Defination of Signalling:

The exchange of information (other than by speech) specifically concerned with the establishment,
release and other control of calls, and network management, in automatic telecommunications
operation

CCS has evolved to address the limitations of the CAS signaling method. CCS has the following
advantages over CAS:

Much faster call set-up time

Greater flexibility

Capacity to evolve

More cost effective than CAS

Greater call control

Most CCS calls can be set up in half the time it takes to set up CAS calls. CCS achieves greater call
control because no contention exists between signaling and user traffic as it does with in-band CAS.
Because the subscriber cannot generate particular signals intended for inter-switch (core network)
signaling, CCS offers a greater degree of protection against fraud than analog CAS methods.

CCS has the following disadvantages in comparison to CAS:

CCS links can be a single point of failure—a single link can control thousands of voice circuits, so if a
link fails and no alternative routes are found, thousands of calls could be lost.

There is no inherent testing of speech path by call set-up signaling, so elaborate Continuity Test
procedures are required.

SS7 network nodes are called signaling points (SPs). Each SP is addressed by an integer called a point
code (PC).

SPs are connected to each other by signaling links over which signaling takes place. The bandwidth
of a signaling link is normally 64 kilobits per second (kbps).

. In recent years, high-speed links have been introduced that use an entire 1.544 Mbps T1 carrier for
signaling. Links are typically engineered to carry only 25 to 40 percent of their capacity so that in
case of a failure, one link can carry the load of two.
To provide more bandwidth and/or for redundancy, up to 16 links between two SPs can be used.
Links between two SPs are logically grouped for administrative and load-sharing reasons. A logical
group of links between two SP is called a linkset.

Signal Transfer Point

A Signal Transfer Point (STP) is responsible for the transfer of SS7 messages between other SS7
nodes, acting somewhat like a router in an IP network.

An STP is neither the ultimate source nor the destination for most signaling messages. Generally,
messages are received on one signaling link and are transferred out another. The only messages that
are not simply transferred are related to network management and global title translation.

An STP can exist in one of two forms:

· Standalone STP

· Integrated STP (SP with STP)

Standalone STPs are normally deployed in "mated" pairs for the purposes of redundancy. Under
normal operation, the mated pair shares the load. If one of the STPs fails or isolation occurs because
of signaling link failure, the other STP takes the full load until the problem with its mate has been
rectified.

Integrated STPs combine the functionality of an SSP and an STP. They are both the source and
destination for MTP user traffic. They also can transfer incoming messages to other nodes.

Service Switching Point

A Service Switching Point (SSP) is a voice switch that incorporates SS7 functionality. It processes
voice-band traffic (voice, fax, modem, and so forth) and performs SS7 signaling. All switches with SS7
functionality are considered SSPs regardless of whether they are local switches (known in North
America as an end office) or tandem switches.

An SSP can originate and terminate messages, but it cannot transfer them. If a message is received

All nodes in the SS7 network are called signaling points. A signaling point has the capability to perform
message discrimination (read the address and determine if the message is for that node) and to route SS7
messages to another signaling point. Every signaling point has a unique address called a point code

There are three different types of signaling points:

■ Service switching point (SSP)
■ Signal transfer point (STP)
■ Service control point (SCP)
■ Service switching point (SSP)
The SSP communicates with the voice switch using primitives. The SSP must convert signaling from the voice
switch into SS7 signaling messages, which then can be sent to other switches in the network . The switch
typically will send messages related to its voice circuits to the switches with a direct voice trunk connection to
it.

