(5301) ADVANCED OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS

Text Book:
 Open Channel Flow by .M .Hanif Chaudhry

Reference Books:
 Open Channel Hydraulics by V.T.Chow
 Open Channel Flow by F.M.Henderson
 Open Channel Hydraulics by French
 Engineering Fluid Mechanics by Daugherty/Franzini

Total Marks 100 for Part I & Part II

Part I: 40% Marks (Theory Paper)
Part II: 60% Marks which include
 20% Mid-Term Exam (Theory Paper)
 20% Viva Voce
 20% Assignment+Quiz+Seminar on topic assigned
+Attendance Practical/Field Work
Chapter 1: BASIC CONCEPTS

DEFINITIONS

OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
Analysis of open-channel flow is required for the Planning,
Design and Operation of Water Resource Projects.

CLOSED CONDUIT
A flow passage with closed top is called a closed conduit, e.g.,
tunnels, pipes and aqueducts etc.

OPEN CHANNEL
A flow passage with open top is known as an open channel,
e.g., rivers, streams, estuaries etc.
FREE SURFACE OR OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
A flow in an open channel or in a closed conduit having a free
surface is called as free-surface flow or open channel flow as
shown below. The free surface is usually subjected to
atmospheric pressure and the flow is under the action of
gravity.

Open Channel
 Closed - conduit flow with free surface

PIPE OR PRESSURISED FLOW

The flow in a closed conduit with no free surface, i.e., flowing
full, is called pipe flow or pressurized flow as shown below.
The pressure in the conduit will be more than atmospheric
pressure.

COMBINED FREE-SURFACE AND

PRESSURIZED FLOW
A closed conduit may have free-surface flow in part of the
length, e.g., at section A-A and pipe flow in the remaining
length, e.g., at section B-B.
 A B

Section A-A

A B

Section B-B

TERMINOLOGY
A channel may be natural or artificial. Various names have
been used for artificial channels as follows:

Canal
A long channel having mild slope excavated in ground is
called a canal.

Flume
A channel supported above ground and built of wood, metal
or concrete is called a flume.

Chute
A chute is a channel having very steep bottom slope and
almost vertical sides.

Tunnel
A tunnel is a channel excavated through a hill or a mountain.
Culvert
A short channel flowing partly full is known as culvert.

Prismatic Channel
A channel having the same cross section and bottom slope is
referred to as a prismatic channel.
Non-Prismatic Channel
A channel having varying cross section and/or bottom slope is
called a non-prismatic channel.

SOME TERMS RELATED TO OPEN CHANNELS

Channel Section
A cross section taken normal to the direction of flow is called
a channel section.

Depth of Flow Section ‘y’

It is the vertical distance of the lowest point of the channel
section from the free surface.
Depth of Flow Section ‘d’
It is the depth of flow normal to the direction of flow.

Stage ‘Z’
It is the vertical distance of free surface above a specified
datum.
Flow Area ‘A’
It is cross-sectional area of flow normal to the direction of
flow.

B B

A y
D

Z
P B

Datum
Wetted Perimeter ‘P’
It is the length of line of intersection of channel wetted
surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to the flow
direction.

Hydraulic Radius ‘R’

It is the ratio of flow area to wetted perimeter, i.e., R=A/P.

Top Width ‘B’

It is the width of the channel section at the free surface.

Hydraulic Depth ‘D’

It is the ratio of flow area to top width, i.e., D=A/B.

HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE (HGL)

A line joining the top of the liquid surface in the piezometers
in a closed conduit or an open channel is called hydraulic
grade line. In pipe flow, the height of HGL above a specified
datum is called the piezometric head at that location. In free
surface flow, the HGL usually, but not always, coincides with
the free surface.

Energy-grade line (EGL)

Hydraulic-grade line (HGL)

Datum
Pipe flow
ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL)
If the velocity head is added to the top of the HGL and the
resulting points are joined by a line, then this line is called
energy grade line. EGL represents the total head at different
sections of a closed conduit or an open channel.

Energy-grade line (EGL)

Hydraulic-grade line (HGL)

Datum
Free - surface flow

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWS
Flows are classified as follows:-
Flow

Unsteady Steady

Uniform Varied Uniform Varied

Gradually Rapidly Gradaully Rapidly

STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOWS

If the flow velocity at a given point does not change with
respect to time, then the flow is called steady flow. However,
if the velocity at a given location changes with respect to time,
then the flow is called unsteady flow.
UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM FLOWS
If the flow velocity at a given instant of time does not change
within a given length of channel, then the flow is called
uniform flow. However, if the flow velocity at a time varies
with respect to distance, then the flow is called non-uniform
flow or varied flow.

