Math

LAB for Kids

FUN, HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES FOR LEARNING WITH
SHAPES, PUZZLES, AND GAMES

REBECCA RAPOPORT and J.A. YODER

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 © 2017 Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.
Text © 2017 Rebecca Rapoport and J.A. Yoder

First published in the United States of America in 2017 by

Quarry Books, an imprint of

Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.
100 Cummings Center, Suite 406-L
Beverly, Massachusetts 01915-6101
Telephone: (978) 282-9590
Fax: (978) 283-2742
QuartoKnows.com
Visit our blogs at QuartoKnows.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission
of the copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and
prior consent of the artists concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or
printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication.
Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and ensure that credits accurately
comply with information supplied. We apologize for any inaccuracies that may have occurred and
will resolve inaccurate or missing information in a subsequent reprinting of the book.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN: 978-1-63159-252-2
Digital edition: 978-1-63159-341-3
Softcover edition: 978-1-63159-252-2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available

Design and page layout: Laura Shaw Design, Inc.

Photography: Glenn Scott Photography
Illustration: J.A. Yoder & Rebecca Rapoport

Printed in China

The information in this book is for educational purposes only.

PUBLISHER'S NOTE Quarry Books would like to thank the staff and students at Birches School in Lincoln,
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 FOR ALLANNA, ZACK, AND XANDER.

May you always find joy in math and

everything else you do.

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 CONTENTS
Introduction 7
How to Use This Book 8

Geometry: Learn Color Maps Like a

1 3
About Shapes 11 Mathematician 45
Prisms and pyramids and Using the fewest number of colors
Platonic solids, oh my! possible, fill in a map so adjacent
shapes are different
Lab 1: Prisms 12
Lab 12: Map Coloring Basics 46
Lab 2: Pyramids 14
Lab 13: Efficient Map Coloring 50
Lab 3: Antiprisms 16
Lab 14: Squiggle Maps 54
Lab 4: Platonic Solids 18
Lab 5: Perfect Circles 24
Lab 6: Try a Triangle 26
Stitching Curves

4
57
Lab 7: Exact Ellipses 28
Learn to create curves using
Lab 8: Draw Giant Circles and only straight lines
Ellipses 30
Lab 15: Drawing Parabolas 58
Lab 16: Stitching Stars 62

2
Topology: Mind- Lab 17: Creative Curves 64

Bending Shapes 35
Learn about squeezable, squishable
Fantastic Fractals

5
shapes and surfaces 67
A fractal is a shape that is similar to
Lab 9: Compare and
itself no matter how far you zoom in
Classify Shapes 36
on one particular part
Lab 10: Möbius Strips 38
Lab 18: Draw a Sierpinski Triangle 68
Lab 11: Möbius Surprise 42
Lab 19: Build a Sierpinski Triangle 70
Lab 20: Draw a Koch Snowflake 74
Lab 21: Draw a Square Fractal
Snowflake 78
Lab 22: Explore the Koch Snowflake’s
Proof 1

Perimeter 80

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 Terrific Tangrams 83 Graph Theory 111

6 9
Solve ancient Chinese puzzles Explore how points and edges
by making different shapes from are interconnected
the same seven pieces
Lab 33: Eulerian Circuits 112
Lab 23: Tangram Basics 84
Lab 34: Secrets of Eulerian Circuits
Lab 24: Teaser Tangrams 86 Revealed 114
Lab 25: Tougher Tangrams 88 Lab 35: Bridges of Königsberg 116
Lab 36: The Euler Characteristic 118
Lab 37: A Proof About the Euler
Toothpick Puzzles 91

7
Characteristic 122
Create and solve brainteasers
using patterns of toothpicks

Lab 26: Starter Toothpick Puzzles 92 Pull-Outs 124

Hints and Solutions 131
Lab 27: Toothpick Puzzles: The Next
Acknowledgments 142
Level 94
About the Authors 142
Lab 28: Challenging Toothpick
Resources 142
Puzzles 96
Index 144

The Game of Nim

8
99
Learn the game of Nim and develop
a strategy to win every time

Lab 29: Learn to Play Nim 100

Lab 30: Win Nim: The Copycat
Strategy 104
Lab 31: Copycat Nim as Player 1 106
Lab 32: Win Nim: 1 + 2 = 3
Strategy 108

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Proof 1

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 INTRODUCTION
WELCOME TO THE SECRET WORLD OF MATHEMATICIANS.

This is your introduction to the gorgeous, exciting, beautiful math that only
professionals see. What’s truly astounding is that it’s accessible, even for kids
ages six to ten. We think that if more kids had a chance to play with a wider
world of math, there would be far more math enthusiasts in the world.
Most people think you learn math by climbing a sort of ladder: first addi-
tion, then subtraction, then multiplication, then fractions, and so on. In fact,
math is much more like a tree. There are many different areas of math that
require only a basic foundation. Plenty of this lovely and woefully ignored
math doesn’t require any previous knowledge. It’s accessible to everyone, if
they only knew it existed.
Readers of this book may ask, “How is this math?” Kids cut and tape and
sew and color. They imagine walking over bridges, reproducing the same
problem that spawned an entire field of mathematics. They draw enormous
shapes in parking lots. It may not look like math because there are whole
chapters with no pencils or memorization or calculators—but we assure you,
the math you’re about to encounter is much closer to what actual mathemati-
cians do.
Mathematicians play. They come up with interesting questions and investi-
gate possible solutions. This results in a lot of dead ends, but mathematicians
know that failure provides a great chance to learn. In this book, you’ll have a
chance to think like a mathematician and experiment with a given idea to see
what you can discover. That approach of just fiddling around with a problem
and seeing what falls out is an extremely common and useful technique that
mathematicians employ. If you take nothing else away from this book, learning
to just try something—anything—and seeing what develops is a great skill for
math, science, engineering, writing, and, well, life!
This is your opportunity, your gateway, into little-known worlds of math.
Turn the page and explore for yourself.

Proof 1
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 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
The chapters of this book can be worked in any order. Occasionally a chapter
refers to a method learned in a different chapter, but there is always a work-
around in case you haven’t done the other chapter yet.
Within a chapter, we recommend working labs in the order given, as earlier labs
often develop knowledge or tools you’ll use in later labs within the same chapter.
All of the material in this book has been successfully play-tested by six- to ten-
year-olds. We do assume elementary students will have a guide (parent/teacher/
older sibling) to help them work through the labs. Much of the material should
be interesting to middle school, high school, and adult students. There are cases
where older kids will be able to try a more advanced technique and younger kids
will do something easier, or may need a little help. For example, in the Fantastic
Fractals chapter, older kids will use a ruler to find the middle of a shape, whereas
younger kids can just “eyeball” and estimate the middle. Their results will be
surprisingly close. Younger kids may need assistance with certain labs (tying
knots, threading needles, cutting with scissors, etc.).
Each chapter introduction contains a Think About It question. The question
is always related to the chapter’s content and is meant to be played with before
reading the rest of the chapter. This gives you the opportunity to experiment with
the topic before we’ve introduced any formal concepts. Sometimes we come back
to the Think About It problem within the chapter and answer it directly. Some-
times we don’t. (In that case, if you’re curious, check the Hints and Solutions
section at the end of the book.) In general, we hope students will have time to
experiment and not just race through each lab. Real math is so much more about
curiosity and experimentation than most people realize.
Some chapters have Try This! problems that cover additional or more advanced
material relating to the chapter. We provide hints for most of the Try This! prob-
lems either as the problem is stated or in the Hints and Solutions section at the
end of the book.
Some chapters contain a Math Meet, a group activity meant to add a collabora-
tive aspect to the learning process.
Each chapter just scratches the surface of a whole field of mathematics. If
you’re interested in more on any given topic, we’ve included some good sources
Proof 1

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 in the Resources page at the end of the book and also at mathlabforkids.com or
quartoknows.com/pages/math-lab.
We tried to make the book completely self-contained so that you can work
all the labs using simple household objects. For example, the graphs in the text
of the Graph Theory chapter are large enough that you can trace them in the
actual book. The maps in the Color Maps Like a Mathematician chapter are large
enough that you can color them in. For a few of the labs, we have included pages
at the end of the book that you can tear out and cut up or draw on. If you have
access to a computer and printer, we also placed this content and much more on
mathlabforkids.com. The website also contains larger versions than what’s printed
in the book for many of the exercises. You can download and print out as many
copies as you like.
We’d love to hear from you about problems or successes you have with this
book. Please get in touch with us via the contact information on our website.
We hope you enjoy this book as much as we enjoyed putting it together!

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HOW TO USE THIS BOOK 9

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Proof 1

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 1
GEOMETRY
LEARN ABOUT SHAPES
Geometry is the study of shapes. There are a lot of different ways a shape can
be. It can be flat (like a circle or a square) with two dimensions—length and
width. It can be solid (like a block or a ball) with three dimensions—length,
width, and height. A shape can be made from lines connected at corners
(mathematicians call these edges and vertices; we’ll learn more about those
in chapter 9), or it can be made up of curves. A shape can have different
numbers of edges and corners, or a different arrangement of curves from
another shape. A shape can have different sizes.
In this chapter we’ll make different types of shapes. Learning to recognize
and make different kinds of shapes—to see what makes them similar and
different—is a great way to start thinking about geometry and to see how we
are surrounded by mathematical objects in our daily lives.

Think About It

Imagine a triangle—it’s a flat shape that you can draw on a piece

of paper. Can you think of different ways you could build up a triangle
into a solid object? What could those different shapes look like?
How many can you think of?

Proof 1
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 LAB
PRISMS
1
Any flat shape can be made into a prism. In this lab, we’ll use tooth-
Materials picks and gumdrops to create three-dimensional triangular prisms.
✔ Toothpicks If you mess up a gumdrop, eat it to hide the evidence!
✔ Gumdrops
MAKE A TRIANGULAR PRISM
1. Make a triangle with three toothpicks
and three gumdrops. To make it sturdy,
push the toothpicks almost all the way
through the gumdrops. Then make an
MATH FACT identical triangle. These shapes will be

What’s a Prism? strongest if you put the toothpicks into

the gumdrops at the correct angle and
A prism is a solid shape in which don’t reposition the toothpicks. With
the top and bottom are exactly practice, you’ll get better at putting
the same, and all of the sides are the toothpicks in at the angle you want
rectangles. (fig. 1).

2. Take one of the triangles and lay it

flat. Stick a toothpick vertically (up
and down) in each gumdrop (fig. 2).
What shape do you notice that the
points of these three toothpicks make
in the air?
You can also make an oblique 3. Carefully position your second trian-
prism—the top and bottom are still gle on top of the three toothpicks from
the same, but the prism looks like step 2 and connect the shapes into a
it is leaning over. Now the sides are triangular prism (fig. 3).
parallelograms (leaning rectangles). 4. A prism is an oblique prism if the
top and bottom are not directly over
each other when sitting flat on the
bottom. Try making an oblique trian-
gular prism (fig. 4).
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Make two identical
triangles.

FIG. 2: Lay one of the triangles flat and FIG. 3: Place the second triangle on top
stick a toothpick in each gumdrop. to form a triangular prism.

TRY THIS!
Can you make prisms starting
from a four-sided shape, a five-
sided shape, and a star?
FIG. 4: Try making an oblique
triangular prism.

Proof 1
GEOMETRY: LEARN ABOUT SHAPES 13

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 LAB
PYRAMIDS
2
Turn gumdrops and toothpicks into pyramids of all shapes and sizes!
Materials
✔ Toothpicks MAKE A PYRAMID
✔ Gumdrops 1. Make a flat square using toothpicks
✔ Extra-long toothpicks, small and gumdrops (fig. 1).
baking skewers, or dry spaghetti 2. From each gumdrop, aim a tooth-
or fettuccini noodles pick upward at an angle so that they
will all meet at a center point (fig. 2).

3. Connect all the points with a single

MATH FACT gumdrop. This is a “square pyramid,”

What’s a the same shape as the Egyptian

pyramids (fig. 3)!
Pyramid? 4. Now that you know how to make a
The Egyptian pyramids are one pyramid, try making more with dif-
kind of pyramid, but there are many ferent base shapes, like a triangular
pyramid or a pentagonal (five-sided
others. A pyramid is a solid shape,
base) pyramid (fig. 4).
named after the shape of its base,
which rises to a single point. All 5. Using any base shape you want,
faces (sides) that aren’t the base make an oblique pyramid (it should
must be triangles, while the base look like it is leaning). The length of
can be any shape. If the apex (top the sides going to the apex (top) of
the pyramid will all be different, so
point) of the pyramid is directly
don’t use toothpicks; make the lengths
over the very center of the base so
you need by breaking the skewers or
the pyramid looks like it is straight noodles (fig. 5).
up without any lean, it is a right
pyramid. If the pyramid is leaning, it
is an oblique pyramid.
TRY THIS!
Can you make a pyramid starting
from a star-shaped base? What
other shapes can you turn into
The three shapes above pyramids? Can you think of a
are all pyramids; the shape that you cannot turn into
one on the right is an a pyramid?
oblique pyramid.
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Make a flat square. FIG. 2: Aim a toothpick upward from each gumdrop
so they meet in the center.

FIG. 3: Connect all the toothpicks with a

single gumdrop.
FIG. 4: Try a different base shape.

FIG. 5: Using any base shape you want, make an oblique pyramid.

Proof 1
GEOMETRY: LEARN ABOUT SHAPES 15

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 LAB
ANTIPRISMS
3
A PRISM has the same top and bottom shape, connected by
Materials rectangles or parallelograms. An ANTIPRISM also has the top and
✔ Toothpicks bottom shape the same, connected with triangles instead!
✔ Gumdrops
MAKE AN ANTIPRISM
1. Make two squares out of toothpicks and gumdrops (fig. 1).
2. Hold the top square over the bot-
MATH FACT tom one, then rotate it so that the
corner of the top square juts out over
What’s an the middle of the edge of the bottom
square (fig. 2).
Antiprism?
3. We are going to make a triangle out
The two shapes at the top and of the corner of the top square and the
bottom of an antiprism are edge of the bottom square. Connect
connected together with a band this triangle with toothpicks (fig. 3).
of triangles. Looking down, you’ll
4. Moving around the shape, continue
notice that the top and bottom
making triangles that connect the cor-
shapes don’t line up but instead are ner of one square to the edge above
twisted so that the point of the top (or below) the other square (fig. 4).
shape is above the middle of the
edge of the bottom. 5. When you’ve completed the band
of triangles to connect the two shapes,
you’ve made an antiprism—a shape
with an identical top and bottom, with
all the side faces being triangles. It
should look like a twisted prism (fig. 5).

6. Try making a pentagonal antiprism

and a triangular antiprism (fig. 6). The
triangular antiprism will be a challenge.
Keep both—we’re going to use them in
Lab 4.
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Make two squares. FIG. 2: Hold the top square over the bottom one, then rotate it.