The SSP function uses the information provided by the calling party (such as dialed digits) to determine how to connect a
call. A routing table in the switch itself will identify which trunk circuit or Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) socket to
use to connect the call and at which switch this trunk terminates. An SS7 message must be sent to this adjacent switch
requesting a circuit connection on the specified trunk or socket. The circuit identification [referred to as the circuit
identification code (CIC)], the calling and called telephone numbers, and information about the voice transmission method
used are in this SS7 message. There is also information about the type of call, the type of decoding used in the voice
transmission, and possibly any switch features needed during the call.
The adjacent switch grants permission to connect this trunk or socket by sending back an acknowledgment to the
originating switch. Using the called-party information in the setup message, the adjacent switch then can determine
how to connect the call to its final destination. The same process is followed using a setup message to any adjacent
switches and circuits connecting those switches. The entire call may require several connections between several
switches. The SSP function in each switch manages these connections but really has no knowledge of the status of
remote connections (nonadjacent connections). The SSP only has visibility of its own connections and does not
maintain the status of all the connections needed to connect and maintain a call.
Very few SS7 features are required of an SSP. The capability to send messages using the ISDN User Part (ISUP)
protocol and the Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP) protocol is the only requirement besides the
network management functions. SSPs are responsible for the management of ISUP messages specifically,
which may include different variants of ISUP standards.

Signal Transfer Point (STP)

All SS7 packets travel from one SSP to another through the services of an STP. The STP serves as a router in
the SS7 network. To maintain redundancy and diversity in the network, STPs are always deployed in pairs.
Should one STP node fail, the other node assumes all the traffic. Both STPs in a pair process traffic using load
sharing.

The STP only processes the transport layers [Message Transfer Part (MTP) or TCP/IP-based protocols]. The STP
routes SS7 messages as received from the various SSPs throughout the network to their appropriate
destinations

Service Control Point (SCP)

The SCP serves as an interface to telephone company databases. These databases provide the storage of
information about subscribers’ services, the routing of special service numbers (such as 800 and 900 numbers),
calling-card validation, and even Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN) services. the address of the SCP is a
point code, whereas the address of the database is a subsystem number. Entities within the network route to
SCPs using the SCCP protocol.

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is found in wireless networks and is used to store information regarding a wireless subscriber. Subscribers
are assigned to a home area under the control of the home HLR. Billing and feature information is stored in this
database along with location information. The HLR identifies the MSC (the wireless switch) currently providing
service to a subscriber. The actual location (cell site) of the subscriber is found in a dynamic database called the
visitor location register (VLR).
When a wireless telephone is activated, a cell site receives a signal from the cell phone containing the mobile
identification number (MIN) and other identification. The MIN is equivalent to a Plain Old Telephone Service
(POTS) number. This information is sent to an MSC, which then determines the HLR to which the MIN belongs
(using an internal routing table).
Every few minutes the wireless phone resends this signal. As the car moves from one cell site to another, the
MSC monitors which MSC is servicing the subscriber, and if the subscriber moves to an area serviced by
another MSC, the HLR database is updated. When a call is received into the network for a mobile telephone, the
home HLR must determine which MSC to route the call to. The home HLR informs the MSC of the location,
and the call is connected using voice circuits through the appropriate MSC to the cell site servicing the wireless
subscriber at that time.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is used for determining the location of a wireless subscriber in real time. As a subscriber roams outside of
his or her home network, the MSCs will not have any information regarding the subscriber. A query is sent to the
subscriber’s home HLR, which authenticates the subscriber and sends pertinent information to the roaming network.
The VLR is then updated with this information. As long as the subscriber is active in this network, the information
remains in the VLR. This enables the MSC to keep data about the roaming subscriber without having to make changes
to its own HLR. Think of the VLR as temporary database storage for visiting wireless subscribers.
The VLR may or may not be colocated with every MSC. In some networks there is one VLR and one HLR. The
only requirement is that all MSCs need to be able to access all HLR and VLR databases using the SS7 protocol.

Quasi-associated signaling (Figure 2.6) uses a minimal number of nodes to reach the final
destination. This is the most favorable method of signaling because each node introduces additional delays in
signaling delivery. For this reason, SS7 networks favor quasi-associated signaling.

Links are placed into groups called linksets. All the links in a linkset must have the same adjacent node. The
switching equipment alternates transmission across all the links in a linkset to ensure equal use of all facilities.
Up to 16 links can be assigned to one linkset.

In addition to linksets, a signaling point must define routes. A route is a collection of linksets used to reach a
particular destination. A linkset can belong to more than one route. A collection of routes is known as a routeset.
A routeset is assigned to a destination. Routesets are necessary because if only a single route existed and that
route became unavailable, an alternate route would not be defined, and no signaling could be sent to that
destination. A routeset provides alternate routes to the same destination in the event that any one route
becomes unavailable.