GRADUALLY & RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

If the flow depth varies at a slow rate with respect to distance,
then the flow is called gradually varied flow (GVF) whereas if
the flow depth varies significantly in a short distance then the
flow is called rapidly varied flow.

LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

If the liquid particles appear to move in definite smooth paths
and flow appears to be as a movement of thin layers on top of
each other, then the flow is called laminar flow.
In turbulent flow, the liquid particles move in irregular paths
which are not fixed with respect to either time or space.
REYNOLDS NUMBER
The ratio of viscous and inertial forces is defined as the
Reynolds number, i.e.
(Re=VL/)
R=Reynolds number
V=mean flow velocity
L=characteristic length
=kinematic viscosity of the liquid.
The value of Reynolds number (Re=VL/) determines whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent. The transition from laminar to
turbulent flow in free-surface flows occurs for R e of about
600.

SUBCRITICAL, SUPERCRITICAL AND

CRITICAL FLOWS

A critical flow is defined as that for which the value of Froude

number (Fr=V/√gy) is equal to 1.
If the value of Froude number is less than 1 then the flow is
called subcritical.
If the value of Froude number is more than 1 then the flow is
said to be supercritical.

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
The flow velocity in a channel section varies from one point
to another. This is due to shear stress at the bottom and the
sides of the channel and due to the presence of free surface.
Following figures show typical velocity distributions in
different channel cross-sections.

Pipe

2.0
1.5
Typical
1.0
2.5 Velocity
0.5 2.0 2.5

2.0
Y Variation
Tropezoidal channel 1.5

1.0
1.0 2.0 1.5 0.5
1.5 0.5

1.0

Shallow ditch 0.5

2.5

2.0
1.5 Narrow rectangular section 1.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
Triangular channel Natural irregular channel x
0.5
ENERGY COEFFICIENT( )
V2 (Vm) 2
In a channel section 2 g
( ) m 
2 g , so the velocity head based on
mean velocity, Vm is required to be corrected. This correction
factor is called energy, velocity head or Coriolis coefficient
denoted by .
In order to calculate this coefficient through element area A,
consider the cross sectional area of an open channel.

Mass of liquid flowing through area A per unit time

= VA
K.E. transfer through area A per unit time =
1
VAV 2  (1)
2
1
= 2 V 3 A
K.E. transfer through area ‘A’ per unit time
1
= 2   V 3dA  (2)
Now weight flowing through A per unit time
= ( gVA)  VA

Let Vm = Mean Velocity through the channel section

(e.g. at 0.6y depth)

So weight flowing through channel section ‘A’in terms of Vm

Per unit time = VmdA
Vm 2
Now corrected velocity head for channel section = 
2g
Where  = Energy head coefficient
K.E. transfer through ‘A’ per unit time (using Vm)
 1 wt. flowing / sec 2
= 2

g
 Vm

1 Vm  dA 2
=   Vm
2 g
Vm3
=   dA  (3)
2
(Here Vm is a constant while V is a variable)

It follows from equation (2) and equation (3)

3
Vm 1
  dA    V dA
3
2 2
 V 3dA
 3  ( 4)
Vm  dA

 for River
Consider a compound channel as shown below:

1 2 3
Main
Flood Plain Channel Flood Plain

V13 A1  V23 A2  V33 A3

 3
 (5)
Vm ( A1  A2  A3 )

V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3
Now Vm   (6) Use of Eq .of cont.
A1  A2  A3
Substituting eq. (6) in Eq. (5)
(V13 A1  V23 A2  V33 A3 )( A1  A2  A3 )3

(V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3 )3 ( A1  A2  A3 )

(V13 A1  V23 A2  V33 A3 )( A1  A2  A3 )2


(V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3 )3
In general if there are N sub-areas then
N N
( i 1 Vi 3 Ai )( i 1 Ai ) 2
 N
( i 1 Vi Ai )3

MOMENTUM COEFFICIENT( )
Similar to energy coefficient, a coefficient for momentum
transfer through a channel section may be introduced to
account for non-uniform velocity distribution.
Mass of liquid flowing through area A per unit time
= VA
Momentum passing through area A per unit time
mass
= time  velocity
= ( VA)  V = AV 2

Momentum passing through whole section, ‘A’per unit time

=   V 2 dA  (1)
Momentum passing through whole section per unit time in
terms of means velocity Vm,
Vm = Vm 2  dA  (2)
Equating Eq. (1) and Eq. (2)
  V 2 dA

Vm 2  dA
V 2 dA
  2  (3)
Vm  dA

Quiz:
For turbulent flow  is less (than 1.15) but for laminar flow it
is more, why?

