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Foundation Engineering Notes

Presentation · April 2017

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 4/22/2017

Foundation Engineering

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Associate Professor

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Syllabus
• Unit I – Soil Exploration

• Unit II –
U it II Slope stability
Sl t bilit

• Unit III – Earth pressure theories, Retaining walls

• Unit IV – Shallow foundations – Bearing capacity 

criteria, Settlement Criteria, Pile Foundations

• Unit V – Well Foundations
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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 4/22/2017

Course Objective
• To explain different methods of subsoil investigation, field tests and preparation 
of bore log
• To teach different methods of slope stability analysis 
• To study earth pressure theories and stability of retaining walls
• To teach the methods of determination of bearing capacity and settlement of 
shallow foundations.
• To explain design aspects of pile and well foundations
Course Outcomes
• Student understands the methods of subsoil investigation, field tests and 
preparation of bore log.
• Student analyzes stability of slopes for different types of soil
St d t l t bilit f l f diff tt f il
• Student can quantify the lateral earth pressures and verify the stability of 
retaining walls
• Student determines the bearing capacity and settlement of shallow 
foundations
• Student quantifies the load carrying capacity of pile foundation and 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
understands design aspects of well foundations.

Unit I Soil Exploration
• Need
• Methods of Soil exploration
• Boring and sampling methods
Boring and sampling methods
• Penetration Tests
• Plate load test
• Pressure meter
• Planning of programme and preparation of 
Planning of programme and preparation of
soil investigation report

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Civil Engineering Structures
• Buildings, Apartments
• Towers, water tanks
• Bridges
• Embankments
• Slopes
• Retaining walls
• Tunnels
• Dams, Canals, tank bund
• Highway, Pavements, Railway lines, Metro, Airport
• Ports and harbors
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Subsoil exploration provide information about 
• Stratigraphy, physical properties of soil, Location of 
ground water table.
• Supplemented by
– Geological studies
– Topographical 
survey

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Need of subsoil exploration
• Fairly accurate assessment of the characteristics
and engineering properties of the soils at a site is
essential for proper design and successful
construction of any structure at the site.
• Physical properties include soil classification
• Engineering properties include shear strength and
compressibility
• Engineering
E i i properties
i off soilil are essential
i l to
decide the choice and depth of foundation,
determine the bearing capacity and settlement of
foundations.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Needs of subsoil exploration
• Soil exploration is needed not only for design and
construction of new structures but also for deciding
remedial measures if a structure shows signs g of
distress after construction.
• Design and construction of highway and airport
pavements will also depend upon the
characteristics of the soil strata upon which they are
t be
to b constructed.
t t d
• Requirement of dewatering and bracing the
foundation construction area is determined.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Need of subsoil exploration
• Improper sub soil exploration will increase the cost
of project due to change of design and unforeseen
difficulties duringg execution.
• Cost of thorough investigation will be less than 1%
of total cost of entire project.
• Faults, folds, cracks, fissures, dikes, sills and caves,
and such other defects in rock and soil strata are
determined.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Methods of subsoil exploration
• Subsoil exploration is carried in two stages
– Preliminary Exploration
– Detailed Exploration
• Preliminary exploration include following
– Study of maps – Topo maps from survey of India, Aerial
Photograph, geological maps from GSI, previous report of
site.
– Site reconnaissance include site visit and following
observations are made.
• Study
d off local
l l topography,
h vegetation and d land
l d use
• Excavations and cuttings
• Drainage pattern, natural streams and flood marks
– Geophysical methods, tests with cone penetrometer and
sounding rods are used
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Method of subsoil exploration 
• Detailed exploration follows preliminary
investigation.
• Nature, sequence and thickness of various subsoil
l
layers, l
lateral
l variation are determined.
d d
• Properties of soil and rock are determined from soil
and rock samples.
• Position and fluctuations of ground water table are
determined.
• Borings and sampling is adopted along with field
tests (such as standard penetration test, plate load
test, pressure meter test, vane shear test, etc.)
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Methods of exploration
• Detailed exploration can be limited in scope under
following conditions
– If soil layers have same soil properties
– Structure transmit light loads
– Less important structures
– Good record soil data is already available
– Sound rock is available at shallow level
When the conditions are contrary to the above detailed
exploration is necessary.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Direct methods of soil exploration

Test pit
Test pit Trail pit
Trail pit
• Soils are inspected in their natural condition.
• Pit size should be sufficient for working and size at bottom of pit is 1.2m x 1.2m
• Necessary soil samples may be obtained by sampling techniques
• Test pits also used to conduct plate load test
• Suitable only for small depths up to 3m, cost of excavation of pits increase rapidly 
with depth.  Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Direct methods of exploration

Sheeting and bracing test pit Trenches
• For greater depths in pervious soil below water table, lateral supports or
bracing of the excavation is necessary.
• For minor structures pits are used to conduct tests.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
• Trenches provide a continuous exposure of soil and are useful in slopes

Drifts
• Drifts are horizontal tunnels
made in hill side to determine
nature and structure of
geological formation.
• with
i h a minimum
i i clear
l di
dimensions
i
of 1.5 m and 2.0 m height in hard
rock
• Drifts are expensive and are used
when other methods do not
provide required information.
• Shafts are vertical holes in rock of
width 2.4m.
• Deep shafts require ventilation

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Semi direct method ‐ Boring
• Drilling and advancing of bore holes is called boring. 
At every regular interval or at desired depth soil or 
rock samples are collected for testing.
• Five methods discussed below are commonly used 
boring.
• Suitability of a boring method depends on 
– Nature of soil
– Position of water table
P ii f bl
– Ease and accuracy with which soil and ground water 
conditions are determined
– Likely disturbance of  soil samples to be taken
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Boring – Drilling of bore holes
• Auger boring – Helical auger, post hole auger
• Auger and shell boring , power driven auger
• W hb i
Wash boring
• Percussion drilling
• Rotary drilling

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Auger boring
Cross arm

Extension 
pipe

Helical 
auger

Tapered 
Screw
Augers can be hand operated or power driven. Dia = 15 to 20 cm
Hand operated are used to a depth of 6m in soft soil and power driven 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
are used for larger depths.  

Hand Augers
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Drill rods or Extension rods 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Hand Operated Auger drilling
• Soil auger is advanced by
rotating it while pressing it
down into the soil at the same
time.
• Turning action cuts the soil
which fills the annular space.
• As soon as the annular space
is filled with soil, it is taken
out, cleaned and soil sample
collected.
• Used primarily in soils in
which the bore hole can be
kept dry and unsupported.
Hand Operated Auger drilling
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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• If sides of the bore hole are likely to cave in casing

pipe or drilling mud is used to prevent collapse of
sides of bore holes. Ex: Sand below water table
• Auger boring is convenient for partially saturated
sands silts and medium to stiff cohesive soil.
sands, soil
• Soil sample obtained is severely disturbed and used
for identification only.
• Well suited for shallow foundations, highways and
borrow pits of smaller depth of exploration.
• Investigation
I i i is i done
d quite
i rapidly
idl andd economically
i ll

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Post hole auger
Post hole auger is used for collecting the soil sample from already drilled
bore hole
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Auger and shell boring
• This method is adopted
when drilling with auger is
difficult.
• Shell also called sand bailer
is a heavy duty pipe with a
cutting edge at bottom.
• Different lengths and
weights are used as per
requirements.
• Shell is raised and allowed
to fall in bore hole.
• Soil cut in the bore hole
enters the tube and is
emptied when full.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Sand bailer

Sand bailer

Working of bailer
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Mechanical or power driven augers

Used for making holes in hard strata  to  a great depth. 
Beyond 12m even mechanical augers become inconvenient and other methods of
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
boring are adopted.

Wash boring
• Steel casing of 2 to 3m length
with steel shoe and cutting
edge is driven.

• Hollow drill rod (wash pipe) is

attached to a chisel shaped
drilling bit at bottom is inserted
in casing pipe.

• Drill rod is connected to a

rope at top passing over a
pulley
ll attached
tt h d to
t a tripod.
ti d

• Water emerges as a strong jet

through the opening of
chopping bit.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Wash boring

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Wash boring
• Hole is advanced by a
combination of chopping and
jetting action.

• Water and chopped soil

particles rise upward through
the annular space between the
drill rod and the casing.

• Return water known as wash

water is laden with soil
cuttings.
tti

• It is collected in a bucket
through T shaped pipe fixed at
top of casing
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Wash boring

Wash boring
• Hole is further advanced
by alternate raising and
dropping the chopping bit
by a rope.

• Swivel joint facilitates

turning and twisting of rod.

• Process is continued even

below casing till hole begins
to cave in.

• Bottom of the casing is

extended by providing
additional pieces at top.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Wash boring

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Wash boring
• Instead of casing special
drilling fluids made of mixture
of bentonite clay and water is
used for supporting the walls of
hole.
• Wash sample collected in
bucket do not represent the
soil in its true condition. There
is complete break down of
particles by chopping action.
There is also mixing of particles and loss of fine particles during
collection. These samples are of little use.
• Change of strata is identified by the change of reaction of drill bit and
change of color of wash water.
• Once hole is drilled a sampler is inserted to obtain soil samples for
testing in a laboratory.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Disintegrated particles of soil in bore hole at different depths mixed 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
and collected from wash water or bentonite slurry 

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Advantages: Equipment used in wash borings is relatively

light and inexpensive.
• Used for exploration below ground water table for which
auger method is unsuitable.
• Used in all kinds of soils except
p those mixed with ggravel and
boulders.
Disadvantages:
• Slow in stiff and coarse grained soil. Inefficient in hard soil,
rocks and soil containing boulders.
• Water in bore hole enters the strata below bottom of hole
and increases its moisture content. Method is not suitable
for taking good quality undisturbed samples above water
table.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Percussion boring
• Drilling is carried out by breaking
up the formation by repeated
blows of heavy bit or a chisel inside
a casing pipe.
• Drill bit is suspended from a drill
rod or a cable.
• Water is added to facilitate the
breaking of stiff soil or rock.
• Slurry of the pulverized material
is bailed out at intervals.

Advantages:
Method is used for making holes in
rocks, boulders and other hard
strata.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar Percussion boring

17
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Percussion drilling
Disadv:
• Method cannot be used in loose sand and is slow in plastic
clay.
• Formation is badly disturbed by impact and is not possible
to obtain good quality undisturbed samples.
• Method is expensive than other methods.
• Difficult to detect minor changes in the properties of strata
penetrated.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Drill bit

Drill bit
Drill bit

Mud rotary drilling
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rotary drilling
• This method is useful if soil is resistant to augering or
wash boring and used in sand and clay soils.
• Boring is affected by the cutting of rotating bit which is
kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole.
• Rotating bit is attached to the lower end of a hollow
drill rod rotated by a drill head. Soil is cut by rotation of
bit along with a mechanism for applying downward
pressure
• Drilling mud is continuously forced down the hollow
drill rod.
• Mud returning upwards through the annular space
between the drill rods and the side of the hole brings
the cutting to the surface.
• This method is not adopted for particles of gravel size
and above it. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Drill bit
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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• Tungsten carbide bits are used for

drilling into gravel, soil and other
soft soils.
• Tungsten carbide bits are softer
than diamond bits.
• TC bits are used for drilling in soft 
TC bits are used for drilling in soft
or medium hard rocks.
Tungsten carbide coring bits

Diamond coring bit
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Rock core drilling

Core Barrel
Reaming Shell
Drill bit with 
core catcher

Rock Core 
sample

Core barrel and Core Sample
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rock core drilling

Core 
Catcher

Drill bit

Diamond core bit with core catcher
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Rock core drilling

Diamond core bit
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rock core drilling

Reaming Shell

Reaming shell, drill bit
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Core Sample
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rock core drilling
• Method is used for drilling holes in rock and
obtaining core samples.
• Core barrel is fitted with a drill bit fixed to hollow
drill rod.
rod
• As drill rod is rotated bit advances and cuts an
annular hole around the intact core.
• Core is removed from its bottom and is retained by a
core lifter and brought to the surface.
• Water is continuously pumped to keep the drill bit
cool and to carry disintegrated material to surface.
• Diamond bit with double tube core barrel gives good
quality rock sample.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Soil Sampling
• Process of collecting of soil sample at the desired depth
and location is called soil sampling.
• Depending on the degree of disturbance, soil samples are
classified as
– Disturbed sample
– Undisturbed sample
• Disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure of
the soil gets modified partly or fully during sampling.
• Undisturbed sample is that in which the natural structure
and other physical properties remain preserved.
• True undisturbed sample is never possible, some degree of
disturbance is inevitable even by best method of sampling.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Single grained Flocculated 
Honey Comb
y
St t
Structure

Dispersed 
Dense Structure
Loose

Composite 
Structure
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Soil sampling
• Disturbed sample is divided into non representative
and representative sample.
• Non representative sample is the one in which soil
andd rockk samples
l from
f d ff
different strata are mixed.
d
• Non representative sample loose some mineral
constituents or they may get mixed up.
• Samples from auger and wash boring are non
p
representative and of no use.
• Representative samples have all mineral
constituents and structure of sample is highly
disturbed. Used for identification purpose only. Ex:
SPT Sample
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Soil sampling
• Undisturbed sample is the one which has
undergone minimum disturbance.
• Ud samples are suitable to determine the strength
and consolidation of soil.
soil Tube and chunk sample
come under this category.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Wrapping a weak chunk 
sample

Parrafin to seal the sample Dipping a weak chunk sample 

in melted paraffin

Chunk Sample
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Chunk sample
• Chunk sampling requires 
soil to have a trace of 
cohesion
• Soil sample at bottom of 
pit is trimmed to the 
shape of chunk to the 
required shape and size. 
• Soil sample is covered 
with paraffin. Cylindrical 
box is placed over the 
sample.
• Sample is lifted with spatula and trimmed. Top of sample coated with
paraffin and any gaps are filled with paraffin.
• Samples are packed properly and transported to laboratory.
• Samples will be disturbed if they are to be transported to long
distance.
• 100 mm sampling tube with a cutting edge is pushed into soil. Soil
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
surrounding the tube is removed.

Split spoon sampler IS 2131 ‐ 1986

Cutting  Split steel  Coupling tube 

Shoes tube at top

• Split spoon sampler is a thick walled steel tube used to obtain

disturbed sample of soil. It consists of i) cutting shoe of 7.5cm long, ii)
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Vertical split steel tube of 45 cm long iii) Coupling at top of 15 cm length

26
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Split spoon
Split spoon
Inside diameter : 38 mm
Outside diameter : 50 mm

Cutting Shoe and split spoon sampler
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Split steel tube
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Ball Check

Vent port

Split steel tube and coupling
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Coupling
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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4 Vent Ports of 100 
mm diameter
mm diameter

Coupling
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

In case of fine sand below water table spring core catcher device is used to 
recover the sample 
Sampler attached with drill rod and lowered into bore hole
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Standard Penetration test set up (IS 2131: 1963)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Guide rod

Anvil
Drill rig or tripod

Standard Penetration test set up (IS 2131: 1963)
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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SPT Sample 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Coupling opened,  spoon split to two parts and cutting edge opened

SPT Sample 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Test conducted at 
every 2m interval or 
change of strata

Sample transferred to 
container, labeled and
container, labeled and 
transported to lab

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Standard Penetration test IS 2131 ‐ 1986
• In Cohesion less soil it is difficult to obtain the undisturbed
sample and SPT test is useful to determine relative density
and angle of shearing resistance.
•In cohesive soil it is used to determine unconfined
compressive strength.
• Sampling tube is driven by 45 cm i.e. number of blows
required for each 15 cm penetration is recorded.
• Number of blows for 1st 15 cm is disregarded as seating
drive. Number of blows for 2nd and 3rd 15 cm penetration is
counted as SPT N Value.
Value
• If number of blows for 15 cm penetration exceeds 50 blows
it is refusal and test is discontinued.
• SPT N Value obtained is corrected for
ƒ Dilatancy Correction
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
ƒ Overburden Correction

32
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Standard Penetration test – Overburden pressure

correction
• In granular soils, overburden pressure affects
penetration resistance.
• With increase of depth the overburden pressure
increases and confining pressure increases.
• At shallow depth confining pressure is less and SPT
N value is underestimated. Corrected SPT N value
should be more,σ is effective overburden pressure,
kN/m2. NR is the recorded value.
350
If σ < 280 kN/m2 N = N R
σ + 70
σ ≥ 280 kN/m2 N = NR

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Corrections in SPT N Value – Dilatancy Correction

• Silty fine sand and fine sand below water table
develop pore pressure and is not easily dissipated.
• This pore pressure increases the resistance and SPT
N value.
• Terzaghi and Peck (1967) recommends following
correction if NR > 15
1
Corrected SPT N Value, Nc = 15 + ( N R − 15)
2
NR – Recorded N Value
If NR ≤ 15, Nc = NR

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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N Denseness
0 ‐ 4 Very Loose
4 ‐ 10 Loose
10 ‐ 30 Medium 
Dense
30 ‐ 50 Dense
> 50 Very Dense

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Variation of angle of shearing resistance, ϕ with SPT N value – Cohesionless soil

N Consistency qu (kN/m2)
0‐2 Very Soft < 25
2‐4 Soft 25 – 50
4‐8 Medium Stiff 50 – 100
8‐15 Stiff 100 – 200
15‐30 Very Stiff 200 – 400
> 30 Hard > 400

q u = 12.5 N

Correlation between SPT N Value and Unconfined Compressive strength – Cohesive 
soil

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Design features affecting the sample disturbance 
• Disturbance of soil depends on following features
– Area ratio, inside and outside clearance
– Inside wall friction
– Design of non
Design of non‐return
return valve
valve
– Method of applying force 2 2
Area of cutting edge D 2 − D1
• Area ratio, Ar =                               =  × 100
Area of sample D1 2

For Obtaining good quality undisturbed sample 
Area ratio should be 10% or less. 30% ‐ Thick wall
6 – 9% thin wall, shelby wall tube  
• Inside clearance, Ci =  D3 − D1 ×100
D1
Inside clearance is essential for elastic expansion of soil into sampling 
tube and reduce frictional drag. 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
For undisturbed samples inside clearance should be 1 to 3% 

Design features affecting the sample disturbance 
D −D
• Outside clearance, C0 = 2 4 ×100
D4
This reduces the force required for driving
Clearance is as small as possible. C0 lies
between 0 to 2%
• Friction on inside the wall of sampling
tube causes disturbance of sample. Inside
surface of the sampler should be smooth
and applied with oil inside to reduce the friction.
• Non return valve should be properly designed:
It should have an orifice of large area to allow air,
water or slurry to escape quickly when the sampler is
driven. It should immediately close when the sampler
is withdrawn.
• Method of applying force: Sampling tube is pushed
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
and not be driven for undisturbed samples.

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Design features affecting the sample disturbance
L
• Recovery ratio, Rr = 
H

LL = Length of the sample within the tube
L th f th l ithi th t b
H = depth of penetration of sampling tube
For satisfactory ud sample Rr should be between 96 to 
98% 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Thin walled sampling tube
• Thin walled seamless steel tubes
have an outer diameter 40 to 125
mm.
• Bottom of tube is sharpened and
beveled acts as a cutting edge.
• Area ratio < 15%
• inside clearance – 0.5 to 3%
• Length : 5 to 10 times dia – sand
: 10 to 15 times dia – Clay
• Thickness of tube: 1.25 to
3.15mm

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Undisturbed sampling of soil
• Sampler tube attached to the drill rod and lowered
into the bottom of cleaned bore hole.
• Tube is ppushed into the soil byy continuous motion
without impact or twist.
• Tube is pushed to the length provided for the
sample.
• 5 minutes after pushing tube into soil, tube is
rotated to shear off at bottom and is withdrawn.
• Ends are sealed with wax, labeled, packed in a
wooden box and transported to laboratory.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Undisturbed Samples

Accepted Rejected
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Piston Sampler
• Initially piston closes
the lower end of
sampling tube.
• Piston is prevented
pre ented
from moving down and
only sampler is pushed
beyond piston.
• Vacuum created above
th sample
the l helps
h l t
to
retain the sample. Used
for soft and sensitive
clays
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Sounding methods
• Sounding methods consist of driving a sampling
tube or cone into the sub soil.
• Penetration resistance is determined and
correlated with Engineering properties.
• Based on the nature of application of load there
are two types of tests
– Static cone penetration test
– Dynamic
D i cone penetration
i test

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Static Cone penetration test
IS 4968 – 1976, Part III

Drive Chain

Pressure Gauge
Hydraulic Jack
Mantle tube
Sounding rod

Soil screw anchors

Friction Jacket
Base Cone Assembly
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Static Cone penetration test
• Steel cone with tip hardened has a
tip angle of 60°.
Base diameter = 35.7 mm
c/s Area = 10 cm2. Cone
Dimensions in mm
• Sounding rod is a 15 mm diameter steel
Rod, 1m long and it is inside the steel mantle tube.
Additional rods attached for extension.
• Manually operated equipment – 30 kN capacity
• Mechanically operated equipment – 100 kN
capacity. Rate of travel is 10 mm/s. Pressure is
measured by gauges.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Static Cone penetration test 
Force required in
following cases is
determined:
1. Cone and sounding
rod are moved down
by 35 mm – Cone
resistance
determined.
2. Cone and sounding
rod, friction jacket
moved down by 35
mm – Cone +
Frictional resistance is
determined.
3. Entire assembly is
moved down and
procedure repeated at
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
next depth.

