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Pre-Stressed Concrete Slabs

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 AinShams University
Faculty of Engineering

Pre-Stressed Concrete Slabs

Submitted by:
Ahmed Waly Mohamed.
Haitham Reda Mohamed.
Hytham Ahmed Mohamed.
Khaled Sobhy Emam.
Mohamed Hisham Mahmoud.
Mohamed Nasser Ali.

Supervised by:
Dr.: Ezz EL-Din Mostafa.
Prestressed Concrete Slabs Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... i
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ iv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................... 3
2.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING ............................................... 3
2.1.1 Early Attempts of Prestressing.................................................................................. 3
2.1.2 Basic Concept ........................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2.1 Force-fitting of metal bands on wooden barrels ................................................. 4
2.1.2.2 Pre-tensioning the spokes in a bicycle wheel ..................................................... 5
2.1.3 Application of prestressed concrete .......................................................................... 5
2.1.4 Brief History ............................................................................................................. 6
2.1.5 Freyssinet's discovery of Creep ................................................................................ 9
2.1.6 Freyssinet's practical systems ................................................................................. 11
2.2 Prestressing Systems ...................................................................................................... 14
2.3 Development of Building Materials............................................................................... 15
2.3.1 Forms of Pre-stressing Steel ................................................................................... 16
2.3.2 TYPES OF PRE-STRESSING STEEL .................................................................. 17
2.4 Nature of Concrete-Steel Interface ................................................................................ 17
2.5 Methods of Prestressing ................................................................................................. 17
2.6 Sources of Prestressing force ......................................................................................... 19
2.7 TYPES OF PRE-STRESSING ...................................................................................... 19
2.8 2.8 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PRE-STRESSING ..................... 22
2.8.1 Advantages .............................................................................................................. 22
2.8.2 Disadvantages ......................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURAL MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF POST TENSIONED
SLABS .................................................................................................................................... 24
3.1 Slab Configuration ......................................................................................................... 24
3.1.1 Span to depth ratio .................................................................................................. 25
3.2 Tendon profiles and equivalent loads ............................................................................ 27
3.2.1 Equivalent load ....................................................................................................... 27
3.2.2 Secondary moment.................................................................................................. 28
3.2.3 Tendon profile elements ......................................................................................... 29
3.2.4 Tendon deviation in plan ........................................................................................ 31
3.3 Prestress losses : ............................................................................................................. 32
3.3.1 Friction losses ......................................................................................................... 33
3.3.2 Anchorage draw-in.................................................................................................. 34
3.3.3 Elastic shortening ……...………………………………………………………….34
3.3.4 Shrinkage of concrete...………………………………………………...………….35
3.3.5 Creep of concrete ……………………………………………………………...….35
3.3.6 Relaxation of tendon.………………………………………………………...……35
3.3.7 Tendon elongation………………………………………………....……...………36

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Table of Contents

3.4 Flexure in the serviceability state ……………………………………………………..36

3.5 Ultimate flexural strength .…………………………………………………………….38
3.5.3 Procedure for calculating strength .………………………………………………..38
3.6 Deflection .…………………………………………………………………………….40
3.7 Shear .………………………………………………………………………………….40
3.7.1 Shear Strength ….………………………………………………………………….40
3.7.2 Shear reinforcement ……………………………………………………………….41
3.7.3 ACI 318 punching strength calculations …………………………………………..41
3.8 Design of the pre-cast concrete slabs …………………………………………………42
3.9 Analysis of post-tensioned slabs using finite element programs……………………...48
3.9.1 Overview ………………………………………………………………………….48
3.9.1.1 Post-Tensioning System in SAFE……..…….……………………………….48
3.9.1.2 Definition of Terms ….…………….………………………………………...49
3.9.1.3 Analysis and Design Procedure ……..……………………………………….50
3.9.2 The Tendon Object In SAFE…..…………………………………………………..51
3.9.2.1 Overview ………………..…………………………………………………...51
3.9.2.2 Tendon Geometry …...……..………………………………………………..51
3.9.2.3 Tendon Discretization………..………………………………………………52
3.9.2.4 Tendon Material Property…………..………………………………………..52
3.9.2.5 Tendon Property ………………………..……………………………………53
3.9.2.6 Tendon Loads ……………………………..…………………………………54
3.9.3 Computing Prestress Losses……………………..………………………………...55
3.9.3.1 Overview ……………………………………..……………………………...55
3.9.4 Loads Due To Post-Tensioning…………………..………………………………..58
3.9.4.1 Overview ……………………………………..……………………………...58
3.9.4.2 Dead Load-Balancing ...………………………..………………….………...58
3.9.4.3 Secondary (Hyperstatic) Moments …………………..………………………59
3.9.5 Automated Tendon Layout………………………………………………………..61
3.9.5.1 Overview …………………………………………………………………….61
3.9.5.2 Adding Tendons to a SAFE Model……………………………….………….61
3.9.5.3 Procedures Used in Automated Tendon Layout……………………………..65
CHAPTER 4: CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES ............................................................ 67
4.1 Shop Drawings .............................................................................................................. 67
4.1.1 Typical Contents .................................................................................................... 67
4.2 Formworks .................................................................................................................... 69
4.3 Anchor Installation ........................................................................................................ 70
4.3.1 Anchors Orientation ............................................................................................... 70
4.3.2 Local Zone Reinforcement .................................................................................... 70
4.4 Duct Installation ............................................................................................................ 73
4.4.1 Duct Alignment ...................................................................................................... 73
4.4.2 Splices and Connetions .......................................................................................... 76
4.4.3 Size of Pipes for Grout Inlets, Outlets and Drains ................................................. 77
4.4.4 Protection of Ducts during Concrete Placement .................................................... 78
4.4.4.1 Concrete Pressure ............................................................................................ 78
4.4.4.2 Movement of Concrete .................................................................................... 79

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Table of Contents

4.4.4.3 Vibration of Concrete ...................................................................................... 79

4.5 Tendon Installation ....................................................................................................... 79
4.5.1 Pushing Tendons in Duct ....................................................................................... 80
4.5.2 Pulling Tendons in Duct ........................................................................................ 81
4.6 Stressing Operations ..................................................................................................... 82
4.6.1 Jacking Force ......................................................................................................... 82
4.6.2 Measuring Elongation on Strand Tendons .............................................................. 83
4.6.3 Wedges Set ............................................................................................................. 84
4.7 Grouting ........................................................................................................................ 85
4.7.1 Preparations............................................................................................................. 85
4.7.2 Equipment .............................................................................................................. 85
4.7.3 Mixing of Grout ...................................................................................................... 86
4.7.4 Injection of Grout ................................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER 5: BUILDING PROJECTS............................................................................... 89
5.1 Administrational Building for a Factory at Nasr city ................................................... 89
5.1.1 Description of Project ............................................................................................ 89
5.1.2 Post-Tension Concrete Flat Slab Shop ................................................................... 90
5.1.3 Shop Drawing Details ............................................................................................. 92
5.1.4 Construction ............................................................................................................ 93
5.2 Administrational Building for the British School ....................................................... 100
5.2.1 Description of Project ........................................................................................... 100
5.2.2 Post-tension concrete ribbed slab shop drawings ................................................. 101
5.2.3 Construction .......................................................................................................... 103
CHAPTER 6: CASE STUDY ............................................................................................. 110
6.1 Ordinary concrete slab ................................................................................................. 110
6.1.1 Drawings ............................................................................................................... 110
6.1.2 Design ................................................................................................................... 112
6.1.3 Hollow Block Slab Cost........................................................................................ 114
6.2 Prestressed concrete slab.............................................................................................. 114
6.2.1 Drawings ............................................................................................................... 114
6.2.2 Design ................................................................................................................... 115
6.2.3 Prestressing cost .................................................................................................... 117
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 118

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs List of Figures

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure (2-1): Place and stretch steel rods, prior to concreting ................................................... 3
Figure (2-2): Release the tension and cut the rods after concreting .......................................... 3
Figure (2-3): A prestressed beam under an external load .......................................................... 3
Figure (2-4): Force-fitting of metal bands on wooden barrels ................................................... 5
Figure (2-5): Pre-tensioning the spokes in a bicycle wheel ....................................................... 5
Figure (2-6): Steel tie rods in arches .......................................................................................... 6
Figure (2-7): The Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ..................... 9
Figure (2-8): Boutiron Bridge .................................................................................................. 10
Figure (2-9): The jacking pockets gap filled with concrete ..................................................... 10
Figure (2-10): Figure (2-10): Original Anchorage................................................................... 11
Figure (2-11): Materials Development .................................................................................... 15
Figure (2-12): Pre-Stressing Tendon ....................................................................................... 16
Figure (2-13): Pre-stressing wires, strands and bars ................................................................ 16
Figure (2-14): Pre-tensioning Process ..................................................................................... 18
Figure (2-15): A post-tensioned box girder of a bridge ........................................................... 18
Figure (2-16): External Pre-stressing of a Box Girder............................................................. 20
Figure (2-17): Internal Pre-stressing of a Box Girder .............................................................. 20
Figure (2-18): Linearly Prestressed Railway Sleepers............................................................. 20
Figure (2-19): Circularly Prestressed Containment Structure. ................................................ 21
Figure (3-1): Arrangement of tendons in one-way & two-way slabs ………………………...24
Figure (3-2): Span to depth ratio graph ……………………………………………………….26
Figure (3-3): Tendon profiles with respect to loads …………………………………………..27
Figure (3-4): Forces acting on tendons and reactions ……………...…………………………27
Figure (3-5): Equivalent moment from tendon profile ……………..………………………..28
Figure (3-6): Effect of secondary moment …………………………..……………………….29
Figure (3-7): Secondary reaction in straight line tendons …………………………………….29
Figure (3-8): Secondary reaction in harped line tendons ………………..…………………...30
Figure (3-9): Tendon deviation …………………………………………...………………….31
Figure (3-10): Losses gradient line through tendon profile ………………..………………...33
Figure (3-11): Anchorage draw-in losses …………………………………..……………..…34
Figure (3-12): design flowchart of post-tensioned concrete slabs …………..…………….…36
Figure (3-13): Deformations of section under the loading stages ……………..………….….38
Figure (3-14): Forces acting on the section …………………………………….………….…39
Figure (3-16): Typical arrangement of links and lacing bars to resist punching shear ………42
Figure (3-17): Different design tables for pre-cast slabs ……………………………………...45
Figure (3-18): Schematic of post tensioning system and process.......………………………..49
Figure (3-19): Tendon vertical profile form , use to define or modify the tendon profile...….51
Figure (3-20): Material Property Data form………………………………………...………...53
Figure (3-21): Tendon Property Data form…………………………………………...……....54
Figure (3-22): Tendon Load form……………………………………………………..……...54
Figure (3-23): Tendon Load form……………………………………………………..……...56
Figure (3-24): prestress load variation along tendon length….……………………………...57
Figure (3-25): Quick Tendon Layout form……………………………………………………59
Figure (3-26): Secondary (hyperstatic) actions due to post-tensioning………………...…….60
Figure (3-27): Hyperstatic Load Case Data form…………………………………………….61
Figure (3-28): Quick Tendon Layout form……………………………………………...…....62
Figure (3-29): Template models with tendon layout options................................................... 64
Figure (3-30): Quick Tendon Layout form .............................................................................. 65

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs List of Figures

Figure (4-1): Cable profile in the plan. .................................................................................... 68

Figure (4-2): Drilling of formworks ........................................................................................ 69
Figure (4-3): Pieces of cork covering prestressed steel ........................................................... 69
Figure (4-4): The allowable difference in orientation of anchors during installation.............. 70
Figure (4-5): Spiral reinforcement behind anchors in case of beams ...................................... 71
Figure (4-6): Maximum distance between spiral reinforcement and the plate on anchors ...... 71
Figure (4-7): Alternating up and down U-shaped reinforcement ............................................ 72
Figure (4-8): Alignment of ducts on the formwork ................................................................. 73
Figure (4-9): Some bad installation of ducts with anchors ...................................................... 74
Figure (4-10): Supporting chairs holding ducts ....................................................................... 74
Figure (4-11): Marks on the formwork indicating the location of ducts and its cover height . 75
Figure (4-12): Ducts after its installation ................................................................................. 75
Figure (4-13): Old methods of connecting ducts ..................................................................... 76
Figure (4-14): Plastic and steel parts used in connections between ducts. .............................. 76
Figure (4-15): Sealing of grouting pipes with ducts ................................................................ 77
Figure (4-16): Group of grouting pipes along the duct ............................................................ 77
Figure (4-17): Ducts fracture during pumping......................................................................... 78
Figure (4-18): Improper alignment of duct that may prevent proper installation of tendons .. 78
Figure (4-19): Coils of tendons ................................................................................................ 79
Figure (4-20): Uncoiling of tendons ........................................................................................ 80
Figure (4-21): Pushing process of tendons into ducts .............................................................. 81
Figure (4-22): Pulling process of tendons into ducts using steel wire sock............................. 81
Figure (4-23): Gauges of the prestressing pump...................................................................... 82
Figure (4-24): Marking of the prestressing steel to measure its elongation ............................ 84
Figure (4-25): Wedges biting on the strands after prestressing ............................................... 84
Figure (4-26): Grouting equipment .......................................................................................... 85
Figure (4-27): Mixing of the grout........................................................................................... 86
Figure (4-28): Grouting injection in pipes ............................................................................... 87
Figure (4-29): Grout going out from the outlet pipe ................................................................ 88
Figure (5-1): Banded direction................................................................................................. 90
Figure (5-2): Distributed direction ........................................................................................... 91
Figure (5-3): Notaion of strands and their alignment, the elevations of ducts along the slab's
span and the dead and live ends ............................................................................................... 92
Figure (5-4): Ceiling staggering............................................................................................... 93
Figure (5-5): Duct fitting ......................................................................................................... 94
Figure (5-6): The laid strands in both directions ..................................................................... 94
Figure (5-7): The chairs installation ........................................................................................ 95
Figure (5-8): Foam installation ................................................................................................ 95
Figure (5-9): Flower shaped strands ........................................................................................ 96
Figure (5-10): Onion jack ........................................................................................................ 96
Figure (5-11): The installation of grouting Vents .................................................................... 96
Figure (5-12): Concrete placment ............................................................................................ 97
Figure (5-13): Foam bar removal and cleansing the surrounding area .................................... 97
Figure (5-14): The anchor block and wedges installation ....................................................... 97
Figure (5-15): Cutting strands .................................................................................................. 98
Figure (5-16): The datum aluminum rod and marked locations before and after jacking to
identify the elongation that happened through the process ...................................................... 98
Figure (5-17): Hydraulic jack used in pulling the strands ....................................................... 98
Figure (5-18): Preparation of strands for grouting and covering voids in concrete ................. 99
Figure (5-19): Preparation of strands for grouting and covering voids in concrete ................. 99

