DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES - 06CV72

Dr. M. C. Nataraja

Portion covered: Two chapters in PART A

PART-A

INTRODUCTION: Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel structures, Loads and Load

combinations, Design considerations, Limit State Method (LSM) of design, Failure criteria for
steel, Codes, Specifications and section classification.

BOLTED CONNECTIONS: Introduction, Behaviour of Bolted joints, Design strength of

ordinary Black Bolts, Design strength of High Strength Friction Grip bolts (HSFG), Pin
Connections, Simple Connections, Moment resistant connections, Beam to Beam connections,
Beam and Column splices, Semi rigid connections

PART-A

UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION

Why Structural Design Courses?

Anyone managing the construction process needs a basic understanding of the engineer’s
environment and the basic understanding of how a structure behaves. Constructors must be able
to address a number of technical questions at the project site including structural issues that
sometimes are not addressed by the design professionals. Since the safety of construction
workers as well as the strength and stability of structures during the construction phase is of
paramount importance, construction mangers need this knowledge.

Structural Design

• Definition: Determination of overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting

framework and the selection of individual members.
• Responsibility:The structural engineer, within the constraints imposed by the architect
(number of stories, floor plan,..) is responsible for structural design

• Safety (the structure doesn’t fall down)

• Serviceability (how well the structure performs in term of appearance and deflection)
• Economy (an efficient use of materials and labor)

Alternatives

• Several alternative designs should be prepared and their costs compared

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1

Types of Load

• Dead Loads (permanent; including self-weight, floor covering, suspended ceiling,

partitions,..)
• Live Loads (not permanent; the location is not fixed; including furniture, equipment, and
occupants of buildings)
• Wind Load (exerts a pressure or suction on the exterior of a building)

Types of Load Continued

• Earthquake Loads (the effects of ground motion are simulated by a system of horizontal
forces)
• Snow Load (varies with geographical location and drift)
• Other Loads (hydrostatic pressure, soil pressure)

Types of Load Continued

• If the load is applied suddenly, the effects of IMPACT must be accounted for.
• If the load is applied and removed many times over the life of the structure, FATIGUE
stress must be accounted for

Design Specifications

• Provide guidance for the design of structural members and their connections.
• They have no legal standing on their own, but they can easily be adopted, by reference, as
part of a building code.
• American Concrete Institute (ACI 318-99) Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete
• National Design Specifications for Wood Construction by American Forest and Paper
Association.

Structural Steel

• Steel is an alloy of primarily iron, carbon (1 to 2%) and small amount of other
components (manganese, nickel, …)
• Carbon contributes to strength but reduces ductility.

Steel Properties

• The important characteristics of steel for design purposes are:

y
o yield stress (F )
u
o ultimate stress (F )
o modulus of elasticity (E)
o percent elongation (ε)
o coefficient of thermal expansion (α)

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 2

Standard Cross-Sectional Shapes

Refer steel table

Design Philosophies

• Allowable Stress Design Method (ASD)

• Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

A member is selected such that the max stress due to working loads does not exceed an
allowable stress.

• It is also called elastic design or working stress design.

o allowable stress=yield stress/factor of safety
o actual stress ⊆ allowable stress

LRFD –Load and Resistance Factor Design

• A member is selected such that its factored strength is more than the factored loads.
o Σ(loads x L factors) ⊆ resistance x R factor
• Each load effect (DL, LL, ..)has a different load factor which its value depends on the
combination of loads under consideration.

Load Factors

• The values are based on extensive statistical studies

o DL only 1.4D
o DL+LL+SL (LL domin.) 1.2D+1.6L+0.5S
o DL+LL+SL (SL domin.) 1.2D+0.5L+1.6S
o In each combination, one of the effects is considered to be at its “lifetime” max
value and the others at their “arbitrary point in time “ values.

Resistance Factor

• The resistance factors range in value from 0.75 to 1.0 depending on the type of resistance
(tension, bending, compression, ..)
• These factors account for uncertainties in material properties, design theory, and
fabrication and construction practices.

History

• ASD has been the primary method used for steel design since the first AISC
specifications was issued in 1923.
• In 1986, AISC issued the first specification for LRFD.
• The trend today is toward LRFD method, but ASD is still in use.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 3

 Advantages of LRFD

• It provides a more uniform reliability in all structures subjected to many types of loading
conditions. It does not treat DL and LL as equivalent, thereby leading to a more rational
approach.
• It provides better economy as the DL make up a greater percentage on a given
structure. Because DLs are less variable by nature than live loads, a lower load
factor is used.

This may lead to a reduction in member size and therefore better economy

STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

1.1General
Structural steel is a material used for steel construction, which is formed with a specific
shape following certain standards of chemical composition and strength. They can also be
defined as hot rolled products, with a cross section of special form like angles, channels and
beams/joints. There has been an increasing demand for structural steel for construction purposes
in the United States and India.

Measures are been taken by the structural steel authority for ready availability of structural
steel on time for the various projects. The people at every level are working hard to realize the
purpose of producing steel on time, like, service centers, producers, fabricators and erectors
along with the general contractors, engineers and architects are all working hand in hand. Steel
has always been more preferred to concrete because steel offers better tension and compression
thus resulting in lighter construction. Usually structural steel uses three dimensional trusses
hence making it larger than its concrete counterpart. There are different new techniques which

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 4

enable the production of a wide range of structures and shapes, the procedures being the
following:

• High-precision stress analysis

• Computerized stress analysis
• Innovative jointing

The structural steel all over the world pre-dominates the construction scenario. This material
has been exhaustively used in various constructions all over the world because of its various
specific characteristics that are very much ideally suited for construction. Structural steel is
durable and can be well molded to give the desired shape to give an ultimate look to the structure
that has been constructed. There is a mention of The Super dome situated in the United States
and The Fukuoka Dome of Japan; both speak the unique language of the unique capabilities of
the structural steel.

1.2 Types of structural steel:

Various types of structural steel sections and their technical specifications are as follows:

• Beams
• Channels
• Angles
• Flats

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 5

1.2.1 Steel Beams
Steel Beams is considered to be a structural element which mainly carries load in flexure
meaning bending. Usually beams carry vertical gravitational force but are also capable of
carrying horizontal loads generally in the case of an earthquake. The mechanism of carrying load
in a beam is very unique, like; the load carried by a beam is transferred to walls, columns or
girders which in turn transfer the force to the adjacent structural compression members. The
joists rest on the beam in light frame constructions.

The beams are known by their profile meaning:

• The length of the beam

• The shape of the cross section
• The material used

The most commonly found steel beam is the. I beam or the wide flanged beam also known by
the name of universal beam or stouter sections as the universal column. Such beams are
commonly used in the construction of bridges and steel frame buildings.
The most commonly found types of steel beams are varied and they are mentioned below:

• I beams
• Wide flange beams
• HP shape beams

Typical characteristics of beams

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 6

 Beams experience tensile, sheer and compressive stresses internally due to the loads
applied to them. Generally under gravity loads there is a slight reduction in the original length of
the beam. This results in a smaller radius arc enclosure at the top of the beam thus showing
compression. While the same beam at the bottom is slightly stretched enclosing a larger radius
arc due to tension. The length of the beam midway and at the bends is the same as it is not under
tension or compression and is defined as the neutral axis. The beam is completely exposed to
shear stress above the support. There are some reinforced concrete beams that are completely
under compression, these beams are called pre-stressed concrete beams and are built in such a
manner to produce a compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions.
The pre-stressed concrete steel beams have the manufacturing process like, first the high strength
steel tendons are stretched and then the beam is cast over them. Then as the concrete begins to
cure the tendons are released thus the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. An
internal moment is created due to the eccentric axial load which in turn increases the moment
carrying capacity of the beam. Such beams are generally used in highway and bridges.

Materials Used
In today’s modern construction the beams are generally made up of materials like:

• Steel
• Wood
• Reinforced concrete

1.2.2 Steel Channels:

Steel channels are used ideally as supports and guide rails. These are roll-formed
products. The main metal used for making channels is steel along with aluminum. There are
certain variations that are available in the channels category, the categorization is mainly on the
shape of the channel, the varieties are mentioned below:

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 7

 • J channels: This kind of channel has two legs and a web. One leg is longer. This channel
resembles the letter-J.

• Hat channels: This channel has legs that are folded in the outward direction resembling
an old fashioned man's hat.

• U channels: This most common and basic channel variety. It has a base known as a web
and two equal length legs.

• C channels: In this channel the legs are folded back in the channel and resemble the
letter-C. C channels are known as rests.

• Hemmed channels: In this kind of channel the top of the leg is folded hence forming
double thickness.

There are other variations of channels that are available, which are customized according to the
customer's needs.
Application
Steel channels are subjected to a wide array of applications. The application fields are:

• Construction
• Appliances
• Transportation
• Used in making Signposts
• Used in wood flooring for athletic purposes

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 8

 • Used in installing and making windows and doors

A major variant of the channel is the mild steel channel. Such channels are generally used in
heavy industries. They are used in the heavy machinery industry and automotive industry too.

1.2.3 Steel Angle:

A steel angle is long steel with mutually vertical sides. The steel angles are the most basic
type of roll-formed steel. The most commonly found steel angles are formed at a 90 degree angle
and has two legs of equal length. The sides are either equal or of different sizes.

There are certain variations in the steel angles depending

on it's basic construction. The variations are like; if one leg is longer than the other then it is
known as L angle. If the steel angle is something different from 90 degrees then it is known as V
angle. In some steel angles, double thickness is achieved by folding the legs inward. If the steel
angle has same sides then it means that it has identical width. The steel angles are made
according to the strength that is required for the different structures for construction purposes.

• Applications
the steel angle finds an application in a number of things, they are mentioned
below:
• Used in framing
• Used in trims
• For reinforcement
• In brackets
• Used in transmission towers
• Bridges
• Lifting and transporting machinery

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 9

 • Reactors
• Vessels
• Warehouses
• Industrial boilers
• Structural steel angles are used in rolling shutters for fabricating guides for
strength and durability.

1.2.4 Steel Flats:

Flats are actually thin strips of mild steel having the thickness of the strip commonly
varying from 12mm to 10mm but thicker flats than this are also available. Steel flats are
produced by the utilization of relatively smooth, cylindrical rolls on rolling mills. Generally the
width to thickness ratio of flat rolled products is fairly large. The steel flat bars are manufactured
using advanced thickness control technology for controlled thicknesses. The hi-tech machineries
enable the production of top grade steel flat bars with superlative flatness and controlled
thickness. This product is highly customized and the specific sizes according to the client’s
requirement are produced. After production the flat steels are subjected to a variety of finishes
like, painting and galvanizing. The flat carbon steel is a hot or cold rolled strip product also
known as a plate product. These plate products have a size variation between 10mm to 200mm
and the thin flat rolled flat rolled product's size varies from 1 mm to 10 mm.

Applications
The steel flats are used in a wide array of applications. The varied applications are listed below:

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 10

 • Railway parts
• Ordinance factories
• Hand tools
• Engineering industries
• Auto components- two-wheeler, four-wheeler, commercial vehicles
• Domestic white goods products
• Office furniture’s
• Heart pacemakers
• Tin cans
• Press working

1.3 Advantages of steel as a structural material:

Structural steel sections are usually used for construction of buildings, buildings, and
transmission line towers (TLT), industrial sheds and structures etc. They also find in
manufacturing of automotive vehicles, ships etc.
Steel exhibits desirable physical properties that make it one of the most versatile
structural materials in use.

Its great strength, uniformity, light weight, easy of use, and many other desirable
properties makes it the material of choice for numerous structures such as steel bridges, high rise
buildings, towers, and other structure.

Elasticity: steel follows hooks law very accurately.

Ductility: A very desirable of property of steel, in which steel can withstand extensive
deformation without failure under high tensile stresses, i:e., it gives warning before failure takes
place.

Toughness: Steel has both strength and ductility.

Additions to existing structures: Example: new bays or even entire new wings can be added to
existing frame buildings, and steel bridges may easily be widened.

1.4 Disadvantages of steel as a structural material:

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 11

 Although steel has all this advantages as structural material, it also has many
disadvantages that make reinforced concrete as a replacement for construction purposes.

For example steel columns sometimes cannot provide the necessary strength because of
buckling, where as RCC columns generally sturdy and massive, i:e., no buckling problem occurs.

Many disadvantages of steel can be summarized below:

Maintenance cost: Steel structures are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to air.

Fire proofing cost: steel is an incombustible material; however, its strength is reduced
tremendously at high temperature due to common fires.

Fatigue: The strength of structural steel member can be reduced if this member is subjected to
cyclic loading.

Brittle fracture: under certain conditions steel lose its ductility, and brittle fracture may occur at
places of stress concentration. Fatigue type loadings and very low temperature trigger the
situation.

Limit state design:

Refer IS:800-2009 in detail and other text bookd

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 12

 UNIT II
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
A bolt may be defined as a metal pin with a head at one end and a shank threaded at the other
end to receive a nut as in Fig 1.0(a). Steel washers are usually provided under the bolt as well as
under the nut to serve two purposes:

1. To distribute the clamping pressure on the bolted member, and

2. To prevent the threaded portion of the bolt from bearing on the connecting pieces.

In order to assure proper functioning of the connection, the parts to be connected must be tightly
clamped between the bolt between the bolt head and nut. If the connection is subjected

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 13

vibrations, the nuts must be locked in position. Bolted connections are quit similar to riveted
connections in behaviour but have some distinct advantages as follows:

1. The erection of the structure can be speeded up, and

2. Less skilled persons are required.

The general objections to the use of bolts are:

1. Cost of material is high: about double that of rivets.

2. The tensile strength of the bolt is reduced because of area reduction at the root of the
thread and also due to stress concentration.

3. Normally these are of a loose fit excepting turned bolts and hence their strength is
reduced.

4. When subjected to vibrations or shocks bolts may get loose.

Uses

1. Bolts can be used for making end connections in tensions and compression member.

2. Bolts can also be used to hold down column bases in position.

3. They can be used as separators for purlins and beams in foundations, etc.

Types

There are several types of bolts used to connect the structural elements. Some of the bolts
commonly used are:

a) Unfinished bolts

b) Turned bolts

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 14

 c) Ribbed bolts

d) High strength bolts

e) Interference bolts

UNFINISHED BOLTS
Unfinished bolts are also called ordinary, common, rough or black bolts. There are used for light
structures (purlins, bracings, etc.) under static loads. They are not recommended for connections
subjected to impact load, vibrations and fatigue. Bolts are forged from low carbon rolled steel
circular rods, permitting large tolerances. Ordinary structural bolts are made from mild steel with
square or hexagonal head, as shown in Fig 1.0(b). Square heads cost less but hexagonal heads
give a better appearance, are easier to hold by wrenches and require less turning space. The bolt
hole is punched about 1.6mm more than the bolt diameter. The nuts on bolts are tightened with
spud wrenches, producing little tension. Therefore, no clamping force is induced on the sections
jointed. Sometimes a hole is drilled in the bolt and a cotter pin with a castellated nut is used to
prevent the nut from turning on the bolt, as shown in Fig 1.0(c). the connections with unfinished
bolts are designed in a similar way as all the riveted connections except that the permissible
stresses are reduced to account for tolerances provide on shank and threaded portion of the bolts.
The requirements regarding pitch and edge distance are same as that for rivets. The permissible
stresses are as given in Table 8.1 of I.S:800-1984.

TURNED BOLTS
These are similar to unfinished bolts, with the differences that the shank of these bolts is formed
from a hexagonal rod. The surfaces of the bolts are prepared carefully and are machined to fit in
the hole. Tolerances allowed are very small. These bolts have high shear and bearing resistance
as compared to unfinished bolts. However, these bolts are obsolete nowadays. The specifications
for turned bolts are given in I.S:2591-1969.

RIBBED BOLTS
These are also called fluted bolts. The head of the bolt is like a rivet head. The threaded and nut
are provided on the other end of the shank. From the shank core longitudinal ribs project making
the diameter of the shank more than the diameter of the hole. These ribs cut grooves into the
connected members while tightening and ensure a tight fit. These bolts have more resistance to

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 15

vibrations as compared to ordinary bolts. The permissible stresses for ribbed are same as that for
rivets.

HIGH STRENGTH BOLT

These bolts are called friction grip bolts. These are made from bars of medium carbon steel.
Their high strength is achieved through quenching and tempering processes or by alloying steel.
Steel washers of hard steel or carburized steel are provided as shown in Fig1.0 (d), to evenly
distribute the clamping pressure on the bolted member and to prevent the threaded portion of the
bolt from bearing on the connecting pieces. If the bolts are tightened by the turn of nut method,
the nut is made snug and is tightened a half turn more by hand wrenches, then the washers are
not required. The vibrations and impact resistance of the joint is also improved. The nut and head
of the bolts are kept sufficiently large to provide an adequate bearing area. The specifications for
high strength bolts are laid in I.S:3757-1972 and I.S: 4000-1967. These bolts have a tensile
strength several times that of the ordinary bolts. High strength bolts have replaced rivets and are
being used in structures, such as high rise buildings, bridges, machines etc. Due to their distinct
advantages and vital use, high strength bolts are discussed below in some detail.

Advantages of high strength bolts

High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts have replaced the rivets because of their distinct
advantages as discussed below. However, the material cost is about 50% greater than that of
ordinary bolts and special workmanship is required in installing and tightening these bolts.
1. These provide a rigid joint. There is no slip between the elements connected

2. Large tensile stresses are developed in bolts, which in turn provide large clamping force
to the elements connected. High frictional resistances is developed providing a high static
strength the joint.

3. Because of the clamping action, load is transmitted by friction only and the bolts are not
subjected to shear and bearing.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 16

 4. The frictional resistance is effective outside the hole and therefore lesser load is
transmitted through the net section. Thus, the possibility of failure at the net section is
minimized.

5. There are no stress concentrations in the holes; therefore, the fatigue strength is more.

6. The tension in bolts is uniform. Also the bolts are tensioned up to proof load hence; the
nuts are prevented from loosening

7. Few persons are require to make the connections, thus cost is reduced.

8. Noise nuisance is not there as these bolts are tightened with wrenches.

9. The hazard of fire is not there and there is no danger of tossing of the bolt.

10. Alterations can be done easily.

11. For some strength, lesser number of bolts are required as compared to rivets which brings
overall economy.

Principles of high strength bolts

The shank of the high strength bolts does not fully fill the hole. So shear and bearing are not the
criteria for load transmission as is in the case of rivets, which fill the hole completely. The nut is
tightened to develop a clamping force on the plates which is indicated as the tensile force T in
the Bolt. This tension should be about 90% of proof load. When a shear load is applied to the
joint no slip will occur until the shear load exceeds the frictional resistance between the elements
jointed. When shear load exceeds the frictional resistance a slip occurs. On further increase of
this load, the gradual slipping brings the bolt in contact with the plate edges.
The horizontal frictional forces F, is induced in the joints which is equal to the tensile force T, as
in Fig.1.0(d), in the bolts multiplied by the coefficient of friction.

F = µT

This frictional force F should exceed the applied force P on the member.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 17

µ= Coefficient of friction or slip factor, is defined as ratio of the load per effective interface
required to produce slip in a pure shear joint to the proof load induced in bolt. When the element
surfaces are free from paint, dust, etc. its value is 0.45.

PIN CONNECTIONS
When two structural members are connected by means of a cylindrical shaped pin, the
connection is called a pin connection. Pins are manufactured from mild steel bars with diameters
ranging from 9 to 330 mm. Pin connections are provided when hinged joints are required, i.e.,
for the connection where zero moment of free rotation is desired. Introduction of a hinge
simplifies the analysis by reducing indeterminacy. These also reduce the secondary stresses.
These connections cannot resist longitudinal tension. For satisfactory working it is necessary to
minimize the friction between the and members connected. High grade machining is done to
make the pin and pin hole surface smooth and frictionless. Pins are provided in the following
cases:
1. Tie rod connections water tanks and elevated bins

2. As diagonal bracing connections in beams and columns

3. Truss bridge girders

4. Hinged arches

5. Chain-link cables suspension bridges

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 18

 Various types of pins used for making the connections are forged steel pin, undrilled pin and
dilled pin. To make a pin connection, one end of the bar is forged like a fork and a hole is
drilled in this portion. The end of the other bar to be connected is also forged and an eye is
made. A hole is drilled into it in such a way that it matches with the hole on the fork end bar.
The eye bar is inserted in the jaws of the fork end and a pin is placed. Both the forged ends
are made octagonal for a good grip. The pin in the joint is secured by means of a cotter pin or
screw, as shown in Fig. 2.13.

FAILURE OF BOLTED JOINTS

The bolted joint may fail in any of the following six ways, out of which some failures can be
checked by adherence to the specifications of edge distance. Therefore, they are not of much
importance, whereas the others require due consideration.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 19

 Shear failure of bolts (Fig. 2.3 (a))
The shear stress in the bolt may exceed the working shear stress in the bolt. Shear stresses are
generated because the plates slip due to applied forces.

Shear failure of plates (Fig. 2.3(b))

The internal pressure of overdriven (shank length more than the grip) bolts placed at a lesser
edge distance than specified causes this failure. This can be checked by providing proper
edge distance between the center of the hole and the end of the plate as specified by I.S.800.

Tension or tearing failure of plates (Fig. 2.3(c))

The tensile stress in the plate at the net cross-section may exceed the working tensile stress.
Tearing failure occurs when bolts are stronger than the plates.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 20

 Splitting of plates (Fig. 2.3(d))
Bolts may have been placed at a lesser edge distance than required causing the plates to split
or shear out.

Bearing failure of plates (Fig. 2.3(e))

The plate may be crushed when the bearing stress in the plate exceeds the working bearing
stress.

Bearing failure of bolts (Fig. 2.3(f))

The bolt is crushed around the half circumference. The plate may be strong in bearing and
the heaviest stressed plate may press the bolt.

TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 21

 There are two types of riveted joints: lap joint and butt joint.

Lap joint The two members to be connected are overlapped and connected together. Such a
joint is called a lap joint as in Fig. (a). A single riveted lap joint and a double riveted lap joint
are shown in Figs (b,c) respectively. The load in the lap joint has eccentricity, as the centre of
gravity of load in one member and the centre of gravity of load in the second member are not
in the same line, as shown in Fig. 2.2(d). Therefore, a couple is formed which causes
undesirable bending in the connection and the rivets may fail in tension. To minimize the
effect of bending in lap joints at least two rivets in a line should be provided. Also, due to the
eccentricity the stresses are distributed un-evenly across the contact area between rivets and
the members to be connected. This puts a limitation on the use of lap joints.