Static Cone penetration test – Dutch cone test
IS: 4968 (Part‐III)‐1976
• Test starts at ground surface and bore hole is not
necessary.
• Results of tests are used to determine the bearing
capacity
it off soilil att different
diff t depths.
d th
• Skin friction values are used to determine the length of
piles.
• SCPT is useful in soft or loose soils like silty sands,
loose sands, layered deposits of sands, silts and clays as
well as in clayey
y y deposits.
p
• SCPT up to depths of 15 to 20 m can be completed in a
day with manual operation making it inexpensive and
fast method of sounding.
• Test is unsuitable for gravelly soils and for soils with SPT
N value > 50. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Dynamic Cone penetration test – 50 mm diamater
cone : IS 4968 (Part 1) ‐ 1976

Adopter
Cone 
without 
without
threads

Cone with threads
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Dynamic Cone penetration test – 50 mm 
diameter cone : IS 4968 (Part 1) ‐ 1976
• Cone with or without adopter is attached to A driving
rods.
• Driving rod is marked at every 100 mm.
• Steel driving head has 100 mm diameter and 100 to
150 mm length is attached to A drive rod on one side
and guide rod on other side.
• Steel or iron hammer of 65 kg weight and 250 mm
height is used for driving. Fall of hammer 75 cm.
• Number of blows for 30 cm penetration of cone, Ncdd is
recorded.
• Test starts at ground level and bore hole is not
necessary.
• To avoid damage of equipment driving is stopped when
no of blows exceed 35 for 100 mm penetration
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Dynamic method using cone and bentonite
slurry, IS 4968 Part II, 1976
Diameter of cone = 62.5 mm
65 kg Hammer, 250 mm high
750 mm drop  

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Dynamic method using cone and bentonite slurry
• Cone is driven directly into the ground and for
eliminating the friction on the driving rods
bentonite slurry is used.
• Slurry is not necessary when the depth of
investigation is limited to 6m.
• Four mild steel vanes are welded to the driving rod
immediately above the cone. Instead a gravel trap
15 cm height of 5 mm wire gauge may be provided
above the cone.
• Slurry pump of capacity 35 to 45 l/min at a pressure
of 700 to 850 kN/m2
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Dynamic method using cone and bentonite slurry
• Number of blows for 30 cm penetration is
determined as, Ncbr. Number of blows for every 10
cm penetration are recorded.
• To avoid damage of equipment driving is stopped if
number of blows exceed 35 for 100 mm penetration
when cone is driven dry and 20 for 100 mm
penetration when cone is penetrated by circulating
slurry.
y

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Vane shear test IS 4434 ‐ 1978
• Used to determine
the shear strength
of soft and sensitive
clays which disturb
during sampling.
• Dia. of vane =
37.5, 50, 65, 75 or
100 mm
• Height of vane, H =
2D
• Thickness of vane
blades should be
small to decrease
disturbance.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Testing in bore hole

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Vane shear test IS 4434 ‐ 1978
• Vane shear test consists of
pushing four bladed vane in
the soil below bore hole and
rotatingg it.
• 5 minutes after insertion of
vane torque is applied so that
vane rotates at a speed of
0.1°/sec
• Torque increases and reaches
a maximum value where soil
fails in shear.
T
Shear strength of soil, τ = H D
πD 2 ( + )
2
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
6

Vane shear test IS 4434 ‐ 1978
• Shoe is used for protecting the vanes
and to conduct test directly from
surface.
• Vane is pushed with steady force to a
depth of five times the diameter of
bore hole below bottom of hole or
shoe.
• 100 mm diameter vane for very soft
soil.
• 75 mm diameter vane for moderately
firm saturated soil.
• 50 mm vane for firm saturated soils.
Testing directly from ground surface
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982
• Direct approach to obtain bearing capacity and
settlement characteristics at a site is to conduct
plate load test.
• Testing of prototype foundation is not practicable
due to
– requirement of large loading
– Time factor
– Cost of full scale test
• Sh
Shortt term
t model
d l test
t t called
ll d plate
l t load
l d test
t t is
i
conducted.
• Results of test carefully analyzed due to difference
in size of actual foundation and test plate.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982
• Plates: Circular or square test plates of mild steel
having thickness > 25 mm and size varying from 300
mm to 750 mm are used.
• Test Depth: Test is conducted at the level of
foundation under worst condition.
• Water table: If w.t is within a depth equal to width
of test plate, test is conducted at water table level.
– Water table is higher than test level, it should be
lowered.
lowered
• Test pit: Test pit depth is at foundation level of
dimension five times the size of test plate.
• Shape of plate: Square or circular are adopted.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982
Size: For loose soils with N value < 15, 450 mm 
square plate is used.
• In case of dense sand or gravelly soils with 
15 N 30 h
15 <N <30 three test plates of size 300 mm to 750 
l f i 300 750
mm are used.   

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982

Gravity loading
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982

Reaction loading platform
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982

Reaction loading platform
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982

Truss loading
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982
• Test plate is placed over 5 mm sand layer.
• A seating pressure of 7 kN/m2 is applied and
released after loading.
• Plate
Pl t isi fixed
fi d withith two
t di l gauges att diametrically
dial di t i ll
opposite ends.
• Apply loads at increment of 100 kN/m2 or one fifth
of ultimate bearing capacity which ever is less.
• Load is applied without impact, fluctuations or
eccentricity.
• Settlements are observed for load increment at
interval of 1, 2.25, 4, 6.25, 9, 16 and 25 min. Further
for every hour.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982
• In clay soil, time settlement curve is plotted for each
load stage. Next load increment is applied only when
the settlement exceeds 80% of probable settlement at
that stage or at end of 24 hour period.
• Other than clay soils, load increment is kept not more
than one hour or rate of settlement decreases below
0.02 mm/min.
• Next increment of load is applied and observations
repeated.
• Test is continued for a settlement of 25 5 mm or 50 mm
in case of gravels. In case this settlement is not reached
then plate is subjected to double the estimated
pressure.
• Rebound observations are taken while removing the
load. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982
Safe bearing pressure
for medium and
dense sands can be
obtained from
permissible
settlement of footing
2
⎡B(B +0.3)⎤
s f = sp ⎢ P ⎥
⎣BP (B+0.3)⎦
Settlements and width in m
Clay soil
B
Sf = Sp x 
Bp
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Plate load test IS 1888 ‐ 1982

For curves A & C with no definite failure point log ‐
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar log curve is plotted 

• Menard, 1957
pressure meter or sub soil
developed Pressure meter 
deformer.
• Used to determine stress‐
deformation characteristics of
soil in natural condition.
• This consists of a inflatable
cylindrical probe connected to
water reservoir.
• Probe is inserted into the bore
hole and inflated by applying
water pressure.
P b i ll f b h l
•Probe presses against walls of bore hole as pressure 
is increased. 
• As pressure is increased soil deforms, water level in 
reservoir falls down.
• Pressure volumetric strain curve is shown below. 
• Soil is initially in elastic phase enters plastic phase at high pressure.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Pressure meter test

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Depth of exploration
• Economy is achieved in the construction project by
carrying out sub soil exploration as element of
uncertainty is reduced.
• However cost of sub soil investigation have some
limitation.
Depth of exploration is governed by
– Type of structure
– Intensity of loading
– Shape and disposition of loaded area
– Soil profile and
– Physical properties of soil
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Planning of sub soil exploration
• Significant Depth: Depth to which stress increment
due to super imposed load can produce significant
settlement and shear stress.
• Depth of exploration should be up to significant
depth.
• Significant depth is the depth at which stress
intensity is 20% of load intensity.
• Depth of exploration
for square footing = 1.5 times width
for strip footing = 3 times width
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Planning of subsoil exploration

Closely spaced footings: In case footings are closely spaced whole of

the loaded area acts as a raft foundation and depth of boring should be
1.5 times width of entire loaded area.

EEnd
d bearing
b i piles:il Depth
D th off exploration
l ti is i 1.5
1 5 times
ti width
idth off pile
il group
below tip of piles.

Frictional piles: Depth of exploration is 1.5 times width of pile group

measured from lower third point.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Depth of exploration
• Foundations taken to rock shall ensure that large
boulders are not ensured as bed rock. Minimum
depth of bore hole into bed rock should be 3m to
establish it as rock.
• Multi‐storied buildings:
Depth of exploration = c S0.7
c = 3 for light steel buildings or narrow concrete
structures; = 6 for
f heavy
h steell buildings
b ildi and
d wide
id
concrete buildings
S = number of storey's
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Depth of exploration

Two adjacent footings Adjacent rows of footing
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Depth of exploration
• Excavations: Depth of exploration below proposed
excavation level should be at least 1.5 times depth
of excavation.
• Road cuts: At least equal to width of cut
• Road fill: Minimum depth is 2m below road surface
or equal to height of fill which ever is greater.
• Gravity dams: Twice the height of dam

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Location or spacing of bore holes
• Small and less important buildings: One bore hole
or a trial pit at center is sufficient.
• Building covering an area of 4000 m2: Five bore
holes with one at center and four at corners (IS
1892 – 1979).
• Large and multistoried buildings: Bh at all corners
and at important locations at a spacing of 10 to 30
m.
• Highways: Spacing of 150 to 300m along centerline.
• Earth & Concrete Dams: Spacing is between 40 to
80m
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Location or spacing of bore holes
• For large areas covering industrial and residential 
colonies cone penetration tests may be performed 
at every 50 m by diving the area in a grid pattern.
y y g g p
• Number of bore holes or trail pits are decided by 
examining the variation of penetration curves. 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Subsoil report
• Introduction giving scope of investigation
• Description of project
• Methods of exploration, number, depth and
l ti off bore
location b h l
hole
• Description of sub soil strata and field tests
• Details of samples collected and lab tests
• Depth of water table and fluctuations
• Discussion of results.
results
• Recommendation of allowable bearing pressure and
type of foundation.
• Construction difficulties and limitations of
investigation Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Bore log

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Assignment I
1. Describe briefly about the pressure meter test and 
state its applications (May 2013). (5 Marks)

2. Sketch typical bore log and describe its features 
. Sketch typical bore log and describe its features
(May 2013) (5 Marks)

3. Explain any two types of boring methods with a neat 
sketch and sampling methods (Dec 2012) (5 Marks)

4. Explain the procedure to conduct plate load test 
(Dec 2012) (5 Marks)

5. Write a short notes on penetration tests (5 Marks)
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Unit II ‐ Slope stability analysis

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Syllabus
• Infinite and finite earth slopes
• Types of failures
• Factor of safety of infinite slopes
• Stability analysis by Swedish arc method
• Standard method of slices
• Bishop’s simplified method
• Taylor’ss stability number
Taylor
• Stability of slopes of earth dams under different
conditions

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Assignment ‐ II
1. Explain the method of slices to analyse the stability. Derive an
expression for the factor of safety (May 2013) (5 Marks).
2. Calculate the safe height for an embankment having rising of 700
to the horizontal and made with a clayey soil having unit weight
kN/ 3, ϕ = 150 and
off 16 kN/m d a cohesion kN/ 2. Factor
h i off 30 kN/m F off
safety may be taken as 2.5. Value of stability number N,
corresponding to slope angle, α = 70° and ϕ = 150 is 0.14 (May
2013) (5 Marks).
3. Explain stability of slopes of earth dams under following condition
(5 Marks)
a) Full reservoir condition
b) Steady seepage condition
c) Sudden draw down condition (Dec 2012).
4. Derive expressions for factor of safety of infinite slope in
cohesionless soil and cohesive soil in dry condition, seepage
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
condition.

Man made slope
• Slopes are classified as artificial (man made) and
natural
– Cuttings and embankments: Highways and railroads, earth
dams, temporary excavations and landscaping for
development of site.
site

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Railway Embankment slope
Highway Embankment slope

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Man Made slopes

Railway Embankment slope Embankment construction

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Man made slopes

Canal Embankment slope

Canal Embankment slope

Canal in cuttings

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Man made slopes

Highway in cuttings

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Railway line in cuttings

Man made slopes

Excavations
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Man made slopes

Earth dams

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Natural slopes – Hill, valley, Coastal, river

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Slope failure catastrophic, involving the loss of considerable property and 
many lives

• Forces exist which tend to cause the soil

to move from high points to low points.
• Slope tend to move into stable
configuration
• Tendency of slope instability and actual
movement is slope failure.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Several failure
surfaces are
considered and the
lowest factor of safety
is determined.

Forces on 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
slope stability

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Slope stability
• Slope instability is caused by force of gravity,
seepage, flowing water on surface of slope, sudden
lowering of water adjacent to slope, cracking and
seismic forces.
• These forces cause shear stress in soil mass.
• Shear strength of soil, plant roots and lenses of ice
of resist against slope failure.
• According to limit equilibrium method
Shear stress < Shear strength – stable
Shear stress = Shear strength – About to fail
Shear stress > Shear strength – Slope already failed
Factor of safety = ShearDr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
strength
Shear stress

Slope stability
• Shear strength depends on following aspects
– Undrained or drained
– Shear strength varies with depth and time
– Undisturbed sample is necessary and to be tested
• Stability of slope is enhanced
– By using flatter slope
– Effective internal and external drainage
– Providing
P idi reinforcement
i f i soilil mass
in
• Proving a flatter slope than that required from
stability aspect is uneconomical since this requires
more earth work than optimal.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Infinite and finite slope
• Infinite Slope: A constant slope of infinite extent.
Ex: long face of a mountain
• Finite slopes
p are of limited extent. Ex: slopes
p of
embankments and earth dams

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Infinite slope
• Soil is assumed as homogenous.
• Stress and soil properties are identical on every
vertical plane and plane parallel to the slope.
• Failure in such a slope takes place due to sliding of
soil mass along a plane parallel to the slope at a
certain depth is called translational slide.
Shear stress increases with
displacement and attains a
peak value.
Further increase of
displacement decreases the
shear stress to ultimate
value.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Infinite slope
• Consider soil element ABCD D β
b
bounded by top of slope, two vertical A
Soil element 
planes. W of unit length
• A possible failure surface is located
at depth z below top of slope.
slope z E
• Weight of soil element = γ b z cosβ E
γ = Unit weight of soil
C
β = Angle made by top of slope with B σ
horizontal τ z
σn
• Vertical stress, σz on BC is γ z cosβ τ
stress σn on plane BC = σz cosβ = γ z cos β
• Normal stress, 2

• Shear stress, τ on plane BC = σz sinβ = γ z cosβsin β

• Forces E acting on sides of soil element are assumed to be equal and
cancel each other.
• Shear resistance or strength in cohesion less and cohesive soil are
determined separately. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Infinite slope
σ
Shear strength, τf = c’ +    tanϕ’ 
c’ and ϕ’ are effective shear strength parameters 
σ = Effective normal stress = σ ‐ u   
• Dry or completely submerged Cohesion less soil
Assuming full shear resistance is mobilized on plane BC 
τf =      tanϕ’ =  γ
σ z cos2β tanϕ’
γz cos 2 β tan ϕ tan ϕ
Factor of safety =                       = 
γz cos β sin β tan β
To avoid failure of slope, ϕ > β. Slope angle, β is called 
mobilized friction angle, ϕm
Slope is about to fail if ϕ = β. 
ϕ < β is not possible. 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Infinite slope
τ
In the adjacent figure the vertical stress, σz
on plane BC = γ z cosβ is represented by 
Failure 
OE
Envelope
OE =σz = γ z cosβ
E1 (σn, τf) 
OF = OE cosβ = γ z cos2β = σn on plane BC  Line 
representing 
EF = OE sinβ = γ z cosβsin β = τ on plane BC σn , τ at 
different 
Line OE and its extension represent normal  E (σn, τ) depths, z

and shear stress acting on plane BC at  σz
different depths below surface of slope.
ϕ
In cohesion less soil failure envelope OE1 O β
passes through origin O makes an angle  F σn
ϕ with horizontal
Slopes constructed with cohesion less soil are stable if τf > τ or β < ϕ
irrespective of depth of failure Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
surface below top of slope.

Infinite slope
Cohesion less soil – Submerged slope
• Water table is assumed to be b D β
parallel to the slope at a height of ‘h’ A
above the failure plane BC. W
• Pore water pressure is assumed to
be constant on plane BC. z
Effective normal stress = σn‘ h
= σz‘ cosβ = (γ(z‐h) cos β + γsat h cos β
C
– γwh cos β) cosβ B
τ σz ‘ σn ‘
τ=(γ(z‐h) cos β + γsat h cos β – γwh cos β) sinβ τ
(γ ( z − h ) cos β + γ sat h cos β − γ w h cos 2 β ) tan ϕ
2 2
Factor of safety =
γ (z − h ) cos β sin β + γ sat h cos β sin β − γ w h cos β sin β
In case water table matches with ground surface 
tan ϕ
i.e. h = z FS =
tan β Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Infinite slope
Cohesion less soil – Seepage parallel to the surface
D
w = γ sat zb cos β A
b β

N = w cos β = γ sat zb cos 2 β W

i β = γ sat zbb cos β sin
T = w sin i β
z
Normal stress, σ = γ sat z cos 2 β
Pore water pressure = u = γ w z cos 2 β C
Effective Normal Stress, σ n′ = γ sub z cos β 2
τ
B
σz ‘ σn ‘
τ = γ sat z cos β sin β τ

γ sub z cos 2 β tan ϕ

Factor of Safety, FS =
γ sat z cos β sin β
γ sub tan ϕ • Submerged unit weight, γ is half of saturated unit weight, γ
= sub sat
γ sat tan β • Factor of safety decreases by half.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Cohesive soil 
Dry τ

c' + γzcos 2 βtan ϕ

FS = Failure Envelope
γzcosβsinβ
Seepage parallel to the slope E2
c + γ sub z cos 2 β tan ϕ
FS =
γ sat z cos β sin β P
Failure envelop is represented by DE1E2 ϕ’ E (σn, τ)
D
τf = c’+σ’ntanϕ
c’
If slope angle β < ϕ, slope remains stable  β2
irrespective of depth (OP). β
O F σ
Unlike cohesion less soil it is possible for slopes constructed of cohesive
soil to be stable with certain limiting depth when β > ϕ
Consider failure plane OEE2 making angle β2 with horizontal. Point E2
represents just stable condition. τ = τf . This depth is critical depth.
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Cohesive soil
• In cohesive soil slope will remain stable if β > ϕ but depth of failure 
plane is limited to critical depth.
• FS = 1
cm
Critical height or depth of slope = Hc =  
γ (tan β − tan ϕ ) cos 2 β
m c
Dimensionless stability number, Sn =          = (tanβ‐tan ϕ) cos2β
γH c
Stability of slopes are studied from simple charts prepared for different 
slope angles, β and angle of shearing resistance of soil, ϕ

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Factors of safety 
c'
• Factor of safety w. r. t cohesion, Fc =
cm
• Factor of safety w. r. t height, FH = Hc
H
• Factor of safety w.
w r.r t angle of internal friction,
friction
tan ϕ '
Fs =
tan ϕ m
where c’, ϕ’ are shear strength parameters
cm and ϕm are mobilized cohesion and angle of
internal friction. Hc is critical height.
• Shear strength is not fully mobilized at all points of
a slip surface. Shear strains and shear stress vary
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
considerably.

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Tutorial on Infinite Slope

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Finite slopes
• Man made slopes are of finite extent and failure surface is curved.
Soil slips along a curved surface is called rotational slide.
• The curved surfaces are circular or log spiral or combination of two.

