o f the same section.
(a) If both fixed and moving blades are of the same section, then the moving blades
exit angle p2 will be equal to a i; also Vz must be so inclined as to enter the
fixed blades without shock, i.e. aa - p i. Thus, this is a Parson’s turbine.
The inlet triangle ABC is easily drawn, as the length of the three sides is known

Fig. 9-26. Velocity diagram.

(scale <1 cm = 10 m/sec.), as shown in fig. 9-26.

AB = u =' 65 m/sec. = 6-5 cm
AC = Vi = 8 0 m/sec. = 8 0 cm.
BC = Vri = 30 m/sec. = 3 0 cm.
Mass of steam flowing over blades, m = 2-25 kg/sec. (given).
Specific volume of steam, v = 0-156 m2/kg (given).
The construction results in constant velocity of flow,
Vai = Va2 = 28-3 m/sec.
AV
For continuity of flow, m = — kg/sec.

(where A is area of blade annulus in m2) \

A . ™ - 2 '2 5 2; ° ' 1 5 6 . 0 - 0 1 2 4 m 2

(b) From velocity diagram, VW1 + Vw2 = 84-5 m/sec.

Since there are three pairs in the group or expansion and the diagram is that for
the mean pair,
_ m x (VWi ± Vz) u
Power developed by the group = 3 x ----------- Tooo---
= 3 x 2-25 x 84-5 x 65 = 371 RW
1,000
Vi 2 - Vz 2
(C)The enthalpy change in the fixed blades will be 2 ~ 1 q q q "kJ/k9

S t ( Vr2) 2 - (V r,)2 , I/t

-• andenthalpychange inthe moving blades willbe — 2 - 1q q o KJ/ 9-
 Steam Turbines 261
It is clear from the construction of the diagram that these enthalpy changes will be
equal.
(Va) 2 - (Vo)2 an2 _ 30 ?
Useful enthalpy change per pair - 2 x ~2 ~ •) qqq * 2 x 2 x 1 CXX3kJ/k9'

802 _ 30?
Actual enthalpy change per pair - 2 x - — ——r— — and
^ X I |UUU X U o
802 - 302
Actual enthalpy change for the group - 3 x 2 x
2 x 1 ,0 0 0 x 0-8
- 20625 kJ/kg
9.5 Re-heat Factor
In pressure compounding, the pressure of the steam is made to fall progressively
(step by step) in number of stages of the turbine from initial pressure pr to exhaust
pressure pb. If the friction in the blading is neglected, the expansion of steam can be
considered insentropic; however there is always considerable friction resisting the flow of
steam and hence the isentropic enthalpy drop in any stage is not fully utilized in raising
the kinetic energy, i.e. owing to friction there is a loss of kinetic energy. The kinetic
energy thus lost is converted into heat with the result that steam becomes dry or
superheated. This process of friction heating always causes an increase in entropy and,
consequently, slight increase in final enthalpy drop.
The behaviour of the steam as it passes through the successive stages is best studied

Fig. 9-27. The condition curve on H - diagram.

by reference to the Mollier diagram (H - O diagram). A portion of diagram is shown in
fig. 9-27.
Let us consider a steam turbine with five stages between pressure range of p i and
pb (fig. 9-27). The initial condition of the steam as it enters the turbine is represented
262 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
by the pojnt A. In the first stage the steam expands isentropically from pressure p i to
P 2. The expansion is represented by the vertical line AB, a line of constant entropy. Mark
off 681 on vertical line AB to represent friction loss of energy in the first stage due to
blade friction. From point By draw a horizontal line to meet the first stage back pressure
line pz at Bz. Then the point Bz represents the final condition of the steam when
discharged from the first stage. In the first stage, AB is the isentropic enthalpy drop
neglecting friction and AB1 is the actual or adiabatic enthalpy drop for that stage. The
friction loss in the first stage, measured in heat units, is represented by BBy and the
total enthalpy of steam as it enters the second stage is shown by level of point By.
The same process is repeated fo r'th e remaining stages, that is, second, third, fourth
and fifth stage, and condition of the steam at the end of each stage is obtained. The
final condition of the steam at the end of each stage is represented by points Cz, Dz,
Ez and Fz. The isentropic enthalpy drop in the second, third, fourth and fifth stage is
represented by the lines BzC, CzD, DzE and E2F and actual or adiabatic enthalpy drop
is represented by the lines BzCi, CzDy, DzEy and EzFy.
If the friction be neglected, the isentropic expansion of the steam through all stages
is represented by the vertical line AG. It will be seen from the Mollier diagram (fig. 9-27)
that the constant pressure line diverges from left to right and the effect of the friction is
to move isentropic expansion line for each stage towards the right of the diagram. This
means that the isentropic enthalpy drop, as represented* by the lines AB, BzC, CzD, DzE,
and EzF, has slightly increased. The ratio of the sum of the isentropic enthalpy drops in
all stages to the isentropic enthalpy drop when expansion is carried out in a single stage,
is known as re-heat factor for the turbine. The re-heat factor will be denoted by R.F.,

_ . , , A B + BzC + CzD + D zE + E zF
i.e. Re-heat factor, R.F. ----------------------^ --------------------
AG

The value of the re-heat factor varies with the type and efficiency of the turbine; an
average value is 1.05.
The effect of the re-heat factor is to increase the final enthalpy drop; so the efficiency
of the turbine is increased by the same ratio. This increase in efficiency due to friction
is very small compared with net loss in friction.
/. Turbine efficiency, yj = Stage efficiency x Re-heat factor
- Tistage x R.F.
The isentropic efficiency of the turbine or efficiency of all the stages combined is the
ratio of actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop of the steam. Actual or adiabatic
enthalpy drop is represented by the vertical line AH and isentropic enthalpy drop ( without
friction ) is represented by the line AG ( fig. 9.27 ).

_ . Vertical projection of AF2 i.e., AH

Isentropic efficiency * ------ i -------------------------------

The curve joining the points A, B2 , C2 , D2 , E2 , and F2 will represent the condition
of the steam at any instant. This curve is shown dotted and is called the condition curve
or line o f condition for the turbine.
Problem - 13 : Steam at 13 bar and 200°C is expanded in a turbinethrough six
stages o f equal isentropic enthalpy drop to a pressure o f 0.1bar. There is a 20%loss
of enthalpy drop due to friction throughout the expansion. Calculate the re-heat factor.
 Steam Turbines 2Q3

Fig. 9*28. H - ♦ diagram.

Overall isentropic enthalpy drop, AH = 737 kJ/kg (obtained from H - chart).
737
Isentropic enthalpy drop during each stage « —— = 122.83 kJ/kg

Dividing AH eqtiaily jnto six equal parts, the pressure lines for each stage were found
to be 7, 3.5, 1.$ d& saigd 0.27 bar.
Isentropfc ;e#tiatpy drop for the remaining five stages is then found out from
H - c h ^ 'j^ q ^ s ^ w n in the table below *
Turbine? * Isentropic enthalpy drop:: loss 20% Adiabatic enthalpy drop
stage' ( without friction ) in each 1L W kJ/kg in each stage in kJ/kg
stage in kJ/kg .
! 1 AB = 122.8 V BBt = 24.56 AB1 = 98.24
2 BgC - 125.6 CCt = 25.1 B2C1 m 100.50
3 CgD = 129.8 DD1 = 26.0 C2D1 = 103.80
- 4 D2F = 131.9 EEi = 26.4 D2E 1 = 105.50
5 E2F = 131.9 FFi = 26.4 E2F1 = 105.50
6 FpG = 134.0 GGi = 26.8 F2G 1 = 107.20

Re-heat facto., R.F. - ^'sentropicenlhalpydrop

122-8 + 125-6 + 129-8 + 131-9 + 131-9 + 134-0 776 _____

- -------------------------------- 737--------------------- 737 - 10529
9.6 Re-heating of Steam
The steam becomes wet as it expands. The wet steam has in it suspended water
particles. The water particles which are heavier than steam particles, cause erosion on
the turbine blades. In order to increase the life of the turbine blades, it is necessary to
264 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
keep steam dry during expansion. This is done by taking out steam from the turbine at
the section where it becomes just dry saturated and is re-heated at constant pressure
by the flue gases until it is again superheated to the same temperature as on entry to
the turbine. It is then taken back
into the next stage of the turbine
where further expansion takes place.
Thjs process is known as "re-heat-
ing”. Within certain limits this process
will cause increase in work done. It
may be noted that increase in work
done is at the cost of additional heat
supplied in re-heating the steam and
therefore there will be no appreciable
change in the efficiency.
This process is indicated on the
Mollier diagram ( fig. 9-29 ). The
initial condition of the steam entering
the turbine is represented by the
point 1. The steam then expands
insentropically through the turbine
along the line 1-2. At a certain point
2 , at which the steam has become
rig. 9-29. Re-heating of steam. just dry saturated, it is re-heated
back to its initial temperature at constant pressure to point 3; at this point the steam is
again in a superheated state and is at pressure #?. It then continues its isentropic
expansion through next stage of the turbine until the condenser pressure p3 is reached
at point 4. Neglecting the friction, the total enthalpydropis [ ( Hr - H2 ) + (H3
) ] and the total heat supplied is the enthalpy at point 1 , i.e., Hr, plus the heat supplied
during the re-heating process between points 2 and 3, i.e., H3 - H2.
Work done per kg of steam = total enthalpy drop = [ { H i - H2 ) + ( H3 - H4 ) ]
kJ/kg.
' Total heat (net) supplied per kg of steam = [ Hr + ( H3 - H2 ) - h4 ] kJ/kg
where, I14 is the enthalpy of water at point 4.
Efficiency with re-heating
Work done _ [ (Hi - Hz) + (H3 - Ha) ]
Heat supplied * [ Hi + (H 3 - Hz) - h4 ] ••• (0
If steam had not been re-heated, then the expansion through the turbine would be
represented by the vertical line 1 - 4'.
Then, work done per kg of steam = total enthalpy drop - Hi - H4'kJ/kg
Heat supplied per kg of steam ■ Hi *» h \ kJ/kg
Hi ~ H i' * ... (ii)
Efficiency without re-heating —----- — 7

where H4' and h4' are the enthalpies of steam and water respectively at point 4',
Actual working of a specific problem with the help of eqn. (i) and (ii), it will be found
that the effect of re-heating may not cause appreciable change in efficiency, but will
cause increase in the work done per kilogram of steam used. Refer illustrative problem
No. 14.
 Steam Turbines 265
This process of re-heating may be repeated if required during the expansion of the
steam through the turbine in more than two stages.
The following advantages may be claimed by re-heating of steam :
(i) The quality of steam at exit from the turbine is improved; this reduces the erosion
(wearing out) trouble on the turbine blades.
(ii) Work per kilogram of steam increases and hence specifie steam consumption of
steam turbine decreases. This reduces the amount of water required in condenser of the
turbine.
Problem - 14 : Steam at a pressure o f 28 bar and 50°C superheat, is expanded
through a turbine to a pressure, where the steam is ju st dry saturated. It is then re-heated
at constant pressure to its original temperature, after which it completes its expansion
through the turbine to an exhaust pressure o f 0.2 bar. Calculate the ideal efficiency o f
the plant and the work done, (a) taking the re-heating into account, and (b) if the steam
was expanded direct to exhaust pressure without any re-heating.
(a) With re-heating :
From H - 0 chart ( fig. 9-30 ),
enthalpies, H i = 2,920 kJ/kg, Afe =
2,793 kJ/kg (corresponding to dry
saturated steam at pressure of 15.5
bar), H3 = 2,960 kJ/kg (corresponding
to pressure of 15.5 bar and tempera-
ture of 280.1°C), H4 = 2,230 kJ/kg
(corresponding to exhaust pressure of
0.2 bar); and h4 = 251.4 kJ/kg (en-
thalpy of water at 0-2 bar obtained
from steam tables).
Ideal efficiency with re-heating
Work done
Heat supplied

(Hi - Hz) + (Hs - H4)

Entropy
” Hy + (Hs - Hz) —/14
Fig. 9-30. H - 4> diagram.

