Chapter 9

Material Models

ANSYS Explicit Dynamics

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Material Models
Material Behavior Under Dynamic Loading Training Manual

• In general, materials have a complex response to dynamic loading

• The following phenomena may need to be modelled
– Non-linear pressure response
– Strain hardening
– Strain rate hardening
– Thermal softening
– Compaction (porous materials)
– Orthotropic behavior (e.g. composites)
– Crushing damage (e.g. ceramics, glass, geological materials, concrete)
– Chemical energy deposition (e.g. explosives)
– Tensile failure
– Phase changes (solid-liquid-gas)

• No single material model incorporates all of these effects

• Engineering Data offers a selection of models from which you can choose
based on the material(s) present in your simulation
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Material Models
Modeling Provided By Engineering Data Training Manual

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Material Models
Material Deformation Training Manual

• Material deformation can be split into two independent parts

– Volumetric Response - changes in volume (pressure)
• Equation of state (EOS)
– Deviatoric Response - changes in shape
• Strength model
• Also, it is often necessary to specify a Failure model as materials
can only sustain limited amount of stress / deformation before they
break / crack / cavitate (fluids).
Change in Change in
Volume Shape

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Material Models
Principal Stresses Training Manual

• A stress state in 3D can be described by a tensor with six stress

components
– Components depend on the orientation of the coordinate system used.

• The stress tensor itself is a physical quantity

– Independent of the coordinate system used

• When the coordinate system is chosen to coincide with the

eigenvectors of the stress tensor, the stress tensor is represented by
a diagonal matrix

where σ1, σ2 , and σ3, are the principal stresses (eigenvalues).

• The principal stresses may be combined to form the first, second and
third stress invariants, respectively.

• Because of its simplicity, working and thinking in the principal

coordinate system is often used in the formulation of material models.

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Material Models
Elastic Response Training Manual

• For linear elasticity, stresses are given by Hooke’s law :

where l and G are the Lame constants (G is also known as the Shear Modulus)

• The principal stresses can be decomposed into a hydrostatic and

a deviatoric component :

where P is the pressure and si are the stress deviators

• Then :

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Material Models
Non-linear Response Training Manual

• Many applications involve stresses considerably beyond the elastic

limit and so require more complex material models

Hooke’s Law Generalized Non-Linear

Response

Equation of State

Strength Model

Failure Model σi (max,min) = f

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Material Models
Models Available for Explicit Dynamics Training Manual

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Material Models
Elastic Constants Training Manual

Shear Young’s Poisson’s Bulk

Modulus G Modulus E Ratio n Modulus K
Shear Modulus E - 2G GE
Young’s Modulus 2G 3 (3G - E)
Shear Modulus 2G (1 + n)
2G (1 + n)
Poisson’s Ratio 3 (1 - 2n)
Shear Modulus 9KG 3K - 2G
Bulk Modulus 3K + G 2 (3K + G)
Young’s Modulus E E
Poisson’s Ratio 2 (1+ n) 3 (1 - 2n)
Young’s Modulus 3EK 3K - E
Bulk Modulus 9K - E 6K
Poisson’s Ratio 3K (1 - 2n) 3K (1 - 2n)
Bulk Modulus 2 (1 + n)

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Material Models
Physical and Thermal Properties Training Manual

• Density
– All material must have a valid
density defined for Explicit
Dynamics simulations.

– The density property defines the

initial Mass / unit volume of a
material at time zero
• This property is automatically
included in all models

• Specific Heat
– This is required to calculate the
temperature used in material models
that include thermal softening

• This property is automatically

included in thermal softening models

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Material Models
Linear Elastic Training Manual

• Isotropic Elasticity
– Used to define linear elastic material
behavior

• suitable for most materials subjected to

low compressions.

– Properties defined

• Young’s Modulus (E)

• Poisson’s Ratio (ν)

– From the defined properties, Bulk modulus

and Shear modulus are derived for use in
the material solutions.

