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BLADING VIBRATION AND FAILURES IN GAS TURBINES

PART A: BLADING DYNAMICS & 'THE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT

Cyrus B. Meher-Homji III 111111111 11111 11 111111

Boyce Engineering International, Inc.
10555 Rockley Road, •
Houston, Texas.

ABSTRACT blade geometry which makes advanced finite element

Blades account for as much as 42% of failures in gas turbines. modeling difficult. Interaction between the vibration of
This paper provides a practical treatment of the subject taking blades, disc, shrouds, snubbers and the presence of
into account the complex nature of blading problems, influence "assembly modes" further complicates the problem.
of the operating environment, design factors and maintenance 3. Non-uniformity of supposedly "identical" blades.
practices. Bladmg failure modes such as fatigue, environmental 4. Operation of turbine airfoils in a hostile environment,
attack, creep, erosion, and embritdement are addressed along where damage mechanisms of creep, oxidation, hot
with a synopsis of design tools to review blade reliability. corrosion and thermal fatigue often work in conjunction
Peripheri issues affecting blade integrity such as fuel and blade leading to compound failure modes.
quality control are addressed. The Appendix provides 5. The rapid rate of progression of high frequency fatigue
applicable tools and fommhe that can be used by gas turbine failures.
users for design review and troubleshooting.
2.0 FAILURE MODES INCAS TURBINE BLAD1NG
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Predominant failure mechanisms and onnmonly affected
With blade problems accounting for as much as forty two components are:
percent (42%) of the failures in gas turbines (Allianz, 1978) and • Low Cycle Fatigue- Compressor and turbine disks.
with its severe effect on plant availability, there is a pressing 2. High Cycle Fatigue - Compressor and turbine blades, disks,
need for a unified treatment of the causes, failure modes and compressor SWOT vanes.
troubleshooting to assist plant engineers in tackling blade failure 3. Thermal Fatigue- Nozzles, Combustor components.
problems. Existing publications tend to focus exclusively on a 4. Environmental Attack (Oxidation, Sulphidaticm. Hot
particular aspect of the problem such as metallurgy, vibration Corrosion, Standby Corrosion)- Hot section blades and
dynamics or stress analysis and fail to emphasize the stators, transition pieces and combustors.
multidisciplinary nature of the problem. Some notable 5. Creep damage - Hot section nozzles and blades.
exceptions are publications by Dundas(1993a,b), Sohre (1975), 6. Erosion & Wear .
Passey(1976) and Armstrong (1960) which provide a practical 7. Impact Overload damage (due to POD. DOD or clash/clang
perspective. It is the intent of this paper along with Meher- of compressor blades due to surge).
omji, (1995 B,C,D) to provide practical information to aid gas 8. Thermal Aging.
turbine users tackle blading problems. These papers, address 9. Combined Failure Mechanisms- creep/fatigue,
compressor and turbine airfoil problems, detection and corrosion/fatigue, oxidation/erosion etc.
troubleshooting of blading problems and case studies pertaining
to binding failure. 7.1 Fatigue.
Statistics an industrial gas turbines Bloch (1982) indicate that Fatigue accounts for a significant number of turbine and
turbine blades and rotor components account for 28% of primary compressor blade failures and is promoted by repeated
causes of failures with turbine nozzles and stationary pans application of fluctuating stresses. Stress levels are typically
accounting for 18%. The tames of blade failure are manifold. much lower than the tensile stress of the material Conunon
They include vibration, fatigue, foreign object damage, causes of vibration in compressor blades include stator passing
corrosion, erosion, sulphidation and creep. In spite of the frequency wakes, rotating stall, surge, choke, inlet distortion and
availability of sophisticated design tools, blade failures are blade flutter. In the turbine section, airfoils have to function not
prevalent in both compressors and turbines. There are several only in a severe vibratory environment but also under hostile
reasons for this: conditions of high temperature, corrosion, creep and thermo- .
I. The presence of unavoidable excitations (of both mechanical fatigue.
aerodynamic and mechanical origin).
2. Exceedingly complex vibration characteristics of blades 2.1.1 If igh Cycle Fade ue(HCF) Resonant fatigue is an
under actual operating conditions that often differ from important failure mechanism which arises when a periodic farce
analytical predictions. These arise bermIse of the intricate

Presented at the International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition
Houston, Texas - June 5 8, 1995 -