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs List of Figures

Figure (5-20): Preparation of grout solution ............................................................................ 99

Figure (5-21): Grout injection .................................................................................................. 99
Figure (5-22): Grout exiting the air vent.................................................................................. 99
Figure (5-23): Final form of the project ................................................................................. 100
Figure (5-24): Key Plan Shows Places of Ribs ...................................................................... 101
Figure (5-25): Elevation of prestressing Cables Rib (R3) between axes (F , L) ................... 102
Figure (5-26): Profile of prestressing cables .......................................................................... 102
Figure (5-27): Span 25m without any columns in the middle ............................................... 103
Figure (5-28): Reinforcement of ribs ..................................................................................... 103
Figure (5-29): Cable installation ............................................................................................ 104
Figure (5-30): Fitting of strand .............................................................................................. 104
Figure (5-31): Casts installation............................................................................................. 105
Figure (5-32): Coupler installation ........................................................................................ 105
Figure (5-33): Vents at dead end ........................................................................................... 106
Figure (5-34): Foam installation ............................................................................................ 106
Figure (5-35): Ribs ................................................................................................................. 107
Figure (5-36): Placing ............................................................................................................ 107
Figure (5-37): Pulling the strands .......................................................................................... 108
Figure (5-38): Grout injection ................................................................................................ 108
Figure (5-39): Final form of the project ................................................................................. 109
Figure (6-1): Plan of Hollow-Block Slab............................................................................... 110
Figure (6-2): Cross section of Hollow-Block Slab, showing the Ribs .................................. 110
Figure (6-3): Cross section of Hollow-Block Slab, showing the Cross-Ribs ........................ 111
Figure (6-4): Cross section of the Rib.................................................................................... 111
Figure (6-5): Cross section of the Cross Rib. ........................................................................ 111
Figure (6-6): Plan of Pre-Stressed Slab. ................................................................................ 114
Figure (6-7): Cross section of Pre-Stressed Slab ................................................................... 115

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 1: Introduction

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming the concrete's natural
weakness in tension. It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer
span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing tendons
(generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load
which produces compressive stress that offsets the tensile stress that the concrete
compression member would otherwise experience due to a bending load. Traditional
reinforced concrete is based on the use of steel reinforcement bars, rebars, inside
poured concrete. Prestressing can be accomplished in three ways: pre-tensioned
concrete, bonded or unbounded post-tensioned concrete.
This report discusses five Topics. First of all, chapter 2 which covers the
available literature on the behavior of RC members strengthened with prestressing
systems; discussing the following topics:
1- Historical Development of prestressing.
2- Basic Concept.
3- Brief History.
4- Discovery of Creep.
5- Pre-stressing Systems.
6- Development of Materials.
7- Prestressing Steel.
8- Types of Prestressing.
9- Advantages and disadvantages of Prestressing.

Secondly, chapter 3 which covers the sequence of analysis of the prestressed

slabs according to ACI 318 in both manual analysis and analysis and modeling using
software (SAFE).
The manual analysis covers the following topics:
1- Slab configuration.
2- Tendon profiles and equivalent loads.
3- Pre-stressing losses.
4- Flexural in serviceability state.
5- Ultimate flexural strength.
6- Deflection & Vibration.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 1: Introduction

7- Shear.
8- Design of the pre-cast concrete slabs.
9- Analysis of post-tensioned slabs using finite element programs.

Then, chapter 4 which discusses that construction of concrete structures using

prestressed cables varies from the ordinary construction, so special equipment and
techniques are used to ensure the appropriate installation of cables during different
stages of construction taking all the necessary precautions.

After that, Chapter 5 which speaks about actual projects that were executed
using the concept of prestressing. We will be studying two projects both are in Egypt:
One of them is a flat slab building and the other is a hollow block building.

Finally, chapter 6 which is a case study to show the difference between an

ordinary hollow block concrete slab and the same slab as post tensioned according
to the cost.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review

2.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING

Pre-stressing concrete is a method for overcoming concrete’s natural
weakness in tension. It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer
span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete.

2.1.1 Early Attempts of Prestressing

Prestressing of structures was introduced in late nineteenth century. Steel rods
are stretched, and concrete is poured around them. After hardening of
concrete, the tension in the rods is released. The rods will try to regain their original
length, but this is prevented by the surrounding concrete to which the steel is bonded.
Thus, the concrete is now effectively in a state of pre-compression. It is capable of
counteracting tensile stress, such as arising from the load as shown in figure (2-1),
(2-2) and (2-3).

Figure (2-1): Place and stretch steel rods, prior to concreting.

Figure (2-2): Release the tension and cut the rods after concreting.

Figure (2-3): A prestressed beam under an external load.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

But, the early attempts of prestressing were not completely successful. It was
observed that the effect of prestress reduced with time. The load resisting capacities
of the members were limited. Under sustained loads, the members were found to fail.
This was due to the following reason; Concrete shrinks with time. Moreover, under
sustained load, the strain in concrete increases with increase in time. This is known
as creep strain. The reduction in length due to creep and shrinkage is also applicable
to the embedded steel, resulting in significant loss in the tensile strain.
In the early applications, the strength of the steel and the strain during prestressing
were less. The residual strain and hence, the residual prestress was only about 10%
of the initial value.
The total loss in strain due to elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage was also close
to 0.0007. Thus, the residual strain was negligible. The solution to increase the
residual strain and the effective prestress are as follows:

• Adopt high strength steel with much higher original strain. This leads to the
scope of high prestressing force.
• Adopt high strength concrete to withstand the high prestressing force.

2.1.2 Basic Concept

A prestressed concrete structure is different from a conventional reinforced
concrete structure due to the application of an initial load on the structure prior to its
use. The initial load or ‘prestress’ is applied to enable the structure to counteract the
stresses arising during its service period.
The prestressing of a structure is not the only instance of prestressing. The
concept of prestressing existed before the applications in concrete.
Two examples of prestressing before the development of prestressed concrete
are provided:
2.1.2.1 Force-fitting of metal bands on wooden barrels
Barrels are made from separate wooden staves, kept in place by metal hoops.
The metal bands induce a state of initial hoop compression to counteract the hoop
tension caused by filling of liquid in the barrels, so tightening them together and
forming a watertight barrel as shown in figure (2-4).

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1.2.2 Pre-tensioning the spokes in a bicycle wheel

The pre-tension of a spoke in a bicycle wheel is applied to such an extent that
there will always be a residual tension in the spoke. Also, the Cartwheels were
similarly prestressed by passing a heated iron tire around the wooden rim of the
wheel. On cooling, the tire would contract and be held firmly in place on the rim,
thus strengthening the joints between the spokes and the rim by putting them into
compression and this induces an axial compression that counteracts all, or part of,
the tensile stresses set up in the member by applied loading as shown in figure (2-
5).

Figure (2-4): Force-fitting of metal Figure (2-5): Pre-tensioning the

bands on wooden barrels. spokes in a bicycle wheel.

2.1.3 Application of prestressed concrete

Within the field of building structures, most prestressed concrete applications
are in the form of simply supported precast floor and roof beams. These are usually
factory-made, where the advantages of controlled mass production can be realized.
Where large spans are required, in situ prestressed concrete beams are sometimes
used, and in situ prestressed concrete flat slab construction is increasingly being
employed. This last technique is often associated with that of the lift slab, whereby
whole floor slabs are cast and tensioned at ground level, and then jacked up into their
final position.
In the field of bridge engineering. These often comprise precast units, lifted
into position and then tensioned against the units already in place, the process being
continued until the span is complete. For smaller bridges, the use of simply
supported precast prestressed concrete beams has proved an economical form of
construction.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

For concrete, internal stresses are induced (usually, by means of tensioned

steel) for the following reasons:
• The tensile strength of concrete is only about 8% to 14% of its compressive
strength.
• Cracks tend to develop at early stages of loading in flexural members such as beams
and slabs.
• To prevent such cracks, compressive force can be suitably applied in the
longitudinal direction of the member.
• Prestressing enhances the bending, shear and torsional capacities of the flexural
members.
• In pipes and liquid storage tanks, the hoop tensile stresses can be effectively
counteracted by circular prestressing.

2.1.4 Brief History

Before the development of prestressed concrete, two significant developments
of reinforced concrete are the invention of Portland cement and introduction of steel
in concrete. These are also mentioned as the part of the history.
Aspdin, J., (England) 1824 obtained a patent for the manufacture of Portland
cement.
Monier, J., (France) 1857 introduced steel wires in concrete to make pipes, arches
and slabs.
Jackson, P. H., (USA) 1886 introduced the concept of tightening steel tie rods in
artificial stone and concrete arches as shown in figure (2-6).

Figure (2-6): Steel tie rods in arches.

Doehring, C. E. W., (Germany) 1888 manufactured concrete slabs and small

beams with embedded tensioned steel as he obtained a patent for prestressing slabs
with metal wires. But these early attempts at prestressing were not successful
because of the loss of the prestress with time.
Stainer, C. R., (USA) 1908 recognized losses due to shrinkage and creep and
suggested retightening the rods to recover lost prestress. As he tried to solve this

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

problem, but to no avail. After a long lapse of time during which little progress was
made because of the unavailability of high-strength steel to overcome prestress
losses, R. E. Dill of Alexandria, Nebraska recognized the effect of the shrinkage
and creep (transverse material flow) of concrete on the loss of prestress. He
subsequently developed the idea that successive post-tensioning of unbonded rods
would compensate for the time-dependent loss of stress in the rods due to the
decrease in the length of the member because of creep and shrinkage.
Emperger, F., (Austria) 1923 developed a method of winding and pre- tensioning
high tensile steel wires around concrete pipes. Also, he developed the principles of
circular prestressing and the hoop-stressed horizontal reinforcement around walls of
concrete tanks using turn buckles to prevent cracking due to internal liquid pressure,
achieving water tightness which was introduced by Hewett, W. H., (USA) 1924.
Thereafter, prestressing of tanks and pipes developed at an accelerated pace in the
United States, with thousands of tanks of water, liquid, and gas storage built and
much mileage of prestressed pressure pipe laid in the two to three decades that
followed.
Dill, R. H., (USA) 1925 used high strength unbonded steel rods. The rods were
tensioned and anchored after hardening of the concrete.
Eugene Freyssinet (France) 1926 proposed methods to overcome prestress losses
using high-strength and high-ductility tensile steel wires, with ultimate strength as
high as 1725 MPa and yield stress over 1240 MPa. In 1939, he developed conical
wedges for end anchorages for post-tensioning and developed double-acting jacks.
He is often referred to as the Father of Prestressed concrete.
Hoyer, E., (Germany) 1938 developed ‘long line’ pre-tensioning method.
Mangel, G., (Belgium) 1940 developed an anchoring system for post-tensioning,
using flat wedges.

During the Second World War

Applications of prestressed and precast concrete increased rapidly. The names
of a few persons involved in developing prestressed concrete are mentioned: Guyon,
Y., (France) built numerous prestressed concrete bridges in western and central
Europe. Abeles, P. W., (England) introduced the concept of partial prestressing.
Leonhardt, F., (Germany), Mikhailor, V., (Russia) and Lin, T. Y., (USA) were
famous in the field of prestressed concrete.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

The International Federation for Prestressing (FIP), a professional

organization in Europe was established in 1952. The Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute (PCI) was established in USA in 1954.
Prestressed concrete was started to be used in building frames, parking
structures, stadiums, railway sleepers, transmission line poles and other types of
structures and elements.
In India, the applications of prestressed concrete diversified over the years.
The first prestressed concrete bridge was built in 1948 under the Assam Rail Link
Project.

In post-World War II suburbia

Families needed more than just residences and to meet demands while keeping
costs down, contractors, engineers, and architects stressed the need for speed,
economy, and efficient construction as opposed to complex or unique architectural
styles that had been popular in the past. The best thing for speed would be a mass
production of standardized building components that could be used for quick on-site
assembly. One thing was certain: ornate design was out, and economy was in.
Engineers quickly solved the problem by adapting a new technology for concrete:
prestressing it to create the simple modular panels, planks, and beams needed for
long-span floors, roofs, and bridges. Under controlled factory conditions, plants
could mass-produce these modular components to standardized specifications,
making it far easier to meet increasing demand for building materials. Quite
suddenly, buildings and structures of all kinds including hotels, shopping centers,
stadiums, and schools – began incorporating prestressed concrete products into their
designs. While prestressed concrete is often visible, it often goes unrecognized
despite becoming a key structural material in buildings of all types during this time.

From Europe to America

Eugene Freyssinet combined the tensioned strands of high-strength steel with

high-strength concrete to create a prestressed concrete able to withstand a much
greater tension without cracking or permanently bending. Gustave Magnel,
however, was the one who broadened the appeal of prestressed concrete by
demonstrating how it was simultaneously stronger and more economical than
reinforced concrete.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

In fact, through Magnel’s own student, Charles Zollman, Magnel helped in

designing the Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia figure (2-7), which famously
became the first prestressed-concrete beam bridge built in the United States in 1950.

Figure (2-7): The Walnut Lane Memorial

Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Even though Magnel said in 1954 that mass production of prestressed-

concrete bridge components was unlikely or even impossible – based primarily on
his European experience of highly customized projects, U.S. manufacturers soon
proved otherwise. Contractors, engineers, and architects, faced with meeting huge
post-World War II demand for buildings and other infrastructure, welcomed the new
product with the standardization of prestressed units.