Butt joint The two members to be connected are placed end to end. Additional plate/plates
provided on either one or both sides, called cover plates and are connected to the main plates
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 22
 as in Figs 2.2(e,h). If the cover plate is provided on one side as in Figs 2.2(f), (g), it is called
a single cover butt joint but if the cover plates are provided on both the sides of main plates it
is called a double cover butt joint as shown in Fig. 2.2.(i),(j). It is more desirable to provide a
butt joint than a lap joint for two main reasons:
In the case of double cover butt joint the total shear force to be transmitted by the members is
split into two parts and the force acts on each half as shown in Fig. 2.2(k). But in the case of
lap joint (Fig. 2.2(I), there is only one plane on which the force acts and therefore the shear
carrying capacity of a rivet in a butt joint is double that of a rivet in a lap joint.
In the case of a double cover butt joint, eccentricity of force does not exist and hence bending
is eliminated, whereas it exists in the case of a lap joint.

Design of Bearing Bolts Subjected to Eccentric Loading Causing Moment in

the Plane Perpendicular to the Plane of Group of Bolts.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 23

This type of connection is shown in Fig. 3.23. Referring to Fig. 3.28, let P be factored load at an
eccentricity ‘e’. Then the section is subjected to a direct shear force P and moment M = Pxe.

If there are ‘n’ numbers of bolts in the connection, direct design shear force on each bolt is given
by,

Vsb = P/n

The moment causes tension in top side and compression in the bottom side. On tension side, only
bolts resist load but on compression side entire contact zone between the columns and the
connecting angle resist the load. Hence the neutral axis will be much below in these connections.
It is assumed to lie at a height of 1/7 th of the depth of the bracket, measured from the bottom
edge of the angle.

The variation of the force is as shown in Fig. 3.28(c).

The tensile force in a bolt Tbi is proportional to its distance yi from the line of rotation.

Tbi ∝ yi

= kyi, where k is constant.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 24

 . ‘. k = Tbi / yi

Total moment of resistance M’ provided by bolts in tension.

M ' = ∑ Tbi yi = ∑ kyi

2

Tbi
M ' = k ∑ y 2i = ∑y
2
i
yi

M ' yi
Tbi =
∑ y 2i
Or

Total tensile force in bolts

M ' yi
T = ∑ Tbi =
∑ y 2i
For equilibrium,

Total tensile force = total compressive force

M ' ∑ yi
T =C =
∑y 2
i

Taking moment about neutral axis,

2h
M = M '+C
37

 2h ∑ y i 
= M ' 1 + 2 
 21 ∑ y i 

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 25

 1
M '=
 2h ∑ yi 
1 + 2 
 21 ∑ y i 

Tensile force Tdh in extreme bolt can be found.

This equation gives the moment resisted by the bolts in tension from which the maximum tensile
force in the extreme bolt Tb can be calculated. Then the design required is

2 2
 Vsb   Tb 
  +   ≤ 1.0
 Vdh   Tdh 

Steps to be followed in the design

Step 1: Select nominal diameter ‘d’ of bolts.

Step 2: Adopt a pitch(p) of 2.5d to 3.5d for bolts.

Step 3: Bolts are to be provided in two vertical rows. Number of bolts necessary in each row is
computed from the expression.

6M
n=
(2V )P
Where M is the moment on the joint and V is the design strength of bolt.

Step 4: Find the direct shear and tensile forces acting on the extreme bolt. If it is HSFG bolted
connection adds prying force [Ref. Fig. 3.28] to direct tension. Check whether the interaction
formula is satisfied.

Example 3.11

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 26

Design a suitable bolted bracket connection of a ISHT-75 section attached to the flange of a
ISHB 300 at 577N/m to carry a vertical factored load of 600 kN at an eccentricity of 300 mm.
Use M24 bolts of grade 4.6

Solution:

For M24 bolts of grade 4.6,

D=24mm, do=27mm, fub=400N/mm2

Thickness of flange of ISHT 75 (from steel table) = 9mm

For ISHB 300 @ 577 N/m, thickness of flange = 10.6mm

Therefore, thickness of thinner member = 9mm

1 400  π 2
Design strength of bolt in single shear =  0 + 0.78 X X 24 
1.25 3  4 

= 65192 N

Design strength of bolts in bearing:

Minimum edge distance e = 1.5xdo=1.5x24 = 40.5 mm

Minimum pitch p =2.5d =2.5x24 = 60 mm

Provide e = 50 mm and p =70mm

e p f
Kb is minimum of , − 0 . 25 , ub and 1 . 0
3d 0 3d 0 fu

50 70 400
i.e., minimum of , − 0 . 25 , and 1 . 0
3 X 27 3 X 27 410

. ‘. Kb = 0.6412

Design strength of bolts in bearing against 9 mm thick web of Tee section

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 27

 1
= X 2 . 25 Xk b XdtXf u
1 . 25

1
= X 2 . 25 X 0 . 6142 X 24 X 9 X 410
1 . 25

= 109333 N > 65192 N

.’. Design strength of bolts V=Vdb = 65192 N

Design tension capacity of bolts

0 .90 Xf ub XA n f yb Asb
Tbi = <
1 . 25 1 . 10

π
240 X X 24 2
0 . 90 X 400 π 4
Tbi = X 0 . 78 X X 24 2 <
1 .25 4 1 .10

= 98703N

Using two rows of bolting, approximately number of bolts required in each row

6M 6 X 600 X 1000 X 300

n= = = 10.87
(2V )P (2 X 65192X 70)
Provide 11 bolts in each row as show in Fig

h = 50+70x10=750mm

h/7 = 107.14mm

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 28

i.e. neutral axis lies between 1st and 2nd bolts.

.’. y of second bolt = (50+70)-107.14=12.86mm

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 29

 .'.∑ y = 2 X 3278.6mm

.'.∑ y 2 = 2 X 1479142mm
2

Total moment resisted by bolts in tension

1 600 X 1000 X 300

M '= =
 2h ∑ yi   2 X 750 2 X 3278.6 
1 + 2  1 + 21 2 X 1479142
 21 ∑ y i 

=155397179N-mm

Tensile force in extreme bolt due to bending moment

M ' yi 155397179
Tb = = X 642 .86 = 33769 N
∑ y i 2 X 1479142
2

Direct shear force

600 X 1000
Vsb = = 27273 N
2 X 11

2 2
 Vsb   Tb 
Check by interaction formula =   +  
 Vdb T
  db 
2 2
 27273   33769 
=  + 
 65192   98703 

= 0.292 < 1.0

Hence the bots are safe. Provide bots as shown in Fig. 3.29.

SHEAR CAPACITY OF HSFG BOLTS

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 30

As stated in Fig, these are the bolts made of high tensile steel which are pretensioned and then
provided with nuts. The nuts are clamped also. Hence resistance to shear force is mainly by
friction.

There are two types of HSFG bolts. They are parallel shank and waisted shank type. Parallel
shank type HSFG bolts are designed for no-slip at serviceability loads. Hence they slip at higher
loads and slip into bearing at ultimate loads. Hence such bolts are checked for their bearing
strength at ultimate load. Waisted shank HSFG bolts are designed for no slip even at ultimate
load and hence there is no need to check for their bearing strength.

Vnsf = µf ne Kh F0

Where,

µf = Co-efficient of friction (Called slip factor) as specified in Table 3.1.

ne = number of effective interfaces offering frictional resistance to this slip.

[Note: ne = 1 for lap joints and 2 for double cover butt joints]

Kh = 1.0 for fasteners in clearance holes

= 0.85 for fasteners in oversized and short slotted holes and for long slotted holes located
perpendicular to the slot.

=0.70 for fasteners in long slotted holes loaded parallel to the slot.

F0 = Minimum bolt tension at installation and may be taken as Anb f0

 π 
Anb = net area of the bolt at threads =  0.78 d2
 4 

f0 = Proof stress = 0.70 fub

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 31

The slip resistance should be taken as

Vsf = Vnsf /1.10

Where,

=1.10, if the slip resistance is designed at service load (Parallel shank HSFG)

=1.25, if the slip resistance is designed at ultimate load (Waisted shank HSFG).

It may be noted that the reduction factors specified (Fig. 3.11) for bearing bolts hold good for
HSFG bolts also.

For commonly used HSFG bolts (Grade 8.8), yield stress fyb =640 Mpa and ultimate stress fub
=800 N/mm2

Example 3.12

Determine the shear capacity of bolts used in connecting two plates as shown in Fig.3.30

1. Slip resistance is designated at service load

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 32

 2. Slip resistance is designated at ultimate load

Given:
HSFG bolts of grade 8.8 are used.
Fasteners are in clearance holes

Coefficient of friction = 0.3

Solution:
For HSFG bolts of grade 8.8,
For fasteners in clearance holes Kh = 1.0

Coefficient of friction µf =0.3

.’. Nominal shear capacity of a bolt

Vnsf = µf nc Kh F0

Where F0 = 0.7 fub Anb

 π 
=  0.7 X 800 X 0.78 X X 20 2 
 4 

ne=2, since it is double cover butt joint

(i) Design capacity of one bolt, if slip resistance is designated at service load

Vnsf = 0.3 x 2 x1.0 x137225

= 82335 N

= 82335/1.1 =74850 N

Therefore design capacity of joint = 6 x 74850, since 6 bolts are used

= 449099 N

= 449.099 kN

(ii) Design capacity of one bolt, if the slip resistance is designated at ultimate load
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 33
 = 82335/1.25 =65868 N

Therefore design capacity of joint = 6 x 65868, since 6 bolts are used

= 395208 N

= 395.208 kN

In case (i), bearing strength at ultimate load should be checked. If it is low that will be the
governing factor.

TENSION RESISTANCE OF HSFG BOLTS

The expression for nominal tension strength of HSFG bolts is also as that for bearing bolts. i.e,

γ mb
Tnf = 0.9 Xf ub XAn ≤ f yb Asb
γm

0.9 f ub An f yb Asb
Tdf = ≤
γ mb γm

Where

An = net tensile area as specified in various parts of IS 1367, it may be taken as the area at the

 π 
root of the thread =  0.78 d 2 
 4 

Asb = shanke area.

γmb = 1.25, γm = 1.1

fub for bolts of grade 8.8 is 800 MPa and fyb = 640 MPa.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 34

INTERACTION FORMULA FOR COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION
If bolts are under combined action of shear and axial tension, the interaction formula to be
satisfied is
2 2
 Vsf   Tf 
  +  ≤ 1 .0
V  T 
 df   df 

PRYING FORCES
In the design of HSFG bolts subjected to tensile forces, an additional force, called as prying force
Q is to be considered. These additional forces are mainly due to flexibility of connected plates.
Consider the connection of a T-section to a plate as shown in Fig 3.31, subject to tensile force
2Te.

As tensile force acts, the flange of T-section bends in the middle portion and presses connecting
plates near bolts. It gives rise to additional contact forces known as prying forces. During late
80s and early 90s lot of research works were published regarding assessing prying force. IS 800-
2007 has accepted the following expression

ly  βη f 0 be t 4 
Q=  Te − 
2lc  27 lc l 2 y 
Where

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 35

Q = prying force
2Te = total applied tensile force

ly = distance from the bolt centre line to the toe of the fillet weld or to half the root radius for a
rolled section.

lc = distance between prying forces and bolt centre line and is the minimum of either the end
distance or the value given by:

βf0
lc = 1.1t
fy

β = 2 for non-pretensioned bolts and for pretensioned bolts

η = 1.5

be = effective width of flange per pair of bolts.

f0 = Proof stress in consistent units

t = thickness of end plate.

Note that prying forces do not develop in case of ordinary bolts, since when bolt failure takes
place contact between the two connecting plates is lost (Ref. Fig. 3.32).

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 36

Example
The joint shown in fig has to carry a factored load of 180kN. End plate used is of size 160 mm x
40 mm x 16 mm. The bolts used are M20 HSFG of grade 8.8. Check whether the design is safe.
Solution:
Assuming 8 mm weld and edge distance 40mm,
ly = 160/2 – 8-8-40 = 24 mm

βf0
lc = 1.1t
fy

For plates, f0 = 0.7 fu, fu =410 MPa and fy =250 MPa

1 X 0.7 X 410
lc = 1.1 X 16 = 18 .86 <
250
< Edge distance
lc = 18.86 mm
Prying force is given by,

ly  βη f 0 be t 4 
Q=  Te − 
2lc  27 lc l 2 y 

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 37

β = 1.0, for pretensioned bolts.

η = 1.5

be = 140mm, t = 16mm.

f0 = 0.7 x 800 = 560MPa

24  1 X 1.5 X 560 X 140 X 16 4 

Q=  90000 − 
2 X 18 .86  27 X 18 .86 X 24 2 
= 40545 N
Therefore tension to be resisted by the bolt
T = T+Q = 90000 + 40545 =130545 N

0.9 f ub Aub
Tension capacity of the bolt =
1.25

π
0.9 X 800 X 0.78 X X 20 2
= 4
1.25

=141145 N > 130545 N

Hence the design is safe.

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 38

Plastic Behaviour of Structural Steel ( Unit - 4)

CONTENTS

Introduction

Plastic theory

Plastic hinge concept

Plastic collapse load

Conditions of Plastic analysis

Theorems of Plastic collapse

Methods of Plastic analysis

Plastic analysis of continuous beams

Introduction

The traditional analysis of structures is based on the linear elastic behaviour of

materials, implying that the material follows Hooke’s law. (Stress is proportional to
strain) It is also assumed that the deformations are small, implying that the original
dimensions of the structure can be used in the analysis. This is also known as first
order elastic analysis. (Cl. 4.4.2 pp - 24)

IS 800 - 2007 permits plastic analysis as per the Cl. 4.5 (pp 25 and 26).
However, the requirements specified in Cl. 4.5.2 shall be satisfied unless otherwise
specified.
• The yield stress of the grade of structural steel used shall not exceed 450 MPa.
• The stress - strain characteristics of steel shall comply with IS : 2062 to ensure
complete plastic moment redistribution.
• The stress - strain diagram shall have a plateau at the yield stress level extending for
at least six times the yield strain.
• The ratio of ultimate tensile stress to the yield stress for the specified grade of steel
shall not be less than 1.2
• The percentage elongation shall not be less than 15 and the steel shall exhibit strain -
hardening capabilities. (Steel confirming to IS : 2062 shall be deemed to satisfy the above
requirements)
• The members shall be hot - rolled or fabricated using hot - rolled plates and sections.
• The cross section of the members shall be plastic (class 1 section) at plastic hinges
and elsewhere at least compact sections. (class 2 section) Table 2 shall be followed in this
regard.
• The cross section shall be symmetrical about the axis perpendicular to the axis of the
plastic hinge rotation indicating that the beams shall be symmetrical about y-y axis and
columns shall be symmetrical about both y-y and z-z axes.
• The members shall not be subjected to impact and fluctuating loading requiring
fracture and fatigue assessment.

Stress - strain curves of structural steel

A typical stress - strain curve of steel confirming to IS : 2062 is shown in the figure.
where,

fy = yield stress in MPa

ey = yield strain
fu = Ultimate stress in MPa
esh = strain hardening strain
emax = ultimate strain
esh = 6 * ey , emax = 180 * ey and fu = 1.2 fy (Typical)

From the stress - strain curve, steel yields considerably at a constant stress due to
large flow of the material. This property known as ductility enables steel to undergo large
deformations beyond the elastic limit without danger of fracture. This unique property of
steel is utilized in plastic analysis of structures.
 Stress - Strain Curve (Typical)

Perfectly Elasto - Plastic Material (Typical)

Calculation of failure loads in simple systems

Consider a three bar system shown below of length and area of C/S of each bar as
indicated. E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.

Elastic analysis (Strength of Materials approach):

P1 is the force in outer bars

P2 is the force in the middle bar
Using ΣV = 0, (Vertical equilibrium equation)
2P1 + P2 = P (1)
By compatibility, elongation of each bar is same -
P1L/AE = P2L/2AE
from which
P1 = P2/2 or P2 = 2P1 (2)
Substituting (2) in (1),
2P1 + 2P1 = P or P1 = P/4 and P2 = P/2
In elastic analysis, as P2 > P1 the middle bar reaches the yield stress first and the system is
assumed to fail.
P2 = fyA and P1 = fyA/2
Yield load = 2P1 + P2 = 2fyA ----- Maximum load by elastic analysis

Plastic analysis:

In plastic analysis, it will be assumed that even though the middle bar reaches the
yield stress, they start yielding until the outer bars also reaches the yield stress. (Ductility
of steel and redistribution of forces) With this, all the bars would have reached yield
stress and the failure load (or ultimate load or collapse load) is given by
Collapse load, Pu = 2 fy A + fy A = 3fyA ------ Maximum load by plastic analysis
 The collapse load calculated by plastic analysis is 1.5 times that of the elastic analysis.
(Reserve strength) Plastic analysis can give economical solutions.

Plastic Theory of Beams:

The simple plastic theory makes use of the ductility of steel. (Large strain at
collapse) The following assumptions are made in plastic bending of beams -

• Structural steel is a ductile material capable of deforming plastically without

fracture.
• The material is homogeneous and isotropic obeying Hooke’s law upto limit of
proportionality (yield point) and then the stress is constant with increase in strain.
• The stress - strain curve can be represented by an ideal elasto - plastic material
with properties of steel in compression and tension same. (yield stress and yield
strain, modulus of elasticity etc.,)
• Cross - sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis before and after
bending. With this, the effect of shear force is ignored and the distribution of the
strain across the depth of the c/s of the beam is linear.
• The effect of axial forces and residual stresses are ignored.
• The c/s of the beam is symmetrical about an axis parallel to the plane of bending.
(y -y axis)
• Members are initially straight and instability does not develop before collapse
occurs due to the formation of sufficient plastic hinges.
• Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract independently with respect to
the layer above or below it.(each layer is separated from one another)
• Deformations are sufficiently small so that θ = tan θ can be used in the
calculations of the collapse load.
• The connections provide full continuity so that plastic moment can develop and
transmitted through the connections.
• Strain energy due to elastic bending is ignored.

Behaviour of beam under an increasing BM:

Consider a beam having a symmetrical C/S subjected to an increasing BM.

• With BM M1 < My ( yield moment) the stress and strain distributions across the
depth will follow the elastic bending equation (Euler’s - Bernoulli’s equation) and
is indicated in the figure below. All the fibres are stressed below the yield stress,
fy.
• With BM, M2 = My, the extreme fibres of the c/s begins to yield and the stress will
be equal to fy .The stress and strain distributions across the depth will still follow
the elastic bending equation (Euler’s - Bernoulli’s equation) and is indicated in the
figure below. All the fibres other than extreme fibres are stressed below the yield
stress, fy. The permissible stress (working stress) method is based on this
behaviour with suitable factor of safety.

• With further increase in BM, M3 > My, yielding spreads into inner fibres. The c/s
is elasto - plastic and the internal moment of resistance can be computed, if
required from the stress distribution shown below.

• Finally, the yielding of fibres spreads almost for the entire c/s and the BM, M4 at
this stage is called the plastic moment MP .The c/s is said to be fully plasticized. A
plastic hinge is formed at this stage. After this, the deflection increases rapidly
resulting in collapse or failure. The neutral axis, NA is now called the Equal Area
Axis. An idealized stress distribution is shown below.
Basic Definitions:

Plastic Moment, Mp:

It is defined as the moment of resistance of a fully plasticized or yielded c/s. The

entire c/s is under yield stress, fy.

Mathematically, MP = fY Zpz
fy is the yield stress of the material
Zpz is the plastic section modulus of the c/s about z-z axis

Yield Moment, My:

It is defined as the moment of resistance of a c/s whose extreme fibres only has
reached yield stress, fy.

Mathematically, My = fY Zez
fy is the yield stress of the material
Zez is the elastic section modulus of the c/s about z-z axis

Plastic hinge:

It is defined a point in a flexural member where full plastic moment has developed
and is rotating at a constant moment, MP. The following characteristics are observed with
respect to a plastic hinge :

• A plastic hinge is a zone of yielding in a flexural member, where the stress is

equal to fY throughout the c/s.
• The length of the plastic hinge depends on the type of loading, c/s and support
conditions. However, in the analysis, it is assumed as point where all the plastic
rotation takes place.
• At the point, where plastic hinge is formed, it will be rotating with a constant
plastic moment, Mp
 • Plastic hinges are formed at points where concentrated loads are acting, fixed or
continuous supports in an indeterminate beam, joints in a rigid frame and at points
of zero shear, when UDL or other varying loads are acting.
• Plastic hinge is formed in a member of lesser capacity, when two members meet
as in the case of a continuous beam.
• The first plastic hinge is formed at the point of maximum BM.
• The formation of plastic hinges allow redistribution of moments until plastic
hinges are formed at all the critical sections.
• The formation of sufficient number of plastic hinges convert the structure into a
mechanism where the given structure breaks into rigid links with large
deformations. (Collapse)

Length of plastic hinge:

It is the length in a beam over which the BM is greater than the yield moment, My

Example 1

Consider a simply supported beam subjected to a central concentrated load which

has yielded over the shaded area as shown. Let Lp and L be the length of the plastic hinge
and span of the beam.

From similar triangles,

Lp / L = (Mp - My) / Mp
= (1 - My / Mp)
= [1 - 1/ (Mp / My)]
= (1 - 1/S)
where S = (Mp / My) is called the shape factor
Hence, Lp = (1 - 1/S) L

For a rectangular section, S = 1.5 and Lp = 1/3 * L

For typical I - sections, S = 1.14 and Lp = 0.123 L, say 1/8 * L
Length of plastic hinge depends on the shape factor of the c/s

Example 2

Consider a simply supported beam subjected to a UDL which has yielded over the shaded
area as shown. Let Lp and L be the length of the plastic hinge and span of the beam.

Let x = Lp / 2
My = wu L / 2 * (L / 2 - x) - wu (L / 2 - x)2 / 2
= wu L2 / 4 - (wu L / 2) * x - wu / 2 * (L2 / 4 + x2 - L x)
Cancelling (wu L / 2) * x, we have
My = wu L2 / 8 - wu x2 / 2
= wu L2 / 8 - wu L2 / 8 * (4 x2 / L2)

Noting Mp = wu L2 / 8, we have
My = Mp (1 - 4 x2 / L2)

My / Mp = (1 - 4 x2 / L2)
1 / S = (1 - 4 x2 / L2)
4 x2 / L2 = 1 - 1 / S
x2 = L2 / 4 (1 - 1 / S)
x = L / 2 √ (1 - 1 / S)
Lp / 2 = L / 2 √ (1 - 1 / S)
Lp = L √ (1 - 1 / S)
For a rectangular section, S = 1.5 and Lp = 0.577 * L
For typical I - sections, S = 1.14 and Lp = 0.35 * L
Length of plastic hinge depends on the shape factor of the c/s

Note :

From the above examples, it is observed that the length of the plastic hinge is
dependent on the loading and shape factor. It is also dependent on the support conditions.
For propped cantilevers, fixed beams, continuous beams and rigid frames, it is still
difficult to calculate the length of plastic hinges for different loadings and supports.
Hence, it is customary to assume the plastic hinge in the analysis as a point where all the
plastic rotation takes place.