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 acts at a frequency corresponding to a blade natural frequency. formed. Under this slag (and above a threshold temperature
If the damping is inadequate for absorption of the periodic input which is about 100°C higher for cobalt based superalloys than
energy, amplitudes and stresses grow until failure occurs by for nickel based ones) the protective oxide layer is broken down
overstress or by propagation of a fatigue crack Loss of damping permitting attack of the parent superalloy and causing very
due to breakage of a lacing wire can increase the vibratory serious damage. Sodium sulfate is highly corrosive causing deep
stresses by a factor of four. This situation can occur when the stress riser pits in the airfoil. Sulphidation is of particular
lashing wire holes in the blade get elongated with wear. HCF is concern when it is found in the blade root region or along the
typically caused by aerodynamic excitations (i.e., NPF, VPF I , leading or trailing edges, or under the blade shroud. Details on
strut pass frequency) or by self excited vibration and flutter. sulphidation are presented in Boyer (1975), and
Whereas the fluctuating stresses may not be very high, the DeCrescente(1980).
maximum stress at resonance can increase dramatically. High
cycle fatigue damage will occur when stress levels are above the 2.2.3. Hot Corrosion. Hot section parts are often subject to
fatigue strength. It is important to note that the fatigue strength combined oxidation-sulphidation phenomena referred to as hot
is severely affected by a corrosive environment, in which the corrosion. Two types of hot corrosion have been identified.
Stress Vs. No. Of Cycles (S-N) curve loses its validity. The Type 1 (high temperature) corrosion occurs at temperatures
growth of vibration at resonance is governed by: approximately between 1517-1742°F (825-950°C). A denuded
1. Magnitude of the exciting force. The stimulus of this force zone of base metal is often found along with intergrannular
can be a function of the operating condition (e.g., airflow attack and sulfide spikes. Type 2 (low temperature) hot
or temperature distortion). corrosion occurs at between 1292-1472°F (700-800°C) and
2. Damping of blade material (hysteresis damping in the blade displays a layered type of corrosion sade 2. Typically, no
and coulomb damping, in the fir tree & shroud). intergrarmular attack or denuded zone of the base metal is found.
3. Resonant response factor i.e., a measure of the ability of Details on Type 2 Hot Corrosion may be found in Coward
the blade (or blade packet) to accept energy from the (1985). Coatings are commonly used to mitigate hot corrosion
stimulus. problems. Details are provided in Meher-Homji (1995 B).
2.1.2 Low Cycle FatiguaLCF). Low cycle fatigue occurs as 2.2.4 Standby Corrosion. This is a problem that commonly
a result of machine start/stop cycles and is predominant in the afflicts peaking gas turbines. It occurs during a turbine shutdown
bores and bolt hole areas of compressor and turbine disks which and is the result of air moisture and corrosives being present in
operate under centrifugal stresses. It is typically a problem the machine. Crevice corrosion occurs when corrosion products
associated with machines that have been in operation for several which accumulate in the blade attachment areas, act as abrasives
years. In this situation, minute flaws grow mto cracks which, and increase clearances. In the presence of corrosives possibly
upon attaining critical size, result in rupture. from airborne salt, uncoated airfoils frequently develop corrosion
pits which may then develop into cracks. Blade fatigue strength
2.1.3 Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue (TM?). is associated is significantly reduced by corrosion. Blade failures caused by
with thermal stresses e.g., differential expansion of hot section crevice corrosion will show symptoms typical of stress corrosion
components during startup & shutdown and is particularly severe fatigue or stress corrosion (Sohre 1975).
during rapid starts and full load emergency trips. The stress
levels induced may initiate cracks if they exceed material the
yield stress. Temperature variations as high as 360 °F (200 °C)
per minute are often experienced in hot section blading.
e
2. occurs when components operate over time under high
stresses and temperature. Figure 1 shows a typical deformation
curve. As a rough rule of thumb, a 15°C increase in blade metal
2.2 Environmental Problems. temperature cuts creep life by 50%. This emphasizes the
The environment must be considered when evaluating My importance of effective cooling. Creep affects hot section parts
blade failure. In addition to fouling which creates adverse and the final stages of high pressure ratio compressors and is
conditions for compressor blading, (Meher-Homji, 1995B), there predominant in the mid span region of the airfoil which
are other mechanisms that can affect blade integrity. In experiences the highest temperature. Creep strain is of interest
particular, hot section components are subject to attack from bennse it leads to progressive reduction of rotor tip clearances.
oxidation, corrosion and sulphidation. Environmaual problems It can also occur in the disk rim region where high stresses and
do not normally result in catastrophic failures but work in temperatures can cause time dependent plastic damnation.
conjunction with other failure modes. Compressor blades are Creep behavior is commonly modeled by use of the Larson -
frequently affected by corrosion and pining which can be severe Miller Parameter. (See Appendix). Figure 2 depicts the
if the ambient air contains salts or other contaminants. sensitivity of life with temperature for a Waspalloy disk in a
power turbine. Exposure to creep can be detected by
2.2.1 High Temperature Oxidation. High temperature metallurgical tests, common indicators being the coarsening . of
oxidation occurs when nickel based superalloys are exposed to the Game Prime precipitates and the formation of void cavities
temperatures greater than 1000 °F( 538°C). Oxygen in the gas at grain boundaries. Details on creep may be found in
stream reacts with nickel alloy to form a nickel-oxide layer on Greenfield (1972)
the airfoil surface. When subjected to vibration and start stop
thermal cycles during operation, this nickel oxide layer tends to 2A Erosion/Wear.
crack and spall. This phenomenon may also occur on the inner These mechanisms do not cause catastrophic blading failures but
surfaces of blade coolmg passages and result in blade failure. contribute to other failure modes and can be of considerable
Coatings are available to mitigate this effect and can be applied economic significance as blade replacement may be necessary.
both on the blade surface and internal cooling holes. Erosion and wear can occur in both compressor and turbine
components. Particles causing erosion in axial flow compressor
2.2.2 Sulphidation. Sulphidation is a reaction which occurs blades are 5-10 microns or greater in size. In addition to the
when sulpher (from the fuel) reacts with the protective oxide primary damage caused by erosion, a reduction in the surge
layer and attacks the base metal. The air ingested by a gas margin can occur if the tips get severely eroded. Fretting wear
turbine can contain impurities such as SO ?, S03, Sodium occurs in the blade attachment areas (dovetails) and is often
Chloride (salt), and chlonne. As these impurines pass over the associated with standby corrosion. A review of factors which
airfoil, droplets (slag) of liquid sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO4) are
'Type 2 Hot Corrosion is analogous to fireside corrosion found in coal fired
'Nozzle and Vane Passing Frequencies boilers.

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 e-

influence fretting wear is presented in Bill (1982). A excitation frequency coincides with blade natural frequency.
considerable amotmt of dovetail wear (causing bucket rock) With forced excitation, almost all the sources (except rotating
occurs during turning gear operation when the blades are not stall) must be harmonics of the rotating speed'. Blade vibration
centrifugally loaded. Corrosion in the dovetail region will, of can be caused by nog engine order excitation such as rotating
course, accelerate the process, with the corrosives acting as an stall at lower speeds and flutter at higher speeds. Some engine
abrasive. orders are of more importance than others with lower engine
orders potentially causing high excitation.
.4.1 Hot Gas Erosion. Apart from particulate erosion, there
also exists the important phenomenon of hot gas erosion.
Modern air cooled gas turbine components operate at metal
temperatures hundreds of degrees lower than the gas path
temperatures. The metal surface is protected by means of the
natural boundary layer or by a cooling air fdm. If this cooling
layer of air breaks dot even for short periods of time, 07
cooling effectiveness drops, then the surface asperities
(roughness) of the blade contacted by the hot gas are subjected to
high thermal stress cycles. After several cycles, damage takes
place and the increased roughness (erosion) worsens the
problem. Typically the most severely affected parts are those in
the hottest gas path (e.g. central to the transition piece exit). Figure I. Creep Curve
This problem can occur in the first stage nozzle segments at the CREEP UFE ANALYSI
platforms and may reflect inappropriate cooling. A problem of il122 1 S75W, Waspalley LMP .37 S
this type on a fast stage vane Inner platform is described by reeee d—Cooling air Nowa 0.7 Lbrn/sae
O'Neill(1989). =a°
icon, =Disc
— attachment region —
..
—
2000)3 =RANGE METAL TEMPERATURE
2.5 J8mbrittlement.
Embrittlement is a form of microstructure degradation that
91000
110200
704003
I
a
results in a loss of impact strength and is a particularly serious 40033
problem relating to Udimet 710 and 720 alloys as it mcreases 9:0300
• 01:03
the material's susceptibility to foreign object damage (POD). 30031
With embrittlement, brittle intemmtallic compounds precipitate 20203
10203
in a plate morphology and continuous carbide films form along COX0
grain boundaries. According to Stringer and Viswanathan(1990), 9X03
31:03
it is estimated that in the United States, there are blade law of TOMO
Udimet 710 worth well over $60 million, suffering from loss of 03300
impact toughness. The minimum acceptable impact toughness to SOCCO
COCO
avoid serious FOD as suggested by Crombie et al.(1977), is 6 ft- 17000
lb. (8.13) at 1652°F (900 °C). This temperature will be reached 233:03
0020
after 10,000 hours at 1500°F (816 °C). Figure 3 (Viswanathan 0 .
and Dolbec, 1986 and Crombie et al, 1977) depicts the drop in 1133 1123 1113 1103 0003 1013 1073 1013 10S7 1 3 1033 1
impact toughness for U-710 and IN-738 with increasing Temp.

