Construction Technology -B 2010

Project (A)

A two storey commercial building is proposed for super market and the building is decided to
construct in the heart of the city Kandy, which a steel structural frame work and precast
concrete panels.

Task- 01

1.1, 1.2

Steel has become a universal building product due to its strength, versatility, durability and
economic value. Among its most popular uses today are standing seam metal roofs.

Standing seam metal roofs are fast becoming the material of choice for countless structures. In
fact, according to the American Iron and Steel Institute, the roofing system has been used in
nearly 50% of all low-rise commercial, industrial and institutional buildings erected in the last
several years. Standing seam metal roofing can now be seen on virtually every type of
building, from shopping centers and schools to churches and libraries. The system currently
accounts for well over one billion square feet.

This acceptance has carried over to the re-roofing market where standing seam roofs have
been used successfully as replacements for built-up and single ply systems.

In retrofit projects where costly tear-offs want to be avoided, a sub-framing system is attached
to the existing roof surface to provide a minimum ¼:12 pitch for the new metal roof.

Steel Provides Aesthetic Appeal, Long Service Life

The use of metal roofing is growing rapidly because steel offers a variety of benefits. One is its
aesthetic appeal. The standing seam roof is one of the most attractive roofing systems for
almost any building. It is available in a wide range of finishes, color and profiles, providing
building owners and architects with extensive design flexibility.

Another of metal roofing’s benefits is its long service life. As a result of the zinc, aluminum, or
aluminum-zinc alloy metallic coating applied to the base steel, today’s metal roof panels resist
corrosion and provide a service life of 20 years or more of trouble-free performance,
considerably longer than the standard protection for built-up and single ply systems.

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Steel Roof Is Cost Effective, Energy Efficient

Metal roofs are also very cost effective. Standing seam steel roofs pay for themselves from the
day they are installed. Their life expectancy is long, they require little or no maintenance, and
their life cycle costs are low, especially compared to non-metal alternatives in low slope
applications.

Metal roofs are also energy efficient, especially when used in “cool roof” applications. Cool
metal roofs feature heat-deflecting coatings that decrease unwanted heat build-up inside a
building, thereby reducing cooling loads. Based on research on cool metal roofing, the
reflectivity and emissivity of steel roofs have been proven to provide significant savings in
energy consumption.

Environmental Benefits of Steel Are Many

While building owners and architects have long recognized steel for its strength, durability and
functionality, they are now increasingly recognizing another of steel’s important attributes – its
environmental benefits.

The recycled content for steel used in metal roofs and walls, for example, is at least 25%. This
level of recycled content reduces both the cost and environmental impact of making new steel,
as it conserves energy and other natural raw materials.

The fact that the recycled content of steel is at least 25% by weight helps earn points in the
U.S. Green Building Council’s Leadership in Environmental and Energy Desgin (LEED)
program. Steel’s recycled content is especially important when it is compared to other materials
such as concrete, which has a recycled content of only 3% (fly ash) and even less when the
weight of the recycled material is factored in.

Steel Is 100% Recyclable at End of Useful Life

Steel is also 100% recyclable at the end of its long, useful life. In fact, of the metals used in
roofs and walls, steel is the most recycled. Easily separated from other materials via magnetic,
steel is reclaimed through a vast collection and processing network.

Every ton of steel recycled saves over 4,000 pounds of raw materials, including 2,500 pounds
of iron ore, 1,400 pounds of coal and 120 pounds of limestone. And, according to the EPA,
new steel made with recycled material uses as little as 26% of the amount of energy that would
be required to make steel from iron and other materials extracted from nature. In addition, the

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
original embodied energy of steel products is amortized as steel is recycled again and again
into new steel products.

Main frame

The frame includes the following components: Inner frames, End walls, Anchor bolts
Wind members on roof and in walls; Generally, the inner frame is a rigid frame made of welded
members and columns jointed by means of high-strength bolts (10.9 Class).The joints between
column base plates and foundations are pinned. Joint may be fixed, Extra painting is optional.
Structures are treated using shot-blasting (SA 2.5 degree) and painted with a primer (of grey or
red color).

Secondary frame

The frame is used for supporting wall cladding and roof systems. The secondary frame
comprises a system of grits, purling & eave struts Z- or C-shaped hot deep galvanized cold
formed structural sections and secured to the main frame by bolts (4.6 Class).This system
increases frame capability when using together with flange braces. The steel used is of 390
MPa yield strength.

Roofing

The roof system is composed of: Outer steel sheet with Super polyester protective
coating. Waterproofing lay. Insulation of thickness required. Barrier against vapor
penetration. Inner steel sheet - as required. Set of self-tapping screws with heads of the
panel-matching color and all insulating and sealing elements required.

PVC Membrane

PVC membrane is used for covering roof of 15% slope. The PVC membrane comprises a
solid welded homogenous coating made of material strips secured to the base and
overlapped. The PVC membrane is vapor-proof: it lets vapor out but holds water. The PVC
membrane roof consists of: The base coated with vapor insulant. Insulant. Geotextile (when
polystyrene is used in the insulant layer). PVC membrane.

Wall cladding systems

The standard wall cladding system is structurally similar to the SRR 1 roofing system: Outer
steel sheet with super polyester protective coating. Waterproofing lay. Insulation of
thickness required. Barrier against vapor penetration. Inner steel sheet - as required. Set of
self-tapping screws with heads of the panel-matching color and all insulating and sealing
elements required. Sandwich Panels

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
Securing system makes it possible to fix panels in two manners: Standard fixing using self-
tapping screws. Concealed fixing which does not require outer layer through drilling.

Accessories and additional elements

STEELAR system contains a complete set of accessories and extra elements:

Roof skylights

Translucent roof and facade panels

Gutters

Smoke exhaust holes

Windows

Doors

Gates

Walkways

Routes for laying inner utilities

If required, the main frame may have built-in tracks for overhead traveling cranes and
mezzanines.

  Rigid frame with or without inner columns

Gable roof

Application:
Standard projects: warehouses, process shops with ordinary column grids.

Building rigid frame with a multi gabled roof

Application:
Sports facilities, hypermarkets and etc.

Rigid frame for securing on reinforced concrete columns

Application:
It is the optimum for erection of buildings in summer period when use of reinforced concrete
columns is economically effective.

Extensions and buildings with a multi gabled roof

Application:
Buildings with specific purpose.

shops, stores and etc.

Buildings with longer spacing between frames of up to 18 m

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
In the types above the frame spacing is in-between 4-12 m

Application:
Buildings with specific column spacing

Multi-storeybuiding Application:
Multi-tier parking facilities and shopping centers.

 Precast Concrete work in the construction

Precast concrete consists of concrete (a mixture of cement, water, aggregates and admixtures)
that is cast into a specific shape at a location other than its in-service position. The concrete is
placed into a form, typically wood or steel, andcured before being stripped from the form,
usually the following day. These components are then transported to the construction site for
erection into place.

Precast concrete components are reinforced with either conventional reinforcing bars, strands
with high tensile strength, or a combination of both. The strands are pre-tensioned in the form
before the concrete is poured. Once the concrete has cured to a specific strength, the strands
are cut (de-tensioned). As the strands, having bonded to the concrete, attempt to regain their
original un-tensioned length, they bond to the concrete and apply a compressive force. This
“pre-compression” increases load-carrying capacity to the components and helps control
cracking to specified limits allowed by building codes.

Precast components are used in various applications and projects of all types.

 Beams

Beams are typically considered structural components and are made in one of three key
shapes:

1. Rectangular
2. Inverted Tee Beams
3. L Beams

Beams are horizontal components that support deck members like double tees, hollow-core,
and solid slabs, and sometimes other beams. They can be reinforced with either pre-stressing
strand or conventional reinforcing bars. This will depend on the spans, loading conditions, and
the producer’s preferred production methods.