Redistribution of Moments :

In determinate structural systems like simply supported beams, cantilevers and

overhang beams, only one plastic hinge will be formed at the point of maximum BM and
the structure is assumed to collapse. The increase in load carrying capacity is only
marginal and depends on the shape factor. However in indeterminate structural systems
like propped cantilevers, fixed beams, continuous beams and rigid frames, there is further
increase in load carrying capacity due to the redistribution of moments. This is called the
reserve strength of the beam. This is mainly due to the property of ductility of steel.

Redistribution of moments is explained with respect to a fixed beam subjected to

UDL through out. The beam is shown in the figure below.

The maximum elastic BM occurs at the supports and is equal to wL2 / 12 . As a first step,
the plastic hinges are formed at the supports and complete plasticization of the support c/s
takes place. But this do not mean failure or collapse occurs. This is because a plastic
hinge at the centre should also be formed. (No. of plastic hinges in indeterminate
structures = SI + 1) At this stage, the plastic hinges formed at the supports will be rotating
at constant moment, Mp due to ductility of the material. Collapse of the beam occurs only
when complete plasticization occurs at the centre resulting greater load carrying capacity.
At collapse, using equilibrium method, we have

wu L2 / 8 = 2 Mp
wu = 16 Mp / L2 ----------- Collapse load for the beam

At first yield, My = wy L2 / 12 at the supports, (only extreme fibres will yield)

wy = 12 My / L2

Reserve strength = wu / wy = (16 Mp / L2) / (12 My / L2)

= 4 / 3 * Mp / My
=4/3*S
where S is the shape factor.

For typical I - sections, S = 1.14

Reserve strength = 4 / 3 * 1.14 = 1.52

The beam is capable of carrying 52% more load beyond the first yield.

In general, increase in load carrying capacity occurs in plastic analysis due to -

i) Plasticization of the section (formation of plastic hinges at critical sections)

ii) Redistribution of moments

Plastic Section modulus of a c/s:

Consider a c/s symmetrical about the vertical y-y axis as shown below with the
section fully plasticized.

A1 and A2 are the areas above and below the Neutral Axis (Equal Area Axis)
fY is the yield stress in the material
Compressive force above the NA = fy A1
Tensile force below the NA = fy A2
For equilibrium, the forces are equal -
fy A1= fy A2 from which
A1 = A2
For a fully plasticized c/s, area above the NA = area below the NA
In other words, A1 + A2 = A
A1 + A1 = A
A1 = A2 = A/2
The neutral axis (NA) of a fully plasticized section is called the equal area axis (EAA)
The plastic moment of a fully plasticized section can be obtained by taking moments of
the forces above and below the EAA about EAA.

Mp = fy A1 Y1 + fy A2 Y2
= fy A/2 Y1 + fy A/2 Y2
= fy A/2 (Y1 + Y2)
= fy Zpz

where, Zpz = plastic section modulus of the c/s about z-z axis = [A/2 (Y1 + Y2)]

The plastic section modulus of a c/s, Zpz is defined as the moment of the areas above
and below EAA about the EAA. It is the resisting modulus of a completely plasticized
section and is a geometric property.

Shape factor, S:

It is defined as the ratio of plastic moment, MP to yield moment, MY. Also, called
form factor.

Mathematically, S = MP / My
= fY Zpz / fY Zez
= Zpz / Zez

It is also the ratio between the plastic section modulus to the elastic section modulus
of a c/s and is a geometric property

Shape factor of simple sections:

1. Rectangle:

Consider a rectangle as shown

Elastic section modulus,Zez = INA / extreme fibre distance

= (bD3/12) / (D / 2)
= bD2 / 6
Plastic section modulus, Zpz = Moments of the areas above and below the E A A (equal
area axis) about the E A A.

ZP = [(bD / 2) x D/4] x 2
= bD2 / 4

S = Zpz / Zez
= 1.5

2. I - section, say ISMB 600 @ 122.6 kg/m:

Consider the I - section shown

zez = 3060.4 cm3 (From hand book; Table I, pp - 4,5 ) = 3060.4 x 103 mm3
zpz = [ 210 x 20.8 x (600/2 - 20.8/2) + 12 x (600/2 - 20.8) x (600/2 - 20.8)/2 ] x 2
= 3465.38 x 103 mm3 (The value given in Table 46; pp - 138 is 3510.63 x 103 mm3)

Shape factor, S = Zpz / Zez

= 1.132 (The value given in Table 46; pp - 138 is 1.147)

If the above c/s is used over an effective span of 8m, the permissible UDL on the beam is
calculated as -
Yield Moment, MY = fY Zez (Assuming fy =250 MPa)
= 250 x 3060.4 x 103
= 765.1 x 106 N mm
= 765.1 kN m

Plastic Moment, Mp = fY Zpz

= 250 x 3465.38 x 103
= 866.35 x 106 N mm
= 866.35 kN m

Working bending moment, M = Mp / 1.5 = 577.57 kN m

If the permissible UDL on the beam is w/unit length,
w L2 / 8 = M
w x 82/8 = 577.57
w = 72.2 kN/m (including self weight)

On similar lines, if central concentrated load is required,

W L / 4 + wself weight * L2 / 8 = M
W * 8 / 4 + 1.23 x 82 / 8 = 577.57
W = 283.87 kN

If the c/s is symmetrical about the horizontal z - z axis or NA, then both NA and EAA
will co inside.

3. T - section say ISNT 150:

Consider the T section as shown.

Zez = 54.6 cm3 (From hand book; Table VI pp - 18,19)

The section is unsymmetrical about the NA and hence the EAA has to be located.
Total area of the c/s = 29.08 cm2 = 2908 mm2 (From hand book; Table VI, pp - 18,19)
A1 = A2 = A / 2 = 1454 mm2
If EAA is at distance y from top, we have
150 * y = 1454
y = 9.69 mm

The plastic section modulus is calculated by taking moments of the area above and below
the EAA about EAA.

Zpz = 150 * 9.69 * 9.69 / 2 + 150 * 0.31 * 0.31 / 2 + 10 * 140 * (140 / 2 + 0.31)
= 105.48 x 103 mm3
(0.31 = 10 - 9.69 ; 140 = 150 - 10)

S = Zpz / Zez = 1.93

Yield Moment, MY = fY Zez (Assuming fy =250 MPa)

= 250 x 54.6 x 103
= 13.65 x 106 N mm
= 13.65 kN m
Plastic Moment, Mp = fY Zpz
= 250 x 105.48 x 103
= 26.37 x 106 N mm
= 26.37 kN m

Working bending moment, M = Mp / 1.5 = 17.58 kN m

If UDL or other loads are required, maximum BM which depends on the type of loading
and span is equated to working bending moment.

4. Channel Section, say ISMC 400 @ 49.4 kg/m

Consider the channel section as shown.

The elastic properties of the section is obtained from Table II, pp 6 - 7 of ISI handbook
[SP (6) - 1)]

Zez = 754.1 cm3 = 754.1 x 103 mm3

The beam is symmetrical about z - z axis and hence, NA and EAA co inside.

Zpz = (100 * 15.3 * 192.35 + 8.6 * 184.7 * 184.7 / 2) * 2 = 881.97 x 10 mm3

[192.35 = (400 / 2) - 15.3 / 2 ; 184.7 = (400 / 2) - 15.3]

S = Zpz / Zez = 1.17

Yield Moment, MY = fY Zez (Assuming fy =250 MPa)

= 250 x 754.1 x 103
= 188.53 x 106 N mm
= 188.53 kN m

Plastic Moment, Mp = fY Zpz

= 250 x 881.97 x 103
= 220.5 x 106 N mm
= 220.5 kN m
Working bending moment, M = Mp / 1.5 = 147 kN m

If UDL or other loads are required, maximum BM which depends on the type of loading
and span is equated to working bending moment.

5. Built up section, ISMB600 @ 122.6kg/m with 320 x 40 plates symmetrically placed

Consider the built up section as shown.

The elastic properties of the section is obtained from Table XIV, pp 54 - 55 of ISI
handbook [SP (6) - 1)]

Zez = 10420.5 cm3 = 10420.5 x 103 mm3

The beam is symmetrical about z - z axis and hence, NA and EAA co inside

Zpz = 3510.63 x 103 + (320 * 40 * 320) * 2

= 11702.63 x 103 mm3
(The value of Zpz of ISMB 600 @ 122.6kg/m is 3510.63 cm3 obtained from Table 46 of
IS : 800 - 2007 pp - 138; 320 = 600 / 2 + 40 / 2 )

S = Zpz / Zez = 1.123

Mean thickness of flange = (320 * 40 + 210 * 20.8) / 320 = 53.65 mm (Table XIV gives
mean thickness of flange = 53.3 mm)
(210 and 20.8 = width of flange and thickness of flange of ISMB 600 @ 122.6kg/m)
Mean thickness > 40 mm

fy = 230 MPa (Table 1 - IS: 800 - 2007, pp - 14)

Yield Moment, MY = fY Zez (Assuming fy =250 MPa)
= 230 x 10420.5 x 103
= 2396.72 x 106 N mm
= 2396.72 kN m

Plastic Moment, Mp = fY Zpz

= 230 x 11702.63 x 103
= 2691.6 x 106 N mm
= 2691.6 kN m

Working bending moment, M = Mp / 1.5 = 1794.4 kN m

If UDL or other loads are required, maximum BM which depends on the type of loading
and span is equated to working bending moment.

6. Plate girder section, say Two 500 x 40 flange plates (one on each side), Four flange
angles (two on each side) and One web plate 1600 x 16

Consider the section as shown.

The elastic properties of the section is obtained from Table XX, pp 84 - 85 of ISI
handbook [SP (6) - 1)]

Zez = 56782.9 cm3 = 56782.9 x 103 mm3

The beam is symmetrical about z - z axis and hence, NA and EAA co inside

Zpz = (500 * 40 * 820 + 200 * 18 * 791 * 2 + 18 * 182 * 691 * 2 + 16 * 800 * 400) * 2

= 63485.26 x 103 mm3

(820 = 1600 / 2 + 40 / 2 ; 791 = 1600 / 2 + 18 / 2 ; 182 = 200 - 18 ; 691 = 1600 / 2 - 18 -

182 / 2 ; 800 = 1600 / 2 ; 400 = 800 / 2)

S = Zpz / Zez = 1.118

Mean thickness of flange = (500 * 40 + 200 * 18 * 2) / 500 = 54.4 mm (Table XX gives

mean thickness of flange = 55 mm)
Mean thickness > 40 mm

fy = 230 MPa (Table 1 - IS: 800 - 2007, pp - 14)

Yield Moment, MY = fY Zez (Assuming fy =250 MPa)

= 230 x 56782.9 x 103
= 13060.07 x 106 N mm
= 13060.07 kN m

Plastic Moment, Mp = fY Zpz

= 230 x 63485.26 x 103
= 14601.61 N mm
= 14601.61 kN m

Working bending moment, M = Mp / 1.5 = 9734.41 kN m

If UDL or other loads are required, maximum BM which depends on the type of loading
and span is equated to working bending moment.

7. Box section, say 300 x 600 outer dimensions with 12 mm as uniform thickness

.
Consider the section as shown.
The beam is symmetrical about z - z axis and hence, NA and EAA co inside

Zez = Izz / ymax

= [300 * 6003 / 12 - (300 - 12 * 2) * (600 -12 * 2)3 / 12] / (600 / 2 )
= 3.35 x 106 mm3

Zpz = (300 * 12 * 294 + 12 * 288 * 144 * 2) * 2

= 4.11 x 106 mm3

(294 = 600 / 2 - 12 / 2 ; 288 = 600 / 2 - 12 ; 144 = 288 / 2)

S = Zpz / Zez = 1.227

fy = 250 MPa (Table 1 - IS: 800 - 2007, pp - 14)

Yield Moment, MY = fY Zez (Assuming fy =250 MPa)

= 250 x 3.35 x 106
= 837.5 x 106 N mm
= 837.5 kN m

Plastic Moment, Mp = fY Zpz

= 250 x 4.11 x 106
= 1027.5 x 106 N mm
= 1027.5 kN m

Working bending moment, M = Mp / 1.5 = 685 kN m

If UDL or other loads are required, maximum BM which depends on the type of loading
and span is equated to working bending moment.

8. Unsymmetrical I section

Consider an Unsymmetrical c/s as shown

The section is unsymmetrical about the NA and hence the EAA has to be located. The
NA has to be calculated as section properties are not available in SP (6)

Let yt be the distance of NA from the top

yt = [200 * 10 * 10 / 2 + 10 * 180 * (180 / 2 + 10) + 100 * 10 * (200 - 10 / 2)] /
Total area, A = (200 * 10 + 180 * 10 + 100 * 10)
= 80.21 mm
yb = distance of NA from the bottom = 200 - 80.21 = 119.79 mm
INA = [200 * 103 / 12 + 200 * 10 * (80.21 - 5)2] + [10 * 1803 / 12 + 10 * 180 *
(100 - 80.21)2] + [100 * 103 /12 + 100 * 10 * (195 - 80.21)2]
= 30.08 x 106 mm4
Zez = INA / ymax = 30.08 x 106 / 119.79 = 251.11 x 103 mm3

Let the EAA be at distance y from the top

200 * 10 + 10 * (y - 10) = Total area / 2 = 4800 / 2 = 2400
y = 50 mm
Zpz = 200 * 10 * 45 + 10 * 40 * 20 + 10 * 140 * 70 + 100 * 10 * 145
= 341 x 103 mm3

S = Zpz / Zez = 1.358

fy = 250 MPa (Table 1 - IS: 800 - 2007, pp - 14)

Yield Moment, MY = fY Zez (Assuming fy =250 MPa)

= 250 x 251.11 x 103
= 62.78 x 106 N mm
= 62.78 kN m

Plastic Moment, Mp = fY Zpz

= 250 x 341 x 103
= 85.25 x 106 N mm
= 85.25 kN m

Working bending moment, M = Mp / 1.5 = 56.83 kN m

If UDL or other loads are required, maximum BM which depends on the type of loading
and span is equated to working bending moment.

Mechanisms:

It can be defined as a situation in a structure in which sufficient number of plastic

hinges are formed so as to cause collapse without further increase in the load carrying
capacity. (collapse load) Mechanism breaks the structure into rigid links. When a
mechanism is formed the structure is subjected to large rotations and deflections.

In an indeterminate structure, number of plastic hinges = SI makes the structure

determinate and additional plastic hinge transforms the structure into a mechanism
resulting in collapse. Mechanism results in instability of the structure with large
deformations. The type of mechanism depends on the structure. Different types of
mechanisms are indicated in the figures.
Plastic Collapse load

It is the load corresponding to the collapse of a structure due to the formation of

sufficient number of plastic hinges transferring the structure into a mechanism. It is also
called ultimate load or limit load. The number of plastic hinges at collapse = SI +1, where
SI = Static indeterminacy of the structure.
The collapse of a structure can be a partial, complete or over complete collapse
depending on number of plastic hinges
In a structural system, if only a part of the structure fails, making the structure as a
whole useless, then the collapse is said to be partial and the corresponding load is taken as
the partial collapse load. Number of plastic hinges in a partially collapsed structure is
< SI +1. In rigid frames, if a beam fails, then it is called a partial collapse.
 In a structural system, if complete collapse of the structure occurs, then the
corresponding collapse load is taken as the true collapse load. Number of plastic hinges at
collapse is = SI + 1. Usually, the value of the collapse load corresponds to any one
mechanism which gives the lowest load.

In a structural system, if collapse of the structure occurs due to formation of more

than the necessary plastic hinges , then the collapse is considered as over complete
collapse and the corresponding load is said to be over complete collapse load.. Number of
plastic hinges at collapse is > SI + 1. Two or more mechanisms give the same collapse
load. This can happen in symmetrically loaded structures, where the plastic hinges do not
lie on the axis of symmetry.

Conditions in Plastic Analysis:

In elastic analysis of structures, the conditions to be satisfied are :

Equilibrium conditions - ΣV = 0 ; ΣH = 0 and ΣM = 0
Compatibility conditions - Continuity of slopes and deflections
BM < Yield Moment with suitable factor of safety

In plastic analysis of structures, the conditions to be satisfied are :

Equilibrium conditions - ΣV = 0 ; ΣH = 0 and ΣM = 0
Mechanism condition or formation - Sufficient number of plastic hinges shall
be formed to transfer the structure into a mechanism
Plastic moment condition - BM at any point shall not exceed the plastic
moment, Mp of the section (M < or = Mp)

If all the three conditions are satisfied in plastic analysis, then we get the true collapse
load. However, if any two conditions are satisfied, we get a load which is either below or
above the true collapse load.

Theorems in Plastic analysis :

Based on the number of conditions satisfied, we have three theorems in plastic

analysis.

Static Theorem (Lower bound theorem):

This theorem states that the load computed from any distribution of BMDs in
equilibrium with external loads (safe and statically admissible BMD) so that the
maximum BM in any member shall not exceed its plastic moment, Mp (M < or = Mp) is
less than or equal to the true collapse load. This theorem leads to equilibrium or static
method of plastic analysis.
This theorem also called the safe theorem satisfies equilibrium and plastic
moment condition.

Kinematic Theorem (Upper bound theorem):

This theorem states that the load computed from any assumed kinematically
admissible mechanism is greater than or equal to the true collapse load. This theorem
leads to kinematic or mechanism method of analysis.
 This theorem also called the unsafe theorem satisfies equilibrium and mechanism
condition. A kinematically admissible mechanism (deformation) is one in which the
deformation (rotation and deflection) under the load and supports satisfies the virtual
work equation. (internal work by the plastic moment at plastic hinges = external work by
the loads on the structure)

Uniqueness Theorem :

This theorem states that if the load evaluated by static and kinematic theorems is
same, then it is the true collapse load. All the three conditions of plastic analysis are
satisfied. According to this theorem, there is only one unique solution for a given
structure, while there are innumerable possible solutions with other theorems.

All the three theorems are graphically shown in the figure below.

Methods of Plastic Analysis :

Equilibrium or Static Method :

This method is based on the lower bound theorem and consists of the following steps:
i) The redundant forces are chosen.
ii) Free BMD (Simply supported) of the structure is drawn.
iii) Redundant BMD of the structure is drawn.
iv) The two BMDs are combined and the peak moments are determined. The peak
moment points are set the corresponding plastic moment, Mp . Also, check the number
of plastic hinges formed.
v) The collapse load is determined using the equilibrium condition by equating the
maximum simply supported BM to the plastic moment at the corresponding point.
vi) A check is applied so that plastic moment at any point is not > or = Mp at that point.
vii) BMD and SFD are drawn if required.
Kinematic or Mechanism method:

This method is based on the upper bound theorem and consists of the following steps:
i) The possible points of plastic hinges (N) formation is located. They are invariably
formed at points of maximum BM, Continuous supports, Fixed supports, rigid joints,
etc.,
ii) The number of independent mechanisms and combined mechanisms are determined.
In beams, only independent mechanisms are required. No. of independent
mechanisms = N - SI , where N = No. of plastic hinges possible and SI = Static
indeterminacy
iii) Using the principle of virtual work, the equilibrium equation involving the internal
work done by plastic moment, Mp and the external work done by loads are equated to
determine the plastic collapse load.
iv) A check is applied so that plastic moment at any point is not > or = Mp at that point.
v) BMD and SFD are drawn if required.

In this method , the elastic strain energy is ignored and the internal work done at
only plastic hinges is considered.

Virtual Work Principle:

This principle is used for determining the collapse loads using mechanism
method. This principle establishes the equilibrium relation between the work done by
external loads and the internal work done by the plastic moment at specified location of
plastic hinges. The principle is stated as follows :

If a structure is subjected to a set of loads which is in equilibrium, a virtual

displacement (deflection or rotation) at specified points will not alter the equilibrium of
the structure with total work done being zero. With this, the virtual work equation can be
written as -

External Work done by the loads = Internal Work done by the plastic moment a the
location of the plastic hinges.

Plastic analysis of beams :

Beams can be analyzed by equilibrium or mechanism method. Usually, beams are

subjected to transverse loads and only beam mechanisms occur. In continuous beam, each
span is converted into a mechanism separately and lowest collapse load or the highest
plastic moment is taken as the true value. It will be assumed that if one span collapses, the
structure fails.

In beams, mechanisms can be relevant or irrelevant. Relevant mechanisms are the

correct mechanisms, where plastic hinges are assumed at maximum BM locations such as
fixed support, continuous support, concentrated loads, point of zero shear etc., Irrelevant
mechanisms are incorrect mechanisms, where plastic hinges are assumed to be at
incorrect locations. In analysis, only relevant mechanisms are considered.

No. of relevant mechanisms = N - SI

N = No. of plastic hinges possible
SI = Static indeterminacy
Problem 1

Simply supported beam with central concentrated load -

Equilibrium method -

Maximum free BM = WU * L / 4
Plastic moment of the section = MP
Equating, WU * L / 4 = MP
WU = 4 * M P / L

Mechanism method -

Internal work done = 2 * MP * θ

External work done = WU * δ
From geometry, δ = (L / 2) * θ
Equating, 2 * MP * θ = WU * (L / 2) * θ
WU = 4 * M P / L

Problem 2

Propped Cantilever with Central concentrated load

Equilibrium method -

Maximum free BM = WU * L / 4
Plastic moment of the section = MP + MP / 2 = 1.5 MP
Equating, WU * L / 4 = 1 5 MP
WU = 6 * M P / L

Mechanism method -

Internal work done = 3 * MP * θ

External work done = WU * δ
From geometry, δ = (L / 2) * θ
Equating, 3 * MP * θ = WU * (L / 2) * θ
WU = 6 * M P / L

Problem 3

Propped Cantilever with UDL throughout

The location of the plastic hinge at C is carried out by segment equilibrium method. Let
the hinge at C be at distance x from B.