Six different types of links are used in SS7:

■ A-links
■ B-links
■ Cross links (C-links)
■ Diagonal links (D-links)
■ E-links
■ F-links

Access Links (A-Links)

A-links (Figure 2.12) are used between the SSP and the STP or the SCP and the STP. These links provide access into
the network and to databases through the STP. There are always at least two A-links, one to each of the home STP
pairs. In the event that STPs are not deployed in pairs, there can be one A-link; however, this is highly unusual. The
maximum number of A-links to any one STP is 16. A-links can be configured in a combined linkset that has 16 links
to each STP, providing 32 links to the mated pair.
When connecting switches in a network to hub providers, A-links are used. When trying to determine how many
A-links are required, the easiest formula is to calculate the number of access lines supported by the switch. One
simple formula is to calculate one signaling link for every 9600 access lines.

Bridge Links (B-Links)

B-links are used to connect mated STPs to other mated STPs at the same hierarchical level. B-links are deployed
in a quad fashion, as shown in Figure 2.13, which is why they are often referred to as quad links. A maximum of
eight B-links can be deployed between mated STPs. Although this practice is followed closely in North
America, European networks do not use B-links as depicted. Mated STPs are connected to another mated pair
via one set of links, but each STP does not have a connection to each of the other mated STPs.

Cross Links (C-Links)

C-links (Figure 2.14) connect an STP to its mate STP. C-links are always deployed in pairs to maintain
redundancy on the network. Normal SS7 traffic is not routed over these links, except in congestion conditions.
The only messages to travel between mated STPs during normal conditions are network management messages.
If a node becomes isolated and the only available path is over the C-links, then normal SS7 messages can be
routed over these links. A maximum of eight C-links can be deployed between STP pairs.

Diagonal Links (D-Links)

D-links (Figure 2.15) are used to connect mated STP pairs at a primary hierarchical level to another STP mated
pair at a secondary hierarchical level. For example, a carrier may have STPs deployed in every Local Access
Transport Area (LATA). A maximum of eight D-links can be used between two mated STP pairs.

Extended Links (E-Links) E-links

(Figure 2.16) are used to connect to remote STP pairs from an SSP. The SSP connects to its home STP

pair but, for diversity, also may be connected to a remote STP pair using E-links. E-links then become the

alternate route for SS7 messages in the event that congestion occurs within the home STP pairs. A

maximum of 16 E-links can be used between any remote STP pairs.

 Fully Associated Links (F-Links) F-links

(Figure 2.17) are used when a large amount of traffic exists between two SSPs or when an SSP cannot be

connected directly to an STP. F-links enable SSPs to use the SS7 protocol and access SS7 databases even

when it is not economical to provide a direct connection to an STP pair.

1.1 SS7 Protocol Overview

· Message Transfer Parts (MTP 1, 2, and 3)

· Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP)

· Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)

· Telephony User Part (TUP)

· ISDN User Part (ISUP)

Error: Reference source not found shows a common introductory SS7 stack.
The SS7 physical layer is called MTP level 1 (MTP1), the data link layer is called MTP level 2 (MTP2),
and the network layer is called MTP level 3 (MTP3). Collectively they are called the Message Transfer
Part (MTP). The MTP protocol is SS7's native means of packet transport.

TUP and ISUP both perform the signaling required to set up and tear down telephone calls. As such,
both are circuit-related signaling protocols. TUP was the first call control protocol specified. It could
support only plain old telephone service (POTS) calls. Most countries are replacing TUP with ISUP.

ISUP supports both POTS and ISDN calls. It also has more flexibility and features than TUP.

1.1.1 MTP
MTP levels 1 through 3 are collectively referred to as the MTP. The MTP comprises the functions to
transport information from one SP to another.

The MTP transfers the signaling message, in the correct sequence, without loss or duplication,
between the SPs that make up the SS7 network. The MTP provides reliable transfer and delivery of
signaling messages. The MTP was originally designed to transfer circuit-related signaling because no
noncircuit-related protocol was defined at the time.

The recommendations refer to MTP1, MTP2, and MTP3 as the physical layer, data link layer, and
network layer, respectively.