EXAMPLE
The velocity distribution in a channel section may be
approximated by the equation V=Vo(y/yo) n, in which V is the
flow velocity at depth y; Vo is the flow velocity at depth y o,
and n = a constant. Derive expressions for the energy and
momentum coefficients.
Solution
VdA
Vm  
 dA
If we consider unit width of the channel then A can be
replaced with depth y
Vdy
Vm  
 dy
y y n
 0 o Vo ( ) dy
yo
Vm  y
 0 o dy
Vo yo n 1 1 V
Vm  n    o
yo n  1 yo n 1
By substituting V=Vo(y/yo) n, Vm=Vo/ (n+1) and dA=dy into
equation for “”, we get
y 3 y 3n
0 o Vo ( ) dy
yo

Vo 3 y o
[ ]  dy
n 1 0

3 3n 3 n 1
(V / y )[ yo /(3n  1)] (n  1)3
 o o 
[Vo /( n  1))]3 yo 3n  1

By substituting V=Vo (y/yo) n, Vm=Vo/ (n+1) and dA=dy into

equation for “”, we get
y 2 y 2n
0 o Vo ( ) dy
yo

Vo 2 yo
[ ]  dy
n 1 0

2 2n 2 n 1
(V / y )[ yo /(2n  1)]
 o o 2
[Vo /(n  1))] yo

(n  1)2 ( yo 2 n 1 ) (n  1) 2
  2n 
yo ( yo )(2n  1) 2n  1
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
The pressure distribution in a channel section depends upon
the flow conditions. There are several possible cases
as follows:

STATIC CONDITIONS
Consider a vertical column of liquid in a body of fluid at rest.

Peizometer

y W= y A

Liquid Column FBD p A

The horizontal component of the resultant force acting on the

liquid column is zero. The vertical component of the resultant
force is also zero and is given as under.
pA  gyA
p  y
p y ( is constant)

Thus the pressure intensity is directly proportional to the

depth below the free surface. The linear relationship is based
on the assumption that the ρ is constant. This is true most of
the time except at very large depth, where large pressures
result in increased density.
HORIZONTAL, PARALLEL FLOW
Consider a vertical column of liquid flowing horizontally in a
frictionless channel. Assume there is no acceleration in the
direction of flow and flow velocity is parallel to the channel
bottom and is uniform over the channel section. Hence the
streamlines are parallel to the channel bottom.

W
V y
F1 F2
y
p A Free-body diagram

Hence pressure distribution is the same as if the liquid were

stationary, i.e., so it is referred to as the hydrostatic pressure
distribution. Since there is no acceleration in the horizontal
direction so
F1 = F2

The vertical component of the resultant force is also zero and

is given as under.
 pA  gyA
p  y

Thus the pressure distribution is the same as if the liquid were

stationary, i.e., it is called hydrostatic pressure distribution.

PARALLEL FLOW IN A SLOPING CHANNEL

Consider the flow in a sloping channel such that there is no
acceleration in the flow direction. The velocity is uniform at a
channel cross-section and is parallel to the channel bottom,
i.e., the streamlines are parallel to the channel bottom.

V
d d cos d V
W= d A
dcos
p A d
Free-body diagram Pressure distribution

Since there is no acceleration along the direction of flow so,

F1 = F2
Also there is no acceleration along the column of the liquid,
so the pressure force can be equated to weight component of
column along this direction

pA  gdA cos

p  gd cos
p  d cos

Now d  y cos
p  y cos 2 
Thus the pressure distribution is not hydrostatic in spite of the
fact that the flow is parallel and there is no acceleration along
the direction of flow. However if the slope of channel bottom
is small then
cos  1 and d  y (when  5.7o)
Hence
p  d  y

CURVILINEAR FLOW
In all the previous cases the streamlines were straight and
parallel to the channel bed. But in certain cases the
streamlines are not straight but have some curvature. If the
curvature of streamlines is substantial, the flow is known as
curvilinear flow. It is of two types:

Case I: Concave Flow

In order to determine the pressure distribution in a concave
flow, consider the forces acting in the vertical direction on a
column of liquid having cross-sectional area A.