BC = x and AC = ( L- x)

At C, SF = 0

Consider the segment BC,

ΣMB = 0,
MP - wu x2 / 2 = 0
wu = 2 MP / x2 ------------------------------ (1)

Consider the segment AC,

ΣMA = 0,
wu (L-x)2 / 2 - 2 Mp = 0
wu = 4 Mp / (L-x)2 --------------------------- (2)

Equating (1) and (2),

2 MP / x2 = 4 Mp / (L-x)2
Simplifying, we get
x2 + 2Lx - L2 = 0
x=-L+√2*L
x = 0.414 L (BC) and L - x = 0.586 L (AC)

wu = 11.66 Mp / L2

Equilibrium method -
Simply supported BM at 0.414 L from B
= wu L / 2 * 0.414L - wu * ( 0.414L)2 / 2
= 0.1213 wu L2
Plastic moment of the section = MP + 0.414 MP = 1.414 MP
Equating,
1.414 MP = = 0.1213 wu L2
wu = 11.66 Mp / L2

Mechanism method -
Internal work done = 2 Mp θ + Mp θ1
External work done = 0.5 * L * δ * wu ( Area under the mechanism * intensity of
loading)

From geometry,
δ = 0.586L θ = 0.414L θ1
Equating,
2 Mp θ + Mp θ1 = 0.5 * L * δ * wu
2 Mp θ + Mp * 1.415 θ = 0.5 * L * 0.586L θ * wu
3.415 Mp = 0.293 wu L2
wu = 11.66 Mp / L2

SFD if required can be drawn either in terms of Mp or wu

Problem 4

Propped Cantilever with two concentrated loads at collapse. Find Mp

Two plastic hinges can be formed at collapse.

No. of possible plastic hinges = 3 (A, C and D)
Two Relevant mechanisms are possible.

Equilibrium method -
Plastic hinges at A and C
Maximum free BM = 10 * 2.5 = 25 kNM
Plastic moment of the section = MP + 0.5 MP = 1.5 MP
Equating, 25 = 1.5 MP
MP = 16.67 kNm

Plastic hinges at A and D

Maximum free BM = 20 * 1.25 = 25 kNM
Plastic moment of the section = MP + 0.25 MP = 1.25 MP
Equating, 25 = 1.25 MP
MP = 20 kNm

Adopt the largest value of MP = 20 kNm for design.

Mechanism method -
Internal work done = 2 * MP * θ + MP * θ1
External work done = 20 * δ + 10 * δ1
From geometry, δ = 3.75 θ , δ = 1.25 θ1, θ1 = 3 θ and δ1 = 2.5 θ
Equating, 2 * MP * θ + MP * θ1 = 20 * δ + 10 * δ1
2 * MP * θ + MP * 3 θ = 20 * 3.75 θ + 10 * 2.5 θ
MP = 20 kNm
Problem 5

Calculate the collapse load for the fixed beam shown with Mp = 100 kNm

By inspection, we note that collapse occurs when plastic hinges are formed at A, C and D.

Equilibrium method -
Plastic hinges at A, B and C
Maximum free BM at C = (10 / 6) WU * 2 = (10 / 3) WU
Plastic moment of the section = MP + MP = 2 MP
Equating, (10 / 3) WU = 2 MP = 200 kNm
WU = 60 kN

Mechanism method -
Internal work done = 2 * MP * θ + 2 * MP * θ1
External work done = 2 WU * δ + WU * δ1
From geometry, δ = 2 θ , δ = 4 θ1, θ1 = 0.5 θ and δ1 = 2 θ1 = θ
Equating internal and external work done,
2 * MP * θ + 2 * MP * θ1 = 2 WU * δ + WU * δ1
2 * MP * θ + 2 * MP * 0.5 θ = 2 WU * 2 θ + WU * θ
3MP = 5 WU
WU = 0.6 MP = 60 kN

The vertical reactions will be as in the case of simply supported beam.

Problem 6

Calculate the collapse load for the fixed beam shown.

The plastic hinges are formed at A , B and C based on crossing of shear force at C
The Simply supported reactions at A and B are 1.25WU and 0.75WU respectively.

Equilibrium method -
Plastic hinges at A, B and C
Maximum free BM at C = 0.75 WU * L
Plastic moment of the section = MP + MP = 2 MP
Equating, 0.75 WU * L = 2 MP
WU = (8 / 3) MP / L

Mechanism method -
Internal work done = 4 * MP * θ
External work done = WU * δ + 0.5 * L * δ * WU / L
From geometry, δ = L θ
Equating internal and external work done,
4 * MP * θ = WU * δ + 0.5 * L * L θ * WU / L
4 * M P * θ = W U * L θ + WU * L θ / 2
4MP = 1.5 WU L
WU = (8 / 3) MP / L

Problem 7

Fixed beam with different plastic moments. The beam is shown in the figure.

The Simply supported reactions at A and B are 1.25WU and 1.75WU respectively.
Equilibrium method -

Plastic hinges at A, B and D

Maximum free BM at C = 1.25 WU * 2 = 2.50 WU
Plastic moment of the section = MP + 1.25 MP = 2.25 MP
Equating, 2.50 WU = 2.25 MP
WU = 0.9 MP

Plastic hinges at A, B and C

Maximum free BM at C = 1.25 WU * 5 - WU * 3 = 3.25 WU
Plastic moment of the section = MP + 1.625 MP = 2.625 MP
Equating, 3.25 WU = 2.625 MP
WU = 0.8077 MP

Plastic hinges at A, B and E

Maximum free BM at C = 1.75 WU * 2 = 3.5 WU
Plastic moment of the section = 2 MP + 1.75 MP = 3.75 MP
Equating, 3.5 WU = 3.75 MP
WU = 1.0714 MP

The lowest load of WU = 0.8077 MP is the true collapse load.

Mechanism method -

Internal work done = 2 * MP * θ + 3 * MP * θ1

External work done = WU * δ2 + 2WU * δ1
From geometry, δ = 5 θ = 3 θ1, δ1 =2 θ1, δ2 =2 θ, θ1 = (5 / 3) θ
Equating internal and external work done,
2 * MP * θ + 3 * MP * θ1 = WU * δ2 + 2WU * δ1
2 * MP * θ + 3 * MP * (5 / 3) θ = WU * 2 θ + 2WU * 2 * (5 / 3) θ
7MP = (26 / 3)WU
WU = 0.8077 MP

The support reactions in the fixed beam can be obtained as follows :

2WU * 6 + WU * 2 + 2 MP - MP - VB * 8 = 0
VB = 1.538 MP
VA = 0.885 MP
SFD can be drawn.

Problem 8

A two span continuous beam is shown below. All the loads are service loads.

No. of possible plastic hinges = 4 (B, Between A and B, under each concentrated load.
No. of relevant mechanisms = 4 - 1 = 3
Each mechanism is similar to a propped cantilever.

Mechanism 1 -

Plastic hinges will be at B and in between A and B. The distance x where the SF is zero is
worked as in propped cantilever using segment equilibrium method. However, the value
of plastic moment at B shall be chosen lesser of the two values ie MP. The plastic moment
in between A and B is 2MP.

The location of the plastic hinge at F is carried out by segment equilibrium method. Let
the hinge at F be at distance x from A.

AF = x and BF = (12 - x)

At F, SF = 0

Consider the segment AF,

ΣMA = 0,
2MP - 60 x2 / 2 = 0
MP = 15 x2 ------------------------------ (1)
Consider the segment BF,
ΣMB = 0,
60 (12 - x)2 / 2 - 3 Mp = 0
MP = 10 (12 - x)2 --------------------------- (2)

Equating (1) and (2),

15 x2 = 10 (12 - x)2
1.5 x2 = (12 - x)2
Simplifying, we get x = 5.394 m
MP = 436.43 kNm

Equilibrium Method -
Simply supported BM at 5.394 m from A –
SS BM = 360 * 5.394 - 60 * 5.3942 / 2 = 1068.98 kNm
Total Plastic Moment at the section = (2.0 + 0.45) MP = 2.45 MP
Equating SS BM to the total plastic moment,
1068.98 = 2.45 MP
MP = 436.32 kNm
Mechanism method -
Internal work done = 2 Mp θ2 + 3Mp θ1
External work done = 0.5 * 12 * δ * 60 = 360 δ
From geometry,
δ = 5.394 θ2 = 6.606 θ1
Equating,
2 Mp θ2 + 3Mp θ1 = 360 δ
2 Mp θ2 + 3Mp * (5.394 / 6.606) * θ2 = 360 * 5.394 θ2
4.45 Mp = 1941.84
Mp = 436.37 kNm

Note : All methods give the same answer. The student shall check the question and
accordingly answer. If no method is specified, then the student can have his /her
choice.

Mechanism 2 -

Plastic hinges will be formed at B and D ( under 150 kN load near B).

Equilibrium Method -
Simply supported BM at 3.0 m from B -
SS BM = 225 * 3.0 = 675 kNm
Total Plastic Moment at the section = (1.0 + 2/3) MP = 5/3 MP
Equating SS BM to the total plastic moment,
675 = 5/3 MP
MP = 405 kNm
Mechanism method -
Internal work done = 2 Mp θ + Mp θ1
External work done = 225 * δ + 225 * δ1
From geometry,
δ = 3 θ = 6 θ1 ; θ1 = 0.5 θ
and δ1 = 3 θ1 = 1.5 θ
Equating,
2 Mp θ + Mp θ1 = 225 * δ + 225 * δ1
2 Mp θ + Mp * 0.5 θ = 225 * 3 θ + 225 * 1.5 θ
2.5 Mp = 1012.5
Mp = 405 kNm

Mechanism 3 -

Plastic hinges will be at B and E (under 150 kN load near C)

Equilibrium Method -
Simply supported BM at 3.0 m from C -
SS BM = 225 * 3.0 = 675 kNm
Total Plastic Moment at the section = (1.0 + 1/3) MP = 4/3 MP
Equating SS BM to the total plastic moment,
675 = 4/3 MP
MP = 506.25 kNm
Mechanism method -
Internal work done = 2 Mp θ + Mp θ1
External work done = 225 * δ + 225 * δ1
From geometry,
δ = 6 θ = 3 θ1 ; θ1 = 2 θ
and δ1 = 3 θ
Equating,
2 Mp θ + Mp θ1 = 225 * δ + 225 * δ1
2 Mp θ + Mp * 2 θ = 225 * 6 θ + 225 * 3 θ
4 Mp = 2025
Mp = 506.25 kNm

The largest value of MP shall be chosen. For the given problem, MP = 506.25 kNm

The reactions for the beams are calculated as in elastic analysis by taking moments about
any support and using the vertical equilibrium equation. The reactions are shown are
below. BMD and SFD are also indicated. The BM has not exceeded the relevant plastic
moment of the beam.
Note

The student shall work similar problems for practice with two and three span
continuous beams with different support and loadings. If required BMD and SFD can be
drawn. If end supports are fixed, plastic hinges are formed and the span behaves as fixed
beam.

Sometimes, the value of MP will be given for each span and the collapse load will
be required to be calculated. In such problems, the collapse load is worked for each span
and the lowest load is chosen as the true collapse load.
 Design of Tension Members
*
Dr. S. RAVIRAJ
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering
Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering, Mysore – 06

1.0 Introduction

The Tension member considered for the design is a linear member which
carries an axial pull. The members undergo extension due to this axial pull. This
is one of the common types of force transmitted in the structural system.
Tension members are very efficient since the entire cross section carries
uniform stress unlike flexural members. The tension members do not buckle
even when stressed beyond the elastic limit. Hence the design is not effected
by the type of section used i.e., Plastic, Compact or Semi-compact. Some of the
common examples of tension members in structures are; Bottom chord of pin
jointed roof trusses, bridges, transmission line and communication towers,
wind bracing system in multi-storey buildings, etc.

The objective of this exercise is to determine the tensile strength of a given

member having a specified end connection. The strength of these members is
influenced by several factors such as the length of connection, type of
connection (by bolts or welds), connection eccentricity, size and shape of
fasteners, net area of cross-section and shear lag at the end connection.

2.0 Types of Tension Members

The tension members may be made of single structural shapes. The standard
structural shapes of typical tension members are:

• Angle section • Tee section

• Channel section • Box section
• I section • Tubular section
The sections can also be built up using a number of the above structural
shapes.

Single angle members are economical but the connection produces eccentric
force in the member. These are generally used in towers and in trusses. Double
angle members are more rigid than single angle members. They are used in
roof trusses. Since there exists a gap of about 6 to 10 mm between the two
members (which depends on the thickness of the gusset plate), they are
generally interconnected at regular intervals so that they act as one integral
member. In the members of bridge trusses the tensile forces developed are
very large and hence require more rigid members. In these structures single
channel, single I-section, built-up channels, or built-up I-sections will be
generally used.

3.0 Behaviour of Tension Members

The load-deformation behavior of members subjected to uniform tensile stress

is similar to the load-deflection behavior of the corresponding basic material.
The typical stress-strain behavior of mild steel under axial tensile load is shown
in Fig. 1. The upper yield point is merged with the lower yield point for
convenience. The material shows a linear elastic behavior in the initial region
(O to A). The material undergoes sufficient yielding in portion A to B. Further
deformation leads to an increase in resistance, where the material strain
hardens (from B to C). The material reaches its ultimate stress at point C. The
stress decreases with increase in further deformation and breaks at D. The high
strength steel members do not exhibit the well defined yield point and the
yield region (Fig. 1). For such materials, the 0.2 percent proof stress is usually
taken as the yield stress (E).
 Fig. 1 Typical stress-strain diagram for mild steel and high strength steel

4.0 Slenderness Ratio

Apart from strength requirement, the tension members have to be checked for
minimum stiffness by stipulating the limiting maximum slenderness ratio of the
member. This is required to prevent undesirable lateral movement or
excessive vibration. The slenderness limits specified in IS: 800-2007 for tension
members are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Maximum values of effective slenderness ratio as per IS: 800-2007

Maximum effective
Member
slenderness ratio (l/r)
A tension member in which a reversal of direct stress 180
occurs due to loads other than wind or seismic forces
A member subjected to compressive forces resulting 250
only from a combination of wind/earthquake actions,
provided the deformation of such a member does not
adversely affect the stresses in any part of the
structure
A member normally acting as a tie in a roof truss or a 350
bracing member, which is not considered effective
when subject to reversal of stress resulting from the
action of wind or earthquake forces
Members always in tension (other than pre-tensioned 400
members)

5.0 Shear Lag

The tensile force to a tension member is transferred by a gusset plate or by the

adjacent member connected to one of the legs either by bolting or welding.
This force which is transferred to one leg by the end connection locally gets
transferred as tensile stress over the entire cross section by shear. Hence, the
distribution of tensile stress on the section from the first bolt hole to the last
bolt hole will not be uniform. Hence, the connected leg will have higher
stresses at failure while the stresses in the outstanding leg will be relatively
lower. However, at sections far away from the end connection, the stress
distribution becomes more uniform. Here the stress transfer mechanism, i.e.,
the internal transfer of forces from one leg to the other (or flange to web, or
from one part to the other), will be by shear and because one part ‘lags’
behind the other, the phenomenon is referred to as ‘shear lag’.

The shear lag reduces the effectiveness of the component plates of a tension
member that are not connected directly to a gusset plate. The efficiency of a
tension member can be increased by reducing the area of such components
which are not directly connected at the ends. The shear lag effect reduces with
increase in the connection length.

6.0 Modes of Failure

The different modes of failure in tension members are

1. Gross section yielding

2. Net section rupture
3. Block shear failure
The strength of tension members under the different modes are failure, i.e.,
design strength due to yielding of gross section, Tdg, rupture of critical section,
Tdn and block shear Tdb are first determined. The design strength of a member
under axial tension, Td, is the lowest of the above three values.

6.1 Gross section yielding

Steel members (plates, angles, etc.) without bolt holes can sustain loads up to
the ultimate load without failure. However, the members will elongate
considerably (10 to 15 % of its original length) at this load, and hence make the
structure unserviceable. Hence the design strength Tdg is limited to the yielding
of gross cross section which is given by

Tdg = fy Ag /γm0

where
fy = yield strength of the material in MPa
Ag = gross area of cross section in mm2
γm0 = 1.10 = partial safety factor for failure at yielding

6.2 Net section rupture

This occurs when the tension member is connected to the main or other
members by bolts. The holes made in members for bolts will reduce the cross
section, and hence net area will govern the failure in this case. Holes in
members cause stress concentration at service loads. From the theory of
elasticity, the tensile stress adjacent to a hole will be about two to three times
the average stress on the net area (Fig. 2a). This depends on the ratio of the
diameter of the hole to the width of the plate normal to the direction of the
stress.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 2 Stress-distribution in a plate adjacent to hole due to tensile force.

When the tension member with a hole is loaded statically, the point adjacent
to the hole reaches the yield stress fy first (Fig. 2b). On further loading, the
stress in other fibers away from the hole progressively reaches the yield stress
fy. Deformations of the member continue with increasing load until final
rupture of the member occurs when the entire net cross section of the
member reaches the ultimate stress fu (Fig. 2c).

6.2.1 Net section rupture in plates

The design strength in tension of a plate, Tdn, as governed by rupture of net

cross sectional area, An, at the holes is given by

Tdn = 0.9 fu An / γm1

where

γm1 = 1.25 = partial safety factor for failure at ultimate stress

fu = ultimate stress of the material in MPa

An = net effective area of the member in mm2 is given by

 p si2 
An = b − n d h + ∑  t
 i 4g i 
ps

g
dh
g
b
g

Fig. 3 Plate with bolt holes in tension

where

b, t = width and thickness of the plate, respectively

dh = diameter of the bolt hole (2 mm in addition to the diameter of the

hole, in case of directly punched holes)
g = gauge length between the bolt holes, as shown in Fig. 3

ps = staggered pitch length between line of bolt holes, as shown in Fig. 3

n = number of bolt holes in the critical section, and

i = subscript for summation of all the inclined legs

The ‘0.9’ factor included in the design strength equation is based on a

statistical evaluation of a large number of test results for net section failure of
members.

6.2.2 Net section rupture in threaded rods

The design strength of threaded rods in tension, Tdn, as governed by rupture is

given by

Tdn = 0.9 fu An / γm1

where An = net root area at the threaded section

6.2.3 Net section rupture in single angles

The rupture strength of an angle connected through one leg is affected by

shear lag. The design strength, Tdn, as governed by rupture at net section is
given by

Tdn = 0.9 fu Anc / γm1 +β Ago fy /γm0

where

β = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy /fu) (bs /Lc ) ≤ (fu γm0 / fy γm1)

≥ 0.7
where

w = outstand leg width

bs = shear lag width, as shown in Fig. 4

Lc = Length of the end connection, i.e., distance between the outermost

bolts in the end joint measured along the load direction or length of
the weld along the load direction

w w

w1

bs = w + w1 - t bs = w
Fig. 4 Angles with single leg connections

For preliminary sizing, the rupture strength of net section may be

approximately taken as

Tdn = α An fu /γm1

where

α = 0.6 for one or two bolts, 0.7 for three bolts and 0.8 for four or more
bolts along the length in the end connection or equivalent weld
length

An = net area of the total cross section

Anc = net area of the connected leg

Ago = gross area of the outstanding leg, and

t = thickness of the leg

6.2.4 Net section rupture in other sections

The tearing strength, Tdn, of the double angles, channels, I sections and other
rolled steel sections, connected by one or more elements to an end gusset is
also governed by shear lag effects. The design tensile strength of such sections
as governed by tearing of net section may also be calculated using equation in
6.2.3, where β is calculated based on the shear lag distance, bs taken from the
farthest edge of the outstanding leg to the nearest bolt/weld line in the
connected leg of the cross section.

6.3 Block shear failure

Block shear failure is considered as a potential failure mode at the ends of an

axially loaded tension member. In this failure mode, the failure of the member
occurs along a path involving tension on one plane and shear on a
perpendicular plane along the fasteners. A typical block shear failure of a
gusset plate is shown in Fig. 5. Here plane B-C is under tension whereas planes
A-B and C-D are in shear.

A D

B C

Fig. 5 Block shear failure in gusset plate

Typical block shear failure of angles in a bolted connection is shown in Fig. 6.
Here plane 1-2 is in shear and plane 2-3 is in tension.

Fig. 6 Block shear failure in angle with Fig. 7 Block shear failure of gusset plate
bolted connection in welded connections

The block shear failure is also seen in welded connections. A typical failure of a
gusset in the welded connection is shown in Fig. 7. The planes of failure are
chosen around the weld. Here plane B-C is under tension and planes A-B and C-
D are in shear.

6.3.1 Design strength due to block shear in bolted connections

The block shear strength, Tdb, of connection shall be taken as the smaller of

Tdb = ( Avg fy /( 3 γm0) + fu Atn /γm1 )

or

Tdb = ( fu Avn /( 3 γm1) + fy Atg /γm0 )

Where

Avg, Avn = minimum gross and net area in shear along a line of transmitted
force, respectively (1-2 and 3–4 as shown in Fig. 8 and 1-2 as
shown in Fig. 9)

Atg, Atn = minimum gross and net area in tension from the bolt hole to the
toe of the angle, end bolt line, perpendicular to the line of force
(2-3 as shown in Figs. 8 and 9)

fu, fy = ultimate and yield stress of the material respectively

3
1 2

3
1 2

Fig. 8 Block shear failure in plate Fig. 9 Block shear failure in angle

6.3.1 Design strength due to block shear in welded connections

The block shear strength, Tdb, shall be checked for welded connections by
taking an appropriate section in the member around the end weld, which can
shear off as a block.

7.0 Lug Angles

Lug angles are short angles used to connect the gusset and the outstanding leg
of the main member as shown in Fig. 10. The lug angles help to increase the
efficiency of the outstanding leg of angles or channels. They are normally
provided when the tension member carries a very large load. Higher load
results in a larger end connection which can be reduced by providing lug
angles. It is ideal to place the lug angle at the beginning of the connection than
at any other position.