, (2 ,920 - 2 ,793) + (2 ,960 - 2 ,230) . 857

0-3022 or 30.22%
2 ,920 + (2 ,960 - 2 ,793) - 251-4 " 2 ,835-6
Work done - (Hi Hz) + (H3 - H4) = (2,920 - 2,793) + (2,960 - 2,230) = 857 kJ/kg
(b) Without re-heating ;
From H - $ chart, H i = 2,920 kJ/kg, H4' = 2,120 kJ/kg ( at0.2 bar ),and
tW = 251.4 kJ/kg ( at 0.2 bar ) from steam tables.
Ideal efficiency without re-heating.
Work done Hi - W 2,920 - 2,120 _ __
heat supplied Hi - / 14' ” 2,920 - 251 -4 " ' w
Work done * Hi - W - 2,920 - 2,120 = 800 kJ/kg.
It can be seen that by re-heating there is no appreciable change in the efficiency,
but it has increased the work done; thus an increase in the power is obtained from a
266 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
given size of turbine.
9.7 Regenerative Feed Heating or Bleeding
The process of draining steam from the turbine, at certain points during its expansion,
and using this steam for heating the feed water supplied to the boiler, is known as
bleeding and this process of feed heating1is known as regenerative feed heating.
At. certain sections of the turbine, a small quantity of wet steam is drained out from
the turbine, as shown in fig. 9-31. This bled steam is then circulated around the feed
water pipe leading from the hot-well to the boiler. The relative cold feed water causes
this bled steam to condense, the heat thus lost by steam being transferred to the feed
water. The condensed steam then drains into the hot-well. The result of this process is
to supply the boiler with hotter feed water whilst a small amount of work is lost by the
turbine. This definitely increases efficiency of plant, but there is also a decrease in the
work done per kilogram of steam; this process is shown in illustrative problem No. 15.
In the absence of precise information as to the actual temperature of the feed water
entering and leaving the heaters and the condensate temperature, the following assumptions
are made :
(i) The bled steam just condenses, i.e., gives up its superheat (if any) and all its
enthalpy of evaporation only. The condensed steam therefore leaves the heater at the
saturation temperature corresponding to the bleeding pressure.
(ii) The feed water is heated to the saturation temperature at the pressure of the
bled steam.
Feed heating systems : Different systems of feed water heating are shown in fig.
9-31 and fig. 9-32. In each case 2 heaters are used. In actual practice, heaters may
vary from 2 to 6.
(i) When the bled steam does not mix with feed water or Cascade, system :
Fig. 9-31 shows two surface heaters in which the feed water condenses the bled
steam, i.e., the bled steam does not mix with the feed water. This system is also known
as Cascade system.
Consider bleeding at point 1 ( fig. 9-31 ). Let *wi’ be the mass of bled steam per

Fig. 9-31 Cascade system.

 Steam Turbines 267
kilogram of feed water heated. Then,
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by feed watery
i.e., w i ( H i - h2 ) - ( h r - h2 )
where, h2 is enthalpy of the feed water coming from heater No.2 and entering heater
No.1.
(hy - fig)
"i ' (H, - h j)
Now consider bleeding at point 2. Let ‘w2’ be the mass of bled steam at point 2 per
kilogram of feed water heated. 'Then,
Wg ( Hg — h§ ) + Wj ( hg — h3 ) - h2 — h3
(1 - w j i h g + /jg) ;
"4 “ 9
where, fo is the enthalpy of feed water entering heater No.2,
Mass of steam in turbine per kilogram of
feed water between points 1 and 2 } = 1 - w1
Mass of steam between point 2 and exhaust'= 1 - w1 - w2
Work done in turbine per kilogram of feed
water between entrance and point 1 } = ( H - H1 )
Work done betweenpoint 1 and point 2 = ( 1 - w1 ) ( H1 - H2 )
Work done betweenpoint 2 and exhaust = ( 1 - w1 - w2 ) ( H2 - H3 )
Total heat supplied per kilogram of feed water = ( / - / - / ? , )
Work done
.-. Efficiency of the plant (including the effect of bleeding ) - Heat supplied

(H - H ,) + (1- *« ,)(« , - H J + (1 - ik, - w2) ( ^ - H j)

H - hA
(ii) When bled steam is mixed with feed water or Drain pump system :
It is a common practice in bleeding installation to mix the bled steam with the feed
water. The mixture of bled steam and feed water is then supplied direct to the boiler.
This system is also known as drain pump system. A diagrammatic arrangement of such
an installation with two feed water heaters is shown in fig. 9-32.
At a point in the turbine installation at which the steam pressure is pr, Wi kilogram
of steam is abstracted (removed) and mixed with the feed water, which has been raised
to a temperature of fc, by the previous bled steam. Then, on the basis of one kilogram
of feed water, heat lost bybled steam = heat gained by feed water,
i.e., fKg s( —/?| ) = ( 1 — W] J (ftj — h2 )
h\ - hg

Similarly, for the bled steam at pressure p2, w2 ( H2 - h2 ) = (1 - wi - w2 ) (h2 - h3)

(1 - V K ,)(/ fe - /I3)
268 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. H

TURBINE

COOUttt
W A TC H
0 8 TU I

6OOUM0
4.W1II
HUT

•\
COMKMSATt
(t-Wi-i»a)h|
h, ©
•V

fh ^ y x
: wru
eUO STUM COMDMSATC

Fig. 9*32. Drain pump system.

Problem - 15 : Two stages o f feed heating are employed in a steam turbine
installation, steam being bled for these at pressures o f 3.4 bar and 0.6 bar respectively.
The temperature o f the feed water is raised to that o f the bled steam, and the condensate
from each heater may be taken as being at the same temperature as the feed water
entering the heater.
The steam is supplied to the turbine at 17 bar with 4.5‘C superheat, and condenser
pressure is 0.06 bar. The stage efficiency between pressures 17 bar and 3.4 bar is 0.7,
and in the other two stages is 0.65. Estimate :
(i) the mass o f steam bled to each heater,
(ii) the total work done per
kilogram o f steam supplied to
the turbine, and
cn2,810 (iii) the overall thermal ef-
ficiency o f the cycle.
Refer to fig. 9-31 and fig.
9-33.
For stage 1, stage efficiency =
0.7, and for stages 2 and 3, stage
efficiency = 0.65. The required
enthalpy values for different
stages may be read from the
H - 4> chart after considering
stage efficiency as shown in fig.
9-33. From H - 4> chart, H =
2,810 kJ/kg, H i = 2,596 kJ/kg, H2
Entropy = 2,418 kJ/kg, H3 = 2,223 kJ/kg.
H4>diagram.
Fig. 9-33. ^o m steam tables, at 3-4
bar, h i = 579.97 kJ/kg,
 Steam Turbines 269
at 0.6 bar, h2 = 359.86 kJ/kg and
at 0.06 bar, to = 151.53 kJ/kg.
(i) For heater No. 1
Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained byfeed water, i.e., w i (H i - h2) = h i - h2

th - h2 579-97 - 359-86 .
W] - —------— = - — - - ■■■ ■■ = 0.0984 kg
bh - hz 2 ,596 - 359-86
For heater no.2
W2 ( H2 — h3 ) + W1 (h2 — h3 ) = h2 — h3 *
. ^ (hz - h3)( 1 - w^) (359-86 - 151-53) (1 - 0-0984) .
•• " Hz - ha “ 2 ,4 1 8 - 151-53 - 9
(ii) Total work done per kg of steam supplied to turbine
= ( H - H i ) + ( 1 - w i ) ( H i - H2 ) + ( 1 - w i- w2 ) ( H2 - Hs )
= (2,810 - 2,596) + ( 1 - 0.0984 ) ( 2,596 - 2,418 ) + ( 1 - 0.0984 - 0.0829 )
x ( 2,418 - 2,223 )
= 214 + ( 0.9016 x 178 ) + ( 0.8187 x 195 )
= 214 + 160.45 + 159.55 = 534.0 kJ/kg
(iii) Total heat supplied per kg of steam = H - hi = 2,810 - 579.97 = 2,230.03 kJ/kg
Overall thermal efficiency - Work done _ * 0.2394 or 23.94%
1 Heat supplied 2,230.03

Problem - 16 : The steam supply to a turbine is at 40 bar with 38°C superheat.

Steam is bled for feed heating at 13 bar and at 3.6 bar. The condenser pressure is 0.1
bar.
Calculate the optimum mass o f bled steam at each stage and the cycle efficiency.
Assume an efficiency ratio o f 0.8 for each portion o f the expansion and that the feed
water leaving each heater is raised to the temperature o f the steam entering the heater,
the bled steam being pumped into the feed line after each heater.
Refer to figs. 9-32 and 9-34.
For each stage, efficiency ratio of
0.3 is assumed.

From steam tables, at 13 bar

h i = 814.93 kJ/kg, at 3.6 bar,
h2 = 588.59 kJ/kg, at 0.1 bar,
h3 = 191.83 kJ/kg.
The required enthalpy values
may be read from the H - <I> chart
as shown in fig. 9-34. From
H - 4> chart, H = 2,931 kJ/kg,
Hi = 2,747 kJ/kg,
H2 = 2,558 kJ/kg,
H3 = 2,169 kJ/kg.
Entropy —
Fig. 9-34. H - <t>diagram.
270 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
For heater No.1
Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained by feed water
i.eM w i ( H i - h2 ) = ( 1 - w i ) ( h i - h2 )
_ - fc 814-93 - 588-59 226-35 a -™ .
" hh - h2 ~ 2,747 - 588-59 " 2,158-41 * ?
For heat No. 2
- h a ) - (1 - w\ - w s)(/te - /&)
(1 - w\)(hz - h3) (1 - 0-1049) (588-59 - 191.83)
W2
(Hz - ha) 2,558 - 191-83
0-8951 x 396-76
a 0.15 kg
2,366-17
Work done per kg of steam supplied to turbine
* ( H - H i ) + ( Hi - H2 ) ( 1 - wi ) + ( H2 - H a ) ( 1 - wi - w2 )
= ( 2,931 - 2,747 ) + ( 2,747 - 2,558 ) ( 1 - 0.1049 ) + ( 2,558 - 2,169 )
x | f - 0.1049 - 0.15)
= 184 + 169.16 -i- 289.84 = 643 kJ/kg
Heat supplied per kg of steam = H - h i = 2,931 - 814.93= 2,116.07 kJ/kg

Cyde efficiency = ^ s ^ T e d ~ 2 ^ 0 7 - °-304 °c 30.4%

9.8 Steam Turbine Governing

In a normal condensing steam turbine driving an alternator or a D.C. generator, the
energy output will vary in accordance with the load on the alternator, and the function
of the governor is to regulate the supply of steam to the turbine so that the speed of
rotation shall remain almost constant at all loads. The principal methods of governing
steam turbines are :
(i) Throttle governing,
(ii) Nozzle controf governing,
(iii) By-pass governing,
(iv) Combined throttle and nozzle control governing, and
(v) Combined' throttle end by-pass governing.
9.8.1 T hrottle governing : In throttle governing, the pressure of steam is reduced
before reaching the turbine at part loads. Throttle governing is most widely used, particularly
on small turbines, because its initial cost is less and mechanism is simple. The flow of
steam entering the turbine is restricted by a balanced throttle valve which is controlled
by the. centrifugal governor. In turbines of small power in which the valves are Tight and
the forces on them due to steam flow are negligible, the governor may be arranged to
actuate (move) the throttle valve directly. For large machines, the frictional forces would
require a large and powerful governor to actuate directly on the valve. The difficulty is
easily overcome by the use of a relay, a device in which the relatively small force
produced by the governor for a small change of speed is caused to produce a large
force ( if such is necessary ) to actuate (move) the throttle valve.
A simple differential relay is shown diagrammatically in fig. 9-35. This throttle vafve
is actuated by the relay piston sliding in the cylinder. A. floating or differential lever is
attached at one end to the governor sleeve and the other end to throttle valve spindle,
and at some intermediate point to a pilot or piston valve which consists of two small
 Steam Turbines 271
piston valves covering ports without any lap, i.e., the length of the valve is just equal to
the length of the ports. The
operating medium is usually
lubricating oil supplied by ‘a
pump at a pressure of 3 to 4
bar. The pipes Q are open to
••UXinUH IEEEP
the oil .drain tank.
KWSMVM J»»EtD The operation of the relay
may be described as follows:
Let us assume first that the
turbine is running at a load
less than full load. The throttle
valve will be opened to such
an extent that the steam flow
is just sufficient to maintain
constant speed under the
given load conditions. Suppose
now that the load on this tur-
bine is reduced rather quickly.
n i C O T T l C VAIVE. There is now an excess of
energy being supplied to the
Fig. 9-35. Diagrammatic arrangement of throttle governing with oil relay, turbine and the surplus will
accelerate the rotor. The turbine and governor speed will now rise and thus cause a lift
of the governor sleeve. For the time being, the throttled valve spindle is stationary and
the pilot (piston) valve is, therefore, raised. The upper port is opened to the oil pressure
and lower port to drain. The relay piston is thus forced downwards and throttled valve
partially closed. The downward, movement of the throttle valve lowers the piston valve
and so closes the port. As soon as the oil ports are covered, the relay piston is locked
in position. This will occur only when the opening of the throttled valve is correct for the
load on the turbine.
Since, for equilibrium o t the governor mechanism, the piston valve must always be
in its central position and covering both oil ports, the position of the governor sleeve will
vary according to the position of the throttle valve. The position of the floating lever is
indicated by chain dotted lines in fig. 9-35 for no-load and full load.
Although in throttling no energy is lost, the
available energy (enthalpy drop) is decreased
as illustrated in fig. 9-36. This figure shows dry
saturated steam which may .be expanded
isentropically from point 1 (pressure p,) to point
2 (pressure p2) with isentropic total enthalpy
drop (H1 - H2). If the governor first decreases
pressure from p 1 to p3 by throttling (point 1 to
point 3 ), the isentropic total enthalpy drop is
Hg - H2'. This is far less than available
R g .9-36. llluetretioriofdecrMS<Hnavailable energy isentropiC enthalpy drop (H , - H .) Without throt-

tling. This reduces the efficiency of the turbine at part load. This relationship between
load and steam consumption for a turbine governed by throttling, is given by the well
known Willain’s straight line.
272 Elements of Heal Engines Vol. II
9.8.2 Nozzle control governing : Nozzle control is accomplished as shown in fig.
9-37. Poppet-type valves uncover as many steam passages as necessary to meet the
load, each passage serving a group of nozzles. The control governor has the advantage
of using steam at full boiler pressure.
In automatic governed land turbines, various arrangements of valves and groups of
nozzle are employed. The arrangements are shown diagrammatically in fig. 9-37. An
arrangement, often adopted with large steam turbines and with turbines using high-pressure
steam, is shown in fig. 9-37 (A). The nozzle are divided into group Np N2 and N3 and
the control valves Vv V2 and V3 respectively. The number of nozzle groups may vary
from three to five or more.
In fig. 9-37(A), three sets of nozzle N i, Afe and N3 having 10, 4 and 3 nozzles
respectively, are shown. Thus, there are 17 nozzles in all and for the sake of illustration
we shall assume that total power of the turbine in 340 kw. In order to simplify the
explanation, let it be assumed that the steam delivered by each nozzle under the full
pressure drop is sufficient to develop 20 kw. Actually this assumption is not justified.
Then, at full load all the 17 nozzles will be delivering steam at full pressure and the
turbine will operate at maximum efficiency. Similarly at 200 kw only the valve Vi controlling
the set of 10 nozzles would be open and at 280 kw valves Vi and V2 controlling the
set of 14 nozzles would be open.