Peizometer
ya
ys A
ys Centrifugal
Force
Flow p A

Weight of the column = ysA  (1)

(Acting downwards)
Mass of the liquid column = ysA
 Centrifugal acceleration = V2/r
Centrifugal force = ysAV2/r  (2)
(Acting downwards)
Pressure head at the bottom of column = pA  (3)
(Acting upwards)
Since there is no movement in the vertical direction, i.e.,
F = 0
So pA = ysA + ysAV2/r
1 V2
p  ys  ys
g r
1V2
p  y s (1  )
g r
Case II: Convex Flow
In order to determine the pressure distribution in a convex
flow, consider the forces acting in the vertical direction on a
column of liquid having cross-sectional area A.

ya Centrifugal
ys Force
ys A
Flow
p A

Weight of the column = ysA  (1)

(Acting downwards)
Mass of the liquid column = ysA
Centrifugal acceleration = V2/r
Centrifugal force = ysAV2/r  (2)
(Acting upwards)
 Pressure head at the bottom of column = pA  (3)
(Acting upwards)
Since there is no movement in the vertical direction, i.e.,
F = 0
So pA = ysA - ysAV2/r
1 V2
p  ys  ys
g r

1V2
p  ys (1  )
g r

In general for curvilinear flows

1V2
Pressure intensity = p  y s (1 
g r
)

p 1V2
pressure head= 
 y s (1 
g r
)
PROBLEM 1-2
The discharge in a given channel is proportional to AR2/3 if the
flow is uniform. For a circular conduit having an inside
diameter D, prove that the discharge is maximum when the
flow depth is 0.94D.
Solution:

Q  AR2/3 T
Y = 0.94D A E B
2
d
A (  sin  )
8
D D/2 D/2
P D
2 C /2
D sin  y
R  (1  )
4  D/2
(Values for A, P & R are given
in Table 2-1 of book by Chow)
F
Q = AR 2/3
Q = A (A 2/3/P 2/3)
 Q = A 5/3/P 2/3
dQ
For Qmax, d  0
2 dP 5 dA
A5 / 3 ( )( P  5 / 3 )  P  2 / 3 ( )( A2 / 3 ) 0
3 d 3 d
On simplification we get,
2 dP 5 dA
( ) ( )
P d A d
A d D d D2
2( ) ( )  5 [ (  sin  )]
P d 2 d 8
On simplification we get,
A 5
 D(1  cos )
P 8
Substituting values of A & P from above and simplifying,
  sin  5
 (1  cos )
 2
5
 (1  cos )    sin 
2
By hit and trial, for a value of  = 5.28 radians, the LHS of the
equation becomes equal to RHS (i.e. LHSRHS6.12)
Therefore,  = 5.28 radians
D 5.28
CE  Cos (  )
2 2
CE  0.44 D
y = CE + CF
y = 0.44D + 0.50D
y = 0.94D
So the discharge will be maximum for y = 0.94D

PROBLEM 1-3:
Compute (R/Rf )2/3 and AR2/3/(AR2/3)f for different values of y/D
for a circular conduit flowing partially full, in which y = flow
depth; D = conduit diameter; and the subscript ‘f’ refers to the
values for the full section. At what values of ratio y/D do the
curves have maximum values?
Given Data;
Circular conduit (flowing partially full),
y = flow depth; D = conduit diameter;

To find
Maximum values of y/D for (R/Rf )2/3 and AR2/3/ (AR2/3)f

SOLUTION

d2
Values of A and R are A
8
(  sin  )
D sin 
R (1  )
4 
(Values for A, P & R are given in Table 2-1 of book by V. T. Chow)

(AR2/3)f = (Π D2/4) (D/4)2/3 = (Π/45/3)D8/3

AR2/3 = D2/8 (θ-sin θ) (D/4)2/3[ (θ-sin θ)2/3/ θ2/3]

= (22/3/85/3)(D8/3/ θ 2/3) (θ-sin θ)5/3

AR2/3/ (AR2/3)f = (1/2 Π) [ (θ-sin θ)2/3/ θ2/3]

R/Rf = (θ-sin θ)/ θ

Y = D/2 + D/2 Sinα Where α = θ /2 - Π /2

So

Y = D/2 + D/2 Sin (θ /2 - Π /2)

Y = D/2[1 –cos θ /2]

Y/D = 1/2[1 –cos θ /2]

Using trial and error

Y/D = 0.938 gives maximum value for AR2/3/ (AR2/3)f

Y/D = 0.81 gives maximum value for R2/3/ (R2/3f)

PROBLEM 1-9
While computing the bending moment and the shear force
acting on the side walls of the spillway chute as shown below,
a structural engineer assumed that the water pressure varies
linearly from zero at the free surface to gy at the invert of the
chute, where y = flow depth measured vertically. What are the
computed values for the bending moment and the shear force
at the invert level? Are the computed results correct? If not,
Compute the percentage error.