Gusset Main Member

Lug Angle

Fig. 10 Lug angle connecting Main member with Gusset

8.0 Numercial Problems

Problem 1
Determine the design tensile strength of the plate 120 mm x 8 mm connected to a 12
mm thick gusset plate with bolt holes as shown in Fig. 11. The yield strength and
ultimate strength of the steel used are 250 MPa and 400 MPa. The diameter of the
bolts used is 16 mm.
Gusset 12 mm thick

Plate

30

60

30

30 60 60 30

Fig. 11 Details of end connection

Solution
The design tensile strength Td of the plate is calculated based on the following
criteria.
(i) Gross section yielding
The design strength Tdg of plate limited to the yielding of gross cross section Ag
is given by
Tdg = fy Ag /γm0

Here fy = 250 MPa, Ag = 120 x 8 = 960 mm2 and γm0 = 1.10

Hence Tdg = 218.18 kN

(ii) Net section rupture

The design strength Tdn of angle governed by rupture of net cross sectional
area, An, is given by
Tdn =0.9 fu An / γm1

Here fu = 400 MPa, γm1 = 1.25

Further, diameter of bolt hole = 16 + 2 = 18 mm
Therefore, An = (120 – 2 x18) 8 = 672 mm2. Hence, Tdn = 193.54 kN
(iii) Block shear failure

30

60

30

30 60 60 30
Fig. 12 Failure of plate in block shear

The design strength Tdg of connection shall be taken as smaller of

Tdb1 = ( Avg fy /( 3 γm0) + 0.9 Atn fu /γm1 ) , OR

Tdb2 = ( 0.9 Avn fu /( 3 γm1) + Atg fy /γm0 )

Here, Avg = (150 x 8) 2 = 2400 mm2,

Avn = [(150 – 2.5 x 18) x 8] 2 = 1680 mm2,

Atg = (60 x 8) = 480 mm2,

Atn = (60 – 1.0 x 18) x 8 = 336 mm2

Therefore, Tdb1 = 411.69 kN and Tdb2 = 388.44 kN

Hence Tdb = 388.44 kN

Design tensile strength Td

The tensile design strength Td is the least of Tdg, Tdn and Tdb

Hence, Td = Tdn = 193.54 kN

Problem 2
A single unequal angle 100 x 75 x 8 mm is connected to a 12 mm thick gusset plate at
the ends with 6 numbers of 20 mm diameter bolts to transfer tension as shown in
Fig. 13. Determine the design tensile strength of the angle if the gusset is connected
to the 100 mm leg. The yield strength and ultimate strength of the steel used are 250
MPa and 400 MPa. The diameter of the bolts used is 20 mm.

40
100 x 75 x8
60

30 50 50 50 50 50 12 75

Fig. 13 Details of end connection

Solution
The design tensile strength Td of the angle is calculated based on the following
criteria.

(i) Gross section yielding

The design strength Tdg of angle limited to the yielding of gross cross section Ag
is given by
Tdg = fy Ag /γm0

Here fy = 250 MPa, Ag = (100 + 75 – 8) 8 = 1336 mm2, γm0 = 1.10

Hence Tdg = 303.64 kN

(ii) Net section rupture

The design strength Tdn of angle governed by rupture of net cross sectional area
is given by
Tdn =0.9 fu Anc / γm1 +β Ago fy /γm0

β = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy /fu) (bs /Lc ) ≤ (fu γm0 / fy γm1)

Here fu = 400 MPa, fy = 250 MPa, γm1 = 1.25, and γm0 = 1.10
w = 75 mm, t = 8 mm, bs = (75 + 60 – 8) = 127 mm, Lc = 250 mm
Further, diameter of bolt hole = 20 + 2 = 22 mm.
 Anc = (100 – 8/2 – 22) 8 = 592 mm2, Ago= (75 – 8/2) 8 = 568 mm2
Hence, β = 1.17. Since 0.7 ≤ β ≤ 1.41 , β = 1.17

Hence, Tdn = 321.53 kN

(iii) Block shear failure

40

30 50 50 50 50 50
Fig. 14 Failure of plate in block shear

The design strength Tdg of connection shall be taken as smaller of

Tdb1 = ( Avg fy /( 3 γm0) + 0.9 Atn fu /γm1 ) , OR

Tdb2 = ( 0.9 Avn fu /( 3 γm1) + Atg fy /γm0 )

Here, Avg = 280 x 8 = 2240 mm2,

Avn = (280 – 5.5 x 22) x 8 = 1272 mm2,

Atg = 40 x 8 = 320 mm2,

Atn = (40 – 0.5 x 22) 8 = 232 mm2

Therefore, Tdb1 = 360.74 kN and Tdb2 = 284.23 kN

Hence Tdb = 284.23 kN

Design tensile strength Td

The tensile design strength Td is the least of Tdg, Tdn and Tdb

Hence, Td = Tdb = 284.23 kN

Problem 3
A tie member in a bracing system consists of two angles 75 x 75 x 6 mm bolted to a
10 mm thick gusset plate one on each side using a single row of bolts and tack
bolted. Determine the tensile capacity of the member and the number of bolts
required to develop full capacity of the member. The yield strength and ultimate
strength of the material is 250 MPa and 410 MPa, respectively.

75 x 75 x 6

75 6 75

Fig. 15 Details of connection at end

Solution
The design tensile strength Td of the angles is calculated based on the following
criteria.

(i) Gross section yielding

The design strength Tdg of angles limited to the yielding of gross cross section
Ag is given by
Tdg = fy Ag /γm0

Here fy = 250 MPa, Ag = 2 x 866 = 1732 mm2, γm0 = 1.10.

Hence Tdg = 393.64 kN

(ii) Net section rupture

The design strength Tdn of angle governed by rupture of net cross sectional
area. Since the number of rivets is not known, the rupture strength of net
section is approximately calculated as

Tdn = α An fu /γm1

Assuming a single line of 4 numbers 20 mm dia bolts, α = 0.8.

Dia of the bolt hole = 20 + 2 = 22mm
An = [(75 – 22 – 6/2) x 6 + (75 – 6/2) x 6] x 2 = 1464 mm2
 Also, fu = 410 MPa and γm1 = 1.25
Hence, Tdn = 384.15 kN

Design of bolts
Bolts are in double shear.
Hence, strength of single 20 mm dia bolt = 2 x 45.3 = 90.6 kN
For the strength of connection to be larger than the strength of member,
Number of bolts required = 384.15 / 90.6 = 4.24
Hence provide 5 numbers of 20 mm bolts. Hence the connection is safe.
Assume edge and end distances = 35 mm and pitch = 50 mm

(iii) Block shear failure

The design strength Tdg of connection shall be taken as smaller of
Tdb1 = ( Avg fy /( 3 γm0) + 0.9 Atn fu /γm1 ) , OR

Tdb2 = ( 0.9 Avn fu /( 3 γm1) + Atg fy /γm0 )

35

35 50 50 50 50
Fig. 16 Failure of angle in block shear

Consider one angle. Here,

Avg = 235 x 6 = 1410 mm2, Avn = (235 – 4.5 x 22) x 6 = 816 mm2,

Atg = 35 x 6 = 210 mm2, Atn = (35 –22/2) 6 = 144 mm2

Therefore, Tdb1 = 227.50 kN and Tdb2 = 186.80 kN

Hence Tdb = 186.80 kN

Considering the two angles, the block shear strength is

Tdb = 186.80 x 2 = 373.60 kN
Tensile capacity of member Td
The tensile capacity Td is the least of Tdg, Tdn and Tdb.

Here, Tdg = 393.64 kN, Tdn = 384.15 kN and Tdb = 373.60 kN

Hence, Td = Tdb = 373.60 kN

Problem 4
Design a suitable angle section to carry a factored tensile force of 210 kN assuming a
single row of M20 bolts. The yield strength and ultimate strength of the material is
250 MPa and 410 MPa, respectively. The length of the member is 3 m.

Solution
Step 1:
Obtain the net area, An, required to carry the design load Tu from the equation
using the ultimate stress.
Tu = fu An / γm1
Here, Tu = 210 kN, fu = 410 MPa, and γm1 = 1.25
Therefore, An = 619.8 mm2
Increase the net area, An, by 25 percent to obtain the gross area.
Hence, Ag= 774.8 mm2

Step 2:
Obtain the gross area, Ag, required to carry the design load Tu from the
equation using the yield stress.

Tu = fy Ag /γm0

Here, Tu = 210 kN, fy = 250 MPa, and γm0 = 1.10

Therefore, Ag = 924.0 mm2

Step 3:
From steps 1 and 2,
Required gross area Ag,req. = 924.0 mm2 (max. value)
Select an angle 65 x 65 x 8 with Ag = 976 mm2 ( > 924.0 mm2)
Step 4:
The strength of 20 mm diameter bolts in single shear = 45.3 kN
Hence required number of bolts = 210/45.3 = 4.64
Provide 5 bolts at a pitch of 60 mm

Step 5:
The design strength Tdg of plate limited to the yielding of gross cross section Ag
is given by
Tdg = fy Ag /γm0
Here fy = 250 MPa, Ag = 976 mm2 and γm0 = 1.10
Hence Tdg = 221.80 kN

Step 6:
The design strength Tdn of angle governed by rupture of net cross sectional
area, An, is given by
Tdn =0.9 fu Anc / γm1 +β Ago fy /γm0
β = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy /fu) (bs /Lc ) ≤ (fu γm0 / fy γm1)
Here fu = 410 MPa, fy = 250 MPa, γm1 = 1.25, and γm0 = 1.10
w = 65 mm, t = 8 mm, bs = (65 + 35 – 8) = 92 mm,
Lc = 4 x 60 = 240 mm
Further, diameter of bolt hole = 20 + 2 = 22 mm
Anc = (65 – 8/2 – 22) 8 = 312 mm2, Ago= (65 – 8/2) 8 = 488 mm2
Hence, β = 1.26. Since 0.7 ≤ β ≤ 1.44 , β = 1.26
Hence, Tdn = 231.85 kN
Step 7:
The design strength Tdg of connection shall be taken as smaller of

Tdb1 = ( Avg fy /( 3 γm0) + 0.9 Atn fu /γm1 ) , OR

Tdb2 = ( 0.9 Avn fu /( 3 γm1) + Atg fy /γm0 )

Assuming an edge distance of 40 mm,

Here, Avg = (40 + 60 x 4) 8 = 2240 mm2,

Avn = (40 + 60 x 4 – 4.5 x 22) 8 = 1448 mm2,

 Atg = 30 x 8 = 240 mm2, Atn = (30 – 22/2) x 8 = 152 mm2,
Therefore, Tdb1 = 338.79 kN and Tdb2 = 301.33 kN
Hence Tdb = 301.33 kN

Step 8:
The tensile capacity of member ISA 65 x 65 x 8 with 5 bolts of 20 mm diameter
is the least of Tdg, Tdn and Tdb.

Therefore, T = Tdg = 221.80 kN > 210 kN.

Hence the angle and the connection is safe.

Step 9:
Check for stiffness.
L = 3000 mm, rmin = 12.5 mm
L/ rxx = 240 < 250
Hence the section is safe.

Problem 5
A single unequal angle 100 x 75 x 6 mm is connected to a 8 mm thick gusset plate at
the ends by 4 mm welds as shown in Fig. 17. The average length of the weld is 225
mm. Determine the design tensile strength of the angle if the gusset is connected to
the 100 mm leg. The yield strength and ultimate strength of the steel used are 250
MPa and 400 MPa.
4 mm, weld

100 100 x 75 x 8
Cz = 30.1

4 mm, weld

8 75
Fig. 17 Details of connection at end

Solution
The design tensile strength Td of the angle is calculated based on the following
criteria.
(i) Gross section yielding
The design strength Tdg of angle limited to the yielding of gross cross section Ag
is given by
Tdg = fy Ag /γm0

Here fy = 250 MPa, Ag = 1010 mm2, γm0 = 1.10

Hence Tdg = 229.55 kN

(ii) Net section rupture

The design strength Tdn of plate governed by rupture of net cross sectional area
is given by
Tdn =0.9 fu Anc / γm1 +β Ago fy /γm0

β = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy /fu) (bs /Lc ) ≤ (fu γm0 / fy γm1)

Here fu = 400 MPa, fy = 250 MPa, γm1 = 1.25, and γm0 = 1.10
w = 75 mm, t = 6 mm, bs = 75 mm, Lc = 225 mm
Anc = (100 – 6/2) 6= 582 mm2, Ago= (75 – 6/2) 6 = 432 mm2
Hence, β = 1.20. Since 0.7 ≤ β ≤ 1.41 , β = 1.20
Hence, Tdn = 306.39 kN

(iii) Block shear failure

The design strength Tdg of connection shall be taken as smaller of
Tdb1 = ( Avg fy /( 3 γm0) + 0.9 Atn fu /γm1 ) , OR

Tdb2 = ( 0.9 Avn fu /( 3 γm1) + Atg fy /γm0 )

Here, Avg = (225 x 8) 2 = 3600 mm2,

Avn = Avg = 3600 mm2,

Atg = 100 x 8 = 800 mm2,

Atn = Atg = 800 mm2

Therefore, Tdb1 = 702.78 kN and Tdb2 = 780.41 kN

 Hence Tdb = 702.78 kN

Design tensile strength Td

The tensile design strength Td is the least of Tdg, Tdn and Tdb.

Hence, Td = Tdg = 229.55 kN

Proportioning of weld
Tensile capacity = 229.55 kN, Capacity of 4 mm weld = 0.53 kN/mm
Hence,
Length of weld on upper side of angle = (229.55 x 30.1/100)/0.53
= 130 mm, say 140 mm
Length of weld on bottom side of angle = (229.55 x 69.9/100)/0.53
= 302.7 mm, say 310 mm

Problem 6
A tie member of a roof truss consists of 2 ISA 100x75x8 mm. The angles are
connected to either side of a 10 mm gusset plates and the member is subjected to a
working pull of 300 kN. Design the welded connection. Assume connections are
made in the workshop.

Solution
Step 1:
To obtain the thickness of weld:
Working Load = 300 kN
Factored Load = 300 x 1.5 = 450 kN
At the rounded toe of the angle section,

size of weld should not exceed = ¾ x thickness

s = ¾ x 8 = 6 mm
At top the thickness should not exceed
s = t – 1.5 = 8 – 1.5 = 6.5 mm

Hence provide s = 6 mm weld.

Step 2:
To obtain the total length of the weld required:
Each angle carries a factored pull of 450/2 = 225 kN
Let Lw be the total length of the weld required.
Assuming normal weld, t = 0.7 x 6 mm
Design strength of the weld = Lw t fu/√3 x 1/1.25
= Lw x 0.7 x 6 x 410/√3 x 1/1.25
Equating it to the factored load,
Lw x 0.7 x 6 x 410/√3 x 1/1.25 = 225 x 103
Lw = 283 mm
Step 3:
To obtain the length of top and lower weld:
Centre of gravity of the section is at a distance 31 mm from top.
Let L1 be the length of top weld and L2 be the length of lower weld.
To make centre of gravity of weld to coincide with that of angle,
L1 x31 = L2 ( 100-31)
L1 = (69/31) x L2
Required L1 + L2 = 283
L2 ((69/31) + 1) = 283
L2 = 87 mm
Hence, L1 =195 mm

Provide 6 mm weld of L1 =195 mm and L2 = 87 mm as shown in the Fig. 18

L1 6 mm, weld

Cxx = 31 mm Cxx

ISA 10075, 8 mm

L2
Fillet at rounded end

Fig. 18 Details of weld at the end connection

Problem 7
A tie member consists of 2 ISMC 250. The channels are connected on either side of a
12 mm thick gusset plate. Design the welded joint to develop the full strength of the
tie. However the overlap is to be limited to 400 mm.

Solution
Step 1:
Obtain the tensile design strength of each channel:
For ISMC 250, [from steel tables]
Thickness of weld = 7.1 mm
Thickness of flange = 14.1 mm
Sectional area = 3867 mm2
Tensile design strength of each channel = Ag fy/ 1.1
= 3867 x 250 /1.1
= 878864 N
Step 2:
Obtain the weld thickness:
Minimum thickness = 3 mm
Maximum thickness = 0.7 t =0.7 x 7.1 = 4.97 mm
Provide s = 4 mm weld.
Throat thickness, t = 0.7 x 4 = 2.8 mm
Step 3:
Obtain the strength of weld:
Weld strength = (Lw t fu/√3) x 1 / γ mw
= Lw x 2.8 x (410/√3) x 1/1.25
Equating strength of weld to tensile strength of the channel, we get
Lw x 2.8 x (410/√3) x 1/1.25 = 878804
i.e, Lw = 1658 mm

Since allowable length is limited to 400 + 400 mm it needs slot weld. The
arrangement can be as shown in the Fig.19 with slots of length ‘x’. Then
400 + 400 + (250-2x30) + 4x = 1658
i.e., x = 167 mm
Provide x = 170 mm as shown in the Fig. 19.
 4 mm, weld

60
30
x 70 250
ISMC 250 30
60

Gusset Plate

Fig. 19 Details of welding at the connection

Problem 8
A single angle member carries a factored axial force of 400 kN. Design the member
and the connection with a gusset plate and a lug angle. The yield strength and
ultimate strength of the material is 250 MPa and 410 MPa, respectively.

Solution
Sizing of Single Angle
Factored load = 400 kN
For preliminary sizing of single angle use the relation (Cl. 6.3.3 of IS 800 : 2007)

where Tdn = 500 kN, α = 0.8 ( ≥ 4 bolts), fu = 410 MPa and γm1 = 1.25
Hence, Required net area is An = 1524.4 mm2
The gross area is arrived by increasing the net area by 15% (say)
Therefore, Required gross area is Ag = 1753.1 mm2
Therefore provide ISA 125 x 75 x 10
Hence actual gross area Ag = 1902 mm2
Here, the 125 mm side is connected to the gusset and 75 mm side is the outstanding
leg.
The design strength Tdg of angle limited to the yielding of gross cross section Ag is
given by
Tdg = fy Ag /γm0

Here fy = 250 MPa, Ag = 1902 mm2, γm0 = 1.10

Hence Tdg = 432.30 kN > 400 kN O.K.
Sizing of Lug Angle
Total factored load = 400 kN
Gross area of outstanding leg in single angle = [ 75 – (10/2)] x 10
= 700 mm2
Load carried by the outstanding leg of the single angle is proportional to its area in
comparison with the total area.
Hence, load carried by outstanding leg = (700/1902) x 400 = 147.2 kN
Lug angle should be designed to take a load not less than 20% in excess of load
carried by outstanding leg (Cl. 10.12.2 of IS 800 : 2007)
Hence, Load considered for lug angle = 1.2 x 147.2 = 176.64 kN
For preliminary sizing of lug angle use the relation (Cl. 6.3.3 of IS 800 : 2007)

where Tdn = 176.64 kN, α = 0.8 ( ≥ 4 bolts), fu = 410 MPa and γm1 = 1.25
Hence, Required net area is An = 673.17 mm2
The gross area is arrived by increasing the net area by 15% (say)
Therefore, Required gross area is Ag = 774.15 mm2
Therefore provide ISA 75 x 75 x 8
Hence actual gross area Ag = 1140 mm2

Design of connections
Assume one row of 20 mm diameter bolt. Use a pitch of 2.5 x 20 = 50 mm, and an
edge distance of 30 mm (Cl. 10.2.2 and Cl. 10.2.4.2 of IS 800 : 2007)
Strength of 20 mm bolt in single shear = 45.30 kN

a) Connection of main angle member with gusset

Load carried by the connecting leg of the main member is proportional to its area in
comparison with the total area.
Gross area of connected leg = [125 – (10/2)] x 10 = 1200 mm2
Hence, load carried by connecting leg = (1200/1902) x 400 = 252.37 kN
Required number of 20 mm bolts = 252.37/45.30 = 5.57, say 6 nos.
b) Connection of lug angle with gusset

Load carried by outstanding leg = 147.2 kN

The connection should be designed to take a load not less than 20% in excess of load
carried by outstanding leg (Cl. 10.12.2 of IS 800 : 2007)
Hence load considered in the design for connection = 1.2 x 147.2
= 176.74 kN
Required number of 20 mm bolts = 176.74/45.30 = 3.89, say 5 nos.

c) Connection of main angle member with lug angle

Load carried by outstanding leg = 147.2 kN

The connection should be designed to take a load not less than 40% in excess of load
carried by outstanding leg (Cl. 10.12.2 of IS 800 : 2007)
Hence load considered in the design for connection = 1.4 x 147.2
= 206.08 kN
Required number of 20 mm bolts = 206.08/45.30 = 4.55, say 5 nos.

The details of the connection are shown in Fig. 20.

Gusset

Main angle
ISA 125x75x10

Lug angle
ISA 125x75x10

Fig. 20 Details of connection of main angle with lug angle and gusset
9.0 References

1. Subramanian, N., Design of steel structures, Oxford university press, New

Delhi, 2009.
2. Bhavikatti, S.S., Design of steel structures, I.K.I. Publishing house, New
Delhi, 2010.
3. IS 800 – 2007, Code of practice for General construction in steel, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2007.
 COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Dr. K.U.MUTHU*
A perfectly straight member of linear elastic material is shown if figure.

The above member has a friction less hinge at each end, its lower end being fixed
in position while its upper end is free to move vertically but prevented from
deflecting horizontally. It is assumed that the deflections of the member remain
small.

The elastic critical load PE at which a straight compression member buckles

laterally can be determined by finding a deflected position which is one of
equilibrium.

Basic Strut Theory

d2y
EI = −P y (1)
dx 2

Eulers critical load is obtained as

π 2 EI y
PE = (2)
l2

*, Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT, Bangalore 54

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 1

In terms of the stress equation is

π 2E
pE = (3)
(KL / r )2
Strut with initial curvature

In practice, columns are generally not straight and the effect out of straightness on
strength is studied. Consider a strut with an initial curvature bent in a half sine
curve as shown in Figure.

If the initial deflection, at x from A is yo and the strut deflects ‘y” further under
load, P, the equilibrium equation is

d2y
EI = P( y + yo ) (4)
dx 2

 πx 
Where deflection y = sin   (5)
 l 

If δ o is the deflection at the centre and δ the additional deflection caused by P,

then

δ0
δ= (6)
(PE / P ) − 1
The maximum stress at the centre of the strut is given by

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 2

 P P(δ 0 + δ )h
Pmax = + (7)
A Iy

Where h is shown in figure

i.e.

P(δ 0 + δ )h
p y = pc + (8)
Ary 2

i.e. p y = pc + pc
(δ 0 + δ )h (9)
ry 2

pc h   1 
p y = pc + δ 1 +
2  0
 (10)
ry   ( p E pc ) − 1 

Denoting the Perry factor

δ 0h
η= (11)
ry 2

 pc 
(p − pc ) = ηp c 1 +  (12)
 ( p E pc ) 
y

On simplification it gave

( p E − pc )( p y − pc ) = ηp E pc (13)

The value of pc, the limiting strength at which the maximum stress equal the
design strength, can be found by solving this equation and η is the Perry factor.