Fig. 9-37. Diagrammatic arrangement of nozzle control governing.

In fig. 9.37(B) arrangement is similar to fig. 9-37(A) except that all the nozzle control
valves are arranged in a casting forming part of the cylinder or bolted thereto and
containing passages leading to the individual nozzle groups. Although this arrangement
is compact, the nozzles are contained in the upper half of the cylinder and the arc of
admission is usually limited to 180° or less. The number of nozzle groups varies from
four to twelve.
 Steam Turbines 273
Fig. 9-37(C) shows an arrangement sometimes employed. The group of nozzle N i is
under the control of the valve V i, through which all the steam entering the turbine passes.
Further admission of steam is through the valves V2, V3 in turn. In some instances, the
nozzle group N1 has been arranged in the lower half of the turbine and supplied with
steam through a throttle valve Vi up to, say, half load. For loads greater than half load,
a further supply of steam is admitted through the valves V2, V3, etc..
Whatever method of construction is adopted, the nozzle control is necessarily restricted
to the first stage of the turbine, the nozzie areas in the other stages remaining constant.
It follows that, provided the condition of the steam at inlet to the second stage is not
materially affected by the changed condition in the first stage, the absolute pressure of
the steam in front of the second stage nozzles will be directly proportional to the rate
of steam flow through the turbine.
It is observed that there is a greater enthalpy drop available when nozzle control is
employed but this greater enthalpy drop is not efficiently utilised at part load. Comparative
tests shows that when there is a fairly large enthalpy drop in the first stage, nozzle
control reduces the stream consumption.
9.8.3. By-pass governing : In modern impulse turbines, and specially those operating
at very high pressure, the H.P. turbine comprises a number of stages of comparatively
small mean diameter. All such turbines are usually designed for a definite load termed
economical load, at which efficiency is the maximum. The economical load is made about
80% of the maximum continuous load.

IN L E T VALVE N O ZZLE BOX STEAM BELT

Fig. 9-38. Diagrammatic arrangement of by-pass governing.

Owing to the very small enthalpy drop in the first stage, it is not possible to employ
nozzle control governing efficiently. Further-more, it is desirable to have full admission in
the H.P. stage at the economic load so as to reduce losses.
These difficulties of regulation are overcome by the employment of by-pass governing
as shown in fig. 9-38. All the steam entering the turbine passes through the inlet valve
(which is under the control of the speed governor) and enters the nozzle box or steam
chest. In certain cases, for example, this would suffice for all loads upto the economical
274 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
load, the governing being, effected by throttling. For loads greater than the economical
loads, a by-pass valve is opened allowing steam to pass from the first stage nozzle box
into the steam belt and so into the nozzle of the fourth stage. The by-pass valve is not
opened until the lift of the valve exceeds a certain amount; also as the load is diminishing
the by-pass valve closes first. The by-pass valve is under the control of the speed
governor for all loads within its range.
9.9. Special Forms of Steam Turbines
There are several industries such as paper making, textile, chemical, dyeing, sugar
refining, carpet making, etc., where combined use of power and heating for process work
is required. It is wasteful to generated steam for power and process purposes separately,
because about 70 per cent of the heat supplied for power purposes will normally be
carried away by the cooling water. But if the engine or turbine is operated with a normal
exhaust pressure, then the temperature of the exhaust steam is too low to be of any
use for heating purposes. By suitable modification of the initial steam pressure and of
the exhaust pressure, it would be possible to generate the required power and still have
available for process work a large quantity of heat in the exhaust steam. It follows,
therefore, that from the practical stand-poirrt, the thermal efficiency of a combined power
and heating plant may approach unity.
There are two types of turbines employed in combined power and process plants,
namely, the back-pressure turbines and the steam extraction or pass-out turbines.
9.9.1 Back-pressure turbine : The back-pressure turbine takes steam at boiler pressure
and exhausts into a pipe which leads neither to a condenser nor to atmosphere, but to
a process plant or other turbine. This may be employed in cases Where the power
generated by expanding steam from an economical initial pressure down to the heating
pressure is equal to or greater than, the power requirements. Usually the exhaust steam
from the turbine is superheated and in most cases it is not suitable for process work,
partly because it is impossible to control its temperature and partly because of the fact
that rate of the heat transfer from superheated steam to the heating surface is lower
than that of saturated steam. For fhese reasons, a de-superheater is often used.
It is unlikely that the steam required for power generation will always be equal to
that required for process work, and some means of controlling the exhaust steam pressure,
must be employed if variations in the pressure and therefore of the steam saturation
temperature are to be avoided.
In order to increase the power capacity of a existing installation, a high pressure
boiler and a back-pressure turbine are added to it. This added high pressure boiler
supplies steam to back-pressure turbine which exhausts into the old low pressure turbine.
9.9.2 Pass-out or extraction turbine : In many cases the power available from a
back-pressure turbine through which the whole of the heating steam flows, is appreciably
less than that required in the factory. This may be due to the small heating or process
requirements, to a relatively high exhaust pressure, or a combination of both. In such a
case it would be possible to install a back-pressure turbine to provide the heating steam
and a condensing turbine to generate the extra power; but it is possible and usual, to
combine functions of both machines in a single turbine. Such a machine is called pass-
out or extraction turbine. In this, at some point intermediate between inlet and exhaust,
some steam is extracted or passed out for process or heating purposes.
Since the power and speed of the turbine, as well as the quantity of process steam,
are controlled by external conditions, while in the turbine the two are more or less related,
it is obvious that some special form of governing is required. This usually takes the form
of a sensitive governor which controls admission of steam to the high-pressure section,
 Steam Turbines 275
so as to maintain constant speed - regardless of the power or process requirements.
9.9.3 Exhaust or low-pressure turbine : If a continuous supply of low pressure
steam is available - for example from reciprocating steam engines exhaust - the efficiency
of the whole plant may be improved by fitting an exhaust or low-pressure turbine. The
exhaust turbine is chiefly used where there are number of reciprocating steam engines
which work intermittently (not continuously); and, of necessity, are non-condensing, such
as rolling mills and colliery engines. The exhaust steam from these engines, which would
otherwise pass into the atmosphere and be wasted, is expanded in an exhaust turbine
and then condensed.
In such a turbine some form of heat accumulator is required to collect the more or
less irregular supply of low pressure steam from the non-condensing steam engines and
deliver it to the turbine at the rate required. In some cases when the supply of low
pressure steam falls below the demand, live steam from the boiler, with its pressure and
temperature reduced, is used to make up the deficiency.
The pressure drop may be obtained by means of a reducing valve, or for large flows,
more economically by expansion through another turbine. Sometimes the high-pressure
and low-pressure turbines are combined on a common spindle. This combined unit is
known as a mixed pressure turbine because of two supply pressures.
9.10 Material of C onstruction iii Steam turbines
The different parts of steam turbine work under varying service conditions. For long
operating life and low cost, appropriate material selection for each part is the essential
requirement for an economic design. The most important part is that which meets with
the entering steam having high temperature and pressure. The most commonly used
materials for different components are as under :
Casing and steam and nozzle chests are usually prepared from steel castings. For
steam temperature upto 450°C, steel with 0.3% C, 1.0% Mn, 0.6% Si, 0.06% S, 0.05%
P, is used. Further for operating steam temperatures between 565° and 600°C, austenite
steel is used. Its composition is 0.08 C, 16.0% Cr, 13.0% Ni, 2.0% Mo, and 0.8% Cb.
a
Rotors are assemblies of shafts, discs or drums and blades or buckets. Each of these
have a wide choice of materials. Shaft material for low temperature may be hot rolled
heat treated carbon steel bar stock or alloy steel forgings. For temperature upto 570°C,
shaft is made from forging with composition 0.37%C, 1.0% Mn, 0.35%Si, 0.035% S,
0.035%P, 1,25% Cr, 1.5% Mo, 0.5% Ni, and 0.3% V. Above 570°C temperature, the
shaft is of ferritic alloy forging with composition 0.3% C, 0.5% Ni, 1.0% Cr, and 1.25%
Mo. For wheels for 345°C temperature, composition is 0.45% C, 0.9% Mn, 0.15% Si,
0.035% S, and 0.035% P.
Blades are made of cold rolled drawn steel. Usually stainless steel having 0.06% C,
0.,25% Mn,. 0.5 Si, 0.03% S, 0.03% P, 11.5% Cr, 0.4% Mo, 0.5% Ni is used.
For low temperature service, nozzles, rings and diaphragms are often of cast iron on
mechanite. As temperature goes higher, materials range through steel plate, cast steel,
steel and stainless steel forging. Some diaphragms are rolled, some are cast from aluminum
chromium steel.
Seals and gland packings are made from carbon to stainless steel, leaded bronze,
leaded nickel brass, non-hardened stainless iron and corrosion resistant chrome-molybderium
materials, as per the requirements. Springs for holding packing are of inconel, monel or
stainless steel.
Bearings are usually cast on bronze, steel or cast iron backs with inner lining of high
tin-babbit. Journals and collars are usually integral part of the shaft and are of the same
19
276 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
material as the shaft. Some times they are built up of sprayed metal to make a hard
surface.
The bolts of high pressure casing raises special problems due to high pressures
because of creep. Gradual elongation under stress relaxes bolts hold on the casing joint.
They are usually of 13-chrome-tungsten-molybdenum-vanadium alloy steel for higher
temperature ( above 450°C ). This material resists temper embrittlement and oxidation
and has higher notch-bar rupture strength.
Piping range from carbon steel for temperature below 450°C and medium pressures,
to stainless steel of temperature upto 600°C with heavy thick walls.

Inlet pipe seals for turbine in 540°C - 565°C range are of stellite which is an alloy
of chromium, cobalt, molybdenum and tungsten. These sealing rings allow pipe connections
between separated steam chest and nozzle chests to move axially and transversely during
start ups and shut downs. Piping oxidation at joints must be prevented. It freezes the
sealing rings, resulting rigid connection, transmits piping expansion and contraction forces
to the turbine casing, causing serious misalignment.

Governing valves are usually provided at the front end of the turbine and are made
of carbon-chrome alloy steel. Steam must resist oxidation to prevent freezing in packings.

9.11 Steam Turbines fo r Power Generation

The continuous increase in the use of electrical energy has made necessary the
construction of several additional generating stations at various parts of the country.
Reliability, economy in first cost, and operating costs are achieved by installing the largest
units practicable. Brief particulars of the turbines used for power generation are as under:
Power in Steam pressure Steam temperature Reheat temperature Approx. final feed
MW bar *C *C temp. ®C

30 40 455 - 171

60 60 482 - 196

100 100 566 - 204

120 100 538 538 224

200 160 566 538 236

Most of the turbines for power generation operate at 3,000 r.p.m. The final feed temperature
lies between 0.7 and 0.73 times the initial steam saturation temperature and it has proved to
be economical. The fairly general features of power generation turbines are as under:
(i) Steam chests are usually placed alongside the high pressure turbine.
(ii) Velocity compounding is done in first stage of H.P. turbine in order to reduce the
pressure and temperature of steam to which H.P. turbine cylinder is exposed.
(iii) Some form of turning gear at the coupling between L.P. turbine and generator,
is provided for slow turning of turbine during warming up process and in cooling down
process before coming to rest. This is required to prevent bending of rotor shaft.
(iv) In last two or three stages of L.P. turbine, draining arrangement of water flung
off the blades by centrifugal action, is made.
(v) Cylinders are supplied in such a way that freedom of expansion and contraction
due to temperature changes is adequate and simultaneously it does not disturb the vertical
 Steam Turbines 277

Fig. 9-39
alignment, i.e., cylinder and rotor remain concentric. In double shell construction, the inner-
shell is so supported that they remain co-axial and hence concentric with the rotor.