Once reinforced concrete had been developed by Hennebique at the end of

the 19th Century, it was realized that the performance could be improved if the bars
could be placed in tension, thus keeping the concrete in compression. Early attempts
worked, with the beams showing reduced tendency to crack in tension, but after a
few months the cracks reopened. No satisfactory answer was found until it was
realized that creep occurred.

2.1.5 Freyssinet's Discovery of Creep

Eugene Freyssinet was regarded as the first investigator to recognize the
effect of creep in concrete and to realize that high-quality concrete and high-tensile-
strength steel are necessary for adequate prestress retention. Prestressed concrete is
the most recent of the major forms of construction to be introduced into structural
engineering. Although several patents were taken out in the last century for various
prestressing schemes, they were unsuccessful because low strength steel was used,
with the result that long-term effects of creep and shrinkage of the concrete reduced
the prestress force so much that any advantage was lost. It was only in the early part

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

of the twentieth century that the French engineer Eugène Freyssinet approached the
problem in a systematic way using high-strength steel and applied the technique of
prestressing concrete successfully. Since then prestressed concrete has become a
well-established method of construction, and the technology is available in most
developed form and in many developing countries.

Boutiron Bridge is one of three similar bridges built by Freyssinet over the
River Allier, near Vichy, in France, in the mid-1920s as shown in figure (2-8). It is
a three-span reinforced concrete arch, with open spandrels. The river carries a high
volume of melt-water in the spring when the snows melt in the Massif Central. When
an arch is being constructed it has to rest on falsework until it is complete; normally,
wedges underneath the falsework are knocked out at that time, which drops the
falsework away and transfers the deadweight to the arch. The presence of the
wedging makes the falsework fragile, and the act of dropping it away from the arch
can be dangerous.

Freyssinet decided to avoid these problems and installed jacks between the
two halves of each arch span (the jacking pockets are still visible today). By jacking
the two arches against each other, the arches lifted slightly, away from the falsework,
which could then be safely removed. In-situ concrete was used to fill the gap between
the arches as shown in figure (2-9).

Figure (2-9): The jacking pockets gap

Figure (2-8): Boutiron Bridge. filled with concrete.

A few months after construction, Freyssinet said that he was cycling to

work over the bridge when he realized that the parapet was no longer straight but
was dipping at the mid-span of each arch. He concluded that the arch must have
shortened, but he was able to reinstall the jacks, push the arches apart again, and
make good the structure. This led him to realize that concrete creeps under load.
He did tests to confirm this and concluded that the early attempts at prestressing
had failed because concrete of too poor quality had been used (which increased
the amount of creep) and steel bars with too little prestress had been used (which
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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

meant that the creep strains removed the prestress). At about the same time, in
England, Glanville was pursuing laboratory studies of concrete and coming to
similar conclusions. It is disputed which man actually discovered creep first, but
it is not disputed that Freyssinet was the first to capitalize on the discovery.

Freyssinet then decided that to make prestressed concrete work, very high-
quality concrete was needed, with very high tensile steel wires, stressed as highly
as possible. Creep would still occur, but the prestress that would be left after these
losses would still be worthwhile. He set up a company to produce telegraph poles,
using thin concrete tubes made with mortar, and prestressed with piano wire. This
company was set up during the depression and was a financial failure.

2.1.6 Freyssinet's practical systems

Freyssinet then went on to produce practical systems utilizing two larger
diameter wires (typically 5 or 6 mm) clamped by means of a single wedge between
the wires pushing them against an external block. He patented this in France and
elsewhere, and licensed it to a number of companies, including Wayss and Freitag
in Germany.

A development of the original anchorage is this system, as shown in figure (2-

10) which can grip 12 wires of 5 mm diameter. The central wedge is grooved to hold
the wires and is made of high-strength mortar. The barrel is also made of mortar but
with external and internal spirals of steel. The barrel is cast into the structure and
connected to the duct for the tendon. After the concrete has hardened, the 12-wire
strand is inserted and jacked, using the wedge to grip the tendon.

Figure (2-10): Original Anchorage.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

War-time construction in England

Monkton Farleigh Mine. This was an old limestone mine from which a seam
of high quality stone was extracted in the 18th and 19th centuries to construct the
city of Bath. During WWII it was used to store very large amounts of ammunition
and other ordnance. It had its own internal railways, and a tunnel. Some parts of the
roof were apparently unstable, so short pretensioned prestressed beams were
installed over part of the area in 1940 (3000 beams, each 5m long, were used, and
includes sketches). The mine is no longer used to store ammunition, but some parts
have been taken over for various commercial uses, including wine storage. It is
believed that these beams are still in place, although they are no longer accessible,
and their present condition is unknown.

Railway Sleepers (from 1942). Prestressed concrete railway sleepers have

been in use in the UK for over 60 years. Taylor describes the development of the
first commercial sleepers in 1943, and the construction of a long-line plant to make
them, following unsuccessful attempts to use reinforced concrete sleepers, which
failed after only 10 days service on the main line.

Masonry Repair (1948). In order to repair the masonry tower of St Luke's

Church, Silverdale, near Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffs from the effects of mining
subsidence, it was prestressed using the Magnel system.

Airport Taxiway (1949). A prestressed concrete taxiway was built at

London Airport (Heathrow). This was similar to a complete runway slab built by
Freyssinet at Orly; the slab was only prestressed transversely but was made up of a
series of 45-degree triangles. Vertical rollers were inserted in the joints, so as the
slab contracted transversely it pushed against end abutments, thus inducing a
longitudinal prestress as well. This system neatly overcomes the friction that would
arise if direct application of the longitudinal prestress were attempted. The slab was
120' wide by 355' long.

Prestressed concrete in buildings (1949). Beams for factory roofs were

provided for the Heathcote Factory at Tiverton in Devon, and the HMSO warehouse
at Sight hill in Edinburgh was the forerunner of precast, prestressed building
construction. The main beams were pretensioned in a factory, while the secondary
beams were posttensioned at site.

Partially Prestressed Concrete. Paul Abeles was also a refugee who came to
England just before WW2. He was a believer in what we now call partially
prestressed concrete, in which additional untensioned reinforcement was included in
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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

the beam. The idea behind this was to increase the ultimate moment capacity in the
beam, with the primary effect of the prestressing being to reduce the crack widths.
The first major application of his techniques is believed to be the reconstruction of
railway bridges for the electrification of the LNER railway out of Liverpool St
Station in London. His systems were openly criticized - there were many who said
that rather than combining the advantages of reinforced and prestressed concrete it
combined their disadvantages instead.

The history after 1950

Although the original experimentation and testing of prestressed concrete

focused mainly on bridges and bridge beams, the material soon found other places
in the new and expanding suburban world. Beginning in the 1950s and expanding in
the 1960s and beyond, a wide array of new buildings going up in the suburban
landscape were using prestressed concrete for major structural components.

Prestressed Concrete, Inc. (PCI), who fabricated the beams used in the first
major prestressed-concrete bridge on a Minnesota state highway (Bridge 9053) that
was servicing Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Iowa, and western Wisconsin
out of their Roseville plant. They offered prestressed channel slabs for floors and
roofs, prestressed girders and prestressed bridge members along with precast
columns, walls, manholes, and custom products. Their first non-bridge projects
included Westwood, a small shopping center in St. Louis Park, and a high school
sports stadium in Bloomington. The latter was eventually part of the Bloomington
High School construction project that produced the first prestressed, precast-
concrete stadium grandstand in the Twin Cities. PCI pushed advertising that
emphasized their precasting abilities “under ideal factory control,” promoting the
advantages of manufacturing off-site year-round.

Late in the 1950s, Paul and Bill Radichel of Mankato created Spancrete
Midwest Company, setting up a plant in Osseo (or Maple Grove, as the successor
company identified its location today) using a version of the German machine for
hollow core reworked by Henry Nagy. Spancrete established the first use of hollow
core slabs in the U.S. in 1954, and by 1960, the Radichels began operating Spancrete
Midwest’s 600-foot casting bed. The new Osseo plant stood alone in a future
suburban industrial park. In St. Paul, Molin Concrete Products Company, established
in 1905, decided to dive into the prestressed-concrete business around the same time.
They, in contrast, were using the Flexicore Hollow core manufacturing process in
their plants.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

Wells Concrete Company in Wells was established in 1951 by Frank

Balcerzak, who had owned the Guaranteed Gravel and Sand Company of Mankato.
Instead of focusing on producing bridge beams, he instead turned his attention to the
new prestressed “double-tee” and finally began Wells’ prestressing operation in
1957 with help from a Florida consulting firm specializing in prestressed concrete.

This new form quickly became a primary structural member in the industry,
useful for longer spans where hollow core slabs were too short or too light.

An advertisement in 1962 noted the double-tee’s fire-retardant rating and fire

safety became a high selling point for prestressed concrete building components. By
the middle of the 1960s, the prestressed-concrete industry had established itself in
Minnesota, and the firms that would dominate the state’s industry for subsequent
decades were up and running. David Billington, who had also studied under
Professor Magnel, called prestressing “the single most significant new direction in
structural engineering of any period in history. …Moreover, the idea of prestressing
opened up new possibilities for form and aesthetics.”

Prestressed concrete had transformed the world in the decades after World
War II and continues today as a widely used building material.

2.2 Prestressing Systems

1 - The Freyssinet system, Freyssinet cable consists of a number of parallel
wires installed in place by a spiral spring and then put the cable in a flexible pipe
before placing it in the form of the concrete and take it about 60-75 cm from the ends
of the pipe is needed. The cable is installed at the ends of the concrete form by the
connecting cone.
2 - Magnel Platon system, the way it works, such as the Freyssinet system,
but used iron plates called sandwiches instead of connecting cone beside other
materials.
3 - Gifford Udall System, this system originated in Great Britain, is widely
used in India. This is a single wire system. Each wire is stressed independently using
a double acting jack. Any number of wires can be grouped together to form a cable
in this system. There are two types of anchorage device in this system.
a) Tube anchorages
b) Plate anchorages

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

4 - Lee-McCall system, the way it works the same as the Freyssinet system
but used a skewer of high-resistance steel alloy diameter 12-18 mm instead of wires
next to other materials. After stretching the skewers to the required length, they are
tightened using nuts against bearing plates provided at the end sections of the
member

2.3 Development of Building Materials

The development of prestressed concrete can be studied in the perspective of
traditional building materials. In the ancient period, stones and bricks were
extensively used.
These materials are strong in compression, but weak in tension. For tension,
bamboos and coir ropes were used in bridges. Subsequently iron and steel bars were
used to resist tension. These members tend to buckle under compression. Wood and
structural steel members were effective both in tension and compression.

In reinforced concrete, concrete and steel are combined such that concrete
resists compression and steel resists tension. This is a passive combination of the
two materials. In prestressed concrete high strength concrete and high strength steel
are combined such that the full section is effective in resisting tension and
compression. This is an active combination of the two materials. Figure (2-11) shows
the use of the different materials with the progress of time.

Figure (2-11): Materials Development.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.3.1 Forms of Pre-stressing Steel

A pre-stressing wire is a single unit made of steel. The nominal diameters of
the wires are 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 8.0 mm. The different types of wires are as
follows:
1- Plain wire: No indentations on the surface.
2- Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical indentations on the surface.

A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a pre-stressing strand.
The different types of strands are as follows.
1- Two-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form the strand.
2- Three-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to form the strand.
3- Seven-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are spun around a central wire.
The central wire is larger than the other wires.

A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a pre-stressing tendon.

The tendons are used in post-tensioned members. The strands are placed in a duct
which may be filled with grout after the post-tensioning operation is completed as
shown in figure (2-12).

A group of tendons form a prestressing cable which are used in bridges. A

tendon can be made up of a single steel bar as shown in figure (2-13).

The diameter of a bar is much larger than that of a wire. Bars are available in
the following sizes: 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm.

Figure (2-12): Pre-Stressing Tendon. Figure (2-13): Pre-stressing wires,

strands and bars.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.3.2 TYPES OF PRE-STRESSING STEEL

The steel is treated to achieve the desired properties. The following are the
treatment processes:
Cold working (cold drawing)
The cold working is done by rolling the bars through a series of dyes. It re-
aligns the crystals and increases the strength.
Stress relieving
The stress relieving is done by heating the strand to about 350º C and cooling
slowly. This reduces the plastic deformation of the steel after the onset of yielding.
Strain tempering for low relaxation
This process is done by heating the strand to about 350º C while it is under
tension. This also improves the stress-strain behavior of the steel by reducing the
plastic deformation after the onset of yielding. In addition, the relaxation is reduced.

2.4 Nature of Concrete-Steel Interface

Bonded tendon
When there is adequate bond between the pre-stressing tendon and concrete,
it is called a bonded tendon. Pre-tensioned and grouted post-tensioned tendons are
bonded tendons.
Unbonded tendon
When there is no bond between the pre-stressing tendon and concrete, it is
called un-bonded tendon. When grout is not applied after post-tensioning, the tendon
is an un-bonded tendon.

2.5 Methods of Prestressing

Pre-tensioning
The tension is applied to the tendons before casting of the concrete as shown
in figure (2-14). The pre-compression is transmitted from steel to concrete through
bond over the transmission length near the ends.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

Figure (2-14): Pre-tensioning Process.

Post-tensioning
The tension is applied to the tendons (located in a duct) after hardening of the
concrete. The pre-compression is transmitted from steel to concrete by the anchorage
device (at the end blocks) as shown in figure (2-15).

Figure (2-15): A post-tensioned box girder of a bridge.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.6 Source of Pre-stressing Force

Hydraulic Pre-stressing
This is the simplest type of pre-stressing, producing large pre-stressing forces.
The hydraulic jack used for the tensioning of tendons, comprises of calibrated
pressure gauges which directly indicate the magnitude of force developed during the
tensioning.
Mechanical Pre-stressing
In this type of pre-stressing, the devices include weights with or without lever
transmission, geared transmission in conjunction with pulley blocks, screw jacks
with or without gear drives and wire-winding machines. This type of pre-stressing
is adopted for mass scale production.
Electrical Pre-stressing
In this type of pre-stressing, the steel wires are electrically heated and
anchored before placing concrete in the molds. This type of pre-stressing is also
known as thermoelectric pre-stressing.