Slope failure

H Toe failure
DH
Base failure
Toe • Slope failure
Slope failure occurs when 
occurs when
failure surface intersects the 
slope above the toe.
• This occurs when slope angle 
Hard strata
is very high, soil close to toe is 
strong and soil in upper part is 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
weak

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Finite slopes
Slope failure

H Toe failure
DH
Base failure
Toe

In case of toe failure, surface

passes through the toe. Occurs
in steep slope when soil above
Stiffer or Hard strata and below the base is
homogenous.
• Base failure occurs when the failure surface passes below the toe.
Occurs in flat slopes, when soil below toe is relatively weak or soft.
Depth of hard strata from top of embankment
Depth factor, D =
Height of Slope from top of embankment
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Circular failure surfaces

Toe failure
Slope failure

Base failure

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Friction Circle method
• Method of analysis is based on total stress analysis but it enables to 
account for angle of shearing resistance.
• Saturated silts and unsaturated clays exhibit ϕ value under undrained
condition.
• Friction circle method assumes circular slip surface.
Fi i i l h d i l li f
• AB is the slope.
• Trail slip circle of center O and
radius, R is shown in Figure.
• Three forces that need to be
considered for equilibrium of
sliding mass ABCA are
W‐ Weight of sliding mass
C – Cohesive force along slip
surface.
P – Total friction force (resultant
reaction) Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Friction Circle method
• Slip circle AC (length of arc = L) is considered to be made of number
of elementary arcs of length ΔL.
• Elementary cohesive force opposing the movement of soil is cm ΔL.
cm is mobilized cohesion which is constant along the slip surface.
• Length of chord, AC = Lc
• Magnitude of resultant cohesion 
is cm Lc.
• Position of action of cm Lc is 
determined by equating sum of 
elementary moment of cohesive 
y
forces along circle w.r.t to O to 
moment of resultant about O.
Σ cm ΔL R = cm Lc a 
L
⇒ cm L R = cm Lc a  a = R L > Lc ⇒ a > R
Lc Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Friction Circle method
• Cohesive force, cm ΔL can be replaced by cm Lc acting at a distance ‘a’
from center O.
• If it is assumed that frictional resistance is fully mobilized i.e. ϕ = ϕm
soil reaction ΔP on any elementary arc has its direction opposing
probable movement of sliding mass and is inclined at angle ϕ to the
normal at point of application of ΔP.
• Line of action of ΔP will be tangent 
to the circle of radius R sinϕ drawn 
with center O.
• This circle is called friction circle or 
ϕ circle.
• Resultant reaction P is also 
assumed to be tangential to circle. 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Friction Circle method
Three forces to maintain
equilibrium of soil mass can now
be drawn.
• Weight, W is drawn as a vertical
line passing through the centriod
of area ABCA.
• Resultant cohesion, C = cm Lc is
drawn parallel to chord AC at a
distance ‘a’ from center O.
• Resultant reaction ‘P’ pass
through intersection of W and C,
it will be tangential to friction
circle.
• Knowing magnitude of W and
direction and line of action of P
and C force triangle is completed.
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Friction Circle method
• Mobilized cohesion, cm is
determined = C/Lc
• Factor of safety w.r.t cohesion,
c
Fc =
cm
is determined.
• If real factor of safety, Fs is
required, Fϕ is assumed.
• ϕm is determined from equation
tan ϕ
Fϕ =
tan ϕ m
and above mentioned procedure
is carried out to determine Fc .
• If Fc = Fϕ this is Fs else procedure
repeated with a new value of Fϕ
till we get Fs = Fc = Fϕ
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial on Friction Circle method

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Taylor’s Stability number

• Gravity forces cause instability of soil and cohesive forces
contribute to stability in a soil mass.
cm c
• Stability number, Sn = = u (directly proportional to
γH Fc γH
cohesion, cu and inversely to height of slope, H

cm is the mobilized cohesion for equilibrium of slope of height H at

a factor of safety, Fc. Assume factor of safety, Fϕ = 1
• Taylor established relation between stability number, Sn as a
f ti off ϕu and
function d β using
i friction
f i ti circle
i l method
th d for
f simple,
i l
homogenous, finite slopes with no seepage.
• Reciprocal of stability number is stability factor.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

i = slope angle
DH = Depth of hard strata
cu = Undrained cohesion
Fc = Factor of safety w.r.t
cohesion
γ= Unit weight of soil
H = Height of slope
nHH = Distance where the 
Di t h th
failure surface touches the g.l
from toe. 
• FOS of safety is more when firm 
strata is at shallow level.
Stability number chart for ϕu = 0, Cohesive soil • For lower slope angle, i factor of 
safety is more.  
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Slope angle = i
Mobilized angle of internal friction = ϕm
Lower the slope angle, i higher the fos.
Higher the mobilized angle of shearing  Taylor’s stability number chart for ϕu > 0
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
resistance, ϕm fos is more.

Taylor’s Stability number
• Submerged Slope: Submerged unit weight is used to
calculate stability number.
• Saturated Slope: If slope is saturated by capillary
flow, saturated unit weight, γsat is used.
• Sudden drawdown condition: In case of sudden
drawdown, angle ϕ is reduced to ϕw
γ'
weighted friction angle, ϕw = ϕu
γ sat
ϕw is used in the stability chart to obtain, sn

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Tutorial

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial
• A proposed cutting in a homogeneous cohesive soil will have a slope
angle of 25° and will be 8.0 m deep using Taylor's stability chart,
determine the factor of safety against shear failure in respect of the
following soils
(a) cu = 45 kN/m2 ϕu = 0 γ= 19 kN/m3 D is large.
large
(b) cu = 45 kN/m ϕu = 0 γ= 19 kN/m The cohesive layer overlies a hard
2 3

layer of shale, present at a depth of 12 m.

(c) cu = 25 kN/m2 ϕu = 15° γ= 18.5 kN/m3 (Fc = Fϕ = Fs)
• A canal having side slopes I to I is proposed to be constructed in a
cohesive soil to a depth of 5 m below ground surface. The soil properties
are given ϕ = l5°; cu= l2kN/m2; e= 1.0; G= 2.65
Using Taylor's stability chart, find the factor of safety with respect to
cohesion against failure of the bank slopes,
(a) when the canal is full of water and
(b) when there is a sudden drawdown of water in the canal
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Tutorial
• A cutting, 10 m deep, is to be made in a soil having the properties: γ= 
19.5 kN/m3, c = 20 kN/m2, ϕ = 15°. What is the maximum angle of the 
slope that will have a factor safety against failure of 1.5 ? Fc = Fϕ = Fs = 
1.5.
• An excavation is made with a vertical face in a clay soil which has c
An excavation is made with a vertical face in a clay soil which has cu =  =
50 kN/m2; γt = 18 kN/m3. Determine the maximum depth of 
excavation so that the excavation is stable.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Slope stability analysis by limit equilibrium method
• A surface of soil sliding is considered.
• Soil mass is expected to move along the sliding
surface as a free body in equilibrium.
• Forces acting on the free body are considered and
factor of safety evaluated.
• In case of free draining soils like sand or silt
effective shear parameters are used at the end of
construction and in long term stability analysis.
analysis
• Fully saturated clay soil – Undrained strength
parameters are used immediately after
construction.
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Total stress and Effective stress Analysis
• In total stress analysis pore water pressure
developing on a slip surface is simulated while
determining the shear strength parameters in
laboratory tests conducted under same drainage
condition prevailing in field.
• Effective stress analysis requires determination of
pore water pressure, u. c’ and φ’ are determined by
conducting drained triaxial test.
• Effective stress analysis is convenient where u = 0 in
case of free draining soils like sand, gravel and silt
with slow rate of loading. Pore water pressure
depends on hydraulic condition.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Effective stress analysis
• Pore water pressure are determined from flow net,
complex theoretical methods and from the results
of sophisticated laboratory measurements and
using piezometer.
• Total stress analysis is simple as it eliminates the
necessity of determination of pore water pressure.

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ϕu = 0 analysis (Total stress analysis)
• Applied to newly built embankment 
or cut slope in a fully saturated clay 
soil.
• Slip surface is along the arc of circle 
with center above the slope. 
• A slip circle AB of radius R and 
center O is considered.
• Stability of soil mass ABCA is 
considered. W = weight of wedge 
ABCA passing vertically downwards
ABCA passing vertically downwards 
through G.
cu is undrained shear strength of soil, θ angle made by failure 
x
surface at center,      distance of weight, W from O
Re sisting moment cu R 2θ
Factor of safety =   =
DisturbingDr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
moment Wx

ϕu = 0 analysis (Total stress analysis)
• Number of slip circles with different radii and centers are
considered. Critical slip circle is the one with least factor of
safety or the one along which failure is most likely to occur.
Effect of tension crack
Effect of tension crack
• In cohesive soils tension cracks 
open up near top of slip surface, 
CD. 
• Maximum depth of tension 
2c u
crack Z0 =
crack, Z
γ
• Length of slip surface is taken 
as AD.  
Re sisting moment c u R 2θ D
Factor of safety =  =
Disturbing Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
moment Wx

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ϕu = 0 analysis (Total stress analysis)
Tension crack filled with water
Factor of safety = 
Re sisting moment c R 2θ D
= u
Disturbing moment Wx + Pw l

Pw =  1 γ w z 0 2
2
l = Distance of Point of 
application of Pw from point 0.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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c ‐ ϕ analysis ‐ Method of slices

• AC is the slope, trial
circular slip surface is AB.
• Shear strength varies at
different points of slip
surface.
• Method of slices is
introduced by Fellenius
(1926) and is known as
Swedish circle method.
• Soil mass above slip
surface is divided into
number of vertical slices of equal width. Number of slices vary
from 6 to 12.
• Forces between the slices are neglected and each slice behaves
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
independently.

c ‐ ϕ analysis ‐ Method of slices

Slice no. 4
• Weight of slice, W = γhb
• Weight is resolved into 
normal and tangential 
components. t
• Normal component, N passes 
through O and do not have 
driving moment. N mobilizes 
frictional resistance.
• Tangential component, T 
Tangential component, T
causes rotating moment. l

• Driving Forces = ∑ T
Resisting Forces = ∑ c’l + ∑N tanϕ L = Length of arc

Fs = 
Re sisting Moment
=
∑ c ' l R + ∑ N tan ϕ R =
c' L + ∑ N tan ϕ
∑ TR ∑T
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Driving Moment

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Tutorial – Method of slices

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial – Method of slices

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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c ‐ ϕ analysis ‐ Method of slices

• Method of slices is applied to homogenous or stratified soils
with seepage taking place and pore pressures acting in soil.
• Factor of safety is obtained by considering number of slip
circles. Circle which gives minimum factor of safety is the critical
circle.
i l
• Failure is most likely to occur along this surface.

Location of most critical circle
Slope Failure ‐ Most critical circle passes through toe if angle of
resistance ϕ > 3
shearing resistance, 3° and slope angle,
angle β > 53
53° irrespective of
ϕ.

Base failure ‐ Most critical circle intersects the slope in front

of the toe if ϕ is less than 3° and β < 53°.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Location of most critical circle (cohesive soil)
Center of most critical slip circle for soil with ϕu = 0. Center O for toe
failure is located at the intersection of two lines drawn from ends A
and B of slope at angle α and ψ.

Slope α
Slope  Slope 
Slope α° ψ°
ψ
angle ratio
60° 1:0.58 29° 40°
ψ B 45° 1:1 28° 37°
1:1.5 26° 35°
12
1:2 25° 35°
1:3 25° 35°
A
1:5 25° 37°

Toe Failure Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Location of most critical circle: c ‐ ϕ soil
In case of c ‐ ϕ
homogenous soil first
center O1 is obtained
and then P is
identified.
identified

Point P is located at
a distance of 4.5H
horizontally from the
toe of slope and at a
depth H below toe of
slope.
l

Line PO1 is extended

and factor of safety Toe Failure
of slope is
determined and
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
plotted. Minimum factor of safety is obtained

Location of most critical circle (cohesive soil)
Homogenous slopes of cohesive soil
with slope angle < 53° have center of
rotation on a vertical line passing
through the midpoint of slope and
makes
k an angle l 133.5° at centre off
critical circle.

Base Failure

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Stability of earth dam under steady seepage condition

• Water starts 
seeping through 
the dam when 
reservoir on 
i
upstream fills 
with water.
• Soil below 
phreatic line  
is saturated and subjected to pore water pressure.
pressure
• On upstream slope seepage forces are directed inwards and
increases the stability.
• On downstream slope direction of seepage forces is such that
they decrease the stability. Downstream slope is critical.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Stability of earth dam under steady seepage condition
• Flow net is drawn and pore water pressures are determined
• Pore pressure at 
point 1 = γw u1
where u1 = vertical 
distance between
distance between 
point 1 and point P
• Point 1 is intersection
of equipotential line, h/9
with slip surface.
• Point P is intersection of
equipotential line, h/9 with
phreatic line.
• Pore water pressure acts
normal to the base of each slice
do not contribute to driving
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
moment.

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Stability of earth dam under steady seepage condition
F =
∑ cΔL + ∑ (N − uΔL ) tan ϕ
∑T
s

Weight of soil in slice, w is determined by considering bulk unit weight

above flow line and saturated unit weight below. Pore water pressure on
th base
the b off slice
li isi determined.
d t i d
∆L is length of slice, 
N and T are normal and tangential components of weight, w.
N = w cosα
T= w sinα
α = Angle made by the tangent to the base of slice with horizontal.

•In case of submerged slope weight of slice is determined using 
submerged unit weight below phreatic line and bulk unit weight for the 
upper part.   

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Width of each slice = 2.06 m

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Stability of earth dam under sudden drawdown 
condition
• Upstream slope of earth dam is critical in sudden drawdown
condition.
• It is assumed that the reservoir is maintained at a high level for
sufficiently long time and fill is saturated and steady seepage
condition is developed.
• If reservoir level is decreased and fill is of low permeability,
saturation level inside the slope does not change.
• Water pressure acting on the upstream slope to balance this
g is suddenlyy removed.
weight
• Shearing resistance of soil is reduced due to development of pore
water pressure which do not dissipate rapidly.
• Saturated weight of soil produces shearing stress

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Stability of earth dam under sudden drawdown 
condition
• Flow net corresponding to instantaneous drawdown is drawn.
Pore water pressure distribution is worked on failure surface.
• As time elapses pore water pressure dissipates gradually and
stability increases.
• Approximate factor of safety is obtained by considering
saturated unit weight for calculating actuating forces and
submerged unit weight for calculating the resisting force.
• Below drawdown level submerged unit weight is used to
calculate the driving and resisting forces. forces
• Slope material is of medium permeability it drains as fast as the
reservoir saturation level moves downward.
• Series of flow nets drawn for different saturation levels, pore
water pressures are determined and factor of safety is
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
estimated.

Stability during and at the end of construction
• Embankments are compacted at 80 to 90% of saturation.
• In fine – grained soil embankments application of load
compresses the water – air pore fluid and pore pressure
increases.
• Increase of pore pressure depends on
– Placement water content
– Compressibility and permeability of fill material
– rate of construction.
• Prediction of pore pressure during construction is difficult.
• Pore pressures should be determined for estimation of shear
strength of soil and to assess the factor of safety of
embankment.
• Pore air pressure is determined from the equation given by Hilf
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Bishop method of stability analysis
• Fellenius method of slices neglects the effects of the horizontal and
shearing forces acting the sides of the slices.
• As a consequence factor of safety values obtained were conservative
and may lead to uneconomical design in case of deep slip circles.
• Bishop (1955) developed the following method which eliminates these
errors to a large degree. This is based on effective stress approach.
• Slip surface is circular in shape and factor of safety is the ratio of
available shear strength of soil to that required to maintain limit
equilibrium.
• Each slice is acted upon by self weight, W.
• Resultant normal forces are E1 and E2.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Bishop method of stability analysis Forces acting on each slice 
as well as those acting on 
the sliding mass as a 
whole, must satisfy the 
equilibrium conditions.

⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ sec α ⎥
FS = ∑ ⎢{c' b + tan ϕ (W − ub)} ⎥
∑ w sin α ⎢ 1 +
tan α tan ϕ ⎥
⎣⎢ Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar FS ⎦⎥

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Unit III
Earth pressure theories

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Syllabus
• Rankine theory of earth pressure
• Earth pressure in layered soils 
• Coulomb earth pressure theory
Coulomb earth pressure theory 
• Culman’s Graphical methods
• Types of retaining walls
• Stability of retaining walls against
– Overturning
– Sliding
– Bearing capacity
– Drainage from backfill
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Assignment
1. A masonary retaining wall with vertical back to retain a backfill of 6m height
behind it. Ground level is horizontal at the top. Assume unit weight of
backfill soil = 17 kN/m3, c = 0, ϕ = 30°. Calculate the horizontal earth
pressure on the wall, if
i) wall moves away from backfill (Active) and
ii) wall moves toward the backfill (Passive) (May 2013), (5 Marks)
2. Explain Culman’s graphical method for estimating active earth pressure (May
2013), (5 Marks)
3. Explain Rankine theory for estimation of active earth pressure along with
assumptions
4. Write a short notes on Coulombs theory for determination of active
pressure

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Assignment
5. A masonry retaining wall of 1m wide at the top and 4m wide at the base is 
5m high with a vertical back face. The unit weight of sand is 17 kN/m3 and 
the angle of shearing resistance is 34°. Unit weight of masonry is given as 
22 kN/m3. Check for stability of wall against sliding and overturning and 
p ( y
determine the maximum and minimum pressures at the base (May 2013).  )
(5 marks)

5m

6. A cantilever retaining wall as shown in figure below is constructed to retain 
y g y g
dry sand. Unit weight of masonry is given as 24kN/m/ 3. The allowable 
2
bearing capacity as 250kN/m . Check the stability of the retaining wall 
against bearing capacity and tension at the base. (5 marks)

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Assignment

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Angle of repose

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Embankment 
Highways
Railway lines
Earth dams
Canal banks
Slope failure occurs if developed shear stress > Shear strength of soil
For stability of slope in sandy soils slope angle < angle of repose  

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Retaining walls
• Retaining walls are constructed to retain vertical
earth or other material embankments.
• Constructed of masonry, PCC, RCC or sheet pile.
• These walls are subjected lateral pressure from
earth or other materials.
• Walls are designed to keep them in stable position.

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Use of retaining wall
Backfill or 
soil
Backfill or 
soil

Embankment Excavation or cutting

Backfill
Backfill 
Backfill or soil or soil

Retaining wall
Water tanks, Culvert
Bridge Abutment
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Use of retaining wall

Flood wall, weir Sheet pile wall
(Flexible walls)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Different types of retaining walls

Backfill

Gravity walls Semi ‐ Gravity walls

• Gravity walls resist movement because of • Semi‐gravity walls are not as heavy as 
their heavy sections. gravity walls. 
• They are built of mass concrete or stone • A small amount of reinforcement is 
or brick masonry. used for reducing the mass of concrete.
• No reinforcement is required in these
walls. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Different types of retaining walls

Cantilever walls
Cantilever walls Counterfort walls
Stems of cantilever walls are thinner in Stem of the wall spans horizontally
section. between vertical brackets known as
Base slab is the cantilever portion. counter forts.
These walls are made of reinforced Counter forts are provided on the backfill
concrete. side.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Different types of retaining walls

Buttressed walls

• Buttressed walls are similar to counter fort walls.

• Brackets or buttress walls are provided on the opposite side of the 
backfill.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Different types of retaining walls

Wall under construction Wall after construction

Mechanically Stabilized walls 
Becoming more popular

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Classical earth pressure theories

• Coulomb's earth pressure theory (1776)
• Rankine's earth pressure theory (1857)
Three pressures are estimated from theories
– At rest pressure
– Active pressure
– Passive pressure
P i

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Types of Earth pressure
At rest pressure: If the wall does not move even
after back filling, the pressure exerted on the
wallll is
i termed
d as at rest pressure.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
At rest pressure

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Types of Earth pressure
Active earth pressure:
• If wall rotates about
Point ‘A’ and moves
away from backfill
backfill,
pressure on the wall
gradually decreases.

• After a particular
displacement of wall at
top, pressure decreases
to a minimum value
called active earth
pressure and remains
constant. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Types of Earth pressure
• If the wall is smooth, the resultant pressure acts 
normal to the face of the wall.
If the wall is rough it makes an angle δ with the 
• If the wall is rough, it makes an angle δ with the
normal on the wall.
δ = angle of wall friction
• When the wall movement is sufficient, a soil mass
of weight W ruptures along surface ADC This surface
of weight W ruptures along surface ADC. This surface 
is slightly curved.
• Plane surface AC makes an angle 45° + ϕ/2 with 
horizontal.
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Types of earth pressure
Passive earth pressure:
• If the wall is now rotated
about A towards the
backfill the actual failure
backfill,
plane ADC is a curved
surface.
• If the failure surface is
approximated as a plane
AC this makes an angle
45° ‐ ϕ/2 with the
h i
horizontal.
l
• Pressure on the wall
increases from the value
of at rest condition to
the maximum value.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Types of earth pressures
• Maximum pressure Pp that is developed is termed 
as passive earth pressure.
• Pressure is called passive because the weight of the 
backfill opposes the movement of the wall.
• If the wall is rough passive pressure makes an angle 
δ with the normal.