Fig. 9-40.
278 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
(vi) When wheels are shrunk on the rotor-spindle, the running speed of the rotor may
be above the first transverse critical speed.
Typical construction of 200 MW steam turbine is shown in figs. 9-39, 9-40 and 9.41.
Some of the details of three cylinders tandem turbine operating at 3000 r.p.m. are :
Inlet steam pressure ... 160 bar
Inlet steam temperature 565°C
Reheat temperature 538°C
No. of stages of reheating 6
Final temperature of feed heating 238°C
Vacuum 724 mm of Hg.
Fig. 9-40 shows H.P. turbine, part of which is of double-shell construction. Steam enters the
nozzle box through four radial pipes B. After partial expansion in eight stages of impulse blading,
the steam flows in reverse direction in the space between inner and outer space to enter the
last four impulse stages for further expansion. Then it goes for reheating. Steam from reheater
enters l.P. turbine nozzle box C of a short inner cylinder B (fig. 9-40) by way of four radial steam
pipes. This cylinder B contains three impulse stages and is located by pads and keys so that
while being free to expand and contract due to temperature changes, it remains concentric with
the outer cylinder and with rotor. They are followed by five more impulse stages in which steam
further expands. At this point steam flow divides. About one-third steam passes through single
flow L.P. turbine arranged in the same casing as the l.P. stages, while about two-third of the
steam passes through two connecting pipes A in to the centre of the double flow L.P. turbine
as shown in fig. 9-41. All three l.P. expansions exhaust into common exhaust chamber and
single shell condenser. Steam is bled from double flow L.P. cylinder for feed heating but not
from the corresponding stages in l.P. turbine casing.
The H.P. and l.P. rotors are solid forging. The L.P. turbine have disc shrunk on and
keyed to the shaft. The first stage of each L.P. turbine is impulse and the remaining
stages have reaction blading. The active length of the blades in last stage is about 70
cm.
The three rotors
are coupled together
by “solid” coupling E
as shown. One thrust
block Fis also provided
between H.P. and l.P.
cylinders to minimize
the differential expan-
sion between rotating
and stationary parts.
The overall length of
the turbine is about 17
metres.

Full admission is
done to all stages of
H.P. turbine at all
times. This is done be-
cause vibrations may
Fig. 9-41. occur due to partial ad-
 Steam Turbines 279
mission. The outer casing of the double flow L.P. turbine is fabricated, due to their large
size and difficulty in transporta-
tion. The inner casing carrying
diaphragms and fixed blades is
of steel castings. The main oil
pump is double inlet C.F. pump
G driven directly by turbine.
9.12 Other General Purpose
Steam Turbines
9.12.1
densing type : Fig. 9-42 show»
this type of turbine. First stage
consists of velocity compounding
and im pulse blading, w hile
remaining are reaction stages.
Dummy piston at the end of the
first stage helps the thrust bear-
Fig 9-42 ing counter balance the un-
balanced force of reaction stage. Cylinder is made up of forged sections welded together.
After heat treatment, cylinder is slotted to receive reaction bladings. Steam is removed
for feed heating at four points. This type is used for power reaction generation.

Fig. 9-43

9.12.2 Single stage multi-stage condensing type : Fig. 9-43 shows this type of
turbine. First stage is velocity compounded and is followed by ten impulse stages. Ball
thrust bearing keeps shaft aligned axially. On left, a centrifugal governor is provided to
control steam flow. This unit is fitted with non-automatic extraction openings to bleed
steam for feed water heating. Carbon ring seals are used at diaphragm and casing glands.
9.12.3 Radial flow double rotation turbine : Fig. 9-44 shows this type of turbine.
This unit drives two A.C. generators, one on each shaft. Generators are coupled together
electrically, to keep the oppositely rotating shafts in synchronism for best blade speed to
steam speed ratio of the reaction stages. Multi-disc turbine is so arranged that the high
pressure steam enters from below. It first flows into the annular steam chest, then through
holes in the overhung blade disc to the centre area at the shaft. Steam then flows radially
outward through first concentric set of blades. Then it turns 180° to flow radially inward
280 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
through a second set of concentric
blades. It again makes a 180° turn to
flow radially outward through the third
set of blades. From here steam flows
into annular space leading to exhaust
pipe at bottom of the turbine. By-pass
valve to the right of disc in annular
steam chest lets high pressure steam
to skip first set of blades to enter the
second set, providing overload operation
at reduced efficiency. Maximum power
developed by this type of turbine is
7,500 kW. It can be designed for auto-
matic or non-automatic extraction of
partly expanded steam. Strip type
Labyrinth seals on the moving blade
rings reduce the steam leakage past
the blades, while concentric Labyrinth
seals between over hung discs and
inner casings cut down leakage short
Fifl-9’44 circuiting the blading. Labyrinth gland
seals at the two shafts, control steam flow through these clearances. This unit is used
for only power generation.

' r

Fig. 9-45

9.13 Some Examples of Mechanical Drive Turbines

Mechanical drive turbines are usually single-stage velocity compounded. Fig. 9-45
shows a single-stage impulse turbine. Maximum rating is 75 kw. It is similar to De-laval
turbine.
 Steam Turbines 281

Fig. 9-46

Fig. 9-46 shows multi-stage turbine. First stage is velocity compounded and it uses
two separate wheels. This type may be condensing type and runs at 10,000 r.p.m. It
has carbon ring seals ring oiled journal bearings and a double thrust ball bearing to
control position of the shaft.