exposure in the range of 1450-1650 °F (780-900 °C). In this Figure 2. Sensitivity of Creep life with increasing temperature
Figure, time and temperature have been combined in terms of for a Waspalloy turbine disc (LMP=37.5)
the Larson Miller Parameter. The drop in impact strength for U-
710 occurs at 10,000 hours. 00s•• • *WC (1100.1
.3 vas •11131 mom
T-1-71
2.6 Combination Mechanisms. 00 • 1212120• 702
ta a •7 • a
Blade failures are commonly caused by multiple failure
mechanisms. Corrosion, for example, can reduce blade section
size and drop the fatigue strength. Fretting wear in the blade
attachment regions can reduce damping causing increased
vibration amplitudes and alternating stresses. Foreign object
damage can cause nicks and cracks that can then be propagated
by low or high cycle fatigue. Consequently, failure analysis
must investigate all engineering causes mcluding design issues,
environmental factors, cleanliness of the fuel, air quality,
material history and gas turbine operating history. Case studies
involving combination mechanisms are presented in Meher-
Homji (1995 D).
0 43 as 47 •• SI
• .• 71•100•1911
3.0 BLADING VIBRATION
Figure 3. Drop in Intpact Touglmess for U 710 and IN 738 with
There are, in general, two kinds of blading vibration - forced temperature exposure (Viswanathan and Dolbec, 1986)
vibration and flutter.
12aL _ar.
Flutter.
34_ Forced Vibcation. u relatively rare, and less predictable than forced
Forced vibration arises from the movement of the rotor vibration, flutter can occur in axial flow compressors. Flutter
through stationary disturbances such as upstream stator wakes, occurs at frequencies that are not multiples of engine order and
support struts, inlet distortion, W. by forcing functions such as
rotating stall. Analogous to a rotor critical speed, forced
vibration can lead to high stresses and failure when the ' ft is this feature that permits a representation by means of a Campbell
Diagram

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 at different locations on the compressor operating map. It can This is one reason why in the course of a failure investigation,
occur on either a few blades in a row, or with widely different the angular location of the damaged blades with respect to the
amplitudes on individual blades. As amplitudes rise, flutter disk must be carefully documented and sketched, prior to
tends to encompass all blades at approximately the same deblading.
frequency. Flutter typically manifests itself at the blade natural
frequency. 333 Effect of Speed & Temperature. The natural
frequency of rotor blade vibration is reduced with increasing
33 Bladinz Vibration Modes. temperatures (because of reduction in Young's Modulus) and is
33.1 Turbine and Compressor Blade Modes. Axial flow increased at high speeds bernuse of centrifugal stiffening. The
blading, centrifugal impellers vanes and disks have a variety of manner in which the natural frequency is affected, depends on
natural modes (shapes of vibration). These modes occur at the mode under consideration. In a compressor, flap modes tend
characteristic frequencies determined by the distribution of mass to rise (centrifugal stiffening effect) with RPM and torsional
and stiffness resulting from the variable thickness of the blade modes tend to drop with increasing temperature (reduction in
area. Currently, holographic testing methods are employed for modulus of elasticity). Turbine natural frequencies generally fall
determining and visualizing mode shapes. with an increase in speed because there is a significant rise in
Figure 4 (Harmon, 1979) shows mode shapes for axial flow temperature. Formula for correcting natural frequencies due to
compressor blades and disci. The simplest mode is the first temperature effects are provided in Meher-Homji, (1995 B).
flexural or first flap (IF) mode where the blade acts as a
cantilever bending in its weakest direction. At higher excitation
frequencies, the blade may vibrate in the second flap mode (2F), 4.0 DESIGN EVALUATION TOOLS.
i.e., with one stationary node. The flap modes may cause
fretting in the disk rim as the blade root moves within its Campbell and Goodman diagrams are valuable design
clearance. Torsional and axial modes war at even higher evaluation tools for troubleshooting blading failures. The
frequencies. Turbine modes are similar to those depicted in Campbell diagram (also called an interference diagram) provides
Figure 4 but no pin-rolling modes occur as the blade attachment details on natural frequencies and the forcing functions at
is typically a fir-tree. A first edgewise (1E) mode of excitation different operating speeds. The Goodman diagram provides a
can occur normal to the direction of the first flap (1F) vibration. visual map of stress levels and the estimated limits. Gas turbine
manufacturers consider this information proprietary and do not
33.2 Blade Disk Vibration. Disks are prone to vibration normally provide users with this data. The Campbell diagram
either on their own or in the form of a rotor disk assembly. can be developed by testing or by analytical methods.
Combined blade/disk rim vibration modes also occur Disks
vibration can involve several nodal patterns. As disk vibration
can excite blade vibration, attention should be paid to the 4.1 Campbell Diagram.
location of blade failures with respect to the disk Failures 90° A Campbell diagram depicts compressor or turbine speed on
FLAP MODES (COMPRESSORS AND TURBINES) the abscissa and frequency on the ordinate. The natural
/
frequencies for different vibration modes are drawn on the
ordinate. Excitation frequencies (Engine Orders) including,
/0 20 3,0 running speed and its four harmonics, strut-pass frequencies,
stator pass frequency, are shown on the diagram. The
coincidence of a natural frequencies with exciting frequencies
creates a resonance condition. A typical Campbell Diagram is
PIN ROLLING MODES (COMPRESSORS) shown in Figure 5. Intersections of the excitation lines with the
blade natural frequency lines do not necessarily imply that
dangerous vibrations will occur. A buildup of significant
2PR. JL 3FR. vibration and stress would require adequate strength of the
I PR stimulus and appropriate phase and modal =cling.
o 121 Additionally, the damping present would have to be insufficient
to control the vibration.
TORSIONAL MODES COMPLEX MODES

011
Proe POO 5
SOO OPE3A17NG RPM RANGE

IT 2T 37 200 ....

600 I= AXIAL Ado f ,

500
BOW STRING MODES (STATORS)
f
400 -E
21st TANGENTIAL 11101 I
300 Call
0-
200
=
=
_.a
re-i
EDGEWISE MODES
.. .
100

..-„,
.
2 3 4 5 6
X 1000 RPM ■•■—ls.
Figure 5. Campbell Diagram for B lading
Figure 4. Typical Mode Shapes (Harmon, 1979)
4.2 The "SAFE" Interference Diagram.
and 180° apart indicate a 2 Nodal Diameter mode and failures For resonance to exist, two conditions must be satisfied:
60° apart would indicate a 3 Nodal Diameter mode of vibration.

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4
 1. A coincidence of the exciting force and the blade's natural successive nozzles and this results in an alternating stress shown
frequency. in the Figure.
2. The profile of the exciting force should have the same shape
as the associated mode shape of vibration.
The SAFE (Singh's Advanced Frequency Evaluation )
diagram developed by M.P. Singh is a visual representation of
the frequencies of the exciting harmonics and the shape of the
hamionics. This diagram permits the visualization of exciting
frequencies and phase information. It has been successfully
applied to bladed disk assemblies in steam turbines (Singh and
er, 1982, Singh and Vargo, 1989).
4,3 Goodman Diagram. Figure 7. Blade Stresses (Sorensen, 1951)
The Goodman Diagram shown in Figure 6 is =manly used
to evaluate the mechanical integrity of blading. The abscissa of 5.3 Gas Flow Induced_Alternating Stress.
the diagram represents steady mean stress while the ordinate Alternating stresses s can be caused by .
represents the vibratory stress levels. The Goodman diagram 1. Stator nozzle wakes (NPF = No. of Nozzles X RPM).
shows a region of acceptable operation (beneath the curve) in 2. Mismatch of nozzle sectors at split line (2 X RPM
terms of steady state & vibratory stresses. In the Figure. A excitation).
represents a point where the steady stress in zero. Point B 'I
3. Pitch variations of nozzles or rotor blades.
represents no alternating stress. Point C locates a hypothetical 4. Wakes from support struts which can cause failures
operating point. A numerical example is presented in the several stages downstream.
Appendix. 5. Bowed nozzles causing flow distortion.
ENtworamcs torn- 6. Disk-blade vibration interaction.
A Alternating stresses are often responsible for blading failures.
Studies reported by Walker et al., (1987) based on strain gauge
tests on gas turbine blading 6 indicated a doubling of alternating
stresses with a blocked burner. Gross high, pressure turbine
nozzle blockage increased alternating stresses by a factor of five.
5.4 F.O.D. Induced Impact Stresses,
This is relatively rare in stationary gas turbines but can occur
with poorly designed inlets. In some rare cases, parts of the
combustor lining have loosened and have been ingested in the
turbine section. Domestic Object Damage (DOD) also occurs
when an initial blade failure causes a destructive "blade salad".