FIG. 3: Make a triangle out of the corner of the top square FIG. 4: Continue making triangles that connect the corner of one
and the edge of the bottom square, and then connect square to the edge above (or below) the other square.
this triangle with toothpicks.

FIG. 6: Get ready for Lab 4 by making a pentagonal

FIG. 5: You’ve made an antiprism.
antiprism (starting with a pentagon) and a triangular antiprism

Proof 1
(starting with a triangle).

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 LAB
PLATONIC SOLIDS
4
Just about any shape can be made into a prism or pyramid,
Materials but there are only five Platonic solids.
✔ Toothpicks

✔ Gumdrops ACTIVITY 1: MAKE A TETRAHEDRON

1. Make a triangle from toothpicks and
MATH FACT gumdrops (fig. 1).

What’s a 2. Attach toothpicks to each gumdrop

aimed upward toward a center point.
Platonic Solid? Connect the toothpicks with a gum-
drop (fig. 2).
A Platonic solid is a solid shape that
follows these rules: 3. Verify that all the sides have the
exact same shape. Count the num-
• Each face (side) is exactly the ber of toothpicks attached to each
same shape. gumdrop. Each vertex (corner) should
• Each vertex (corner) has exactly have the same number of toothpicks
the same number of edges attached.
leading away from it. This is a tetrahedron! In addition to
• The length of every side is being a Platonic solid, it is an example
exactly the same. of another type of shape from this
chapter. What else could this shape
There are only five Platonic solids:
be called?
tetrahedron, cube, octahedron,
dodecahedron, and icosahedron.
Platonic solids are named after the
Ancient Greek philosopher Plato, who
described them around 350 BCE.

Tetrahedron Cube Octahedron

Dodecahedron Icosahedron
Proof 1

FIG. 1: Make a triangle. FIG. 2: Connect a single gumdrop

above the base.

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 ACTIVITY 2: MAKE A CUBE
1. Make a square from toothpicks and gumdrops (fig. 1).

2. At each gumdrop vertex, add another toothpick pointing

straight up, and put a gumdrop on it (fig. 2).

3. Connect the top gumdrops with toothpicks (fig. 3).

This is a cube! In addition to being a Platonic solid, the cube

is an example of another type of shape from this chapter.
What else could this shape be called?

FIG. 1: Make a square.

FIG. 2: At each gumdrop vertex, add another FIG. 3: Connect the top gumdrops
toothpick pointing straight up, and put a with toothpicks.
gumdrop on it.

Proof 1
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 PLATONIC SOLIDS, continued

FIG. 1: Make a square. FIG. 2: Make a square pyramid.

ACTIVITY 3: MAKE AN OCTAHEDRON

1. Make a square from toothpicks and gumdrops (fig. 1).

2. Make your square into a pyramid by attaching toothpicks

pointing up at an angle so that all of the toothpicks come
together at a single point. Connect all the toothpicks with a
single gumdrop (fig. 2)!

3. Turn the pyramid upside down and make another pyramid

pointing the other way (fig. 3).

This is an octahedron! Like the tetrahedron, all of the sides

are triangles. Can you find some ways in which the octahe-
dron is different from the tetrahedron?
Compare the octahedron you built to the triangular anti-
prism that you built in Lab 3, step 6. What do you notice?

FIG. 3: Turn the pyramid upside down and make another

Proof 1

pyramid pointing the other way.

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 ACTIVITY 4: CHALLENGE!
MAKE A DODECAHEDRON
The dodecahedron has twelve sides, all of which are pen-
tagons (five-sided shapes). It is the hardest Platonic solid
to build, which makes it really fun! Don’t expect to make
a good-looking dodecahedron on your first try—practice
makes perfect.

1. Make a pentagon from toothpicks and gumdrops. It should

look like the template in fig. 1.

2. Attach a second pentagon to the first pentagon. A good

way to start is to hold the pentagon from step 1 at an angle
to the pentagon template (fig. 1)—that will show you where
to attach the next toothpicks and gumdrops (fig. 2).

3. Attach a third pentagon to what you built in step 2

(fig. 3). Hold your shape so that the edges of your two
shapes match two of the sides of the pentagon template.
FIG. 1: Pentagon template.
Use the template as a guide to add the next toothpicks
and gumdrops.

FIG. 2: Attach a second pentagon to the first pentagon. FIG. 3: Attach a third pentagon.

Proof 1
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 PLATONIC SOLIDS, continued

MAKE A DODECAHEDRON, continued

4. You’ve added pentagons to two of the edges of your
original pentagon. Keep going around the original pentagon,
adding more pentagons as you did in step 3, until you have
a bowl shape made from five pentagons (fig. 4). This is the
first half of the dodecahedron, but you’re more than halfway
done!

5. Add five toothpicks to the edge of the bowl at each pen-

tagon’s highest point so they angle in slightly (fig. 5).

6. Make another pentagon with toothpicks and gumdrops.

Attach it to the sticking-up toothpicks from your bowl
(fig. 6).

Congratulations on making a dodecahedron!

FIG. 4: Keep going around the original pentagon, adding more
pentagons as you did in step 3, until you have a bowl shape.

FIG. 5: Add a toothpick to each of the bowl’s five highest points. FIG. 6: Connect a pentagon to the top of the bowl.
Proof 1

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 ACTIVITY 5:
CHALLENGE!
MAKE AN
ICOSAHEDRON
The final Platonic solid is
the icosahedron. It has
twenty sides, all of which
are triangles. To make
one, first make a pen-
tagonal antiprism, like
you did in step 6 of Lab
3 (fig. 1). This will be the
central ring of the icosa-
hedron. Next, add a pyramid to the top of the ring FIG. 1: Make a pentagonal antiprism.
(fig. 2). Then turn the whole shape over and add
another pyramid to the other side (fig. 3).

FIG. 2: Add a pyramid to the top. FIG. 3: Turn the whole shape over and add another

Proof 1
pyramid to the other side.

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 LAB
PERFECT CIRCLES
5
It’s difficult to draw perfect shapes freehand, so people have
Materials learned to use tools to help them. Using string, tape, and a pencil,
✔ Heavy string (about 10 inches we can draw a perfect circle!
[25 cm] long)

✔ Scissors (to cut string) DRAW A CIRCLE

✔ Pencil or marker 1. Use the string to tie a loose knot
✔ Paper around the pencil, so that the string
can slip down and the pencil can
✔ Tape freely rotate. As you draw, only the
very tip of your pencil should be inside
this loop (fig. 1).

2. Mark the center of your piece of

paper. Tape the free end of your string
to that spot, with the edge of your
tape touching it (fig. 2).
MATH FACT 3. Draw your circle by moving the

What’s a Circle? pencil as far around as you can, always

keeping the string taut. If your pencil is
A circle is a shape defined as all the going off your paper, make the string
points a particular distance (the shorter (fig. 3).
radius) from a single point. In this 4. Practice drawing circles of different
activity, your string is the radius, and sizes by changing the length of your
you move it everywhere you can string. Follow the tips on the next
around the center point to draw all page until you can draw perfect circles
the parts of the circle. every time! You can try drawing circles
with different colored markers to make
a whole rainbow of circles.
s
iu
d
ra
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Attach the string to
the pencil.

FIG. 2: Tape the free end of your string to FIG. 3: Draw a circle.
the center of your paper.

TIPS FOR DRAWING AN ACCURATE CIRCLE

• If your string is slipping off your pencil, use a thicker string or twine. The tip
of your pencil should rest in the small loop at the end of your string and drag
the string along with it. If you have a thin thread, you can tape it to the end
of your pencil slightly above the lead.

• Try to keep the pencil as straight up and down as you can. The more vertical
your pencil is, the more accurate your circle will be.

• Make sure your tape at the center of your circle is really secure, and don’t
pull too hard on your string. You want the center point to stay the same the
whole time you are drawing. It can help to hold down the tape with a finger.

• If you want to make more than one circle of the exact same size, mark your
string at the center point. Then you can re-tape it in the same place for all
the circles of that size you want to draw.

• Draw in small segments, and don’t get frustrated. Every time you learn to
draw something new, it takes practice!

Proof 1
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 LAB
TRY A TRIANGLE
6
Using string, a ruler, a pencil, and some tape, you can construct
Materials a perfect equilateral triangle.
✔ Paper

✔ Straightedge or ruler DRAW A TRIANGLE

✔ Pencil or marker for drawing 1. Draw one side of the triangle using
the straightedge. Mark the ends of the
✔ Pen or marker to mark the
line (fig. 1).
string length
2. Attach the string to the pencil like
✔ String (about 10 inches
you did when you drew the circles
[25 cm] long)
in Lab 5 (fig. 2). If your string is still
✔ Scissors (to cut string) attached from Lab 5, you’re all set to
go! If you know how to use a compass,
✔ Tape
you can use one instead of your string.

3. Mark your string with your pen so

that the length between your mark
and your pencil is the same as the
MATH FACT length of the side of the triangle in

What’s an step 1 (fig. 3).

4. Tape the string to one end of your

Equilateral triangle’s line, and draw an arc about
Triangle? where you think the third point of your
triangle should go (fig. 4).
An equilateral triangle is a triangle
5. Tape the string to the other end of
where all of the sides are the same
your triangle’s line, and draw another
length.
arc about where you think the third
point of your triangle should go
(fig. 5).

6. The point where the two arcs

intersect (cross) is the third point of
your triangle! Use a straightedge to
connect it to both marked ends of
your first side to complete the
triangle (fig. 6).
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Draw one side of the triangle. FIG. 2: Attach the string to the pencil.

FIG. 3: Mark the string with your pen. FIG. 4: Tape the string to one end of
the line, and draw an arc.

FIG. 5: Tape the string to the other FIG. 6: Connect the point where the
end of the line, and draw another arc. two arcs intersect to both marked

Proof 1
ends of your first side.

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 LAB
EXACT ELLIPSES
7
We can also use string and pencil to draw special ovals called
Materials ELLIPSES. These are more challenging to draw than a circle, so be
✔ Paper patient and try several times until you get the hang of it.
✔ Pencil or marker

✔ String (about 10 inches DRAW AN ELLIPSE

[25 cm] long)

✔ Scissors (to cut string)

✔ Tape

MATH FACT

What’s an Ellipse?
One way to define an ellipse is to
start with two points (called focus
points). The ellipse is made of all
the points where the distance from
the ellipse to the two focus points,
added together, is exactly the same.
The legs from the two focus
points are your string, and since 1. Mark two points a few inches or centimeters apart in the middle of your paper.
your string isn’t changing length as Tape your string to the points so that the string has some slack
you draw the shape, you will end up (fig. 1). For best results, arrange the tape exactly as shown.
with an ellipse.
2. To draw an ellipse, place your pencil against the string so that the string is taut,
A circle is a special kind of ellipse. and lightly start drawing the shape (fig. 2).
If you make an ellipse but put the
two focus points right on top of 3. As you move around the ellipse, the string may twist. If the string twists around
each other, you get a circle! the pencil or the tape, that will make it shorter, and your ellipse won’t be perfect.
As needed, remove the pencil and reinsert it against the string to minimize twist-
ing. Keep drawing in small segments until your ellipse is complete (fig. 3).
The total length
4. Change the shape of the ellipse (fig. 4). Ellipses come in lots of flavors, from
of the red line is
very round to very oval. Try drawing ellipses starting with the focus points closer
the same as the
together or farther apart. Did the shape get rounder or flatter? What happens if
total length of the distance between the focus points is the same as the length of the string?
the blue line.
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Mark two points a few inches apart. Tape your
string to the points.

FIG. 4: Change the shape of the ellipse by adjusting

the distance between the focus points.
FIG. 2: Grasp your pencil so the string is taut and
lightly draw the ellipse.

TIPS FOR DRAWING AN ACCURATE ELLIPSE

• Draw the ellipse in short pieces. Insert your pencil,
use a light back-and-forth motion, then remove your
pencil. Keep redoing this process with a new section
of the ellipse until you’ve drawn the entire shape.
• Make sure the tape at the focus points is secure.
• If you’re having trouble with your string slipping off
of your pencil, use a rubber band to make a barrier
to keep it in place, as close to the point of the pencil
as you can.
• Keep your pencil straight up and down, not leaning.

FIG. 3: Keep drawing in small segments until your

Proof 1
ellipse is complete.

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 LAB DRAW GIANT
8 CIRCLES AND ELLIPSES
Sometimes bigger is better! We can use the same string techniques
Materials (and some friends) to draw giant circles and ellipses outside using
✔ Sidewalk chalk sidewalk chalk. Make sure you have permission to draw on the
✔ Three broomsticks sidewalk or driveway before you begin!
✔ Packing tape, duct tape, or
lots of masking tape ACTIVITY 1: MAKE A GIANT CIRCLE
✔ Sturdy string, twine, or rope,
at least 3 feet (92 cm) long
for a circle, or 5 feet (1.5 m) for
an ellipse

✔ Scissors (to cut the string)

✔ Two people for a giant circle,

three for a giant ellipse

1. Make a giant “pencil” by attaching the chalk to the side of one end of a broom-
stick using tape. Make sure it is sturdy! You don’t want your chalk to fall off (fig. 1).

2. Tie a loop at each end of your string. The loops should be large enough so that
you can slip the broomsticks and your giant “pencil” inside easily (fig. 2).

3. Mark the center of your giant circle with chalk. (X marks the spot!) Have one
person stand at the center with a broomstick and slip one loop of your string over
the broomstick (fig. 3). That person’s job is to keep the broomstick always right
over the center mark, and to stay out of the way of the string!

4. The second person should slip the other loop over the end of the giant “pencil.”
Then, keeping the string taut at all times, he or she will walk around the person
in the middle, drawing at the same time (fig. 4). He or she must keep the string
taut without pulling the center off the mark, while avoiding being tangled up in
the string.
Proof 1

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 FIG. 2: Tie a loop at each
end of your string.

FIG. 3: Mark the center of your

giant circle with chalk and
have one person stand with a
broomstick at the X.

FIG. 1: Tape the chalk to the side

of one end of a broomstick.

TIPS FOR DRAWING ACCURATE

GIANT SHAPES
• The “center” person needs to hold tightly
to his or her broomstick so that the center
FIG. 4: Keeping the string taut, doesn’t slip.
walk in a circle, drawing as you go. • The “drawing” person needs to be careful
not to pull too hard on the string; sharp tugs
will pull the center away. Work together as
a team!
• Try to keep the broomsticks vertical—
straight up and down, with no lean.
• If the center broomstick slips, stop drawing
until it is back in place. That’s why we
marked the center point(s)—so we can put
it back where it belongs!
• This is truly a team effort, and it is difficult to
draw an accurate giant circle or ellipse. Give
everyone on your drawing team a high five
when you manage to draw one.

Proof 1
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 DRAW GIANT CIRCLES AND ELLIPSES, continued

ACTIVITY 2: CHALLENGE! MAKE A GIANT ELLIPSE

This one is hard! Can you (and two friends) do it?