2.7 TYPES OF PRE-STRESSING

Pre-stressing of concrete can be classified in several ways. The following
classifications are discussed.
1- External or Internal Pre-stressing
External Pre-stressing
When the pre-stressing is achieved by elements located outside the concrete,
it is called external pre-stressing. The tendons can lie outside the member (for
example in I-girders or walls) or inside the hollow space of a box girder. This
technique is adopted in bridges and strengthening of buildings. For example, a box
girder of a bridge is pre-stressed with tendons that lie outside the concrete as shown
in figure (2-16).
Internal Pre-stressing
When the pre-stressing is achieved by elements located inside the concrete
member (commonly, by embedded tendons), it is called internal pre-stressing. Most
of the applications of pre-stressing are internal pre-stressing. For example, a box
girder of a bridge is pre-stressed with tendons that lie inside the concrete, as concrete
will be cast around the ducts containing the tendons as shown in figure (2-17).
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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

Figure (2-16): External Pre-stressing of Figure (2-17): Internal Pre-stressing of

a Box Girder. a Box Girder.

2- Linear or Circular Pre-stressing

Linear Pre-stressing
When the prestressed members are straight or flat, in the direction of
prestressing, the prestressing is called linear prestressing. For example, prestressing
of beams, piles, poles and slabs. The profile of the prestressing tendon may be
curved. For example, linearly prestressed railway sleepers as shown in figure (2-18).

Figure (2-18): Linearly Prestressed Railway Sleepers.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

Circular Prestressing
When the prestressed members are curved, in the direction of prestressing, the
prestressing is called circular prestressing. For example, circumferential prestressing
of tanks, silos, pipes and similar structures as shown in figure (2-19).

Figure (2-19): Circularly Prestressed Containment Structure.

3- Full, Limited or Partial Pre-stressing

Full Pre-stressing
When the level of pre-stressing is such that no tensile stress is allowed in
concrete under service loads, it is called full pre-stressing.

Limited Pre-stressing
When the level of pre-stressing is such that the tensile stress under service
loads is within the cracking stress of concrete, it is called limited pre-stressing.

Partial Pre-stressing
When the level of pre-stressing is such that under tensile stresses due to service
loads, the crack width is within the allowable limit, it is called partial pre-stressing.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

4- UNIAXIAL, BIAXIAL OR MULTI-AXIAL PRE-STRESSING.

Uniaxial Prestressing
When the prestressing tendons are parallel to one axis, it is called Uniaxial
Prestressing. For example, Longitudinal Prestressing of beams.
Biaxial Prestressing
When the prestressing tendons are parallel to two axes, it is called Biaxial
Prestressing.
Multi-Axial Prestressing
When the prestressing tendons are parallel to more than two axes, it is called
Multi-Axial Prestressing. For example, Prestressing of domes.

2.8 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PRE-

STRESSING

2.8.1 Advantages
The pre-stressed concrete has several advantages compared with traditional
reinforced concrete without pre-stressing since the fully pre-stressed concrete is
usually subjected to compression during service life.
1- Section remains un-cracked under service loads
• Reduction of steel corrosion which increase in durability.
• Full section is utilized which means higher moment of inertia (higher
stiffness) and less deformation (improved serviceability).
• Increase in shear capacity.
• Suitable for use in pressure vessels, liquid retaining structures.
• Improved performance (resilience) under dynamic and fatigue loading.

2- High span-to-depth ratios

• Larger spans possible with pre-stressing like bridges)
• For the same span, less depth compared to RC member.
- Reduction in self-weight.
- More aesthetic appeal due to slender sections.
- More economical sections.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 2: Literature Review

3- Suitable for precast construction

• Rapid construction.
• Better quality control.
• Reduced maintenance.
• Suitable for repetitive construction.
• Reduction of formwork.
• Availability of standard shapes.

2.8.2 Disadvantages
1- Pre-stressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it is not as common as reinforced
concrete.
2- The use of high strength materials is costly.
3- There is additional cost in auxiliary equipment.
3- There is need for quality control and inspection.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 3: Structural Modeling and
Analysis of Post Tensioned Slabs

Chapter 3
Structural Modeling and Analysis of Post Tensioned Slabs
This chapter talks about the prestressing slabs in the side on analysis, and it will
cover the following points:
1- Slab configuration.
2- Tendon profiles and equivalent loads.
3- Prestress losses.
4- Flexural in serviceability state.
5- Ultimate flexural strength.
6- Deflection & Vibration.
7- Shear.
8- Design of the pre-cast concrete slabs.
9- Analysis of post-tensioned slabs using finite element programs.

3.1 Slab Configuration

The post-tension slabs can be in many types:
- Flat slabs with/without drop panels.
- Ribbed and waffles floors.
- One way / two-way solid slabs.
As the ordinary slabs, each type has its usage and has the best conditions to
use it.
The tendons can be either uniformity spaced across the width of the slab, or they
can be grouped in two or three groups; this concept is valid for both one way and
two-way slabs.

Figure (3-1): Arrangement of tendons in one-way & two-way slabs.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 3: Structural Modeling and
Analysis of Post Tensioned Slabs

Figure (3-1-a) is suitable for the rectangular panels with aspect ratio 2:1, figure
(3-1-b) is suitable for the approximately square panels; where strip beams are
required and the span of the concrete slab is too long, figure (3-1-c) is a combination
of figures (3-1-a,b) where the slab and beams are both post-tension, it's the most
commonly arrangement for the tendons in case of one way panels; in order to reduce
the losses of the axial prestress from the beams, figure (3-1-d) is suitable for two-
way panels with post-tension slabs, some of the beam axial prestress is lost in the
slab, this arrangement is suitable for nearly square panels with spans less than 8 m,
figure (3-1-e) is for two-way slab, but it's prestressed only in one direction and in
the other direction the slab acts as a traditional reinforced concrete slab, finally figure
(3-1-f) is suitable for solid slabs in which we want minimum depth of the slab, it's
also used in the waffle floors, but due to the difficulty in its installation; this system
isn't preferred.
According to ACI 318, for the ribbed slabs, ribs shall be more than 100 mm
in width and their depth shall be less than 3.5 of their width, clear spacing between
ribs shall be less than 800 mm.
We can use drop panels in the prestressed concrete slabs to enhance the shear
strength of a strip beam or to increase its flexure strength over the support, but it's
recommended to avoid using the drop panels as possible as we can and use shear
head instead of it.
3.1.1 Span to depth ratio
One advantage of the post-tension slabs is that the floor can be made
shallower than the traditional concrete slabs, the reinforced concrete slab have a
large deflection value than the post-tension slab – for same load and depth.
The minimum allowable depth for any slab depends on many parameters
such as, concrete strength, span length, intensity of loading, whether the section is
solid or ribbed.
In order to get the minimum depth of the slab, we can get it from two criteria;
strength and deflection.
For a floor section with span (L) and distributed load (w) and assuming that
the section is non-cracked;
Moment = stress x section modules.
wL2 ∝ 𝜎 d2 …… 𝜎 = flexure stress, d = section depth.
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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 3: Structural Modeling and
Analysis of Post Tensioned Slabs

𝑤𝐿4 𝛿 𝑤𝐿3
from deflection side, 𝛿 ∝ = ∝
𝑑3 𝐿 𝑑3

The previous relationships show that if the load is constant and the span and
𝛿
depth are doubled; the deflection will doubled too, but the ratio remains constant,
𝐿
but the relationship between span and depth is complex and can't express simply as
linear; so we can't get the exact minimum depth from the first trial and we have to
use empirical solution to indicate the depth according to the span, we can use
empirical chart to get the depth of the slabs with respect to the following
assumptions:
- Fcu = 40 MPA, normal concrete.
- Tendon centroid = 35 mm above the slab soffit.
- Serviceability stresses limited to 2.3 MPA in tension, and 13.33 MPA in
compression.

Figure (3-2): Span to depth ratio graph.

We can also use the following ratios between the span to depth in order to get
the depth of the slab according to its type:

Table (3-1): Span to depth range for post-tensioned slabs.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 3: Structural Modeling and
Analysis of Post Tensioned Slabs

In case of the continuous slabs, the depth of the slab is smaller than it in the
case of the simple slab span, but it isn't possible to make charts for the continuous
slabs due to the large possible variation in the ratios of adjacent span lengths, so we
have to make some trials to get the minimum depth of the slab in this case, and we
can start our first trial with a depth of 0.7:0.8 times that for the simple span for the
same span length.

3.2 Tendon profiles and equivalent loads

In the post-tension floors, the tendon profile takes a curved shape in
common in the shape of a shallow parabola, it also may be joined with a straight
line.
The tendon profile takes the same shape of the expected bending moment
diagram for the slab according to the acting load on it, the reason is to get the full
benefit of the prestressing for, i.e. if we have a concentrated load only acting on the
section; the tendon profile will take a harped shape, and if we have a distributed load
acting on the section of the slab; the tendon profile will be a parabola, and we shall
note that the tendon profile shouldn't have any sharp edges and all edges shall be
rounded.

Figure (3-3): Tendon profiles with respect to loads.

3.2.1 Equivalent load

It's clear that the tendon exerts a horizontal and vertical forces in each fixed
point, the sum of the vertical forces from the tendon will equal the magnitude of the
suspended load.

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Figure (3-4): Forces acting on tendons and reactions.

The tendon profile takes a harped and parabolic shape as the straight tendon
doesn't exert any transverse force in the slab, a harped tendon exerts a concentrated
force and the parabolic tendon exerts a uniformity distributed load.
The tendon profile represents a line of compression; so, the B.M.D is on the
compression face of the member. Figure (3-5) illustrates this concept.......

Figure (3-5): Equivalent moment from tendon profile.

In the case of the simply supported spans, the moment must be superimposed
on moments from loading and that is as far as flexure of the member is affected, so
in this case the slab shall be designed for a combination of axial force and moment.
To get the equivalent load acting on the post-tension slab, and as previous
point; there must be a static equilibrium on the slab, i.e. the moment expert from the

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eccentricity of the tendon shall equal the moment from the acting loads on the slabs;
so we can get the equivalent load acting on the slab from the following equation –
for the case of distributed load acting on it, noting that the equivalent load is acting
opposite to the dead and the superimposed load, i.e. it acts upward:

Calculation of the equivalent load is important as most of the software are

work with the true equivalent load diagram.
3.2.2 Secondary moment
If the slab is consists of two spans and axial force from the tendon acts on it;
the slab section will deflect upward if it isn't hold by the intermediate support, in
order to maintain a contact between the slab section and the support a restoring force
will be exported and will generate a moment which called a secondary moment to
prevent this gap between the slab and the intermediate support to be generated.
This additional moment will be taken into consideration when we calculate
the final moment acting on the slab section plus the primary moment from the
prestressing force.

Figure (3-6): Effect of secondary moment.

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3.2.3 Tendon profile elements

As hinted before, there are 3 types of tendons … straight line, harp and
parabolic, in the following points we will cover the properties and the usage of each
type.
1) Straight line ….
They are commonly used in the ground slabs as a short straight length is
usually provided immediately behind a live or a pre-locked dead anchorage, the
straight-line tendon doesn't have any direct load, but it may be useful for transferring
shear between adjacent supports of a continuous slabs.

Figure (3-7): Secondary reaction in straight line tendons.

2) Harped profile ….
The harped profile gave a rise to an equivalent concentrated load, this
profile is suitable for members which carry concentrated load, in common we won't
meet this case in the slabs as distributed load usually acts on it, but we may find this
case in beams, the only case that we may find a concentrated load acting on the slab
is that for the slabs carries a set-back facade above, the tendon profile in this case
may take one shape of the following:

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Figure (3-8): Secondary reaction in harped line tendons.

3) Parabolic profile ……
Most of the suspended floors in the building are designed on a uniform
distributed load which corresponded a parabolic profile, and the parabola formulas
are valid for them.
By applying the parabolic formulas on the tendons, we will find that the
tendon can be draped to follow any section without any change in its equivalent load,
however the secondary moment will be different from one section to another, but the
final moment will be the same for all sections.

Final moment = primary moment + Secondary moment

4) Composite profile ……
As mentioned before in the ground slabs we usually use straight tendons, but
we can use simple second-degree parabola when an anchorage is set in a pocket for
prestressing from the top of the slab. Normally, the anchorages are positioned with
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their axes parallel to that of the slab or the beam, so even in the case of s simply
supported span, the tendon profile may consist of three parabolas and two straight
lines; a large parabola in the middle and two shorts near the anchorages and two
short straight lines at each anchorage.
3.2.4 Tendon deviation in plan
We may need to make curvature in the tendon profile in order to make holes
in the slab, but it shouldn't affect the equivalent load, but it may affect the losses
calculations.
If we make a deviation for the tendon with a radius (R); a radial force of a
𝑃
magnitude of per unit length will be generate and shall be resisted by the concrete
𝑅
in contact with the tendon, if we work to make the stress in the reinforcement lower
than 200 MPA; we will ensure that the steel is in the elastic range.
According to ACI, tendons of slab may take one of the following deviations:

Figure (3-9): Tendon deviation.

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3.3 Prestress losses:

Due to the losses occur during the prestressing procedure, the tendons loss
some of the applied prestressing force, so during the transfer stage and the final stage
the force magnitude in the tendons is less than the applied force by the jacking
equipment.
For the initial design; an average final force of 0.6 fpu to 0.65 fpu is often
assumed in the current practice, assuming that the strands are initially stressed to
0.75 fpu, approximately in the final stage the tendons will lose about 15% to 20% of
this force.
The losses in the prestressed tendons can be divided into two groups:
1- Short term losses; which occur during the prestressing operation in the initial
stage and consists of main three losses:
a) Friction losses due to tendon curvature and wobble.
b) Elastic shortening of concrete under the inductive compression.
c) Anchorage draw-in.
2- Long term losses; which occur gradually decreasing the prestressed force in the
tendons till loss about 15% to 20% of it in the final stage – when the imposed
loads have been applied – and they divided into:
a) Shrinkage of concrete.
b) Creep of concrete.
c) Relaxation of steel.
For the purpose of calculations; the prestressed losses shall be assumed and
must be modified exact later, as the calculations of the prestressed forces must be
very accurate in order to get stress acting on the section less than the allowable
stresses, so the calculations of the losses and the installation of the tendons shall be
very accurate.
There are three assumptions in order to simplify the losses calculations:
1- The angle between the tendon profile and the member axis ≈ zero.
2- The increase of the tendon profile due to its curvature is neglected, so the
tendon length = the span length.
3- The losses vary linearly along the tendon length.

