1

METAL MACHINING
Chapter 21
 Material Removal Processes
2

 Most important is
conventional machining

 Sharp cutting tool is used to

mechanically cut the material
to achieve the desired
geometry
Material Removal Processes/Machining

 A family of shaping operations, with common feature of

removal of material from a starting workpart so the remaining
part has the desired shape
 Cutting involves shear deformation of the work to form a chip
 New surface is exposed as chip is removed
 Why Machining is Important
4

 Variety of work materials can be machined

 Most frequently applied to metals
 Most of the materials can be machined
 Variety of part shapes and special geometry features
possible, such as:
 Screw threads
 Accurate round holes
 Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Disadvantages with Machining
5

 Wasteful of material
 Chips generated in machining are wasted material

 Time consuming
 Generally takes more time to shape a given part than
alternative shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
 Machining
6

 Generally performed after other manufacturing processes, such

as casting, forging, and bar drawing
 Other processes create the general shape of the starting
workpart
 Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and
special geometric details that other processes cannot create
 Machining
7

 A cutting tool forms a chip that is removed from the

workpart.

 Relative motion is required between the tool and work

which is usually achieved by
 a primary motion, called the cutting speed,
 a secondary motion, called the feed.
 Machining Operations
8

 Most important machining operations:

 Turning
 Drilling

 Milling

 Other machining operations:

 Shaping and planing
 Broaching

 Sawing
Turning
 Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating
workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
 Drilling
10

 Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a rotating

tool (drill bit) that has two cutting edges
 Milling
11

 Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly relative to work to

generate plane or straight surface
 Direction??
 Feed is perpendicular to tool axis
 Two forms:
 peripheral milling and face milling

peripheral milling face milling

 Cutting tool
12

 A Cutting Tool has one or more sharp cutting edges

 Made up of the material harder than the workpiece
 Cutting edge removes the chip
 Rake face
 Direct the flow of chip
 Rake angle
 Angle of Rake face
 Flank
 Provide clearance with workpiece
 Relief angle
 Angle of flank
 Cutting Tool Classification
13

1. Single-Point Tools
 One cutting edge
 Turning uses single point tools
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work usually achieved by rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools.
 Cutting Conditions in Machining
14

 Machining process:
 Cutting speed v (primary motion)
 Feed f (secondary motion)
 Depth of cut d (penetration of tool below original work surface)

 For most of the operations, material removal rate can be found as

RMR = v f d (mm3/s)
 Roughing vs. Finishing in Machining
15

 Roughing cuts are followed by finishing

 Roughing
 removes large amounts of material from the starting workpart
 Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves some material for
finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds

 Finishing
 completes part geometry
 Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
 Machine Tools
16

 Functions of machine tool

 Holds workpart
 Positions tool relative to work

 Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that have been

set
 The term is also applied to machines that perform
metal forming operations
17 Theory of chip formation
 Orthogonal cutting model
18

 Complex machining operation is described by simplified model

 Orthogonal cutting model uses a wedge shaped tool in which
the cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cutting
speed
 Tool is forced, forming chip along shear plane
 Orthogonal cutting model
19

 Chip forms at the sharp edge

 Material is plastically deformed along the shear plane

 Rake angle
 Chip direction
 Clearance angle
 Provide clearance
 Orthogonal cutting model
20

 Chip thickness ratio

 r < 1 as tc>t0
 w does not have any effect in orthogonal analysis
 Turning Application
21

 Condition
 Single point machining
 Feed is small relative to DOC
 Most of the cutting will take place In the direction of
feed
 Actual chip formation
22

 Deformation does not occur along a plane but within a zone

 Primary Shear zone is very thin, so it can be referred as a
plane
 Sec. shear zone
 Friction b/w chip & tool
 Chip formation also depends on the material
 Types of Chip in Machining
23

1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
 Segmented Chip
24

 Material, Feed, Speed etc.?

 Brittle work materials (e.g.,

cast irons)
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth of cut
 High tool-chip friction
 Continuous chip
25

 Material, Feed, Speed etc.?

 Ductile work materials (e.g., low

carbon steel)
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and depths
 Sharp cutting edge on the tool
 Low tool-chip friction
 Continuous with built-up edge
26

 Material, Feed, Speed etc.?

 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
 BUE formation is cyclical; it forms,
then breaks off
 Serrated chip
27

 Material, Feed, Speed etc.?