1. Mark two points on the ground that are closer together 3. The third person will draw the ellipse with the giant pencil.
than the length of your string. This is best done in several short sections instead of one
continuous curve; everyone is going to be dodging string
2. Slip the ends of the looped string over the plain broom-
and broomsticks! Just do one little piece of the ellipse at a
sticks (not your giant pencil). You’ll need two people to hold
time (fig. 2).
them—one for each broomstick. Put the broomsticks on top
of the marks you drew in step 1 (fig. 1).

FIG. 1: Slip the ends of the looped string FIG. 2: Draw the ellipse with the giant pencil,
over the broomsticks and put them over one section at a time.
the marks you drew in step 1.
Proof 1

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Math Lab For Kids 001-144_11616.indd 33 25/8/16 14:43
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Proof 1

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 2
TOPOLOGY
MIND-BENDING SHAPES
Topology is one of many ways to study shapes. In topology, you can
deform, or change, a shape in certain ways—by stretching, bulging, or
squeezing—without turning it into a different shape. However, the rules
of topology say you can’t glue a shape to itself or poke a hole in it,
because if you do that, you’ve created a new shape. Topologists study
these changeable shapes to explore what other properties of a shape
are still important.
Topology is also the study of spaces and how they’re connected. For
example, the space occupied by your house is made up of smaller spaces
(rooms) connected in a particular way (doors, hallways, and so on).
Topologists study knots, mazes, and lots of other interesting shapes.
Their findings have helped make advances in many fields, including
robotics (navigation), computer science (computer networks), biology
(gene regulation), and chemistry (molecular shapes).

Think About It

Compare a ball and a book. In what ways are their shapes different?

Proof 1
In what ways are they the same?

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 LAB COMPARE AND
9 CLASSIFY SHAPES
In topology, you can stretch, squeeze, or twist a shape without chang-
Materials ing what kind of shape it is. We’ll explore how shapes are allowed to
✔ Scissors change in topology by transforming one shape into some others.
✔ Large rubber balloon

✔ Marker ACTIVITY 1: TRANSFORMING A CIRCLE

✔ A plastic sandwich bag loosely
filled with clay or playdoh and
then closed

✔ Paper and pencil

✔ A ball, a small bowl or box, a mug

with a handle, and a bagel (or any
doughnut-shaped item with a hole
in the middle)

MATH MEET

Name That Shape

Topologists classify shapes by
putting them into categories. This
is a fun contest for you and some 1. Cut the balloon in half lengthwise so that you have a sheet of rubber.
friends. In five minutes:
2. With the marker, draw a circle on the rubber sheet (fig. 1).
• Who can classify the most shapes
3. Try to transform the circle into a square by pulling on the edges of the rubber
according to their number of holes?
sheet. You might need more than two hands to do it (fig. 2)!
• Who can find at least one object
4. Can you turn the circle into a triangle by pulling on the sheet? What other
with zero, one, two, three, four,
shapes can you transform the circle into? Because you didn’t poke a hole, cut the
and five holes?
sheet, tape parts of it together, or draw another line, topologists consider all of
• Who can find the object with the these the same shape.
most holes?
• Can you find a shape that your FIG. 1: Draw a FIG. 2: Pull on
friends won’t be able to classify? circle onto the the edges of the
Bring your confusing shapes rubber sheet. rubber sheet to
together and see if you can figure transform the
out how many holes they have! circle into a square
Proof 1

and other shapes.

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 ACTIVITY 2: TRANSFORMING WITH CLAY
Next we’ll use the bag of clay. Without poking a hole in the bag, or taping parts Scavenger Hunt
of it together, which of the shapes below can you make the bag look like?
One way topologists classify shapes
is by how many holes they have.
A ball A ball has zero holes. A doughnut
has one hole. A pot with a handle
on each side has two holes.
Divide your paper into four
sections labeled “zero,” “one,”
“two,” and “lots.” Look around
your house or classroom to find
objects. Figure out how many holes
each object has and write them on
A cube your paper.

HOW MANY HO
LE S?
Zero One

A bowl

Two Lots

A doughnut

A coffee mug with a handle

Which shapes could you make? To a topologist, those are the “same” shape,
because they each have zero holes. How many holes are in the doughnut and the

Proof 1
coffee mug?

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 LAB
MÖBIUS STRIPS
10
Turn a piece of paper that has two sides and four edges into a shape
Materials that has only one side and one edge.
✔ Four strips of white paper about
2 inches (5 cm) wide and 22 to
24 inches (56 to 61 cm) long. You
ACTIVITY 1: MAKE A CROWN AND A MÖBIUS STRIP
can make long strips by taping 1. Before you begin, examine a strip of
together two strips cut from one paper. It has two sides (front and back),
8.5 x 11-inch (21.6 x 27.9 cm) sheet, and four edges (top, bottom, left, and
but make sure the tape covers the right).
whole width of the strip.
2. Make a crown by taking one strip of
✔ Tape paper and taping the ends together,
making sure there are no twists. Tape
✔ Markers in at least two different
across the whole width of the strip. See
colors
if it fits smoothly on your head, like a
✔ Scissors crown (fig. 1).

3. To make a Möbius strip, bring the ends

of another strip of paper together (as if
you’re going to make another crown),
MATH FACT then use one hand to twist one end of the
strip upside down. Tape the ends together
What’s a across the whole width of the strip (fig. 2).

Möbius Strip? 4. On your crown, carefully use a marker

to draw a line down the center all the
A Möbius strip is a surface that has way around until the line meets up with
only one side and only one edge. itself. Using a different color, draw another line all the way around the inside of the
When you draw a line down the crown. (You can gently turn the crown inside out to make it easier.) Notice that the
center of a Möbius strip, you’ll notice crown has two “sides”—an inside and an outside—that are now marked with two
that the line goes on what used to different colors (fig. 3).
be both sides of the original paper 5. Count how many edges the crown has. Does it have the same number of edges
before you twisted it, so the line you as the strip of paper you made it out of? No—a strip of paper has four edges, but
drew is twice the length of your strip the crown has only two.
of paper!
6. On your Möbius strip, carefully draw a line down the center until the line meets
up with itself (fig. 4).

7. What do you notice about your Möbius strip? How many sides does it have?
Count its edges. It should have one side and one edge—that’s what makes it a
Proof 1 2C

Möbius strip. Can you think of any other shape that has only one edge?

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 FIG. 1: Make a crown by taping the ends of a FIG. 2: Make a Möbius strip by bringing the ends of a strip
strip of paper together. of paper together, twisting one end of the strip upside down,
then taping the two ends together.

FIG. 3: Draw a line around the center of the outside of the FIG. 4: Draw a line around the center of the Möbius strip.
crown. Use a second color to draw a line around the inside.

KE
MATH JO
n cross
y d id th e chicke
Q: Wh
ius strip?
the Möb
side!
g e t to the same
A: To

Proof 1
TOPOLOGY: MIND-BENDING SHAPES 39

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 MÖBIUS STRIPS, continued

TRY THIS!
ACTIVITY 2: CUT THE MÖBIUS STRIP AND CROWN We made a Möbius strip by
adding one half-twist to our
1. Take your crown from Activity 1 and carefully cut down the center of the strip
paper before we taped it
using the line you drew as a guide (fig. 5). How many pieces did you end up with?
Was it what you expected? together. Try making rings with
two half-twists, three half-twists,
2. Do the same with your Möbius strip (fig. 6). What happened? Was it what you and four half-twists (you may
expected? Is there a Möbius strip in the resulting shape(s)? How can you tell, using
need a longer strip of paper for
a marker?
these shapes). Using a marker,
see if any of these shapes are
more like our original crown or
a Möbius strip. Do you see a
pattern? Try cutting these strips
down the middle. What happens?

How Many
Sides?
One Two
Zero
twists
One half-
twist
Two half-
twists
Three
half-twists
Four half-
twists
FIG. 5: Take your crown and carefully cut FIG. 6: Do the same with your Möbius
down the center of the strip. strip and see what happens.

What’s Going On? Notice how the

When you cut a Möbius strip in half, you end up with a single long band that has cut strip loops
two full twists. This band has two sides and two edges. The line you cut became the around itself.
second edge. It’s no longer a Möbius strip! When you open
Counting the twists in the band can be confusing. The original Möbius strip had up the band,
a half twist in it. After you cut it, each half of the original strip contributes half a that puts an
twist to the final band, which accounts for one of the twists. In addition, the band is extra twist in
looped once around itself. When you unwind it to see the full band, that’s where the your final shape!
second twist comes from!
Proof 1

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 ACTIVITY 3: CUT A MÖBIUS STRIP
Materials AND CROWN INTO THIRDS
✔ Two strips of white paper about
2 inches (5 cm) wide and 22 to 24 1. Make a new paper crown and a new Möbius strip with the strips of paper.
inches (56 to 61 cm) long 2. Carefully draw a line around the crown again, this time about a third of the way
You can make these by taping two from the edge. (Don’t worry if it’s not exactly a third.) Using a different color, draw
strips cut from an 8.5 x 11-inch another line about a third of the way from the other edge (fig. 1). Do the same
(21.6 x 27.9 cm) sheet together, thing with your Möbius strip (fig. 2). What is different between the lines you drew
but make sure the tape covers the on the crown and on the Möbius strip?
whole width of the strip.
3. Cut the paper crown along the lines that you drew (fig. 3). What shapes do you
✔ Tape end up with?
✔ Markers in at least two different 4. Before you cut your Möbius strip into thirds, try to guess what shape or shapes
colors you’ll end up with—how many pieces, with how many twists? Once you’ve made
✔ Scissors your guess, cut the Möbius strip using your lines as a guide (fig. 4). What do you
end up with? Is it what you expected? Use a marker to figure out if any of the
shapes are Möbius strips.

FIG. 1: Carefully draw a FIG. 2: Do the same

line around the crown thing with your
about a third of the way Möbius strip.
from each edge.

FIG. 4: Cut the Möbius strip into

thirds using your lines as a guide.
FIG. 3: Cut the paper
crown along the lines
that you drew.

Proof 1
TOPOLOGY: MIND-BENDING SHAPES 41

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 LAB
MÖBIUS SURPRISE
11
Martin Gardner, a mathematician famous for introducing fun
Materials mathematical challenges to the public, invented an entertaining
✔ Paper (8.5 x 11 inches surprise using the concepts we just learned. Try it for yourself!
[21.6 x 27.9 cm])

✔ Markers in two different colors TRY THE MÖBIUS SURPRISE

✔ Tape

✔ Scissors

TRY THIS! 1. Draw a thick plus sign on a piece of white paper. Cut out the shape. Draw a single
solid line across the short arm of the plus sign. Turn the shape over, and draw the
The Möbius surprise is made by
same line on the back. Draw two dotted vertical lines dividing the long arm of the
connecting a ring and a Möbius
plus sign into equal widths. Turn the shape over and repeat these lines on the back
strip and cutting them. Try inventing of the paper (fig. 1).
other combinations of shapes and
twists, cutting them, and seeing 2. Take the two horizontal arms, with the single solid line on them, and tape the
what you end up with. Can you edges together without any twists to form a ring. Make sure the tape goes all the
way across the joint so that it won’t fall apart later (fig. 2).
invent a surprise shape named
after you? 3. Take the remaining two arms and tape them into a Möbius strip opposite your
original ring (fig. 3).
4. Before you cut along your lines, try to guess what the final shape will be
(fig. 5). Will it be a giant ring? Several interlocked rings? Some other shape?

5. The order that you cut the lines is important. First, cut along the dotted lines
(they should be on the twisted ring of the surprise). Next, cut along the solid line
(fig. 4). What do you end up with?
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Cut out the shape of a plus sign. Draw the horizontal and FIG. 2: Tape the short arms.
vertical cutting lines on both sides of the paper. First, cut these

Second, cut this

FIG. 3: Tape the long arms into a Möbius strip. FIG. 4: First cut the dotted lines, then cut the solid line.

Proof 1
FIG. 5: Before cutting the lines, guess the result!

TOPOLOGY: MIND-BENDING SHAPES 43

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Proof 1 2C

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 3
COLOR MAPS
LIKE A
MATHEMATICIAN
When you color a map, you’re probably most interested in making it beautiful.
When mathematicians talk about coloring a map, they’re trying to figure
out the fewest number of colors they can use so that no touching areas are
the same color. Often, the "map" is not of a place—it's a picture with various
regions to color. Mathematicians study map coloring to learn about efficiency
and conflict resolution. Today, one important application of map coloring is for
cell phone frequencies.
The Four Color Theorem says that you never need more than four colors for
any map drawn on a flat piece of paper. It was the first mathematical proof
using computers, and for many years some mathematicians didn’t believe it
qualified as a proof becasue they could not independently check the steps.

Think About It

Proof 1
Find an old coloring book and see how few colors you can use to color a page,
with no two colors touching.
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 LAB MAP COLORING
12 BASICS
Welcome to the world of map coloring! In this lab, learn to use
Materials the fewest colors possible to fill in various maps.
✔ Printouts of the following maps
from our website: Checkerboard
Map, Modified Checkerboard Map,
HOW MANY COLORS?
Triangle Map 1, Triangle Map 2, 1. Color the Checkerboard Map with
Seven-Point Star Map, Modified as few colors as possible, making sure
Seven-Point Star Map, South to use different colors for shapes that
America Map (see page 125) are next to each other. How many col-
ors do you need (fig. 1)? You could use
✔ Crayons, markers, or colored
as many as nine colors but you only
pencils (at least four colors)
need two (fig. 2). Actually, some kids
✔ Four different colors of beads, might even use more than one color
counters, or other items that won’t for a single square. That’s pretty, but
roll once placed on a piece of for this chapter, let’s limit each region
paper, or four colors of modeling to a single color.
clay
2. How many colors do you need for
the Modified Checkerboard Map? Try it
and see (fig. 3).

FIG. 1: Color the FIG. 2: You only need FIG. 3: Color the modified
checkerboard with as few two colors. checkerboard.
colors as possible.
Proof 1 2C

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 Now that you’ve colored some maps, you’ll see that our initial rule to use “as few
colors as possible” wasn’t precise enough. For the rest of this chapter, we’ll use Questions
the following map coloring rules:
• What were your strategies for
• Each region should get exactly one color. figuring out which colors to
use in order to have the fewest
• Use as few colors as possible. number possible?
• When two areas touch along a side, they need to be different colors. • Were there frequently used
patterns in your colorings?
• If areas only touch on a corner, it's okay for them to be the same color.

3. Try coloring Triangle Map 1 (fig. 4) and Triangle Map 2 (fig. 5). The first one only
needs two colors. The second one needs three.

FIG. 4: Triangle Map 1. FIG. 5: Triangle Map 2.