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The losses in the prestressing force increase with the number of tendons, so in
the high losses case we can stress each tendon with different force in order to get
equal force in the tendons after the occurring of the losses.
In the case of the long tendons, it is clear that the losses at the end of the tendon
will be very high, so if we draw a force gradient line for this case, we will find that
the prestressing force reduces along the tendon length; so it's recommended to divide
the tendon profile into some profiles and jack the tendons from the both sides, in this
case the force in the second tendon will cover the losses occurs due to the jacking of
the first tendon, the following sketch illustrate this concept:

Figure (3-10): Losses gradient line through tendon profile

If the losses are highly unacceptable, we can make one or more of the
following options in order to reduce the losses in the tendons and return them to the
acceptable range:
• Reduce the friction losses by making the tendon profile as flat as possible.
• Provide additional short lengths of tendons in the far spans.
• Apply a high jacking force than required, then reduce the jacking for to the
design value before locking the anchorage, but we can't use this option unless
the jacking force is lower than 80% of the tendon strength.
• Re-stress the tendons after the shrinkage and creep losses have taken place.
• Stress from the both ends.
• Stress alternate tendons from the both ends.
After the previous overview for the losses occur in the tendons and how we
can avoid them, in the following pages we will view the reasons of each short term
and long-term losses in some details ….
3.3.1 Friction losses
The friction losses may be occur due to the friction between the tendon and
the surround duct in the case of un-bounded tendons, or the friction between the
tendons and performed sheath in the case of the bonded tendon, the contact may be

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intentional due to the tendon's curvature, or unintentional caused by the minor

deviations of the tendon from its intended profile, the losses due to the intentional
tendon contact referred to the curvature friction, and the losses due to the
unintentional tendon contact referred to the wobble friction.
As the profile consists of a series of curves; the loss will be the sum of the all
angles at each point in this curve, some friction losses will occur also due to the
friction in the stressing jack and anchorage.

3.3.2 Anchorage draw-in

In the post-tension system, the strands are gripped by the conical wedges as
they slide into tapered hole in the bearing plate. In this process the tendon's length is
reduced by a draw-in value which is required to lock the anchorage, it's usually about
6 mm. The possibility of the strand slippage is much less with jacks where the
wedges are driven by hydraulic force.
In the all cases the allowable draw-in movement in the design stage is
recommended to be less than 8 mm, if the draw-in value is out of the range; the
tendon forces shall be calculated from the draw-ins and from the serviceability
stresses and check them, some of the tendons may have to be re-stressed if the
stresses are unacceptable.
The draw-in losses are critical in the case of the short tendons as they will be
very high and in the most cases the draw-in value will be more than 8 mm.

Figure (3-11): Anchorage draw-in losses.

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3.3.3 Elastic shortening

As the tendon is stressed, it inducts compression on the concrete which causes
a slightly reduction in the length of the member, when the first tendon is stressed;
no loss in the force will occur as the tensile force in the tendon equals the
compression force in the concrete. When the second tendon is stressed; no loss in
the force will occur in the second tendon for the same previous reason, but losses in
the first tendon will occur due to the elastic shortening as when the second tendon is
stressed m it carries its full force (P1), but the force in the first tendon is reduced by
(PL), so the average losses of the two tendons equals half of the total loss.

3.3.4 Shrinkage of concrete

We can use bonded rod reinforcement in order to resist the shrinkage in the
slabs, and in all cases the slabs are reinforced by a lower reinforcement mesh.
Post-tensioned slabs are normally stressed within fortnight of casting, and
sometimes within three days, so we will be accurate if we assume that 20% of the
shrinkage will have taken place in two weeks and within this period, the rate of
shrinkage will be linear, and we can calculate the loss of the prestressing force from
the following equation:
Loss of prestressing force = 𝜀𝑠 x Es x Ap

3.3.5 Creep of concrete

The common definition of the creep is that it's an elongation occurs when the
load is constant and applied for a long term.
On stressing, the member becomes self-supporting, and the creep is a long-
term phenomenon; so, the local stress at the tendon level should include for the
prestress and the moments due to self-weight of the member and the other permanent
dead loads, live load is generally ignored.
In most of the post-tensioned slabs, the permanent loads are approximately
balanced by the equivalent tendon load; so that the stress in the concrete in the tendon
𝑃𝑖
level is nearly uniform; so 𝜎 reduces to and the losses of the prestressed force can
𝐴𝑐
be calculated from the following equation:
𝑃𝑖 𝐸𝑠
Loss of prestressing force = Cc x ( ) x Ap x ( )
𝐴𝑐 𝐸𝑐

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Ec = The modules of elasticity of concrete at the time of loading.

3.3.6 Relaxation of tendon

The simplified definition of the relaxation is that, it's a reduction in the stress
with constant strain.
It's common to use low relaxation strands in the post-tensioned floors.
In the calculation of the relaxation losses, we shall use the prestressed force
after the short-term losses have taken place, as the relaxation of tendon is a long-
term loss as mentioned before.

3.3.7 Tendon elongation

Elongation is measured at full jacking load before locking the anchorage using
a hydraulic pressure gauge.

3.4 Flexure in the serviceability state

It's known that the serviceability includes the serviceability stresses,
deflection, vibration under the service loads, in this branch we will discuss the
analysis of the stresses under the service loads.
Analysis of the post-tensioned concrete slabs is longer than it for the
traditional reinforced concrete slabs as the post-tensioned concrete slabs shall be
within the allowable stresses in both transfer and final stages under the service loads,
we should also check stresses under the ultimate limit loads.
The following flow chart illustrate the sequence of analysis and design for the
post-tensioned concrete slabs:

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Figure (3-12): design flowchart of post-tensioned concrete slabs

The analysis of the post-tensioned slabs is a systematic process which can be

done manually or using a numerical software, in all cases we can solve the slab strip
using any structural method for analysis such as moment distribution for the
indeterminate strips of slabs, the slab can be analyzed as a frame or as a beam strip,
it can have drop panels or change of section near the support.
In the case of the traditional concrete slabs, the cracks are allowed to take
place, and the section is designed as a cracked section with any method of analysis
and design, but in the case of the prestressed slabs, the cracks may be allowed to
take place or not, so the types of the post-tensioned concrete slabs can be divided
into two categories according to the tolerance of the cracks to be occur, if the cracks
aren't allowed to take place; then the section is defined as " full prestressing ", and
if some cracks are allowed to take place; then the section is defined as " Partial
prestressing ".

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In the current practice, the allowable strain with respect to the allowable
tensile stress equals 2.5 x 10-4 in the case of post-tension, and 12.5 x 10-4 in the case
of the traditional concrete slabs, which means that we can use any value within this
range.
It's clear that ACI divide the allowable stresses into three classes (U – T – C)
according to the assumed behavior, which can be simplified in the following table:

Table (3-2): Allowable stresses according to ACI 318.

ACI specifies the following maximum values of stress in low relaxation

strand:
During stressing; 0.94 fpy but not more than 0.8 fpu and the maximum is
recommended by the manufacturer.
Immediately after stressing: 0.7 fpu.

3.5 Ultimate flexural strength

Although we design the post-tensioned slabs on the working stage, we
have to calculate the ultimate flexure strength for the member in order to ensure that
under the nominal design value for load, the member won't fail before the load
excesses the design load multiple by predetermined factor. All combination of
loading shall be taken into consideration within this check including (Dead load –
Live Load – self-weight – lateral forcer – if any), the section shall be safe and all
of this load cases.

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Figure (3-13): Deformations of section under the loading stages.

The minimum value of resistance that is required for the section equals the
serviceability loads multiplied by the loads factor, a number of load combinations
are normally considered in order to arrive at the most adverse condition at each
critical position, the value of a load factor depends on the importance of this factor
in the combination, the dead load and secondary moments are present in all cases,
but the corresponding load factor varies from 1 to 1.4 for dead loads depending on
the load combination and equals 1 for the secondary moment in all cases.
3.5.3 Procedure for calculating strength
Calculating the flexure strength for the post-tensioned slabs is the same of
calculating it for the reinforced concrete slabs and the only difference being the
calculation of the stress in the tendon at the ultimate load, the basic assumption is in
both cases is that the plane section remains plane.

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The load factors which are used take account of the possible inaccuracies in
the assessment of loads and the tolerance, the partial factor for materials allow for
the differences between the laboratory and actual strengths, local weakness and
inaccuracies of the properties of materials.
Although the tendon force is higher in the ultimate state than at serviceability
state, the effect of increase on the secondary moments is ignored and the secondary
moments are added unfactored to each of the load combinations.
The design ultimate limit capacity of the post-tensioned members considers
static equilibrium with the tendon in the non-linear state, the total tensile force in
tendon and the reinforcement rods must equal the total compressive force in
concrete, the concrete is assumed to have reached its failure strain at the extreme
fiber. Tests indicate that in the ultimate limit state the shape of the compression block
is nearly parabolic which can be simplified to a rectangular shape, in order for the
rectangular block to be equivalent to that obtained from tests; it's necessary to apply
certain factors to the intensity of the stress and to the depth of the compression block
that are defined in ACI 318 clearly.

Figure (3-14): Forces acting on the section.

We can summer the procedure of the ultimate state check generally consists of
the following steps:
1- Calculate the required moment of resistance (Mr).
2- Calculate Tr & Tp, initially Tr may be assumed zero.
3- Calculate dx & dc.
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4- Calculate Mu.
5- If Mu < Mr; add bonded reinforcement, then repeat from step 2.
The stresses in the ultimate state are assumed to equal the strength of the
material modified by the partial safety factor, these factors differ for concrete,
bonded rod reinforcement and prestressing tendons.

3.6 Deflection
Excessive floor deflection or vibration can cause alarm to building
occupants and may result in damage to non-structural elements such as partitions
and finishes.
The deflection performance for post-tensioned slabs is better than that of
reinforced concrete slabs, as the action of the prestressed force causes members to
have an initial upward curvature – camber – which reduces the effect of deflection
due to the self-weight and live load. However, the greater slenderness the post-
tensioned slabs makes them more susceptible to vibration problems than reinforced
floors.
Both deflection and vibration are serviceability problems.
Calculations of deflection for the post-tensioned floors are simpler than it for
the traditional reinforced concrete floors, as the section usually can be assumed as
uncracked section; we can use the properties of the gross concrete section, other
assumptions commonly made in deflection analysis are:
1- The force in a tendon is constant along its length.
2- The slope of the tendon is small, so that the horizontal component of the
prestress is constant.
3- Any change in prestress in the tendons caused by the deflections may be
neglected.

3.7 Shear
Failure of floors is a critical issue which shall be checked after completing
the design of the slab in flexure. In one-way slabs, excessive shear stresses result in
a form of diagonal tension cracks, and in flat slabs punching shear failure around the
column may take place.

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The main difference between post-tensioned slabs and traditional concrete

slabs is that in the case of post-tensioned slabs the vertical component of the
prestressing force will oppose the shear due to the applied loads; so, it will reduce
the shear force which the concrete section is required to withstand.

3.7.1 Shear Strength

ACI defines the shear strength as a linear function of the square root of the
compressive strength fc’, the value of coefficient 𝛽p depends on the natural of the
shear loading.

ACI 318 recommends that all values of √𝑓𝑐′ affecting the calculations of the
shear capacity or cracking moment should be multiplied by 0.75 for concrete in
which all the aggregates are lightweight, and by 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
The shear forces act on any a one-way slab can be simply calculated using
any elastic method, continuous spans are normally analyzed in unit widths, the
maximum shear occurs when the full live load is present on adjacent spans, and the
excessive shear may lead to a structural collapse.

3.7.2 Shear reinforcement

If the applied shear force exceeds the calculated shear strength, then it's
recommended to increase the depth of the slab, or it may be more economic to use
shear reinforcement which must be sufficient to carry the diagonal tension induced
by the shear loading, so it will prevent cracks to take place.
In two-way spanning floors the critical design case is the punching shear
around the columns or under very large concentrated loads, the exact mechanism of
failure depends on the detail of reinforcement, but in general it consists of cracking
through slabs usually at angle flatter than 45 o.

Figure (3-15): Punching cone formation at a column connection.

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The maximum punching shear force in a slab occurs on a perimeter at the face of the
column and equals the total vertical load being transferred from the floor into the
column.
3.7.3 ACI 318 punching strength calculations
The initial shear check is performed on a rectangular perimeter 0.5d from the
column face, this check based on the most heavily loaded edge of the perimeter.
According to ACI 318, it's recommended to make reinforcement arrangement
consists of a crosshead of reinforcing bars supporting conventional rectangular links,
the distance this crosshead must extend from the face of the column is then
determined by checking the shear.

Figure (3-16): Typical arrangement of links and lacing bars to resist punching shear.

For the slabs with constant thickness along their sections, shear is checked
along a single critical perimeter located at a distance 0.5d from the column face. For

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slabs with varying thickness – as the case of drop panel – it's also necessary to
consider a perimeter at the edge of the drop panel.