Figure 6. Goodman Diagram for Blade Stresses 5.5 Temperature Stresses.

Blades are subjected to severe thermal stresses during
transient conditions such as startup and shutdowns. A typical
5.0 STRESSES ON BLADING thermal-mechanical cycle for a first stage turbine blade is shown
in Figure 8 (Viswanathan and Dolbec, 1986). This figure shows
The Stresses on a blade include: qualitatively, the metal temperature and the leading edge
1. Centrifugal Stress. mechanical strain variations. Thermal stresses are particularly
2. Gas flow induced steady state stress. severe in Arctic environments where very cold air can come into
3. Gas flow induced alternating stresses. contact with hot blading after an emergency trip. Stress levels
4. Impact stresses caused by FOD. can reach 100,000 psi new the blade cooling holes during a
shutdown.
For a detailed treatment, along with practical formulae of
these factors, readers are referred to Sohre (1975), Sorensen
(1951) and Dundas (1985).
Cenlfugal Stress.
Centrifugal force on blading can be exceedingly high but is
rarely the primary cause of failure. It can be a factor in the hot
section of gas turbines in conjunction with creep effects. To
minimize centrifugal bending stress, the centers of gravity of
shroud, foil, root & root lands should ideally be located on a
common radial axis. To pt a feel for the values involved, the
centrifugal force on a 25 mch blade operating at 3600 RPM will
be 100 tons'. The maximum caunfugal stress occurs at the
blade root. 8. Typical Thermal Strain Cycle for a 1st stage Blade
iswatiathan and Dolbec, 1986)
54_ Gas_Flow Induced Steady State Stress.
Gas flow induced steady state stress is a bending stress 5 6filade allure sue To Overspeed.
superimposed on the centrifugal stress and is proportional to the Oversized is a it attvely rare phenomenon in single shaft gas
blade loading (enthalpy drop across stage). The steady state turbines where the axial compressor power absorption limits the
stress is shown as a horizontal line in Figure 7. In reality,
however, there is considerable buffeting as the gas flows through
5In steam turbines, partial admission is, by far, the major factor.
6These tests were conducted by the Royal Navy on the Tyne and Olympus
4 11th is the weight of sixty (60) antmnobiles. Engines.

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 overspeed excursion. Free power turbines can, however, liquids in the fuel, the combustion may be rough, resulting in gas
experience overspeecl. Overspeed is often limited by rotor stator supply pipe vibration causing wear of transition pieces or
contact resulting from the increased thmst loading. At an manifolds. At moderate liquid concentration levels, the liquid
over-speed of 25%, stresses will be approximately 1.56 dines gets segregated due to inertia effects and is unevenly distributed
their design value. to the fuel distribution system. The control system may then
behave in an unstable manner twanse of exhaust gas
5.7 Blade Life Estimation. temperature variations. Combustion imbalance from one
Blade life estimation is complicated by factors such as combustion chamber to another CM (mice high exhaust gas
corrosive environment, and presence of stress raisers. A spreads in excess of 80°F (45°C) which have a damaging effect
comprehensive treatment of blade life estimation is made by on the blades. If a significant level of liquid is present m the gas
Viswanathan (1989) and Rao (1992). This is a complex area (causing the heating value to be greater than 110% of the
where substantial analytical work is underway. The "equivalent nominal value) then rapid destruction of hot gas components can
hour" concept is one in which the hot section life is expressed as occur. Exhaust gas temperature spreads can get exceedingly
a function of actual operating hours, number of starts and trips high and in extreme cases, rotating blades can melt. If the
and other operational profile information. In this concept, the melting is uniform, the vibration levels may not increase.
manufacturer provides an empirical equation that helps in Complete hot gas path destruction can, at times occur in a
estimating life consumption of hot section parts. period of 5-10 minutes.
Damage due to liquids in the =cal gas fuel can include:
(1) Transition piece failures (greater cyclic stresses due to
6.0 EFFECTS OF AMBIENT TEMPERATURES AND liquids being introduced =eminently causing pressure
FUEL SYSTEM PROBLEMS ON BLADING pulsations). At times, seals rupture allowing compressor
discharge air to enter at the 1st stage nozzle. This can
6.1 Ambient Conditions and Medina Problems. cause severe temperature distortion which has a deleterious
Gas turbines operate in extreme temperature ambients ranging effect on the blades. Unburned liquid droplets can ignite
from -58°F (-50°C) to 140°F (60°C). This change in ambient creating a flame near the stator nozzle.
temperature causes a chance in air mass flow and differences in (2) Thermal distress of blading (caused due to distorted
aerodynamic blade loading. Clough(1987) describes an temperature profile)
interesting case of intermediate pressure (LP) turbine blading (3) Compressor surge (due to rapid incresase in back pressure)
failures on Rolls Royce R8211 derived engines. Clough's
investigations clearly showed the influence of very low ambient 6.2.1 Low Fuel Nozzle Pressure Ratio and Excessive
temperatures and their effect on blade loading. Ice ingestion is Pressure Fluctuations. The combustor fuel nozzle tiLacts as a
not an uncommon problem in gas turbines and can cause metering orifice. The fuel nozzle pressure ratios (F%WR) is
expensive primary and secondary damage to compressor blading. defined as
Due to the high intake velocity in the compressor (03-0.8 Mach FNPR = (Fuel gas pressure)/(Combustor liner pressure)
Number), the drop in static pressure and temperature can cause Excessive pressure fluctuations in the combustor liner would
icing conditions at conditions approaching 40°F (5°C) and propagate upstream into the fuel nozzle. These pressure
relative humidity of 70%. The formation of ice in the pulsations coupled with low fuel nozzle pressure ratios causes a
compressor inlet or IGVs and cause damage by the following high variation in the fuel flow and heat release. Pulsations can
mechanisms: damage hot gas components. Liquids in the fuel can contribute
1. Distortion of inlet air flow. This could be due to physical to a lower fuel nozzle pressure ratio. The liquids cause an
ice buildup or due to uneven temperature at the compressor increase in the heating value per unit volume. Consequently, a
inlet face when exhaust gas is used for anti-icing. smaller volumetric flow is required. The reduction in flow
2. Physical FOD when a piece of ice is ingested. results in lower nozzle pressure ratios which further compound
There are a %gaiety. of anti-icing solutions including the use of the pulsation problems.
compressor bleed au, direct use of exhaust gas to heat the inlet Liquids in natural gas fuel can result in a distorted gas
air Or the use of heat exchangers in the inlet using either glycol, temperature profile and hotter metal oxidation terupciatures.
low pressure steam or exhaust gas. Liquids following through the gas side of the fuel nozzle do not
follow the gas streamlines, and tend to concentrate along the
6.2 Blading Damaue Caused by Fuel & Combustion System axial centerline of the combustor. The temperatures are also
Problems considerably hotter and combustion occurs farther downstream
Gil=ti me hot section damage can occur due to the presence than with dry gas and the gas does not get cooled with air from
of liquids in the fuel gas or due to internal gas turbine fires and the combustion liner cooling holes. As the products of
explosions. The presence of hydrocarbon liquid can cause combustion go through the transition piece, the profile distorts
overfiring either in all or a few combustion chambers. The and peak temperature is near the outer radial edge.
presence of liquid hydrocarbons in natural gas depends on the Slugs of liquid hydrocarbons in the c as stream can promote
temperature and pressure of the gas. It is not uncommon for compressor surge. This is because the liquid hydrocarbon has a
natural gas to entrain liquids despite precautions. Liquid volumetric heating value of 1,500 times the heating value of a
carryover from pipeline gas scrubbers can occur due to: comparable volume of fuel gas. The slug of liquid hydrocarbon
(1) Foaming thus results in a rapid temperature rise (additional caloric input)
(2) Gas flow and pressure that exceeds scrubber capacity and an attendant rise in combustion pressure. This transient back
(3) Improper operation of a centrifugal separator pressure increase moves the operating line towards the
(4) Surges in liquid due to rapid fluctuations in gas pressure compressor surge line.
Liquids have different volumetric heating values and have
different flow characteristics in piping and fuel nozzles. Thus, 63 Internal Fires and Explosions.
when liquids are present in natural gas, gas turbine .performance Explosions occur when fuel is injected into hot engines and
is affected depending on the concentration of the liquid to gas. uncontrolled ignition occurs. Dundas(1988), lists four potential
At low concentration levels, the liquid is typically in aerosol situations:
form and the turbine control system will react by reducing fuel (1) Fuel is injected into a hot engine and does not ignite as
flow due to the apparent higher heating value of the fuel. The planned but ignites when it comes into contact with hot
flame will change color from transparent blue to a luminous internal surfaces. Autoignition can occur in the combustor,
flame with a color ranging from yellow to red. This can also the turbine section or the exhaust duct. The autoipition
occur if iron sulfide or sodium compounds are present. With temperature of No. 2 Fuel Oil is around 500,(390°C)