Proof 1
COLOR MAPS LIKE A MATHEMATICIAN 47

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 MAP COLORING BASICS, continued

4. Using our map coloring rules, color the Seven-Point Star Map (fig. 6) and the TRY THIS!
Modified Seven-Point Star Map (fig. 7).
As you fill in the South America
5. Using our map coloring rules and four colors of beads or modeling clay, plan Map, can you pinpoint why it can't
how you’ll color the South America Map (fig. 8). Check out the time-saving tips be done in fewer than four colors?
on the right for ideas. Once you’re happy with your plan, go ahead and color the
pull-out on page 125.

FIG. 6: Color the Seven-

Point Star Map.

FIG. 8: Plan first and

then color.

FIG. 7: Color the Modified

Proof 1

Seven-Point Star Map.

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 SAVING TIME WHEN LOOKING FOR GOOD MAP COLORINGS
You may have noticed that if you just start coloring without planning, you might have to erase or start
over a lot. So you’re often better off planning which colors will go in which regions before coloring
your masterpiece. Instead of fully coloring in the regions of a map, you could put a bead, a small piece
of modeling clay, or even just a light pencil mark in each region to indicate which color that region will
become. If your map is especially complicated or if you change your mind about a color for a region,
this can save you a lot of time. All you have to do is use a new bead or piece of modeling clay, move a
few beads or pieces of modeling clay, or erase your pencil marks instead of starting over. Once you have
assigned a color to every region, you can confidently color your map knowing that you won’t have to
start over.
For example, the figure on the left shows a plan marked with beads, and the one on the right shows
the plan implemented.

Proof 1
COLOR MAPS LIKE A MATHEMATICIAN 49

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 LAB EFFICIENT MAP
13 COLORING
Here you’ll learn some techniques to efficiently color maps. Using
Materials the map coloring rules (page 47) and part of the map of the United
✔ Printouts of the following from States, we’ll learn a famous technique to find a good map coloring.
our website: Partial U.S. Map, Bird
We’re showing one way to color the map, but there are many other
Map, Abstract Map, Africa Map
(see page 126) correct colorings.
✔ Crayons, markers, or colored
pencils (at least four colors) COLOR WITH THE GREEDY ALGORITHM
✔ Four different colors of beads,
counters, or modeling clay

MATH FACT

What’s the
Greedy
Algorithm? 1. Use red to color one region of the Partial U.S. Map (fig. 1).
This technique, where you color as 2. Color as many other regions as possible red. Don’t forget that regions next to a
much as you can with one color before red region can’t be red (fig. 2).
moving on to another color, is called
3. Once you cannot color any more regions red, color one region blue (fig. 3).
the Greedy Algorithm. Can you
guess why? 4. Color as many other regions as you can blue (fig. 4).
Proof 1 2 T

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 FIG. 1: Color one region red. FIG. 2: Color as many other regions as possible red.

FIG. 3: Once you cannot color any more regions red, FIG. 4: Color as many other regions as you can blue.
color one region blue.

Proof 1
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 EFFICIENT MAP COLORING, continued

5. Once you can’t color any more regions blue, if the map isn’t
fully colored, color one region green (fig. 5).

6. Color as many other regions as you can green (fig. 6).

7. If the map still isn’t fully colored, color any remaining regions
yellow (fig. 7).

8. You should be done at this point.

FIG. 5: If the map isn’t fully colored, color one region green.
Proof 1

FIG. 6: Color as many other regions as you can green. FIG. 7: Color any remaining regions yellow.

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 Planning Colors
Now try this technique on the Bird
Map, Abstract Map, and Africa Map (see
page 126). Use beads, modeling clay, or
light pencil marks to plan your map’s
colors before you start. The Africa Map,
in particular, will take careful planning.
You can definitely color it with only four
colors, so keep trying if you get stuck.
If you have to start over a few times, it
may make you feel better to learn that
mathematicians often use computers to
help them find a good coloring.

Proof 1 2CT
COLOR MAPS LIKE A MATHEMATICIAN 53

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 LAB
SQUIGGLE MAPS
14
Any picture you draw with a pencil or pen can be thought of as a
Materials map. Learn to draw and color a map made from a single squiggly line.
✔ Pencil

✔ Several blank sheets of paper DRAW A SQUIGGLE MAP

✔ Crayons, markers,
or colored pencils

MATH MEET

Draw Maps for

Your Friends
Draw your own map and challenge
your friends to color it using our
map coloring rules! If you’re not
feeling artistic or just want to save
time, you can get out a coloring
book and treat any picture in the
book as a map.

1. Put your pencil on a clean sheet of paper.

2. Draw a long, curving line that goes anywhere on the paper (fig. 1). Do not take
the pencil off the paper or go off an edge. (The big red dot shows where you
TRY THIS!
started your squiggle. You don’t need to draw a big dot on your picture.)
Every squiggle map can be fully
3. The line you are drawing can cross itself any number of times anywhere on
colored with just two colors. Can
the paper (fig. 2).
you figure out why?
4. Your map is finished when your pencil gets back to the starting point. You’ll end
up with a tangled squiggle (fig. 3).

5. Using the techniques you learned in the previous labs, fill in your squiggle map
with as few colors as possible (fig. 4).

6. Try making and coloring more squiggle maps on your own.

Proof 1

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.

FIG. 1: Draw a long, curving line that goes anywhere on the paper. FIG. 2: Your line can cross itself any
number of times. Don’t lift your pencil
or go off an edge.

FIG. 3: Get your pencil back to the starting point FIG. 4: Fill in your squiggle map with as few colors as possible.

Proof 1
COLOR MAPS LIKE A MATHEMATICIAN 55

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Proof 1 2C

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 4
STITCHING
CURVES
Sometimes equations are too hard to solve, even for professionals!
For these problems, people invent methods that are easy to compute
and approximate the solution. This branch of mathematics is called
Numerical Analysis. These numerical algorithms are usually done
on a computer, and by doing more calculations you can make your
approximate solution as good as you need. Curve stitching is a way
to approximate a curve by drawing only straight lines, without any
computation needed. The closer you draw the lines together, the
better the approximation to the curve you make. We can use the same
technique to make a variety of curves and shapes that can be turned
into beautiful art.

Think About It

Can you draw a curve (or something that looks like a curve)
using only straight lines?

Proof 1
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 LAB
DRAWING PARABOLAS
15
Learn to create a parabola—a type of curve—using only straight lines.
Materials
✔ Pencil GRAPH A PARABOLA WITH DIFFERENT ANGLES
✔ Unlined paper or graph paper
1. Draw two lines that intersect to form
✔ Ruler a right angle (the angle formed at the
corner of a square, also known as a
✔ Compass (optional) 90-degree angle). This is easy to do
with graph paper, or you can use the
corner of a book as a drawing guide.
MATH FACT
2. Make six evenly spaced marks along
What’s a the lines. With graph paper, space the

Parabola?
marks every five squares apart, or you
can use a ruler to measure every inch
A parabola is the U-shaped curve (2.5 cm) and make a mark. Number
made by the intersection of a cone the marks along the bottom and side
of the lines as shown (fig. 1).
and a plane (see below). Parabolas
can be found in lots of places in 3. Using your ruler, connect the two
the real world. When you throw a points labeled with the number 1 with
ball, the path it travels is a parabola. a straight line (fig. 2).
Extended into three dimensions, a 4. Next, connect the two points
curved surface whose cross-sections labeled with the number 2 with a
are parabolas (a paraboloid) is used straight line (fig. 3).
in telescopes to focus light to a
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 by connect-
single point.
ing each of the remaining points that
have the same number. You should
end up with a curve that looks like the
one in fig. 4. This curve approximates
a parabola. The more straight lines
you use, the smoother the curve will
appear (see “What’s Going On?,”
page 60).
Proof 1

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 1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

FIG. 1: Draw two lines at a right angle. Mark each line with six FIG. 2: Use a ruler to connect the two points numbered 1.
evenly spaced marks. Number the marks as shown.

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

FIG. 3: Connect the two points numbered 2. FIG. 4: Connect the remaining points with the same number.

Proof 1
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 DRAWING PARABOLAS, continued

What’s Going On?

The more points you start with along each line, the 6. This method of graphing a parabola works with any angle.
Try drawing curves using starting lines in an acute angle
closer your approximation will be to a real parabola.
(an angle that’s narrower than a right angle, or less than 90
Try drawing a more accurate parabola by starting
degrees) (figs. 5 and 6) and at an obtuse angle (one that’s
with twelve marks along each side instead of six and wider than a right angle, or greater than 90 degrees) (figs. 7
compare your results. Imagine how close you could and 8).
come to an exact parabola if you used fifty points
along each line, or a hundred! 7. As you graph your parabolas, notice how the shape of the
curve changes when the angle of the starting lines changes.
With an acute angle, the shape of the curve compresses.
With an obtuse angle, the shape of the curve expands or
stretches.

Two parabolas, one graphed with four

marks along each line (top) and the other
with twelve marks (bottom). The curve that
each one makes is shown in green.
Proof 1

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 1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

FIG. 5: You can graph a parabola on an acute angle FIG. 6: The shape of the parabola compresses
(less than 90 degrees). with an acute angle.

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

FIG. 7: You can also graph one on an obtuse angle FIG. 8: The shape of the parabola expands with an obtuse angle.
(greater than 90 degrees).

Proof 1
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 LAB
STITCHING STARS
16
Using a needle and thread, combine parabolas into beautiful stars.
Materials
✔ Pencil and eraser STITCH A STAR
✔ Manila folder or very
1. Using a pencil, lightly draw two lines in the shape of a plus sign on your manila
lightweight cardboard
folder. (Don’t press too hard; you’re going to erase them later.) Using your ruler,
✔ Ruler make even marks from the center point and moving outward along each line
(fig. 1).
✔ Pushpin
2. Using the pushpin, carefully poke a hole at each mark on your folder. This is
✔ Corrugated cardboard or a easier to do if you put your folder over something that you can push pins into
bath towel safely, like a piece of corrugated cardboard or a thick, folded towel.
✔ Scissors 3. Lightly number two of the lines as shown (fig. 2).
✔ Thread (embroidery thread, yarn, 4. Cut a piece of thread about the length of your arm and thread it onto your
or other thick thread) needle.
✔ Blunt needle 5. Starting from the back of your folder, push the needle through the hole you
✔ Tape (clear tape or masking tape) labeled #1. That is at the tip of your star. As you pull the thread through the hole,
stop when there are a few inches still sticking through and tape the end of the
thread down on the BACK of the folder very securely. Tug on the thread a little
to make sure it won’t slip through (fig. 3).

6. Your needle should be on the front side of your folder now. Push the needle
down through the other hole marked #1 to make a long stitch. Your thread should
connect the two dots, just like you did with pencil in Lab 15.

7. Starting on the back side of your folder again, push the needle through the hole
right next to it, which should be hole #2, making a short stitch. Then, from the
front side, you can make another long stitch to connect both #2 holes (fig. 4).

8. Continue like this for the rest of the holes. You should have long stitches on
the front side of your folder, and short stitches on the back. When you run out of
thread, tape the end down on the back of your folder, cut another piece of thread,
thread your needle, and keep going! When you’ve finished your curve, tape the
end of the thread on the back of the folder and trim any long ends (fig. 5).

9. Stitch the other three parabolas in the same way to finish your four-pointed
TRY THIS! star! You can number the other axes if you need to. Experiment with using differ-
ent colors for your lines (fig. 6).
Can you use this method to
make a three-point star or a 10. Gently erase any visible pencil marks.
five-point star?
Proof 1

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 1
2
3
4
5
6

1 2 3 4 5 6

FIG. 1: Draw a plus sign. With a ruler, FIG. 2: Lightly number two of the lines.
make even marks along each line. Use a
pushpin to make a hole at each mark.

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
BACK FRONT BACK FRONT

FIG. 3: Push the needle through the back of hole #1. Tape FIG. 4: Make a short stitch through the back of hole #2. From the
the last few inches of the thread to the back of the folder. front, connect the two #2 holes with another long stitch.

1
2
3
4
5
6

1 2 3 4 5 6
BACK FRONT

FIG. 5: Continue like this for the rest of the holes. FIG. 6: Stitch the other three parabolas in the same way.

Proof 1
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 LAB
CREATIVE CURVES
17
Either by drawing or by stitching, make curves other than
Materials parabolas using only straight lines.
✔ Pencil and eraser

✔ Manila folder or very lightweight DRAW OR STITCH A CURVE

cardboard (optional)
1. Draw a circle or an oval shape. You can draw it freehand, use a can or cup as a
✔ Can or cup (optional) stencil, or construct a circle or an ellipse using string and tape (see chapter 1,
✔ Ruler Labs 5 and 7). If you want to draw the shapes with a pencil, you can use plain
unlined paper. If you want to stitch the shapes with a needle and thread, draw
✔ Pushpin the circle on a manila folder.
✔ Corrugated cardboard or a 2. The trickiest part of this is making the evenly spaced marks around your shape.
bath towel One good strategy is to use a ruler and make a pencil mark every inch or centime-
ter. Some marks probably won’t be even, but that’s okay (fig. 1). Can you think of
✔ Scissors
any other ways you might try to make evenly spaced marks?
✔ Thread (embroidery thread, yarn,
3. Once you’ve drawn the marks, choose which two to connect first. It is best to
or other thick thread)
choose marks that are neither right next to each other nor right across from each
✔ Blunt needle other. Connect the two marks you chose, either by drawing with your pencil and
ruler, or by stitching it with thread and a blunt needle (fig. 2). To use thread, see
✔ Tape (clear tape or masking tape)
steps 3–5 in Lab 16.

4. Move over one mark clockwise from the line you drew, and connect it to the
mark that is one mark past your previous connection in a clockwise direction (fig.
3). If your first two marks were ten marks apart from each other, your next two
marks should also be ten marks apart.

5. Go around the whole shape until you get back to where you started. When you
are finished, each mark should have two lines coming out of it (fig. 4).

MEET THE MATHEMATICIAN

MARY EVEREST BOOLE
Mary Everest Boole (1832–1916, England) was the inventor of
curve stitching. She taught herself calculus using her father’s
books, and learned more by corresponding with famous
mathematicians. She started her career as a librarian and
then became a teacher of math and science. Her hands-on
methods, encouragement of critical thinking, and careful use
Proof 1

of repetition still influence classrooms today.

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 FIG. 1: Draw a circle or an oval shape. Make evenly spaced marks FIG. 2: Connect two marks, either by drawing with a pencil and
around your shape. You might notice that some marks are a bit ruler or by stitching with thread.
uneven. That’s okay—it’ll still look great!

TRY THIS!
You can use this technique with lots of shapes—ovals,
triangles, and other polygons, moon shapes, fish,
dinosaurs, rocketships, etc. Try some out! Be creative in
how you connect your lines. See what patterns you can
create to enhance your artwork. This is a great time to
experiment with colors, too.

FIG. 3: Connect dots in a clockwise direction.

Proof 1
FIG. 4: Keep going until you get back to the dot you started on.