Columns

Columns are typically used to support beams and spandrels in applications such as parking
structures and total-precast concrete structural systems of all types. They typically are
designed as multilevel components ranging from a single story to six levels or more.

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Column Covers

Column covers are usually a major focal point in a structure. These units may be broad or
barely wider than the column itself and run vertically up a structure. They often conceal
structural columns and may completely surround them at the ground level.

They typically are supported by the structural column or the floor and are designed to transfer
no vertical load other than their own weight. The vertical load of each length of column-cover
section is usually supported at one elevation and tied back at the top and bottom to the floors
for lateral load transfer and stability.

Double Tees

Double tees are used primarily as deck floor and roof components for any type of structure,
including parking structures, office buildings, and industrial buildings.

Hollow-core Slabs

Hollow-core slabs are used predominantly for floor and roof deck components for various
structures including multifamily housing, hotel and condominiums, office buildings, schools,
and prisons.

Insulated Sandwich Wall Panels

Insulated sandwich wall panels can be strictly architectural, strictly structural, or a combination
of both. They can be placed in either a horizontal position, as in a multifamily-housing
application, or in a vertical position, as on the exterior of a warehouse.

The difference between typical panels and insulated sandwich wall panels is that the latter are
cast with rigid insulation “sandwiched” between two layers of concrete, called withes. The
insulation thickness can vary to create the desired thermal insulating property (“R” value) for
the wall.

LiteWalls

Light or “lite” walls are shear walls used in parking structures cast with an opening in their
center to provide visual continuity and to allow daylight or artificial illumination to penetrate
deeper into an interior.

The components provide openness and a feeling of security. These components should not be
confused with “light wells,” which are internal, open courtyards designed to provide daylight to
the center of parking structures and other buildings.

As with other types of shear walls, lite walls serve as the lateral force-resisting systems in the
structure. They act as cantilever beams, transferring lateral forces acting parallel to the face of
the wall, from the superstructure to the foundation.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
Mullions

Mullions are thin, often-decorative pieces that fill open space in a building facade. They are
often isolated elements forming a long vertical line, requiring them to be cast perfectly straight
to avoid any visual deformities. To some degree, these variations can be handled by precast
concrete connections with adjustability.

Piles

Precast, pre-stressed concrete pilings are often the preferred choice for permanent , durable,
and economical foundations, especially in marine or bridge environments, due to their excellent
adaptability and resistance to corrosion.

Piles can be spliced together to create longer piles. They are used primarily where longer piles
are required but transportation needs make the longer lengths more difficult or costly to handle
due to escort needs and the need for specialized rigs.

Shear Walls

Shear walls act as vertical cantilever beams, transferring lateral forces acting parallel to the
face of the wall from the superstructure to the foundation. Typically, there are two shear walls
oriented to resist lateral loads along each principal axis of the building. They should be
designed as load bearing panels.

Solid Slabs

Solid slabs are used as structural deck components similar to hollow-core slabs. They can be
made in a long-line pre-tensioning facility and reinforced with pre-stressing strand or cast in
individual forms with either pre-stressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars.

They are typically cast in the same position as used in the structure.

 Raker Beams-Raker beams are angled, notched beams that support stadium riser
units. They are used universally in outdoor stadiums and arenas and in many indoor
arenas and performing-arts theaters.
 Stadium Risers -Stadium risers are used to support seating in stadiums, arenas,
theaters, and other types of grandstands.

Typically, they are made as single, double, or triple risers with heights cast to satisfy site lines
in the venue. Specifying single, double, or triple risers will depend on the layout and may be
dictated by weights and crane access during construction

 Stairs-Precast concrete stairs are used in any application where a stair tower or individual
steps are required. These modules can provide fast erection and durable access in buildings
or parking structures.

Wall Panels - Wall panels can be strictly architectural, strictly structural, or a combination of
both. They can be placed in either a horizontal position, as in a multifamily housing application
or in a vertical position, as in the exterior of a warehouse. Wall panels can be load bearing and
support floor and roof components or they can be no load bearing to complete a façade.

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Precast Concrete Systems

The design of precast, pre-stressed concrete structures depends on the integration of the
structural system as a whole, the connections, and the individual components. Each aspect
must consider the others as well as the functional requirements imposed by the building use. It
is essential that design loads follow a load path from their point of origin to the final support or
foundation.

Although not always required by code, it is desirable to design the members and their
connections to achieve a ductile, rather than a brittle, failure mode. In addition to resisting
gravity loads, a principal consideration in building design is the lateral force-resisting system.
There are a variety of precast concrete designs that can be used to achieve these goals
economically and effectively.

Structural-Steel Framing Supporting Architectural

Precast CONCRETE Cladding

Precast concrete panels should follow the steel frame as erected, because the allowable
tolerances for steel-frame structures make it impractical to maintain precast concrete panels in
a true vertical plane in tall structures. The adjustments that would be required to make the
connections practical are not economically feasible.

elevator-column erection tolerances for steel columns used in the building façade that will
receive the precast concrete panels A structural-steel-frame building presents different erection
and connection considerations from a concrete-frame building.

For example, structural-steel beams, being relatively weak in torsion when compared to
concrete, generally require the load to be applied directly over the web or that the connection
be capable of supporting the induced torsion. This in turn places a greater structural
requirement on the connection and creates difficulties during erection if any rolling behavior
occurs in the steel beam.

Earthquake Resistance

Precast concrete can be designed to resist seismic events.

 Earthquakes generate horizontal and vertical ground movement.

 When the seismic waves pass beneath a structure, the foundation tends to move with
the ground, while the superstructure remains in position.

 The lag between foundation and superstructure movement causes distortions and
develops forces in the structure.

 As the ground moves, distortions and forces are produced throughout the height of the
structure, varying with the ground acceleration and the resonance of the building.

The key reason designers have gravitated toward precast concrete components is because
they can span long distances between attachments to the main structure. Design methods and
details have been developed to accommodate these applications in seismic areas.

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Arizona Biltmore Hotel

AZST fabricated column beams, angles and beam plate as part of a restaurant renovation and
expansion at the historic Arizona Biltmore hotel.

Trusses & Girders

Arizona Structure Technologies, Inc. fabricated 157-foot-long trusses for Cooper Steel
Fabricators, Inc. of Shelbyville, Tenn. The trusses, which weigh approximately 20,000 pounds
each, were installed at Williams Gateway Airport in Mesa, Ariz.

Phoenix Convention Center

For the City of Phoenix, Arizona Structure Technologies fabricated 21 trusses, several girders
and multiple canopies as part of a major expansion and renovation of the Phoenix Convention
Center.

Steel Sections

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
1.3

BUILDING AND SITE DESIGN

The faster the fire service can respond, enter ,locate the incident, and safety operate in a
building, the sooner they can mitigate an incident in a safe manner for themselves as well as
occupants.

Fire Apparatus access.

Properly fire Apparatus can be critical at a fire scene. In particular, placing aerial Apparatus is
critical for positioning of the aerial ladder or elevating platform, which is mounted on top of
these vehicles. Pumper Apparatus also need to get close enough to the building to facilitate
hose line use. The location of other specialized Apparatus, or small vehicles, such as chief’s
cars or ambulances, should only be of particular concern to the designer of unusual facilities.
For instance, a sports arena may need to be designed for entry of ambulances but not fire
Apparatus.

There are many considerations for both public roads and fire lanes: clear width, clear height,
length, turn radius, arrangement, distance from the building, and paving materials.

Extent of Access

Minimum building access for fire Apparatus is a function of the access road reaching to within a
certain distance of all portions of the building’s first floor exterior walls.

Perimeter Access

The options available for attacking a fire increase as more of a building’s perimeter becomes
accessible to fire Apparatus.