3.8 Design of the pre-cast concrete slabs

There are many types of the pre-cast concrete slabs that we can use, and
the most common type of them is the Hollow Core Slab.
The design of hollow core slabs is very simple as we can cover areas of
spans tend to 24 m using them.
If the span of the panel < 4 m; then we can use a pre-cast solid slab without
any voids inside it, but if the span > 16 m; it's recommended to use double Tee slab.
A thin solid slab with thickness of 75 mm is casted above the hollow-core
slab in order to make the slab behave as a composite and improve its behavior in
deflection. This thin solid slab is covered by a mesh of ø 10 @ 200 mm.
The design of the hollow core slabs is very simple, as we should only
calculate the working load acting on the floor without its self-weight, then we can
get the thickness of the slab from the data sheet of any industry which produce this
type of slabs with respect to its span and working load acting on it.
The common thickness of the slabs is = 150, 200, 245, 320, 400, 500 mm.
Each manufacturer has his own tables that we can use in order to get the most
suitable slab, and there are some of these tables from different manufacturers.

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Figure (3-17): Different design tables for pre-cast slabs.

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This slab reaches the situ as panels, each panel with standard width of 1200
mm, grout fill the spacing between panels and the upper thin solid slab make them
work as a composite.
The slabs rested on the beams on a ledge.

3.9 Analysis of post-tensioned slabs using finite element

programs
3.9.1) Overview
This part describes the methodology and design algorithms performed by SAFE
for the analysis and design of post-tensioned structural slabs and beams. It presents
the methods used by SAFE to model tendon objects, prestress losses, post-tensioning
loads, and the automation of tendon layouts.
There are two possible ways to apply prestressing to concrete, namely,
posttensioning and pre-tensioning. SAFE considers only the post-tensioning of slabs
and beams. The post-tensioning tendons may be bonded or unbonded.
3.9.1.1 Post-Tensioning System in SAFE
In SAFE, tendon elements are used to provide the post-tensioning. Tendons can
be placed anywhere and in any plan direction. Each tendon consists of a specific
number of strands. Figure (3-18) provides a schematic of the aspects involved in
including post- tensioning, from material definition through to detailed output.

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Figure (3-18): Schematic of post tensioning system and process.

Specific analysis and design procedures used in SAFE are intended to comply with
the relevant design codes.
3.9.1.2 Definition of Terms
Terms used in this manual, within the context of prestressed concrete, are as
follows:

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Prestressed Concrete - This term refers to concrete that has been precompressed,
often before application of other loads, and in this manual refers to post-tensioning
only.
Post-Tensioning - A procedure in which the steel tendons are tensioned after the
concrete has been cast.
Tendon Object - Consists of a number of high-strength steel wires or strands
enveloped by a duct, placed anywhere in the slab or beam.
Post-Tensioning Loads - The forces that the tendon exerts on the structure. This
includes both the vertical loads due to tendon profile and end forces due to anchorage
of the tendon. The force due to friction loss is uniformly distributed along the length
of the tendon.
Self-Weight - Weight of the structure due to gravity, computed automatically by
SAFE from object dimensions and specified density of materials.

3.9.1.3 Analysis and Design Procedure

After a SAFE model has been completed and all of the material property and
section property definitions, model geometry (including tendon layouts, profiles,
and jacking force assignments), member assignments, and loading criteria have been
specified, an analysis is ready to be performed.
During the analysis phase, SAFE will calculate reactions, member displacements,
beam forces, slab forces, and slab stresses for all specified load patterns and
combinations. SAFE then performs a design in accordance with the specified design
code and calculates the required amount of reinforcement and carries out the
appropriate punching shear checks.
SAFE automates several slab and mat design tasks. Specifically, it integrates slab
design moments across design strips and designs the required reinforcement; it
checks slab punching shear around column supports and concentrated loads; and it
designs beam flexural, shear, and torsion reinforcements. The actual design
algorithms vary based on the specific design code chosen by the user.
It should be noted that the design of post-tensioned reinforced concrete slabs is a
complex subject and the design codes cover many aspects of this process. SAFE is
a tool to help the user in this process. Only the aspects of design documented in this

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manual are automated by SAFE design capabilities. The user must check the results
produced and address other aspects not covered by SAFE.

3.9.2) The Tendon Object In SAFE

3.9.2.1 Overview
Tendons are a special type of object that can be embedded in concrete elements
to represent the effect of post-tensioning. These tendon objects pass through slab and
beam objects, attach to them, and impose loads upon them. The tendons are modeled
as independent elements.
Any number of tendons may be defined. Each tendon is drawn or defined as a
type of line object between two joints, i and j. The two ends of the tendon are denoted
end I and end J, respectively. The tendon may have an arbitrary curved or segmented
shape in three dimensions between those points.
3.9.2.2 Tendon Geometry
The vertical profile of a tendon can be defined or modified using the form as
shown in figure (3-19).

Figure (3-19): Tendon vertical profile form, use to define or modify the tendon profile.

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If a vertical profile is not specified, SAFE will provide a default profile using the
maximum drapes allowed by the clearance conditions specified for the slab top and
bottom. The automated tendon layout capabilities also automate the tendon profile.
3.9.2.3 Tendon Discretization
A tendon may be a long object with complicated geometry, but internally, it will
be discretized automatically into shorter segments for the purposes of analysis. The
maximum length of these discretization segments is specified as the maximum mesh
size using the Run menu > Mesh Options command. These lengths can affect how
the tendons load the structure and the accuracy of the analysis results. It is
recommended that shorter lengths be used for tendons with highly curved geometry
or for tendons that pass-through parts of the structure with complicated geometry or
changes in properties. If unsure what value to use, try several different lengths to
evaluate the effect on the results.

3.9.2.4 Tendon Material Property

The material properties for tendons are defined in terms of the weight density,
modulus of elasticity (E), minimum yield stress (fy), and minimum tensile stress
(fu). Use the Define menu > Materials command, Add New Material button, and
the form as shown in figure (3-20) to specify the tendon material properties. Multiple
properties can be specified if necessary.

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Figure (3-20): Material Property Data form.

3.9.2.5 Tendon Property

The tendon property contains the strand area and tendon material type. Since
tendons can represent single or multiple strands, the area of only a single strand
should be specified in the Tendon Property Data form, as shown in figure (3-21),
which is accessed using the Define menu > Tendon Properties command and the
Add Property button. The number of strands is specified when assigning tendon
properties or editing a tendon (refer to the respective Assign or Edit menu
command).

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Figure (3-21): Tendon Property Data form.

3.9.2.6 Tendon Loads

After the tendons have been added to the SAFE model, tendon loads can be
specified. Loads can be assigned to a single tendon or multiple tendons by first
selecting the tendons to be loaded, selecting the Assign menu > Load Data >
Tendon Loads command, and then modifying the data in the form as shown in
figure (3-22).

Figure (3-22): Tendon Load form.

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The load pattern names, jacking locations, and tendon jacking stress are defined
in this form. The tendon load (jacking stress) is the total load applied to one or both
ends of the tendon. The actual tendon force will vary along the length of the tendon
as governed by the frictional and other loss parameters.
Tendon losses can be assigned to a single tendon or multiple tendons by first
selecting the tendons, selecting the Assign menu > Load Data > Tendon Losses
command and then modifying the data in the form.

3.9.3) Computing Prestress Losses

3.9.3.1 Overview
The tendon load for a given load case refers to the user-defined jacking force.
The actual load that is applied to slabs and beams will be less than the jacking force
because of prestress losses. The prestress losses are categorized in SAFE into short-
term losses and long-term losses, as follows:
Short-term or Stressing losses - These are losses that occur during and immediately
after the post-tensioning operations and are caused by friction between the tendons
and the duct, elastic shortening, and seating of anchors.
Long-term losses - These types of losses happen over time and also may be referred
to as time-dependent losses and include creep, shrinkage, and steel relaxation. Using
the Assign menu > Load Data > Tendon Losses command displays the form as
shown in figure (3-23) and allows the prestress losses to be specified using one of
three methods.

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Figure (3-23): Tendon Load form.

The first two Loss Calculation Methods on the form can be used to specify the
prestress losses as a force percentage or fixed stress value for the Stressing Losses
and Long-Term Losses. The third option allows a more detailed calculation of the
prestress losses based on a number of input values for both Short- Term and Long-
Term Losses. Frictional losses are computed internally and explicitly by SAFE based
on the specified wobble and curvature coefficients. All other losses are directly input
on this form.

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Other factors, such as changes in temperature and flexing of the structure under
loading, do not significantly lower the prestress level and are not considered
explicitly.
Understanding the stress distribution along the length of a member with respect
to short-term or long-term effects is important for correctly analyzing the model and
interpreting the results. The prestress losses are evident in terms of the stress
distribution along the length, as shown in figure (3-24).

Figure (3-24): prestress load variation along tendon length.

The jacking stress is commonly specified as 0.80fpu, where fpu is the specified
ultimate strength of the strand. Figure (3-24) shows a representation of the tendon
force variation with the tendon jacked from the left end. If the tendon were to be
jacked from the right end, figure (3-24) would be reversed. If the tendon were jacked
from both ends, the maximum initial prestress force (jacking force) would exist at
each end and would vary to a minimum value midway along the length of the tendon.
The initial prestress forces are reduced to the final prestress forces in accordance
with the long-term losses specified and shown diagrammatically as the Final
Prestress as shown in figure (3-24).

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3.9.4) Loads Due to Post-Tensioning

3.9.4.1 Overview
SAFE uses the dead load balancing method as the primary procedure for the
determination of tendon profiles when they are requested to be automated.
3.9.4.2 Dead Load-Balancing
The dead load balancing method is used in SAFE to determine an initial tendon
layout (including the profile, number of strands, and the jacking force) when the
automated tendon layout feature is used.
The basic concept of dead load balancing is that the prestress bending stresses are
equal but opposite to the applied dead load bending stresses. When the Self Load
Balancing Ratio and the Precompression Level in the Quick Tendon Layout form
are specified as shown in figure (3-25), SAFE iterates the position of the tendon as
necessary to find the eccentricity (e), that balances the specified dead load stresses.
The average precompression level is the total post-tensioning force divided by
the gross cross-sectional area normal to the force. ACI 318-02 requires a minimum
of 125 psi (0.86 MPa) effective precompression (precompression after all prestress
losses). Maximum precompression should be 275 psi (2.0 MPa) for slabs and 350
psi (2.50 MPa) for beams; although the Code’s limit of maximum compressive stress
is much higher, values higher than these typically mean the design will be less
economical.

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For slabs, it is customary

to balance between 60
and 80% of the dead load.
For beams, this is usually
increased to between 80
and 110%.

Figure (3-25): Quick Tendon Layout form.

3.9.4.3 Secondary (Hyperstatic) Moments

The reactions caused by the post-tensioning forces in continuous slabs or beams
are often referred to as secondary (hyperstatic) reactions. The two-span beam shown
in figure (3-26) illustrates the reactions and moments because of the eccentric post-
tensioning forces.
If the center support is eliminated for the two-span beam shown in Figure (3-26),
the application of the post-tensioning would result in a beam upward displacement
of Δ. The application of the force necessary to displace the beam by the amount, −Δ,
can be represented as, Ri. The reaction Ri is necessary to prevent the beam from
lifting off the support. From figure (3-26) (d) and (e), the hyperstatic reactions in the
amount Ri/2 are produced at each end of the beam and the hyperstatic moment M is
produced over the center support. At any section along the beam.
Hyperstatic analysis results can be reviewed by defining a hyperstatic load case
using the Define menu > Load Cases command to add a new load case with a
hyperstatic Load Case Type, as shown in figure (3-27).

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Figure (3-26): Secondary (hyperstatic) actions due to post-tensioning.

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Figure (3-27): Hyperstatic Load Case Data form.

3.9.5) Automated Tendon Layout

3.9.5.1 Overview
This part describes the various methods for adding tendons to a SAFE model and
the methodology used to automate the tendon input data. Not all of the methods used
to add tendons to a SAFE model are suited for the automation as explained herein.
The automation of tendon layout, profiles, and jacking forces serves as a starting
point in the analysis and design process. If it is necessary to make further adjustments
to the tendon layout, profiles, or jacking forces, these adjustments should be made
manually. The parameters related to the tendons can be modified easily, followed by
re-analyzing and re-designing the structure as necessary.
3.9.5.2 Adding Tendons to a SAFE Model
Four methods are available for adding tendons to a SAFE model:
1)Template modeling – If a SAFE model is initialized using the File menu
>New Model command and the appropriate initial model is selected along with
toggling the Add P/T option, post-tensioning data can be defined. The Quick
Tendon Layout form as shown in figure (3-28) allows specification of the tendon
layout for the Layer A and B directions, as well as the precompression levels and
self-load balancing ratios. Tendons with the defined layout parameters are then

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included in the template model. This can be a quick and easy method to place a large
number of tendons into a SAFE model. The tendon profiles satisfy the specified
clearances.

Figure (3-28): Quick Tendon Layout form.

There are a number of different possible tendon layouts in plan. The one favored
by the early designers in PSC flat slabs was to concentrate some in the column band,
and spread the rest out in the slab band, in the same proportion as the reinforcement
in traditional R.C. flat slabs i.e. 60 to 75% in the column band, and 40 to 25% in the
slab band.
This has been replaced by a system where the tendons are concentrated over the
columns in one direction, and spread out uniformly in the other direction, as if the
slab were spanning onto beams spanning between columns. This system gives the
maximum effective drape, and the most effective use of prestress. Because there are
fewer tendons over the columns in one direction, the shear strength may be

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somewhat reduced. If the column spacing is different in the two directions, the
banded tendons would normally lie in the direction of the shorter span.
A system has also been developed where all the tendons in each direction are
concentrated over the columns. This system has disadvantages, because the drape of
the tendons in one direction has to be appreciably less than in the other direction in
order that the tendons in one direction may pass over the tendons in the other
direction at the columns. (Alternatively, the tendons could be 'woven' so that some
of the tendons in one band pass over, and some under, the other band. This is not
considered practical). In addition, the self-weight of the slab is not uniformly
balanced. The system does, however, give a better shear capacity and much easier
in construction.
Figure (3-29) shows several tendon layout options using banded and uniform tendon
layout types.

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Figure (3-29): Template models with tendon layout options.