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Proof 1

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 5
FANTASTIC
FRACTALS
A fractal is a shape that is similar to itself no matter how far you zoom
in on one particular part.
Fractals occur in nature, such as in ice crystals freezing on a window.
They are interesting to mathematicians and scientists as part of Chaos
Theory and the study of patterns found in nature where parts are similar
to the whole. For example, look at the ferns on the right. Notice how the
blue branch of the fern looks like a smaller copy of the green fern, and
the purple portion of the fern has a very similar shape to both the whole
green fern and the blue branch.
Understanding fractals has helped research in the stock market,
fluids, astronomy, and weather. Fractals are also interesting to artists
simply because they are beautiful.

Think About It

Can you think of other examples of self-similar objects?

Proof 1
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 LAB DRAW A
18 SIERPINSKI TRIANGLE
The Sierpinski triangle is an example of a fractal.
Materials
✔ Paper FROM EQUILATERAL TO SIERPINSKI TRIANGLE
✔ Pencil

✔ Ruler or measuring tape

✔ Equilateral Triangle Template

(see page 127)

✔ Crayons or markers in several

colors

1. Draw a large equilateral triangle (see page 26) with 6-inch (15 cm) sides (fig. 1).
You can do this by following the directions in Lab 6. For a shortcut, you can trace
the Equilateral Triangle Template on page 127.

2. Use your ruler to measure the length of each edge of the triangle and put a
dot in the center of each edge (fig. 2). Mathematicians call this dot a midpoint.
(Younger children may wish to eyeball the midpoint.)

3. Connect each midpoint to create a new triangle, pointing down, inside the first
triangle (fig. 3). Our original triangle is now divided into four smaller triangles
(fig. 4). By definition, the center triangle is not part of the Sierpinski triangle—
only the outer three triangles are.
4. Now we’ll divide each of the three smaller triangles like we did before. Mark the
midpoints of the sides of the three outer triangles (fig. 5).

5. Connect the new midpoints (fig. 6).

6. Continue adding midpoints and creating new triangles. When you’re done, color
it in however you like. Yours is probably prettier than ours (fig. 7).

Congratulations! You made a Sierpinski triangle.

Proof 1

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 Sierpinski triangles.

FIG. 1: Draw an FIG. 2: Put a dot in the FIG. 3: Connect each set of FIG. 4: We now have four
equilateral triangle. center of each edge. midpoints. smaller triangles.

FIG. 5: Mark the midpoints FIG. 6: Connect the new midpoints.

of the sides of the three
outer triangles.
FIG. 7: Continue adding midpoints and creating
new triangles. When you’re done, color it in
however you like.

Proof 1
FANTASTIC FRACTALS 69

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 LAB BUILD A
19 SIERPINSKI TRIANGLE
Here is another way to create a colorful Sierpinski triangle.
Materials This activity is great with many kids.
✔ Paper in at least three colors

✔ Pencil MAKE A SIERPINSKI TRIANGLE

✔ Ruler or measuring tape 1. Using only one color of paper (we
used purple), draw three large equilat-
✔ Equilateral Triangle Template eral triangles with 6-inch (15 cm) sides.
(see page 127) You can do this by following the direc-
✔ Scissors tions in Lab 6. For a shortcut, you can
use the Equilateral Triangle Template
✔ Large piece of paper (poster, on page 127 as a stencil.
butcher, packing, or other large
paper—optional) 2. Cut them out.

✔ Glue or tape 3. Arrange them in a Sierpinski triangle

(fig. 1).

4. Using a different color (we used

blue), make a fourth triangle the same
size as the triangles from step 1.

5. Cut the new triangle into four

smaller triangles by connecting the
midpoints of the three sides and
then cutting each side (fig. 2). (For a
reminder on how to find the midpoint,
see Lab 18.)
6. Arrange three of the new smaller
triangles onto your existing Sierpinski
triangle, using glue or tape to hold the
smaller triangles in place (fig. 3).

7. Repeat these steps with new colors

as many times as you like (fig. 4).

8. Optional: If you build a lot of Sier-

pinski triangles, you can arrange them
into a giant one! If you have a large
piece of paper, glue or tape the trian-
gles there to hold them down. Start
from the bottom left corner so you can
Proof 1

add more layers later in the Math Meet

on page 73 (fig. 5).
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 FIG. 1: Arrange your triangles in FIG. 2: Cut the new triangle into four FIG. 3: Tape or glue three of the new
a Sierpinski triangle. smaller triangles. smaller triangles onto your existing
Sierpinski triangle.

FIG. 4: Our final Sierpinski triangle. FIG. 5: Arrange your small Sierpinski triangles into a giant one.

Proof 1
FANTASTIC FRACTALS 71

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 BUILD A SIERPINSKI TRIANGLE, continued

MATH FACT

Sierpinski Triangle’s Area

The area of an object is the amount of space it takes up. Though we created beautiful works of art
in the previous labs, the formal definition of a Sierpinski triangle is just the colored triangles in the
illustration above. (Thus the white space is not part of the area we will calculate below.)

• The area of the first triangle in Lab 18 is approximately 16 square inches (41 square
centimeters). Mathematicians use the ≈ sign to mean “approximately equal.” It’s like an
equal sign but not quite.
• In the next step, we divide our original triangle into four equal pieces and remove the
AREA 16 one in the middle. If our original triangle had an area of 16, and we divided it into four
pieces, how big would the smaller triangles be? Can you figure out why the area of our
new Sierpinski is 12 square inches (30 square centimeters)?
• Every time you add a new set of smaller triangles to your Sierpinski triangle, the area
of the resulting Sierpinski triangle is three-quarters the area of the previous iteration.
That’s because we divided the previous triangle into four pieces and removed the middle
4
one. (An iteration is one complete pass through a set of steps that gets repeated. For
example, your bottle of shampoo probably says to “lather, rinse, repeat” as often as
necessary until your hair is clean. One lather/rinse cycle is one iteration. If you lather
and rinse twice, that’s two iterations.)

4 4
If we keep subdividing triangles and taking the center part away forever, we’d end up with
a shape that has no area at all!

1 1

1 1
Proof 1

1 1 1 1

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 MATH MEET

Build a Huge Sierpinski Triangle

Arrange as many triangles as you have from Lab 19 or cut new 6-inch (15 cm) ones to form a huge Sierpinski triangle.
Use the method learned in Lab 19—it’s best if you attach them to a large piece of paper or poster board so that they
don’t move around. As a bonus, you will be able to hang your finished Sierpinski triangle somewhere for all to admire. If
you like, send us a picture for inclusion on our website.

TRY THIS!

Sierpinski Activities
• What is the perimeter (length of the edges) of a Sierpinski triangle?
• How many triangles are in a Sierpinski triangle after one iteration? Two? Three? Ten? Can you find a pattern?
• What would a Sierpinski pyramid (a three-dimensional Sierpinski triangle) look like?

Proof 1
FANTASTIC FRACTALS 73

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 LAB DRAW A
20 KOCH SNOWFLAKE
One of the earliest fractals discovered and described
Materials is the Koch snowflake.
✔ Paper

✔ Pencil (not pen) MAKE A KOCH SNOWFLAKE

✔ Ruler or measuring tape

✔ Equilateral Triangle Template

(see page 127)

KEEP YOUR
KOCH
SNOWFLAKE
FOR
LAB 22!
1. Draw an equilateral triangle with all sides measuring 6 inches (15 cm) (fig. 1).
You can do this by following the directions in Lab 6. For a shortcut, you can trace
the Equilateral Triangle Template on page 127.

2. We’re going to divide each side into three equal segments (the part of a line
between two points). Draw a mark at 2 inches (5 cm) and at 4 inches (10 cm) from
each vertex (corner) of the triangle (fig. 2). (Younger kids may eyeball their marks
approximately one-third and two-thirds of the distance from each corner.)

3. The space between your two marks is the base of a new equilateral triangle.
Draw it so that it points outward (figs. 3 and 4).

4. Erase the base of the three new triangles you drew in step 3 (fig. 5).
Proof 1

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 The Koch snowflake.

FIG. 1: Draw an equilateral triangle FIG. 2: Mark 2 inches (5 cm) and

with 6-inch (15 cm) sides. 4 inches (10 cm) from each
vertex of the triangle.
)

6"
cm

(15
(15

cm
6"

6" (15 cm)

2" (5 cm) 4" (10 cm)

FIGS. 3 AND 4: Connect the two marks with the base FIG. 5: Erase the base of each

Proof 1
of an equilateral triangle, pointing it outward. new triangle.

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 DRAW A KOCH SNOWFLAKE, continued

FIG. 6: Divide each side of the shape from

step 4 into three equal segments. Repeat
step 3 using these marks.

5. Divide each side of the shape from step 4 into three segments of equal length
by placing two marks on each side. Draw an equilateral triangle that points out-
ward and whose base connects the two marks from the previous step (fig. 6).

6. Erase the base of each new equilateral triangle (fig. 7).

7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 as many times as you like (fig. 8 shows a partial example).

8. Congratulations, you’ve drawn a Koch snowflake (fig. 9)!

FIG. 7: Erase the base of each new

equilateral triangle.
Proof 1

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 FIG. 9:
Congratulations,
you’ve drawn a
Koch snowflake!

FIG. 8: Repeat steps 5 and 6 as many

times as you like.

Proof 1
FANTASTIC FRACTALS 77

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 LAB DRAW A SQUARE
21 FRACTAL SNOWFLAKE
Fractal snowflakes aren’t always based on the shape of a triangle.
Materials What happens when you use the shape of a square as the base?
✔ Paper

✔ Pencil (not pen) DRAW A SQUARE SNOWFLAKE

✔ Ruler or measuring tape 1. Draw a square. Divide each side of
the square into three segments of equal
length (fig. 1).

TRY THIS! 2. Draw a square pointing outward,

whose base is the middle segment of
Create Your Own each side as marked in step 1 (fig. 2).

Fractal Snowflake 3. Erase the middle segment you used

as the base of the square you just added
Can you think of another shape (fig. 3).
you could turn into a Koch-like
snowflake? Try it! Don’t forget to 4. Repeat steps 2 through 4 as many
times as you like (fig. 4).
name it. A snowflake named after
you sounds nice, doesn’t it?

A portion of the
Julia set fractal,
based on French
mathematician
Gaston Julia’s work
Proof 1

(1893–1978).

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 FIG. 1: Draw a square. Divide each
side into three equal segments.

FIG. 2: Draw a square pointing

outward whose base is the middle
segment of each side.

FIG. 3: Erase the middle

segment you used as the base
of the square.

FIG. 4: Repeat steps 2 through 4 as

many times as you like.

Proof 1
FANTASTIC FRACTALS 79

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 LAB EXPLORE THE KOCH
22 SNOWFLAKE’S PERIMETER
The perimeter is the distance around the edge of a shape.
Materials Can you find the perimeter of a Koch snowflake?
✔ Koch snowflake from Lab 20

✔ Ruler or measuring tape FIND THE PERIMETER

✔ Paper 1. Use your ruler to measure the length of each side of the triangle from step 1 of
Lab 20. If you add them up, you'll measure what mathematicians call the perime-
ter. Write down the perimeter of the original triangle (fig. 1). You got 18 inches
(45 cm), right? Because the perimeter is 6 + 6 + 6 inches (15 + 15 + 15 cm).

2. Measure and write down the perimeter of the shape from step 4 of Lab 20
(fig. 2).

3. Measure and write down the perimeter of the shape from step 6 of Lab 20
(fig. 3).

4. If you added more sides to your Koch snowflake, measure and write down
those perimeters.

5. What do you notice? Can you guess what will happen to the perimeter of a
Koch snowflake if you keep adding sides forever?

What’s Going On?

In each step, we add more and more edges to the Koch snowflake. The more
edges you add, the bigger the perimeter gets. So if you keep adding edges
forever, the perimeter will keep getting bigger forever. It turns out that the
perimeter of a Koch snowflake is infinity. Amazing!
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Measure the length of each side of the original FIG. 2: Measure and write down the perimeter of the
triangle from step 1 of Lab 20. shape from step 4, fig. 5 of Lab 20.

TRY THIS!

Area of a
Koch Snowflake
Can you figure out about how much space a
Koch snowflake takes up?

HINTS:
• You should be looking for an approximate
answer, not an exact answer.
• If you drew an infinite Koch snowflake,
would you need a bigger sheet of paper?
• What shape will a Koch snowflake fit
FIG. 3: Measure and write down the perimeter of the
inside?
shape from step 6, fig. 7 of Lab 20.

Proof 1
FANTASTIC FRACTALS 81

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Proof 1

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 6
TERRIFIC
TANGRAMS
Tangrams were invented in China hundreds of years ago. Legend has
it that a Chinese emperor’s servant dropped a precious tile that broke
into seven pieces. As the servant attempted to reassemble the tile, he
discovered he could create many beautiful shapes from the seven pieces.
Tangram puzzles are a bit like jigsaw puzzles, except you always use
the same seven pieces to create different shapes. In addition to being
fun, solving tangram puzzles builds problem-solving skills, develops
geometric intuition, and improves pattern recognition and design abilities.

Think About It

How can the same seven pieces make a square and also a square that is
missing some space inside (like the pictures below)?

Proof 1
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 LAB
TANGRAM BASICS
23
Tangram puzzles always use the same seven pieces to make a picture.
Materials
✔ Set of tangrams STARTER TANGRAMS
Note: There is a set of tangrams on See solutions on page 135.
page 129 that you can pull out and cut
up. If you want a more durable set, 1. Can you make a bat with your
they’re easy to buy online. seven tangrams (fig. 1)?

2. Can you make a giraffe with your

seven tangrams (fig. 2)?

3. Can you make a helicopter with

your seven tangrams (fig. 3)?

4. Can you make a turtle with your

seven tangrams (fig. 4)?

RULES FOR TANGRAMS 5. Can you make a rabbit with your

seven tangrams (fig. 5)?
1. Use all seven tangram pieces (also
called tans) for every puzzle.

2. Try different arrangements of the

pieces to exactly match the picture.

3. You may have to flip the pieces

over to solve the puzzles.

4. If you are having trouble, print out

a full-size version of the puzzle from
our website so the tangram pieces
will fit inside. This will make the
puzzles easier to solve.
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1 FIG. 2 FIG. 3

FIG. 4 FIG. 5

Proof 1
TERRIFIC TANGRAMS 85

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 LAB
TEASER TANGRAMS
24
What else can you make with your set of tangrams?
Materials
✔ Set of tangrams (see page 129) NEXT-LEVEL TANGRAMS
You can print out full-size versions of See solutions on page 135.
these puzzles from our website.
1. Can you make a cat with your seven tangrams (fig. 1)?