Clear width

The basic clear width requirement for Apparatus access in the IFC and NFPA 1 is 20feet.
NFPA 1141 calls for one way fire lanes that are 16 feet wide; however, this applies to roads
that do not about buildings. A clear width of 20ft will allow most aerial Apparatus to extend the
outriggers necessary to support the aerial ladder or elevating platform while in operation.
However, some recently manufactured aerial apparatus require 24 ft of clear width for outrigger
extension.

Lanes wide enough for apparatus to pass one another will facilitative developing and
expanding operations. NFPA 1141contains a 24 –foot clear width requirement for two-way fire
lanes. Appendix D of the IBC calls for a 26 –foot clear width at fire hydrant locations, extending
for distance of 20ft in both directions. As well as a 26- foot width in the vicinity of buildings that
are 30feet or more in height (for aerial operations.)Rolled or rounded curbs adjacent to properly
designed sidewalks can effectively increase access width. These allow apparatus to easily
negotiate curbs.

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Building proximity

In areas with aerial apparatus that may respond to an emergency, the road or fire lane should
be positioned at a distance from the building that will accommodate aerial ladder operation.
Access too close or too far from the building will limit aerial ladder use. Where a fire lane is
parallel to a building that is more than 30ft high.

Loads – All access roads or lanes should be built to withstand the loads presented by modern,
heavy fire apparatus as well as potential weather conditions. Paved surface, bridges, and other
elevated surfaces (such as piers or boardwalks) should be designed to handle the weight of all
apparatus that may use them. The IFC Appendix D has a load design requirements of 75000
pounds.

Materials – All weather paved access s the best surface some jurisdictions permit the use of
paved blocks or subsurface construction for fire lanes. These permit an area to be partially or
fully landscaped, while being strong enough to allow fire apparatus to negotiate the area.

Manual gates cause inherent delays because personnel must dismount to unlock them or cut
through chains. However, they can also help keep the fire access lane clear by preventing
vehicle parking.

Fire Hydrants

Optimal positioning, spacing, location, and marking of fire hydrants can aid the fire service
during emergency operations. Public fire hydrants are often under the purview of a local water
authority, standards for fire flow and other criteria.

Spacing – Maximum distance between hydrants differs greatly, depending on various local
standards.

Location – Pumpers may utilize hydrants in different ways. If the fire is close enough, a
pumper can be positioned at a hydrant and use a large diameter suction hose.

Marking – A number of methods are used to enable firefighters to rapidly identify hydrant
locations. The color used for hydrants should contrast as much as possible with the
predominating surroundings. Some localities place reflective tape around the hydrant body.
Other jurisdictions mount reflectors (usually blue) in the roadway in front of each hydrant:
however, in cold weather climates these reflectors are often obstructed by snow. The best way
to identify hydrants in areas subject to snowy weather is a locator pole which is visible above
the highest expected snowfall. These are reflective or contrasting in color, and some have a
flag, sign, or reflector mounted on top.

Firefighter Access

Once firefighter have arrived and positioned their apparatus, they must go to work. Some
factors affecting their efficiency include: the distance and terrain between the apparatus access
and the building: how easily they can enter the building: the building’s interior layout and
vertical access (stairs / elevators/ roof access): and, how quickly firefighters can locate fire
protection features and utilities.

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1.4

Pre-stressed concrete - is a method for overcoming the concrete 's natural weakness in
tension:

It can be - used to produce beams, floor or bridges with a longer span than is practical with
ordinary reinforced concrete.

Beam - A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by

resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the
external loads, own weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.

Bridge - A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road, body of water, or other physical
obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of bridges vary
depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain where the bridge is
constructed.
Span – Span is a section between two intermediate supports, e.g. of a beam or a bridge . A
span can be made of a solid beam or of a rope. The first kind of span is used for bridges, the
second one used for power lines, overhead telecommunication lines, some type of antennas or
for aerial tramways .

Pre-stressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to
provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that offsets the tensile
stress that the concrete compression member would otherwise experience due to a
bending load.

Tension

In physics, tension is the magnitude of the pulling force exerted by a string, cable, chain, or
similar object on another object. It is the opposite of compression. As tension is the magnitude
of a force, it is measured in newtons.

Steel

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
Steel is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by
weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most cost-effective alloying material for iron, but
various other alloying elements are used such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and
tungsten and etc.

Compressive stress

Compressive stress is the stress that, when applied, acts towards the center of that material.
When a material is subjected to compressive stress, then this material is under compression.
Usually, compressive stress applied to bars, columns, etc. leads to shortening.

Rebar

A rebar, or reinforcing bar, is a common steel bar, and is commonly used in reinforced
concrete and reinforced masonry structures. It is usually formed from carbon steel, and is given
ridges for better mechanical anchoring into the concrete.

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is concrete in which steel reinforcement bars , plates or fibers have been
incorporated to strengthen a material that would otherwise be brittle.

Pre-stressing can be accomplished in three ways:

1. Pre-tensioned concrete,
2. Bonded post-tensioned concrete.
3. Unbounded post-tensioned concrete.

Pre-tensioned concrete

Pre-tensioned concrete is cast around already tensioned tendons. This method produces a
good bond between the tendon and concrete, which both protects the tendon from corrosion
and allows for direct transfer of tension. The cured concrete adheres and bonds to the bars
and when the tension is released it is transferred to the concrete as compression by static
friction.

However, it requires stout anchoring points between which the tendon is to be stretched and
the tendons are usually in a straight line. Thus, most pre-tensioned concrete elements are
prefabricated in a factory and must be transported to the construction site, which limits their
size. Pre-tensioned elements lintels, floor slabs, beams or foundation piles.

Friction - Friction is the force resisting the relative lateral motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers,
or material elements in contact.

Prefabrication

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other

manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the
construction site where the structure is to be located.

  Bonded Flat Slab System - Supply of flat slab post-tensioning system using both 12.9mm
and 15.7mm strand Installation of flat slab post-tensioning system.

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Bonded post-tensioned concrete

Bonded post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term for a method of applying compression
after pouring concrete and the curing process (in situ). The concrete is cast around plastic,
steel or aluminum curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the
concrete element. A set of tendons are fished through the duct and the concrete is poured.

Once the concrete has hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react
against the concrete member itself. When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to
the design specifications (Hooke's law), they are wedged in position and maintain tension after
the jacks are removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to
protect the tendons from corrosion.

This method is commonly used to create monolithic slabs for house construction in locations
where expansive soils (such as adobe clay) create problems for the typical perimeter
foundation. All stresses from seasonal expansion and contraction of the underlying soil are
taken into the entire tensioned slab, which supports the building without significant flexure.

Post-tensioning is also used in the construction of various bridges, both after concrete is cured
after support by false work and by the assembly of prefabricated sections, as in the segmental
bridge .The advantages of this system over unbounded post-tensioning are: Large reduction in
traditional reinforcement requirements as tendons cannot distress in accidents.

Tendons can be easily 'weaved' allowing a more efficient design approach. Higher ultimate
strength due to bond generated between the strand and concrete. No long term issues with
maintaining the integrity of the anchor/dead end.

Hooke's law

In mechanics, and physics, Hooke's law of elasticity is an approximation that states that the
extension of a spring is in direct proportion with the load added to it as long as this load does
not exceed the elastic limit.

Wedge (mechanics)

A wedge is a triangular shaped tool, a compound and portable inclined plane, and one of the
six classical simple machines. It can be used to separate two objects or portions of an object,
lift an object, or hold an object in place. It functions by converting a force applied to its blunt
end into...

Grout

Grout is a construction material used to embed rebars in masonry walls, connect sections of
pre-cast concrete, fill voids, and seal joints. Grout is generally composed of a mixture of water,
cement, sand and sometimes fine gravel.