Fig. 9-47

Fig. 9-47 shows variable speed turbine. Usually this type is used to drive the compressor
with range of speed 3,500 to 6,000 r.p.m. They are usually condensing type. In this type,
as shown in fig. 9-47, two velocity compounded stages are provided.
282 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
Tutorial - 9
1. Delete the phrase which is not applicable in the following statements :
(i) The thermal efficiency of a steam turbine is higher/lower than that of a steam engine.
(ii) Steam turbine is an internal/external combustion thermal prime mover.
(iii) Balancing is perfect in case of steam turbine/steam engine.
(iv) Steam turbines work on modified Rankine/Rankine cycle.
(v) A steam turbine develops power at a uniform/changing rate and hence does not need any flywheel.
(vi) In an impulse turbine, steam expands in nozzles/blades.
(vii) The speed of simple impulse wheel is too high/low for practical purposes.
(viii) The steam turbines are mostly of axial/radial flow type.
(ix) In case of an impulse turbine, the relative velocity at outlet is greater/less than that at inlet, due to
friction. ,
(x) If friction is neglected in case.of an impulse turbine, relative velocity at inlet and relative velocit/ at
outlet are equal/different in magnitude.
[Delete : (i) lower, (ii) internal, (iii) steam engines, (iv)
modified Rankine, (v\ changing, (vi) blades, (vii) low,
(viii) radial (ix) greater, (x) different].
2. Fill in the blanks to complete the following statements :
(i) The two main types of steam turbines are ________ and ______ .
(ii) Speed obtained in case of steam turbines may be as high as r.p.m.
(iii) The method of abstracting steam at certain section of turbine is known as _______.
(iv) In an impulse turbine the expansion of steam takes place in the ______ only, where the pressure
decreases and velocity increases.
(v) In an impulse turbine, the pressure of steam remains constant while it passes over the of the
turbine.
(vi) In case of reaction steam turbine, the steam expands as it flows over th e __________ .
(vii) An actual reaction steam turbine is a combined ______ arid _______ steam turbine.
(viii) In an actual reaction turbine, steam expands partly in stationary blades and partly as it flows over
the _____ ______ .
(ix) Degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of isentropic enthalpy drop in the moving blades to isentropic
enthalpy drop in th e ___________ of the reaction turbine.
• (x) In case of reaction turbines, since the steam expands continuously in both the fixed and moving blades,
its relative velocity does not remain constant b u t due to the expansion of steam.
(xi) The velocity of a simple impulse steam turbine is too _____ for practical purposes and as such the
speed has to be _______ by some suitable means.
(xii) The ______ turbine was the first impulse steam turbine successfully built in 1889.
[(i)impulse, reaction; (ii) 30,000, (iii) bleeding, (iv) noz-
zles, (v) blades, (vi) moving blades, (vii) impulse, reac-
tion, (viii) moving blades, (ix) entire stage, (x) increases,
(xi) high, reduced, (xii) De Laval]
3. Select the correct phrase out of the phrases given below for each statement :
(i) In a Parsons reaction turbine, the relative velocity at outlet is
(a) less than that at the inlet,
(b) greater than that at the inlet,
(c) equal to that at the inlet,
(d) equal to blade speed.
(ii) In the impulse turbine the steam is expanded
(a) in nozzles,
(b) in blades,
(c) partly in nozzles and partly in blades,
(d) neither in nozzles nor in blades.
(iii) In a condensing steam turbine the steam is exhausted
(a) at atmospheric pressure,
 Steam Turbines 283
(b) below atmospheric pressure,
(c) above atmospheric pressure,
(d) at any pressure.
(iv) De Laval turbine is a
(a) simple reaction turbine,
(b) simple impulse turbine,
(c) velocity compounded impulse turbine,
(d) pressure compounded impulse turbine.
(v) Steam turbine works on
(a) Rankine cycle,
(b) modified Rankine cycle,
(c) Bell-Coleman cycle,
(d) Carnot cycle.
(vi) Parsons reaction turbine is basically
(a) an impulse-reaction turbine,
(b) a pressure compounded impulse turbine,
(c) a velocity compounded impulse turbine,
(d) a pure reaction turbine.
(vii) Cuctis turbine is basically
(a) a velocity compounded impulse turbine,
(b) a pressure compounded impulse turbine,
(c) a simple impulse turbine,
(d) an impulse-reaction turbine,
(e) a pure reaction turbine.
(viii) Rateau turbine is basically
(a) a velocity compounded impulse turbine,
(b) a pressure compounded impulse turbine,
(c) an impulse-reaction turbine,
(d) a pure reaction turbine.
(ix) The main advantage of reaction turbine as compared to impulse turbine^ is
(a) high blade speed,
(b) low blade speed,
• (c) high efficiency,
(d) high output
(x) Most widely used method of governing steam turbine is
(a) throttle governing,
(b) nozzle control governing,
(c) by-pass governing.
[(i) b, (ri) ®. (»') b. C'v) b. (v) a, (vi) a, (vii) a, (viii) b, (ix) b, (x) a]
4. Steam issues from the nozzles of a single impulse turbine at 850 m/sec. on to blades moving at 350 m/sec
The blades tip angles at inlet and exit are each 36*. The steam is to enter the blades without shock and
the flow over the blades is frictionless. Determine : (a) the angle at which the nozzles are inclined to the
direction of motion of the blades, and (b) the diagram efficiency. [(a) 22*; (b) 846%]
5. Steam leaves the nozzle of a single impulse wheel turbine at 900 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 20* and the
blade angles are 30* at inlet and outlet. What is the blade velocity and the work done per kilogram of
steam ? Assume the flow over the blades as frictionless. [312 m/sec; 333 kJ]
6. A stage in an impulse turbine consists of converging nozzles and one ring of moving blades. The nozzle
angles are 22* and the moving blades have both tip angles of 35*. If the velocity of steam at the exit
from the nozzles is 450 m/sec., find the blade speed so that the steam shall pass on to the blades without
shock, and the stage efficiency, neglecting frictional losses, if the blades run at this speed
If the relative velocity of the steam is reduced by 15% in passing through the blade ring, find the
actual efficiency and the thrust on the shaft, when the blade ring develops 36.8 kW.
[176 m/sec; 83-6%; 77-6%, 11 7 N)
284 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
7. An impulse turbine with a single row wheel is to develop 99-3 kW, the blade speed being 150 m/sec. A
mass of 2 kg of steam per second is to flow from the nozzles at a speed of 350 m/sec. The velocity
coefficient of the blades may be assumed to be 0-8 while the steam is to flow axially after passing through
the blade ring. Determine the nozzle angle, the blade angles at inlet and exit assuming no shock. Estimate
also the diagram efficiency of the blading.
[nozzles angle - 18-7*; Inlet blade angle - 31-75; exit
blade angle = 28-3*; Diagram efficiency * 81%]
8. Compare steam turbine with the reciprocating steam engine on the basis of the mechanical construction.
What are the advantages of steam turbine plant over the reciprocating steam engine plant ?
A De Laval steam turbine has a wheel 30 cm mean diameter and runs at 12,000 r.p.m. The nozzles
are inclined at 20* to the plane of the wheel and escape velocity of steam from nozzles is 850 m/sec.
There is a 10% loss of velocity in the blades and the inlet and outlet angles of the blades are equal.
Determine :
(a) the blade angles,
(b) the absolute velocity of the steam at the exit from the blades, and
(c) the wheel or diagram efficiency. [(a) 25-5*; (b) 446 m/sec; (c) 60-3%]
9. The steam from the nozzles of a single-stage impulse turbine has a velocity of 800 m/sec. and are inclined
at 20* to the direction of motion of the blades. Determine the necessary inlet angle of the blades so that
no shock occurs for a blade speed of 300 m/sec.
Assuming that friction reduces the relative velocity of the steam by 10% as it passes over the blades
and the blade angles are equal, find the work done per kg of steam supplied.
131 -2*; 257-5 kJ)
10. The nozzle of a turbine stage delivers 4 kg of steam per second at an angle of 18* and a speed of 425
m/sec. If the blading outlet angle is 22* and the blade velocity coefficient is 0-76, determine the blade
power developed and the blade inlet angle. Take the peripheral speed of the wheel as 170 m/sec.
[288 kW; 29-31
11. At one stage in impulse turbine the steam is expanded from 8-5 bar and 95% dry, to 3bar. Ifthe flow
through the nozzle is frictionless adiabatic,find the velocity of the steam as it leaves thenozzle. If the
nozzle is inclined at 20* to the direction of the blades and the blade angle at exit is 30* to the same
direction, the blade speed is 0-4 of the steam velocity at exit from the nozzle, and the velocity of steam
relative to the blades suffers a 10 per cent drop in passing over the blades, find thepower developed
when the steam flow is 4-5 kg/sec.
[604 m/sec; 681 kW]
12. The outlet area of the nozzles in a simple impulse turbine is 22-5 cm2 and steam leaves them 0-9 dry at
3 bar and at 750 m/sec. The nozzles are inclined at 20* to the plane of the wheel, the blade speed is
300 m/sec., the blade outlet angles are 30* and the blade velocity coefficient is 0-82. Calculate : (a) the
power developed in the blades, (b) the steam used per kW-hour, (c) the diagram efficiency, (d) the axial
thrust on the shaft, and (e) loss of kinetic energy due to blade friction.
[(a) 680 kW; (b) 16 kg/kW-hour; (c) 79-6%; (d) 181 N; (e) 114 kJ]
13. In a De Laval steam turbine the blade angles are 30* at inlet and exit. The steam leaves the nozzle at
380 m/sec. and the blade speed is 75 m/sec. If the relative velocity of the steam is reduced by 15 per
cent during its passage through the blades, find : (a) the nozzle angle, and (b) the blade efficiency.
[(a) 24-4*; (b) 52-3%]
14. Steam leaves the nozzle of a simple impulse turbine at 900 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 22*, and the blade
angles are 30* at inlet and outlet, and the blade velocity coefficient is 80 per cent. Calculate :
(a) the blade velocity, and
(b) the steam flow in kg per hour if the power developed by turbine is 235 kW.
[(a) 250 m/sec; (b) 3,225 kg per hr.]
15. The steam supplied to a single-row impulse wheel turbine expands in the nozzle over such a range that
the adiabatic enthalpy drop is 88 kJ/kg. The nozzle efficiency is 93% and nozzle angle is 15 . If the blading
speed is 175 m/sec., the outlet blade angle is 18* and the velocity coefficient for the blading is 0-82,
determine : (a) suitable inlet angle for the moving blade, (b) the speed of the steam after discharge from
the blading, (c) the diagram efficiency, and (d) the power developed by the turbine if 2,750 kg of steam
per hour is supplied to the turbine.
[(a) 25-8*; (b) 62 m/sec; (c) 86-2%; (d) 54 kW]
16. In a stage of an impulse turbine provided with a single-row wheel, the mean diameter of the blade ring
is80 cm and thespeed of rotation is 3,000 r.p.m. The steam issues from she nozzle with a velocity of
275 m per sec and the nozzle angle is 20*. The inlet and outlet angles of the blades are equal, and due
 Steam Turbines 285
to friction in the blade channels the relative velocity of the steam at outlet from the blade is 0-86 times
the relative velocity of steam entering the blades. What is the power developed hn the blading when the
axial thrust on the blades is 120 N ?
(285 kW]
17. The mean diameter of the blades of impulse turbine with a single-row wheel is one metre and the speed
of rotation is 3,000 r.p.m. The nozzle angle is 18*, the ratio of blade speed to steam speed is 0-42, the
ratio of the relative velocity at outlet from the blades to that at inlet is ,0-84. The outlet angle of blade is
tobe 3* less than the inlet angle. The steam flow is 7 kg persecond.
Determine : (a) the tangential force on the blades, (b) the power developed in the blades, (c) the blading
efficiency, and (d) the axial thrust on the blades.
[(a) 2,600 N; (b) 407 kW; (c) 83-2%; (d) 190 N]
18. Steam issues from nozzle of a De Laval turbine with a velocity of 1,000 m/sec. The nozzle angle is 20*,
the mean blade velocity is 365 m/sec. and the inlet and outlet angles of the blades are equal. The steam
flow through the turbine is 800 kg per hour. The ratio of relative velocity at outlet from the blades to that
at inlet is 0-8.
Calculate :
(a) the blade angles,
(b) the relative velocity of the steam entering the blades,
(c) the tangential force on the blades,
(d) the power developed, and
(e) the blade efficiency
[(a) 30-8*; (b) 669 m/sec; (c) 230-5 N; (d) 84 kW; (e) 75-8%]
19. Steam issues from the nozzles of a De Lavalturbine with a velocity of 920 m per sec. The nozzle angle
is 20*, the mean diameter of the blades is 25 cm and the speed of rotation is 20,000 r.p.m. The steam
flow through the turbine is 0-18 kg per sec. If the ratio of relative velocity at outlet from the blades to that
at inlet is 0-82, calculate :
(a) The tangential force on blades,
(b) The work done on blades per sec.,
(c) The power of the wheel,
(d) The efficiency of blading,
(e) The axial force on blades, and
(f) The inlet angle of blades for shcokless inflow of steam.
Assume that the outlet angle of blades is equal to the inlet angle.
[(a) 197 N; (b) 51-8 kJ; (c) 51-8 kW; (d) 68%; (e) 10-1 N; (f) 27-6*]
20. Enumerate the types of steam turbines. Explain why impulse turbines are compounded and explain with
diagrams the methods of compounding.
21. Explain with the aid of neat sketches the various methods adopted to reduce the rotor speed of the impulse
steam turbines.
Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of velocity compounded impulse turbines.
In a velocity compounded impulse turbine, the initial speed of the steam is 700 m per sec and turbine
uses 4-5 kg of steam per second. The nozzle discharge angle is 16* and the outlet angles for the blades
are :
First moving blades 20*, fixed blades 25*, and second moving blades 28*.
The blade speed is 150 m/sec and the ratio between the relative velocities at the outlet and inlet edges
of the blades is 0-9. Draw the velocity diagrams to a scale of 1 cm = 25 m/sec. and determine : (a) the
power developed, (b) the diagram or blade efficiency, and (c) the axial thrust on moving blades.
[(a) 864 kW; (b) 78-4%; (c) 292 3 N]
22. The outlet angle of the blade of Parsons turbine (reaction turbine) is 20* and the axial velocity of flow of
steam is 0-5 times the mean velocity of the blade. Draw the velocity diagram for a stage consisting of
one fixed and one moving row of the blades, given that the mean diameter is 70 cm and that speed of
rotation is 3,000 r.p.m. Find the inlet angles of the blades if steam enters without shock.
If the mean steam pressure is 5-5 bar and the blade height is 6-25 cm, and the steam is dry saturated,
find the power developed per pair of blades.
[53* 54’; 457 kW]
23. A reaction turbine runs at 300 r.p.m. and its steam consumption is 15,500 kg/hour. The pressure of steam
at a certain pair is 1-8 bar, and its dryness is 0-92. The power developed by the pair is 3-31 kW and the
286 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
discharge blade tip angle is 20* for both fixed and moving blades, and the axial velocity of flow is 0-72
of the blade speed. Find the drum diameter and the blade height Neglect blade thickness.
[92-55 cm; 10-45 cm]
24. What is the object of compounding in steam turbines ? Distinguish between velocity compounding and
pressure compounding. With the help of suitable curves show the variations of pressure and velocity in the
above methods of compounding.
25. Write briefly on the following, giving sketches wherever necessary :
(a) The reason for velocity compounding and pressure compounding of steam turbines.
(b) Principle of working of reaction steam turbines, and
(c) Blade friction and its effects on velocity diagrams of impulse steam turbines.
26. An impulse stage of a turbine has two rows of moving blades separated by fixed blades. The steam leaves
the nozzles at an angle of 20* with the direction of motion of the blades. The exit angles are : 1st moving
30*; fixed, 22*; 2nd moving 30*.
If the adiabatic enthalpy drop for the nozzle is 188 kJ/kg and the nozzle efficiency is 90%, find the
blade speed necessary if the final velocity of the steam is to be axial. Assume a loss of 15% in the
relative velocity for all blade passages. Find also blade efficiency and the stage efficiency.
[116-4 m/sec; 70-04;% 63-6%]
27. Define the term "re-heat factor” used in connection with steam turbines.
In a four-stage pressure compounded turbine the steam is supplied at pressure of 24 bar and superheated
to a temperature of 350*C. The exhaust pressure is 0-07 bar, and the overall turbine efficiency is 0*72.
Assuming that the work is shared equally between the stages, and that the condition line is straight
estimate: (a) the stage pressures, (b) the efficiency of each stage, and (c) the re-heat factor.
[(a) 7 bar, 1-84 bar, 0*4 bar; (b) 61%, 65-5%, 68-8%, 73-5%; (c) 107]
28. Steam at 21 bar with 60*C of superheat expands in a turbine to 3*5 bar. It is then re-heated at this
pressure to its original temperature and finally expanded in a second turbine to 0*15 bar, the efficiency
being 0*8 for each expansion. Sketch the enthalpy - entropy diagram for the whole process and mark on
it the heat content of the steam at the beginning and end of each expansion. Determine the final condition
of the steam and the work done per kilogram of steam.
[0*977; 774 kJ/kg]
29. Explain the process of feed heating by ‘bleeding.* Show that in general, bleeding improves the efficiency
of steam plant.
Find the theoretical thermal efficiency of a steam plant working between the pressures 10 bar, steam
being dry saturated, and 0*06 bar, (a) without bleeding, (b) when the correct mass of steam is bled at 1-5
bar.
[(a) 28-7%; (b) 30-0%]
30. What are advantage of feed heating by bled steam ?
A steam turbine is fitted with a regenerative feed water heating system in which the heating is performed
by steam extracted from the turbine at two different pressures. The heating steam, condensed to water in
the high-pressure heater, is drained into the steam space of the low-pressure heater and, together with the
water condensed in the low-pressure heater, is then drained to the condenser. The following table gives
particulars of the process :
Total enthalpy in kJ/kg
Steam entering turbine •• 3,232
Steam entering high-pressure heater .• 2,830
Steam entering low-pressure heater •• 2,604
Steam entering condenser •• 2,324
Temperature
Feed water leaving hot-well and enteringlow-pressure heater . . 28 C
Feed water entering high-pressure heater . . 75 C
Feed water leaving high-pressure heater • • 123 C
/Drain water leaving low-pressure heater andentering condenser . . 78 C
Drain water leaving high-pressure heater • • 127 C
Assuming that the mass of feed water passing through the heaters is equal to the mass of steam
entering the turbine, each being 13,500 kg per hour, find the mass of bled steam passing per hour into
each heater, the power developed by steam in the turbine, and the thermal efficiency of the process.
[heater No.1 - 1,180 kg/hr; Heater No. 2 - 1,070 kg/hr; Power = 3,154 kW; Thermal eff. = 30-97%]
 Steam Turbines 287
31. Explain what do you understand by bleeding as applied to steam turbine practice.
32. Write short notes on the following, giving sketches wherever necessary :
(i) Governing of steam turbines, (ii) Choice of materials for turbine blades, (iii) Back-pressure steam
turbines, (iv) Steam extraction turbines, (v) Balancing end thrust of reaction steam turbines, (vi) Exhaust
steam turbines, and (vii) Turbines for power generation.
33. Write detailed note on the governing of steam turbines.
34. What is the material of construction in the steam turbines components ? Suggest the material for low cost
and long life of critical parts of steam turbines.
35. Illustrate some examples of mechanical drive steam turbines.
 Steam Tables 289
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM

(Pressure Table)

Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

Pressure
bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P *C m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts Vs H <t>s