2. Can you make a dog with your seven tangrams (fig. 2)?

3. Can you make a candle with your seven tangrams (fig. 3)?

4. Can you make a rocket with your seven tangrams (fig. 4)?

5. Can you make a square with your seven tangrams (fig. 5)?

FIG. 1 FIG. 2. FIG. 3

FIG. 4 FIG. 5
Proof 1

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 MATH MEET

Tangrams Party Materials

Making your own tangram puzzle is easier than you think. Here are two methods. ✔ Set of tangrams (see page 129)

✔ Pencil
METHOD 1
1. Move your tangrams around until you find a shape you like. ✔ Paper
2. Trace the outline. ✔ At least two people
3. Name your tangram.

4. Challenge your friend(s) to solve it!

METHOD 2
1. Think of a shape you would like to make and see if you and your friend(s) can make it. For
example, can you make all 26 letters of the alphabet or the numbers 0 through 9 with your
tangrams? What about a triangle?

2. Once you have a solution you like, trace the outline.

3. Trade puzzles with your friend(s) and solve each other’s tangrams.

Proof 1
TERRIFIC TANGRAMS 87

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 LAB
TOUGHER TANGRAMS
25
Let’s take tangrams to a whole new level! If you get stuck, print out
Materials the full-size versions from our website.
✔ 2 sets of tangrams (see page 129)
TANGRAMS CHALLENGE
1. Can you make a house with your
seven tangrams (fig. 1)?

2. Can you make a boat with your

seven tangrams (fig. 2)?

3. Can you make an arrow with your

seven tangrams (fig. 3)?

4. Can you make a double arrow

with your seven tangrams (fig. 4)?

5. Can you make these two bridges

(fig. 5)? (You’ll need a set of tan-
grams for each bridge.)

6. Can you make these monks using

your seven tangrams (fig. 6)? This
puzzle was created by English math-
ematician Henry Ernest Dudeny
(1857–1930). Two monks look the
same, but one is missing a foot.
(You’ll need a full set of seven
tangrams for each monk.)
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1 FIG. 2 FIG. 3

FIG. 4

Proof 1
FIG. 5 FIG. 6

TERRIFIC TANGRAMS 89

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Proof 1

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 7
TOOTHPICK
PUZZLES
Toothpick puzzles (sometimes called matchstick puzzles) ask you to
rearrange a given pattern of sticks into a second pattern according to
a set of rules. They range from easy to very difficult, and are great
brainteasers to encourage mathematical thinking—playing with ideas
and seeing what comes out.
In addition to being fun, these puzzles build skills in rule-following,
recognizing shapes, and counting. Because they are well suited to trial-
and-error techniques, they can be a great tool to build problem-solving
confidence, because you can just keep trying different solutions until
you find one that works. The willingness to keep trying things when
you don’t know the answer is one of the most important mathematical
skills there is.

Think About It

How many triangles can you find in this image?

(Hint: The answer is greater than six!)

Proof 1
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 LAB STARTER
26 TOOTHPICK PUZZLES
Learn to solve toothpick puzzles. Start with your toothpicks as shown
Materials in the figures. Then follow the instructions to transform the shapes.
✔ Toothpicks, matchsticks, or
craft sticks

ACTIVITY 1: PRACTICE PUZZLE

Hint: If a puzzle doesn’t say that the squares or triangles need to be exactly
the same size, they can be different sizes!

1. Remove two sticks from the puzzle in fig. 1 to leave two squares.

2. The resulting shape has exactly two squares (fig. 2)—but they overlap (fig. 3)!

FIG. 1: The puzzle. FIG. 2: The solution.

Proof 1

FIG. 3: Two overlapping squares.

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 ACTIVITY 2: STARTER PUZZLES
MATH TECHNIQUE
For solutions, see page 136.

1. Move two sticks to create two equal-size triangles (fig. 4).

Trial and Error
This technique helps you solve a
2. Move two sticks to make two equal-size squares (fig. 5). puzzle when you don’t even know
3. Start with five triangles. (Can you find them all?) Remove two sticks where to start! When you aren’t sure
to leave exactly two triangles (fig. 6). how to begin solving a problem, use
trial and error.
4. Move three sticks to create five squares (fig. 7).
This problem-solving method
involves trying something—
anything—even if you don’t think it
will work, and then looking carefully
at the result to see what happened.
If it isn’t what you wanted, go back
to the beginning, and try something
different. Keep trying things (and
keep carefully looking at the result!)
until you either find the solution
or begin to get an idea of how the
problem works, which may lead to a
FIG. 4 more efficient way to solve it.
For example, if a toothpick
FIG. 5
puzzle says “remove two sticks” to
produce a particular result, start by
just picking up any two sticks from
the puzzle. What shapes are you
left with? Could this be the solution
to the puzzle? If not, put the sticks
back, and try picking up two
different sticks. Keep trying until you
succeed!

FIG. 6

Proof 1
FIG. 7

TOOTHPICK PUZZLES 93

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 LAB TOOTHPICK PUZZLES:
27 THE NEXT LEVEL
These puzzles are a little trickier! Start with your toothpicks as shown
Materials in the figures. Then follow the instructions to transform the shapes.
✔ Toothpicks, matchsticks, or
craft sticks
TRY MORE COMPLEX PUZZLES
✔ Bead or penny, for fish puzzle

See pages 136–137 for solutions.

1. Start with two small diamonds. Move four sticks to end up with one large
diamond (fig. 1).

2. Can you transform the spiral of sticks into two squares by moving three sticks
(fig. 2)?

3. Remove three sticks to end up with four equal-size squares. Can you also figure
out how to remove four sticks and end up with four equal-size squares (fig. 3)?

4. Move two sticks to end up with four equal-size squares (fig. 4).

5. Start with a fish swimming to the right. Without moving the eye, can you move
FIG. 1 two sticks so that the fish is swimming straight up (fig. 5)?

6. Remove four sticks to end up with four equal-size triangles (fig. 6).
Proof 1

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 FIG. 3

FIG. 2

FIG. 5

FIG. 4

Proof 1
FIG. 6

TOOTHPICK PUZZLES 95

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 LAB CHALLENGING
28 TOOTHPICK PUZZLES
Even more mind-bending puzzles! Start with your toothpicks as shown
Materials in the figures. Then follow the instructions to transform the shapes.
✔ Toothpicks, matchsticks, or
craft sticks
PUZZLE PALOOZA
✔ Pebble, bead, or penny for
cup puzzle

MATH MEET

Invent Your Own

Toothpick Puzzle
Stump your friends and family!

1. Make an arrangement of
toothpicks.

2. Remov, add, or move toothpicks

to make a second shape.

3. If you aren’t happy with the

possible puzzles from your
starting arrangement, go back See page 137 for solutions.
to step 1 and try again!
1. This is two puzzles in one (fig. 1).

Puzzle makers try lots of config- • Move four sticks to get three equal squares.
urations to invent puzzles. When • Move two sticks to make two rectangles.
you’ve found an arrangement you
like, draw the starting placement for 2. Start with five squares (fig. 2). Move two sticks so there are no squares left, but
the sticks and write the instructions instead four identical shapes.
for the puzzle. On a separate paper, 3. Move four sticks to create two arrows, each half the size of the starting arrow
you might want to draw out the (fig. 3).
answer. Now you can share your
4. Start with a ball inside a cup (fig. 4). Move two sticks so that the ball is outside
puzzle with everyone! the cup. The cup should be the same size and shape—and don’t move the ball!
Proof 1

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n

FIG. 1

FIG. 3

FIG. 2 FIG. 4

Proof 1
TOOTHPICK PUZZLES 97

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Proof 1

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 8
THE GAME OF NIM
People believe that Nim is one of the oldest games invented. It was probably first
played in China more than 1,000 years ago. Different versions of it are played all over
the world. Do you think any games you like will still be played 1,000 years from now?
When you’re playing a mathematical game with someone, you’re not really trying to
beat the other player. You’re both working together to beat the game and figure out
the winning strategies, so you should share your ideas with each other rather than keep
them to yourself.
People sometimes ask how games can be math. There’s a long history of mathematical
games and an entire field of math called Game Theory. Games provide opportunities
to test intuition, deepen mathematical understanding, and practice problem-solving
strategies. Games allow mathematical ideas to emerge as players notice patterns,
relationships, and winning strategies. And, of course, games are fun and provide a
natural context for developing mathematical reasoning.

Think About It

You should never lose Tic Tac Toe once you figure out the right strategy. If you don't already
know the strategy, try to figure it out now. If you do already know how to never lose Tic Tac
Toe, are there any other games you can think about like a mathematician?

Proof 1
99

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 LAB
LEARN TO PLAY NIM
29
In this lab, we learn how to play a game called Nim—and figure out
Materials how to win every time.
✔ At least 20 similar objects
(for example, pennies, blocks,
toothpicks, beads, beans)
ACTIVITY 1: LEARN SIMPLE NIM
✔ Two players

1. We’ll start by learning a slightly simpler version of Nim.

• Player 1 makes a few groups of beads. She can make as many groups as she
wants, but each group should have 1, 2, or 3 beads in it.

• Player 2 decides whether to play first or second.

• Players alternate turns. On each turn, the player must remove one or more
beads from a single group. (The player is allowed to remove all the beads in
a group.)

• Whoever takes the last bead wins.

2. Using these rules, play Nim with a partner at least five times to familiarize
yourself with how it works. Before you begin, look at the practice game between
Allanna and Zack (figs. 1–6).

Parents are encouraged to play, too!

Proof 1

100 MATH LAB FOR KIDS

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 FIG. 1: Zack divides eight beads into FIG. 2: Allanna decides to go first and takes all the red beads.
three single-colored piles.

FIG. 3: Zack takes one green bead (leaving one in that pile). FIG. 4: Allanna takes one purple bead (leaving two in that pile).

FIG. 5: Zack takes the last green bead. FIG. 6: Allanna takes the last two purple beads and wins.

Proof 1
THE GAME OF NIM 101

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 LEARN TO PLAY NIM, continued

MATH TECHNIQUE

Try Simple
Cases First
When working on a problem,
mathematicians often tackle a
simpler version of the problem
first. Once they fully understand
the simpler problem, they check
to see if any strategies they used
on the simpler problem apply to
the harder problem they started
with. In this chapter, we play
simpler versions of Nim to develop
strategies and see patterns. We’ll
learn the full rules at the end of
the chapter.

ACTIVITY 2: Super-Simple Variations

VARIATION 1: PLAY FIVE GAMES USING JUST TWO GROUPS OF BEADS
In this variation, we modify the first rule on page 100 so that Player 1 can only make
two piles of 1, 2, or 3 beads. Play this variation five times with your partner. See if you
and your partner can discover any winning strategies.
Proof 1

102 MATH LAB FOR KIDS

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 VARIATION 2: PLAY THESE FIVE PRE-SET GAMES
Try the games set up below (figs. 1–5). Play each game at least twice so that each
player gets a chance to be Player 1 and Player 2. Can you figure out the winning
strategy for each game? See page 138 for solutions.

PILE 1 PILE 2 PILE 1 PILE 2 PILE 1 PILE 2

FIG. 1: Game 1. FIG. 2: Game 2. FIG. 3: Game 3.

PILE 1 PILE 2 PILE 1 PILE 2

FIG. 4: Game 4. FIG. 5: Game 5.

Proof 1
THE GAME OF NIM 103

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 LAB WIN NIM:
30 THE COPYCAT STRATEGY
You may have noticed in the games with just two groups of beads
Materials that a winning strategy is to make sure the groups have the same
✔ At least 20 similar objects number of beads in them. Then whenever your opponent makes a
(for example, pennies, blocks,
move, you can still make a move (the same one he or she just made).
toothpicks, beads, beans)

✔ Two players
COPYCAT STRATEGY

Calvin likes to annoy his opponent by copying her. Whenever he can, he makes
the exact same move his opponent just made. For example, if Susie takes a
group of two pieces away, Calvin will, too. A sample game between them is
shown on the next page.

• Susie sets up the game and Calvin decides to go second (figs. 1–4).

• If Susie had taken a pile with three beads on turn 1, Calvin would have too
and he still would have won. Do you see why?

• Do you see how whatever Susie does, Calvin can copy her and win?

• Try playing a few more games of Nim using the copycat strategy.
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: On the first turn, Susie takes the pile FIG. 2: On the second turn, Calvin takes the pile
with two green beads. with two purple beads.

FIG. 3: On the third turn, Susie takes the pile FIG. 4: On the fourth turn, Calvin takes
with three red beads. the last pile and wins.

Proof 1
THE GAME OF NIM 105

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 LAB COPYCAT NIM
31 AS PLAYER 1
Calvin’s copycat strategy (see page 104) worked only because the
Materials piles were already even (two piles with two beads and two piles with
✔ At least 20 similar objects three beads). But Calvin is so intent on being annoying by copying
(for example, pennies, blocks,
Susie that if he can’t just copy Susie, he’ll make a move so that next
toothpicks, beads, beans)
time he can copy her.
✔ Two players

SETTING UP COPYCAT

Here’s another way the copycat game could have gone:

1. Susie takes two yellow beads (fig. 1).

2. Calvin takes two red beads (fig. 2).

3. Susie takes the pile with two purple beads (fig. 3).

4. Calvin takes the pile with two green beads (fig. 4).

5. Susie takes the last red bead (fig. 5).

6. Calvin takes the last yellow bead and wins (fig. 6).

What if Susie had set up the game in fig. 7 instead? Calvin would have chosen
to go first and taken the new pile with one bead. Now he will always be able to
copy Susie’s moves and win.
Proof 1

Try playing a few more games of Nim using what you just learned.

106 MATH LAB FOR KIDS

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 FIG. 1: Susie takes two yellow beads. FIG. 2: Calvin takes two red beads.

FIG. 3: Susie takes the pile with two purple beads. FIG. 4: Calvin takes the pile with two green beads.

FIG. 5: Susie takes the last red bead. FIG. 6: Calvin takes the last yellow bead and wins.

FIG. 7: Another game for Susie and Calvin. If Calvin goes

first and takes the blue bead, he can win by copying Susie.

Proof 1
THE GAME OF NIM 107

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 LAB WIN NIM:
32 1 + 2 = 3 STRATEGY
In Lab 30, we learned to use the copycat strategy. In Lab 31, we
Materials learned how to set up games so we can be copycats. Now we’re two
✔ At least 20 similar objects steps ahead. No matter what your opponent does, you can use the
(for example, pennies, blocks,
copycat strategy.
toothpicks, beads, beans)

✔ Two players
COPYCAT NIM: 1 + 2 = 3

Try the game in fig. 1 with your partner. Calvin figured out a way to always
win this one, too. Play it a few times with your partner and try to figure out
Calvin’s trick.
TRY THIS!

Full Nim Rules SOLUTIONS

1. The key is to get to a copycat game. Let your partner go first. If your
In this chapter, we’ve been playing partner takes the red pile, take one purple bead, then there will be two piles
a slightly simplified version of Nim with one bead each and you’ll win (figs. 2–4).
by saying that no pile can have more
2. If your partner takes the purple or green pile, take the same number from
than three beads in it. In the original the red pile. Then the game will be even again (figs. 5–7).
game, piles can be as large as you
want. There are more tricks—like the So a pile of three beads can always be balanced by a pile with one bead plus
one you just learned—waiting for a pile with two beads. Pretty sneaky.
you to discover if you try the
full game.
Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: A new setup for copycat Nim. FIG. 2: Your partner takes the red pile.