The minimum value of pc after solving the quadratic equation is obtained as

(
pc = φ ± φ 2 − p E p y )0.5
(14)

which is of the form

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 3

 (
pc = φ − φ 2 − p E p y ) 0.5
(15)

δ 0h
and η = (16)
ry2

the initial deflection δ 0 is taken as (1/1000)th of length of the column and hence
η is given by

 l  h  l  h 

η =  2 = (17)
 1000  ry  ry  1000ry 


 l 
and hence η = α   (18)
 ry 
 

 l 
and ζ =   (19)
r 
 y 

a lower value of α was suggested by Robertson as α = 0.003 for column designs.

This approach was suggested in British code. ξ is the slenderness ratio. The total
effect of the imperfections (initial curvature, end eccentricity and residual stresses
on strength). They are combined in to the Perry constant η and is modified as

η = 0.001a (ξ − λ0 ) (20)

 π 2E 
and λ0 = 0.02 

(21)
f
 y 

the value of λ0 gives the limit to the plateau over which the design strength py
controls the strut load. The Robertson’s constant ‘ a ’ is assigned different values
to give the different design curves.

As per IS 800-2007;

fy fy
f cd = χ ≤ (22)
γ mo γ mo

And χ = stress reduction factor for different buckling class, slenderness ratio and
yield stress.

1
χ= (23)
[φ + (φ 2
− λ2 ) 0.5
]

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 4

 [
and φ = 0.5 1 + α (λ − 0.2) + λ2 ] (24)

α = imperfection factor given in Table 7, in P35, IS800:207.

λ =non dimensional effective slenderness ratio.

fy
λ= (25)
f cc

π 2E
and f cc Euler’s buckling stress = (26)
(KL / r )2
 KL 
and   effective slenderness ratio (or) the effective length KL to appropriate
 r 
radius of gyration, r, γ mo = partial safety factor for material strength. It is noted
that the stress reduction factor χ depends on buckling class, slenderness ratio and
yield stress (Table 8, P36- 39, IS800-2007).

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 5

Ex.1 A single angle discontinuous member ISA 130x130x10mm with single
bolted connection is 2.5m long. Calculate the safe load carrying capacity of
the section. If it is connected by one bolt at each end.
f y =250Mpa. Class 7, 5.1.2, P48, IS800:2007.

λe = k1 + k 2 λvv2 + k 3λφ2

k1 = 1.25, k 2 = 0.5, k 3 = 0.60

l / rvv 2500 / 25.4

λvv = = = 1.107
2
π E π 2 x 2 x105
ε 1
250 250

λφ =
(b1 + b2 ) / 2t = (130 + 130) / 2(10) = 0.146
π 2E π 2 x 2 x10 5
ε 1
250 250

λe = 1.25 + 0.5 x1.107 2 + 60 x0.146 2 = 1.772

φ = 0.5[1 + α (λ − 0.2 ) + λ2 ]

[
= 0.5 1 + 0.49(1.772 − 0.2 ) + 1.772 2 = 2.455 ]
f y γ mo 250 1.1
f cd = =
φ + [φ − λ ]
2 0 .5
[ ]
2 0.5
2.455 + 2.455 2 − 1.772 2

f cd =
(250 1.1) = 54.71N / mm 2
4.154

54.7 x 2506
Pd = = 137 kN
1000

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 6

Ex.2 In the above problem, if the single angle discontinuous strut is connected
with 2 bolts at each end connection, determine the safe load carrying capacity
of the section.

Fixed condition, Cl 7.5.1.2, P48, IS800:2007

k1 = 0.20, k 2 = 0.35, k 3 = 20

l / rvv
λvv = = 1.107
π 2E
ε
250

λφ =
(b1 + b2 ) / 2t = 0.146
π 2E
ε
250

λe = k1 + k 2 λvv 2 + k 3 λφ2 = 0.20 + 0.35 x1.107 2 + 20 x0.1406 2 = 1.102

f y γ mo 250 1.1
f cd = =
φ + [φ − λ ]
2 0 .5
[ ]
2 0.5
1.211 + 1.2112 − 1.012 2

φ = 0.5[1 + α (λ − 0.2 ) + λ2 ]

[
0.5 1 + 0.49(0.012 − 0.2 ) + 1.012 2 = 1.211 ]
f y γ mo 227.27
f cd = = = 137.45 N / mm 2
φ + [φ 2 − λ ]
2 0.5 1.211 + 0.683

2506
Pd = 137.45 x = 344.4kN
1000

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 7

Ex.3 A double angle discontinuous strut ISA 150x75x10mm long leg back to
back is connected to either side by gusset plate of 10mm thick with 2 bolts.
The length of the strut between the intersection is 3.5m. Determine the safe
load carrying capacity of the section.

Ref. CL 7.5.2.1, P48, IS800:2007

Effective length factor is between 0.7 and 0.85 Assume k=0.85

Effective length of the member = 0.85x3500=2975mm

2. 6
f cd = 107 − x12.4 = 103.8 N / mm 2
10

103.8 x 4312
Strength of the member = = 447.6kN
1000

Ex.4 In the above problem if double angles discontinuous strut is connected

to one side of the gusset plate determine the safe load.

Effective length l e = 0.85 x3500 = 2975mm

rmin = 2.56cm P105

le 2975
= = 116.2
rmin 25.6

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 8

Table 9c; P42; IS800

6.2
f cd = 94.6 − x10.9 = 87.87 4 N / mm 2
10

87.84 x 4312
Safe load = = 378.8kN
1000

Ex.5 A rolled steel beam ISHB 300 @ 58.8 kg/m is used as a column. The
column is fixed in position but not in direction at both ends. Determine the
safe load carrying capacity in the section if the length of the column is 4.5m

t f = 10.6mm Table 10, P44, IS800:2007.

Buckling class of cross section

h 300
= = 1. 2
b 250

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 9

t f ≤ 40mm

Buckling about zz axis

Buckling class a Table 7, P35, IS800:2007.

About zz axis, α = 0.21

γ Z = 129.5mm

γ y = 54.1mm

2
 4500 
= 250   (π 2
)
x 2 x10 5 = 0.391
 129.5 

φ = 0.5[1 + α (λ − 0.2 ) + λ2 ]

= 0.5[1 + 0.21(0.391 − 0.2 ) + 0.3912] = 0.5965

( [ (
f cd = f y γ mo φ + φ 2 − λ2 )0.5
])
 250 
= ( 2
 0.5965 + 0.5965 − 0.391
2
)
0.5

 1.10 

f cd = 237.9 N / mm 2

About y-y axis buckling class (b) α = 0.34

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 10

 f y (kL / r ) / π 2
2
λy =

2
 4500 
= 250   π 2 x 2 x105 = 0.9366
 54.1 

φ = 0.5[1 + α (λ − 0.2 ) + λ2 ]

[ ]
= 0.5 1 + 0.34(0.9366 − 0.2 ) + 0.9366 2 = 1.0638

f cd =
250
1.10
( (
1.0638 + 1.0638 2 − 0.9366 2 )
0.5
)
f cd = 356.42 N / mm 2

Table 9(a) P40, IS800:2007.

kL 4500
= = 34.75
r 129.5

4.75
f cd = 220 − x7 = 216.7 N / mm 2
10

kL 4500
= = 83.2
r 54.1

Table 9(b), P41, IS 800:2007.

3.2
f cd = 150 − x16 = 144.48
10

Strength = 144.88 x7485 = 1084.4kN

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 11

Ex.6 A built up column consists of two ISMC 400 @ 49kg/m and two plates of
500mmx10mm. The clear distance between back to back of channel is
200mm. One plate is connected to each flange. Determine the safe load
carrying capacity of the built u column if the effective length of column is 5m.

Area = 2(62.93) + 2(50 x1) = 225.86cm 2

 50 x13 2
I zz = 2[15082.8] + 2  + 50 x1(20 + 0.5) 
 12 
4
= 72198.9cm
1x50 
[ ]
I yy = 2 504.8 + 62.93(10 + 2.42 ) + 2 
2

 12 

= 41257.6cm 4

I min = 41257.6cm 4

41257.6
rmin = = 13.5cm
225.86

kL 5000
= = 37
r 135

7
f cd = 211 − x13 = 201.9 N / mm 2
10

201.9 x 22586
Safe load = = 4560kN
1000

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 12

Ex.7 Calculate the safe load of a bridge compression member of two channels
ISMC 350 @ 421.1 kg/m placed toe to toe. The effective length of member is
7m. The widths over the back of the channel is 350mm and the section is
properly connected by lacings.

A = 2(53.66 ) = 107.32cm 2

I zz = 2(10008) = 20016cm 4

[
I yy = 2 430.6 + 53.66(17.5 − 2.44 )
2
]
= 25201.7cm 4
I min
rmin = = 13.6cm
A

kL 700
= = 51.2
r 13.6

Table 9c

1. 2
f cd = 183 − x15 = 181.2 N / mm 2
10

181.2 x10732
Strength of the member = = 1944.6kN
1000

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 13

Ex.8 A column 6m high has its ends firmly built in. The column is built up
with two channels. ISMC 300 placed back to back with 180mm gap between
them. The channels are effectively laced together. Using IS800, determine the
safe load carrying capacity of the column.

Area = 9128mm2

From SP (6)

γ min = 11.66cm

l e = 0.65(6) = 3.9m = 390cm

kL 390
= = 33.4
r 11.66

Table 9c class ‘c’

f cd = 211 − 3.4 x13 = 206.6 N / mm 2

10

206.6 x9128
Safe load carrying capacity = = 1885.8kN
1000

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 14

Ex.9 A column height 5m is hinged at the ends. It is square in cross section
(plan) of side 360mm and consists of 4 angles of ISA 80x80x10mm at each
corner suitably laced. Find the minimum load on the column.

A = 4(15.05) = 60.2cm2

[
I x = 4 87.7 + 15.05(18 − 2.34 )
2
]
= 15113.98cm 4

I min
γ min = = 15.85cm
A

kL 5000
= = 31.5 Buckling class ' c'
r 158.5

1. 5
f cd = 211 − x13 = 209.05 N / mm 2
10

209.05 x6020
Safe load = = 1258.5kN
1000

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 15

Ex.10 Determine the design strength of the column section ISHB 300 @ 58.8
kg/m. The effective length of the column is 3m.

f y = 250 N / mm 2

h 300
= = 1.2
bf 250

t f = 10.6 ≤ 40mm

z − z axis Buckling class ' c'

kL le 3000
= = = 23.17
r rzz 129.5

kL
= 23.17
r

3.17
f cd = 224 − x13 = 219.9 N / mm 2
10

y − y axis Buckling class ' b'

kL 3000
= = 55.45
r 54.1

5.45
f cd = 194 − x13 = 186.9 N / mm 2
10

186.9 x7485
Design Strength = = 1398.9kN
1000

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 16

 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBER

Ex.11 Design a single angle section discontinuous strut to carry a load of

80kN. The length of the member between c/c intersection is 2.75m

Axial load = 80kN

Permissible stress = 0.4 f y = 100 N / mm 2

Area required = 800mm2

Gross area = 800x1.25= 1000mm2 = 10cm2

Try ISA 90x90x8mm A = 13.79cm2, rvv = 1.95cm

λe = k1 + k 2 λ2vv + k3λφ2

λvv =
(l
rvv )
=
(0.85 x275 / 1.95) = 119.87
ε πE / 250 π 2 x 2 x105 0.1986
1
250

λφ =
(b1 + b2 / 2t ) = (90 + 90) / 2 x8
π 2E π 2 x 2 x10 5
ε 1
250 250

λe = k1 + k 2 λvv2 + k 3 λφ2 = 1.25 + 0.5(1.35 + 60(0.1267) 2

λe = 1.768

φ = 0.5[1 + 0.49(1.768 − 0.2] + 1.768 2 = 2.25

f y / γ mo 250 / 1.1
f cd = = = 38.57 N / mm 2
φ + [φ − λ 2
]
2 0.5
[ 2
2.25 + 2.25 − 1.768 ]
2 0.5

38.57 x1379
Pd = = 53.18kN < 80kN
1000

Revise the section

Try ISA 100X100X10 Area = 1903mm2

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 17

λe = k1 + k 2 λ2vv + k3λφ2

k1 = 1.25; k 2 = 0.5, k3 = 60

λvv =
l / rvv
=
(0.85 x 275) / 1.94 = 120.49
π E 2
π 2 x 2 x105 88.81
ε 1x
250 250

λvv = 1.36

λφ =
(100 + 100) / (2 x10) = 100
= 0.1126
2
π x 2 x10 5 88.81
1x
250

λe = 1.25 + 0.5(1.36) 2 + 60 x0.1126 2 = 1.713

φ = 0.5[1 + 0.49(1.713 − 0.2] + 1.7132 = 2.338

φ = 0.5[1 + 0.49(2.338 − 0.2 ) + 2.338 2 ]

φ = 3.756

f cd =
(250 / 1.1) = 32 N / mm 2
[
3.756 + 3.756 + 1.713 2
]
2 0.5

32 x1903
Pd = = 61kN < 80kN
1000

Try ISA 130 x130 x10 Area = 25.06cm 2

λe = k1 + k 2 λ2vv + k3λφ2

k1 = 1.25; k 2 = 0.5, k3 = 60

λvv =
l / rvv
=
(0.85 x 275) / 1.94 = 2.63
2
π E π 2 x 2 x10 5
ε 1x
250 250

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 18

λφ =
(130 + 130) / (2 x10) = 13
= 0.1463
2
π x 2 x10 5 88.81
1x
250

λe = 1.25 + 0.5(2.36) 2 + 60 x 0.14632 = 2.448

φ = 0.5[1 + 0.49(2.448 − 0.2] + 2.448 2 = 4.047

f cd =
(250 / 1.1) = 31.26 N / mm 2
[
4.047 + 4.047 + 2.448 2
]
2 0.5

3126 x 2506
Pd = = 78.33kN < 80kN
1000

Try ISA 150X150X10

A=29.03cm2

rvv = 2.93cm

λe = k1 + k 2 λ2vv + k3λφ2

k1 = 1.25; k 2 = 0.5, k3 = 60

λvv =
l / rvv
=
(0.85 x 275) / 2.93 = 0.898
2
π E π 2 x 2 x105
ε 1x
250 250

λφ =
(150 + 150) / (2 x10) = 15
= 0.168
π 2 x 2 x10 5 88.81
1x
250
λe = 1.25 + 0.5(0.898) 2 + 60 x0.1463 2 = 1.83

φ = 0.5[1 + 0.49(1.83 − 0.2] + 1.83 2 = 2.574

f cd =
(250 / 1.1) = 51.84 N / mm 2
[
2.574 + 2.574 − 1.83 2
]
2 0.5

Strength = 150.5kN>80

Try ISA 130x130x10 A+25.06cm, rvv=2.54cm

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 19

λvv =
l / rvv
=
(0.85 x 275) / 2.54 = 92.03 = 1.036
π E 2
π 2 x 2 x105 88.81
ε 1x
250 250

λφ =
(130 + 130) / (2 x10) = 13
= 0.1463
2
π x 2 x10 5 88.81
1x
250

λe = 1.25 + 0.5(1.036) 2 + 60 x0.14632 = 1.752

φ = 0.5[1 + 0.49(1.752 − 0.2] + 1.752 2 = 2.415

f cd =
(250 / 1.1) = 43.89 N / mm 2
2.415 + 2.415 + 1.752[ 2
]
2 0.5

Safe strength = 43.89x2506/1000=110kN>80kN

Ex.12 Design a double angle discontinuous strut to carry a load of 125kN, the
length between the intersection is 3.8m

Axial load = 125kN

Permissible stress 0.4 f y =100Nmm2

Area Required = 125000/100=1250mm2

Gross area required = 1250x1.25=1562.5mm2 = 15.63mm2

Try two ISA 75x75x6 area = 17.32cm2

γ min = 2.3cm

Effective length kL = 0.85 x380 = 323cm

kL
= 140.4
rmin

Table 9(c) f cd = 66.2 N / mm 2

66.2 x1732
Safe strength = = 114.7kN < 125kN
1000

Hence revise the section, Try two angle of ISA 80x80x8

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 20

Area = 24.42cm2

γ min = 2.44cm

kL 323
= = 132.4
rmin 2.44

2.4
Table 9(c) f cd = 74.3 − x8.1 = 72.4 N / mm 2
10

Safe strength = 72.4 x 2242 / 1000 = 162.3kN > 125kN

Ex.13 A column connects four equal angles arranged in the form of a square
section of side 400mm. Design the section if the column is to carry an axial
load of 800kN. The length of the column is 5m. Both the ends of the column
are restrained in position but not in direction.

Axial load = 800kN

Allowable compressive stress = 0.4x250=100N/mm2

Area of 4 angles = 800x103/100=800mm2

Area of 1 angle = 2000mm2 = 20cm2

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 21

Increase this area by 25%, Gross area of l angle = 20x1.25=25cm2

Try 4 angle of ISA 130x130x12mm A = 29.82cm2

[ ]
I x = I y = I min = 4 473.8 + 29.82(20 − 3.66 ) = 33742cm 4
2

33742
γ min = = 16.82cm
4 x 29.82

kL 500
= = 29.7
rmin 16.82

f cd = 211.39 N / mm 2

Strength of the member = 211.39x4x2982/1000=2521>800kN

Hence revise the section

Try 4 angles of ISA 100x100x12 A = 22.59cm2

[ ]
I min = 4 207 + 22.59(20 − 2.92 ) = 27188.4cm 4
2

27188.4
rmin = = 17.35cm
4 x 22.59

kL 500
= = 28.8
rmin 17.35

f cd = 212.56 N / mm 2

Safe load = 212.56x4x2259/1000=212.6>80kN

Try 4 angles of ISA 90x90x10 A = 17.03cm2

[ ]
I min = 4 126.7 + 17.03(20 − 2.59 ) = 21154.5cm 4
2

21154.35
rmin = = 17.62cm
4 x17.03

kL 500
= = 28.4
rmin 17.62

8. 4
f cd = 224 − x13 = 213.08 N / mm 2
10

Safe load = 213x4x1703/1000=1450>800kN

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 22

Try 4 angles of ISA 80x80x10 A = 15.05cm2

[ ]
I min = 4 87.7 + 15.05(20 − 2.34 ) = 19125.7cm 4
2

rmin = 17.82cm

kL 500
= = 28
rmin 17.82

8
f cd = 224 − x13 = 213.6 N / mm 2
10
Safe load = 213.6x4x1505/1000=1285.2>800kN
Try 4 angles of ISA 80x80x8 A = 12.21cm2
[ ]
I min = 4 72.5 + 12.21(20 − 2.27 ) = 15642.99cm 4
2

rmin = 17.89cm

kL 500
= = 27.95
rmin 17.89

7.95
f cd = 224 − x13 = 213.67 N / mm 2
10

Safe load = 213.67x4x1221/1000=1043.6kN>800kN

Try 4 angles of ISA 60x60x10 Area = 11cm2

[ ]
I min = 4 34.8 + 11(20 − 1.85) = 14633.79cm 4
2

rmin = 18.24cm

kL 500
= = 27.41
rmin 18.24

7.41
f cd = 224 − x13 = 214.38 N / mm 2
10

Safe load = 214.38x4x1100/1000=943.2kN>800kN

Try 4 angles of ISA 60x60x8mm A = 8.18cm2

[ ]
I min = 4 29 + 8.96(20 − 1.77 ) = 12026.8cm 4
2

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 23

rmin = 19.17cm

kL 500
= = 26
rmin 19.17

6
f cd = 224 − x13 = 216.2 N / mm 2
10

Safe load = 216.2x4x818/1000=707kN<800kN

Hence revise the section.

Adopt 4 angles of ISA 60x60x8mm

Ex.14 A rolled steel beam ISHB 300@ 58.8kg/m is used as a column. The
column is fixed in position but not in direction at both ends. Determine the
safe load carrying capacity of the section if the length of column is 4.5m

I zz = 12545.2cm 4

I yy = 2193.6cm 4

A = 74.85cm2
h 300
= = 1.2, t f = 10.6mm < 100mm
b f 250

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 24

For the buckling about zz axis – ‘b’

12545.2
rzz = = 12.95cm
74.85

le 450
= = 34.75
rzz 12.95

4.75
f cd = 216 − x10 = 211.25 N / mm 2
10

For the buckling about yy axis class ‘c’

2193.6
ryy = = 5.41cm
74.85

le 450
= = 83.18
ryy 5.41

3.2
f cd = 136 − x10 = 131.2 N / mm 2
10

Strength of the member = 131.2x7485/1000=982kN

Ex.15 Design a built up column consisting of two channel sections placed

back to back with a clear spacing of 250mm between them. The column
carries an axial load of 1000kN and is having an effective height of 6m.
Design the lacing for the column.

Axial load = 1000kN

Assume the permissible compressive stress = 0.5 f y =125N/mm2

Area required = 1000x103/125=8000mm2 = 80cm2

Area of one channel = 45cm2

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 25

Try 2 channels of ISMC 350; area = 2x53.65=107.3cm2

rzz = 13.66cm ryy = 15.21cm

About zz axis

le 600
= = 43.92
rzz 13.66

3.9
f cd = 198 − x15 = 192.15 N / mm 2
10

About yy axis

le 600
= = 39.34
ryy 15.21

9. 4
f cd = 211 − x3 = 208.18 N / mm 2
10

Safe load = 192.15x10730/1000-2061.76>1000kN hence OK

Try ISLC 300 A = 84.22cm2

rzz = 11.98cm ryy = 15.32cm

le 600
= = 50
rzz 11.98

0.17
f cd = 211 − x13 = 210.78 N / mm 2
10

le 600
= = 39.17
ryy 15.32

Safe load = 183x8422/1000=1541kN>1000kN

Hence adopt the section.