.006113 0.1 206.136 .01 2501.3 2501.4 .0000 9.1562

.007 1.89 181.255 7.91 2496.9 2504.4 .0288 9.1064
.008 3.77 159.675 15.81 2492.5 2508.3 .0575 9.0578
.009 5.45 142.789 22.89 2488.5 2511.4 .0829 9.0142
.010 6.98 129.208 29.30 2484.9 2514.2 .1059 8.9756

.011 8.37 118.042 35.17 2481.6 2516.8 .1268 8.9408

.012 9.66 108.696 40.58 2478.6 2519.1 .1460 8.9091
.013 10.86 100.755 45.60 2475.7 2521.3 .1637 8.8792
.014 11.98 93.922 50.31 2473.1 2523.4 .1802 8.8529
.015 13.03 87.980 54.71 2470.6 2525.3 .1957 8.8279

.016 14.02 82.763 5&87 2468.3 2527.1 .2102 8.8044

.017 14.95 78.146 62.80 2466.0 2528.8 .2238 8.7825
.018 15.84 74.030 66.54 2463.9' 2530.5 .2368 8.7618
.019 16.69 70.337 70.10 2461.9 2532.0 .2401 8.7422
.020 17.50 67.004 73.48 2460.0 2533.5 .2607 8.7237

.021 18.28 63.981 76.74 2458.2 2534.9 .2719 8.7060

.022 v 19.02 61.226 79.85 2456.4 2536.3 .2826 8.6892
.023 19.73 58.705 82.83 2454.8 2537.6 .2928 8.6732
.024 20.42 56.389 85.72 2453.1 2538.8 .3026 8.6579
.025 21.08 54.254 88.49 2451.6 2540.0 .3120 8.6432

.026 21.72 52.279 91.17 2450.1 2541.2 .3211 8.6290

.027 22.34 50.446 93.75 2448.6 2542.3 ,3299 8.6155
.028 22.94 48.742 96.27 2447.2 2543.4 .3384 8.6024
.029 23.52 47.152 98.7 2445.8 2544.5 .3466 8.5898
.030 24.08 45.665 101.5 2444.5 2545.5 .3545 8.5776

.032 25.16 42.964 105.57 2441.9 2547.5 .3697 8.5545

.034 26.19 40.572 109.84 2439.5 2549.3 .3840 8.5327
.036 27.16 38.440 113.90 2431 4 2551.1 .3975 8.5123
.038 28.08 36.527 117.77 2435.0 2552.8 .4104 8.4930
.040 28.96 34.800 121.46 2432.9 2554.4 .4226 8.4746
290 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM
(Pressure Table)

Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

Pressure Sat. Specific vol.
bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P •c m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts Vs H <J>w

.042 29.81 33.234 125.00 2430.9 2555.9 .4343 8.4572

.044 30.62 31.806 128.39 2429.0 2557.4 .4455 8.4406
.046 31.40 30.500 131.65 2427.2 2558.8 .4562 8.4248
.048 32.15 29.299 134.79 2425.4 2560.2 .4665 8.4096
.050 32.88 28.192 137.82 2423.7 2561.5 .4764 8.3951

.055 35.58 25.769 144.95 2419.6 2564.5 .4997 8.3613

.060 36.16 23.739 151.53 2415.9 2567.4 .5210 8.3304
.065 37.63 22.014 157.67 2412.4 2570.0 .5408 8.3020
.070 39.00 20.530 163.40 2409.1 2572.5 .5592 8.2758
.075 40.29 19.238 168.79 2406.0 2574.8 .5764 8.2515

.080 41.51 18.103 173.88 2403.1 2577.0 .5926 8.2287

.085 42.67 17.099 178.70 2400.3 2579.0 .6079 8.2073
.090 43.76 16.203 183.29 2397.7 2581.0 .6224 8.1872
.095 44.81 15.399 187.65 2395.2 2582.9 .6362 8.1632
0.10 45.81 14.674 191.83 2392.8 2584.7 .6493 8.1502

.11 47.69 13.415 199.67 2388.3 2588.0 .6738 8.1168

.12 49.42 12.361 206.92 2384.1 2591.1 .6963 8.0863
.13 51.04 11.465 213.67 2380.2 2593.9 .7172 8.0584
.14 52.55 10.693 219.99 2376.6 2596.6 .7366 8.0325
.15 53.97 10.022 225.94 2373.1 2599.1 .7549 8.0085

.16 55.32 9.433 231.56 2369.9 2601.4 .7720 7.9860

.17 56.59 8.910 236.89 2366.8 2603.7 .7882 7.9649
.18 57.80 8.445 241.95 2363.8 2605.8 .8035 7.9451
.19 58.96 8.027 246.78 2361.0 2607.8 .8181 7.9263
20 60.06 7.649 251.40 2358.3 2609.7 .8320 7.9085

.21 61.12 7.307 255.83 2355.7 2611.6 .8452 7.8916

.22 62.14 6.995 260.08 2353.2 2613.3 ' .8579 7.8756
.23 63.12 6.709 264.18 2350.8 2615.0 .8701 7.8602
.24 64.06 6.446 268.12 2348.5 2616.6 .8818 7.8455
.25 64.97 6.204 271.93 2346.3 2618.2 .8931 7.8314
 .Steam Tables 291
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM

(Pressure Table)

Pressure Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P •c m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts vs H 4»s

.26 65.85 5.980 275.61 2344.1 2619.7 .9040 7.8179

.27 66.70 5.772 279.17 2342.0 2621.2 .9145 7.8049
.28 67.53 5.579 282.62 2340.0 2622.6 .9246 7.7924
.29 68.33 5.398 285.98 2338.0 2624.0 .9344 7.7803
.30 69.10 5.229 289.23 2336.1 2625.3 .9439 7.7686

.32 70.60 4.922 295.48 2332.4 2627.8 .9622 7.7465

.34 72.01 4.650 301.46 2328.8 2630.2 .9723 7.7257
.36 73.36 4.408 307.05 2325.5 2632.5 .9956 7.7061
.38 74.64 4.190 312.43 2322.3 2634.7 1.0159 7.6876
.40 75.87 3.993 317.58 2319.2 2636.8 1.0259 7.6700

.42 77.05 3.815 322.51 2316.2 2638.7 1.0400 7.6534

.44 78.18 3.652 327.26 2313.4 2640.6 1.0536 7.6375
.46 79.27 3.503 331.83 2310.6 2642.5 1.0666 7.6223
.48 80.32 3.367 336.23 2308.0 2644.2 1.0790 7.6078
.50 81.33 3.240 340.49 2305.4 2645.9 1.0910 7.5939

.55 83.72 2.964 350.54 2299.3 2649.8 1.1193 7.5615

.60 85.94 2.732 359.86 2293.6 2653.5 1.1453 7.5320
.65 88.01 2.535 368.54 2288.3 2656.3 1.1694 7.5048
.70 89.95 2.365 376.70 2283.3 2660.0 1.1919 7.4766
.75 91.78 2.217 384.39 2278.6 2663.0 1.2124 7.4564

.80 93.50 2.087 391.66 2274.1 2665.8 1.2329 7.4346

.85 95.14 1.972 398.57 2269.8 2668.4 1.2517 7.4141
.90 96.71 1.869 405.15 2265.7 2670.9 1.2695 7.3949
.95 98.20 1.777 411.83 2261.8 2673.2 1.2864 7.3766
1.00 99.63 1.694 417.46 2258.0 2675.5 1.3026 7.3594

1.01325 100.00 1.6729 419.04 2257.0 2676.1 1.3069 7.3549

1.05 101.00 1.6184 423.24 2254.4 2677.6 1.3184 7.3430

1.10 102.31 1.5495 428.79 2250.9 2679.7 1.3329 7.3273
1.15 103.58 1.4864 434.15 2247.5 2681.7 1.3471 7.3124
1.20 104.80 1.4284 439.32 2244.2 2683.5 1.3608 7.2981
1.25 105.99 1.3749 444.32 2241.0 2685.4 1.3740 7.2844
292 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM
(Pressure Table)

Pressure Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P *C m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts vs H <1>s

1.30 107.13 1.3254 449.15 2238.0 2687.1 1.3867 7.2712

1.35 108.24 1.2794 453.13 2235.0 2688.8 1.3990 7.2586
1.40 109.31 1.2366 458.39 2232.1 2690.4 1.4109 7.2464
1.45 110.36 1.1967 462.80 2229.1 2692.0 1.4224 7.2347
1.50 111.37 1.1593 467.11 2226.5 2693.6 1.4336 7.2233

1;55 112.36 1.1243 471 .?8 2223.8 2695.0 1.4444 7.2123

1.60 113.32 1.0914 475.36 2221.1 2696.5 1.4550 7.2017
1.65 114.26 1.0604 479.33 2218.5 2697.9 1.4652 7.1914
1.70 115.17 1.0312 483.20 2216.0 2699.2 1.4752 7.1814
1.75 116.06 1.0036 486.99 2213.6 2700.6 1.4849 7.1717

1.80 116.93 .9775 490.68 2211.2 2701.8 1.4944 7.1623

1.85 117.79 .9528 494.30 2208.8 2703.1 1.5036 7.1532
1.90 118.62 .9293 497.84 2206.5 2704.3 1.5127 7.1443
1.95 119.43 .9070 501.31 2204.2 2705.5 1.5225 7.1356
2.00 120.23 .8857 504.70 2201.9 2706.7 1.5301 7.1271

2.05 121.02 .8655 508.03 2199.8 2707.8 1.5386 7.1189

2.10 121.74 .8462 511.29 2197.6 2708.9 1.5468 7.1109
2.15 122.53 .8277 - 514.48 2195.5 2710.0 1.5549 7.1030
2.20 123.27 .8101 517.63 2193.4 2711.0 1.5628 7.0953
2.25 124.00 .7933 520.72 2191.3 2712.1 1.5706 7.0878

2.30 124.71 .7771 523.74 2189.3 2713.1 1.5782 7.0805

2.35 125.41 .7616 526.72 2187.3 2714.1 1.5856 7.0733
2.40 126.13 .7467 529.65 2185.4 2715.0 1.5930 7.0663
2.45 126.77 .7324 532.53 2183.5 2716.0 1.6002 7.0594
2.50 127.44 .7187 535.37 2181.5 2716.9 1.6072 7.0527

2.55 128.09 .7055 538.15 2179.7 2717.8 1.6142 7.0461

2.60 128.73 .6918 540.90 2177.8 2718.7 1.6210 7.0396
2.65 129.37 .6805 543.60 2176.0 2719.6 1.6277 7.0333
. 2.70 129.99 .6687 546.27 2174.2 2720.5 1.6343 7.0270
2.75 130.60 .6573 548.89 2172.4 2721.3 1.6408 7.0209
 Steam Tables 293
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM

(Pressure Table)

Pressure Sat. Specific vol. Eothalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P *C m3/kg h . L steam water steam
ts vs H <&w <J>s

2.80 131.21 .6463 551.48 2170.7 2722.1 1.6472 7.0149

2.85 131.81 .6357 554.02 2168.9 2723.0 1.6535 7.0090
2.90 132.39 .6254 556.54 2167.2 2723.8 1.6597 7.0032
2.95 132.97 .6154 559.02 2165.5 2724.5 1.6658 6.9975
3.00 133.55 .6058 561.47 2163.8 2725.3 1.6718 6.9919

3.05 134.11 .5965 563.88 2162.2 2726.1 1.6777 6.9864

3.10 134.67 .5875 566.27 2160.6 2726.8 1.6835 6.9810
3.15 135.22 .5787 568.62 2158.9 2727.6 1.6893 6.9756
3.20 135.76 .5702 570.95 2157.3 2728.3 1.6950 6.9704
3.25 136.30 .5620 573.25 2155.8 2729.0 1.7006 6.9652

3.30 136.83 .5540 575.52 2154.2 2729.7 1.7061 6.9601

3.35 137.35 .5463 577.76 2152.6 2730.4 1.7116 6.9551
3.40 137.87 .5387 579.97 2151.1 2731.1 1.7169 6.9502
3.45 138.38 .5314 582.16 2149.6 2731.8 1.7222 6.9453
3.50 138.88 .5243 584.33 2148.1 2732.4 1.7275 6.9405

3.55 139.38 .5173 586.47 2146.6 2733.1 1.7327 6.9358

3.60 139.87 .5106 588.59 2145.1 2733.7 1.7378 6.9311
3.65 140.36 .5040 , 590.68 2143.7 2734.4 1.7428 6.9265
3.70 140.84 .4926 592.75 2142.2 2735.0 1.7478 6.9219
3.75 141.32 .4914 594.81 2140.8 2735.6 1.7528 6.9175

3.80 141.79 .4853 596.83 2139.4 2736.2 1.7577 6.9130

3.85 142.26 .4794 598.84 2138.0 2736.8 1.7625 6.9087
3.90 142.72 .4736 600.83 2136.6 2737.4 1.7673 6.9044
3.95 143.18 .4680 602.80 2135.2 2738.0 1.7720 6.9001
4.00 143.63 .4625 604.64 2133.8 2738.6 1.7766 6.8959