 Semicontinuous - saw-tooth
appearance
 Cyclical chip formation of
alternating high shear strain then
low shear strain
 Most closely associated with
difficult-to-machine metals at high
cutting speeds
 28

MACHINING OPERATIONS
AND MACHINE TOOLS
Chapter 22
 Machining
29

 A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used

to mechanically cut away material so that the desired part
geometry remains
 Most common application to shape metal parts
 Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all
manufacturing processes in its capability
 to produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric features
 Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it lacks the
precision and accuracy of machining
 Classification (Parts)
30

 Rotational
 cylindrical or disk-like shape
 Nonrotational
 also called prismatic
 block-like or plate-like
 Machining Operation Geometry
31

 Each machining operation produces a characteristic part

geometry due to two factors

 Relative motions between the tool and the work-part

 Generating
 Part geometry is determined by the feed trajectory of the cutting
tool
 Shape of the cutting tool
 Forming
 Part geometry is created by the shape of the cutting tool
 Generating
32

straight turning taper turning contour turning

profile milling
plain milling
 Forming
33

Form milling Drilling Broaching

 Forming and generating combination
34

Threading Slot milling

 Turning
35

 A single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating

workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape
 Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
 Variations of turning that are performed on a lathe:
 Facing
 Contour turning
 Chamfering
 Cutoff
 Threading
 Turning operations
36

 Facing
 Tool is fed radially inwards

 Taper turning
 Tool is fed at an angle creating a tapered
cylinder
 Turning operations
37

 Contour turning
 Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis
of rotation, tool follows a contour that is other
than straight, thus creating a contoured form

 Form turning
 Tool shape is imparted to work
 Not a single point tool
 Turning operations
38

 Chamfering
 Tool cute the edge of the part at an angle
called chamfer

 Cut off
 Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some
location to cut off end of part
 Turning operations
39

 Threading
 Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of
rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation at a
large feed rate, thus creating threads

 Boring
 Single point tool is fed linearly, || to the axis
of rotation on inside of an existing hole
 Turning operations
40

 Drilling
 Drill
along the axis, reaming is also the
same
 Not a single point tool

 Knurling
 Produce a regular cross-hatched section
 Boring
41

 Similar to turning
 Internal turning
 Performed on Boring machines
 Types
 Horizontal boring
 Vertical boring
 Horizontal Boring
42

 Feed is applied to tool attached to

cantilever bar
 Bar should be stiff
 Bar is rotated and feed is applied to
work
 Vertical boring
43

 Very heavy parts

 Upto 40 feet dia tables are available
 Facing and boring can be performed
 Horizontal/ vertical feed
 Turret
 Several cutting tools
 Vertical turret lathe (VTL): batch production
 Drilling
44

 Creates a round hole in a workpart

 Contrasts with boring which can only enlarge an existing
hole
 Cutting tool called a drill or drill bit
 Performed on a drill press
 Through Holes vs. Blind Holes
45

 Through-holes
 drill exits the opposite side of work

 Blind-holes
 drill does not exit work on opposite side
 Operations related to drilling
46

 Reaming
 Tapping
 Counterboring
 Countersinking
 Centering
 Spot facing
 Reaming
47

 Used to slightly enlarge a hole

 provide better tolerance on

diameter, and improve surface
finish
 Tapping
48

 Used to provide internal screw

threads on an existing hole

 Tool called a tap

 Counterboring
49

 Provides a stepped hole

 A larger diameter follows a

smaller diameter partially into
the hole
 Countersinking
50

 Similar to counterboring

 The step is cone-shaped for flat

head screws and bolts
 Centering
51

 Also called center drilling

 Drills a starting hole to accurately

establish its location for
subsequent drilling

 The tool is called a center drill

 Spot facing
52

 Spot facing is similar to milling

 Used to provide a flat machined

surface on the workpart in a
localized area
 Milling
53

 Machining operation in which work is fed past a

rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
 Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
direction

Milling (Video)
•Vertical Machining Centers
•Horizontal Machining Centers
•Machining center workholding
•Milling cutters and operations
 Milling
54

 Creates a planar surface; other geometries possible either

by cutter path or shape

 Milling is an interrupted cutting operation

 Cutting tool called a milling cutter
 Cutting edges called "teeth"
 Machine tool called a milling machine
 Milling types
55