– Temperature dependence of the linear

elastic properties is not available for explicit
dynamics

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Material Models
Linear Elastic Training Manual

• Orthotropic Elasticity
– Used to define linear orthotropic elastic
material behavior

• suitable for most orthotropic materials

subjected to low compressions.

– Properties defined

• Young’s Modulii (Ex, Ey, Ez)

• Poisson’s Ratios (νxy, νyz, νxz)
• Shear Modulii (Gxy, Gyz, Gxz)

– Temperature dependence of the properties

is not available for explicit dynamics

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Material Models
Linear Elastic Training Manual

• Viscoelastic
– Represents strain rate dependent elastic behavior

– Long term behavior is described by a Long Term

Shear Modulus, G∞.
• Specified via an Isotropic Elasticity model or
Equation OF State

– Viscoelastic behavior is introduced via an

Instantaneous Shear Modulus, G0 and a
Viscoelastic Decay Constant β.

– The deviatoric viscoelastic stress at time n+1 is

calculated from the viscoelastic stress at time n
and the shear strain increments at time n:

– Deviatoric viscoelastic stress is added to the

elastic stress to give the total stress
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Material Models
Linear Elastic Training Manual

• Viscoelastic

e = Constant s = Constant

Stress Strain

Time Time
Stress Relaxation Creep

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Material Models
Hyperelastic Training Manual

• Several forms of strain energy potential (Ψ) are

provided for the simulation of nearly
incompressible hyperelastic materials.
•

• Forms are generally applicable over different

ranges of strain.
6.00

Tensile tests on vulcanised rubber

5.00

Mooney-Rivlin
Arruda-Boyce
4.00 Ogden

Eng. Stress (MPa)

Treloar Experiments

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Eng. Strain

• Need to verify the applicability of the model

chosen prior to use.
• Currently hyperelastic materials may only be
used for solid elements
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Material Models
Hyperelastic Training Manual

Examples of Hyperelasticity

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• If a material is loaded elastically and subsequently unloaded, all the distortion energy is
recovered and the material reverts to its initial configuration.
• If the distortion is too great a material will reach its elastic limit and begin to distort plastically.
• In Explicit Dynamics, plastic deformation is computed by reference to the Von Mises yield
criterion (also known as Prandtl–Reuss yield criterion) . This states that the local yield
condition is

where Y is the yield stress in simple tension. It can be also written as

or
(since )

• Thus the onset of yielding (plastic flow), is purely a function of the deviatoric stresses
(distortion) and does not depend upon the value of the local hydrostatic pressure unless the
yield stress itself is a function of pressure (as is the case for some of the strength models).

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• If an incremental change in the stresses

violates the Von Mises criterion then
each of the principal stress deviators
must be adjusted such that the criterion
is satisfied.
• If a new stress state n + 1 is calculated
from a state n and found to fall outside
the yield surface, it is brought back to the
yield surface along a line normal to the
yield surface by multiplying each of the
stress deviators by the factor

• By adjusting the stresses perpendicular

to the yield circle only the plastic
components of the stresses are affected.

• Effects such as work hardening, strain

rate hardening, thermal softening, e.t.c.
can be considered by making Y a
dynamic function of these

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• Bilinear Isotropic / Kinematic Hardening

– Used to define the yield stress (Y) as a linear function
of plastic strain, εp

– Properties defined

• Yield Strength (Y0)

• Tangent Modulus (A)

– Isotropic Hardening

• Total stress range is twice the maximum yield stress, Y

– Kinematic Hardening

• Total stress range is twice the starting yield stress, Y0

• Models Bauschinger effect
• Often required to accurately predict response of thin
structure (shells)
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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• Isotropic vs Kinematic Hardening

σ2 σ2
Current Yield surface

σ1 σ1

Initial Yield surface

Isentropic Hardening (σ3 = 0) Kinematic Hardening (σ3 = 0)

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• Multilinear Isotropic / Kinematic Hardening

– Used to define the yield stress (Y) as a
piecewise linear function of plastic strain, εp

– Properties defined

• Up to ten stress-strain pairs

– Isotropic Hardening
• Total stress range is twice the maximum yield
stress, Y

– Kinematic Hardening
• Can only be used with solid elements

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• Johnson Cook Strength

– Used to model materials, typically metals, subjected to
large strains, high strain rates and high temperatures.