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6
 (2) Flameout that occurs when engine is in normal operation. strength of the blading was severely reduced due to the elevated
If fuel continues to flow, it may it-ignite when it touches temperature. As the tip shrouds were displaced, the natural
hot internal surfaces. frequency of the blades were modified to a much lower value.
(3) During switch over from liquid to gaseous fuels. Improper This change in natural frequency caused a blade fatigue failure.
purging of the original fuel or irnmopci scheduling of the The solution of this problem addressed the modification of fuel
valving can cause an explosion in the combustion section. purging procedures to ensure that no fuel accumulation could
(4) Fire at the bottom of combustor where liquid fuel collected occur.
after shutdown and, for some reason, was not drained. The
pool of liquid is ignited by hot gasses during a subsequent
start. Dundas(1988) points out the importance of shutting 7.0 BLADING QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND COATING
off fuel very rapidly and indicates that an ma limit of 500
inset is required (ideally <150ms). 7.1 Manufacture and Duality (kssurance.
Fires in the turbine enclosure can result in casing distortion Several gas nubble users utilize the services of non OEM
causing blade rubs. If fine water sprays are utilized to control vendors for the numufacnue of blades. Whereas several
the fire, care must be taken to avoid case distortion and reputable vendors can match the design and quality of the OEM,
consequent tip rubs. Figure 9 shows a photograph of burnt first one has to be exceedingly careful of quality control aspects
stage gas generator blades due to a fire caused by fuel. especially when it comes to blade redesign. Particular attention
should be paid to:
(1) Writing of tight specifications. Historical surrecs with a
specification does not automatically ensure that the part
will behave well. This is shown in Figure 10. The region
"x" indicates an acceptance zone for a attribute (or set of
attributes) for the blade. A certain shop may be producing
blading in the region "y" which perform flawlessly for
several years. Then, due to manufacturing reasons, the
same vendor (or another vendor using the same
specification) may produce blading with attribute(s) in the
region "e still within the tolerance zone. Blades in this
region "z" may experience a rash of failures.
(2) Even if blades are "replicated", care should be taken that
minims (increased blade loading, speeds, etc) have not
occurred over the years.

A ce-EP7ANCE zon,e

Figure 10. Quality control zones

Figure 9. Burnt blading due to fire (fuel accumulation). 7.2 Blade Coatings.
Blade Coatings play an important part of the battle against
6.4 Fuel System Related Turbine Blade Failure. blade failures with a wide range of coatings being available for
This case involved a heavy duty gas nubtne in 50 Hz power both compressor and hot section blading. A systems view should
generation service burning heavy fuel. The failure occurred in be taken when considering coatings - This should include:
the third stage turbine. The blades were equipped with an (i) Careful choice of coating process and type. The coating is
integral shroud at the outer tip diameter. Each shroud was typically the least durable material in the hot section.For
interlocked with the adjacent blades to resist the natural example, an improper heat treatment may degrade the base
tendency of the blade to untwist with centrifugal force and the metal properties.
effects of airflow. The machine normally ran on a blend of (ii) Ensuring the coating process itself is done properly. If
Bunker fuel and high speed diesel When a trip occurred, the applied improperly, even the best of coatings, would become
fuel left in the piping tended to solidify unless removed while ineffective. Quality control procedures for the coating
still warm. After a normal shutdown, the procedure followed vendor should be carefully. reviewed.
was to allow the turbine to coast down to a normal stop and then Details pertaining to coating types and failure modes me
accelerate it on the starter to crank speed while the fuel line was presented in Meher-Homji, (1995B
purged with high speed diesel. The fuel was expected to drain
from the machine during the purge cycle.
On the day of the failure, the machine tipped and a purge 8.0 SUMMARY
cycle was initiated. An Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) scan
made illdinte4 a maximum temperature of 1346°F (730°C) Blade failures account for a significant proportion of failures
which was much higher than the expected 932°F(500°C). An in gas turbines. A practical treatment of causes of gas turbine
EGT spread of 500°F (277°C) was also noted. blade failures has been made with the intention of providing
Blade metallurgical analysis confirmed that catastrophically users with the background to troubleshoot blade failures.
high temperatures had been reached. A gamma prune phase Blading failure modes such as fatigue, environmental attack,
modificanan was found in the nticrostrucoze of the blade creep, erosion, and embrialement were described and a synopsis
material. of design tools to review blade reliability provided. Peripheral
This high temperature occurred as the engine took fire factors affecting blade reliability such as fuel quality and blade
(autoignition) in an uncontrolled manner with a fire occuiring in quality assurance were addressed. The Appendix provides
the third stage blade area of the machine. The tip shrouds of the applicable tools and formulae that can be used by gas turbine
blades tipped forward due to the rapid temperature change. The users, for quick design review and troubleshooting