Corrosion

Corrosion is the disintegration of a material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions
with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means a loss of electrons of
metals reacting with water and oxygen. Weakening of iron due to oxidation of the iron.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
False work

False-work consists of temporary structures used in construction to support spanning or arched

structures in order to hold the component in place until its construction is sufficiently advanced
to support itself.

Segmental bridge

As its name implies, a segmental bridge is a bridge built in short sections , i.e., one piece at a
time, as opposed to traditional methods that build a bridge in very large sections. Un-bonded
flat slab construction , Un-bonded anchors in banded layout

Un-bonded Mono-strand System

Supply of mono strand system using 15.7mm and 15.2mm Dyform/Compact strand Installation
of mono strand post tensioning system Un-bonded live anchors installed Sloping un-bonded
post-tensioned on slab edge form-work, roof awaiting concrete pour

Un-bonded post-tensioned concrete

Un-bonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded post-tensioning by providing each

individual cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this,
each individual tendon is coated with a grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a
plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion process. The transfer of tension to the concrete is
achieved by the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of the
slab.

The main disadvantage over bonded post-tensioning is the fact that a cable can destress itself
and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as during repair on the slab). The advantages of this
system over bonded post-tensioning are: The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor
field conditions (For example: shifting a group of 4 cables around an opening by placing 2 to
either side). The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated. The ability to de-stress the
tendons before attempting repair work.

Extrusion - Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A

material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section.

Lithium - Lithium is a soft, silver-white metal that belongs to the alkali metal group of
chemical elements. It is represented by the symbol Li, and it has the atomic number three.
Under standard conditions it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element.

Applications

Pre-stressed concrete is the predominating material for floors in high-rise buildings and
concrete chambers in nuclear reactors.Un-bonded post-tensioning tendons are commonly
used in parking garages as barrier cable. Also, due to its ability to be stressed and then de-
stressed, it can be used to temporarily repair a damaged building by holding up a damaged
wall or floor until permanent repairs can be made.

Project (B)

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Task -02

2.1)

Water is the most important factor for survival of man and animals. A person can do without
food for five weeks or more, but without water he can survive for only a few days.

 Your water and your health gives a listing of the ten basic kinds of water,
1. Hard water. 6. Soft water.
2. Boiled water. 7. Filtered water.
3. Raw water. 8. Reverse osmosis.
4. Rain water. 9. De- ionized water.
5. Snow water. 10. Distilled water.

First I would like to explain bit of think about water such as,
 Per capital demand as per IS – 1172- 1963

Purpose Requirements in litters per

head per day
Domestic 185
Public use 15
Firefighting 15
Industrial use 50
Wastage & Losses 50
Total 270Lits/H/D

Water supply in buildings

Many administrative authorities controlling water supply have their own set of bye- laws, rule
and regulation. While Laying pipe lines or plumbing systems these bye-laws should be strictly
confirmed. For intermittent supplies a minimum storage of half days supply is needed for
overhead tanks. IS-2065-1072 deals with water supply of building and covers general
requirements and regulations for water supply, Plumbing, connected to public water supply,
inspection and maintained water fittings and appliances.

DOMESTIC HOT AND COLD WATER SYSTEM

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
The purpose with a domestic water supply system is to provide the consumers with enough hot
and cold water. Common in old buildings is the system with gravity storage tanks on the top
floor of the building. More common in new systems are pressurized tanks connected to the
supply pumps.

DEMOSTIC WATER SUPPLY WITH GRAVITY

TANKAir vented

Gra
vity
tank Main Pipes at
Top of the
building
Hot
water
Cold and Hot water down to circulati
the consumer on
pump
Supply Bypass
pump Valve Heat
exch
ange
r or
hot
Flow Indicator / Accumulator wate
r
stora
Main supply ge
line Tank

For proper operation of the system, the gravity tank is located at least 30feet or 10m above
the highest outlet or consumer. In tall buildings it’s necessary to use pressure reducing valves
in the lowest floors before the fittings. The volume of the tank must be designed to
compensate for the limited capacity of the supply lines. The tank fills up when the
consumption of hot and water is lower than the capacity of the supply lines-and the tank is
emptied when the consumption is higher than the supply lines capacity. A drawback with the
system with the open gravity tank on the top floor is the potential danger of freezing during
water conditions.

Huge tanks will also influence the construction of the building. The pressurized tank is partly
filled air behind a membrane. The air compensates for pressure variations during consumption
and during supply pump starts and stops. The pressurized tank has a limited compensating
capacity for shortage in main supply lines.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010

DEMOSTIC WATER SUPPLY WITH A

PRESSURIZED TANK

Hot water to consumers

Cold water to
Consumer

Pres
sure Hot water circulation
tank pump

Supply Bypass
pump Valve Heat
exch
ange
r or
hot
wate
r
Flow Indicator / Accumulator
stora
ge
Tank

Main supply
line

The Demand of hot water- quantity and temperature

Hot water is normally supplied to the fitting and consumers at 50-60°C. For canteens and
professional kitchen a temperature of 65°C are required to satisfy most hygienic
standards. Hot water should not be stored at temperature below 60°C (140°F ) to avoid
the risk of legionella. Where a lower temperature are necessary for safety reasons-as in
kindergartens, centers for disabled etc.the hot water temperature should not exceeding
40-50°C. The hot water can be stored at higher temperatures and reduced to supply
temperature by mixing with cold water in blender valves. Storing hot water at a higher
temperature increases the systems overall capacity and reduces the need of storage
volume. The quantity of hot water is determined by number of occupants and their
consumption habits.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010

The Boiler

Boiler with the correct rating must be selected from manufacturer catalogues where boiler
rating = A + B

Where A- Heating capacity of calorifier

B- Safety margin (Normally 10 – 20 % )

Design Pipe scheme and size pipe

The maximum volume flow through connection pipe to fittings and other equipment is
determined by the maximum demand of each consumer of fitting. The maximum volume flow
through main pipes is determined by the maximum demands of the fitting and statistic demand
based on the number and types of fittings and equipment supplied. A domestic hot-water
system supplies the taps in a house ort a building with hot water.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
2.2). Drainage

Proper drainage is important to ensure a high quality long lived pavement; moisture
accumulation in any pavement structural layer can cause problems. Moisture in the sub-grade
and aggregate base layer can weaken these materials by increasing pore pressure and
reducing the materials' resistance to shear.  Additionally, some soils expand when moist,
causing differential heaving. Moisture in the HMA layers can cause stripping because it,
instead of the asphalt binder, will adhere to aggregate particles. 

Storm Drain Pipe Awaits Installation in a Road Reconstruction Project

Moisture sources are typically rainwater, runoff and high groundwater.  Hese sources are
prevented from entering the pavement structure or accumulating in the sub-grade through
surface drainage and subsurface drainage.  Usually, it is more cost effective and less risky to
prevent moisture entry and accumulation using surface drainage than to effect moisture
removal using subsurface drainage.

Surface Drainage

Surface drainage is concerned with removing all water that is present on the pavement
surface, shoulder surface or any other surface from which it may flow onto the pavement. If not
systematically removed, this water can accumulate underneath and weaken the pavement
structure. There are three primary means used to prevent water infiltration and accumulation:

Impermeable HMA. 

HMA tends to be impermeable below about 8 percent air voids, therefore proper compaction
practices should be followed to ensure an impermeable pavement.  Also, minor cracks in the
HMA should be promptly sealed.

Slope. 

The pavement section should be sloped to allow rainwater to sheet flow quickly to the edge
where it is typically collected in a curb and gutter system or a roadside ditch.  A generally
accepted standard is a 2 percent cross slope.

Grade. 

The curb and gutter or roadside ditch must be properly graded to allow flow to central collection
points such as catch basins or detention ponds.  A generally accepted standard is a grade of
0.5 percent or more although lesser grades have been used effectively.

Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage is concerned with removing water that percolates through or is contained
in the underlying sub-grade. This water, typically the result of a high water table or
exceptionally wet weather, can accumulate under the pavement structure by two chief means:

20
 Construction Technology -B 2010
Gravity flow. 

Water from surrounding areas can be absorbed by the soil then flow by gravity to areas
underneath the pavement structure. In pavement with high air voids (above 8 - 9 percent),
water can percolate down through the pavement structure itself. 

Capillary rise. 

Capillary rise is the rise in a liquid above the level of zero pressure due to a net upward force
produced by the attraction of the water molecules to a solid surface (e.g., soil).  Capillary rise
can be substantial, up to 20 ft. or more.  In general, the smaller the soil grain size, the greater
the potential for capillary rise.  Often, capillary rise is a problem in areas of high groundwater
tables.  Most pavements have performed adequately without considering these effects. 
However, HMA pavements can fail because of sub-grade support deterioration as a result of
excessive moisture or other water-related problems.  These issues can be addressed in two
manners:

Minimize water infiltration into the pavement structure. 

In most cases, the accumulated water in the underlying sub-grade that causes the damage
comes from surface infiltration. This infiltration can be minimized by providing proper roadside
drainage and minimizing air voids within the HMA.

Provide subsurface drainage. 

This needs to be done judiciously, because it may be somewhat akin to treating the symptom
rather than the problem.  Subsurface drainage consists of three basic elements (see Figure4): A
permeable base to provide for rapid removal of water which enters the pavement structure. 
Based on recent research from California, permeable base layers may strip and become
clogged with fines thus weakening the overall pavement structure.

A method of conveying the removed water away from the pavement structure.  At the least, this
may consist of a base sloped towards a drainage ditch.  At the most, this may consist of a pipe
collector system. A filter layer (such as a geotextile, graded aggregate layer or ATB) to prevent
the migration of fines into the permeable base from the sub-grade, sub-base or shoulder base
material. Excess fines in the permeable base will clog its drainage routes and render it
ineffective. Depending upon the sub-grade and pavement structure a filter layer may not be
used. 

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
2.3 ELECTRICAL

Electrical wiring in general refers to insulated conductors used to carry electricity and
associated devices. The international standard wire sizes are given in the IEC 60228 standard
of the International Electro-technical commission.

Wiring safety codes are intended to protect people and buildings from electrical shock and fire
hazard. Regulations may be established by city, country, and provincial/state or national
legislation

Some information about domestic electric lighting circuits.

In modern domestic properties in the UK, the main electric lighting circuits are separate from
the power ring main circuit. Each house should ideally have at leas two lighting circuits; each
protected by a 5amp fuse or 6amp trip in the consumer unit. A single 5/6 amp circuit can with
up to twelve 100 watt lamps, it is usual in a multi-story house, to have at least one lighting
circuit for each floor even if the number of lamps are less than 12 on each level. Shaver units
may also be connected to the lighting circuit (treat it as equivalent to one 100 watt lamp) where
installed in a bathroom or a room containing a shower, the shaver unit must incorporate an
isolating transformer.

LIGHTING CABLE

Unlike the ring power circuit, the lighting circuit does not form a loop returning to the consumer
unit. The consumer unit is normally connected to the first lamp, which in turn is connected to
the second; lamp and soon. The cable used is a 1sq mm PVC twin core and earth rated for up
to 12 maps. It consists of a red insulated core for live, block insulated core for neutral with a
bare earth conductor between them. The three conductors are laid side by side within a PVC
sheath. When connecting the cable, the exposed the cable, the exposed earth connector must
be covered with a sleeve colored yellow and green ( to denote that its an earth).The lighting
cable is routed from the consumer unit to a series of lighting pointing for ceiling roses or wall
light fittings. The power to each lamp is connected via a wall or ceiling mounted switch. Some
light units incorporate their own switch, for these fittings, the power circuit is then connected
directly to the fitting.

WIRING METHODS

Installing electrical wiring by cutting into the bricks of the building. Materials for wiring interior
electrical systems in buildings vary depending on; Intended use and amount of power demand
on the circuit Type of occupancy and size of the building national and local regulations.
Environment in which the wiring must operate.

MODERN WIRING MATERIALS

The cable consists of 3 wires (2wires + 1 grounding) and is double-insulated. Rubber-like

synthetic polymer insulation is used in industrial cables and power cables installed
underground because of its superior moisture resistance. Modern nonmetallic sheathed cables
(NMC) consist of two to four thermoplastic insulated wires and a bars wire for grounding
(bonding) surrounded by a flexible plastic jacket. Many call this “Romex (tm)” cable since it was
the first of its type, rome cable. (The trade name is owned by Southwire as of 2006).

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 Construction Technology -B 2010

LIGHT SWITCHES

Most room lights are controlled by wall mounted toggle switches (although alternatively touch
sensitive or rotary light dimmers can be fitted), The cable normally runs down the wall within
conduit within the plaster. A flush fitting wall box is sunk into the wall to take the switch, or
alternatively a surface mounted box is fitted. Multi- switch units enable more than one light to
be controlled from one position.

In bathrooms and shower rooms, the switch must be a pull string type. These switches can
also be used when new lights are being installed- they can easily be screwed under a ceiling

23
 Construction Technology -B 2010
joist with minimal disturbance to the decorations. There is a tendency to feel that pull switches
are only suitable for bathrooms etc, however this limits the opportunities and should be
avoided. When a new light is to be positioned over a work surface or even an external light
fitted, there is no reason why a pull switch should not be mounted in any convenient position.

2 WIRING METHODS

There are 2 basic wiring methods of wiring lights- by ceiling rose and by junction box. Systems
using the ceiling roses make all the connections at the ceiling rose. While this removes the
need for one junction box per lamp, it is often more awkward for the average diy’er.

RING CIRCUIT

The ordinary wall sockets around the house are normally connected to a ring circuit (also
referred to as a ring main). The ring circuit of a domestic property supplies the socket outlets
and fixed appliances in the premises.

The ‘ring’ is formed by the cable going from the consumer unit to the first socket, than on to the
second socket and than the next socket etc. Unit the cable returns to the consumer unit. This
means (in simple terms) that every socket on the ring circuit consist of a red (live) wire, a block
( neutral) wire and a bars copper earth wire, all three being enclosed by an outer PVC
sheathing. The cable used in domestic ring circuits is either 2.5 sq mm or 4.0sq mm twis core
and earth, these are rated (in free air) at 24amp or 32 amps respectively. Each ring circuit is
protected by a 32amp fuse or trip fitted in the consumer unit. Modern installations incorporate a
residual current device (RCD) before the consumer unit which trips the whole system off if a
fault is detected.

A ring circuit is considered to be rated at 30amps (7200 walls). A ring may serve up to 100m sq
of floor area and, in theory, may have any number of sockets outlets or fused connection units
connected to it. Wire each socket outlet is normally rated at 13 amps, as a ‘rule of thumb’ they
are limited to under twenty outlet; it is unlikely that the variety of domestic appliances being
used at any one time will exceed 30amps. The length of cable used in a ring circuit is limited to
50 m for circuits protected by an MCB. The sockets are normally mounted flush with the wall
although surface mounted boxes are often easier to fit when sockets are added to the circuit. It
is advisable to have two ring circuits in all premises, in multi floor houses, one for each floor.

RING CIRCUIT FUSED OUTLET UNIS

Where connection to a fixed appliance is required, a fused outlet unit may be fitted to the wall
(rather then a plug socket) and connected into the ring main. These u\outlets require the
correct fuse rating for the appliance and are connected to the appliance by a cable or flex. The
outlet may be switched or unswitched and may be fitted with an indicator light to show when
the supply is connected. Where a flex is taken to heater of any sort (e.g. night store heater) the
flex must be of a special ‘high temperature’ type suitable for the elevated temperatures
encountered.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
HIGH POWER CIRCUITS

Within domestic premises, there may be a number of high wattage appliances, the most
common being an electric cooker, immersion heater and electric shower. Each of these
appliances should be connected to the consumer unit using a dedicated fuse/trip and cable
run. The installation instructions for the appliance should detail the wattage of the appliance
(which will also normally be shown somewhere on the appliance), the amperage of the fuse/trip
and size of cable required. Any switches on these circuits must also be of a suitable current
rating.