• Defines the yield stress, Y, as a function of strain, strain rate

and temperature

εp = effective plastic strain

εp* = normalized effective plastic strain rate (1.0 sec-1)
TH = homologous temperature = (T - Troom) / (Tmelt - Troom)

– The plastic flow algorithm used with this model has an

option to reduce high frequency oscillations that are
sometimes observed in the yield surface under high
strain rates. A first order rate correction is applied by
default.

– A specific heat capacity must also be defined to enable

the calculation of temperature for thermal softening
effects

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

Effects of Strain Hardening (Johnson-Cook Model)

Hypervelocity Impact

• Normal impact of tungsten

sphere on thick steel plate
at 10 kms-1
• Lagrange Parts used with
erosion

• Johnson-Cook strength
model used to model
effects of strain hardening,
strain-rate hardening and
thermal softening
including melting

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• Cowper Symonds Strength

– Used to define the yield strength of isotropic
strain hardening, strain rate dependant materials.

• Hardening term is same as that used in the Johnson

Cook Model
• Strain rate dependent term has different form
• No thermal softening term

– The plastic flow algorithm used with this model

has an option to reduce high frequency
oscillations that are sometimes observed in the
yield surface under high strain rates. A first order
rate correction is applied by default.
– Strain rate properties should be input assuming
that the units of strain rate are 1/second.

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• Steinberg Guinan Strength

– Computes the shear modulus and yield strength as functions
of effective plastic strain, pressure and internal energy
(temperature)
– Fits experimental data on shock-induced free surface
velocities
– Yield Stress and Shear modulus increase with increasing
pressure and decreases with increasing temperature
– Yield stress reaches a maximum value which is subsequently
strain rate independent.

subject to Y0 [1 + βε]n ≤ Ymax

ε = effective plastic strain

t = temperature (degrees K)
η = compression = v0 / v

Primed parameters (with subscripts P and τ) are derivatives

with respect to pressure and temperature

– Constants for 14 metals in the library.

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Material Models
Plasticity Training Manual

• Zerilli Armstrong Strength

– Used to model materials subjected to large strains, high strain rates
and high temperatures.

– Based on dislocation dynamics.

• Applicable to a wide range of bcc (body centered cubic) and fcc (face
centered cubic) metals.

bcc

fcc

• For fcc metals (e.g. Copper, Nickel, Platinum ),

set C1 = 0
• For bcc metals (e.g. Iron, Chromium, Tungsten,
Vanadium), set C2 = 0

– A specific heat capacity must also be defined

to enable the calculation of temperature for
thermal softening effects

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Material Models
Brittle / Granular Training Manual

• Drucker-Prager Strength
– Yield stress is a function of Pressure

– Used for dry soils, rocks, concrete and

ceramics where cohesion and compaction
cause increasing resistance to shear up to a
limiting value of the yield stress.

– Three forms
• Linear
– Original Drucker-Prager model

• Stassi
– Constructed from yield strengths
in uniaxial compresion and tension

• Piecewise
– Yield stress is a piecewise linear
function of pressure

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Material Models
Brittle / Granular Training Manual

• Johnson-Holmquist Strength
– Use to model brittle materials (glass,
ceramics) subjected to large pressures,
shear strain and high strain rates

– Combined plasticity and damage model

– Yielding is based on micro-crack growth
instead of dislocation movement (metallic
plasticity)

– Fully cracked material still retains some

strength in compression due to frictional
effects in crushed grains

– Yield reduced from intact value to

fractured value via a Damage function

– Damage accumulates due to effective

plastic strain

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Material Models
Brittle / Granular Training Manual