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Types of earth pressures

Movement ∆p required to develop the

passive state is considerably larger
than ∆a required for the active state.

Soil Amount of translation 
at top, Δa
Cohesionless 0 001 H 0.002 H
0.001 H – 0 002 H
(dense)
Cohesionless 0.002 H – 0.004 H
(loose)
Cohesive  0.01 – 0.02 H
(Stiff)
Cohesive  0.02 – 0.05 H
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar (Soft)

At rest pressure
• wall is rigid and Homogenous
does not move Isotropic
with the pressure
exerted on the
wall, soil behind
the wall will be in γ
a state of elastic σv= γz
equilibrium. σh= K0γz

• Consider an K0 coefficient of at rest pressure
At base of wall, σh= K0γH
element E in the
Intensity of pressure, P0 = Area  of earth pressure 
backfill at depth z diagram =
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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At rest pressure
Lateral strain = 0
= 0
E Young’ss modulus of soil and µ Poisson ratio  
E Young modulus of soil and µ Poisson ratio
⇒ = K0
Jacky  (1944) K0 = 1‐sinϕ

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Rankine theory (1857)
Assumptions
• Backfill soil is isotropic, homogeneous and is
cohesionless.
• Soil is in a state of plastic equilibrium during active and
passive earth pressure conditions.
• Rupture surface is a planar surface which is obtained by
considering the plastic equilibrium of the soil.
• Backfill
B kfill surface
f i horizontal.
is h i l
• Back of the wall is vertical.
• Back of the wall is smooth.
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Rankine theory (1857) ‐ Active earth pressure

• Normal stress on the base 
AD is σV= γ Z

• Normal stress σ h on the 
vertical planes AB or DC at 
depth z σh= K0γH

• Entire mass is subjected to 
horizontal deformation.  
•Every vertical section through the mass of soil represents a plane of
symmetry for the entire mass.
• The shear stresses on vertical and horizontal sides of the prism are
equal to zero. Due to the stretching, the pressure on vertical sides AB
and CD of the prism decreases until the conditions of plastic equilibrium
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
are satisfied, while the pressure on the base AD remains unchanged.

Rankine theory ‐ Active earth pressure

• Further stretching causes a plastic flow without
changing the stress state. This is failure of soil
mass
mass.
• Weight of the mass assists in producing an
expansion in horizontal direction and type of failure
is called active failure.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rankine theory ‐ Active earth pressure

Dry Cohesionless soil

Minor P. P
Failure Plane
(3)
Major P. P

CE = CD = CB = r = OC Sin ϕ
Minor Principal stress, 
pa = OE = OC – CE = OC (1‐sinϕ)
Major Principal stress, 
σ σv = OB = OC + CB = OC (1+sin
= OB = OC + CB = OC (1+sinϕ)
p a 1 − sin ϕ
= = ka
σ v 1 + sin ϕ

Major principal plane – Horizontal plane
Minor principal plane ‐ Vertical plane
ϕ
Failure plane DE makes an angle 45°
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar +     
with horizontal or major p.p 2

Rankine theory ‐ Active earth pressure

Resisting force decreases the earth pressure acting on the wall

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rankine theory ‐ Passive earth pressure

Surface of semi – infinite mass

Cohesion less soil

= γz

• Mass of soil is compressed in horizontal direction, the pressure on 
vertical sides AB and CD of the prism increases while the pressure on 
its base remains unchanged at γz. 
• Lateral compression of the soil is resisted by the weight of the soil, 
the subsequent failure by plastic flow is called a passive failure.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Rankine theory ‐ Passive earth pressure

Major P. P

Failure 
Plane
(3)

Minor  σv
P. P
pp = OC +CE = OC + OC sinϕ
σv = OC – BC = OC – OC sinϕ
BC = CD = CE = r
p p 1 + sin φ
= = kp
σ v 1 − sin φ
Major principal plane – vertical
Minor principal plane – Horizontal
ϕ
Failure plane ED makes an angle 45° ‐
2
with horizontal or minor p.p
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rankine theory ‐ Passive earth pressure

Resisting force increases because resistance builds in direction towards 
the wall. 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

1
k a γH
• Active earth pressure force , Pa =             varies 
2
2
linearly and acts at a height of H/3 from base of 
wall.

1
k p γH 2
• Passive earth pressure force, Pp =             acts at a 
2
height of H/3 from base of wall.

1 − sin ϕ 1 + sin ϕ
ka = kp =
1 + sin ϕ 1 − sin ϕ

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Tutorial
A masonary retaining wall with vertical back to retain
a backfill of 6m height behind it. Ground level is
horizontal at the top.
p Assume unit weightg of backfill
soil = 17 kN/m3, c = 0, ϕ = 30°. Calculate the
horizontal earth pressure on the wall, if
i) wall moves away from backfill (Active) and
ii) wall moves toward the backfill (Passive) (May
2013), (5 Marks)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Active Earth Pressure – Backfill Submerged

Retaining wall
Submerged unit wt γb
Submerged unit wt, 

Due to submerged backfill Due to pore 
Retaining wall
water

Total pressure acting on the wall at a height H/3 above the base =   1 k a γ b H 2 + 1 γ w H 2
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar 2 2

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Active Earth Pressure – Backfill Submerged and 
subjected to surcharge 
Surcharge

moist soil

Pore
Pore 
Submerged soil water

Total pressure Pa acting per unit length of the wall = 

Point of application of Pa  is the centriod of composite earth pressure diagram.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial
A retaining wall has a smooth vertical back and is
8.5m in height. It retains a horizontal backfill of
sand with ϕ = 33°. Find out total active earth
pressure per meter length of wall, if γ = 18 kN/m3
and γsat = 20 kN/m3. (May 2016)
a) Water table is far below the base of the wall
b) Water table rises upto 4m level above the base.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Tutorial
A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back is 10m high and retains two 
layer sand backfill with the following properties:
0 – 5m depth: c = 0, ϕ = 30°, γ = 18 k N/m3
Below 5m c = 0, ϕ = 34°, γ = 20 k N/m3
Show active earth pressure distribution, assuming that the water table is 
well below the base of wall.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Sloping ground surface – Active earth pressure
Consider an element of soil at depth z below soil surface inclined 
at angle ‘i‘ with horizontal.

Vertical stress on element, σv
weight of soil above element
=
Area
γzb cos i
= = γz cos i
b
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Sloping ground surface – Active earth pressure
P, Pole

σv > σx
τ

σn
OA = Vertical stress = σv = γz cosi
Normal stress = σn = γz cos2 i
Shear stress = τ = γz cosisini
OB = Horizontal stress = σx = OB =Pa = OP CP = CA = CF = OC sinϕ
CD= OC sini
Pa OP OD − DP OD = OC cosi
= =
σv OA OD + DA DP = CP 2 − CD 2 Pa OC cos i − OC 2 sin 2 ϕ − OC 2 sin 2 i
=
DA = CA 2 − CD 2
σ v OC cos i + OC 2 sin 2 ϕ − OC 2 sin 2 i
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Sloping ground surface – Active earth pressure
cos i − cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ
pa = γz cos i
cos i + cos i − cos ϕ
2 2

cos i − cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ

⇒ ka = cos i
cos i + cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ
Total pressure, Pa for unit length of wall = 

Earth pressure distribution
acts at a height of H/3 from base of wall at 
an angle i with horizontal

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Sloping ground surface – Passive earth pressure
Consider an element of soil at depth z below soil surface inclined 
at angle ‘i‘ with horizontal.

Vertical stress on element, σv
weight of soil above element
=
Area
γzb cos i
= = γz cos i
b
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Sloping ground surface – Passive earth pressure
σv < σx (PP ) 

P Pole
P, Pole

= OP

Pp OP OD + DP
= =
σv OA OD − DA

PP OC cos i + OC 2 sin 2 ϕ − OC 2 sin 2 i

=
σv OC cos i − OC 2 sin 2 ϕ − OC 2 sin 2 i

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Sloping ground surface – Passive earth pressure
cos i + cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ
pp = γz cos i
cos i − cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ

cos i + cos 2 i − cos 2 ϕ

⇒ kp = cos i
cos i − cos i − cos ϕ
2 2

Total pressure, Pp for unit length of wall = 

Earth pressure distribution
acts at a height of H/3 from base of wall at 
an angle i with horizontal

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial 
Determine the active and passive
earth pressure force acting on the
wall.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Back of wall inclined

Line AC is drawn through Heel point, A 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Rankine theory – Cohesive soil

Soil is cohesive soil and will
have c & ϕ parameters

Active earth pressure

σv = σ1 = Major pri. Stress
σh = σ3 = Minor pri. Stress

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rankine theory – Cohesive soil

Tension 
Crack
√ a
Z = 0 pa = ‐2c√k

Z = H pa =ka γH‐2c√ka

Pressure is negative and it applies pull on the wall which gradually 
decreases to zero at a depth 
zc =              = Depth of tension crack
D th f t i k

Before formation of crack:

After formation of crack:                                                             acts at 
(H‐zc)/3   from base Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Rankine theory – Cohesive soil –

Unsupported vertical height of wall
• Active pressure is negative and becomes zero at a
depth of zc and is positive with increase of depth.
• If the height of wall is 2zc active earth pressure force
is zero and this depth is called critical height of
unsupported vertical cut.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Tutorial
A retaining wall, 8m high, with a smooth vertical back
retains a clay backfill with c = 15 kN/m2, ϕ = 15° and
γ = 18 kN/m3. Calculate the total active thrust on
the wall assuming that tension cracks develop to
the full theoretical depth.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Rankine theory – Passive pressure in cohesive soil

Passive earth pressure

σh = σ1 = Major pri. Stress
σv = σ3 = Minor pri. Stress

Failure plane makes an 
angle of 45° ‐ ϕ/2 with 
horizontal which is the 
minor principal plane

⇒
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Rankine theory – Passive pressure in cohesive soil

When z= 0 pp = 2c√kp

z = H pp = kp γH + 2c √kp

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial
A retaining wall 6m high, with a smooth vertical back
is pushed against a soil mass having c’ = 40 kN/m2 ϕ
= 15° γ = 19 kN/m3. What is the total Rankine
passive pressure if the horizontal soil surface carries
a uniform load of 50 kN/m2. What is the point of
application of the resultant thrust?

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil
Active Earth pressure

Backfill Rupture surface

Ret. 
wall

Weight of wedge, W = γA, 
A = Area of soil wedge ABC
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil
• Equilibrium of sliding wedge is considered. It is a type of limit
equilibrium method.
Active Earth pressure
• In active earth pressure condition failure wedge moves downward
and outward relative to the backfill
Assumptions:
1. Backfill is dry, cohesionless, homogenous, isotropic and ideally
plastic material.
2 Slip surface is a plane surface passing through the heel of wall.
2. wall
3. Wall surface is rough and earth pressure on the wall is inclined at
angle δ to the normal to the wall. δ = angle of friction between wall
and soil.
4. Sliding wedge is a rigid body.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil

As the wall moves away from backfill ‐

soil slides from B to A and shear stress, F1
acts from A to B due to friction between
wall and soil.
W Pn is the total normal reaction of the soil
pressure acting on face AB combines with
shear resistance, F1 and results in active
pressure force, Pa at angle δ to the normal
of back of wall AB.
Wedge ABC ruptures along plane AC and this is
F2 resisted by the frictional force, F2 acting between
F1 the soil at rest below AC and the sliding wedge.
Wn is the normal component of the weight of
wedge W on plane AC, the resultant of the normal
Wn and the shearing stress , F2 is the reaction R.
This makes an angle ϕ with the normal since the
rupture takes place within the soil itself.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil

AC is not the actual rupture

plane, the three forces do not
meet at a point.

If the actual surface of failure

AC'C is considered, all three
forces meet at a point.

Error due to the

nonconcurrence of the forces
is very insignificant and as
such may be neglected.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil
Area of wedge ABC = ½ AC BD  
From law of sines ∆le ABC
AC sin(α + β ) sin((α + β )
= AC AB
AC = AB  
AB sin(θ − β ) sin(θ − β )

From triangle ABD
Sin(180‐(α+θ)) =  BD
AB
AB sin (α+θ)
BD = AB sin (
BD 
AB = H/sinα
W =

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil
Active Earth pressure
Rupture surface

Backfill

Ret. 
wall

θ Angle made by failure plane with horizontal is variable and rest of terms are constants
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil
dPa
Maximum value is obtained by differentiating Pa with θ =0
dθ

Ka decreases with an increase

of ϕ.
Ka decreases with an increase
of δ.
The maximum decrease is not
more than 10 percent.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Tutorial
A retaining wall 12m high has its back sloping at an
angle of 75° with the horizontal. Surface of the
backfill slopes at an angle of 15
15°. Relevant soil
properties are parameters are c = 0 ϕ = 35° γ = 18
kN/m3 , δ = 25°. Determine Pa from Coulomb
method.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil
Passive pressure

F2
F1

Pn
Wn

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesion less soil
dPp
Minimum value is obtained by differentiating Pp with θ =0
dθ

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Graphical methods

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Trial wedge method

Weight of soil wedge for different failure surface is plotted along a

vertical line and pressure locus is drawn.
Maximum earth pressure is called active earth pressure.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Coulomb theory (1776) – cohesive soil
Active pressure

Failure wedge ABE is in equilibrium under W, Ca, C, P1, R

Adhesion, Ca = Unit adhesion x AB
Cohesion, C = Unit cohesion x BE
Active earth pressure force, P1 is the maximum value out of different failure
surfaces. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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P Culman method (1875) 
P
R
α‐δ

Weight line

θ‐ϕ
• Weight line, AE is drawn at angle 
ϕ to the horizontal.
• Line AD is drawn at an angle α ‐ δ
• Weight of soil wedge is plotted 
Weight of soil wedge is plotted
along line AE.
• Lines are drawn parallel to AD 
from V,1,2,3,4 represent P for 
different soil wedges.
• Point V’,1’,2’,3’,4’ are joined by a 
curve called pressure locus.
Method applicable to soils having no  C’C is the maximum lateral pressure
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
cohesion. or active earth pressure force.

Stability of retaining walls 
β= slope angle
Ws = Weight of soil on heel 
slab
Wc = Weight of wall 
wt ws including base slab
Wt = resultant of wall, Wc
and soil, Ws
Pa = active earth pressure
Ph = Pa cosβ
Pv = Pa sinβ
Pp = Passive earth pressure 
at the toe side of the wall
Toe
Heel FR = Base sliding resistance

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Stability of retaining walls
Sliding
Force resisting sliding, FR = caB + V tanδ + Pp
ca = unit adhesion 
unit adhesion
B = Width of base of retaining wall
V = total vertical force = Ws + Wc + Pv
δ = angle of friction between foundation and soil 
Factor of safety against sliding
Factor of safety against sliding, 
• If Fs < 1.5 shear key is provided at base of wall
• The passive pressure Pp should not be relied upon.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Stability of retaining walls
Sliding

Factor of safety against sliding < 1.5 shear key is provided below base 
of wall

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Stability of retaining walls

• Overturningand stabilizing
moments are determined about
point
i t o.

• Factor of safety against

overturning,

MR
Fo =
Mo
> 2.0

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Overturning

Stability of retaining walls
•PR is the resultant of Pa and
Wt. PR meets the base at m.

• V is the resultant of all the

wt vertical forces acting at m with
an eccentricity e.

• Pressure distribution at the

base of wall with a maximum qt
at the toe and a minimum qh at
the heel.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Bearing capacity failure

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Stability of retaining wall
∑ V ⎛ 6e ⎞ qu
Stress at toe, qt = ⎜1 + ⎟ ≤
b ⎝ b ⎠ FS

qu ultimate bearing capacity considering the 
li b i i id i h
eccentricity 

FS, factor of safety
∑ V ⎛ 6e ⎞
Stress at heel,  qh = ⎜1 − ⎟ > 0
b ⎝ b ⎠

i. e to avoid tension in soil e < b/6
Bearing capacity failure
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Stability of retaining wall
• A retaining wall
resting on medium
to soft soil will fail
by global failure.

• Stability of slope is
analyzed by method
of slices

Base failure
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Stability of retaining wall 
(Drainage)
• Saturation of backfill of a retaining wall
is accompanied by a substantial pore
water pressure on the back of the wall
and increases the earth pressure on wall.
wall
Weep hole • It is essential to eliminate or reduce
pore pressure by providing suitable
drainage.

• Drain collects the water that enters the

b kfill and
backfill d disposes
di off through
th h outlets
tl t
in the wall called weep holes.
Vertical filter
• Drain is a graded filter material
• Present practice is to use geotextiles.
designed to prevent clogging by fine
materials.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Stability of retaining wall 
(Drainage)

• weep holes are usually made by

embedding 100 mm diameter pipes in
the wall

• Vertical spacing between horizontal

rows of weep holes should not exceed
1.5 m
Weep hole
• Horizontal spacing in a given row
Inclined filter depends upon the provisions made to
direct the seepage water towards the
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
weep holes.

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Proportioning of gravity retaining walls

Coulomb theory directly gives earth pressure on the back face of wall,
weight of soil, Ws not to be considered.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial
Check the stability
of retaining wall.

Allowable soil
pressure = 500
kN/m2
ϕ= 34°, δ = 25°,
γ= 18 kN/m3
i = 15 °

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Syllabus
Strength Criteria
• Types, Choice of foundations
• Location of depth
Location of depth
• Safe bearing capacity
– Terzaghi
– Meyerhof
– Skempton
– IS Method

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Syllabus
Settlement Criteria
• Safe bearing pressure based on N value
• Allowable bearing pressure
• Safe bearing capacity
• Allowable settlements of structures

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Assignment V
1. Explain Meyerhof and Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theories (May 
2013) (5 Marks).

2. A square footing 1.8mx1.8m is placed over sand of bulk unit weight 
16.5 kN/m/ 3,, saturated unit weight 18kN/m
g / 3 and angle of shearing 
g g
0
resistance is 30 at a depth of 1.1m. Determine the ultimate 
bearing capacity, when there is no effect of water table and when 
it is submerged. (for ϕ= 300, Nc = 30, Nq = 18 and Nγ=15) (May 
2013) (5 Marks).

3. Discuss the general requirements for the location and depth of 
foundation (Dec 2012) (5 Marks). 
( )( )

4. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing 2m wide 
and 1.5m depth. Use Terzaghi’s theory.  Also net allowable and 
allowable gross load. Assume general shear failure condition. Take 
c’ = 15 kN/m2, ϕ = 35°, γ = 18 kN/m3 and factor of safety = 2.5 (Dec 
2012) (5 Marks). Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

5. Determine the allowable bearing capacity of a 1.5mX 1.5m square footing 
placed at a depth of 2.0m in a sandy deposit having a unit weight of 
19kN/m3 with observed SPT value of 37. Water table is at depth of 1.5m. 
Determine the allowable bearing capacity for 50mm permissible 
settlement after applying suitable corrections for SPT value (Dec 2011). 
6. The following observations relate to a plate load test conducted on a 30cm 
square test plate placed at a depth of 1.5m in a soil deposit. 