POWER FOR OUT OF DOORS

When power is required for the shed, patio, garden pond or other out of doors purpose, a
separate from the consumer unit should be used. Where a residual current device (RCD) is not
already fitted before the consumer unit, one should be installed. The residual current device
will switch off the electricity almost instantaneously if a fault develops in the circuit.

Waterproof sockets must be used where an outside socket is required, an internal control
switch is also recommended so that the outside socket can be isolated if necessary. There are
a number of alternatives to using mains electricity in the garden lights and appliances are
available to reduce the risk of using electricity out of doors.

ELECTRIC POWER CABLES

The standard UK domestic electricity supply is 230 volts AC. Solid core cables should never be
reused – although they can be bent into shape. They are not designed to be flexed and
repeated movement can weaken the cores causing then to become weak, overheat or fail.
Twin core and earth (general internal power cables). Consists of two insulated solid cores with
a bare copper earth conductor between the inner cores and an overall PVC sheath. The colors
being;

Per march 2004 Post march 2004

Live Red Brown
Neutral Block Blue
Earth Green and yellow

Core size Current (A) Wattage (kW) at Typical applications

mm2 240v
1.0 14 3.25 Lighting
1.5 18 4.25 Lighting
2.5 24 5.75 Power circuit
4.0 32 7.75 Power circuit shower
6.0 40 9.75 Shower , cooker
10 53 12.9 cooker

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
2.4

HVAC

HVAC stands for heating, ventilation and air conditioning and refers to the equipment,
distribution network and terminals used either collectivity or individually to provide fresh filtered
air, Heating, Cooling and humidity control in a building. A facility can have any combination of
heating and cooling sources to supply the HVAC system. For heating a facility, a gas- or oil –
fired boiler or furnace heat pump, rooftop unit, new technology such as infrared radiation, or
electric heat could be employed. Common cooling sources include rooftop units, chillers, heat
pumps, air conditioner or some sort of off- peak cooling system.

Our Building basic HVAC design.

RA FAN
( OPTIONAL)
Coi Fan
ls
OA

Single Rune

HVAC system can vary in design and complicity. The following description and diagram
represent a single HVAC system (termed a single – zone constant air volume system).
Modifications can be added to the basic system to reach the desired HVAC operation.

Air is taken through an outdoor air intake that is usually a louvered opening on the top or side
of the building. Atmospheric pressure pushes the air through a damper, which regulates the
amount of outdoor air (OA) taken in by the system. At this point, already conditioned return air
(RA) from the system can be mixed with the outdoor air to from “mixed air”. The mixed air goes
through a per-filter where larger dust particles, insects, leaves, etc. Are caught.

The building automation system (BAS) has become the accepted technology used in
controlling HVAC and other systems in most new commercial and institutional buildings
Existing buildings can be retrofitted with BASs, a change that has been shown to provide
economically beneficial improvements in energy efficiency and occupant comfort. Although
most BASs are designed primarily for HVAC control, many incorporate additional functions,
such as lighting control, computerized maintenance scheduling, life-safety functions (such as
smoke control), and access (security) control.

A building automation system (BAS) consists of sensors, controllers, actuators, and software.
An operator interfaces with the system via a central workstation or web browser.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010

Building automation systems, which are present in more than half of all buildings in the U.S.
larger than 100,000 square feet, save between 5 and 15 percent of overall building energy
consumption. Generally, BASs are most cost-effective in buildings that consume lots of energy,
such as data centers and hospitals. Older or poorly maintained buildings can also benefit
greatly from a BAS retrofit, sometimes yielding savings of over 30 percent.

In addition to saving energy, BASs can reduce overall building maintenance costs by
identifying operational problems early and often. For example, BASs can collect data from
multiple zones around a building and display it on the system’s front-end computer. This
enables the building operator to monitor and access the data to diagnose an operational
problem rather than deploying a maintenance crew to search for it.

Unfortunately, many building automation systems save less energy than they could if set up
optimally. In one detailed study of 11 buildings in New England with BASs, five of the buildings
were found to be underachievers, producing less than 55 percent of expected savings. One
site produced no savings at all.

To improve the likelihood that your BAS will achieve the expected benefits, you should take
advantage of advanced control strategies that use the computer-processing power of a BAS
and adopt a comprehensive approach to quality control known as commissioning. This process
is now required for some buildings, such as public institutions and buildings certified by the
U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
program. Commissioning includes reviews and inspections throughout the design and
construction process as well as rigorous performance tests that move the system through its
sequences of operation before the building is occupied. Commissioning concludes when the
building’s systems are working as planned and the operations team is thoroughly trained in
using all of the system’s features.

It’s also important to ensure that a BAS continues to work properly over time. Recommissioning
—in which building operators use trending and energy consumption data to periodically verify,
document, and improve a building’s operation—can be conducted throughout the life of the
building.

27
 Construction Technology -B 2010
2.5 For this five story building we have consider about fire security system.

Equipment and utility identification

A routine function in any advanced fire suppression operation is to control utilities. Making it
easy to locate and identify utilities will speed firefighter’s progress. Electric, gas, and other fuel
controls should be located either in dedicated rooms with exterior marked entrances, or at
exterior locations away from openings such as windows or doors.

Elevators

The use of elevators during fire incidents is very controversial. Elevators are not usually used
for occupant evacuation. One exception is trained operators evacuating occupants with special
needs. They should, however, be designed for fire service use.

Stairs

The identification signage is provided inside stairwells at every level. These standards all
require stairwell signs in buildings over a certain height, but the height thresholds vary.
Signage should show the stair identifier, floor level, terminus of the top and bottom, roof
accessibility, discharge level, and direction to exit discharge. On floors that require upward
travel to reach the exit, a directional indicator should also be provided. It is important that these
signs be located 5 feet above the floor and be visible with the stair door open or closed.

Stair Capacity

Building and fire codes typically require that stairs accommodate exiting occupants. Fire
service personnel who may use the stairs are not factored into exit capacity calculations. In
situations where occupants are still exiting and firefighters are using the same stairs to enter
the building the evacuation may take longer. If stairs are not widened as one travels in the
direction of egress unless the stairs converge from both above and below. This approach
assumes that people will evacuate in a phased manner, beginning with the floor closest to the
fire origin. A solution to egress delays caused by either counter- flow or total evacuation is to
provide additional exit capacity by means of additional stairs or widened stairs. Cost and space
are also disadvantages of this solution.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010

Components
of a
Firefi
Firefighting
Self
ghtin
shaft Firefi
g-
clos ghtin
body
Fire
ing g
figh stair
Fire
ting
doo s
lift
inr
lift
sha
ft
Hazards to the Fire service

During a fire, any building may become inherently unsafe for occupants and fire service
personnel. However, some building construction features present unique or unexpected
hazards.

Lightweight Construction

Trusses are widely used in construction to span wide areas without the need for vertical
supports, reducing both material and construction costs. However, trusses often fail suddenly
and totally during fires. Both wood and metal trusses are made of interdependent members
who all fail if one member fails.

Shaft- Ways

Vertical shafts within buildings sometimes have exterior openings accessible to firefighter. Any
such doors or windows should be marked “SHAFTWAY” on the exterior with at least 6 Inch
high lettering as required by the IFC and NFPA1.

Skylights

Without special precautions, roof- mounted skylights obscured by heavy smoke or snow may
collapse under the weight of a firefighter. Skylights should be designed to bear the same
weight loads as the roof. The same applies to covering over unused skylights. If this is not
practical, mount barriers around skylights to prevent firefighter from inadvertently stepping on
them.