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 26

Design of lacing

Cl 7.6.2 Minimum width of lacing bar = 3x16 (dia of bolt) = 48 say 50mm

Cl 7.6.4 Angle of inclination = 40 0 ≤ θ ≤ 70 0 = θ = 45 0

Cl 7.6.3 Thickness of lacing bar =

1
[spacing + g + g ] = 1 [250 + 60 + 60] = 6.17mm say 10mm
60 60

Cl 7.6.5.1

Spacing of lacing
≤ 50
rmin of one component of member
 l 
≤ 0.7 e 
 rmin  whole
(250 + 60 + 60) = 12.89 ≤ 50 ≤ 0.7(39.17 ) = 27.42
28.7

Cl 7.6.6.3

 kL 
  ≤ 145
 r  flat

0.7l 0.7 x37 2

λ of the lacing bar = = = 126.86 ≤ 145
t 120 1 12

Check the bars for lacing in compression

2. 5
Shear force = x1000 = 25kN
100

S 25
Force on the lacing bar = cos ecθ = cos ec45 = 8.84kN
2n 2 x2

For the flat angle, for λ = 127

7
f cd = 83.7 − x9.4 = 77.15 N / mm 2
10

Safe load = 77.12x50x10/1000=38.6kN>8.84kN

Check for the flat in Tension

= (b − d )tf y / γ m =
(50 − 18)10(410 ) = 105kN
1.25

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 27

Or f y Ag / γ mo = 250 x50 x10 / 1.1 = 113.4kN > for in the lacing bar

Ex.16 Design a battened column for the column shown in figure. Assume that
the channels are kept back to back.
 kL 
The effective slenderness ratio   of battened columns shall be 1.1 times the
 r 
maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column.

 kL 
  = 1.1x39.17=43
 r 
3
f cd = 198 − x15 = 193.5 N / mm 2
10

8422
Safe load = 193.5 x = 1629.7 kN > 1000kN
1000

Maximum spacing of the batten  l 

≤ 0.7 e 
rmin of one component of member  rmin  whole

Maximum spacing of batten = 143.5cm = 0.7(2.87)43= 86.4cm

Provide the battens at a spacing of 850mm

Provide 20mm bolts. For rolled, machine flameout, P74, Cl 10.2.4.2 ⇒ 1.5xhole
diameter = 1.5x20=33mm

Effective depth of batten

= 250+2(23.5)=297mm>2(100)=200mm

Overall depth of batten = 297+2(33)=363mm=370mm

Required thickness of batten = 1/50 (distance between inner most bolts.)

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 28

1/50(250+2x60)=7.4 say 8mm

Length of the batten = 250+2(100) =450mm

Provide 450x370x8mm
Size of intermediate batten

Effective depth = 3/4x297=222.75mm>2x100=200mm

Hence an effective depth of 225mm

Overall depth = 225+2x33=291say 300mm

Provide 450x300x8mm intermediate battens

Design forces

Transverse shear = V = 2.5/100x1000=25kN=25000N

Vt C 25000 x85
Longitudinal shear Vb = = = 28.72kN
NS 2 x370

Vt = transverse shear = 25000N

C = c/c of battens, longitudinally = 850mm

N = number of parallel planes = 2

S = minimum distance between the centroid of the bolt = 370mm

Vt c 25000 x850
Moment M = = = 5312500 Nmm
2N 2 x2

For end batten

250
Shear Stress = 28720/370x8=9.7N/mm2 < = 131.2 N / mm 2
3 x1.1

 6 M  6 x5312500 250
Bending stress =  2  = 2
= 29.10 N / mm 2 < = 227 N / mm 2
 td  8 x 370 1 . 1

Hence safe

For Intermediate battens

Shear stress = 28720/300x8=11.97N/mm2 < 131.2N/mm2

Bending stress = 6x53/2500/8x3002=44.27N/mm2 < 250/1.1=227N/mm2

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 29

Connections

Strength of the bolt = 45.3kN

Required number of bolts = 28.72/45.3 < 1.0

As the bending moment is also present, provide 3 bolts

Check
Force in each bolt due to shear = 28.72/3=9.57kN

Adopt a pitch of 100mm

M r
Force due to moment =
∑r2
5312500 x100
= = 26.56kN
100 2 x100 2

Resultant force = 9.57 2 + 26.56 2 = 28.23kN < 45.3kN

Hence safe.

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 30

 CASED COLUMNS
Encased I sections or filled hollow sections carries more load. In cased columns,
the advantages derived from the properties of concrete and steel are used. The
concrete is strong in stronger in compression and it provides greater rigidity. The
solid concrete casing assists in carrying the load and the entire load is resisted by
concrete and steel. The design of the above columns is currently based on IS
11384-1985. As the above code is on working stress method the guide lines given
in BS5950, Part I is presented here. The role of concrete is that it acts as a fire
protection for the encased steel columns and also prevents the column from
buckling about the weak axis. As per the BS5950, Part I the column must satisfy
the following specifications.

(i) The steel section is either a single rolled or fabricated I or H section

with equal flanges, channels and compound sections can also be used.
(ii) The steel section should not exceed 1000mmx500mm. The dimension
100mm is in the direction of web.
(iii) Primary structural connections should be made in the steel section.
(iv) The steel section is unpainted and free from dirt, grease, rust, scale etc.
(v) The steel section is encased in concrete of at least Grade 20, to BS
8110.
(vi) The cover on the steel is to be not less than 50mm. The corners may be
chamfered.
(vii) The concrete extends the full length of the member and is thoroughly
compacted.
(viii) The casing is reinforced with bars not less than 5mm diameter at a
maximum spacing of 200mm to form a cage of closed links and
longitudinal bars. The reinforcement is to pass through the centre of
the cover.
(ix) The effective length is not to exceed 40bc, 100b2c / dc or 250 r
whichever is the least, where
bc = minimum width of solid casing.
dc = minimum depth of solid casing.
r = minimum radius of gyration of steel section.

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 31

BS5950, Part I guidelines for estimating the compressive strength of column.

a) The radius of gyration about yy axis is shown in figure, ry should be taken

as 0.2bc but not more than 0.2 (B+150) where B = overall width of flange.
The radius of gyration for the zz axis should be taken as that of the steel
section.
b) The compression resistance Pc is

 f A
Pc =  Ag + 0.45 cu  pc ≥ Pcs
 p y 


 f 
Pcs =  Ag + 0.25 cu Ac  p y
 py 
 

Where Ac = gross sectional area of concrete. Casing in excess of 75mm from the
steel section is neglected. Finish is neglected.

Ag =gross area of the steel section

f cu =characteristic strength of the concrete at 28 days. This should not exceed

40N/mm2.

p c =compressive strength of steel section determined using rx and rz in the

determination of which p y ≤ 335 N / mm 2

p y = design strength of steel

Cased Column

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 32

CASED COLUMN WITH AXIAL LOAD
Ex.17 An internal column in a building has an actual length of 4.5m centre to
centre of floor beams. The steel section is ISHB250 @ 51kg/m. Calculate the
compression resistance of the column if it is cased in accordance with the
codal provision. M25 concrete grade has been use. The casing has been made
325mm square.

Properties of ISHB 250

A=6496mm2

rzz =10.91cm

ryy =5.49cm

For the above cased column;

ry = 0.2(325) = 65mm
≠ 0.2(250 + 150 ) = 80mm

i) effective length = 0.7 (4500) = 3150mm of cased column

ii) 40 bc =40(325) = 13000mm

bc2
iii) 100 =100x325=32500mm
dc

iv) 250 r =250x54.9=13725mm

kL 3150
slenderness ratio = = = 48.46
r 65

refer Table 9(c) in P42, IS800:2007.

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 33

 8.46
f cd = 198 − x15 = 185.3 N / mm 2
10

The gross sectional area of concrete

Ac = 325 x325 = 105625mm 2

Compressive strength of concrete

 25  185.3
Pc =  6496 + 0.45 x x105625  = 2084.5kN
 250  1000

Short column strength

 25 x105625  250
Pcs =  6496 + 0.25 x  = 2284kN
 250  1000

Compressive strength of column = 2084.5kN

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 34

Column with axial load and moment
Ex.18 A stanchion carries an factorial axial load 500kN and a factored
bending moment of 250kNm. Design the section if the length is 6m and one
end of the column is restrained in position and direction whereas, other end is
restrained only in position but not in direction.

Try section ISWB 600@ 133.7kg/m

kL 0.8 x6000
= = 91.43
r 52.5

Yura suggested

Mz My
peff = P + 2 + 7.5 for initializing the size of the column. If the BM is
d b
predominant then the equivalent BM can be found out from

d
M eq = M z + Pu
2

In this case;

Mz 250
Peff = P + 2 = 500 + 2 x = 1333.33kN
d 0.6

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 35

Check the above section

h 600
= = 2. 4 > 1. 2
b 250

t c = 21.3mm < 40

Buckling about yy axis, buckling class ‘b’

1.43
f cd = 134 − x16 = 131.7 N / mm 2
10

Compressive strength of the trial section=131.7x17038/1000=2244kN>1333.33kN

Section properties

A = 177.38cm2

I zz = 1.06(10 ) cm 4
5

I yy = 47.7(10 ) cm 4
3

Z pz = 2bt t f (H − t t ) / 2 + t w (H − 2t f )/ 4

Z pz = 2(250 )21.3(600 − 21.3) / 2 + 11.2(600 − 2 x 21.3) / 4 = 3986.66cm 3

2

(P138, IS800:2007)

250 3 11.2 2
Z py = 2t f b 2f / 4 + (H − 2t f )t w3 4 = 2(21.3) + (600 − 2 x 21.3) = 683.1cm 3
4 4

Cross section classification

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 36

 2.50 250
ε= = = 1.0
fy 250

Outstanding flanges

b 250 / 2
= = 5.87 < 9.4ε (Table 2, P18)
tf 21.3

Hence the flange is plastic

Web

d = H − 2t f − 2r1 = 600 − 2(21.3) − 2(18) = 521.4mm

d 521.4
= = 46.6 < 84ε
tw 11.2

Hence the cross section is plastic

Refer d 9.3.1.1 for plastic and compact sections

N My M
+ + z ≤ 1.0
N d M dy M dz

N = factored applied axial force = 500kN

Ag f y
N d = design strength in compression =
γ mx

170.38 x10 2 x 250

= = 3872.3kN
1.1x1000

1x3986.66 x10 3 x 250

M dz = = 906.05kNm
1.1x10 6

500 250
∴ + = 0.4 < 1.0
3872.3 906.05

Member buckling resistance in compression

Effective length of member = 0.8x6000=4800mm

kLz 4800
= = 19.22
rz 249.7

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 37

kLy 4800
= = 91.43
ry 52.5

h 600
= = 2.4; t f = 21.3 < 40mm
b 250

Buckling about zz axis (Buckling class ‘a’)

9.22
f cd = 227 − x1 = 226 N / mm 2
10
Buckling about minor axis (Buckling class ‘b’)

1.43
f cd = 134 − x16 = 131.7 N / mm 2
10

131.7 x17738
Safe compressive strength = = 2336kN > 500kN
1000

Hence the section is conservative.

Member buckling resistance in bending

M d = β b Z p f bd

β b = 1.0 for plastic sec tion

α LT = Imperfection parameter = 0.21 for rolled steel section P54, cl 8.2.2

f cr ,b = extreme fibre bending compressive stress

0.5
1.1π 2 E  
2
1  LLT / ry 
f cr ,b = 1+   
(LLT ry )  20  h f / t f
2 
 


LLT
= 91.43
ry

0.5
1.1π 2 x 2 x10 5  1  91.43  
2

f cr ,b = 1 +   
91.43 2  20  600 / 21.3  

= 259.48[1 + 0.527 ]
0.5
= 320.64 N / mm 2

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 38

λ L,T = Non dimensionless slenderness ratio

fy 250
= = 0.883
f cr ,b 320.64

φ LT = 0.5[1 + α LT (λ LT − 0.2) + λ2LT ]

[ (
Strength reduction factor = 0.5 1 + 0.21 0.883 − 0.2 + 0.863 2 )]
φ LT = 0.96

χ LT = bending stress reduction factor to account for lateral Torsional buckling

1
=
2 2
φLT + φLT − χ XL

1
χ LT = = 0.748
0.96 + 0.96 2 − 0.853 2

fy 250
f bd = χ LT = 0.748 x = 170 N / mm 2
γ mo 1.1

Elastic lateral buckling moment

M cr = β b Z p f cr ,b

M cr = Elastic lateral buckling moment

3986.66 x10 3 x320.64

M cr = = 1278.3kNm > 250kNm
10 6

Hence it is safe

Moment amplification factors

P
k Z 1 = 1 + (λ − 0.2 )
Pdz

 500 
= 1 +  0.883 − 0.2  = 1.146
 2336 
P 500
k ZZ = 1 + 0.8 = 1 + 0.8 X = 1.171
Pdz 2336

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 39

 M2
ψz = =0
M1

C mz = max[(0.6 + 0.4ψ ),0.4]

C mz = 0.6

P M 250
+ k z C mz 1 = 0.21 + 1.146 x0.6 x = 0.34 < 1
Pdz M cr 1278.3

Hence the section is safe against bending moment and axial force.

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 40

 Questions on Compression members, Column Splices, Slab &
Gusset Bases and Connections between beams & columns

1. Design a single angle discontinuous strut (equal & unequal angle) to carry a
compressive force of 500kN. The c/c distance between the joints is 3m.
Design also the connections using
a) M24 bolts of property class 5.6
b) M24 HSFG bolts of property class 10.9
c) Equivalent welded connections

2. Repeat the above problem using double angles (on same side & on either side
of gusset plate) for a force of 1000kN.

3. A discontinuous double angle strut is placed back to back on the same side of
the gusset plate 8mm thick. The angles are ISA 125x95x8 with c/c distance
between the joints =3m. Calculate the safe load when:
a) connected by one bolt at each end
b) connected by two or more bolts at each end
What will the % change of load if the above angles are placed on either side of
the gusset plate?

4. A single angle discontinuous strut ISA 130x130x12 is 3m between centre to

centre of intersections. Calculate the safe load when:
i) connected by one bolt at each end
ii) connected by two or more bolts at each end

5. A truss member has a length of 3.5m between the centre of joints. The force in
the member is 150kN compression due to DL & IL; 200kN due to DL & WL.
Design the member and the connection to a 10mm thick gusset plate. Adopt
single equal angle; single unequal angle; double equal angles & double
unequal angles.

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 41

6. Compute the strength of the column shown in figure

7. Design a builtup column to carry an axial load of 1400kN with the length of
column being 8m. The column is effectively held in position at both ends, but
not restrained against rotation at both ends. The C/S of the column is:

a) Two channels back to back (heel to heel)

b) Two channels toe to toe separated & unseparated
c) Two I- sections - ISHB & ISMB
d) I- section with cover plates
e) Four angles – equal & unequal (arranged as square or rectangular
section)
In all the cases, design also the lacings and battens, if applicable. Also, check
other end conditions as specified in the code. (Connections can be bolted or
welded)

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 42

8. a) Design a builtup column carrying an axial load of 1300kN. The height of
column is 7m & is effectively held in position at both ends, but restrained
against rotation at one end only. Adopt two channels toe to toe with the
width over the back of the channels being 400mm. Also, design a suitable
lacing and battens. Connections can be bolted or welded.

b) Repeat the design in 7a) with two channels back to back with a clear
spacing of 300mm between them.

9. Design a suitable slab base and gusset base in problems (6) & (7) assuming
plain concrete pedestal of grade M15. Design the pedestal also. Adopt suitable
bolts. SBC of soil is 150kN/m2.

10. Design a column using an ISHB section with cover plates to carry a
compressive load of 3000kN. The effective length of the column is 6m. Also,
design a suitable gusset base & plain concrete pedestal of M15 grade. Adopt
suitable bolts. SBC of soil is 200kN/m2

11. An upper storey column ISHB300 @ 58.8 kg/m carries a load of 1000kN & a
BM of 40kNm. It is spliced with a lower storey column ISHB400 @ 82.2
kg/m. Ends of the columns are machined. (Milled) Design a suitable splice.
Adopt suitable bolts or welds.

12. a) A column section ISHB400 @ 82.2 kg/m carries an axial load of 1200kN &
BM of 50kNm. Design a suitable column splice. Adopt bolts or welds of
suitable size.
b) Design a suitable splice for a 5m effective length ISHB450 @ 87.2 kg/m
column carrying an axial load of 1000kN & a BM of 50kNm. Assume the
surfaces to be unmilled. Adopt bolts or welds of suitable size.

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 43

13. An ISMB600 @ 122.6 kg/m transfer a reaction of 300kN framing into the
flange of a column ISHB400 @ 82.2kg/m. Design a suitable
a) Stiffened seated connection;
b) Unstiffened seated connection (simple seated)
c) Framed connection.
Adopt bolts or welds of suitable size.

14. Two secondary beams ISMB300 @ 58.8kg/m are directly welded on either
side of the web of the girder ISMB600 @ 122.6 kg/m. Each secondary beam
transfer an end reaction of 250kN. Design fillet field welded connection.

15. Repeat the above problem as a framed connection adopting bolts or welds of
suitable size.

16. A secondary beam ISMB400 @ 62.6 kg/m transmit an reaction of 300kN to a

main beam ISMB550 @ 86.9 Kg/m. Design a suitable framed connection
using bolts or welds of suitable size.

17. A stanchion factorial axial load of 750kN and factored Bending moment of
300 kNm. The effective length of the column is 5 m. Design the stanchion as
per IS 800:2007

18. A column of effective length 6.5m shown in fig is subjected to the design data
as follows.

Factored axial load at the top = 1250kN

Factored axial load at the bottom = 600kN

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 44

Moment about the major axis at the top = 100kNm
Moment about the major axis at the bottom = 55kNm
Check the adequacy of the section.

19. A column between the floor is provided with ISHB 300 @ 58.8kg/m.
Investigate its adequacy if the ultimate design loads and moments are as
follows
Axial compression = 2500kN
Ultimate Moments at Top
About Major axis = 350kNm
About Minor axis = 50kNm
Ultimate Moments at Bottom
About Major axis = 175kNm
About Minor axis = -75kNm
Effective length of the column = 6.0m

Dr. K.U. Muthu

Sri H. Narendra

Department of Civil Engineering, MSRIT. KUM 45

 DESIGN OF GUSSETTED BASE

Dr. K.U.MUTHU*
A Steel column of effective height 5m has to transmit an axial load of 2000KN. Design the
gusseted base. The size of the column is ISHB450. Adopt M20 concrete.

Bearing Strength of concrete=0.6fck=12N/mm2

Area Reqd= 2000x103=166.7x103

12
Length of base plate+ Column Depth+ 2 Cover plate thickness + 2 gusset plate thickness + 2
gusset plate + 2 gusset angle + 2 Projections = 450+2(06)+2(16)+2(115)+2(25)
=774mm say 780mm.

Breadth of plate = 166.7x103=213.7mm say 400mm

780

Use a base plate of 780x400mm

Upward pressure = 2000x103 = 6.4N/mm2

780x400

DESIGN OF THICKNESS OF BASE PLATE:

Projection = 25+ 780-774 = 28mm.

2

Mxx=p x2
2
 = 6.4(100=28)2
2

Mxx = 52428.8N-mm.

52428.8 = 1.2 x 1 x 1 x t2 x 250

6 1.1

t=33.96mm

∴ t plate = 33.96-15

= 18.96 say 20mm.

At X1 – X1:

Mxx = p (l -2a) 2-p a2

8 2
a=projection + angle width
a= 28+115 = 143mm.

Mxx=6.4(780 – 2x143)2 – (6.4x143)2

8 2

Mxx = 129792

129792= = 1.2 x 1 x 1 xt12 x 250

6 1.1

t1=53.44mm.
Due to approximation in boundary conditions;

Thickness = 0.5 x 53.44= 26.72mm say 28mm

Connection of gusset to the column

Assuming the ends of the column are machine cut,

Vdsb= fu x π x (db)2
√3 γmb 4

Using 16mm dia bolts;

Vdsb= 410 x π x 162 = 38KN

√3 1.25 4 1000

tf = 16mm ; thickness of gusset plate = 16mm.

Vdpb= 2.5kb x dt x fu
√3 γmb

e= end distance = 40mm

p=50mm.
do=16+2=18mm.
fub=410N/mm2

We have e = 40 = 0.74
3do 54

p – 0.25 = 50 – 0.25 = 0.675

3do 54

fub= 1.0
fu

Vdsb= 2.5 x0.675 x 16 x 12 x 410 =61.35KN

√3x1.25

BOLT VALUE = 38KN

Number of blots = 500 = 13.15

38
Design of Beams (Unit - 8)

Contents

Introduction

Beam types

Lateral stability of beams

Factors affecting lateral stability

Behaviour of simple and built - up beams in bending (Without vertical stiffeners)

Design strength of laterally supported beams

Design strength of laterally unsupported beams

Shear strength of beams

Maximum deflection

Design of Purlins
Introduction

Beams are structural elements subjected to transverse loads in the plane of bending
causing BMs and SFs. Symmetrical sections about z-z axis are economical and
geometrical properties of such sections are available in SP (6) The compression flange of
the beams can be laterally supported (restrained) or laterally unsupported (unrestrained)
depending upon whether restraints are provided are not. The beams are designed for
maximum BM and checked for maximum SF, local effects such as vertical buckling and
crippling of webs and deflection. Beams can be fabricated to form different types of c/s
for the specific requirements of spans and loadings. Section 8 shall be followed in the
design of such bending members.

Types of beam cross sections

Beams can be of different cross sections depending on the span and loadings and
are shown below -
C / S of Plate Girders
 Simple I sections are used for normal spans and loadings with all the geometrical
properties available in IS 800 : 2007.

All the other sections indicated in the figure are built up sections. These sections
are used when the normal I sections become inadequate due to large spans and loadings.
These sections are also used due to other functional requirements.

I section with cover plates are used when the loads are heavy and the spans are
large. If the depth of the beam is restricted due to functional reasons, smaller depth I
sections with cover plates can be used Additional cover plates increases the lateral load
resistance with increase in IYY. The properties of ISMB and ISWB sections with cover
plates are available in SP (6). (ZPZ has to be obtained from calculations)
 Two I sections with cover plates can be used when very heavy loads and spans act
on the beam. The properties of these sections are not available in SP (6) and have to be
calculated.

Two I sections placed one above the other are used when the loads are light with
large spans, where deflection is the main criteria. The properties of these sections are not
available in SP (6) and have to be calculated

Gantry girders are used in industrial buildings to lift loads and typical sections
used are indicated in the figure. The properties of these sections are available in SP (6),
(ZPZ has to be obtained from calculations)

Plate girders are used where the spans exceed 20m and the loads are heavy. The
properties of these sections are available in SP (6), (ZPZ has to be obtained from
calculations)

Box sections have large torsional rigidity and can be used as single cell, twin cell
or multi - cell sections. The openings are advantageously used for service lines.

Castellated beams are special sections fabricated from I sections and are used for
light loads and large spans. The openings are advantageously used for service lines.

In all built up beams, the fabrication cost is higher due to the provision of
connections between the elements.

Section Classification

There are four classes of section namely Plastic, Compact, Semi - Compact and
Slender sections as given in IS 800 : 2007. [cl. 3.7.2 pp - 17] For design of beams, only
Plastic and Compact sections are used.

Lateral Stability of Beams

A beam transversely loaded in its own plane can attain its full capacity (Plastic
moment) only if local and lateral instabilities are prevented.