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 REFERENCES Meher-Homji, 0.8., (1995C), "Bladina Vibration and Failures in Gas
Allianz (1978), "Handbook of Loss Prevention", Springer Verlag. New Turbines: Part C-Detection and Troubleshooting ", 40th ASME IGTI Gas
York, 1978 Turbine and Aeroengine Congress, Houston, DC, June 5-8.1995.
Armstrong, EL, and Stevenson, MA.,(1960) "Some Practical Aspects Meher-Honiji, C.B., (1995D), "Bladina Vibration and Failures in Gas
of Comexessor Blade Vibration", 1. of the Royal Aeronautical Society, Turbines: Part I)- Case Studies", 40th ASME 1GTI Gas Turbine and
Volume 64, No. 591, March 1960, pp 118-130. Aeroengine Congress, Houston, TX, June 5-8,1995.
Armstrong, ElI, (1967), "Reomt Blade Vibration Tecimmnues,", ASME Meher-Hoanji, C.B. and Focke, kB.(1985), "Performance and
Journal of Engineering for Power, 89, pp 437-444, 1967. Vibration MonitorS for the Prevention of Gas Turbine Airfoil Failures",
Bill, ItO., (1982), "Review of Factors that Influence Fretting Wear," ASME 6th Biamial Conference on Failure Prevention and Reliability,
Materials Evaluation under Fretting Conditions, ASTM SW 780, September 10-13, 1985, ASME Bound Volume H.331.
American Society for Testing of Materials, 1982, pp. 165-182. O'Neill, S.T., (1989), "Operating Experience with a 42.5 MW Gas
Bloch, H.P., (1982), "Improving Machinery Reliability in Process Turbine Used in a Cogeneration Plant at a Pacer Mill in the US," ASME
Plants. Volume I, Gulf Publishing, Houston, Texas Gas Turbine and Aeroargine Conferenor, Toronto, Canada, lime 4-8,1989,
Bayer, WE., Ed, (1975), "Failure Analysis and Prevention?' Metals ASME Paper No:89-GT-197.
Handbook. 8th Edition, Vol. 10. American Society of Metals. Pusey, ILD.C., (1976), "Reliability of Comoressor Airfoils," Ping.
Aerospace Science, Vol 17, 1976, w 67-92.
Rao, IS., (1992), Turbomadilne Binding Vibration, Prentice Hall, 1992.
Anaheim, California, May 31-June 4,1987, ASME Paper No: 87.GT-104. Scalzo,Ai, (199l),"HiahcvdeFarigceflesianEvoloutionand
Crombie, E. McCall, W., Beck, CG., Moon, D.M., (1977), "Degradation Exoaiena of Freestanding Contistion Turbine Blades," International Gas
of High Ternoennue Im pact Properties of Nickel Base Gas Turbine Blade Turbine and Aeroasgine Congress, Orlando, Florida, June 3-6.1991,
Si!." Proceedings of the 12th CIMAC Conference, Volume C, Volume ASME Paper No:91-GT-13
C. Tokyo Shannon, IF,, (1945), "Vibration Pttthlnm In Gas Turbine Centrifugal
DeCrescente, MA., (1980), "Sulthidation and its Inhibition in and Axial flow Compressors." ARCR&M 2226, March 1945.
Turbotnachinezy," Proceedings of the 9th Twbonnachinery Syniposiurn, Singh, MY., Schiffer, D., (1982) "Vibrational Onaracterestics of
Texas A&M University, December 9-11,1980. Packeted Bladed flit" ASME Paper No: 82-DET-137
Dtmdas, RE.(1993a) "Investigation of Failures in Gas Turbines" Part I
Singh, MY., Virgo, LJ.,(1989), "Reliability Evaluation of Shrouded
- Techniques and Principles of Failure Investigation", ASME International
Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress, Cincinnati, May 24-27,1993 Blading Usina the SAFE Interference Diamarn,", ASME Journal of
ASME Paper No: 93-GT-83. Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, October 1989, Vol 111, pp.
Dundas, ltE0993b) "Investigation of Failures in Gas Turbines" Past 2- 601-609.
Engineering and Mera ll ograuitic Aspe cts of Fai lure Investiga ti on", ASME Sohie, J.S.,(1 75) "Steam Turbine Blade Failures. Causes and
hiternatiOna] Gas Turbine and Aeroerigine Congress, Cincinnati, May 24- irrections" , Proc. of the 4th Turbomachinny Symposium, Texas A
27.1993 ASME Paper No: 93-GT-84. tiversity, College Station, TX, October 1975.
Diandas, RE,. (1985) "Mechanical Design of the Gas Turbine", Sorensen, H.A.,(1951), "Gas Turbines7 Ronald Press, NY, 1951
Sawyer's Gas Turbine Engineeing Handbook, Vol 1, 3rd Edition, Ed. Stringer, 1., Vtswanathnj, It, "Keynote Address on Life Assessme

Components, EPRLASM-19, April 1990.

Stnib, LA., (1974). "Field Measurements of Blade Stresses on
Dundas. Industrial Turbornachines."Proceedings of the Third Turbomadminery
Symposium, College Station, Texas A&M University, 1974.
1988. Traupel, (1968), "Themnisdne Turbomaichinen," Springer. Berlin,
1968, 2nd edition.
Trampler, WL, Owens, 1LM, "Turbine Blade Vibration and Sareneth,"
ASME Paper 53A-98, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1953.
Netherlands, June 13-16, 1994, ASME Paper No: 94.CJT.279 Viswanathan, It, Dolbec, AC. (1986), tife Assesenem* Tedmology for
Dtmdas, RE., ,tapikse, D., (1985) "Preliminary Design of the Gas Combustion Turbine Blades:' ASME International Gas Turbine
Turbine", Sawyer's Gas Turbine Enginreing Handbook, Volume 1,3rd Conference, Dusseldorf, Germany, lime 8-12, 1986, ASME Paper No: 86-
Edition, Ed. Sayer, J.W., Tmbomathinery International Publications, GT-257.
1985. Viswanasban, R.,(1989) "lnne Mechanisms and Life Assessment of
Dundas, R.E,41990), Wxperiencz with External Fires in Gas Turbine Hiub Temnoerature Cmnants", ASM International Press, Metals Park,
Installations and Implications for Fire Protection," ASME Gas Turbine and 1989.
Aetoangine Conference, Brussels, Belgium, lime 11-14,1990, ASME Paper
No: 90-GT-375.
Ewins, D.1.11976) "Studies to Gain Insight into the Complexities of if Medmanial Engineers, UK, Vol
Blade Vibration Phenomenon", Paper No: C.184176, Institution of 95.
Mechanical Engineers, UK, 1976 ,"Marine Gas Turbines-Engine
Goward, G.W. (1985), "Low Tnnnaature Hot Corrosion in Gas ASME Gas Turbine Conference,
Turbines: a Review of Causes and Coatings Therefor", ASME 30th
International Gas Turbine Conference, Houston, Texas, March 18-21,
Thermocouples," International Gas Turbine and Aeroamgirme Congress,
1985, ASME Paper No: 85-GT-60. Cincinnati, Ohio, May 24-27,1993. ASME Paper No: 93-GT-222.
Greenfield, P., (1972), "Crew of Metals at High Tenineranires,", M&B Wood, IlL, Foster, A-D. Schilke, P.W., (1990), "High Tanoeiamre
Monograph ME/9, Mills and Boon Ltd., London, 1975. Coating for unmoved Oxidatioujtorrosion Protection," GE Turbine
Harmon, RtC.,(1979) "Gas Turbine Engineering", John Wiley and
Reference Library Publication GER 3597
Sons.
Knowles, M.X1994) "Gas Turbine Tenmerarure Soread Monitoring
Acknowledgments
Detection of Combustion System Deterioration." International Gas The information in this paper was obtained from many sources
Turbine and Aeroengine Congress, The Hague, Netherlands, June 13-16, and the originators names have been quoted in the figures or via
1994, ASME Paper No: 94-GT-1891. the references where ever possible. The author wishes to
Meher.Homji, C.B., (1995B), "Itlading Vibration and Failures in Gag acknowledge the contributions of Feroze I. Mcher-Homji. it.
Turbines' Part B.Cornnressor and Turbine Airfoil Distress", 40th ASME Chief Engineer (Mechanical). EEL for his invaluable help and
IG11 Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress, Houston, DC, June 5-8, technical advice in preparing this papa.
1995.