Side wall
Watr surface
A 50 m
y=5 m Section A-A
A
30

Solution

d d
F(actual) F(computed)
d/3 d/3
dcos y
ACTUAL PRESSURE DIST. COMPUTED PRESSURE DIST.
Using actual pressure distribution
 1
(Shear Force) actual = F( actual ) 
2
 d cos  d
1
(S.F.) actual     y cos   cos  y cos
2
1
    y 2 cos3 
2
1 kN
(S.F.) actual   9.81 5 2  cos 3 30  79.64
2 m
1 d
(Bending Moment) actual  ( 2  d cos  d )  3
d y cos 30
(B.M.) actual  (S.F.) actual  3  79.64  3
5  cos 30 kN  m
(B.M.) actual  79.64  3  114 .95 m
Using computed pressure distribution
1
(Shear Force)computed = F(computed )  2  y  d
1
(S.F.) computed     y  y cos
2
1 kN
(S.F.) computed   9.81  52  cos 30  106.19
2 m
1 d
(Bending Moment) computed  ( 2  y  d )  3
d y cos 30
(B.M.) computed  (S.F.) computed  3  106.19  3
5  cos 30 kN  m
(B.M.) computed  106.19  3  153.27 m
Thus the computed results are not correct as they are
Not equal to the actual values.
PERCENTAGE ERROR
For Shear Force:
Error = 106.19 - 79.64 = 26.55 kN/m
Percentage Error = (26.55/106.19)100 = 25%
For Bending Moment
Error = 153.27 - 114.95 = 38.32 kN/m
Percentage Error = (38.32/153.27)100 = 25%

PROBLEM 1-10
A spillway flip bucket has a radius of 20 m as shown below. If
the flow velocity at section B-B is 20 m/sec and the flow
depth is 5 m, compute the pressure intensity at point C.
 0m
B

R=2
Flip Bucket
C
B
Data
R = 20 m
V = 20 m/sec
ys = 5 m
 = 9.81 kN/m3
g = 9.1 m/sec2
Determine
p = ? (kN/m2)

SOLUTION
Since it is a concave flow, so the pressure intensity can be
computed using the following formula:
1V2
p  y s (1  )
g r
1 202
p  9.81  5(1   )
9.81 20
p = 149.15 kN/m2

PROBLEM 1-11:
In a partially full channel having a triangular cross section as
shown below the rate of discharge Q = kAR2/3, in which K = a
constant; A = flow area; and R= hydraulic radius. Determine
the depth at which the discharge is maximum. For the
triangular channel section shown, A = [B-(h/ 3 )] h, and P =
B+ (4h/ 3 ).
 Q =KAR2/3
Data

A = [B-(h/ 3 )] h
P =B+ (4h/ 3 )

Determine
h=? (For max. Q)

SOLUTION

Q = K [B-(h/ 3 )] 5/3 h5/3 [B+ (4h/ 3 )]-2/3

= K [hB-(h2/ 3 )] 5/3[B+ (4h/ 3 )]-2/3
Q is max. Or min. if dQ/ dh = 0
dQ/ dh = 5/3K [hB-(h2/ 3 )] 2/3[B-2h/ 3 ][B+ (4h/ 3 )]-2/3
- 2/3 [B+4h/ 3 ]-5/3[4/ 3 ] K [hB-(h2/ 3 )]5/3 = 0

= K [hB-(h2/ 3 )] 2/3[B+ (4h/ 3 )]-2/3[5/3(B-2h/ 3 )

-8/3 3 (B+4h/ 3 )-1(hB-h2/ 3 )] = 0

= K [hB-(h2/ 3 )]2/3[5/3(B- 2h/ 3 )-8/3 3

(B+ 4h/ 3 )-1(hB - h2/ 3 )] = 0

Therefore, hB – h2/ 3 =0
 h= B
3

PROBLEM 1-19:

Show that the bending moment on the side walls

of a steep channel with a bottom slope θ for a flow depth of y
is 1/6γy3 cos4 θ. Derive an expression for the shear force.

SOLUTION

d = y cos θ
P = 0.5γd2 cos θ
P = 0.5γy2 cos2 θ cos θ γ
P = 0.5γy2 cos3 θ
M = P * d/3 θ
= P* (y cos θ) /3
= 0.5γy2 cos3 θy cos) /3
= γy3 cos4 θ/6
SO, shear force = P = 0.5γy2 cos3 θ