Some fire security equipments

29
 Construction Technology -B 2010
1. Fire Break Glass (BGA)
2. Fire Indicator Panel (F.I.P)
3. Fire Doors
4. Smoke and Thermal Fire Detectors.
5. Portable Fire Extinguishers.

There are several types of fire extinguishers.

1. Water.
2. Foam.
3. Carbon Dioxide.
4. Dry- Chemical.
5. Wet chemical.

PROJECT (C)

3.1)

Definition:
Line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips open
to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles running on their own wheels.
Context:
Included are bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings and interchanges.
Toll roads are also included. Excluded are dedicated cycle paths.

A road is an identifiable route, way or path between places.Roads are typically smoothed,
paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; Road surface (British English) or pavement
(American English) is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain
traffic (vehicular or foot traffic). Such surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic. The most
common modern paving methods are asphalt and concrete. In the past, brick was extensively
used, as was metalling.Today, permeable paving methods are beginning to be used more for
low-impact roadways and walkways.

The most common modern paving methods are asphalt and concrete.

Historically, pavements have been divided into two broad categories, rigid and flexible. These
classical definitions, in some cases, are an over-simplification. However, the terms rigid and
flexible provide a good description of how the pavements react to loads and the environment.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010

Sub-bases and Sub-grades

A reasonably uniform sub-grade or sub-base, with no abrupt changes in support, is ideal for
any concrete pavement. Most native soils are not too uniform and thus require some
improvement or additional layers to compensate.A sub-base is a thin layer of material placed
on top of the prepared sub-grade.Sub-bases provide uniform support to the pavement and a
stable platform for construction equipment. Sub-bases also help prevent movement of sub-
grade soils at transverse pavement joints in roads subject to a large volume of truck traffic.
Sub-bases may be gravel, stone, cement-modified soil, asphalt, or econocrete (low-strength
concrete).The sub-base and base courses may be constructed from more than one individual
layer of the specified material, but for our purposes, we will consider each layer as being a
single entity. Sometimes, , levels permitting, an existing bitmac or concrete surface can be
overlaid with a new surface course.This is acceptable provided that the new surfacing is
properly bonded to the old surface.

Construction Method

Mark out the site. It is assumed that the surfacing is to be flush i.e. level, with the existing
ground. It is a good idea to excavate wider than the planned width, allowing an extra 300-
450mm at the edges makes handling much easier, especially if Krebs are to be used. In most
cases, a well-laid tar macadam surface is impermeable to water, and should be constructed in
such a manner that surface water will be directed to adjacent open ground, a gully or similar
drainage point. Bear in mind that private driveways are not permitted to drain onto a public
highway or directly into the sewer system.

Excavation

The surface needs to be dug off to a depth of at least 175mm. The depth of dig can be roughly
calculated as.... surface course + binder course + sub-base)Conditions may vary with

31
 Construction Technology -B 2010
countries and local practice based on their experience. All weeds and other unwanted organic
matter, along with topsoil must be removed and any soft spots excavated and filled with
compacted sub-base material. If the area is troubled with weeds, it should be treated the
excavated sub-grade with a general weed killer such as Sodium Chlorate, but it is unlikely any
weed will be able to penetrate the upper layers.

A Geo-membrane can be used if deep-rooted, pernicious weeds are a problem, of if there is

any concern regarding the competence of the sub-grade.No edging/kerb = crumbling edges
Edgings or kerbs MUST be used on free edges, i.e. those parts of the perimeter of the
surfaced area not bounded by walls or other solid structures that will act as a retainer for the
bitmac.

This is to prevent the bitmac crumbling at the edges, as shown in the photograph opposite.
Brick edgings, plain or decorative edging Krebs, or sets laid lengthways are all suitable, and
should be constructed at this stage.

Sub-base

This is essential if the pavement is to last longer than a couple of years. Do not employ any
contractor who tells you that a sub-base is not required, unless there is a suitable existing sub-
base or base layer. The sub-base should be a minimum 100mm thick.

Binder course

This is a load-bearing, strengthening layer of the pavement and should be at least 40mm,
preferably 50mm thick.The material used as a binder course is 'chunkier' than a wearing
course, usually comprising 20mm or 28mm aggregate in a bitumen binder, known as Dense
Bitumen Macadam (DBM). On public highways and other heavier-use projects, the binder
course may be underlain by a base layer. For binder course 50-80mm thick, use 20mm
material (DBM). For binder course 70-150mm thick, use 28mm material (DBM)

Surface course

This is the top layer of the bitmac pavement, the layer that is seen and trafficked. It needs to be
fairly regular to provide a smooth ride for wheeled vehicles, although this is much more
important on higher speed pavements than on residential driveways. A macadam surface
course should consist of a small, hard aggregate, usually 6mm or 10mm, in a bitumen or
asphalt binder.

Alternatively, an asphalt may be used; this material is also known as a sand carpet or asphalt
carpet, and is prepared in a batch plant to a specified recipe, consisting of selected sands and
grits mixed into an asphalt matrix, with coated chippings sprinkled over the surface and rolled
into the asphalt as part of the compaction process. Again, it may be machine or hand laid,
depending on area and access.

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 Construction Technology -B 2010
The wearing course should be at least 20-25mm thick when rolled, and should not deviate from
the correct level by more than ± 6mm. There should be no roller marks in the finished surface.

Some road Construction Materials

Road Construction Equipments

Some Road Safety signals

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 Construction Technology -B 2010

3.2) Surface Drainage

Surface drainage is concerned with removing all water that is present on the pavement
surface, shoulder surface or any other surface from which it may flow onto the pavement.  If
not systematically removed, this water can accumulate underneath and weaken the pavement
structure.  There are three primary means used to prevent water infiltration and accumulation:

Impermeable HMA.  HMA tends to be impermeable below about 8 percent air voids, therefore
proper compaction practices should be followed to ensure an impermeable pavement.  Also,
minor cracks in the HMA should be promptly sealed.

Slope.  The pavement section should be sloped to allow rainwater to sheet flow quickly to the
edge where it is typically collected in a curb and gutter system or a roadside ditch.  A generally
accepted standard is a 2 percent cross slope.

34
 Construction Technology -B 2010
Grade.  The curb and gutter or roadside ditch must be properly graded to allow flow to central
collection points such as catch basins or detention ponds.  A generally accepted standard is a
grade of 0.5 percent or more although lesser grades have been used effectively.

 Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage is concerned with removing water that percolates through or is contained
in the underlying subgrade.  This water, typically the result of a high water table or
exceptionally wet weather, can accumulate under the pavement structure by two chief means:

Gravity flow.  Water from surrounding areas can be absorbed by the soil then flow by gravity to
areas underneath the pavement structure.  In pavement with high air voids (above 8 – 9
percent), water can percolate down through the pavement structure itself. 

Capillary rise.  Capillary rise is the rise in a liquid above the level of zero pressure due to a net
upward force produced by the attraction of the water molecules to a solid surface (e.g., soil). 
Capillary rise can be substantial, up to 20 ft. or more.  In general, the smaller the soil grain
size, the greater the potential for capillary rise.  Often, capillary rise is a problem in areas of
high groundwater tables. 

Most pavements have performed adequately without considering these effects.  However,
HMA pavements can fail because of subgrade support deterioration as a result of excessive
moisture or other water-related problems.  These issues can be addressed in two manners:

1. Minimize water infiltration into the pavement structure.  In most cases, the accumulated
water in the underlying subgrade that causes the damage comes from surface infiltration.  This
infiltration can be minimized by providing proper roadside drainage and minimizing air voids
within the HMA.
2. Provide subsurface drainage.  This needs to be done judiciously, because it may be
somewhat akin to treating the symptom rather than the problem.  Subsurface drainage consists
of three basic elements A permeable base to provide for rapid removal of water which enters
the pavement structure.  Based on recent research from California, permeable base layers may
strip and become clogged with fines thus weakening the overall pavement structure. A method
of conveying the removed water away from the pavement structure.