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 RULES OF y = Distance of neutral axis to point of maximum stress
I N
ILIAIM183LN
A PLAC P 1NEUE AND E = Youngs Modulus
p = Density
This appendix provides some basic formulae and rules of f = Frequency
thumb to be used for obtaining a rough feel for blading problem
and is not intended to be a review of blading dynamics. The In examining this equation, it can be seen that neither the
intent to provide insight in field troubleshooting situations.
length or chord enters the expression. When the maximum
1. 'Made Modes: In general, the most serious (largest stress is equal to the endurance stress, the factor af is sgjely
amplitude) vibration occurs in one of the blade's normal modes. dependent on the section geometry and the material properties.
In almost 90% of the failures (in axial flow compressors) these Fatigue tests on blades has shown that' saf Tor failure does not
can be attributed to vibration in the l a or 2' flexural mode, the
vary much between different blade designs but is dependent on
l g torsional mode or the 1st edgewise mode [Annstrong &
Stevenson, 1960). the material. Typical values of af for 10 7 reversals are
Aluminum
2.1.02 Damning Decrement An important parameter in Steel 56155 ft/sec
blading vibration is the log damping decrement 8 defmed as: Titanium 11.0 ft/sec

8 = In(el/ea) = yr 3. Blade Stresses. For practical equations for steam turbine

blacling please see Shore (1975). The Appendix of this excellent
where, in and at are are two consecutive amplitudes, y the work provides blade stress evaluation procedtues based on the
damping coefficient and T the Period of Vibration work of Tntupel(1968) The work by Shore can be considered a
The coefficient 7 is related to damping factor 8 by classic of practical considerations for steam turbine blade failure
troubleshooting.
7= A2m)
with m being the reduced mass of the blade.
It is the damping decrement that is responsible for the amount Some paractical equations from Sorensen (1951) are:
of vibration of the blade in or out of resonance. In a resonance Root section stress due to centrifugal force is given by
condition, the Amplification Factor (Al) which is the ratio of the
amplitude to the static deflection of the blade under the same , N2
forces of excitation is given by, cr e = 4.517A vir
oo

Al = n/8 This assumes constant area of blade from root to tip. In practice,
blades are tapered to reduce mass at the tip. Including a taper
This factor is also equal to the ratio of the static force to the factor, the root force resulting from centrifugal force is
pulsating force to reach the same deflection. IfS = 1.6% then
Al = 200. Thus at resonance, a pulsating gas force of 200 times N 2
smaller than the static force is sufficient to create the same blade = 451 f y A (—)
deflection. 1000
where,
Addition of Aerodynamic EXCiteLiet
a a = average tensile stress, psi
The static bending stress (ob) due to aerodynamic excitation is
given by, = taper factor (See Figure A-1)
a, = HSes = specific weight of blotting material, lb/cu in.
where, A = Annular flow area of blade ring, sq. in.
H= function of the blade form and of the mode of vibration N .= Rotative Speed, RPM
S= Stimulus proportional to a fraction of static gas bending Bending stresses are more complicated to evaluate and a
stress (CY) on the blade, responsible for the excitation. method is found in Sorensen (1951).
The alternating stress (a.,) in resonance is given by:
a. = (Amplification factor) X (Static Stress)
1.0
= [11/8111Sas
As pa Strub (1974) for an average value of 8 = 1.8% for a
rotary compressor blade, 10% off resonance an amplification
factor is about 5. Far a value of H = 0.9 corresponding to the
first beading and a stimulus of S = 0.1, the alternating stress in
the blade is: Linea Taper /

Gyps = (5) x 0.9 x 0.1= 0.45 ... - Conkal Taper

_ytl°1: z
The stimulus (S) can vary from 0.1 to 0.2 depending on wake
. ^)
intensity and it is also a function of the distance between the 0
blade rows.
Considering a Uniform Cantilever vibrating in one of its 04 —flit h • Blade Height
normal modes of vibration, the maximum stress at the root
section (a.) is given by (Armstrong and Stevenson, 1960) 4,,. Blade Ring Mean _
Diameter
02 I I I
1 max = 2 11 —
Y (E
rWf 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 LO
Tip Profile Area
Area Ratio
where, Base Profile Area
± a = leading edge tip amplitude of vibration at f (Hz)
(i.e., total amplitude) Figure A 1. Variation of Taper factor with Blade Profile Area
-
k= Radius of gyration
Ratio. (Sorensen, 1951)

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 Typically, the maximum stress at the root section at the root these numbers have remained a widely accepted correlation for
section of a compressor blade occurs at the trailing edge where this type of instability. Different parameters have to be used for
both the stress due to centrifugal force and gas loading are high Mach number stages with low hub-casing ratio and high
additive (i.e., tensile). For a turbine blade, the maximum stress aspect ratio blades.
will normally occur at the concave side of the leading edge.
6. Asymmetrical Inlet Flow Distortion (Strubb. 1974)
4. Fundamental Mode of Vibration (Natural frequency)
For Centrifugal Impellers, natural frequency can be calculated In certain cases, blade resonance can occur at numbers which
by the method of Vosey(1945). For an axial blade the natural are not integer multiples of nmning RPM. This can occur when
frequency may be estimated by (Sorensen , 1951) by: the disturbance is varying with time either in amplitude or in
position, i.e., moving along the periphery of the inlet channel. If
k the disturbance is distributed periodically around the periphery
fs = 11.0Cf — of the inlet channel with periodicity K and if blade angular
L` Y velocity is w, then the rotating blade would be subject to a
where, disturbance
= Natural frequency, Hz c = C sin (kwt)
Cf = Frequency Correction Factor If the amplitude C is also time dependent
k = Minimum radius of gyration of base profile, in. C = c„, sin (mwt)
L= Blade Length , in where m = any integer or fractional number indicating how
E = Youngs Modulus, psi many times the pulsation occurs in one revolution.
y = Specific Weight of blade material, lb/cu-in. Utilizing the above we have,
Figure A-2 Provides the effect of taper on blade natural C = c o Sin (mwt) Sin (kwt)
frequency (Sorensen, 1951)
Thus, c = aCos[(k - m) wt]—!L Cos[(k +m) wt]
2 2
1 1
This shows that disturbances of — (k—m)w&—(k+ m)w are
27c 211
present.