Plot the load‐settlement curve and determine the allowable bearing pressure 
for a 2m square footing for a minimum factor safety 2.5 with respect to 
shear failure and a maximum permissible settlement 25mm. water table is 
h f il d i i ibl ttl t 25 t t bl i
at a depth of 2m.
7. What is maximum, differential and permissible settlements. Give the limits 
for isolated and raft foundations on sand and clay soils.
8. Explain the types of foundation settlements. How elastic settlement and 
consolidation settlement is determined. 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Foundation
• All civil Engineering structures such as buildings,
bridges, earth fills and concrete dams rest on soil or
rock.
• Soil is a weak material and a large area or mass of
soil is involved in carrying the same load.
• Foundations are substructure elements that
transmit the structural load to the supporting soil
suchh that
th t soilil is
i nott over stressed.
t d Deformations
D f ti or
settlements are within the allowable limits.
• Choice of foundation depends on properties of
supporting soil.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Foundation

Df is the depth below foundation; 
B is width of foundation
q Stress acting at foundation level

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Types of foundations
• Foundations are grouped in to two categories.
– Shallow Foundations
– Deep Foundations
• Shallow foundation transmits the structural load to
soil strata at a relatively small depth.
• Terzaghi (1943) defined shallow foundation as the
one which is laid at a depth, Df not exceeding width
of foundation,
foundation B i.e.
i e Df ≤ B.
B
• Foundations with Df/B between 1 to 15 are
moderately deep.
• Deep foundations have Df/B > 15.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Shallow Foundation
First choice due to economy Column
Wall or group  Individual 
of columns column

Strip or continuous  Spread or Combined footing 

Footing Isolated footing is Used when two columns are
Number of columns are of uniform thickness close to each other and
closely spaced and or stepped or individual footings overlap.
individual footings haunched Provided when a column is
overlap. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
close to property line

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Types of Foundation

Strap Footing Mat or Raft Foundation
Strap is a rigid beam connecting two Slab supporting a number of columns and walls
footings and does not take up any soil under the entire structure.
reaction. This is required when available pressure is low
Economical than a combined footing when and to decrease the differential settlement on
SBC of soil is more and distance between non – homogenous soils. Load on columns vary.
columns is less. Individual footings overlap.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Shallow Foundations
• Strip or continuous footing has length much greater 
than width (L>>B). These are commonly used below 
walls.
• Spread or isolated footings are commonly used to 
S d i l t d f ti l dt
support a single column. These are square or 
circular in section. 
• Combined footing will support more than one 
co u
column and have rectangular or trapezoidal shape.
a d a e ecta gu a o t ape o da s ape
• Mat or raft foundation covers the entire area of a 
structure and transmits the structural load from 
several columns.  
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Depth of foundation
• Depth of top soil: Footing should be located below the top soil
consisting of organic matters which will decompose.
• Frost depth: During winter season ice lenses form and result in
frost heave. During summer season thawing occurs from top
downwards. Due to alternate freezing and thawing footing is
lifted up and settles down. Increase of water content decreases
the shear strength of soil. Footing should be placed below frost
depth.
• Zone of volume change: Clay soils of high plasticity such as black
cotton soilil undergo
d volume
l changes.
h S ll on wetting
Swell i andd
shrink on drying. Volume changes are great near ground surface
and decrease with depth. Footing should be below this strata of
volume changes.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Depth of foundation
Adjacent footings:
• New footing should be constructed such that it does not
damage the existing structure. Adjacent structure is damaged
by construction of a new footing due to vibrations,
vibrations undermining
and lowering of water table.
• If the new footing is deeper and closer to the existing structure
results in more settlement. New footing should be at the
founding level of existing structure.
g are p
• If footings placed at different levels slope
p of line jjoiningg two
footings should not be steeper than 2H : 1V

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Depth of footing
• Sloping Ground:
Footing is located adjacent to a sloping ground and minimum 
distance of lower edge of footing to the ground surface should 
be 90 cm. 
Sloping ground surface should not encroach upon frustum of 
bearing material under the footing having sides making an angle 
30° with the horizontal.

30°

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Depth of footing
Water table:
• Footing should be placed above water table as far as possible.
• Presence of ground water immediately below the footing is
undesirable as it reduces the bearingg capacity
p y of soil.
• Water table close to the ground surface increases the difficulties
during construction.
Scour depth:
Footings located in streams should be placed below the potential
scour depth.
Under ground defects: Depth of footing is affected by presence of
underground defects such as faults, caves and mines.
Man made discontinuities such as sewer lines, water mains,
underground cables should be shifted or footing relocated.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Depth of footing
Root holes:
• Root holes or cavities caused by burrowing animals or worms. 
Footing shall be placed below zone of weakened soil.
p p
Minimum depth: All foundations should extend to a depth of 50 
cm below the natural ground level. In case of rocks top surface 
should be cleaned and stepped.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Terminology
Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu ): Gross pressure at the base of
foundation at which soil fails in shear.
Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu ): Net increase in pressure at
base of foundation that causes shear failure.
qnu = qu ‐ γDf
Overburden pressure, γDf exists before construction of foundation

q σ1 = Major Principal plane
Df γD γD σ3 = Minor Principal plane

σ1 = q  σ3 = γD
q = kp2 γD
σ3 1 σ3 =  ka q σ1 2 σ1 = kp σ3 = kp γD

σ1 σ3

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Terminology
• Net safe bearing capacity (qns ): Net soil pressure that can be 
safely applied to the soil considering shear failure only. 
qns = qnu / 2.5
p
• Net safe settlement pressure (q (qnp )): Net pressure the soil can 
p
carry without exceeding the allowable settlement.
Maximum settlement varies from between 25 mm and 40 mm for 
individual footing.
• Net allowable bearing pressure (qna ): 
If qns > qnpp qna = qnpp
If qnp > qns qna = qns

For safe design of footing net allowable bearing pressure, qna ≥ net pressure, qn

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Gross and net footing pressure Q
Footing backfilled

Df Df
Overburden pressure = γDf
Dc

Before construction of footing soil  After construction of footing soil at

at depth Df will be subjected to a  depth Df will be subjected to a
pressure of γDf pressure of Gross footing pressure,
qg = Q + Dc γ c A + (D f − Dc )γA = Q + γD f
A A A A

Q = Super imposed load including Column; A = Area of footing; Dc = Thickness of footing
γc = Unit weight of concrete; γ = Unit weight of Soil; qna = Net allowable bearing capacity
Q
Net footing pressure, qn = qg ‐ γDf =  ≤ qna Net footing pressure is the pressure in 
A excess of Overburden pressure.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Gross and net footing pressure
Footing not backfilled

Df
Overburden pressure = γDf

Before construction of footing soil Basement constructed and soil not 

at depth Df will be subjected to a backfilled
pressure of γDf Gross footing pressure neglecting 
basement and footing 
qg =  Q
A
Q = Super imposed load; A = Area of footing; 
Q
− γD f
Net footing pressure, qn = qg ‐ γDf =                < q
A na

If applied pressure, Q/A is same as released pressure then the net pressure, qn = 0. This is
principle of compensated raft foundation.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Terzaghi bearing capacity theory (1943)

Strip footing

Elastic 
Elastic
zone

• Base of footing is rough, soil wedge ABC (zone I) behaves as a part of 
footing and does not undergo any lateral yield. Soil in the wedge 
remains in a state of elastic equilibrium.
i i f l i ilib i
• Angles CAB and CBA are equal to angle of shearing resistance, ϕ.
• Sloping edges AC and BC of soil wedge CBA bear against radial shear 
zones BCD and ACF, CD and CF are arcs of logarithmic spiral.
• BDE and AFG are Rankine passive zones (Zone III) and will be 
subjected to overburden pressure,  γDf.   
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Terzaghi bearing capacity theory

Elastic 
Elastic
zone

• Failure zones and surfaces are limited below the base AB of footing. 
• Shear resistance of soil located above the base of footing is 
Shear resistance of soil located above the base of footing is
neglected. Effect of soil above base of footing is taken equivalent to a 
surcharge γDf .
Downward Forces = Upward Forces
1 2 B
γB tan ϕ
qu B +                       = 2Pp + c    sinϕ
4 cos ϕ
2Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Terzaghi bearing capacity theory

Elastic 
Elastic
zone

• Passive force, Pp will be due to weight of shear zone, BCDE, cohesion, 
c of soil and surcharge pressure γDf
qu = cNc + q’Nq + 0.5γBNγ
q‘ is effective overburden pressure; Nc Nq Nγ are bearing capacity factors
⎡ ⎤ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎛ 3π ϕ ⎞
⎢ ⎥ a ⎜ − ⎟ tan ϕ
⎢ a 2
⎥ Nq = ⎜ ⎟
a = e ⎝ 4 2⎠
N c = cot ϕ −1 ⎜ 2 ϕ ⎟
⎢ 2⎛ ϕ⎞ ⎥ ⎜ 2 cos (45° + ) ⎟ 1 ⎛ kp ⎞
⎢ 2 cos ⎜ 45° + ⎟ ⎥ ⎝ Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
2 ⎠ Nγ = ⎜ − 1 ⎟ tan ϕ
2 ⎜ cos 2 ϕ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦ ⎝ ⎠

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Terzaghi bearing capacity theory

General shear failure – Dense soil
Local shear failure – Loose soil

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial
• Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing 1.2m wide
and having depth of foundation of 1.0m. Use Terzaghi theory and
assume general shear failure. Take ϕ = 35° γ = 18 kN/m3, c = 15 kN/m2.

• A continuous footing of width 2.5m rests 1.5m below the ground

surface in clay. The unconfined compressive strength of the clay is
150kN/m2. Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of the footing. When
there is no effect of water table and when water table reaches ground
/ 3, γsat=20kN/m
surface. Take γγ=19kN/m / 3.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Assumptions of Terzaghi bearing capacity theory
• Base of footing is rough
• Footing is laid at a shallow depth i.e Df / B ≤ 1
• Shear strength of soil above the base of footing is
neglected and soil above the base is replaced by a uniform
surcharge γDf.
• Load on footing is vertical and is uniformly distributed.
• Footing is long i.e. L/B ratio is infinite. Applicable to strip
footing
• Shear
Sh strength
t th off soilil is
i governedd by
b Mohr
M h – Coulomb
C l b
equation. τ = c + σ’ tanϕ

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

• Square footing
qu = 1.2c’Nc + γDf Nq + 0.4γB Nγ
• Circular footing
qu = 1.2c’Nc + γDf Nq + 0.3γB Nγ
Rectangular footing
B
Sc = 1+0.3 L
Sq = 1
B
Sγ = 1‐0.2 
102 L
qu = c’Nc Sc + γDf Nq Sq + 0.5γB Nγ Sγ

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Types of Shear failure
General shear failure Local shear failure Punching Shear failure
Footing rests on  Footing rests on  Footing resting on 
surface of dense sand  medium dense sand or  loose sand or a soft 
or stiff clay on a clay of medium  clay
consistency

At a load qu settlement  At load qu(1) At load qu(1)

increases suddenly foundation movement  foundation movement 
is accompanied by  is accompanied by 
sudden jerks.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar sudden jerks.

Types of shear Failure

General shear

Local shear

Load displacement curves for model footings on loose and dense soils

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Types of shear failures
General shear  Local shear failure Punching Shear 
failure failure

Shear failure  Failure surface gradually Failure surface do 

occurs in soil due  extend outward from  not extend to ground 
to load, qu and  foundation. surface.
failure surface  Considerable movement of  Footing fails at load
extends to the  foundation is necessary for  qu load settlement 
ground surface
ground surface. failure surface to extend to
failure surface to extend to  curve is steep and
curve is steep and 
surface. This occurs at load  linear. 
qu. 
Heave is always  Settlement increases with  No heave and only 
observed on the  load. Heave is observed  vertical settlement.
sides. after substantial settlement.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Types of shear failure
General shear failure Local shear failure Punching Shear failure
Angle of shearing  ϕ < 29° ‐ Local shear 
resistance, ϕ > 36° ϕ between 36° to 29°
intermediate shear 
failure occurs  
Foundation Foundation settlement  Foundation settlement 
settlement is 4 to 10%  is 15 to 25% B is 15 to 25% B
B 
Failure strain of soil  Failure strain is 10 to 
specimen is < 5%
specimen is < 5% 20%
Relative density, Dr >  Dr < 35%
70%
SPT N value > 30 SPT N value < 5
Void ratio, e < 0.55 e > 0.75
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Types of shear failure
Bearing capacity of soil in local shear
failure condition is determined by
considering
Mobilized cohesion, cc’m = 2c
2c’/3
/3
Mobilized angle of shearing resistance,
ϕ’m = tan‐1 (2tan ϕ/3)
Bearing capacity factors Nc‘, Nq‘ and Nγ‘
are determined corresponding to ϕ’m

qu‘ = 2/3cNc’ + q’Nq’ + 0.5γBNγ’

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial
Determine the allowable gross load and net allowable load for a square
footing of 2m side and with a depth of foundation of 1.0m. Use
Terzaghi theory and assume local shear failure. Take factor of safety
of 3.0. Soil at the site has γ = 18 kN/m3 c = 15 kN/m2 ϕ = 25°.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Effect of water table
Water table is deep i.e. beyond Df + B below ground level

qu = cNc + γDfNq + 0.5γBNγ

Due to  Due to  Due to  Df
cohesion of surcharge 
cohesion of  surcharge soil below
soil below 
foundation  soil footing
soil B
B

W.T

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Effect of water table
Water table is at a depth Df + b Water table is at a depth Dw below 
below ground level ground level
qu = cNc + γDfNq + 0.5γbNγ + 0.5 γsub(B‐b)Nγ
qu = cNc + γDwNq + γsub (Df –Dw)Nq + 0.5 γsubBNγ

Df Dw
W.T
Df

B
b B
B
W.T
B

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Tutorial
A square footing carries a load of 800 kN. The depth of the footing is
1.5m. The properties of the soil are c=0, φ= 380, and γ=18.5kN/m3.
Determine the size of the footing for a factor of safety of 3 against
shear failure. What will be the changes in the size of the footing, if
level (for φ= 380, Nc=52,
the water table rises to ground level. =52 Nq=49 and
Nγ=64). (May 2011)
The foundation for a Square footing of width 2m is to be founded at a 
depth of 1.5m. The soil properties are c=0, φ= 360, γ=18.2 kN/m3, 
γsat=20kN/m3. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity, when the 
water table is at 
a) 1m below ground level. 
)1 b l dl l
b) 1m below foundation level. 
( for φ= 360 , Nc = 52, Nq 32& Nγ = 35). (May 2011)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Meyerhof bearing capacity theory (1951)

Mixed shear
γDf

Elastic 
Passive  zone Zone of 
zone Zone of 
radial  radial shear
shear

• Meyerhof theory gives bearing capacity of footing at any depth

• Failure surfaces are similar to Terzaghi theory. Surfaces/zones extend
above the base of footing. Shear strength of soil above base of footing is
considered.
• Failure surfaces AC and BC make an angle 45°+ ϕ/2 with horizontal
• Zone BCD is zone of radial shear.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Meyerhof bearing capacity theory (1951)

Mixed shear
γDf

Elastic 
Passive  zone Zone of 
zone Zone of 
radial  radial shear
shear

• Zone BDEF is the zone of mixed shear in which shear varies from radial 
to plane shear depending on depth and roughness of footing. 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Meyerhof bearing capacity equation (1963)
qu = c Nc Sc dc + q’ Nq Sq dq + 0.5 γ B Nγ Sγ dγ ‐ Vertical Load

qu = c Nc dc ic + q’ Nq dq iq + 0.5 γ B Nγ dγ iγ ‐ Inclined Load

Any ϕ
( )
N c = N q − 1 cot ϕ
Any ϕ
B d c = 1+ 0.2 K p
D
S c = 1+
1 0.2 K p B
L ϕ > 10°
2⎛ ϕ⎞ π tanϕ D
Nq = tan ⎜45+ ⎟e ϕ > 10° d q = d γ = 1+ 0.1 K p
⎝ 2⎠ B
B
( )
Nγ = Nq −1 tan(1.4ϕ) S q = S γ = 1+ 0.1K p
L
ϕ = 0°
d q = dγ = 1
ϕ = 0° • For depth D = B Meyerhof
S q = Sγ = 1 qult is same as Terzaghi
⎛ θ° ⎞
2 theory. Difference is more
Any ϕ i c = i q = ⎜1 − ⎟ pronounced at larger D/B
⎜ 90° ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ratios.
2
⎛ θ ⎞ ° • Inclination factors reduce
ϕ > 0° i γ = ⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ ϕ° ⎟ the bearing capacity when
⎝ ⎠
the load is inclined from
ϕ = 0° iγ = 0 for θ > 0
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
vertical.

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Tutorial
1. Square footing is 1.8 m x 1.8 m is resting on soil with ϕ = 36° c = 20
kPa γ = 18 kN/m3 Depth of foundation, Df = 1.8m. Water table is at a
depth of 6.1m from ground surface. Determine allowable bearing
capacity for F.S of 3 using Meyerhof b.c equation.
2. In the above problem if load acting on the footing is inclined at an
angle of 18° with vertical determine allowable bearing capacity.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

IS Code method (IS 6403‐1981)
Net ultimate bearing capacity, 
qnu = c Nc Sc dc ic + q (Nq ‐ 1) Sq dq iq + 0.5 γ B Nγ S γ d γ i γ W'

q effective over burden pressure;

Nc Nq Nγ are bearing capacity factors depends on angle of shearing
resistance, ϕ
Sc Sq Sγ are shape factors that vary with shape of footing
dc dq dγ are depth factor vary with depth of footing
ic iq iγ are inclination factors which consider the inclination of load
W’ water table correction factor
= 1.0 if w.t is at a depth of Df + B or more below ground level
= 0.5 if w.t is at a depth of Df or less below ground level

IS code gives equation for local shear failure by considering cm = 2c/3

and ϕm = tan‐1 (2 tanϕ /3)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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IS Code method (IS 6403 – 1981)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

IS Code method (IS 6403 – 1981)

Shape factors

Depth factors Inclination factors
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Tutorial
• A footing 2m square is laid at a depth of 1.3m below the ground
surface. Determine the net ultimate bearing capacity using IS code
method. Take γ =20 kN/m3 ϕ = 30° and c = 0.

• Determine the net ultimate bearing capacity of the footing in the

above example if
a) Water table rises to the level of base of footing
b) Water table rises to the ground surface
c) Water table is 1m below the base of footing.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Safe bearing pressure in Cohesion less soil based on N 
Value, IS 6403: 1981
• It is difficult to obtain soil
samples in sandy soil or granular Depth SPT N

soil or cohesion less soil. Df 1.5 m 5

•Standard penetration test is B 3.0 m 8

conducted at a number of selected

points in the vertical direction 4.5 m 12

below foundation level at intervals

of 75 cm or at points where there 6.0 m 20

is change of strata.
strata
7.5 m 24

• Average value of N is obtained

between the level of base of 9.0 m 29

footing and depth equal to 1.5 to

2.0 times the width of foundation.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar Bore hole

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Safe bearing pressure in Cohesionless soil based on N 
Value, IS 6403: 1981
N Denseness ϕ
Very Dense
0 ‐ 4 Very Loose 25° ‐ 32°
4 ‐ 10 Loose 27° ‐ 35°
10 ‐ 30 Medium 30° ‐ 40°
35° ‐ 45°
Dense

30 ‐ 50 Dense
> 50 Very Dense > 45°
Medium 
dense

Angle of shearing resistance, ϕ is obtained corresponding to average SPT N

value.
Bearing capacity factors Nc, Nq, Nγ are obtained for the angle of shearing
resistance , ϕ and subsequently ultimate bearing capacity, qu is determined.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Net safe bearing capacity based on N Value 
(Teng’s Equation)
Factor of safety against shear failure = 3.0
Strip footing q ns = 0.167 N 2 BWγ + 0.277(100 + N 2 ) D f W q kN/m2
Circular and square footing
Circular and square footing
q ns = 0.11N 2 BWγ + 0.33(100 + N 2 ) D f W q kN/m2
a b
w q = 1 − 0 .5 ≤1 w γ = 0 .5 + 0 .5 ≤1
Df B

N = Average SPT N Value Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Tutorial
• A square footing is required to carry a net load of 1200 kN. Determine
the size of footing if the depth of footing is 2m. Soil is sandy with N =
12. Take a factor of safety of 3. Water table is deep. Use Teng’s
equation and IS code.
code

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

IS method for cohesive soil
Net ultimate bearing capacity of footing immediately
after construction on fairly saturated homogenous
cohesive soil, (ϕ = 0)
Substitute Nq = 1 Nγ = 0
qnu = cu Nc Sc dc ic
Nc = 5.14
cu is obtained from unconfined compression strength
test or static cone test

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Unconfined compression test
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Skempton analysis for cohesive soils
Net ultimate bearing capacity of cohesive soil with ϕu = 0 is (Nq = 1 and 
Nγ = 0)
qnu = cNc

Skemptonp based on theoryy and

laboratory tests showed that Nc
increases with Df/B for strip,
square or circular footing
Nc(rectangle) =
Nc(sqaure) [0.84 + 0.16 B/L]
Nc(rectangle) =
Nc(strip) [1 + 0.2 B/L]

Following are approximate relations to determine Nc
a) Df /B < 2.5                                                       b) Df /B ≥ 2.5  ⎛ B⎞
⎛ D f ⎞⎛ N c = 7.5⎜1 + 0.2 ⎟
N c = 5.0⎜⎜1 + 0.2 ⎟⎜1 + 0.2 B ⎞⎟ ⎝ L⎠
B ⎟⎝ L⎠
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
⎝ ⎠

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Tutorial
Determine the safe bearing capacity of a rectangular footing,
1mx2m, placed at a depth of 2m in saturated clayey soil having
unit weight of 20kN/m3 and unconfined compressive strength of
100kN/m2.Use Skemptonp equation
q and assume a factor of safetyy
of 2.5. Use Terzaghi and IS code method. (April/May 2012)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Settlement of Foundation
Foundation settlement can be of three types
• Immediate or elastic settlement (si ) :
– Occurs immediately after construction of structure.
– Settlement is not elastic but it is computed p usingg elastic theoryy
especially for cohesive soils.
• Consolidation settlement (sc) :
– Settlement is due to gradual expulsion of water from voids of the
soil.
– It is determined from Terzaghi theory of consolidation.
• Secondary
S d consolidation
lid ti settlement
ttl t (s
( s) :
– This occurs after primary consolidation settlement.
– It is determined from coefficient of secondary consolidation.
– It is significant for organic clays and plastic silts.
Total settlement, S = Si + Sc + SsDr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Settlement due to other causes
• Under ground erosion: Cavities will form due to under ground erosion
and their collapse cause settlement or subsidence.
• Structural collapse of soil: Some soils undergo structural collapse soil.
• Increase of temperature results in shrinkage of expansive soil.
• Frost heave and thaw
• Vibrations and shocks cause large settlements in loose cohesion less
soils.
• Mining subsidence: Subsidence of ground occurs due to removal of
minerals or mines.
• Land slides occur in unstable slopes and there will be serious
settlement problems.
• Creep of clay soil
• Construction of a new structure adjacent to an existing structure.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

(Soil is assumed as to be isotropic, semi‐
Immediate settlement of soils infinite, homogenous and elastic.
Vertical elastic settlement of a surface flexible or rigid footings on 
saturated clay is determined from theory of elasticity
q = uniformly distributed stress; B = Width of loaded area;
⎛1− μ 2 ⎞
s i = qB ⎜ ⎟ I s = Modulus of elasticity of soil; μ = Poisson’s ratio; 
E
⎜ E ⎟ I = Influence factor
⎝ s ⎠
Shape Flexible footing Rigid 
Es is obtained from stress strain 
Centre Corner Average footing
curve of triaxial compression 
Circle 1.0 0.64 (Edge) 0.85 0.79 test. It is initial or secant 
Square 1.12 0.56 0.95 0.82 tangent modulus.
Rectangle
L/B = 1.5 1.36 0.68 1.2 1.06 Es = 250 c to 500 c NCC
L/B = 2.0 1.53 0.77 1.31 1.20
Es = 750 c to 1000 c OCC
= 750 c to 1000 c OCC
L/B = 3.0 1.78 0.89 1.52 1.42
L/B = 5 2.10 1.05 1.83 1.70 Equation is applicable for surface 
footing. Settlement of footing at 
L/B = 10 2.52 1.26 2.25 2.10
a depth, Df will be less compared 
L/B = 100 3.38 1.69 2.96 3.40 with surface footing 
Influence Factor
Settlement of rigid foundation will be 0.8 times average settlement of flexible footing. 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Rigid footings are heavy beams and raft foundation.