• Johnson-Holmquist Strength Continuous (JH2)

– Strength is modeled as smoothly varying functions of
intact strength, fractured strength, strain rate and
damage via dimensionless analytic functions

– Damage is accumulated as ratio of incremental

plastic strain over a pressure-dependant fracture
strain

– Two methods for application of damage

• Gradual (default)
– Damage is incrementally applied as it accumulates

• Instantaneous
– Damage accumulates over time, but is only applied to failure
when it reaches 1.0

– Can be used with a Linear or Polynomial Equation of

State

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Material Models
Brittle / Granular Training Manual

• Johnson-Holmquist Strength Segmented (JH1)

– Strength is modeled using piecewise linear segments

– Damage is always applied instantaneously

– Damage accumulates over time, but is only applied to failure
when it reaches 1.0

– Can be used with a Linear or Polynomial Equation of

State

– The gradual softening in the more recent continuous

model (JH2) has not been supported by experimental
data, so this earlier variant is still commonly used

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Material Models
Brittle / Granular Training Manual

• Johnson-Holmquist Strength Segmented

– Example: Penetrator dwell

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Material Models
Brittle / Granular Training Manual

• RHT Concrete Strength

– Advanced plasticity model for brittle materials developed by Riedel,
Hiermaier and Thoma at the Ernst Mach Institute (EMI)
– Models dynamic loading of concrete and other brittle materials such
as rock and ceramic.
– Combined plasticity and shear damage model in which the deviatoric
stress in the material is limited by a generalised failure surface of the
form:

– Represents the following response of geological materials

• Pressure hardening
• Strain hardening
• Strain rate hardening in tension and compression
• Third invariant dependence for compressive and tensile meridians
• Strain softening (shear induced damage)
• Coupling of damage due to porous collapse

• Input can be scaled with compressive strength, fc

– Data for 35MPa and 140MPa in the distributed material library

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Material Models
Brittle / Granular Training Manual

• RHT Concrete Strength

– Examples

Impact onto plain concrete

Impact onto reinforced concrete

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Material Models
Brittle / Granular Training Manual

• MO Granular
– Extension of the Drucker-Prager model
• Takes into account effects associated with granular materials such as
powders, soil, and sand.

• In addition to pressure hardening, the model also represents density

hardening and variations in the shear modulus with density.

– Yield stress has two components, one dependent on the density

and one dependent of the pressure

Where σY , σp , and σρ denote the total yield stress, the pressure yield
stress and the density yield stress respectively.

– The un-load / re-load slope is defined by the shear modulus

which is defined as a function of the density of the material at
zero pressure
– The yield stress is defined by a yield stress – pressure and a
yield stress – density curve with up to 10 points in each curve.
– The shear modulus is defined by a shear modulus – density
curve with up to 10 points.
• All three curves must be defined.

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Material Models
Equation of State Training Manual

• Equation of State Properties

– Bulk Modulus
• A bulk modulus can be used to define a linear,
energy independent equation of state

– Combined with a Shear modulus property, this material

definition is equivalent to using an Isotropic Linear
Elastic, model

– Shear Modulus
• A shear modulus must be used when a solid or
porous equation of state are selected.
•
– To represent fluids, specify a small value.

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Material Models
Equation Of State Training Manual

• Mei-Gruneisen form of Equation of State

– Covers entire (p,v=1/ρ,e) space using a 1st order Taylor expansion
from a reference curve

– Reference Curves
• The shock Hugoniot
• A standard adiabat
• The 0° K isotherm
• The isobar p = 0
• The curve e = 0
• The saturation curve

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Material Models
Equation of State Training Manual

• Polynomial EOS
– A Mie-Gruneisen form of equation of state that expresses
pressure as a polynomial function of compression
(density)

μ > 0 (compression):

μ < 0 (tension):

– Commonly found in early papers

• Shock EOS is more commonly used today

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Material Models
Equation of State Training Manual

• Shock EOS
– A Mie-Gruneisen form of EOS that uses the shock
Hugoniot as a reference curve

• The Rankine-Hugoniot equations for the shock jump

conditions defining a relation between any pair of the
variables ρ (density), p (pressure), e (energy), up (particle
velocity) and Us (shock velocity).