2)Tendon Draw commands – Using the Draw menu > Draw Tendons
command, any number of points can be input to place tendons into a SAFE model.
Default tendon profile data is provided; however, it is expected that it will be edited
to provide the proper tendon profile and other tendon data as required to satisfy the
design requirements. Multiple tendons with the same layout can be generated easily
using the Edit menu > Replicate command. When this option is used, SAFE
replicates the tendon profile of the source tendon.
Note: No automation of the tendon layout, profile, number of strands, or jacking
force is performed by SAFE when the Draw menu > Draw Tendons command is
used to place tendons in a model.
3) Add Tendons in Strips – The Edit menu > Add/Edit Tendons > Add
Tendons in Strips command can be used to add tendons to an existing SAFE model.
The tendon layouts, profiles, number of strands, and jacking forces are all automated
when tendons are added in this manner, based on the input in the Quick Tendon
Layout form as shown in figure (3-30). The SAFE model can be further modified by
adding additional tendons as necessary.

4)Add Tendons in Beams – The Edit menu > Add/Edit Tendons > Add
Tendons in Beams command can be used to add a single tendon to a beam, with a
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default profile. The tendon profile, number of strands, and jacking forces should then
be edited as required.

Figure (3-30): Quick Tendon Layout form.

3.9.5.3 Procedures Used in Automated Tendon Layout

The automated tendon layouts (including profiles, number of strands, and jacking
forces) are generated based on the design strip definitions. Automated tendon layouts
are developed only on tendons that have been added to design strips. Each strip is
modeled as an equivalent continuous beam with the cross section derived from the
slab objects lying within the strip width. The self-weight loads are calculated to
obtain the load to be used in the load balancing calculation. Only the loads that are
applied within the boundary area of a particular strip are included in the
determination of the automated tendon layout. As an example, if a column strip is
defined as 60 inches wide, only a tributary width of 60 inches is used to determine
the load for use in the self-load balancing calculation to determine the tendon layout.
A representative tendon is placed in the equivalent beam, centered on the design
strip. The supports of the strips are derived from the intersection with perpendicular
design strips and by any column supports within the strip width.
Note: SAFE does not automatically consider the intersections of strips and beams to
be points of supports for the strips. If it is desired to consider a particular beam as a
support point for a strip, then a strip should be defined at the beam location.

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The support locations are used to determine the spans. For each span, the tendon
profile is automated based on the profile type specified for the tendon (parabola or
reverse parabola). An iterative procedure is then used to determine the effective
jacking force necessary to satisfy the range of dead load to be balanced and the
average precompression stress required. The jacking force is initially calculated to
satisfy the minimum required self-load balancing ratio and minimum
precompression level for the longest span in the strip. The tendon profiles in other
spans are then adjusted so as not to exceed the maximum dead load balancing ratios.
A value of 60 to 80 percent is generally used as the self-load balancing ratios.
Typically, precompression levels generally range between 0.86 to 2 MPA.
Note: It is important to note that it is possible that an automated tendon layout cannot
satisfy the specified dead load balancing ratios and precompression levels. In such
cases, SAFE generates a warning so that necessary manual adjustments to the tendon
layout and profile can be made, or other modifications to the SAFE model can be
applied where required.
Note: If the addition of partial tendons is active, SAFE may add additional tendons
in long spans or in exterior spans to satisfy the self-load balancing and
precompression constraints.
After the total jacking force and profile have been determined for the equivalent
tendon, the actual number and spacing of tendons is determined based on the
following criteria:
For a banded tendon layout, the number of tendons is initially determined based
on the specified Tendon Property (material property and strand area),
Precompression Level, and Dead Load Balancing Ratios. The prestress losses are
estimated using the Fixed Stress Values from the Tendon Load assignments. If the
number of tendons is too large to fit within the band width with a minimum spacing
of 12 in (300 mm), a larger tendon size is automatically selected by increasing the
number of strands. Similarly, if the spacing of the tendons is too large (greater than
60 in or 1.5 m) or 16 times the slab thickness, a smaller tendon is selected, with
fewer strands.
For a uniform tendon layout, a similar procedure as outlined above for the banded
tendon layout is used.

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CHAPTER 4
Construction techniques
4.1 Shop Drawings:
The engineer usually selects the type, size, location and number of tendons as
shown in figure (4-1), but the contractor selects the anchorage system according to
the information obtained from the suppling companies.
A post-tensioning system proposed by a contractor should be shown on shop
drawings. These drawings should include details for the methods and materials used,
including all plan reinforcement and any rearrangement of reinforcing steel that
differs from that shown on the contract plans. Shop drawings represent an important
supplement to contract plans.
4.1.1 Typical Contents
• Dimensions, details and materials for all manufactured components.
• For strand systems, dimensions and details of anchors, wedge-plates, wedges,
for each tendon.
• Details of grout inlets and outlets at anchorages.
• For each type of duct, dimensions, details, type of material and methods of
connecting ducts to anchors.
• Details of means and methods of attaching intermediate grout inlets and outlets
to the ducts, including sizes of grout pipes, materials.
• Dimensions, clearances, force of stressing jacks for post-tensioning bars and
strands, including single, mono-strand and multi-strand jacks as necessary.
• Duct profile.
• The end(s) from which tendons are stressed.
• Assumed coefficient of friction (µ) and wobble coefficient (k).
• The estimated elongation and maximum jacking force for each tendon.

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Figure (4-1): Cable profile in the plan.

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4.2 Formworks:
The formworks would be like any other ordinary formworks, but formworks
here should be drilled to receive tendon stressing hardware in accordance with the
shop drawings as shown in figure (4-2). Formworks are often extended beyond the
tendon terminal to provide space for the stressing operations, sometimes small parts
of cork or plastic as shown in figure (4-3) works as a cover for the anchors and
prestressing steel in order to prevent concrete form bonding with it leading to
difficult in prestressing operation so the removal of the concrete around the anchors
is necessary.

Figure (4-2): Drilling of formworks.

Figure (4-3): Pieces of cork covering prestressed steel.

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4.3 Anchors Installation:

4.3.1 Anchors Orientation
The orientation of the anchorages should be within two degrees of their
orientation shown on the post-tensioning shop drawings as shown in figure (4-4).

Figure (4-4): The allowable difference in orientation of anchors during

installation.

4.3.2 Local Zone Reinforcement

Regardless of the type of anchor, it is essential to provide reinforcement in the
local anchor zone, this is the region directly behind the anchor plate as shown in
figure (4-5) and it is designed using strut and tie model.
For longitudinal strand tendons it usually needs a spiral reinforcement. Local
zone reinforcement should be placed as close as possible (i.e. 12 mm maximum) to
the main anchor plate in all applications as shown in figure (4-6).

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Figure (4-5): Spiral reinforcement behind anchors in case of beams.

`
12 mm
max

Figure (4-6): Maximum distance between spiral reinforcement and the

plate on anchors.

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Another method of anchorage zone reinforcement is a series of relatively

closely spaced rectangular stirrups is normally provided to reinforce the local anchor
zone until the local anchor force has dispersed to the full effective depth of the
section.
Local anchor usually in cases of slabs are most effectively reinforced by
multiple-U shaped bars placed in alternating up and down arrangement as shown in
figure (4-7), beginning very close to the anchor plate. This arrangement has been
found to be very effective for intercepting potential cracks that might originate at the
top or bottom corner of the anchor bearing plate and travel diagonally through the
adjacent surface.

Figure (4-7): Alternating up and down U-shaped

reinforcement.

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4.4 Duct Installation:

4.4.1 Alignment at Anchors
For all tendon types anchors should be:
• The correct size for the size of tendon used.
• When required, supplied with permanent, heavy duty, plastic caps with a seal
against the anchor plate.
• Properly aligned and well supported by formwork as shown in figure (4-8).
• To be set in correct orientation as shown in figure (4-9).
• Provided with correct local zone reinforcement at correct location and spacing.

Figure (4-8): Alignment of ducts on the formwork.

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Figure (4-9): Some bad installation of ducts with anchors.

Cover is an integral part of corrosion protection. Cover should be checked to

rebar and longitudinal and transverse post-tensioning ducts.
Support bars may be straight, L, U or Z-shape reinforcing bar as necessary as
shown in figure (4-10). Also supports should be at intervals of no more than 120 cm
for steel pipes, 120 cm for round galvanized metal ducts, 60 cm for round plastic
ducts, 60 cm for flat plastic ducts or per recommendations of duct supplier.
To maintain good installation of ducts on the formwork, the position of the
ducts is marked on the forums with the height of chairs indicated as shown in figure
(4-11).

Figure (4-10): Supporting chairs

holding ducts.

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Figure (4-11): Marks on the formwork

indicating the location of ducts and its
cover height.

Figure (4-12): Ducts after its installation.

Vertical deviations in ducts location should be kept to about 6 cm for slab

thickness dimensions less than 20 cm, and 0.95 cm to 1.3 cm for thicker slabs or
beams.

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4.4.2 Splices and Connections

In the past, various methods were used to connect separate pieces of duct (e.g.
semi-rigid or flexible, corrugated or smooth, steel or plastic ducts) and to connect
ducts to anchors as shown in figure (4-13). Often, connections were made using an
oversized piece of the same duct wrapped around and secured with tie-wire or duct
tape. Such connections are not sealed, so they may allow the migration of moisture
or chlorides possibly leading to corrosion.
In recent years, there has been a shift to more robust systems comprising
impermeable plastic ducts, usually of high density polyethylene (HDPE) or
polypropylene (PP) with purpose-made (sealed) connections; usually an outer plastic
duct connector clips tightly around the duct as shown in figure (4-14).

Figure (4-13): Old methods of connecting ducts.

Figure (4-14): Plastic and steel parts used in connections between ducts.

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4.4.3 Size of Pipes for Grout Inlets, Outlets and Drains

Pipes for grout inlets and outlet vents should be of sufficient diameter to allow
the escape of air, free water in ducts at the beginning of grouting, bleed-water, and
the free flow of grout. Grout pipes should be connected to ducts and anchor
components in a manner that creates a seal as shown in figure (4-15) and does not
allow leaks of water, chlorides or other corrosive agents.

Figure (4-15): Sealing of grouting pipes with ducts.

Figure (4-16): Group of grouting pipes along the duct.

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4.4.4 Protection of Ducts during Concrete Placement

4.4.4.1 Concrete Pressure
Wet concrete when discharged into formworks and consolidated by vibration
can exert significant pressure and local forces on reinforcing cages and post-
tensioning ducts. It is essential that reinforcing cages be securely tied and held firmly
in place by cover, spacer blocks or chairs.
Ducts being hollow tend to float. A duct that is not well secured can easily be
displaced resulting in excess wobble, sometimes the concrete pressure may damage
the ducts leading to its fracture cut as shown in figure (4-17). This affects the
intended location of the post-tensioning tendon and causes a loss of force through
excess friction. The result is a reduction in post-tensioning force and eccentricity.
In some cases, excessive wobble, or improperly aligned duct can make it difficult
or impossible to install a tendon as shown in Figure (4-18).

Figure (4-17): Ducts fracture during

pumping.

Figure (4-18): Improper alignment of duct that may prevent proper installation of
tendons.

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4.4.4.2 Movement of Concrete

Discharge and placement of concrete can easily displace improperly secured
ducts. Ducts should be properly secured, and caution exercised when placing
concrete.
4.4.4.3 Vibration of Concrete
Vibrators can displace ducts when they are not properly secured. Also, over
aggressive or improper use of internal vibrators may lead to local duct deformation
or damage. Care must be exercised.

4.5 Tendon Installation:

Pre-placed tendons are usually shipped to the job-site in coils about 5 feet in
diameter as shown in figure (4-19). The coil is secured by ties at intervals to prevent
premature uncoiling as shown in figure (4-20). Each tendon is individually marked
and clearly identified for its location in the job. Tendons may be handled
mechanically or manually. Care should be exercised in unloading and handling the
tendons to prevent damage.

Figure (4-19): Coils of tendons.

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Figure (4-20): Uncoiling of tendons.

The placing sequence number for flat plate tendons is indicated on the placing
drawings. Tendons should be transported to the deck according to placing sequence
number. Each coil should be positioned near the slab edge where the stressing is to
be done.
After all tendons initial placing sequence have been uncoiled in their
approximate position, tendons with the second placing sequence number may be
placed. The tendons should be placed in numerical sequence and the structural
engineer must insure perfect installation of tendons in their locations in ducts.
There are different techniques in installation of tendons in ducts:
4.5.1 Pushing tendons in duct
Pushing should be done using pushing machine as shown in figure (4-21), it
requires some care in dealing with the ducts, so we use a protective plastic or metal
cap provided by the prestressing system supplier so that tendons do not damage the
duct. Pushing strands into a duct already containing many strands may become
difficult as the duct is filled with more strands.

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Figure (4-21): Pushing process of tendons into ducts.

4.5.2 Pulling tendons through duct

Sometimes it may be easier to pull the entire bundle through together using a
special steel wire sock as shown in figure (4-22) or another device securely attached
to the end of the bundle.

Figure (4-22): Pulling process of tendons into ducts using steel wire sock.

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4.6 Stressing Operations:

When tests of field-cured cubes indicate that the concrete has reached the
proper strength (usually 60-80 percent of the 28-day strength) the stressing operation
may begin.
4.6.1 Jacking Force

The force required in each tendon, as well as the minimum concrete strength
required at stressing, is determined by the designer and is given on the approved
shop drawings or job stressing manual, the force of prestressing can be known
through the pumping machine gauge as shown in figure (4-23).

Figure (4-23): Gauges of the prestressing pump.

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The gauge reading on the pump may be translated into force in the tendon at
the anchorage. This information is generally provided in a tendon stressing data table
by the post-tensioning materials fabricator as shown in table (4-1).

Table (4-1): Gauge reading and the corresponding tendons stress.

4.6.2 Measuring Elongations on Strand Tendons

When stressing a tendon, a certain portion of jack extension will be needed to
remove the slack. This gives a false initial elongation that should not be part of the
real elongation measurements. For this reason, the first step is to stress the tendon
an initial force of approximately 20% of the final force to remove the slack. From
this point up to 100% of the required load, the extension of the jack will cause pure
elongations of the tendon.
With any multi-strand stressing operation, it is good practice to mark several
strand tails at the same location using spray paint and pencil or tape as shown in
figure (4-24) to give a visible assurance that the strands are elongating by the same
amount and any slip is easily noticed.