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Tutorial
A raft foundation of size 20mX 30m exerts a uniform pressure of
180kN/m2 on sub soil. Determine the immediate settlement of soil by
assuming E= 45MN/m2 and poisons ratio as 0.5. (Dec 2011)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Consolidation settlements
Settlements of fine‐grained, saturated cohesive soils are time
dependent. They are determined from consolidation theory as
follows.
In case of normally consolidated clays W.T

c H σ + Δσ B
ΔH = c log 0 Df
1 + e0 σ0 q
where cc = compression index 
=Slope of e versus log p plot.  2V ∆σ
= 0.009 (LL – 10)  H
1H
LL = Liquid limit (%) 
eo = in situ void ratio at the middle 
= in situ void ratio at the middle
of clay stratum, 
H = Stratum thickness, for a thick stratum divide into several layers
σo = effective overburden pressure at mid height of clay layer
∆σ = average increase in pressure at middle of clay layer from the 
foundation loads in layer H. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Consolidation test set up

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Consolidation settlements

Virgin Compression or normal 
cc consolidation

Recompression
Virgin Compression 
cr
or normal 
consolidation

Swelling cc

Cc – Compression index
Cr – Recompression index
Result of consolidation test
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Tutorial
1. A Normally consolidated clay layer 2m thick is sandwiched between 
two sand layers. The average overburden stress at the middle of clay 
layer can be taken as 160kN/m2. Due to construction of a structure 
there is an increase in effective vertical stress of 40 kN/m2 at the 
middle of clay layer. The liquid limit of clay layer is 60% and the initial 
void ratio is 0.9. Estimate the primary settlement (May 2011). 
2. Determine the total settlement of foundation 

Adopt distribution of stress as per 2V to 1H rule. Neglect the secondary 
consolidation settlement. 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Consolidation settlement
Other equation to determine the settlement of foundation is  
ΔH = m v ΔσH

mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility from consolidation test
p y
∆σ = increase of pressure in middle of clay layer
H = thickness of clay layer

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Settlement of foundation in cohesionless soil

Settlement per unit pressure in m 
per kg/cm2. 
Settlement is divided by water 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar table correction factor, W’.

Settlement of foundation in cohesionless soil
Net safe settlement pressure, qnp given by Teng equation (1962)     
2
⎛ B + 0.3 ⎞
q np = 1.4(N − 3) ⎜ ⎟ wγ R d s
⎝ 2B ⎠
N = SPT number
N = SPT number
B = Width of footing (m)
b
Wγ = Water table correction factor =  0.5 + 0.5 ≤ 1
B
0.2D f
Rd = Depth correction factor = 1+              ≤ 1.2
s = Tolerable settlement, mm  B
b= Depth of water table below base of footing
b= Depth of water table below base of footing
• Allowable soil pressure, qna is the least of net safe bearing 
capacity, qns and net safe settlement pressure, qnp .
• In design of shallow foundations on cohesion less soil net safe 
bearing capacity, qns is large and allowable soil pressure, qna will 
be due to net safe settlement pressure , q
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
np.

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Tutorial
• A square footing is required to carry a net load of 1200 kN. Determine 
the size of footing if the depth of footing is 2m and the tolerable 
settlement is 40 mm. The soil is sandy with N = 12. Take a factor of 
safety of 3 Water table is deep Use Teng’s equation.
safety of 3. Water table is deep. Use Teng’s equation

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Settlement of foundation from plate load test
Stress
Settlemeent

Test set up for plate load test

Test set up for plate load test S
Stess vs settlement of plate
l f l
Ultimate bearing capacity of plate, qu (p) is obtained by the intersection 
of tangents drawn to stress, q and settlement, s diagram. 
If break is not well defined ultimate bearing capacity of plate, qu (p) is 
the stress corresponding to a settlement of one fifth of plate width.
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Settlement of foundation from plate load test
• Ultimate bearing capacity of foundation, qu (f) 
qu (f) = qu (p) in clayey soil
Bf
q u ( f ) = q u ( p) in sandy soil
y
Bp

• Settlement of footing is determined from plate load test from 
settlement of plate at same stress by following equations
Bf
Sf = Sp x          clay soil
Bp
2
Sf = Sp ⎡⎢ B f ( B p + 0.3) ⎤⎥ sandy soil
⎢⎣ B p ( B f + 0.3) ⎥⎦

Bp and Bf are width of plate and footing respectively in meters

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial
• The following results were obtained from a plate load test conducted
in a homogeneous sandy soil with a standard plate of size 0.3m X
0.3m at depth of 1.5m below the ground level. Determine the
allowable load which a footing of 1.5m X 1.5m can carry safely when
the footing is placed at same depth.
Stress vs Settlem ent
Stress, kPa
0 200 400 600
0

4
Settlement in mm

10

12

14

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Maximum, differential settlement, Angular distortion
Settlement of structure at center,
corner, light and heavy loaded
columns is determined.
No damage occurs to super
structure if it settles uniformly.
uniformly
Maximum
settlement
δ
• Settlements in excess of 150 mm cause troubles in utilities such
as water pipe lines, sewers and telephone lines and access from
streets.
• Large differential settlement of structure between different parts
damage the structure due to additional moments.
δ
• Relative rotation or angular distortion, β =           δ, differential 
L
settlement, L distance between columns
Allowable settlement depends on type of soil, type of foundation and
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
structural foundation system.

Allowable Maximum and Differential settlements, IS: 1904 ‐ 1978
Sand and Hard Clay Plastic clay
Maximum  Differential  Angular  Maximum  Differential  Angular 
Settlement settlement Distortion Settlement settlement Distortion
Isolated Foundation
Steel  50 mm 0.0033 L 1/300 50 mm 0.0033 L 1/300
structure
R.C.C  50 mm 0.0015 L 1/666 75 mm 0.0015 L 1/666
Structure
Raft Foundation
Steel  75 mm 0.0033 L 1/300 100 mm  0.0033 L 1/300
Structure
RCC
R.C.C  75 mm
75 mm 0 002 L
0.002 L 1/500 100 mm
100 mm 0 002 L
0.002 L 1/500
Structure
Higher allowable settlements in clay due to progressive settlements in clay
permit better strain adjustment in structural members.
Raft foundation bridges over soft patches of soil and differential settlements
are reduced. Permissible settlements for raft foundation are more compared
with isolated foundation Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Presumptive bearing capacity
Type of rock/Soil IS:1904 ‐ 1978
t/m2 kN/m2
I. Rocks
1. Hard Sound Rock 330 3240
2 Laminated Rock
2. Laminated Rock 165 1620
3. Residual Deposits of Shattered and broken Rocks 90 880
4. Soft Rock 45 440
II. Non‐Cohesive Soils
1. Compact gravel, Sand and gravel 45 440
2. Compact and dry coarse sand 45 440
3. Compact and dry medium sand  25 245
4. Fine Sand, Silt 15 150
5. Loose gravel or sand 25 245
6. Loose and dry fine sand 10 100
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Presumptive bearing capacity
Type of rock/Soil IS:1904 ‐ 1978
t/m2 kN/m2
III. Cohesive Soils
1. Hard or stiff clay, Soft shale 45 440
2. Medium Clay 25 245
3. Moist clay and sand clay mixtures 15 150
4. Soft clay 10 100
5. Very soft clay 5 50
6. Black cotton soil, peat, made up soils ‐ ‐

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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UNIT IV 
Pile Foundations

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Syllabus
• Types of piles
• Load carrying capacity of piles based on static pile
formula
• Dynamic pile formulae
• Pile load tests
• Load carrying capacity of pile groups in sands and
clays
• Settlement of pile groups

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Assignment VII
1. Write a brief note on dynamic pile formula and their limitations 
(May 2013). 
2. A Pile group consisting of 9 piles is arranged in 3 rows with 3 
p
piles in each row. Diameter of each pile is 40cm and spacing is 
p p g
1.2m c/c. Length of pile is 10m. The piles are driven completely 
in clayey soil having unconfined compressive strength of 
100kN/m2. Determine the capacity of pile group, if the piles are 
designed as frictional. Take α = 0.7 and FS= 2.5 (May 2013).
3. What are the uses of pile foundation? Explain the types of piles 
using different criteria
using different criteria.
4. How do you estimate the group efficiency for a group of 
piles? 
5. What is negative skin friction in piles? Explain. 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Necessity of Pile foundation
• Shallow foundations are normally used where the soil close to
the ground surface and up to the zone of influence possess
sufficient bearing strength to carry the superstructure load
without causing distress to the superstructure due to
settlement.
• If top soil is either loose or soft or of a swelling type the load
from the structure is to be transferred to deeper firm strata.
• The structural loads may be transferred to deeper firm strata by
means of piles.

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End bearing piles Frictional piles

Negative skin friction

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

End bearing and frictional piles

End bearing pile Frictional pile
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End bearing and frictional piles
• End bearing piles are used to transfer load through
water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum.
They carry heavy loads safely to hard strata and
settlements are less.
• Frictional piles transfer the loads to the surrounding
granular soil along their length by skin friction.
• Piles carry super imposed load through end bearing
and skin friction.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

End bearing and frictional piles

End bearing cum frictional pile
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Pile foundations
• Piles are long slender columns either driven, bored or cast‐
in‐situ.
• Driven piles are made of a variety of materials such as
– concrete, steel, timber
• Cast‐in‐situ piles are concrete piles.
• If the diameter of a bored‐cast‐in‐situ pile is greater than
about 0.75 m, it is referred as a drilled pier, caisson or
shaft.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Classification of Pile foundations
• Piles may be subjected to vertical compression,
tension, lateral or inclined loads.
• Piles are classified as short or longg based on L/d
/
ratio.
• Piles are constructed as vertical or inclined piles.
Inclined or batter piles are used to carry large
lateral loads.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Uses of piles

Uplift/tension
/anchor Piles

Compression Piles Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Piles subjected to lateral load

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Timber piles

Protecting shoe

Splicing
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Timber piles
• Materials: Timber piles are made of tree trunks with the
branches trimmed off. Such piles shall be of sound quality
and free of defects.
• Length of piles: 15 m or more. For larger lengths the ends
are spliced.
• Diameter of the piles at the butt end vary from 30 to 40 cm
and at tip end more than 15 cm.
• Life: Piles entirely submerged in water last long if marine
borers are not present. The life of piles subjected to
alternate wetting and drying is less. Piles shall be treated
with a wood preservative, usually creosote at 250 kg/m3 for
piles in fresh water and 350 kg/m3 in sea water.
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Timber piles
• Driving: Crushing of the fibers on the head (or brooming) is
controlled by using a driving cap, or ring around the butt
(top).
(top)
• Maximum design load per pile is less than 250 kN.
• Timber piles are less expensive in places where timber is
plentiful.
• After being driven to final depth, all pile heads, treated or
untreated,
t t d should
h ld beb sawed d square tot sound d undamaged
d d
wood to receive the pile cap.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Timber piles

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Concrete Piles
• Either precast or cast‐in‐situ piles.
• Precast concrete piles are cast and cured in a
casting yard and then transported to the site of
work for driving.
• Precast piles are made of uniform sections with
pointed tips. Solid section sides = 0.2m to 0.3m,
length 20m.
• Tapered piles are manufactured when greater
bearing resistance is required.
• Normally piles of square or octagonal sections are
manufactured. These shapes are easy to cast in
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
horizontal position.

Concrete Piles
• Necessary reinforcement is provided to take care of
handling stresses.
• Piles
Pil are also
l prestressed.
t d
• Maximum load on a prestressed concrete pile is
approximately 2000 kN and for precast piles 1000
kN. Optimum load range is 400 to 600 kN.
• Concrete piles are more or less permanent.
permanent
Presence of deleterious substances affects the life
of pile.

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Cast in place 
concrete piles

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Steel piles
• They are rolled H shapes or pipe piles of length 40m.
• Designed to withstand large impact stresses during
hard driving.
• Pipe piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes
which may be driven either open‐end or closed‐end.
• Pipe piles are often filled with concrete after driving.
• They carry heavy loads and common load is 1800 kN.
Optimum load range on steel piles is 400 to 1200kN
Optimum load range on steel piles is 400 to 1200kN. 
• Splicing is easy. Affected by corrosive action and need 
painting or concrete encasement. 

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Steel H piles
Before driving After driving

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Steel pipe piles

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Precast Driven piles
• Piles may be of timber, steel or precast concrete.
• They are driven either vertical or inclined.
• Piles are driven using a pile hammers as follows – Drop, single acting,
double acting and differential acting steam hammer,
hammer diesel,
diesel hydraulic
and vibratory hammers.
• Compaction piles (Large Displacement piles): Pile is driven into
granular soil displaces the surrounding soil equal to the volume of the
driven pile.
• Compacts the soil around the sides of pile.
• The displaced soil particles enter the soil spaces of the adjacent mass
which leads to densification of the mass.
• compaction of the soil mass around a pile increases its bearing
capacity.
• Non displacement piles do not compact the soil around the pile.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Compaction piles (Large Displacement piles)
¾ Compacts sandy soil

ϕ2 = ϕ1/2 + 20°

Decreases strength of clay soil which it gradually regains with time

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Precast Driven piles
• Pile is driven into saturated silty or cohesive soil will not densify the
soil around the pile because of its poor drainage qualities.
• Displaced soil particles cannot enter the void space unless the water
in the pores is pushed out.
out
• Stress developed in soil due to pile driving have to be borne by pore
water.
• Results in the development of pore water pressure and a
consequently decreases the bearing capacity of the soil.
• Immediate effect of pile driving is to decrease the bearing capacity of
soil.
il Remolded
R ld d soilil regains
i part off its
i lost
l S
Strength h due
d to the
h
reorientation of the disturbed particles with time (thixotrophy).

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Precast Driven piles
Advantages:
• Can be precasted to the required specifications, any size, length and
shape.
• Progress of the work is rapid.
rapid
• Pile driven in granular soil increases bearing capacity.
• Construction work is neat and clean,
• Supervision of work at the site is reduced
• Storage space required is very much less.
• Used in sites where a fear of meetingg gground water under p pressure
due to drill holes.
• Preferred for piles in wharf structures or jetties.

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Precast Driven piles
Disadvantages: Must be properly reinforced to with stand handling
stresses during transportation and driving.
• Requires heavy equipment for handling and driving.
• Method involves cutting off extra lengths or adding more lengths
thus increases the cost of project.
• They are not suitable in soils of poor drainage qualities due to
heaving of the soil or the lifting of the driven piles during the
driving of a new pile.
• Foundations of adjacent structures are likely to be affected due to 
the vibrations generated. 
h ib i d

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Driven cast in situ pile

Driving  Inserting 
Casing Reinforcement  Pouring 
Reinforcement Pouring Lifting of
Lifting of 
Cage Concrete  casing
through funnel

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Driven cast in situ pile
• Involves driving of a steel tube/casing to the required depth with the 
end closed by a detachable conical tip.
• Tube is next concreted and the shell is simultaneously withdrawn. 
This is uncased pile.
h d l
• In some cases the shell will not be withdrawn. This is a cased pile.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Bored Cast – in situ piles (Non displacement pile)
• Constructed by making holes in the ground to the required depth.
• Sides of the hole are supported or unsupported permanently or
temporarily by casing or drilling mud.
• Water in the bore hole softens the clay and loosens the sand. sand
Decreases shear strength and bearing capacity of pile.
• Fill the hole with concrete.
• Straight bored piles or piles with one or more bulbs at intervals may
be cast at the site. The latter type are called under‐reamed piles.
Advantages: Piles of any size and length are constructed, damage due to
driving and handling is eliminated, vibrations are avoided and
adjacent structures are safe. Suitable in soils of poor drainage
qualities.

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Bored Cast in situ piles
Disadvantages:
• Careful supervision and quality control of all the materials is
necessary for casting of piles.
• Sufficient storage space is necessary for construction materials used
in the construction.
• No advantage of increased bearing capacity due to compaction in
granular soil. ϕ decreases by 3°.
• Construction of these piles in holes with a heavy ground water flow
or artesian p
pressure is veryy difficult.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Methods to determine load carrying 
capacity of single vertical pile
9Static bearing capacity equations
9Dynamic methods
9Field pile load tests
9Use of SPT and CPT values

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Static capacity of single pile
¾ Bearing capacity of pile depends
• Type of pile, size and length of pile
• Type of soil, position of water table
• Method of installation
¾ Design of pile should be safe against shear failure and settlements 
within limits.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Static capacity of single pile
Ultimate load, Qu = Qb + Qf
Qb ,Base or point load = qbAb
qb = Ultimate bearing capacity of 
Ulti t b i it f
the pile at base
Ab = bearing area of base of pile
Qf = friction load or skin load = fsAs
fs = unit skin friction
As = Total surface area of pile 
embedded below ground 
surafce
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Static capacity of single pile
Cohesionless pile n
Net ultimate load capacity of pile,  Qu = q0 N q Ab + ∑ q k tan δAs
i =1

qo = effective overburden pressure at the base level of the pile
Nq = bearing capacity factor
q = average effective overburden pressure over the embedded depth of 
the pile
k = average lateral earth pressure coefficient
δ = angle of wall friction Pile  δ Values of k
material Low Dr High Dr
n = no. of layers
Steell 20° 0.5 1.0
Concrete 3ϕ/4 1.0 2.0
wood 2ϕ/3 1.5 4.0

Driven piles

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar Variation of Nq with ϕ

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Critical depth
• qb and fs increases with depth up to critical depth, Lc given as 
follows

• Maximum skin friction, fs < 110 kN/m2

• Maximum base resistance qb is limited to 11000 kN/m2

• End bearing and frictional resistance of bored piles is less than 
that of driven pile
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Static capacity of single pile
Cohesive soils

Net ultimate load capacity of pile
Qu= cb Nc Ab +  α c As
cb = undrained shear strength of clay at the base level
Nc = Bearing capacity factor = 9
cu = Average undrained shear strength of clay along the shaft

α = adhesion factor
Qu
Allowable or working load, Qa =       
FS
FS = 2.5
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Variation of α with cu
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Load transfer mechanism

Vertical movement of the pile required to mobilize full

end resistance is much greater than that required to
mobilize full skin friction
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Load transfer mechanism
• Bored cast‐in‐situ piles

Settlement of pile for full frictional load = 0.5 to 1 % of d

Settlement of pile for full base load = 10 to 20 % of d

• Failure load is the load which causes a settlement equal to 10

percent of the pile diameter.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

General shear
General shear 
Well defined  
failure
Fails by buckling

Punching shear 
No well 
defined  failure

Only frictional resistance
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Tutorial
• A 300 mm wide square in section concrete pile of 18 mts long is 
driven in a deep deposit of uniform clay. Laboratory unconfined 
compression tests on undisturbed samples gives an average value 
of 63 kN/m2. Calculate ultimate load capacity of pile. α = 0.75 (Dec 
2012). 
• Bored piles of 300mm are installed in a two layered cohesive soil. 
The top layer has a thickness of 6m and the bottom one is of 
considerable depth. The cohesion values of top layer and bottom 
layer are 50kN/m2 and100kN/m2 respectively. Determine the 
length of the pile required to carry a safe load of 500kN. Assume a 
g p q y
F.S. of 3. 
• A R.C.C. pile of diameter 40cm and 8m long is driven into coarse 
sand with unit weight of 17kN/m3 and angle of internal friction of 
300. What is the allowable load on the pile? For φ=300, Nq=16 and 
Nγ=14.Take K=1.0 and factor of safety of 3.0. 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pile group
• Rarely structures are founded on a single pile.
• Minimum three piles are used under a column or foundation to avoid
problems of misalignment and eccentricity.
• Piles
l connected d at the
h top by
b a concrete cap act as a unit. Cap may be
b
above (free standing), at or below the ground level.
• Spacing between the piles in a group depend on
– overlapping of stresses between adjacent piles.
– cost of foundation
– efficiency of the pile group

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Overlapping of stresses between piles

Group of Piles with 
l
larger spacing 
i
Cost of pile cap is more
Single Pile Group of piles closely spaced in
Soil will fail or pile group settles 
excessively

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Arrangement of piles in a group
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Pile group efficiency
• Ultimate load of the group is generally different from the sum of the
ultimate loads of individual piles Qu.