 Peripheral milling
 Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined
 Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter

 Face milling
 Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled
 Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the
cutter
 Slab milling
56

 The basic form of peripheral milling in which the

cutter width extends beyond the workpiece on both
sides
 Slotting/Slot milling
57

 Width of cutter is less than workpiece width, creating

a slot in the work

 Thickness too small, like sheet

 Saw milling
 Side milling
58

 Cutter cuts the side of the workpiece

 Straddle milling
59

 Same as side milling but the cutter cuts both sides of

the workpiece
 Form milling
60

 Milling tooth defines the cut profile

 P. Milling acc. to rotation direction
61

 Up milling
 Conventional milling
 Direction of motion of teeth is opposite
to the feed
 Milling against the feed

 Down milling
 Climb milling
 Milling with the feed

 More tool life

 Tends to hold the work

 Conventional face mill
62

Cutter overhangs work on both sides

 Partial face mill
63

Cutter overhangs work on one sides

 End mill
64

 Cutter diameter is less than work width, so a slot is

cut into part
 Profile millig
65

 Form of end milling in which the outside periphery

of a flat part is cut
 Pocket milling
66

 Another form of end milling used to mill shallow

pockets into flat parts
 Surface contouring
67

 Ball-nose cutter is fed back and forth across the

work along a curvilinear path at close intervals to
create a three dimensional surface form
 Type w.r.t Spindle direction
68

 Horizontal milling
 Spindle is horizontal
 Designed to perform peripheral mill

 Vertical milling
 Spindle is vertical
 Appropriate for
 Profile mill, end mill, face mill, surface mill etc.
 Machining Centers
77

 Highly automated machine tool capable of

performing multiple machining operations under
CNC control in one setup with minimal human
attention
 Typical operations are milling and drilling
 Three, four, or five axes

 Other features: Video

 Automatic tool changing Milling and machining centers
1. Vertical machining centers
 Pallet shuttles 2. HMC
 Automatic workpart positioning 3. Machining center
workholding
 Mill-Turn Centers
78

 Highly automated machine tool that can perform turning,

milling, and drilling operations on a workpart
 General configuration of a turning center
 Can position a cylindrical workpart at a specified angle so a
rotating cutting tool (e.g., milling cutter) can machine features
into outside surface of part
 A conventional turning center cannot stop workpart at a defined angular
position and does not possess rotating tool spindles
 Mill-Turn Center
79

(1) turn second diameter

(2) mill flat with part in programmed angular position
(3) drill hole with part in same programmed position
(4) cutoff
 Shaping and Planing
80

 Similar operations Video

1. Gear functions
 Both use a single point 2. Gear machining
cutting tool moved linearly
relative to the workpart
 Shaping and Planing
81

 A straight, flat surface is created in both operations

 Interrupted cutting
 Subjects tool to impact loading when entering work
 Low cutting speeds due to start-and-stop motion
 Usual tooling:
 single point high speed steel tools
 Shaping
82

 Tool: cutting motion

 Table: Feed motion
 Forward stroke: Cut
 Return stroke: Tool is lifted
 Feed after each stroke
 High speed on return
 Planing
83

 Tool: Feed motion

 Table: cutting motion
 Parts: Larger than shapper
 Open side planer
 Single column planer
 Double-column planer
 Limits the width of work
 Broaching
84

 Moves a multiple teeth cutting tool linearly relative

to work in direction of tool axis
 Cutting tool: Broach
 M/C Tool: Broaching machine
 Broaching
85

 Vertical/ horizontal broach

 Broaching machines pull the broach past the work
 Exceptions
 broaching press:
 Pushes the broach (internal)
 Continuous broaching machine
 Continuous belt and stationary broach
 Only surface broaching
 Broaching Advantages
86

 Good surface finish

 Close tolerances
 Variety of work shapes possible
 Owing to complicated and often custom-shaped
geometry, tooling is expensive
 External Broaching
87

 Performed on external surface of a hole

 Creates certain cross sectional shapes
 Internal Broaching
88

 Performed on internal surface of a hole

 A starting hole must be present in the part to insert
broach at beginning of stroke
89
 Sawing
90

 Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a

series of narrowly spaced teeth
 Tool called a saw blade
 Types according to blade types
 Hacksawing

 Bandsawing

 Circular Sawing
91
92 END