3.3)

What Retaining Walls Do?

Retaining walls provide lateral support to vertical slopes of soil. They retain soil which
would otherwise collapse into a more natural shape. The retained soil is sometimes
referred to as backfill.Retaining walls can be constructed of many different materials and
with a variety of

Various types of retaining walls

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Gravity walls depend on the weight of their mass (stone, concrete or other heavy material)
to resist pressures from behind and will often have a slight 'batter' setback, to improve
stability by leaning back into the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are often
made from mortarless stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units)

Dry-stacked gravity walls are somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing in frost
areas.Prior to the introduction of modern reinforced-soil gravity walls, cantilevered walls
were the most common type of taller retaining wall. Cantilevered walls are made from a
relatively thin stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or mortared masonry (often in
the shape of an inverted T).

These walls cantilever loads (like a beam ) to a large, structural footing, converting
horizontal pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below.
Sometimes cantilevered walls are butressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the
back, to improve their strength resisting high loads. Buttresses are short wing walls at right
angles to the main trend of the wall. These walls require rigid concrete footings below
seasonal frost depth. This type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity
wall.

3.4), 3.5) Bridge

A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road, body of water or other physical obstacle, for
the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.Designs of bridges vary depending on the
function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed. But since
the world has been making new types of bridges, more have been proven to be safer and to
be more logical to use. There are even retracting bridges that are used for curfews.

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Types of bridges

There are six main types of bridges:

Beam bridges:

Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by piers. The earliest beam bridges
were simple logs that sat across streams and similar simple structures.In modern times, beam
bridges are large box steel girder bridges. Weight on top of the beam pushes straight down on
the piers at either end of the bridge.They are made up mostly of wood or metal. Beam bridges
typically do not exceed 250 feet long. he longer the bridge, the weaker.The world's longest
beam bridge is Lake Pontchartrain Causewayin southern Louisiana, U.S.A., at 23.83 miles
(38.35 km), with individual spans of 56 feet (17 m).

Cantilever bridges

Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams that are supported on only
one end. Most cantilever bridges use two cantilever arms extending from opposite sides of the
obstacle to be crossed, meeting at the center. The largest cantilever bridge is the 549-metre
(1,801 ft) Quebec Bridge in Quebec, Canada.

Arch bridges:

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Arch bridges are arch-shaped and have abutments at each end. The earliest known arch
bridges were built by the Greeks and include the Arkadiko Bridge. The weight of the bridge is
thrust into the abutments at either side. Dubai in the United Arab Emirates is currently building
the Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing which is scheduled for completion in 2012. When
completed, it will be the largest arch bridge in the world.

Suspension bridges

Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made
of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from
towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted
deep into the floor of a lake or river. The longest suspension bridge in the world is the
12,826 feet (3,909 m) Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan. See simple suspension bridge, stressed
ribbon bridge, under spanned suspension bridge, suspended-deck suspension bridge, and
self-anchored suspension bridge.

Cable-stayed bridges

Like suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges are held up by cables. However, in a cable-
stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately
shorter. The first known cable-stayed bridge was designed in 1784 by C.T. Loescher. The
longest cable-stayed bridge is the Sutong Bridge over the Yangtze River in China.

Truss bridges

Truss bridges are composed of connected elements. They have a solid deck and a lattice
of pin-jointed or gusset-joined girders for the sides. Early truss bridges were made of wood,
and later of wood with iron tensile rods, but modern truss bridges are made completely of
metals such as wrought iron and steel or sometimes of reinforced concrete. The Quebec
Bridge, mentioned above as a cantilever bridge, is also the world's longest truss bridge.

By use

A bridge is designed for trains, pedestrian or road traffic, a pipeline or waterway for water
transport or barge traffic. An aqueduct is a bridge that carries water, resembling a viaduct,
which is a bridge that connects points of equal height. A road-rail bridge carries both road and
rail traffic.Bridges are subject to unplanned uses as well.

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The areas underneath some bridges have become makeshift shelters and homes to homeless
people, and the undersides of bridges all around the world are spots of prevalent graffiti. Some
bridges attract people attempting suicide, and become known as suicide bridges.some bridges
are built much taller than necessary. This type, often found in east-Asian style gardens, is
called a Moon bridge, evoking a rising full moon.

Movable bridges

Some bridges are not fixed crossings, but can move out of the way of boats or other kinds of
traffic which, ideally, moves under them, but is sometimes too tall to fit.

Double-decker bridge

"Metrobridge" Vorobyovy Gory double-deck bridge in Moscow carries the Moscow

Metro.Double-decker bridges have two levels, such as the San Francisco – Oakland Bay
Bridge, with two road levels. Tsing Ma Bridgeand Kap Shui Mun Bridge in Hong Kong have six
lanes on their upper decks, and on their lower decks there are two lanes and a pair of tracks
for MTR metro trains. Likewise, in Toronto, the Prince Edward Viaduct has four lanes of motor
traffic on its upper deck and a pair of tracks for the Bloor–Danforth subway line.

Some double-decker bridges only use one level for street traffic; the Washington Avenue
Bridge in Minneapolis reserves its lower level for automobile traffic and its upper level for
pedestrian and bicycle traffic (predominantly students at the University of Minnesota).

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

The parts of a bridge are separated into two categories: The Superstructure or the part on
which you drive or walk (i.e. beams, deck, curb, sidewalk, railings, expansion joints, bearings,
etc.)

The Substructure or the parts supporting the superstructure (i.e. abutments, backwalls,
wingwalls, piers, footings, etc.).The main superstructure members are generally made of
reinforced concrete, steel or timber.The substructure members are generally made of
reinforced concrete and stone, although some bridges substructures have been built with timber
and steel.The Foundation part of the Substructure is generally built with reinforced concrete or
stone.

Bridge Materials:

Concrete is a widely used material in superstructure and substructure member because it is

very durable, can be formed into many shapes, and is extremely strong when reinforced with
steel bars. The main uses for concrete in the superstructure are in the deck, sidewalks, curbs
and parapets (side walls at the edge of the road). The main uses for concrete in the
substructure are in the walls and footings of members such as abutments, wingwalls, and
piers.Special high strength concrete is used to make precast (factory built), prestressed
(special wire is embedded under tension in the concrete) concrete beams. The precast beams
are shipped to the site and placed on the substructure members.

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Steel

Steel is mainly used in the superstructure as beams and trusses to span the long distances
from one substructure member to another. Steel is used because it can be rolled and
fabricated into very strong, efficient members. The weight of a steel member needed to span a
given distance is much less than that of a concrete member to span the same distance. This
can be very important as bridge spans are built longer.

Steel is generally not used in the exposed parts of substructure members because
substructure members are in contact with or exposed to the ground and water.This causes
rapid corrosion (rust) of the steel, even if it is painted. Painted steel beams in the
superstructure generally last a long time, especially when the beams are shielded from direct
water (rain) contact by a concrete deck.

Timber

Timber is used mostly for decks, although the county has one timber covered bridge and one
bridge with timber beams. Timber is a relatively lightweight material that can be easily cut into
different size and length members. Timber members must be treated with preservatives to
prevent them from decaying and to ward off attack from insects. Some older bridges over
railroads have been built with timber trestles (piers), but there are none in Harford County.

Stone

Stone is used mostly for abutments, wing walls and headwalls and as a veneer (exterior
decorative layer) on walls. Stone is a very durable material that can support a lot of weight.
Some original railroad bridges, west of Baltimore City, were built with stone in the form of an
arch and still stand today. Cut stone can be built without mortared joints.

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