4.1 144.53 .4519 608.59 2131.1 2739.7 1.7858 6.8877

4-2 145.40 .4417 612.36 2128.4 2740.8 1.7948 6.8796
4.3 146.26 .4321 616.06 2125.8 2741.9 1.8036 6.8717
4.4 147.10 .4228 619.68 2123.2 2742.9 1.8122 6.8641
4.5 147.93 .4140 623.25 2120.7 2743.9 1.8207 6.8565
294 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM
(Pressure Table)

Pressure Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P *C m3/kg h L steam water . steam
ts vs H <t>w <v

4.6 148.74 .4055 626.76 2118.2 2744.9 1.8290 6.8492

4.7 149.54 .3974 630.21 2115.7 2745.9 1.8371 6.8420
4.8 150.32 .3896 633.60 2113.2 2746.8 1.8451 6.8349
4.9 151.10 .3821 636.94 2110.8 2747.8 1.8530 6.8280
5.0 151.86 .3749 640.23 2108.5 2748.7 1.8607 6.8213

5.1 152.60 .3689 643.46 • 2106.1 2749.6 1.8682 6.8146

5.2 153.34 .3613 646.65 2104.8 2750.5 1.8757 6.8081
5.3 154.06 .3549 649.78 2101.5 2751.3 1.8830 6.8017
5.4 154.78 .3487 652.87 2099.3 2752.1 1.8902 6.7955
5.5 155.48 .3427 655.93 2097.0 2753.0 1.8973 6.7893

5.6 156.17 .3369 658.93 2094.8 2753.8 1.9043 6.7832

5.7 156.86 .3313 661.90 2092.7 2754.5 1.9112 6.7773
5.8 157.53 .3259 664.83 2090.5 2755.3 1.9180 6.7714
5.9 , 158.20 .3207 667.71 2088.4 2756.1 1.9246 6.7657
6.0 158.85 .3157 670.56 2086.3 2756.8 1.9312 6.7600

6.1 159.50 .3108 673.37 2084.2 2757.5 1.9377 6.7545

6.2 160.14 .3060 676.15 2082.1 2758.3 1.9441 6.7490
6.3 160.77 .3015 678.89 2080.1 2759.0 1.9504 6.7436
6.4 161.39 .2970 681.60 2078.0 2759.6 1.9566 6.7383
6.5 162.01 .2927 684.28 2076.0 2760.3 1.9627 6.7331

6.6 162.61 .2885 686.93 2074.0 2761.0 1.9688 6.7279

6.7 163.21 .2844 689.55 2072.1 2761.6 1.9748 6.7228
6.8 163.81 .2805 692.13 2070.1 2762.3 1.9807 6.7178
6.9 164.39 .2766 694.69 2068.2 2762.9 1.9865 6.7129
7.0 164.97 .2729 697.22 2066.3 2763.5 1.9922 6.7080

7.1 165.55 .2692 699.72 2064.4 2764.1 1.9979 6.7032

7.2 166.11 .2657 702.20 2062.5 2764.7 2.0035 6.6985
7.3 166.67 .2622 704.64 2060.7 2765.3 2.0091 6.6938
7.4 167.23 .2589 707.07 2058.8 2765.9 2.0146 6.6892
7.5 167.78 .2556 709.47 2057.0 2766.4 2.0200 6.6847
 Steam Tables 295
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM

(Pressure Table)

Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/ki9 Entropy kJ/kg K

Pressure Sat.
bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P *C m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts vs H 4>s

7.6 168.32 .2524 711.85 2055.2 2767.0 2.0253 6.6802

7.7 168.86 .2493 714.20 2053.4 2767.5 2.0306 6.6758
7.8 169.39 .2463 716.52 2051.6 2768.1 2.0359 6.6714
7.9 169.91 .2433 718.83 2049.8 2768.6 2.0411 6.6670
8.0 170.43 .2404 721.11 2048.0 2769.1 2.0462 6.6628

8.1 170.95 .2376 723.38 2046.3 2769.7 2.0513 6.6585

8.2 171.46 .2349 725.62 2044.5 2770.2 2.0563 6.6544
8.3 171.97 .2322 727.83 2042.8 2770.7 2.0612 6.6502
8.4 172.47 .2295 730.04 2041.1 2771.2 2.0662 6.6462
8.5 172.96 .2270 732.22 2039.4 2771.6 2.0710 6.6421

8.6 173.46 .2245 734.38 2037.7 2772.1 2.0758 6.6381

8.7 173.94 .2220 736.52 2036.1 2772.6 2.0806 6.6342
8.8 174.43 .2196 738.64 2034.4 2773.0 2.0853 6.6303
8.9 174.90 .2173 740.75 2032.8 2773.6 2.0900 6.6264
9.0 175.38 .2150 742.82 2031.1 2773.9 2.0946 6.6226

9.1 175.85 .2127 744.91 2029.5 2774.4 2.0992 6.6188

9.2 176.31 .2105 • 746.96 2027.9 2774.8 2.1038 6.6151
9.3 176.78 .2084 749.00 2026.3 2775.3 2.1083 6.6114
9.4 177.24 _ .2063 751.02 2024.7 2775.7 2.1127 6.6077
9.5 177.69 .2042 753.02 2023.1 2776.1 2.1172 6.6041

9.6 176.14 .2022 755.01 2021.5 2776.5 2.1215 6.6005

9.7 178.59 .2002 756.98 2019.9 2776.9 2.1259 6.5969
9.8 179.03 .1982 758.94 2018.4 2777.3 2.1302 6.5934
9.9 179.47 .1963 760.88 2016.8 2777.7 2.1345 6.5899
10.0 179.91 .19444 762.81 2015.3 2778.1 2.1387 6.5865

10.2 180.71 .19080 766.63 2012.2 2778.9 2.1471 6.5796

10.4 181.62 .18730 770.38 2009.2 2779.6 2.1553 6.5729
10.6 182.46 .18392 774.08 2006.2 2780.3 2.1634 6.5664
10.8 183.28 .18067 777.74 2003.3 2781.0 2.1713 6.5599
11.0 184.09 .17753 781.34 2000.4 2781.7 2.1792 6.5536
296 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
j STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES
»
OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM

(Pressure Table)

Pressure Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

bar temp. Sat. Steam Sat. water ■ Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P 'C m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts Vs H 4V <J>s

11.2 184.89 .17449 784.89 1997.5 2782.4 2.1869 6.5473

11.4 185.68 .17156 788.40 1994.6 2783.0 2.1945 6.5412
11.6 186.46 .16873 791.86 1991.8 2783.6 2.2020 6.5351
11.8 187.23 .16599 795.28 1989.0 2784.2 2.2093 6.5292
12.0 187.99 .16333 798.65 1986.2 2784.2 2.2166 6.5233

12.2 188.74 .16077 801.98 1983.4 2785.4 2.2238 6.5176

12.4 189.48> .15828 805.28 1980.7 2786.0 .2.2309 6.5119
12.6 190.20 .15586 808.53 1978.0 2786.5 2.2378 6.5063
12.8 190.93 .15353 811.75 1975.3 2787.1 2.2447 6.5008
13.0 191.64 ,15125 814.93 1972.7 2787.6 2.2515 6.4953

13.2 192.34 .14905 818.07 1970.0 2788.1 2.2582 6.4900

13.4 193.04 .14691 821.18 1967.4 2788.6 2.2648 6.4847
13.6 193.72 .14483 824.85 1964.8 2789.1 2.2714 6.4795
13.8 194.40 .14281 827.29 1962.3 2789.6 2.2778 6.4743
14.0 195.07 .14084 830.30 1959.7 2790.0 2.2842 6.4693

14.2 195.74 .13893 833.28 1957.2 2790.5 2.2905 6.4643

14.4 196.39 .13707 836.28 . 1954.7 2790.9 2.2968 6.4593
14.6 197.04 .13525 839.14 1952.2 2791.3 2.3029 6.4544
14.8 197.69 .13349 842.03 1949.7 2791.7 2.3090 6.4496
15.0 198.32 .13177 844.89 1947.3 2792.2 2.3150 6.4448

15.5 199.88 .12766 851.92 1941.2 2793.1 2.3298 6.4331

16.0 201.41 .12380 858.79 1935.2 2794.0 2.3442 6.4218
16.5 202.89 .12006 865.50 1929.4 2794.9 2.3582 6.4108
17.0 204.34 .11673 872.06 1923.6 2795.7 2.3718 6.4000
17.5 205.76 .11349 878.50 1917.9 2796.4 2.3851 6.3896

18.0 207.15 .11042 884.79 1912.4 2797.1 2.3981 6.3794

18.5 208.51 .10751 890.96 1906.8 2797.8 2.4109 6.3694
19.0 209.84 .10475 897.02 1901.4 2798.4 2.4233 6.3597
19.5 211.14 . .10212 902.96 1896.0 2799.0 0 2.4354 6.3502
20.0 212.42 .09963 908.79 1890.7 2799.5 2.4474 6.3409
 Steam Tables 297
STEAM TABLES

PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM

(Pressure Table)

Pressure Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P *C m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts vs H <J>s

20.5 213.67 .09725 914.52 1885.5 2800.0 2.4590 6.3318

21.0 214.90 .09498 920.15 1880.3 2800.5 2.4704 6.3229
21.5 216.10 .09281 925.69 1875.2 2800.9 2.4817 6.3141
22.0 217.29 .09073 931.14 1870.2 2801.3 2.4927 6.3056
22.5 218.45 .08875 936.49 1865.2 2801.7 2.5035 6.2972

23.0 219.60 .08685 941.77 1860.2 2802.0 2.5141 6.2890

23.5 220.72 .08502 946.97 1855.4 2802.3 2.5245 6.2809
24.0 221.83 .08327 952.09 1850.5 2802.6 2.5347 6.2729
24.5 222.92 .08159 957.13 1845.7 2802.9 2.5448 6.2651
25.0 223.99 .07998 962.11 1841.0 2803.1 2.5547 6.2575

26 226.09 .07692 971.85 1831.6 2803.6 2.5740 6.2425

27 228.12 .07409 981.34 1822.4 2803.8 2.5927 6.2280
28 230.10 .07145 990.59 1813.4 2804.0 2.6109 6.2139
29 232.02 .06899 999.61 1804.5 2804.1 2.6285 6.2002
30 233.90 .06668 1008.42 1795.7 2804.2 2.6457 6.1869

31 235.72 .06452 1017.04 1787.1 2804.1 2.6624 6.1740

32 237.51 .06249 1025.47 1778.6 2804.1 2.6787 6.1614
33 239.54 .06057 1033.72 1770.2 2803.9 2.6946 6.1491
34 240.94 .05877 1041.82 1761.9 2803.7 2.7101 6.1370
35 242.60 .05707 1049.75 1753.7 2803.4 2.7253 6.1253

36 244.23 .05545 1057.53 1745.6 2803.1 2.7401 6.1138

37 245.82 .05392 1065.17 1737.6 2802.8 2.7546 6.1025
38 247.38 .05247 1072.68 1729.7 2802.4 2.7688 6.0915
39 248.91 .05109 1080.05 1721.8 2801.9 2.7828 6.0807
40 250.40 .04978 1087.31 1714.1 2801.4 2.7964 6.0701

42 253.31 .04733 1101.48 1698.8 2800.3 2.8229 6.0495

44 256.12 .04510 1115.22 1683.8 2799.0 2.8485 6.0296
46 258.83 .04306 1128.58 1669.0 2797.6 2.8732 6.0103
48 261.45 .04118 1141.57 1654.5 2796.0 2.8970 5.9916
50 263.99 .03944 1154.23 1640.1 2794.3 2.9202 5.9734
 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED §TEAM
(Pressure Table)

Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/k<9 Entropy kJ/kg K

temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
p *C m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts vs H 4>s

52 266.45 .03783 1166.58 1626.0 2792.6 2.9427 5.9557

54 268.84 .03634 1178.66 1612.0 2790.7 2.9645 5.9385
56 271.17 .03495 1190.46 1598.2 2788.6 2.9858 5.9217
58 273.43 .03365 1202.02 1584.5 2786.5 3.0065 5.9052
60 275.64 .03244 1213.35 1571.0 2784.3 3.0267 5.8892

62 277.78 .03130 1224.46 1557.6 2782.1 3.0464 5.8734

64 279.88 .03023 1235.37 1544.3 2779.7 3.0657 5.8580
66 281.93 .02922 1246.09 1531.2 2777.2 3.0845 5.8428
68 283.93 .02827 1256.63 1518.1 2774.7 3.1030 5.8279
70 285.88 .02737 1267.00 1505.1 2772.1 3.1211 5.8133

72 287.79 .02652 1277.21 1492.2 2769.4 3.1389 5.7989

74 289.67 .02571 1287.28 1479.4 2766.7 3.1563 5.7847
76 291.50 .02494 1297.19 . 1466.6 2763.8 3.1734 5.7707
78 293.30 .02421 1306.98 1453.9 2760.9 3.1902 5.7569
80 295.06 .02352 1316.64 1441.3 2758.0 3.2068 5.7432