FIG. 3: You take one purple bead. FIG. 4: Two piles with one bead each means you’ll win!

FIG. 5: Your partner takes the purple pile. FIG. 6: You take the same amount of beads from the red pile.

FIG. 7: Both remaining piles are even.

Proof 1
THE GAME OF NIM 109

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Proof 1

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 9
GRAPH THEORY
Graph Theory is the study of how things are interconnected. This includes how
computers are connected to each other in your house and on the Internet,
how to efficiently place power plants to provide electricity in cities, the best
locations to put fast food restaurants so that no one is too far from their
favorite junk food, how to plan airplane flight paths, and more.
In 1736, mathematician Leonhard Euler solved the Bridges of Königsberg
problem (see below), inventing Graph Theory in the process.

Think About It

One of the most famous Graph Theory problems involves the city of
Königsberg. Spanning both sides of a river, it has two islands, which are
connected to the rest of the city by seven bridges. Citizens challenged each
other to find a path that started and ended in the same place and crossed
each of the seven bridges exactly once. Can you find such a path?

Proof 1
111

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 LAB
EULERIAN CIRCUITS
33
Learn how to trace shapes without lifting your pencil. To trace every
Materials line of the figure eight (left) without lifting your pencil, trace in the
✔ Pencil direction of the arrows as shown on the bottom.
✔ Paper
TRACING EULERIAN CIRCUITS
The paths we draw in this lab
travel over every edge of the
entire graph, start and end on the
same vertex, and don’t retrace
any edges. Mathematicians call
these paths Eulerian circuits.

Important: Lines are allowed to

cross but you can’t trace over the
same line twice.

1. Can you trace a five-point star

without lifting your pencil or
going over the same line twice
(fig. 1)?
You can avoid lifting your pencil by
following the direction of the arrows 2. It’s possible to trace all the
when tracing the figure eight. shapes on the next page starting
and ending at the same vertex
without lifting your pencil or
going over the same line twice
(figs. 2–6). Can you find the
paths?

MATH FACT
In math, a graph is a set of dots,
called vertices, connected by lines,
called edges. You can also think of a
vertex (the singular of vertices) as a
corner. Note that edges don’t have
to be straight.
Proof 1

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 MEET THE MATHEMATICIAN
FAN CHUNG
Fan Chung is an American mathematician
who was born in Taiwan. She is a

FIG. 1: A five-point star. FIG. 2: A simple house shape.

Distinguished Professor of Mathematics

and Computer Science at the University of
California San Diego. Her main area of
research is Graph Theory, including graphs
of very large networks such as the Internet.
In college, she met many female mathe-
maticians. They all talked about math and
helped each other, which encouraged her
to become a mathematician. Fan says,
FIG. 3: An open envelope. FIG. 4: Nested shapes. “Frequently a good problem from someone
else will give you a push in the right direc-
tion, and the next thing you know you have
another good problem. You make mathe-
matical friends and share the fun!”

FIG. 5: A seven-point star. FIG. 6: A seven-point star inside out.

Proof 1
The Power Grid Graph
Photo by Derrick Benzanson and Fan Chung

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 LAB SECRETS OF EULERIAN
34 CIRCUITS REVEALED
What will you discover about the mathematically
Materials mysterious Eulerian circuits?
✔ Pencil

✔ Paper A SECRET SHORTCUT

In Lab 33, we discovered three rules for
creating an Eulerian circuit:

1. Start and end from the same vertex.

2. Don’t lift your pencil.

3. Don’t retrace any edges.

In this lab, we’ll learn a shortcut for figur-

ing out if a graph has an Eulerian circuit.

1. You cannot follow the rules for creat-

ing an Eulerian circuit to draw this shape
(fig. 1). Try it and you’ll see it’s impossi-
FIG. 1: A triangle graph with no
ble.
Eulerian circuit.
2. What about figs. 2–6? Some of them
have Eulerian circuits and others do not.
Circle the ones that have an Eulerian
circuit and put an “X” next to the ones
that don’t.

3. As we discovered, some graphs have

no Eulerian circuit. Can you figure out
a rule that will tell you if a shape has an
Eulerian circuit?
Proof 1

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 FIG. 2: A modified
seven-point star. What’s Going On?
For every graph in Labs 33 and 34, write the number
of edges coming out of each vertex next to the vertex.
(Hint: Every graph in Lab 33 does have an Eulerian
circuit.) For example:
3

2
2 2
3 4 4
2

2 2
FIG. 3: A fancy house. 2 2
4

2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2

2 2

2
FIG. 4: An envelope.
Do you see a pattern? Is there something that all the
graphs with an Eulerian circuit have in common? Is
there something that all the graphs without an Eulerian
circuit have in common? Stop here and think about it.
Here's the answer: If there is an Eulerian circuit, then
every time you go to a vertex, you leave it on a differ-
ent edge until you get back to the beginning vertex.
This means there must be an even number of edges
(2, 4, 6, etc.) at every vertex. If any vertex connects an
FIG. 5: A cube-like odd number of edges, you automatically know that the
shape. graph does not have an Eulerian circuit. An exciting
discovery is that if every vertex in a graph has an even
number of edges, the graph does have an Eulerian
circuit.

Proof 1
FIG. 6: A rocket.

GRAPH THEORY: MAKING CONNECTIONS 115

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 LAB BRIDGES OF
35 KÖNIGSBERG
Now that you know so much about Graph Theory, let’s solve the
Materials Bridges of Königsberg problem from the Think About It on page 111.
✔ Map of Königsberg (see below)

✔ Pencil GOING FROM MAP TO GRAPH

1. Turn the map below into a graph, as shown in fig. 1. Each area you can visit
becomes a vertex of a graph. Each bridge between areas becomes an edge con-
necting those vertices.

2. The Bridges of Königsberg challenge is the same as finding an Eulerian circuit

on the graph we just drew. Can you find an Eulerian circuit on this graph? If you
get stuck, go on to the next step.

3. Hmm, maybe there isn’t an Eulerian circuit. Let’s label every vertex with the
number of edges it connects (fig. 2).

What’s Going On?

Even if you can’t find a path that
crosses every bridge in Königsberg
exactly once and ends up where
you started, that doesn’t mean no
path exists! To solve the problem,
we have to prove that there cannot
be a path. We’ll learn how to do a
mathematical proof in this lab.
Proof 1

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 3

5
3

FIG. 1: Turn the map into a graph. FIG. 2: Label every vertex with the number of
edges it connects.
Now we know we weren’t imagining it—there’s no Eulerian circuit Remember, in
Lab 34, we learned that if any vertex connects an odd number of edges, the graph
does not have an Eulerian circuit. Here, all of the vertices connect an odd number
of edges. Congratulations, you just did a proof by contradiction!

MATH TECHNIQUE

Proof by Contradiction
A mathematical proof is a series of logical arguments For example, for the Bridges of Königsberg problem,
showing that something is true. There are many kinds of we know that if there is a path around the city, the graph
proofs. We explore two in this chapter (see Lab 36). will have an Eulerian circuit. We also know that if the graph
A proof by contradiction uses a series of arguments to has an Eulerian circuit, then all vertices must have an even
show that if one thing is true, this means a second thing number of edges coming out of it. But we showed that
must be true. But here’s the trick: If we can show that the none of the vertices had an even number of edges! That
second thing is actually false, that means that the first thing means there cannot be a path that crosses every bridge
must have been false as well! exactly once and returns to where it started, so we’ve
proven that a path cannot exist.

Darn!
If ghosts exist,
then [blah, blah—logic— But vampires
don't exist! Then ghosts can't
blah, blah] . . . so vampires exist either!
must exist!

Proof 1
GRAPH THEORY: MAKING CONNECTIONS 117

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 LAB THE EULER
36 CHARACTERISTIC
Learn an interesting relationship between vertices, edges, and regions.
Materials
✔ Pencil COUNTING VERTICES, REGIONS, AND EDGES
✔ Paper Earlier, we said that a graph is a set of dots, called vertices, connected by lines,
called edges. The paper you draw the graph on is divided into regions, each
surrounded by edges. The space outside the graph also counts as a region. In the
picture below, there are 10 vertices (colored black), 7 regions (colored yellow or
green), and 15 edges (colored blue).

Leonhard Euler noticed something interesting about graphs when he counted

(number of vertices) + (number of regions) – (number of edges)

Let’s count the number of vertices, edges, and regions in some graphs and see if
we can figure out what he noticed.

REGION

EDGE
Proof 1

VERTEX

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 1. Figs. 1–3 show some examples where we’ve FIG. 1: Count the vertices, edges,
counted the vertices, edges, and regions of some and regions.
graphs. You count them too and make sure your
counts match ours! Remember to count the
“outside” region.

Once we’ve counted V, R, and E, we’ll add the

number of vertices and regions together, subtract
the number of edges, and see what we get!
Vertices = 3
Regions = 2
Edges = 3

V+R–E=3 + 2 – 3 = 2

FIG. 2: Remember to count the “outside” region. FIG. 3: Do your counts match ours?

Vertices = 4 Vertices = 6
Regions = 3 Regions = 4
Edges = 5 Edges = 8

Proof 1 2 T
V+R–E=4+3–5=2 V+R–E=6 + 4 – 8 = 2

GRAPH THEORY: MAKING CONNECTIONS 119

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 THE EULER CHARACTERISTIC, continued

2. Now you try counting yourself (figs. 4–10). Don’t forget to count the “outside” region. How many
vertices, edges, and regions do the following graphs have? Also calculate V + R – E for each graph.
Hint: The graphs in figs. 9 and 10 only have one region: the “outside” region.

V= V= V=
R= R= R=
E= E= E=

V+R–E= V+R–E= V+R–E=

FIG. 4 FIG. 5 FIG. 6

V= V= V=
R= R= R=
E= E= E=

V+R–E= V+R–E= V+R–E=

FIG. 7 FIG. 8 FIG. 9

V=
R=
E=
SOLUTION: In every example, V + R – E = 2. That’s pretty
V+R–E= amazing. Do you think it’s always true? (You might want to
think about this for a bit before you continue on.)
Proof 1

FIG. 10

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 Requirements for the Euler Characteristic to Be 2
Calculate the Euler Characteristic (V + R – E) of this graph:
In the graph below, the two inside edges cross but
there’s no vertex where they cross. (Don’t worry about
why one edge is a different color quite yet.) What is the
Euler Characteristic of this graph?

V= V=
R= R=
E= E=

V+R–E= V+R–E=

This graph is not connected. (Some vertices have no

path between them.) We can connect it by adding an
edge. Calculate the Euler Characteristic of the newly
In Graph Theory, a planar graph has no crossing
connected graph.
edges. (If there is a vertex where two edges meet,
that’s not considered crossing edges and it’s still a
planar graph.) Let’s move the red edge outside as
below so the graph becomes planar. What is the
Euler Characteristic of the newly planar graph?

V=
V=
R=
R=
E=
E=
V+R–E=
V+R–E=

Now Euler’s characteristic is 2 again!

Proof 1
You got 2, right?

GRAPH THEORY: MAKING CONNECTIONS 121

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 LAB A PROOF ABOUT THE
37 EULER CHARACTERISTIC
In a PROOF BY INDUCTION, you first show that the simplest case
Materials (called the BASE CASE) is true. Next you prove the INDUCTION
✔ Pencil STEP, showing that a general case being true means that the fol-
✔ Paper lowing case is also true. Now you have a recipe showing how to
get from any size to any other size (repeating the induction step
as many times as needed, even going on forever), so you know it’s
always true. (This is college-level math, so don’t worry if you find it
a bit confusing.) Let’s show that the Euler Characteristic is 2 for all
planar, connected graphs!

CHALLENGE!: PROOF BY INDUCTION

1. Base case: Calculate V + R – E in the case of a single vertex and no edges
(fig. 1). It’s 2, right?

2. Calculate V + R – E when we add a new edge and a new vertex (fig. 2).
It’s still 2. We added one new vertex and one new edge, so they canceled
each other out.

3. Calculate V + R – E before and after we add a new edge but not a new vertex
(figs. 3–4). It’s still 2, because when we add a new edge but no new vertex, we
end up adding a new region, which cancels out the new edge. Try adding one
edge to some of the graphs from earlier in this chapter. Do you see how we always
add one region when we add one edge? Thus, V + R – E stays the same.

4. We can build any planar connected graph by adding vertices and/or edges as
in the steps above. Try adding edges and/or vertices to the graphs in figs. 5–7.
Calculate V + R – E before and after.
5. Add some vertices and/or edges to a few graphs you make up yourself. Calcu-
late V + R – E before and after. You can try this on any planar connected graph,
not just the simple ones from steps 1 and 2.

If you add just an edge, that ends up adding a new region. If you add a new vertex,
you have to add the edge to connect it to the existing graph. Thus, at every step
of building a planar connected graph, V + R – E = 2. Amazing!

You have just done a mathematical proof by induction. Congratulations!

Proof 1

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 FIG. 1: Calculate V + R – E in the case FIG. 2: Calculate V + R – E when we FIG. 3: Calculate V + R – E before and
of a single vertex and no edges. add a new edge and a new vertex. after we add a new edge.

FIG. 4: Calculate V + R – E before and after we FIG. 5: Calculate V + R – E before and after adding
add a new edge. vertices and edges.

FIG. 6: Calculate V + R – E before and after adding FIG. 7: Calculate V + R – E before and after adding

Proof 1
vertices and edges. vertices and edges.

GRAPH THEORY: MAKING CONNECTIONS 123

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 PULL-OUTS
Proof 1

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 SOUTH AMERICA MAP See Lab 12, page 46.

Proof 1
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 AFRICA MAP See Lab 13, page 50.
Proof 1 2CT

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 EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE TEMPLATE
See Labs 18–20, pages 68–77.

Proof 1
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Proof 1

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 TANGRAMS See Labs 23–25, pages 84–89.

Proof 1
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Proof 1

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 HINTS AND SOLUTIONS

1. GEOMETRY: LEARN ABOUT SHAPES LAB 4, Octahedron: Some ways in which the octahedron
Think About It: There are lots of ways to make a 3D shape is different from the tetrahedron: Octahedron: 8 sides, 6
from a triangle. A triangular prism is like a really thick trian- vertices, 12 edges. Tetrahedron: 4 sides, 4 vertices, 6 edges.
gle, and if you look at it from above it looks like a triangle. Every corner of the octahedron connects to four triangles.
A pyramid takes a shape and raises it up in a point, so that if Every corner of the tetrahedron connects to three triangles.
you look at it from the side it looks like a triangle. There are Compare the octahedron you built to the triangular anti-
lots of 3D shapes with triangle faces. prism that you built in Lab 3, step 6. What do you notice?
They’re the same shape!