– Us - up space is used to define the Hugoniot

• In many dynamic experiments, measuring up and Us, it has

been found that for most solids and many liquids over a wide
range of pressure there is an empirical linear relationship
between these two variables:

Us = C1 + S1up
– Gruneisen Coefficient, G, is often approximated using

G = 2s1 - 1

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Material Models
Equation of State Training Manual

• Shock EOS Linear

– Lets you define a linear or a quadratic relationship

Us = C1 + S1Up

Us = C1 + S1Up + S2Up2
• Shock EOS Bilinear
– Lets you define a bilinear relationship

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Material Models
Porosity Training Manual

• Some materials exhibit irreversible compaction

due to pore collapse
• Examples
– Foam
– Powders
– Concrete
– Soils

• Porous materials are extremely effective in

attenuating shocks and mitigating impact
pressures.
– Compact to solid density at relatively low stress
levels
– Volume change is large
– Significant amount of energy is irreversibly
absorbed

• Four models are available in Explicit Dynamics

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Material Models
Porosity Training Manual

• Crushable Foam
– Relatively simple strength model designed to represent
the crush characteristics of foam materials under impact
loading conditions (non-cyclic loading).

– Must be used with Isotropic Elasticity

• automatically included

– Compaction curve is defined as a piecewise linear

principal stress vs volumetric strain curve.

– Young’s Modulus, E, is used for unloading / re-loading

– Maximum Tensile Stress provides a tension cutoff

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Material Models
Porosity Training Manual

• Compaction EOS Linear

– Plastic compaction path is defined as a piecewise
linear function of Pressure vs Density

– The elastic unloading / reloading path is defined

via a piecewise linear function of Sound Speed vs
Density
• The Bulk Modulus of the material is calculated from

– Model can be combined with a variety of strength

and failure models

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Material Models
Porosity Training Manual

• Compaction EOS Non-Linear

– Plastic compaction path is defined as a piecewise
linear function of Pressure vs Density

– Elastic unloading / reloading path is defined via a

piecewise linear function of Bulk Modulus vs
Density

– For non-linear unloading, if the current pressure is

less than the current compaction pressure, the
pressure is obtained from the bulk modulus using:

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Material Models
Porosity Training Manual

• P-alpha EOS
– Crushable Foam and Compaction EOS give good results for low
stress levels and for materials with low initial porosities, but they
may not do well for highly porous materials over a wide stress
range
– Herrmann’s P- alpha EOS is a phenomenological model which
gives the correct behavior at high stresses but at the same time
provides a reasonably detailed description of the compaction
process at low stress levels.
– Principal assumption is that specific internal energy is the same for
a porous material as for the same material at solid density at
identical conditions of pressure and temperature.
• Solid EOS

• Porous EOS

where V is the specific volume of the porous material and Vs is the

specific volume of the solid material

• α = g (p,e) (fitted to experimental data)

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Material Models
Failure Training Manual

• Material failure has two components

– Failure initiation

• When specified criteria are met within a material, a

post failure response is activated

– Post failure response

• After failure initiation, subsequent strength

characteristics will change depending on the type of
failure model

– Instantaneous Failure

• Deviatoric stresses are immediately set to zero and remain so

• Only compressive pressures are supported

– Gradual Failure (Damage)

• Stresses are limited by a damage evolution law

• Gradual reduction in capability to carry deviatoric and / or
tensile stresses

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Material Models
Failure Training Manual

• Plastic Strain Failure

– Models ductile failure

– Failure occurs if the Effective Plastic Strain in the

material exceeds the Maximum Equivalent Plastic
Strain
• Material fails instantaneously

– This failure model must be used in conjunction with

a plasticity or brittle strength model

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Material Models
Failure Training Manual

• Principal Stress / Strain Failure

– Models brittle failure or ductile failure (Strain only)

– Failure is based on one of two criteria

• Maximum Tensile Stress / Principal Strain

• Maximum Shear Stress / Shear Strain

– from the maximum difference in the principal stresses / strains

– Failure is initiated when either criteria is met

• Material fails instantaneously

– If used in conjunction with a plasticity model, deactivate

Maximum Shear Stress / Strain criteria

• specify a value of +1.0e20

• then shear response is handled by the plasticity model.