82 296.79 .02286 1326.18 1428.7 2754.9 3.2230 5.7297

84 298.49 .02222 1335.61 1416.2 2751.8 3.2391 5.7164
86 300.16 .02162 1344.93 1403.7 2748.7 3.2549 5.7032
88 301.80 .02104 1354.14 1391.3 2745.4 3.2704 5 6902
90 303.40 .02048 1363.26 1378.9 2742.1 3.2858 5.6772

92 304.99 .01995 1372.29 1366.5 2738.8 3.3009 5.6644

94 306.54 .01944 1381.23 1354.1 2735.4 3.3159 5.6517
96 308.07 .01895 1390.08 1341.8 2731.9 3.3306 5.6391
98 309.58 .01848 1398.86 1329.5 2728.3 3.3452 5.6265
100 311.06 .018026 1407.56 1317.1 2724.7 3.3596 5.6141

102 312.46 .017588 1416.19 1304.8 2721.0 3.3739 5.6017

104 313.96 .017167 1424.76 1292.5 2717.3 3.3880 5.5894
106 315.38 .016760 1433.26 1280.2 2713.5 3.4020 5.5771
108 316.77 .016367 1441.70 1267.9 2709.6 3.4158 5.5649
110 318.15 .015987 ' 1450.10 1255.5 2705.6 3.4295 5.5527
 Steam Tables 299
STEAM TABLES

PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM

(Pressure Table)

Pressure Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

bar temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat Sat.
P •c m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts vs H Qw 4>s

112 319.50 .015620 1458.4 1243.2 2701.6 3.4430 5.5406

114 320.84 .015264 1466.7 1230.8 2697.5 3.4565 5.5285
116 322.16 .014920 1474.9 1218.4 2693.4 .3.4698 5.5165
118 323.46 .014587 1483.1 1206.0 2689.2 3.4831 5.5044
120 324.75 .014263 1491.3 1193.6 2684.9 3.4962 5.4924

122 326.02 .013949 1499.4 1181.1 2680.5 3.5092 5.4804

124 327.27 .013644 1507.5 1168.6 2676.0 3.5222 5.4684
126 328.51 .013348 1515.5 1156.0 2671.5 3.5351 5.4564
128 329.73 .013060 1523.5 1143.4 2666.9 3.5478 5.4444
130 330.93 .012780 1531.5 1130.7 2662.2 3.5606 5.4323

132 332.12 .012508 1539.5 1118.0 2657.5 3.5732 5.4203

134 333.30 .012242 1547.4 1105.2 2652.6 3.5858 5.4082
136 334.46 .011983 1555.3 1092.4 2647.7 3.5983 5.3961
138 335.61 .011731 1563.2 1079.5* 2642.7 3.6108 5.3839
140 336.75 .011485 1571.1 1066.5 2637.6 3.6232 5.3717

142 337.87 .011245 1579.0 1053.4 2632.4 3.6356 5.3595

144 338.98 .011010 1586.9 1040.2 2627.1 3.6479 5.3471
146 340.08 .010781 1594.8 1026.9 2621.7 3.6603 5.3348
148 341.16 .010557 1602.6 1013.5 2616.1 3.6726 5.3223
150 342.24 .010337 1610.5 1000.0 2610.5 3.6848 5.3098

152 343.30 .010123 1618.4 986.4 2604.8 3.6971 5.2971

154 344.35 .009912 1626.3 972.7 2598.9 3.7093 5.2844
156 345.39 .009706 1634.2 958.8 2593.0 3.7216 5.2716
. 158 346.42 .009504 1642.1 944.8 2586.9 3.7338 5.2586
160 347.44 .009306 1650.1 930.6 2580.6 3.7461 5.2455

162 348.44 .009111 1658.0 916.2 2574.3 3.7584 5.2323

164 349.44 .008920 1666.0 901.7 2567.7 3.7707 5.2189
166 350.43 .008732 1674.1 886.9 2561.0 3.7830 5.2053
168 . 351.40 .008547 1682.2 872.0 2554.2 3.7954 5.1916
170 352.37 .008364 1690.3 856.9 2547.2 3.8079 5.1777
300 Elements of Heat Engines Vol. II
STEAM TABLES
PROPERTIES OF DRY AND SATURATED STEAM
(Pressure Table)

Pressure Sat. Specific vol. Enthalpy kJ/kg Entropy kJ/kg K

bar’ temp. Sat. steam Sat. water Evap. Sat. Sat. Sat.
P •c m3/kg h L steam water steam
ts vs H

172 353.33 .008185 1698.5 841.5 2540.0 3.8204 5.1635

174 354.28 .008008 1706.8 825.8 2532.6 3.8330 5.1491
176 355,21 .007833 1715.1 809.9 2525.0 3.8457 5.1345
178 356.14 .007660 1723.5 793.6 2517.2 3.8586 5.1196
180 357.06 .007489 1732.0 777.1 2509.1 3.8715 5.1044

182 357.98 .007320 1740.7 760.1 2500.8 3.8846 5.0889

184 358.88 .007153 1749.4 742.8 • 2492.2 3.8978 5.0730
186 359.77 .006987 1758.3 725.1 2483.3 3.9112 5.0567
188 360.66 .006822 1767.3 706.1 2474.1 3.9249 5.0400
190 361.54 .006657 1776.5 688.0 2464.5 3.9388 5.0228

192 362.41 .006493 1785.9 668.7 2454.6 3.9530 5.0050

194 363.27 .006329 1795.6 648.6 2444.2 3.9676 4.9866
196 364.12 .006165 1805.5 627.8 2433.3 3.9825 4.9676
198 364.97 .006000 1815.7 606.1 2421.8 3.9979 4.9477
200 365.81 .005834 1826.3 583.4 2409.7 4.0139 4.9269

202 366.64 .005665 1837.3 559.6 2396.9 4.0305 4.9050

204 367.46 .005495 1848.9 534.3 2383.2 4.0479 4.8819
206 368.28 .005320 1861.1 507.3 2368.4 4.0663 4.8571
208 369.09 .005139 1874.2 478.1 2352.3 4.0861 4.8304
210 369.89 .004952 1888.4 446.2 2334.6 4.1075 4.8013

212 370.69 .004754 1904.2 410.6 2314.8 4.1313 4.7690

214 371.47 .004538 1922.2 369.6 2291.8 4.1585 4.7318
216 372.25 .004298 1943.8 320.3 2264.1 4.1914 4.6876
218 373.03 .004007 1972.6 255.1 2227.6 4.2351 4.6298
220 373.80 .003568 2025.0 140.6 2165.6 4.3154 4.5327

220.9 374.14 .003155 2099.3 0 2099.3 4.4298 4.4298

 INDEX
A Diesel ignition methods, 139
Air consumption, 175 Diesel cycle air standard efficiency, 99
Air cooling, 142 ’ Discharge through nozzle, 202
Air ejector, steam, 17 Dry air pump, 16
Air injection, 135 Dual combustion cycle, 105
Air pump,, 16 E
Air standard cycles, 88 Edward’s air pump, 16
Air standard efficiency, 89 Efficiency, boiler, 66
Airless injection, 135 —, thermal, 154
Auxiliary chamber, 138 —, volumetric, 152
Available work of cycle, 88 Efficiency of a cycle, air standard, 89
B Ejector condenser, 2
Benson boiler, 79 Evaporative condenser, 7
Back-pressure turbine, 274 Exhaust gas calorimeter, 175
Barometric condenser, 4 - gases, heat carried away, 173
Blade velocity coefficient 241 - steam turbine, 275
Blade efficiency, 238 External reversibility, 90
Blade friction, 240 F
Blade material, 275 Ferro concrete cooling tower, 25
Blade reduction of speed, 247 Flow of steam through nozzle, 202
Bleeding, 266 ------ , work done, 203
Boiler trials, 64 Flue gases, heat carried away, 65
Bosch fuel pump, 149 Friction power, 54
Brake power, 54 - in nozzles, 216
Brake M.E.P., 156 - in'turbine blades, 240
Brake specific fuel consumption, 177 Fuel consumption of I.C. engines, 172
Brake thermal efficiency, 155 injection methods, 135
By pass governing, 273 G
C Governing of compound engine,' methods, 47
Calorific value of fuel, 64 - , cut-off. 48
Carburettor, 133 Governing of I.C. engine, methods, 145
Carnot cycle, 91 combination, 151
Cold body, 88 - , hit and miss, 146
Combustion chambers, 137 - , Quality, 147
Commercial tests, 170 - , Quantity, 150
Compound engine, cylinder dimensions, 34 Governing, throttle 54
Compound engine governing, 47 steam turbine, 69
Compound engine indicator diagram, 54 H
Compound engine receiver type, 32 Heat balance sheet, boiler, 66
Compound engine, tandem type, 31 — —I.C. engine, 175
Compound engine woolfe type 32 ------ , steam engine, 55
Compounding for pressure, 254 Heat engine, 88
Compounding for velocity, 247 - pump, 90
Compression ignition, 140 High pressure cylinder, 30
Condenser efficiency, 16 Hit and miss governing, 146
Cooling pond, 25 Hot bulb ignition, 141
Cooling tower, 25 - tube ignition, 141
Cooling water supply, 24 Hot-well, 2
Convergent-divergent nozzle, 201 I
Critical pressure ratio, 204 Indicator diagram, steam engine, 54
Cut-off governing, 48 Indicated thermal efficiency, 155
Cylinder volume ratio, 34 —power, 53
D — , measurement, 170
Dalton's law, 11 Indicated M.E.P., 112
De Laval turbine, 241 Ignition lag, 142
Delay period, 142 - methods, 139
Detonation, 152 Impulse turbine, 236
Diagram efficiency of turbine, 238 Intermediate cylinder, 30
Diesel cycle, 99 Ii\jector, steam, 224
fuel injection methods, 135 \.C. engine, delay period, 152
 ------, governing, 145 - cycle, 90
------ , heat balance sheet, 175 Rotary air pump, 17
------ , injection of fuel. 135 S
------ , supercharging, 153 Scavanging methods, 131
------ , volumetric efficiency, 152 —cross flow, 132
Internal reversibility, 90 full loop, 132
J —, uni flow, 132
J e t condenser, 2 Schmidt Hartmann boiler, 80
Joule cycle, 109 Semi-Diesel, 131
K Solid injection, 136
Kerosene oil engine, 130 Stage efficiency, 238
L Standard eff. of cycle, Carnot, 91
La Mont boiler, 78 — , Diesel, 99
Light oil engine, 130 Standard eff., dual, 105
Low pressure cylinder, 30 —, Joule. 109
— , turbine 275 — , Otto, 93
Loeffler boiler, 79 Steam boiler trials, 64
M Steam condensers, 1
Mean effective pressure, 112 Steam engine trials, 53
------ , Diesel, 115 — , vacuum efficiency, 14
------ , dual, 120 Steam Jackets, 56
------ , Otto, 112 —, nozzles, 199
Measurement of vacuum, 8 - turbines, . 233
Mechanical efficiency, 171 Supercharging, 153
Modern steam generators, 76 Supersaturation, 202
Morse test, 171 Surface condenser, 5
Motoring test, 171 T
N Tandem compound enginei 31
Nozzle efficiency 217 Thermal effficiency, 154
Nozzle, steam 199 Thermodynamic reversibility, 89
adiabatic flow, 202 - tests, 170
—,—area of throat, 206 Throttle governing, 270
control governing, 271 Torsional dynamometer, 54
- , steam, length 207 Turbine material, 275
— maximum steam discharged, 204 Turbine, steam, 233
shape of 207 - -, axial discharge, 243
supersaturate flovf, 202 — , axial thrust, 238
— throat pressure, 205 — , blade coefficient, 241
mass of discharge, 203 — efficiency, 238
0 — De Laval, 241
Open combustion chamber, 138 — power, 238
Otto cycle, 93 — power generation, 276
P Turbine steam, impulse, 236
Parsons turbine, 255 Turbine steam, Parsons, 255
Partial pressure, 11 ——, pressure compounding, 254
Pass out turbine, 274 Turbine steam, reaction, 255
Pre-combustion chamber, 138 - - velocity diagram, 236
Pre-ignition, 152 Turbulence, 132
Pressure compounding, 254 V
-velocity compounding, 247 Vacuum efficiency, 14
Pyrometer, 173 Velocity compounding, •247
Q Velocity diagram, 236
Quality governing, 174 Velocity of flow, 236
Quantity governing, 150 —of steam leaving nozzle, 203
—of whirl, 236
R Velox boiler,
Reaction turbine, 255 81
Receiver type compound engine, 32 W
Refrigerating machine, 90 Water cooling, 142
Regenerative feed heating, 266 Wet air pump, 16
Reheating factor, 262
263 Woolfe compound steam engine, 32
Reheating of steam,
Relative efficiency, 155 Z
Reversible process, 90 Zenith caburettor, 134
I