7. Combustor Profile and Pattern Factor.

Since combustor airflow distortion problems can cause several
\ _Conical Taper blade failures, some pertinent design review parameters are
Mir presented here (Dundas, 1988)
(TA —TM
Linear (a). Combustor Profile Factor = F — where,
Taper (TIT — TCD)
12 TA= Average temperature at given radial station
TIT= Average turbine entry temperature
Frequiney Ra tio

TCD= Average Compressor discharge temperature

1.1 Typical peak value of Fpt 0.12
At outer flow path Fp should be 0.05
Note that circumferential averages are used (as opposed to
10 peak temperatures) as these are the temperatures that effect
o 02 04 0.6 08 1.0 creep life or ratcheting behavior of stationary parts.
Tip Profile Area (TP — TM
Area Ratio = Base Profile Area (b). Combustor Pattern Factor = F r
(TIT — TCD)
where, TP= Peak temperature at any point in the flowpath.
This is a measure of the severity of the combustor discharge
temperature variation as experienced by the stationary
Figure A-2. Effect of Taper on Blade Natural Frequency. components of the turbine.
The pattern factor (Fc) defines the highest temperature
S. Flutter experienced by the transition and turbine section.
Shannon (1945) has proposed a parameter to indicate proneness Typical value for Fc = 0.2 to 0.24
to flutter. This parameter is given by: As an example, if TP=11802C, TT-T=1050C and TCD--400°C,
Fc= 0.2 (20%)
2n fc
X= 8.Camobell Diagrams - Static to Dynamic Conditions
Natural frequencies of blading and packets of blading can be
where, f = frequency of the blade an bending or torsion), Hz determined by the use of Finite Element models. Several times,
c= blade chord however, in practical troubleshooting cases, it is necessary to
v = air intake velocity know natural frequencies at operating conditions when the static
Shannon has recormnended that this parameter should exceed natural frequency is known. An experimental formula is
1.5 to avoid stall flutter but considerable disagreement exists as
to the application of this parameter. Armstrong (1967) has
suggested that two values are required according to the type of fd =n7-
fs2 -r 311 2
vibration
Torsional Frequency Parameter = 1.6 where, fd = Dynamic natural frequency, Hz
Flexural Frequency Parameter = 0.3 fs = Static natural frequency, Hz
Nowadays, a number of 0.33 or 0.35 is normally used as the
limit for bending flutter. Using these empirical values, it has B = Coefficient
been possible to avoid flutter for subsonic inlet flow and hence, n = Rotational Rotor Speed, Hz (RPM/60)

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of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use
 The coefficient B is given by C = Time Constant;originally proposed at 20
The Larson Miller parameter is constant at a constant stress
B=0.72— - 1 ,B>1 level. If rupnue stress is plotted Vs. the Larson Miller
where, D = Mean stage diameter, inch Parameter Figure A-4, (Boyce, 1982) is derived. A problem
I = Blade length, inch with predictions using the Miller Parameter is that is that
service induced microstructural changes can significantly affect
While this formula is valid for the rust mode of vibration, it the predictions. For more details on factors influencing creep
can also be applied to the second and third modes of vibration on life prediction refer to Castillo and Koul, (1990).
a single blade or a group of blades with an error of less than
10%. )2. Calculation of Blade Pass Frequency

9. Goodman plagram BPF = [No. of Blades x RPMI/60, Hz

For practical purposes, the method proposed by Blade Rate Frequency (BRF)
Trumpler(1953) can be used. In this approach we assume: BRF = CBPF x Stationary Nozzles) 1
Total steady state stress = (Centrifugal' Stress) + (Gas Bending HCF
Stress) Where, HCF = Highest Common Factor (HCF) between blades
Vibratory Suess = M x gas bending stress x K and nozzles.
where M = Magnification factor given by graph shown in Eg. 10,000 RPM Centrifugal Compressor, 12 Vanes and 15
Figure A-3. For example, if the blade natural frequency is at 8 Nozzles
X Running Speed, M =5, K = Stress concentration factor BPF = [12 x 10,000)/60 = 2,000 Hz
due to fillet at blade root. (cs 1.2 - 1.4) BRF = [2000 x 15]/3 = 10,000 Hz
For example, consider a 65 - series compressor blade made of Blade and Nozzle passing frequencies can cause significant
Titanium, let us say that the gas bending stress is 3,500 psi and blade excitation.
the centrifugal stress is 13,200 psi.
Total steady stress= 3,500 + 13200= 16,700 psi
Assuming a natural frequency occurring at 6 X running speed,
the Magnification Factor, M = 7. Thus, the vibratory stress in
the blade is given by 'Nib= 7 x 1.3 x 3500 = 31,850 psi. Thus
the coordinates to be plotted in a Goodman diagram would be
(16700, 31850) as shown in Figure 6.
15

10

Magnification
Factor

5
LARSON MILLER PARAMETER
Figure A-4. Larson Miller Parameter for turbine materials
(Boyce, 1982)

2 6 8 10 12 13.Cakulatton of Airborn and Fuel Born Contaminants

inlet
nlet az can contain tracesrnetal contaminants
maraca-tie of Operating Speed
from fertilizer dust, salt mist, fly ash, evaporative cooler
Figure A-3. Magnification Factor carryover, industrial polutants and dusts containin; Na and K.
Injected water or steam (used for power augmentation or Nor
10. 'Made jvlaynification Factors. control) can conceivably contain Na, K and other trace materials.
The evoloution of blade magnification factors which relates The following equation can be used to calculate equivalent fuel
bending and vibratory stresses of a blade is covered very lucidly contaminants.
by Scalzo (1991). The value of the magnification factor of 3.0 Equiv. Contaminent in the Fuel =1A/FI*X, + [S/Flax, + Xf
and its validity is discussed in this reference. Where,
A/F =Air to Fuel mass flow ratio
11,Jlarson Wiley Parameter-JOT Creep evaluation S/F = Steam to Fuel mass flow ratio
The most widely used model for creep evaluation is the = Contaminant contamination (ppm) weight in Fuel
Larson Miller Parameter which empirically relates stress to a Xe = Contaminant contamination (ppm) weight in Air
temperature-time function. The time is presented in a Log = Contaminant contamination (ppm) weight in
format. The Larson Miller Parameter is defined by the equation Injected steam or water.
below: Typical limits are:
Pat = T(C+Log t) x 104 Inlet air (Na+K+Pb+V) 0.005 ppm
where, Ps = Larson Miller Parameter Water/steam (Na+K+Pb+V) 0.5 ppm
T = Blade Metal Temperature(abs), Deg R
t = Time to rupture (or to x% creep), hours.
A value of C=20 is not accurate for all alloys but may be used for a similar
alloys and works well for comparitive purposes.

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