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Figure (4-24): Marking of the prestressing steel to measure its

elongation.

4.6.3 Wedges Set

When a strand tendon has been jacked to the required force and the jack is
released, the wedges are drawn into the wedge plate until they bite and secure the
strand as shown in figure (4-25).

Figure (4-25): Wedges biting on

the strands after prestressing.

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4.7. Grouting:
4.7.1 Preparations
1) Grout openings and vents:
All ducts should have grout openings at both ends.
2) Duct size:
For tendons made up of a plurality of wires, bars, strands, duct area should be
at least twice the net area of the prestressing steel. For tendons made up of a single
wire, bar or strand, the duct diameter should be at least 0.65 cm larger than the
nominal diameter of the wire, bar or strand.
3) Inlets, Outlets and Connections:
Connections from grout hose to inlets and outlets should be free from dirt. Inlets
and outlets should be strong enough to withstand the maximum grouting pressure.
4.7.2 Equipment
Equipment used in grouting as shown in figure (4-26) may include:
1) Mixer. 3) Pressure Gauges.
2) Pump. 4) Hoses.

Figure (4-26): Grouting equipment.

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4.7.3 Mixing of Grout

Mixing of grout as shown in figure (4-27) should be done under certain
considerations:
1) Water should be added to the mixer first, followed by Portland cement and
admixture, or as required by the admixture manufacturer.
2) Mixing should be of such duration as to obtain a uniform thoroughly blended
grout, without excessive temperature increase or loss of expansive properties of
the admixture.
3) Water should not be added to increase grout flowability which has been
decreased by delayed use of the grout.
4) Proportions of materials should be based on tests made on the grout before
grouting is begun or may be selected based on prior documented experience with
similar materials and equipment and under comparable field conditions (weather,
temperature, etc.). The water content shall be the minimum necessary for proper
placement and when Type I or Type II cement is used should not exceed a water-
cement ratio of 0.45.

Figure (4-27): Mixing of the grout.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 4: Construction Techniques

4.7.4 Injection of Grout

To ensure the perfection of grouting injections as shown in figure (4-28) some
precautions must be taken as following:

1) All grout and high point vent openings should be open when grouting starts.
Grout should be allowed to flow from the first vent after the inlet pipe until
any entrapped air has been removed.

2) The pumping pressure at the tendon inlet should not exceed 250 psi as
pressures in excess of 250 psi result in separation of water and cement, which
may cause a blockage. Excessive pressures could also result in cracking or
damage to the structural element.

3) Grout should be pumped through the duct and continuously wasted at the
outlet pipe as shown in Figure (4-29) until no visible slugs of water or air are
ejected. To ensure that the tendon remains filled with grout, the outlet and/or
inlet should be closed after grouting. Plugs, caps or valves thus required
should not be removed or opened until the grout has set.

Figure (4-28): Grouting injection in pipes.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 4: Construction Techniques

Figure (4-29): Grout going out from the outlet pipe.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

CHAPTER 5
Building Projects

5.1 Administrational Building for a Factory at Nasr city

5.1.1 Description of Project

• The project is an administrative building for a Factory in the industrial area

in Nasr City.
• The system used here is the post–tension concrete flat slab.
• The slab thickness is 25 cm.
• Area of project is 6m in the short direction and 7m in the long direction.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

5.1.2 Post-Tension Concrete Flat Slab Shop

Figure (5-1): Banded direction.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

Figure (5-2): Distributed direction.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

5.1.3 Shop Drawing Details

• It should be noted that the included shop drawing doesn’t include normal RFT
drawings of the project nor their details.
• All stranding system informations are included such as dimensions,notaion of
strands,axes,locations of cucts and their elevations along their span.
• The locations of dead and live ends aswell are also located in this drawing.
• All of these items are shown in figure (5-3).

Figure (5-3): Notaion of strands and their alignment, the elevations

of ducts along the slab's span and the dead and live ends.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

5.1.4 Construction

a) Ducts destribution (staggering): the very first step after installing the form
work is the ducts destribution where we use chalk lines to mark the ducts'
centerlines and the locations of the ducts on the form it self and their spacing
according to the shop drawings to facilitate the execution process as shown in
Figure (5-4).

Figure (5-4): Ceiling staggering.

b) Laying the strands in the (banded) direction: generally the strands are laid
along the banded direction which has high volume of strands first.

c) Fitting the ducts into the first set of strands: in the slab works we first lay the
strands then we fit the duct through them unlike beam works for expample where
we reverse the process as shown in figure (5-5).

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

Figure (5-5): Duct fitting.

d) Finishing the opposite direction(destributed): we then start doing the same

procedure for the opposite direction as shown in figure (5-6).

Figure (5-6): The laid strands in both directions.

e) Chairs installation: finally we lift the ducts from ground and place them on top
of the chairs each according to previously planned elevations as shown in figure
(5-7).

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

Figure (5-7): The chairs installation.

f) Casts installation: the worker starts drilling holes for strands that will be pass
through the cast then we install the cast and a foam block which is important as
after the placment of concete it will be easily removed to place the anchor block
in it's place instead of cruching an area of concrete as shown in figure (5-8).

Figure (5-8): Foam installation.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

g) Onion shaped dead ends: its recommended to use an onion jack to apply
compression force on the strands in the dead end to bend them around
themselves to form an (onion shape) or a flower shape to increase the friction
and bond between the strands and concrete to avoid the slippage of strands after
applying the jacking force in the live end as shown in Fig (5-9) & (5-10).

Figure (5-10): Onion jack.

Figure (5-9): Flower shaped strands.

h) Installing grout vents: before concrete placment we must install the grout vents
one for grout entrance and one for air exit and its recommended to insert the
grout from the lowest point possible to avoid trapped air from causing problems
and we have to make sure that the vents are proberly sealed to avoid the
migration of harmful materials as shown in Figure (5-11).

Figure (5-11): The installation of grouting Vents.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

i) Concrete Placment: after installing the grouting vents we then start placing the
concrete then we would remove the foam bar and clean the surrounding area as
shown in figure (5-12) & (5-13).

Figure (5-13): Foam bar removal

Figure (5-12): Concrete placment. and cleansing the surrounding
area.

j) Anchors and wedges installation: placing the anchor block in place and then
inserting the wedges through the designated holes around the strands and we
must make sure they tightly fit inside the wholes by hammering on them to avoid
differential movments of wedges on applying the jacking force on the strands as
shown in figure (5-14).

Figure (5-14): The anchor block and wedges installation.

k) Preparing the strands for pulling: we must first prepare the strand live ends
by cutting them in appropriate lenghts before pulling them using (angle grinders)
and then we polish the strands using oil as shown in figure (5-15).

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

Figure (5-15): Cutting strands.

l) Pulling the strands: we must first wait until the lab test results confrim that the
concrete has reached it's initial compressive strength wich is normally equal 60-
70% of its final strength then we can apply the jacking force to pull the strands
and remove the form work and before pulling we must use an aluminum rod as
a datum to know after the force is applied the strain or elongation that happens
as showin in figure (5-16) & (5-17).

Figure (5-16): The datum aluminum rod and Figure (5-17): Hydraulic jack used in
marked locations before and after jacking to pulling the strands.
identify the elongation that happened through
the process.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

m) Grouting Preparation: before grouting we must first cut the excessive strands
and located at the dead end cover them with cement mold to avoid any future
leakege after grouting and use special mixers to prepare the grouting solution as
shown in figure (5-18), (5-19) & (5-20).

Figure (5-18) & (5-19): Preparation of strands for grouting Figure (5-20): Preparation of
and covering the voids in concrete. grout solution.

n) Grouting: the last step is start the injection of grouts using pipes through the
vents, and its recommended to inject from the dead end to avoid applying
excessive pressure on the recently applied cement mold cover and cracking them
through the process causing leakage of grout and harming the concrete element,
and we stop when the grout exits from the other vent as shown in figure (5-21)
& (5-22).

Figure (5-21): Grout injection. Figure (5-22): Grout exiting the air vent.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

Figure (5-23): Final form of the project.

5.2 Administrational Building for the British School

5.2.1 Description of Project

• project is a celebration hall and the administration building of the School in

Egypt- 9th district in Sheikh Zaid City.
• The system used here is post–tension concrete ribbed slab.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

5.2.2 Post-tension concrete ribbed slab shop drawings

Figure (5-24): Key Plan Shows Places of Ribs.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

Figure (5-25): Elevation of prestressing Cables Rib (R3) between axes (F,L).

Figure (5-26): Profile of prestressing cables.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

Figure (5-27): Span 25m without any columns in the middle.

5-2-3-Construction
a) Reinforcement of Ribs: In the beginning the installation of reinforced ribs and
we leave the last meters in prime rib and the first meters from non-interlinking to
enter the cables as shown in figure (5-28).

Figure (2-28): Reinforcement of ribs.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

b) Ducts installation: after finishing of RFT of ribs we install the ducts inside the
rib and hung it on the chairs as shown in figure (5-29).

Figure (5-29): Cable installation.

c) Fitting of cable: in the rib works we first lay the duct then we fit the strand
through them as shown in figure (5-30).

Figure (5-30): Fitting of strand.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

d) Casts installation: we install the cast and a foam block which is important as
after the placment of concete it will be easily removed to place the anchor block in
it's place instead of cruching an area of concrete as shown in figure (5-31).

Figure (5-31): Casts installation.

e) Couplers installment: To conncet two ducts we use a piece of circular duct but
large in size as shown in figure (5-32).

Figure (5-32): Coupler installation.

f) Installing grout vents: before concrete placement we must install the grout vents
one for grout entrance and one for air exit and its recommended to insert the grout
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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

from the lowest point possible to avoid trapped air from causing problems and we
have to make sure that the vents are proberly sealed to avoid the migration of harmful
materials as shown in figure (5-33).

Figure (5-33): Vents at dead end.

g) Foam installation: we install a foam has certain intensity can carry people who
will walk on it and concrete placement as shown in figure (5-34).

Figure (5-34): Foam installation.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

i) Ribs: Shape of the ribs after installing foam and cables as shown in figure (5-35).

Figure (5-35): Ribs.

j) Placing: Start by pouring concrete on foam first needed be install very good as
shown in figure (5-36).

Figure (5-36): Placing.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

k) Pulling the strands: we pull the strands by using multi strand post tension
stressing jack as shown in figure (5-37).

Figure (5-37): Pulling the strands.

l) Grouting: the last step is start the injection of grouts using pipes through the
vents, and its recommended to inject from the dead end to avoid applying
excessive pressure on the recently applied cement mold cover and cracking them
through the process causing leakage of grout and harming the concrete element,
and we stop when the grout exits from the other vent as shown in figure (5-38).

Figure (5-38): Grout injection.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 5: Building Projects

Figure (5-39): Final form of the project.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 6: Case Study

CHAPTER 6
Case Study
6.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses two types of slabs; (Hollow-Block Concrete Slab and Pre-
Stressed Concrete slab) according to the total cost of their construction.

6.2 Hollow-Block concrete slab

6.2.1 Drawings

Figure (6-1): Plan of Hollow-Block Slab.

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 Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 6: Case Study

Figure (6-2): Cross section of Hollow-Block Slab showing the Ribs.

Figure (6-3): Cross section of Hollow-Block Slab, showing the Cross-Ribs.

5T10
3T16
3T20

6T20
6T20

Figure (6-4): Cross section of the Rib. Figure (6-5): Cross section of the Cross Rib.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 6: Case Study

6.2.2 Design

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 6: Case Study

0.3 mm is neglected, and it is safe in deflection.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 6: Case Study

6.2.3 Hollow Block Slab Cost

Number of blocks = 53x6 =318 blocks

Cost of blocks = 318x10 = 3180 L.E
Volume of concrete = 12x6x0.65 – 318x(0.2x0.6x0.53) = 26.58 m3
Cost of concrete = 26.58 x 650 = 17,277 L.E
Weight of steel = [(2.47 / 1000) x 6 + (1.58 / 1000) x 3 + (0.395 / 1000) x 5 x 2 x
(0.2 + 0.6)] x 5 x 12 + 0.617 / 1000 x 10 x 12 x 6 = 1.81 Ton.
Cost of steel = 1.81 x 12500 = 22,625L.E
Total cost = 3,180 + 17,277 + 22,625 = 43,082 L.E

6.3 Pre-Stressed Concrete Slab

6.3.1 Drawings

Figure (6-6): Plan of Pre-Stressed Slab.

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 6: Case Study

Figure (6-7): Cross section of Pre-Stressed Slab.

6.3.2 Design

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 6: Case Study

-Check Deflection

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Prestressed Concrete Slabs Chapter 6: Case Study

-Check shear:

6.3.3 Prestressing cost

Volume of concrete = 12 x 6 x 0.25 = 18 m3

Cost of concrete = 18 x 700 = 12,600 L.E
Cost of prestressing steel (including anchorage – grouting – labors) =
18 x 700 = 12,600 L.E
Weight of non-prestressed steel = 10 x 2 x 12 x 6 x 0.395 = 0.5688 Ton.
Cost of non-prestressed steel = 0.5688 x 12500 = 7,110 L.E
Total Cost = 12600 + 12600 + 7100 = 32,300 L.E
Δ Cost = (43,082-32,300) / 32,300 x 100 = 33.38 %

6.4 Conclusion
Prestressing Slab is economical than the Hollow-Block Slab by 33.4 %.
Prestressing Slab is durable than the Hollow-Block Slab as there is no cracks.
Prestressing Slab is faster in construction than the Hollow-Block Slab.
Prestressing Slab is better in quality control than the Hollow-Block Slab.

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 Prestressed Concrete Slabs References

References:
- Prestressed Concrete Design by M.K. Hurst (1998).
- Prestressed Concrete Structures by Michael P. Collins / Denis Mitchell.
- Design Guide Post-Tensioned Concrete Slabs (Sami Khan & Martin
Williams).
- ACI 318-05.
- SAFE Design Manual.
- Post-Tensioning Manual by Tensioning Institute.
- Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual by
Department of Transportation-Federal Highway Administration.

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