Efficiency
ff off pile
l group =

ultimate load bearing capacity of the group Q gu

ultimate loads of individual pile Qu

• Group efficiency will depend on type of soil,

soil method of installation
and spacing of piles

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pile group capacity in sand and gravel
• Driven Piles : Soil around the piles to a radius of at least three times
the pile diameter is compacted if the piles are driven at a close
spacing
• Driven piles act as pier foundation and the efficiency of group > 1.
• If spacing increases to 5 to 6 times diameter, Eg < 1
• For all practical purpose,
• Bored piles do not compact the soil around the pile and capacity of
pile group,

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Pile group capacity in cohesive soil
• Piles driven in soft and sensitive clay soils undergo considerable
remolding. Soil between piles heave and there is no compaction.
• In clay soil bored piles are more preferred than driven piles.
• If driven piles are used spacing should be large,
large piles should be driven
from center to edges and driving shall be slow to minimize
development of pore water.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pile group capacity in cohesive soil
• Experimental results indicate that a pile group installed in cohesive
soil may fail in any one of the following ways:
– Fail as a block (block failure)
– Individual pile failure
• Block failure: When piles are spaced at closer interval i.e. 2d to 3d soil
between the piles move downward with piles.
• For wider spacing of piles they fail individually.
• Capacity of pile group is least of block and individual pile actions

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Pile group capacity in cohesive soil
Capacity considering block failure:
Q gu=cNcAg + Pg L c
c = Cohesion below pile group
Nc = 9
Ag = Area of soil block circumscribing 
piles 
Pg = Perimeter of block
L = Length of pile
c = Average cohesion around pile

C
Capacity based on individual pile failure:
i b d i di id l il f il

n = number of piles
Qu = Capacity of single pile
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Block failure of a pile group in clay soil

Tutorial on pile groups in clay
• A group of 9 piles arranged in square pattern are driven into a clay
deposit whose properties are φ =0, Cu =70 kN/m2 and α=0.65. The
piles are 300mm in diameter, 8m long and spaced at 1.2m center to
center. Calculate the capacity
p y of the ggroup.
p

• A Pile group consisting of 9 piles is arranged in 3 rows with 3 piles in

each row. Diameter of each pile is 40cm and spacing is 1.2m c/c.
Length of pile is 10m. The piles are driven completely in clayey soil
having unconfined compressive strength of 100kN/m2. Determine the
capacity of pile group, frictional Take α =
group if the piles are designed as frictional.
0.7 and FS= 2.5 (May 2013).

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Spacing between piles
Frictional piles ‐
• Driven piles and loose sand: Driven piles compact loose sand. Piles
are driven at closer interval.
• Driven piles in saturated silt or clay soil:
– Driven
Di piles
il ini clay
l can not compact the h soilil between
b piles.
il
– Soil between the piles may move upwards and lift the pile cap.
– Greater spacing is required between these piles.
• Bored piles: Soil is not stressed and smaller spacing is permitted

Straight uniform diameter piles S = 2 to 6d

Friction piles Min. S = 3d
End bearing piles Min. S = 2.5 d 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pile driving and dynamic pile formulas

Single acting hammer – In a single 
Drop hammer – A drop hammer is lifted up by
rope and dropped freely on the pile head. During acting hammer, a hammer is lifted up 
the driving operation, a cap is fixed to the top of by compressed air and dropped 
the pile and a cushion is provided in between the freely. This is suitable for stiff to hard 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
pile and the cap. clay.

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Pile driving and dynamic pile formulas

Di l hammer
Diesel h – A diesel
di l hammer
h
Double acting hammer – In a double‐acting consists of a ram and a fuel injection
hammer, air pressure is used to raise the system. In this method, the ram is first
hammer. When hammer is raised to the raised manually and the fuel is
required height, air pressure is applied to the injected near the anvil. Impact of
other side of the piston and the hammer is hammer results in explosion. This is
pushed downward under pressure. This is suitable for all soils except for soft
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
suitable for granular soil. clays.

Pile driving and dynamic pile formulas

Vibratory hammer – In this

method, pile is driven by applying
vibration. A vibratory pile driver is
suitable only for sand and gravel
soils.

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Dynamic pile formulas
• A pile which meets greater resistance
during driving is capable of carrying a
greater load.
• Number of dynamic formulae have been
developed which equate pile capacity in
terms of driving energy.
Driving energy = Pile capacity

wh
Wh = Qus ⇒ Qu =
s

W ‐ weight of the hammer

h – drop of hammer
s ‐ pile penetration under
one hammer blow
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Dynamic pile formulas ‐ Hiley Formula

• Above equation is applicable for 100% efficiency.
• Driving of pile involves many losses
Energy used = Energy input ‐ Energy losses
Qus = ηhWh – E1 – E2

ηh = Efficiency of the hammer varies from 75 to 100% 
= 1.0 for drop and Diesel hammer, 
= 0.75 to 0.85 for single hammer
= 0.85 double acting hammer

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Dynamic pile formulas ‐ Hiley Formula

E1 = elastic compressions of the pile cap, pile material and the soil 

surrounding the pile
c1 = Elastic compression of pile cap varies from 0.04 to 0.5
Elastic compression of pile cap varies from 0.04 to 0.5
Precast concrete pile with packing inside cap, c1 = 0.12‐0.50
Timber pile without cap, c1 = 0.05‐0.20
Steel H‐pile, c1 = 0.04 – 0.16
c2 = Elastic compression of the pile = 
L = length of the pile, A = Area of pile, E = Young's modulus of pile 
material
c3 = Elastic compression of the soil surrounding the pile 
= 0 for hard soil, 
= 0.2 for soils

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Dynamic pile formulas ‐ Hiley Formula

Energy loss, E2 due to the interaction of the pile‐hammer system 

(impact of two bodies).

WP = Weight of pile with other accessories 
Cr = coefficient of restitution varies from 0 to 0.55
= 0 deteriorated condition of the head of pile or cap,
= 0.25 wood pile
0 25 wood pile
= 0.32 wood cushion on steel pile
= 0.4 cast iron hammer on concrete pile without cap
= 0.55 iron hammer on steel pipe without cushion
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Dynamic pile formulas –
Modified ENR Formula

• Allowable load Qa is obtained by dividing Qu by a suitable factor of 

safety.
• Pile resting on rock use W
g P/
/2 instead of W in above equation.
q

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Dynamic pile formulas 
Engineering News Record formula (1886)
Substituting in Modified ENR formula
ηh = 1, Cr = 1 Factor of safety, FS = 6
y
Allowable load in kg , 
W = weight of hammer, kg
h = height of fall of hammer, cm
s = final penetration in cm per blow or set 
s  final penetration in cm per blow or set
average penetration per blow for the last 5 blows of a drop hammer or 
20 blows of a steam hammer.
C = 2.5 cm drop hammer, 0.25 cm single and double acting hammer
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Tutorial
• A pre‐cast concrete pile is driven with a 30 kN single acting
steam hammer with a free fall of 1.5 m. The penetration
recorded in the last 5 blows was 20 mm. Estimate the allowable
load on the pile using ENR formula. (June 2010 Set No.4)

• A reinforced concrete pile weighing 30 kN is driven by a drop

hammer weighing 30 kN with an effective fall of 0.9 m. The
average penetration per blow is 15 mm. The total temporary
elastic compression of the pile, pile cap and soil may be taken as
18 mm.
mm The coefficient of restitution is 0.36. 0 36 What is the
allowable load on the pile with a factor of safety of 2? Use
Hiley's formula. (June 2010 Set No.4)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Dynamic pile formulas

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Limitations of dynamic formulae
• ENR formula gives pile loads as low as 44 % of the actual loads. Better
load carrying capacity is obtained by taking
C = 1 cm, steel pipe piles,
C = 1.5
1 5 cm,
cm precast concrete piles
• Hiley's formula does not give consistent results, computed load
carrying capacity values are either high or low.
• Dynamic pile formula have limited value because the dynamic
resistance of soil does not represent the static resistance.
• Pile driven into a saturated loose fine sand and silt have possibility to
liquefy which reduces the load carrying capacity of the pile.
• In saturated cohesive soil pile driving decreases the strength
suddenly.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Negative skin friction
When a fill starts consolidating under its own overburden pressure, it
develops a drag on the surface of the pile. This drag on the surface of
the pile is called negative friction.

Single Pile Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar Group of Piles

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Under reamed piles
Piles constructed with a bell or pedestal 
at its base is called under reamed pile.

Under reamer Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Settlement of pile group

Single Pile Pile group
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Settlement of pile group in clay
End bearing Pile • Piles are point bearing piles.
• Load in this case is assumed to act
at the level of the firm stratum by a
fictitious footing and spreads out at
a 2V : 1H slope.
• Consolidation settlement =

where cc = compression index 
Q =Slope of e versus log p plot. 
qg = g = 0.009 (LL – 10), LL = Liquid limit (%) 
Ag
eo = in situ void ratio at the middle of 
in situ void ratio at the middle of
clay stratum, 
H = Clay Strata thickness
H po = effective overburden pressure at
mid height of clay layer.
∆p = average increase in pressure at middle of clay layer from the 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
foundation loads in layer H.

Settlement of pile group in clay
Frictional Pile •Increase of stress, ∆p
beneath a pile group
subjected to a vertical load,
Q g is to be evaluated.
• In frictional piles fictitious
Qg
footing is assumed at a
qg = depth 2L/3 from the surface
Ag
and load is distributed over
the area of group. Load
spreads at 2V:1H.
• Equation to estimate the
consolidation settlement is
H same as given in previous
slide.
Homogenous clay
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Rock

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Settlement of pile group in clay
• Pile passes through a very 
weak layer of depth L1 and 
the lower portion of length L2
is embedded in a strong layer. 

• The load Q g is assumed to 
act at a depth equal to 2L2 /3 
below the surface of the 
strong layer and spreads at    
l d d
2 : 1 slope. 
H

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tutorial
A group of friction piles of 300 mm diameter and 12 m long is subjected
to a net load of 2000 kN. Pile group consists of 9 piles arranged in
square with c/c spacing of 1.1 m. The soil properties are as follows: 0
to 3m, γ = 16 kN/m3; 3m to 5m, γ = 18 kN/m3; 5m to 18m, γsat = 18.5
kN/m3, Cc = 0.25,
0 25 eo = 0.75; 28m γsat= 19 kN/m3, Cc = 0.20,
0 75; 18m to 28m, 0 20 eo =
0.65. Estimate the consolidation settlement (June 2010).

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Settlement of pile group in sand
• Elastic settlement of pile group in sand and gravels in mm, Meyerhof, 

1976.

q = Load intensity = Q g /Ag
Bg = Width of pile group
I = Influence factor =
D = length of pile 
N C
N = Corrected SPT N –
t d SPT N value within seat of settlement (approximately 
l ithi t f ttl t( i t l
equal to Bg below the tip)

Settlement of group, 

qc average cone penetration resistance within seat of settlement
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Settlement of pile group in sand
• Settlement of a group and a single pile at corresponding working
loads is expressed as

Fg = Group settlement factor

Sg = Settlement of group
S = Settlement of single pile
• Settlement of a single pile is determined from pile load test.
• Settlement of group is very large as the pressure bulb of the group is
much deeper than a single pile.

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Settlement of pile group in sand

Skempton et al., (1953)
Curves apply to driven or bored piles. 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Settlement of pile group in sand
• Curve is based on
tests on group of piles
embedded in medium
dense sand
• Groups
G i looser
in l or
denser deposits will
have different behavior.

Vesic, 1967

d, diameter of pile, B ‐ distance between the center to center of the

outer piles in the group
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Tutorial
The pile load test on a 40 cm diameter concrete pile in a deposit of sand
indicates a settlement of 4 mm under a load of 400 kN. Estimate the
settlement of a 4 x 4 pile group. The piles are driven at a spacing of
100 cm. The total load on the group is 6400 kN.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pile load test – Reliable method to determine the allowable load on a pile
• Very useful in cohesion less soil and data should be used with caution in cohesive 
soil due to development of pore water pressures.

IS 2911 Part 
IV 1979

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Pile load test – Conducted to determine compression, tension and lateral

load capacity of pile. Initial test is conducted on a test pile and routine test on a
working pile.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pile load test

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Pile load test (IS 2911 Part IV – 1979)
• Most reliable method of determining the capacity of pile.
• Two anchor piles are provided with anchor girder or reaction
girder at top.
• Test
T t pile
il is
i installed
i t ll d between
b t t anchor
two h pilesil
• Test pile should be at least 3B or 2.5 m from anchor pile.
• Load is applied through hydraulic jack.
• Pile movements are measured with reference to a fixed
reference mark.
• Test
T t is
i conducted
d t d after
ft 3 days
d off installation
i t ll ti in i sandy
d soils
il and
da
period of one month in silt and soft clays.
• Load is applied in equal increment of about 20% of allowable
load.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pile load test
• Settlement should be recorded by three dial gauges.
• Under each load increment settlement is observed at 0.5, 1, 2,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 60 min.
• Each load is maintained till rate of movement of p pile top
p is
< 0.1 mm per hour in sandy soils
< 0.02 mm per hour in clay soil
or a maximum of two hours
• Loading is continued till twice the safe load is reached or load at
p
which settlement reaches a specified value.
• Loading is continued till net settlement is 20 mm or gross
settlement is 25 mm
• Load is removed in the same decrements at 1 hour intervals
and final rebound is recorded after 24 hours after entire load is
removed. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Pile load test
Thick curve is for gross 
settlement (Inelastic + 
Elastic)
Chain dotted curve is for 
net settlement (Inelastic)

Net settlement, Sn = St – Se
St = Total settlement; Se = Elastic rebound

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pile load test
• Safe load of single pile is the 
least of the following: 
– half the load at which total 
settlement is 10% pile 
diameter for uniform piles, 
7.5% of bulb diameter for 
under reamed pile.
or
– Two‐thirds the final load at 
which total settlement is 12 
mm.
• Safe load is one – half to two –
thirds of load which gives net 
settlement of  6 mm.
Allowable load for a group of piles is the least of final load at which total 
settlement attains a value of 25mm and two‐thirds final load at which 
the settlement is 40 mm.     Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Load
0 1000 2000 3000
0

1
Settlement in mm

3 Loading
Unloading
4 Net Settlement
5

6
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
7

Unit V
Unit V

Well Foundations

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ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. What are different types of caisson? Write a brief note on
Pneumatic Caisson with a neat sketch.
2. Discuss the procedure of well sinking.
3 Write
3. W i a brief
b i f note on parts off wellll foundation
f d i and d its
i shapes
h
4. Explain the methods adopted for correcting Tilts and Shifts of
wells.
5. What are the forces acting on well foundations ?
6. Explain the procedure to determine the lateral load carrying
capacity of well foundation for light and heavy loads.
loads

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Syllabus
• Types of well foundation
• Different shapes of well foundation
• Components of well foundations
• Sinking of wells
• Tilts and shifts

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Caissons or well foundations

Pier

Well 
foundation

Cofferdam

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Caissons or well foundations

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Bridge

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Bridge

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Bridge

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Bridge

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Bridge

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Bridge

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Bridge

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Cofferdam
Cofferdam is defined as a temporary structure constructed to remove
water and/ or soil from enclosed area and make it possible to carry on
the construction work under reasonably dry condition.
Types of cofferdam

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Earth embankment cofferdam  Single sheet pile wall cofferdam

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Cofferdam

Water 
body

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Cofferdam

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Caisson
• Caisson is derived from a French word, Caisse, 
meaning a hollow box.
• A type of foundation for bridge piers and 
yp g p
abutments, concrete dam or for repair of ships.
• It is built above the ground level and sunk into 
the hard strata to the required depth as a single 
unit. 
• Construction cost is large and restricted to major 
foundation works

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Caissons
• Caissons are advantageous compared with pile 
foundations under following conditions
– Soil contains large boulders which obstruct the 
Soil contains large boulders which obstruct the
penetration of piles.
– Massive substructure required to extend below river 
bed to resist destructive forces due to scour and 
floating objects.
– Large magnitudes of lateral forces are expected.  
Large magnitudes of lateral forces are expected

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Types of Caisson
• Based on material: Timber, steel and concrete 
are materials used for construction of caisson.
• Timber has limited use compared with steel and 
reinforced Concrete.

Open caisson (Well foundation) – Open at top and 
bottom
Pneumatic caisson ‐ Closed at top and open at 
bottom
Floating caisson or Box caissons ‐ Open at top but 
closed at bottom
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Open Caisson
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Open caisson

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Open caisson
• Caisson penetration is done
in dry or from dewatered
construction area or by
forming a sand Island.
• Island should be sufficient to
provide adequate working
space around the caisson
• Open caisson is a hollow
chamber open at top and
bottom
• Bottom of the caisson has a
steel cutting edge to assist in
sinking. Clam shell excavator connected to 
crane
• Sinking into place by
removing soil from inside
the shaft until a bearing
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
stratum is reached.

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Caisson sinking

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Open caisson
• In case it is not possible to sink the caisson in dry, it is 
constructed in slipways or ships and floated to its final 
position. 
• In case of soft clays and ground does not contain large 
obstructions caissons are sunk by its own weight when the 
soil is excavated by grab buckets from dredging well. 
• As sinking progresses, additional lifts of caisson steining are 
constructed.
• When hard material is encountered under water blasting is 
necessary.
• Sinking operation is stopped during the period of 
concreting for the casting lift and curing.
• To facilitate sinking, the exterior surface of caisson is 
applied with a film of grease or water jets used.   
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Open caisson
• The cutting shoe is generally 
wider than caisson to reduce 
the friction.
• When the caisson reaches 
final depth bottom is plugged
final depth, bottom is plugged 
with concrete seal by tremie
pipe (concrete is placed below 
water with a pipe).
• Thickness of concrete seal 
may range from 1.5 to 4.5 m
• Caisson is sink vertically.
y
• Incase it is inclined, corrective 
measures are adopted. 
• Feasible to extend to large 
depths and cost of 
construction is less
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Disadvantages of Open Caissons
• Bottom of caisson can not be 
Pipe is always 
below the concrete inspected and thoroughly 
cleaned.

• Concrete seal is placed in water 
and may not be satisfactory.

• Divers are used for excavation.
Tremie pipe
• Obstructions of boulders and 
logs slow down the work 

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Pneumatic caisson
• If the soil enclosed in an open caisson
can not be excavated satisfactorily
through its shaft pneumatic caisson is
required. It is also necessary when
there is great influx of water.
• It is an inverted box with bottom
open.
• Similar to open caisson with few
exceptions below:
Working Chamber
• It has a air tight steel working 
chamber of 3m height at bottom. 
• Air pressure in the Chamber is raised 
above atmospheric and is kept at a 
certain specified value to prevent 
entry of water and soil into it.
• The pressure of compressed air varies 
with the depth at which excavation is 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
proceeding at any time.