– Crack Softening Failure can be combined with these model

for fracture energy based softening

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Material Models
Failure Training Manual

• Stochastic Failure
– Real materials have inherent microscopic flaws, which
cause failures and cracking to initiate. Stochastic Failure
reproduces this numerically by randomizing the Failure
stress or strain of a material
• Can be used with most other failure models

– Mott distribution is used to define the variance in failure

stress or strain.
• Stochastic Variance must be specified

– Distribution Type
• Fixed
– The same random distribution is used for each Solve
• Random
– A new distribution is calculated for each Solve

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Material Models
Failure Training Manual

• Stochastic Failure
– Example: Fragmenting Ring

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Material Models
Failure Training Manual

• Tensile Pressure Failure

– Used to represent dynamic spall (or cavitation)
– Tensile pressure is limited by

If the pressure (P) becomes less than the Maximum

Tensile Pressure (Pmin), failure occurs
• Material instantaneously fails.

– If Material also uses damage evolution, the

Maximum Tensile Pressure is scaled down as the
damage, D, increases from 0.0 to 1.0
– Can only be applied to solid bodies.
– Can be combined with Crack Softening Failure to
invoke fracture energy based softening

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Material Models
Failure Training Manual

• Crack Softening Failure

– Fracture energy based damage model which provides a gradual reduction in the
ability of an element to carry tensile stress.
• Primarily used to investigate failure of brittle materials
• Applied to other materials to reduce mesh dependency effects.
• Failure initiation based on any of the standard tensile failure models

– On failure initiation, a linear softening slope is used to reduce the maximum possible
principal tensile stress in the material as a function of crack strain

• Softening slope is defined as a function of the local cell size and the Fracture Energy Gf
– Fracture energy is related to the fracture toughness by Kf2 = EGf

– After failure initiation, a maximum principal tensile stress failure surface is defined to
limit the maximum principal tensile stress in the cell and a Flow Rule is used to
return to this surface and accumulate the crack strain

– Flow Rule:
• No-Bulking (Default)
– Associative in -plane only
– Good results for impacts onto brittle materials such as glass, ceramics and concrete
• Radial Return
– Non-associative in - and meridional planes
• Bulking Associative
– Associative in - and meridional planes

– Can only be used with Solid elements

– Can be used in combination with any solid equation of state, plasticity model or
brittle strength model.

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• Example : Impact on Ceramic Target

– 1449m/s impact of a 6.35mm diameter steel
ball on a ceramic target
– Johnson-Holmquist Strength model used in
conjunction with Crack Softening

Simulation

Experiment (Hazell)

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• Johnson Cook Failure

– Used to model ductile failure of materials
experiencing large pressures, strain rates and
temperatures.
– Consists of three independent terms that define
the dynamic fracture strain (εf) as a function of
pressure, strain rate and temperature:

– Can only be applied to solid bodies.

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• Grady Spall Failure

– Used to model dynamic spallation of metals under shock
loading.
– Critical spall stress for a ductile material is calculated
using:

r is the density
c is the bulk sound speed
Y is the yield stress
ec is a Critical Strain Value

– If maximum principal tensile stress exceeds the critical

spall stress (S), instantaneous failure of the element is
initiated.
– Typical value for the Critical Strain is 0.15 for Aluminum.
– Can only be applied to solid bodies.
– Must be used in conjunction with a Plasticity model
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