2. TOPOLOGY: MIND-BENDING SHAPES

LAB 9
• Activity 1, step 4: Yes, you can make a triangle and
LAB 1, Try this!: many other shapes.

• Activity 2: You can stretch or squeeze the bag to make

it look like a ball, cube, or bowl, but not like a doughnut
or mug.

• Scavenger Hunt hint: Here are some examples of

objects in each category to get you started.

1. No holes: book, plate, cup (no handles)

Prisms starting from a four-sided shape,
2. One hole: cup with handle, CD, bead
a five-sided shape, and a star.
3. Two holes: unzipped coat, grocery bag (if it has two
LAB 2, Try this!: handles)

A pyramid starting from a star-shaped 4. More than two holes: sieve, slatted chair, sweater
base. Shapes that you cannot turn into
a pyramid include a circle, figure eight,
LAB 10
and more you might think of.
• Activity 1, step 7: The Möbius strip has one edge.

• Activity 2, step 1: You end up with two crowns.

LAB 3

Triangular antiprism

Proof 1
Pentagonal antiprism
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 • Activity 2, step 2: You end up with a single long band 3. COLORING MAPS LIKE A MATHEMATICIAN
that has two full twists.
LAB 12
Step 2: There are multiple possible
solutions, but you shouldn’t need
more than three colors.

• Activity 3, step 2: If you draw a line on the crown,

the other side of the crown (inside) is blank. For the
Möbius strip, there are no blank places. (There is only
one side.) Step 3: There are multiple possible solutions, but you
shouldn’t need more than two colors for Triangle Map 1 and
• Activity 3, step 3: You end up with three crowns.
three colors for Triangle Map 2.
• Activity 3, step 4:

You end up with a long

band with multiple twists
interlinked with a small
Möbius strip.

How Many
Sides?
Try this!: One Two
Zero Step 4: There are multiple possible solutions, but you
You should get these results. twists
shouldn’t need more than two colors for the Seven-Point
One half
twist Star Map and three colors for Modified Seven-Point
Two half Star Map.
twist
Three
half twist
Four half
twist

LAB 11

This is the shape you

will get when you cut.
Surprised?
Proof 1

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 LAB 12, Try this!: LAB 13
South America Map: Paraguay's neighbors surround it and There are multiple possible solutions, but you shouldn’t need
also touch each other such that four colors are needed for more than four colors for the Bird, Africa, and Abstract Maps.
those four countries.

Proof 1 2CT
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS 133

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 5. FANTASTIC FRACTALS

LAB 19, Try this!: LAB 21, Try this!:

• The perimeter of a Sierpinski triangle is infinite. Every
time we add more (smaller) triangles to a Sierpinski
triangle, the perimeter gets 1.5 times larger than the
previous iteration.

• Every time you do an iteration of the Sierpinski trian-

gle, you get 3 times more triangles. (Every triangle
in the previous iteration gets divided into three.) So
the pattern goes 1, 3, 9, 27, etc. In the full Sierpinski,
after infinite iterations, there are an infinite number of
triangles.

A Sierpinski Pyramid

Pentagon and hexagon examples.

LAB 22, Try this!:

Notice that no matter how many smaller triangles we add Koch snowflake with infinitely many triangles added is 8/5
to the sides of a Koch snowflake, the entire shape never times the area of the original triangle.) Even if you can’t get
extends very far. So we know the area is somewhat less than an exact answer, being able to get an upper bound (it has
the circle we’ve drawn. (The exact answer for the area of a to be less than the size of the circle) is a really interesting
result.
Proof 1

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 6. TERRIFIC TANGRAMS
LAB 23

Think About It:

A bat A giraffe A helicopter A turtle A rabbit

LAB 24

A cat A dog A candle A rocket A square

LAB 25

A house A boat

Two bridges

Two monks

Proof 1
An arrow A double arrow 135
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS

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 7. TOOTHPICK PUZZLES

Think About It: There are 16 triangles in the image.

LAB 26, Activity 2:

FIG. 1 FIG. 2 FIG. 3 FIG. 4

LAB 27

FIG. 1 FIG. 2 FIG. 4

Proof 1

FIG. 3
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 LAB 27, continued:

FIG. 5 FIG. 6

LAB 28

FIG. 1a FIG. 1b

FIG. 4

FIG. 3

FIG. 2

Proof 1
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS 137

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 8. THE GAME OF NIM

LAB 29, Activity 2, Variation 2

Game 1: Game 4:

Player 2 always wins.

Game 2:

• If Player 1 takes all of pile 1 or 2, Player 2 can win by

taking all of the other pile.

• If Player 1 takes one red bead, Player 2 can take two

Player 2 can always win if he or she plays as follows: purple beads and then we have the same set-up as in
• If Player 1 takes one bead, Player 2 should take one Game 1, where Player 2 always wins.
bead from the other pile. Then no matter what Player 1
does on turn three, Player 2 will win on turn four. • If Player 1 takes one purple bead, then he or she has
reduced Game 4 to be the same as Game 2 and Player
OR 1 can always win. (See Game 2.)
• If Player 1 takes two beads (a whole pile), Player 2 can So Player 1 has a move (see last option above) that makes
take the whole other pile and win. Player 1 always win, whereas Player 2 can only win if Player 1
Game 3: makes a mistake.

Game 5:

If Player 1 takes either whole pile, Player 2 can take the other
whole pile and win. BUT if Player 1 takes one bead from
the first pile, then Player 2 takes one bead from either pile
Player 2 always wins (unless he or she makes a mistake). 7, 1
on turn two (both only have one bead) and Player 1 wins
on turn three. So Player 1 has a move that makes Player 1 • If Player 1 takes all of either pile, Player 2 takes all of
the other pile and wins.
always win, whereas Player 2 can only win if Player 1 makes
a mistake. • If Player 1 takes one bead from either pile, the game is
reduced to Game 4 and Player 2 has a move where he
or she can always win.

• If Player 1 takes two beads from either pile, Player 2 can

take two from the other pile and the game is reduced
to Game 1, where Player 2 always wins.
Proof 1

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 9. GRAPH THEORY: MAKING CONNECTIONS

LAB 33: Follow the numbers in order to make the path.

3
2 5 6 2

1, 7, 11 3,9
4 5 2 4
7 8
8

1, 6 3 1, 10 9 6 5, 10 4

FIG. 1 FIG. 2 FIG. 3

2, 10 3, 12
5 7
8 1, 9, 21 2

16 10 1, 8, 22
20 17 3 8 13 4, 14
6 9 11
4 10 9 15
7, 15 3, 11
12 21
19 2 14 19 17
18

14 12
11
1, 15 7, 20 5, 16
6 5, 13 4

13
6, 18

FIG. 4 FIG. 5 FIG. 6

Proof 1
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS 139

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 LAB 34: These two graphs have Eulerian circuits. 2

2
4 5 3
1
16
11

3 6

1 7
10, 13 12
15 13
12 4

10 14
6

9 8
11 9 7 5

FIG. 3 FIG. 6

LAB 35, step 3: We can tell that there is no Eulerian circuit because in Lab 34 we
discovered that there must be an even number of edges coming out of each vertex in
order to have an Eulerian circuit.

LAB 36, step 2:

V=4 V=5 V=4 V=6

R=2 R=2 R=3 R=5
E=4 E=5 E=5 E=9

V+R–E=4+2–4=2 V+R–E=5+2–5=2 V+R–E=4+3–5=2 V+R–E=6+5–9=2

FIG. 4 FIG. 5 FIG. 6 FIG. 7

Proof 1

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 LAB 36, step 2, continued:

V=6 V=6
R=1 R=1
V = 10 E=5 E=5
R=4
E = 12 V+R–E=6+1–5=2 V+R–E=6+1–5=2

V + R – E = 10 + 4 – 12 = 2 FIG. 9 FIG. 10

FIG. 8

Sidebar: Requirements for the Euler Characteristic to Be 2

V=8 V=8
R=3 R=3
E=8 E=9

V+R–E=8+3–8=3 V+R–E=8+3–9=2

V=4 V=4
R=5 R=4
E=6 E=6

V+R–E=4+5–6=3 V+R–E=4+4–6=2

Proof 1
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS 141

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Rebecca would like to thank her parents, Ron and Joan, for Rebecca Rapoport holds degrees in mathematics from Harvard
teaching her to write clearly, concisely, and grammatically and Michigan State. From her first job out of college, as one of
correctly. And a second round of thanks to her father for making the pioneers of Harvard’s Internet education offerings, she has
her think writing a book is a normal thing to do. been passionate about encouraging her love of math in others.
She would also like to thank her husband, Dean, for his sup- As an early contributor to both retail giant Amazon.com
port throughout the process. and Akamai Technologies, the No. 1 firm in cloud computing,
Rebecca’s fabulous eldest child, Allanna, caused her to realize Rapoport played a key role in several elements of the Internet
this book needed to be written. Allanna and her brother, the for- revolution.
ever inquisitive Zack, were not only enthusiastic about the idea Rapoport returned to her first love, education, as an inno-
of Mom writing a book but also cheerfully play-tested some of vator of new methods to introduce children and adults to the
the book’s content. Rebecca looks forward to working through critically important world of STEM as COO of Einstein's Work-
all the labs with her youngest, Xander, when he’s old enough. In shop, an enrichment center dedicated to helping kids explore
the meantime, she appreciates the good humor and joy all three the creative side of science, technology, engineering, art, and
bring into her life every day. math. One of their classes for six- to ten-year-olds is Recre-
ational Math, which inspired the creation of this book.
We would both like to acknowledge how much fun it was to Currently, Rapoport is developing and teaching innovative
work on this book together. It was a great collaborative effort math curricula at Boston-area schools.
and resulted in something we’re both proud of. The book also
gave us a wonderful opportunity to continue the meaningful J.A. Yoder holds a degree in computer science from Caltech.
work we began at the STEAM (science, technology, engineering, She is an educator and engineer who has a lifetime love of puz-
art, and math) after-school enrichment center we helped build. zles and patterns. Her educational philosophy is that hands-on
creative work is both the most fun and the most effective way
J.A. would like to thank Rebecca for her patience, her enthusi- to learn. She developed and taught the original hands-on-math
asm, and for the opportunity for this collaboration that taught lessons for an after-school program that eventually inspired
each of us some new things and strengthened our long-time this book. Some of her happiest memories come from “eureka
friendship. This was a wonderful chance to improve my own moments”—either from learning something that makes a dozen
ideas by bouncing them off someone I trust, learn a bunch of other things suddenly make sense, or the sense of accomplish-
really cool new stuff (whether it made it into the book or not!), ment that comes from solving a clever puzzle. The only thing
and share many truly terrible math jokes. better is sharing this joy with others.

We owe a big debt of gratitude to all the people who helped

us test and hone the book’s content, especially the staff and RESOURCES
students of Birches School in Lincoln, Massachusetts, whose
cheerful faces brighten up this book’s pages. Go to mathlabforkids.com or quartoknows.com/page/math-lab
J.A.’s math professor mother, Kathie, provided valuable feed- for printable versions of some exercises and pull-out pages in
back on the book’s content and her enthusiasm in working every this book.
lab made us happy. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Of course, we’d like to thank our editor, Joy, and Tiffany for There is some great material in the “Classroom Resources”
pitching the book idea to us and Quarry in the first place. section. www.nctm.org
Meredith and Anne were invaluable in making this book look
as good as it does. Fractal Foundation
Finally, we’d like to thank all the staff at Quarry Books who Check out the Fractivities and other content in the Explore
worked on this book for helping us put such a beautiful, full- Fractals section. http://fractalfoundation.org
color romp through math out into the world. Zome
Proof 1

Geometric building toy. http://zometool.com

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 THANK YOU!

Proof 1
143

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 INDEX
A G N T
Antiprisms, 16–17 Geometry Nim Tangrams
about, 11 about, 99, 108 about, 83
B antiprisms, 16–17 copycat strategy, 104–107 basics, 84–85
Boole, Mary Everest, 64 circles, 24–25, 30–31, 36 hints and solutions, 138 hints and solutions, 135
Bridges of Königsberg, 111, 116–117 ellipses, 28–29, 32–33 learning to play, 100–101 level two, 86
hints and solutions, 131 1+2=3 strategy, 108–109 level three, 88–89
C Platonic solids, 18–23 simple versions, 102–103 making own, 87
Circles prisms, 12–13 Numerical Analysis, 57 rules, 84
about, 24 pyramids, 14–15 template, 129
making, 24–25, 30–31 triangles, 26–27, 127 O Tetrahedrons, 18
transforming, 36 Graph Theory Octahedrons, 18, 20 Toothpick puzzles
Creative curves, 64–65 about, 111 about, 91
Cubes, 18, 19 Bridges of Königsberg prob- P basic, 92–93
Curve stitching lem, 111, 116–117 Parabolas hints and solutions, 136–137
about, 57 Eulerian circuits, 112–115 about, 58 level two, 94–95
creative curves, 64–65 Euler characteristic, 118–121 graphing, 58–61 level three, 96–97
parabolas, 58–61 Euler proof, 122–123 making stars with, 62–63 making own, 96
stars, 62–63 hints and solutions, 139–141 Platonic solids Topology
Graphs, about, 112, 118 about, 18 about, 35, 37
D Greedy Algorithm, 50 cubes, 19 hints and solutions, 131–132
Dodecahedron, 18, 21–22 dodecahedron, 21–22 Möbius strips, 38–43
I icosahedrons, 23 transformations, 36–37
E Icosahedrons, 18, 23 octahedrons, 20 Triangles, 26–27, 68–73, 127
Ellipses, 28–29, 32–33 tetrahedrons, 18 Triangular prisms, making, 12–13
Equilateral triangles K Prisms, 12–13
about, 26 Koch snowflakes, 74–77, 80–81 Proof by contradiction, 117 V
template, 127 Puzzles, using trial and error to Vertices, defined, 112
Euler, Leonhard, 111 M solve, 93
Eulerian circuits Maps, coloring See also Tanagrams; Toothpick W
Euler characteristic, 118–121 basics, 46–48 puzzles Website, 9
Euler proof, 122–123 efficiently, 50–52 Pyramids, 14–15
secret shortcut, 114–115 hints and solutions, 132–133
tracing, 112–113 planning, 49, 53 S
squiggle, 54–55 Sierpinski triangles
F templates, 125–126 area of, 72
Fan Chung, 113 Möbius strips building, 70–71, 73
Four Color Theorem, 45 about, 38 drawing, 68–69
Fractals making crown and, 38–41 Snowflakes
about, 67 making Möbius surprise, 42–43 Koch, 74–77, 80–81
hints and solutions, 134 square, 78–79
Koch snowflakes, 74–77, 80–81 Stars, stitching, 62–63
Sierpinski triangles, 69–73
square snowflakes, 78–79
Proof 1 2 T

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