Pneumatic caisson
• Walls of the chamber should be
thick and leaf proof.
• Outside surface is made smooth
to reduce friction.
• Cutting edge is provided at
b tt
bottom t
to f ilit t
facilitate
penetration/sinking process.
• The compressed air pressure
should be sufficient to balance full
hydrostatic pressure outside so
that the excavation is done in dry.
• This air pressure is limited to 400
kN/sq.m i.e. the maximum depth
of water through which pnuematic
caission is sunk is 40m. If pressure
exceeds 40m it causes Caisson
Sickness.
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Pneumatic caisson
Air Shaft: 
• Steel Vertical passage which 
connects working chamber and air 
lock at top. It is used for transport 
of excavated material to ground 
surface and access for workmen to 
the chamber. 
• In large caissons two separate 
shafts are provided for men and 
material.
• Shafts are made of steel with joints 
of tube made of leak proof with
of tube made of leak proof with 
rubber gaskets.
• Air shaft is extended to keep the air 
lock above water level as the 
caisson sinks and during sinking 
process working chamber is closed 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
by a gate at lower end of shaft.

Pneumatic caisson
Air lock:
• It is a steel chamber providing an air 
lock to permit the workman and 
materials to go in or to come out of 
caisson without releasing the air
caisson without releasing the air 
pressure in caisson.
• Provided above water level.
• Air lock has two doors one into the 
shaft and other to the outside 
atmosphere. 
• When a workman enters the airlock 
Wh k t th i l k
through the outside door the pressure 
in the chamber is kept at atmospheric 
value. 

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Pneumatic caisson
• Pressure in air lock is gradually raised till 
it becomes equal to that in the working 
chamber, and the workman allowed to 
enter the airshaft through the door to it, 
and to descend into the working
and to descend into the working 
chamber.
• Procedure is reversed when work men 
has to come out. 
• However, the pressure is decreased 
much slowly to prevent caisson disease. 
• Minimum half‐an‐hour is necessary for 
Minimum half‐an‐hour is necessary for
the pressure to be reduced from 300 
kN/m2 to atmospheric pressure.
• To prevent the air in the working 
chamber to become stale, fresh air is 
circulated by opening valve in air lock.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pneumatic caisson
• Workers should not be kept
more than two hours in
working chamber.
• Pressure in the working
chamber
h b i applied
is li d by
b
compressed air by
attaching pipe to the
compressor.
• The valve in the blow out
pipe is opened for blowing
of soil in ggranular soils.
• After reaching the designed
depth steel chamber is
filled with concrete and the
shaft with lean mix.
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Compressor

Material 
Shaft

Ladder for 
Labour
W ki
Working 
Chamber

Pneumatic Caisson
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Pneumatic Caisson
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Advantages of Pneumatic caisson
• Better control on work since all work is done in dry 
condition.
• Visual inspection of bottom of caisson helps to remove 
boulders or logs.
g
• Concrete placed in the dry condition attains better 
quality.
• Pneumatic caisson is constructed to plumb than the 
other types of caisson.
• Soil is inspected, samples taken and bearing capacity is 
determined reliably
determined reliably.
• Water table is not lowered and hence no settlement of 
adjoining structures.
• Large depth of foundation is feasible through difficult 
strata.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Disadvantages of Pneumatic caisson
• Pneumatic Caissons is highly expensive used only 
when other types of caissons are not feasible.
• Depth of penetration is limited to 30 m to 40 m 
below water table.
• Labor working under compressed air pressure 
will have inconvenience and subjected to caisson 
sickness.
• Extreme care is required and any slackness 
Extreme care is required and any slackness
results in accident.

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Floating caisson or Box Caisson
• Prefabricated box (has sides
and bottom) constructed on
land and transported to the
site and floated to the place
where they are to be installed.
• Preferred if the bearing
capacity at bed level is high.
• They are sunk at the site by
filling then with sand, ballast,
water or concrete to a levelled
b i
bearing surface
f t become
to b a
part of permanent works, such
as foundation for bridge pier.
• Caisson are installed with
pinpoint accuracy with
anchoring system and GPSDr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
survey

Floating or box caisson
• Unlike open and Pneumatic 
Caissons, a floating caisson 
does not penetrate the soil.
• They rest on hard and level 
surface.
• Load‐carrying capacity 
depends solely on the 
resistance at the base as 
there is no frictional 
resistance at the sides.
• A concrete cap is cast on its 
top to receive the loads 
from the superstructure. 
• To prevent scour, rip rap is 
placed around the base. Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Floating caisson or Box Caisson
• Floating caissons can be RCC or steel of 
circular, square, rectangular or elliptical shape.
i l t l lli ti l h

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Stability aspect of floating caisson

W = Weight of caisson acts through center of gravity,G
U = Buoyancy force acts through center of gravity of displaced water, B
For equilibrium weight of caisson must be equal to buoyancy force. 

If the caisson is tilted through a small angle θ, the centre of gravity of
the body, G, remains at the same location. while the centre of 
buoyancy, B, changes its positionDr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

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Stability of floating Caisson
• Point of intersection of the vertical line passing 
through B and the centre line of the caisson is 
known as the metacentre, M.
• Caisson would be stable if the metacentre M is 
above G.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Advantages of floating caisson
• Floating caissons are pre cast structures and good 
quality is maintained.
• Installation is quick and convenient.
• Less expensive than other types; they are also 
Less expensive than other types; they are also
transported at a low cost by floating.
Disadvantgaes
• Foundation bed is to be levelled before installing the 
caisson.
• Base of the caisson must be protected against scour.
B f th i tb t t d i t
• Load carrying capacity is smaller than that of other 
types of comparable size.
• suitable only if a good supporting stratum is available at 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
shallow elevation

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Design aspects of caisson ‐ Shape
• Caissons are constructed straight with vertical
sides. Following are different shapes of caisson

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Design aspects of caisson ‐ Loads
Permanent loads: Caissons sunk will be subjected 
vertical and horizontal loads.
• Vertical loads are due to loads from super 
structure, self weight of caisson minus buoyancy 
force at low water level.
• Caisson will be subjected to horizontal load due to 
earth pressure, water pressure, and wind pressure, 
earthquake forces wave Pressure Tractive forces 
earthquake forces, wave Pressure, Tractive forces
from traffic, ice pressure and forces of water flow.

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Design aspects of caisson – Allowable bearing 
pressure
• Net allowable bearing pressure, qna, for a Caisson in 
cohesionless soil is obtained as 
0.22N2BRγ + 0.67(100 + N
qna = 0.22N + 0.67(100 + N2) D
) Df ∙ Rq
Rq
B = Smaller dimension of the Caisson, m
Df = Depth of Foundation below scour level, m
N = Standard penetration number (corrected)
Rγ and Rq = Correction Factors for Water Table
• In clay, qult= c Nc
• Allowable bearing pressure of Caissons resting on Rock 
should not exceed that for the concrete seal and limited to 
3,500 kN/m2.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Design aspects of Caisson – Skin friction and sinking 
effort
• Skin Friction is the shearing resistance between 
the soil and the exterior surface of the Caisson.
• To facilitate the sinking caissons is designed to 
To facilitate the sinking caissons is designed to
have sufficient weight in each lift to overcome 
skin friction.
• If self weight is not adequate, additional ballast, 
known as ‘Sinking Effort’ is necessary to sink the 
Caisson. Use of water jets on the sides and 
injection of bentonite solution on to the exterior 
of the well reduces skin friction.
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Design aspects of Caisson – Skin friction and 
sinking effort

Self weight of well = Force due to skin friction
π
4
(D e
2 2
)
− Di Dγ c = fπDe D

Where De and Di = External and internal diameter

D = Depth of penetration, 
γc = Unit weight of caisson material
f = Unit skin friction Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Design aspects of Caisson – Concrete Seal
• Thick concrete layer is placed at bottom to plug.
• Concrete seal serves to seal off the inflow of water. It 
forms a permanent base.
• Seal is designed as a thick plate subjected to uniform 
Seal is designed as a thick plate subjected to uniform
pressure.
• Thickness of the concrete seal, t
Circular

R t
Rectangular
l
Di = Internal diameter
Li, Bi = Internal length and breadth of caisson, α = Bi/Li
q = net upward pressure on the seal = (γwH – γct)
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
σc = allowable flexural stress for concrete (≤ 3,500 kN/m2)

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Stability against buoyancy
Total downward force ≥ Buoyancy Force
Total downward force = Weight of caisson + 
Weight of seal ‐ Skin friction force
Force of buoyancy = γwH x submerged area of 
caisson
If necessary thickness of concrete seal is to be
If necessary thickness of concrete seal is to be 
increased.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Design of aspects Caisson – Cutting edge
• Lower ends of the caisson are 
provided with cutting edge with 
bevel inside. Thickness reduces 
from 100 mm to 450 mm at the 
bottom.
• Inside bevel is usually made two 
vertical to one horizontal.
• Cutting edge protects the walls of 
the caisson  against impact and 
obstacles encountered during 
penetration.
• Cutting edge is usually made of 
angles and plates of structural steel 
or reinforced concrete and steel.
• Sharp edges are easily damaged, 
blunt edges are more commonly 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
used.

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Tutorial
• Determine the cross‐sectional dimensions of a 
cylindrical open caisson to be sunk through 33 m 
of sand and water to bed rock if the allowable
of sand and water to bed rock if the allowable 
bearing pressure is 1800 kN/m2. The caisson has 
to support a load of 55 MN from the 
superstructure. Test the feasibility of sinking if the 
skin friction is 30 kN/m2. Also calculate the 
necessary thickness of the seal (Assume Di = 
necessary thickness of the seal. (Assume D
De/2)

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Well Foundations
Water Surface,  H.F.L
V

Bed of river
H
Scour depth, 
d

Scour Level

Grip 
length, Df

Hard Strata

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Introduction
• Deep foundations originated in India and used from hundreds of
years below water level for monuments and bridges.
• Taj Mahal at Agra has got well foundation.
p
• Construction and operation is similar to open
p caisson. Theyy are
monolithic and massive foundations.
• Well foundations are constructed on dry bed or on artificial island.
• When depth of water is greater than 5m to 6m and velocity of flow
is large, well foundations are fabricated on river bank and floated to
the final position and grounded.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Parts of well foundations

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Parts of well foundations
• Angle iron with sharp and strong
cutting edge facilitates sinking of
well.
• Walls of well are known as
steining. This is constructed of
brick or stone masonary, PCC or
RCC. It forms a part of the
structure designed to carry
imposed loads. It should be heavy
enough to resist frictional
resistance during sinking.
Thi k
Thickness remains
i same through
th h
out the depth.
• Tapered portion made of RCC
above the cutting edge and below
steining is well curb. Designed to
carry stresses during sinking.Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Parts of well foundations
• After the well reaches final
position (firm stratum) a thick
layer of concrete is provided at
bottom known as bottom plug.
This serve as base of well
foundation. Meant to distribute
load over large area. Omitted
when well rests on hard strata.
• After reaching the desired depth
well is partly or completely filled
with sand. This sand fillingg serves
to distribute the load more
uniformly to the base of the well
and reduces the stresses in the
steining. Sand filling increases
the stress at bottom of well
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
foundation.

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Parts of well foundations
At top of well, top plug of PCC is
formed.
Well cap transfers the load from
pier /abutment to the steining of
well.
ll

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Advantages of well foundation
• Following are advantages of well foundation over piles
– effect of scour can be better withstood by well foundation
because of its large cross‐sectional area and rigidity.
– depth can be decided as sinking progresses since the nature of the
strata can be inspected.
– well foundation can better withstand large lateral loads and
moments.
– no danger of damage to adjacent structures since sinking of a well
does not cause any vibrations.

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Well sinking
1. Laying of well curb
• If river bed is dry 15 cm of
bed is excavated and cutting
edge and well curb are built
at the required position.
position

• When depth of water is about 5m a sand Island is made before placing

the curb.
• Size of the island should be large enough to accommodate the well
with adequate working space all round.
round

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Well sinking

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Well sinking

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Well sinking

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Well sinking
1. Laying of well curb
• In case depth of water is more than 5m, it is economical to build the
curb on the ground at river bank and float it to the site.
• Wooden sleepers are inserted below the cutting edge to distribute the
load uniformly.
uniformly
•Steel or wood shuttering is provided on external face and brick
masonry on inner face is erected above well curb.
• Reinforcement bars project 2m above well curb.
• Concreting of well curb is done in single operation and allowed to set
for one week.
• After this shuttering is stripped off and sleepers are removed.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Well sinking
2. Well Steining:
• Well steining is constructed followed by sinking of well curb.
• Steining is raised by about 1.5 m at a time and sinking is done after
allowing 24 hours of setting.
setting
• Steining is constructed vertically by straight edges of angle sections
butted with steining of earlier stages.
• After attaining a grip of about 6.0 m in ground, steining is raised by
about 3m at a time.
• Height of any lift is restricted such that the well does not loose
stability.

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Well sinking
3. Sinking process:
Sinking begins after casting curb and casting a lift of steining.
Following methods are adopted for sinking
• Excavation of material in well curb is done manually if the water
column
l i limited
is li i d to 1m.
1
• Spade is tied to a rope moving over a pulley is used for excavation
of soil if water column is more than 1m.
• With further increase of depth automatic grab buckets operated by
diesel or steam winches is used.
• To break hard material chisels are used explosives
p are used for
sinking through rock.
Grab 
Bucket

Spade

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Well sinking
• To overcome frictional resistance, sand
bags loading known as Kentledge is
applied. To further reduce the frictional
resistance jets of water are applied on
outer face.
face
• In some cases sinking is carried out by
dewatering. This results in sand blowing
and increases time and labor in
removing the sand. Applicable if the
well passes below clay stratum.
• To
T control
t l sandd blow
bl gunny bags
b and
d
grass bundles are placed around well.

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Measures to rectify tilts and shifts
Well should sink vertically and in correct position. This is not easy and
following precautions should be adopted.
ƒ Outer surface of well curb and steining should be regular and
smooth.
smooth
ƒOuter diameter of curb should be 4 to 8 cm larger than steining.
ƒCutting edge should be uniform thickness and sharpness.
ƒDredging should be uniformly carried out on all sides of well and in
both pockets of twin wells.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Measures for rectification of tilts and shifts 

Regulation of Excavation
– Higher side is
excavated more.

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Measures for rectification of tilts and shifts 
Eccentric loading –
Kentledge is placed
eccentric on a platform on
higher side.
FFor l
larger tilt
il l
larger
kentledge and eccentricity is
required.
Water jet on outer face
decreases friction and
rectifies tilt.
Excavation under cutting
edge if well sinking is
stopped by hard clay.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Measures for rectification of tilts and shifts 

Inserting a wooden
sleeper or a hook under
cutting edge on higher
side to prevent further
tilting.

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Measures for rectification of tilts and shifts 

Pull well towards higher side by steel rope around the well with vertical 
sleepers 
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Measures for rectification of tilts and shifts 

Well strutted on its tilted side to prevent further tilt

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Measures for rectification of tilts and shifts 

Pushing the well with a suitable arrangement through mechanical or

hydraulic jacks resting against vertically sunk well
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Tilts and Shifts
• Tilts and shifts should be carefully recorded during sinking of well.
• IS 3955: 1967 recommends that tilt should generally be limited to 1 
in 60.
• Shift should be restricted to 1% of depth sunk.
• If the above conditions are not satisfied a combination of methods 
discussed above are used for rectification

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Shapes of wells
• Each shape of well has its
merits and demerits
depending on the shape of
pier or abutment, ease of
sinking,g, tilt and shift,,
structural strength etc.
• Circular section is most
used. It is ideal for sinking.
It has low skin friction as it
has least surface area for a
ggiven cross section. Circular
well offers least resistance
against tilting.
• Square and rectangular
sections offer better lateral
stability.
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar Wells with multiple dredge holes

Shapes of wells
B B

4B 4B

Direction of flow of water
• If length of pier is large diameter of circular well required is large and is
uneconomical. It increases the obstruction to flow of water.
• In such case two or three independent circular, rectangular, twin‐
hexagonal, twin‐octogonal, or double‐D section is used to advantage.
Independent wells have tendency to tilt towards each other.
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Shapes of wells
• Single circular well is most commonly used as they have high
structural strength and convenient in sinking. For long piers they are
uneconomical and maximum diameter is limited to 9m.
• Double‐D wells are used to accommodate longg p piers and abutments
which are too long to accommodate on circular wells of 9m dia. The
bending stresses developed are large, square corners offer greater
resistance to sinking.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Design aspects of well foundation
• Grip length is the depth of bottom of well below scour level.
Sufficient depth below the scour level is required such that the
resistance from the sides is able to resist the lateral forces acting on
the well.
well
• Depth of foundation should be chosen considering grip length and
the bearing capacity of the soil.
• Maximum and minimum base pressures under worst loading
conditions should be within permissible limits.

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Scour depth
• Actual scour depth is ascertained by following two methods
– Actual sounding at or near the proposed site immediately after a
flood
– Theoretical
h l methods
h d depending
d d on the
h characteristics
h off flow
fl lk
like
direction, depth and velocity, and size of river bed material.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Grip length
• Normal scour depth below high flood level in alluvial soils, (Lacey’s
formula), d (m) = 0.473 (Q/f)⅓
Q = Design discharge (m3/s)
f = Silt factor = 1.76 √dm L

dm = mean size of particle (mm)

• Regime width, W = 4.75 √Q
If actual waterway (L) < regime width (W)
Actual scour depth, (d’) = d(W/L) 0.61
M i
Maximum scour level
l l isi obtained
b i d to account for f flow
fl di
direction,
i
proximity of piers and increase of velocity due the obstruction of
flow.

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Silt factor

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Maximum scour depth (as per IRC 6)

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Grip length
• Grip length of wells for railway bridges is taken as 50% of maximum
scour depth.
• For road bridges, a grip length of 30% of the maximum scour depth
provided.
provided
• Depth of the base below maximum scour level is kept more than 2m
for piers and abutments with arches and 1.2m for piers and
abutments supporting other types of structures.
• If inerodible stratum like rock is available at a shallow elevation, the
foundation is taken into it and securely anchored to it if necessary.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Forces acting on well foundation
• Dead loads – Weight of super structure and self weight
• Live loads – For railway bridges according to Indian Railway bridge
rules, RDSO and for Highways it is as per IRC
• Impact loads – Impact due to live loads
• Wind loads – Acts laterally on live load, super structure and part of
sub structure above water level according to IS 875. Wind acts
laterally on exposed area.
• Water pressure – Acts from surface of water to the maximum scour
depth depends on velocity of flow.
I
Intensity k 2, k constant depends
i off water pressure, p = kv d d on shape
h off
well, v = velocity of water
• Longitudinal Forces – Due to tractive and braking forces.

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Forces acting on well foundation 
• Centrifugal forces – Acts on bridges in curved plan
• Buoyant forces – Due to submergence in water
• Earth pressure – Due to soil fill into which the well is sink.
• Seismic force – Considered in seismic zone.
zone Force is taken is αW.
αW W is
the weight of the component, and α is the seismic coefficient given in
IS: 1893‐1975.
• Temperature stresses – Forces are induced due to change of
temperature.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Resultant forces on well foundation

Allowable pressure, qa = 54N2B + 160(100 + N2)D in sandy soil
N = Standard Penetration Value of the Cohesionless soil (corrected value).
B = Smaller dimension of the cross‐section of the well in metres
D = Depth of foundation below scour level in metres
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• Allowable bearing capacity in clay soil is obtained from bearing

capacity of deep foundation in clay from undisturbed soil samples, qu
= c Nc
• Settlement in clay soil is obtained from

• If well foundation rests on rock bearing capacity is obtained from

crushing strength of rock.
• Effect of structural defects like faults, fissures, joints, and other
discontinuities are considered by adopting f.s of 10.
• Allowable strength of concrete placed under water is usually taken as 
All bl t th f t l d d t i ll t k
3.5 MN/m2.

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Lateral stability well foundation
• Terzaghi solution for free rigid bulk head can 
b
be used for approximate analysis of well 
df i t l i f ll
foundation. 
• A rigid bulk head deflects, sand in front 
transforms to passive state and sand in back 
side to active state.

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Light well ‐ Bulk head rotates about 
the point o above the base B 

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Bulk head rotates about the point o 
above the base B

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Heavy well ‐ Bulk head rotates about 
the point B

Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar

Heavy well ‐ Bulk head rotates about 
the point B

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Problem

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