Local buckling of beams can be due to web crippling and web buckling. They are
avoided by proper dimensioning of the bearing plate and through secondary design
checks. Flanges shall always satisfy the outstand to thickness ratio as per IS 800 : 2007 so
that local failures of flanges are avoided. Plastic and Compact sections are used.

Lateral buckling of beams is the out of plane bending and is due to compressive
force in the flange and is controlled by providing sufficient lateral restraint to the
compressive flange.
 Lateral stability of beams is affected by span of the beam, moment of inertia and
the support conditions.

Local failures of flanges (Secondary design checks)

The local failure of flanges (plates) reduces the plastic moment capacity of the
section due to buckling and is avoided by limiting the outstand to thickness ratios as
given in IS 800: 2007.

Local failures of web (Secondary design checks)

The web of a beam is thin and can fail locally at supports or where concentrated
loads are acting. There are two types of web failure -

Web Crippling (or Crimpling)

Web crippling causes local crushing failure of web due to large bearing stresses
under reactions at supports or concentrated loads. This occurs due to stress concentration
because of the bottle neck condition at the junction between flanges and web. It is due to
the large localized bearing stress caused by the transfer of compression from relatively
wide flange to narrow and thin web. Web crippling is the crushing failure of the metal at
the junction of flange and web. Web crippling causes local buckling of web at the
junction of web and flange.
 For safety against web crippling, the resisting force shall be greater than the
reaction or the concentrated load. It will be assumed that the reaction or concentrated
load is dispersed into the web with a slope of 1 in 2.5 as shown in the figure

Let Resisting force = Fwc

Thickness of web = tw
Yield stress in web = fyw
Width of bearing plate = b1
Width of dispersion = n2 = 2.5 h2
Depth of fillet = h2 (from SP [6])

Fwc = [(b1 + n2) tw fyw ] / γmo

≥ Reaction, RU

For concentrated loads, the dispersion is on both sides and the resisting force can be
expressed as

Fwc = [(b1 + 2 n2) tw fyw ] / γmo

≥ Concentrated load, WU
Web Buckling

The web of the beam is thin and can buckle under reactions and concentrated
loads with the web behaving like a short column fixed at the flanges. The unsupported
length between the fillet lines for I sections and the vertical distance between the flanges
or flange angles in built up sections can buckle due to reactions or concentrated loads.
This is called web buckling.
 For safety against web buckling, the resisting force shall be greater than the
reaction or the concentrated load. It will be assumed that the reaction or concentrated
load is dispersed into the web at 45° as shown in the figure.

Let Resisting force = Fwb

Thickness of web = tw
Design compressive stress in web = fcd
Width of bearing plate = b1
Width of dispersion = n1

Fwb = (b1 + n1) tw fcd

≥ Reaction, RU

For concentrated loads, the dispersion is on both sides and the resisting force can be
expressed as

Fwc = [(b1 + 2 n1) tw fcd ]

≥ Concentrated load, WU

The design compressive stress fcd is calculated based on a effective slenderness ratio of
0.7 d / ry , where d = clear depth of web between the flanges.

ry = radius of gyration about y-y axis and is expressed as

= √ (Iyy / area) = √ [(tw)3 / 12] / t = √ (tw)2 / 12]

kl / ry = (0.7 d) / √ (tw)2 / 12] = 2.425 * d / tw

Design compressive stress in web, fcd for the above slenderness ratio is obtained from
curve, C (Buckling class C) (Table 9c, pp 42)

Shear lag effects

In simple theory of bending, plane sections remain plane before and after bending
require that no SF is present in the beam. But in practice, SF influences the bending stress
in the flanges and causes the section to warp. This results in non uniform distribution of
flexural stresses in the flanges with stress being greater at the junction of flange and web.
This is known as shear lag effect. In built up beams with wide flanges, this can be
considerable, while in normal simple I sections, it is negligible. Shear lag depends on the
width to span ratio and is specified in cl. 8.2.1.5 (pp - 53 and 54)
 Distribution of compressive stress in the flange

Laterally Supported (Restrained) beams

Beams subjected to BM develop compressive and tensile forces and the flange
subjected to compressive forces has the tendency to deflect laterally. This out of plane
bending is called lateral bending or buckling of beams. The lateral bending of beams
depends on the effective span between the restraints, minimum moment of inertia (IYY)
and its presence reduces the plastic moment capacity of the section.

Beams where lateral buckling of the compression flange are prevented are called
laterally restrained beams. Such continuous lateral supports are provided in two ways -

i) The compression flange is connected to an RC slab throughout by shear connectors.

ii) External lateral supports are provided at closer intervals to the compression flange
so that it is as good continuous lateral support.

Cl 8.2.1 (pp - 52 and 53) gives the specifications in this regard.

Typical lateral supports are shown in the figure.

 Typical lateral supports

Design of such laterally supported beams are carried out using Clauses 8.2.1.2,
8.2.1.3, 8.2..1.5, 8.4, 8.4.1, 8.4.1.1, 8.4.2.1 and 5.6.1 (Deflection) In addition, the beams
shall be checked for vertical buckling of web and web crippling. The design is simple,
but lengthy and does not involve trial and error procedure.

Design steps for laterally supported beams

The design of laterally supported beams consists of selecting a section based on

the plastic section modulus and checking for its shear capacity, deflection, web buckling
and web crippling. Most of the equations are available in IS 800 : 2007. The steps are -

i) The maximum BM and SF at collapse is calculated based on the service loads

(characteristic loads) and the span of the beam. Factored load at collapse = 1.5 *
characteristic loads.
ii) The plastic section modulus, ZPZ is calculated using
ZPZ = MU / (fY / 1.1)
MU = Maximum BM
fY = Yield stress of the given grade of steel
1.1 = Partial safety factor in yielding

iii) A trial section having the appropriate plastic section modulus is adopted using IS 800
or SP (6) depending upon the type of section required. The section shall be plastic or
compact section.

iv) The beam shall be checked for shear lag and design bending strength as given in
cl. 8.2.1.5 and 8.2.1.2 (pp -53)

v) The beam is checked for deflection using appropriate formula depending on the type of
loadings.

vi) The section is checked for shear as given in cl. 8.4, 8.4.1 and 8.4.1.1. If VU ≥ 0.6 Vd
it is a case of high shear or otherwise low shear. For high shear, the design bending
strength is calculated from cl. 9.2

vii) The section is checked for web buckling and crippling using appropriate formula.

Laterally unsupported beam

Beams subjected to BM develop compressive and tensile forces and the flange
subjected to compressive forces has the tendency to deflect laterally. This out of plane
bending is called lateral bending or buckling of beams. Lateral buckling of beams
involves three kinds of deformations namely lateral bending, twisting and warping. The
lateral bending of beams depends on the effective span between the restraints, minimum
moment of inertia (IYY) and can reduce the plastic moment capacity of the section.
Factors affecting lateral stability

Type of C/S - The lateral buckling strength can be improved by choosing an appropriate
c/s where IYY is large. Box sections satisfies this and also has large torsional rigidity as it
is a closed section. Open sections like I sections have low torsional rigidity and are more
susceptible to lateral instability. Cl 8.2.2 pp - 54 mentions that hollow sections need not
be checked for lateral buckling strength.

Support conditions - The lateral restraint provided depends on the restraint provided by
the supports. The effect of various support conditions is taken into account using the
concept of effective length as given in Table 15 - pp 58 for simply supported beams and
Table 16 - pp 61 for cantilever beams.

Effective length - This concept incorporates the various types of restraints to the flanges
and for simply supported beams Table 15 - pp 58 can be used. The same information for
cantilever beams is given in Table 16 - pp 61.

Beams without proper restraint of the compression flange undergoes lateral

buckling resulting in lesser load carrying capacity.

Behavior of beams

The actual behavior of beams depends on whether the beam is allowed to reach its
plastic moment capacity. If the beam is prevented from local and lateral buckling, the
beam reaches its full plastic capacity with plastic hinges formed at critical points of
maximum BM which has been described in plastic analysis.

If the beam is not restrained laterally, the beam can undergo elastic lateral
torsional buckling and can fail due to instability with large lateral deflections, rotations
and warping.

If the web is too thin, the beam can fail in shear due to diagonal compression.

The beam can also fail due to local effects such as web buckling, web crippling or
distortion of flanges if these effects are not considered in the design.

Lateral Torsional Buckling of Beams

The presence of compression in the flanges causes lateral deflection (side sway)
along with rotation known as Lateral Torsional Buckling of Beams. The assumptions
made in the analysis are -
i) The beam is initially undistorted without residual stresses.
ii) The beam behaves elastically upto failure.
iii) The beam is subjected to pure bending in the plane of web
 If lateral restraint is not provided to the compression flange, buckling of a beam
takes place about its minor axis, accompanied by twisting moment and warping. The load
at which the beam buckles will be much less than the load causing full plastic moment.
The design bending compressive stress is dependent on a factor called non - dimensional
slenderness ratio, λLT, which in turn is dependent on the elastic lateral torsional buckling
moment, Mcr. The value of Mcr can be obtained by solving a fourth order differential
equation.

The value of Mcr can b calculated using the equations given in cl. 8.2.2.1 pp -54
for doubly symmetric c/s and annex E (pp 128 -129) for c/s symmetrical about the minor
axis.

The design bending compressive strength can be calculated using a set of

equations as specified in cl.8.2.2 (Table 13a and 13b) pp -54 to 57.

Design steps for laterally unsupported beams

The design of laterally unsupported beams consists of selecting a section based on

the plastic section modulus and checking for its shear capacity, deflection, web buckling
and web crippling. Most of the equations are available in IS 800 : 2007. The steps are -

All the steps given in design of laterally supported beams shall be used here. Also,
The plastic section modulus required is increased by 25 - 50% . The design bending
strength is calculated using the appropriate provisions in the code for lateral supported
beams. Other checks like deflection, shear and local criteria will be same.
Design strength of laterally supported and unsupported beams

These are analysis problems where the strength of the beam is required. The
design strength will be based on flexural or bending strength and shear strength.

Bending strength of laterally supported beams are calculated using the provisions
given 8.2.1.2 (pp -53) by knowing the plastic section modulus Zpz

Bending strength of laterally unsupported beams are calculated using the

provisions given 8.2.2 and 8.2.2.1 (pp -54) by knowing the plastic section modulus Zpz

The shear strength of the c/s is obtained from cl. 8.4(pp -59).

Shear strength of Beams

Shear forces always exists with BMs and the maximum shear stress has to be
checked with the shear yield stress. Shear stresses can become important if the depth of
the beams are restricted and when beams are subjected to large concentrated loads near
the supports. The distribution of shear stress at limit state (plastic) is shown below -

The nominal shear yielding strength is based on the Von Mises yield criteria which
assumes wide and thin webs without any local failures. The shear strength is expressed as
τy = fyw / √3
fyw = yield strength of the web

The design strength Vd = [Av fyw / √3] / 1.1

Av = Shear area as specified in cl. 8.4.1.1 pp - 59
 The web can buckle elastically or inelastically depending on the ratio of d / tw. if
this ratio exceeds 67 ε , where ε = √ (250 /fy) and d = clear depth of the web between
flanges, resistance to shear buckling has to be verified .

Shear failure can occur due to excessive yielding of the web area if the shear
capacity is exceeded.

The beam will be a high shear condition if VU > 0.6 Vd and the moment capacity
of the section decreases and has to calculated using the provisions given in
cl. 9.2.2 pp - 70

Maximum Deflection

A beam may have adequate strength in flexure and shear and can be unsuitable if
it deflects excessively under the service loads. Excessive deflection causes problems in
the functioning of the structure. It can harm floor finishes, cause cracks in partitions and
excessive vibrations in industrial buildings and ponding of water in roofs. Cl.5.6.1,
5.6.1.1 and Table 6 gives relevant specifications with respect to deflection.

The beam size may have to be taken based on deflection, if the spans and
loadings are large. Typical maximum deflection formulae for simple loadings are given
below -
Example 1

Design a simply supported beam of span 8 m. The spacing of the beams are 4m with
thickness of RC slab =150 mm, floor finishes = 1.4 kN / m2 and light partitions = 1kN /
m2. The beam also carries a central concentrated load of 250 kN with all the loads being
characteristic loads. The beam is laterally restrained. with grade of steel being Fe 490.
Check the beam for deflection, shear, web buckling and crippling.

Load on the RC slab = 0.15 * 25 + 1.4 + 1.0 + 4.0 = = 10.15 kN/m2

To calculate the self weight of the beam -

Total load on the beam = 10.15 * 4 * 8 + 250 = 574.8 kN

Self weight of the beam = (Total load on the beam) / 350 = 574.8 / 350 = 1.64 kN/m
Total UDL on the beam, w = 10.15 * 4 + 1.64 = 42.24 kN/m
The beam loaded is shown in the figure.

Design for flexure -

Maximum BM at centre, MU = (42.24 * 82 / 8 + 250 * 8 / 4) * 1.5 = 1256.88 kNm

ZP)REQD = (MU * 1.1) / (βb * fY) ( from cl. 8.2.1.2 pp 53)

= (1256.88 x 106 * 1.1) / (1.0 * 350) = 3950.2 x 103 mm3

Adopt ISWB 600 @ 145.1 kg/m (1.45 kN / m < 1.64 kN / m)

Thickness of flange, tf = 23.6 mm > 20mm , fY = 330 N / mm2 , (Table 1, pp 14)
ZP)REQD = 4189.6 x103 mm3
ZP)PRO = 4341.63 x103 mm3 (OK)

Design bending strength, Md = (βb * ZP * fY) / 1.1

= (1.0 * 4341.63 x103 * 330) / 1.1 = 1302.49 x 106 N mm
= 1302.49 kNm > MU (OK)

To check the type of section -

Outstand = b / 2 = 125 mm (fig 2, pp 19)

Outstand / tf = 125 / 23.6 = 5.3 < 9.4 ε < 9.4 * √(250 / 330) < 8.18
Hence the section is plastic (OK)

Check for deflection -

Maximum deflection = (5wL4) / (384EI) + (WL3) / (48EI)

= (5 * 42.05 * 80004) / (384 * 2 x 105 * 115626.6 x 104) +
(250 x 103 * 80003) / (48 * 2 x 105 * 115626.6 x 104)
= 21.23 mm < L / 360 < 8000 / 360 < 22.22 mm (OK)
42.05 kN / m = 42.05 N / mm (with actual self weight of the beam)
E = 2 x 105 N / mm2 and I = IZZ = IXX (from SP - 6, Table I)

Check for shear lag effect -

width of flange = 250 mm ≤ L / 20 ≤ 800 / 20 = 400 mm (cl. 8.2.1.5, pp - 53) (OK)

Check for shear -

VU = (42.05 * 8 / 2 + 250 / 2) * 1.5 = 439.8 kN

Vd = (AV * fyw) / (√3 * 1.1) (cl. 8.4, 8.4.1 and 8.4.1.1, pp - 59)
= (600 * 11.8 * 330) / (√3 * 1.1) = 1226.29 x 103 N = 1226.29 kN
VU < 0.6 * Vd < 735.77 kN (Low shear) (OK)

d / tw = (600 - 23.6 * 2) / 11.8 = 46.85 < 67ε < 58.32 (cl 8.4.2.1, pp -59) (OK)

Check for web Buckling -

kL/ry = 2.425 * d / tw = 2.425 * (600 - 23.6 * 2) / 11.8 = 113.6

From Table 9(c), pp - 42, fcd = 97.82 N / mm2
(fcd can also be calculated using the equations given in cl.7.1.2.1 as in compression
members)

Fwb = (b1 + n1) tw fcd = (b1 + 600 / 200) * 11.8 * 97.82

To get b1, Fwb = VU = 439.8 x 103
b1 = 81.02 mm, say 90 mm
90 mm wide bearing plate is provided. (minimum of 75 mm shall be provided)

Check for web crippling -

Fwc = [(b1 + n2) tw fyw ] / γmo

= [(90 + 2.5 * 46.05) * 11.8 * 330] / 1.1 = 726.14 x 103 N
= 726.14 kN > VU (OK)

Hence ISWB 600 @ 145.1 kg / m satisfies all the specifications and can be used for the
given problem.

Example 2

A floor plan has a series of secondary beams spaced at 2 m c/c supported on main beams
spaced at 12 m c/c. The main beams are supported on columns spaced at 12 m c/c. The
floor is used for commercial purpose. Design the main beam by assuming suitable loads.
The beam is laterally restrained. with grade of steel being Fe 490. Check the beam for
deflection, shear, web buckling and crippling.

The layout for the given problem is down in the figure.

SB = Secondary Beams
MB = Main Beams
C = Columns

Design of Secondary Beam -

Load on the RC slab = 0.1 * 25 + 1.4 + 1.0 + 4.0 = 8.9 kN/m2

To calculate the self weight of the beam -

Total load on the beam = 8.9 * 2 * 12 = 213.6 kN

Self weight of the beam = (Total load on the beam) / 350 = 213.6 / 350 = 0.61 kN/m
Total UDL on the beam, w = 8.9 * 2 + 0.61 = 18.41 kN / m

Design for flexure -

Maximum BM at centre, MU = (18.41 * 122 / 8) * 1.5 = 497.07 kNm

ZP)REQD = (MU * 1.1) / (βb * fY) ( from cl. 8.2.1.2 pp 53)

= (497.07 x 106 * 1.1) / (1.0 * 350) = 1562.22 x 103 mm3

Adopt ISLB 500 @ 75 kg/m (0.75 kN / m >0.61 kN / m)

Thickness of flange, tf = 15 mm < 20mm , fY = 350 N / mm2 , (Table 1, pp 14)

ZP)REQD = 1574.1 x103 mm3( with new self weight)
ZP)PRO = 1773.67 x103 mm3 (OK)

Design bending strength, Md = (βb * ZP * fY) / 1.1

= (1.0 * 1773.67 x103 * 350) / 1.1 = 564.35 x 106 N mm
= 564.35 kNm > MU (OK)

Check for deflection -

Maximum deflection = (5wL4) / (384EI)

= (5 * 18.55 * 120004) / (384 * 2 x 105 * 38579 x 104)
= 64.91 mm > L / 360 < 12000 / 360 < 33.33 mm (UNSAFE)
E = 2 x 105 N / mm2 and I = IZZ = IXX (from SP - 6, Table I)

IZZ = IXX)REQD = (5wL4) / (384E * 33.33)

= (5 * 18.55 * 120004) / (384 * 2 x 105 * 33.33)
= 75135 x 104 mm4
Adopt ISMB 600 @ 122.6 kg / m (1.23 kN/m)
Maximum deflection = 27.98 mm < 33.33 mm (OK)

NOTE -

The chosen section is heavier than ISLB 500 @ 75 kg/m and hence the design
bending strength will be satisfactory.

Other checks like shear lag effect, shear, web buckling and web crippling can be
satisfied on similar lines.

Design of Main Beam -

Reaction from each secondary beam = (8.9 * 2 + 1.23) * 12 = 228.36 kN say, 230 kN

Self weight of main beam = (Total load on the beam) / 350 = (230 * 5) / 300 = 3.8 kN/m

The beam is shown in the figure below -

Maximum BM at centre, MU = (597.8 * 6 - 230 * 4 - 230 * 2 - [3.8 * 6 * 6] / 2) * 1.5

= 3207.6 kN m

ZP)REQD = (MU * 1.1) / (βb * fY) ( from cl. 8.2.1.2 pp 53)

= (3207.6 x 106 * 1.1) / (1.0 * 320) = 11026 x 103 mm3

Single I section is not possible and it is proposed to provide I section with cover plates on
either side. Properties are available in Table XIV for ISMB and ISWB sections in SP - 6
ZEZ = ZXX)REQD = ZP)REQD / 1.14 = 9672 x 103 mm3

The section shall also be worked using deflection condition.

δMAX = (WL3/ 24EI) * β * (3 - 4 * β2) for each pair of concentrated loads

+ (WL3) / (48EI) + (5wL4) / (384EI) ; β = a / L

Equating this to the maximum deflection, L / 360 = 33.33 mm, we get

33.33 = (230 * 1000 * 120003) / (24 * 2 x 105 * IZZ) * [ (2 / 12) * {3 - 4 * (2 / 12)2 } +

(4 / 12) * {3 - 4 * (4 / 12)2 }] + (230 x 103 * 120003) / (48 * 2 x 105 * IZZ) +

(5 * 3.8 * 120004) / (384 * 2 x 105 * IZZ)

Solving for IZZ, we get

33.33 = (1.57 x1011) / IZZ

IZZ)REQD = 4.71 x 109 mm4 = 471000 cm4

No section in Table XIV gives this value of IZZ. Adopt ISMB 600 @ 122.6 kg/m with
40mm thick plates.

To calculate the width of the plate -

4.71 x 109 = 91813 x 104 + [(b * 403) / 12 + b * 40 * 3202] * 2

b = 462.27 mm say, 475 mm

IZZ)PRO = 4.81 x 109 mm4 > IZZ)REQD Defection is within limits.

Mean Thickness of flange, tf = (475 * 40 + 210 * 20.8) / 475 =49.2 mm > 40 mm ,
fY = 320 N / mm2 , (Table 1, pp 14)

ZPZ = 3510.63 x 103 + 475 * 40 * 320 * 2 = 15670 x 103 mm3

Design bending strength, Md = (βb * ZP * fY) / 1.1
= (1.0 * 15670 x103 * 320) / 1.1 = 4558 x 106 N mm
= 4558 kNm > MU (OK)

Check for shear -

Self weight = 1.23. + [(475 * 40 * 2) / 10002] * 78.50 = 4.21 kN/m

VU = (4.21 * 12 / 2 + 230 * 5) / 2) * 1.5 = 900.4 kN
Vd = (AV * fyw) / (√3 * 1.1) (cl. 8.4, 8.4.1 and 8.4.1.1, pp - 59)
= (680 * 12 * 320) / (√3 * 1.1) = 1370.5 x 103 N = 1370.5 kN > VU (OK)

0.6 * Vd = 822.3 kN
VU > 822.3 kN (High shear) Design bending strength has to be modified.

d / tw = (600 - 20.8 * 2) / 12 = 46.53 < 67ε < 59.22 (cl 8.4.2.1, pp -59) (OK)

Mdv = Md - β * (Md - Mfd) (cl. 9.2.2 , pp - 70)

β = [(2VU) / Vd - 1]2 = 0.0985

Mfd = ZP)fd * fy / 1.1

ZP)fd = [(475 -12) * 40 * 320 + (210 - 12) * 20.8 * 289.6] * 2 = 14.24 x 106 mm3

Mfd = 4142.55 kNm

Mdv = 4558 - 0.0985 * (4558 - 4142.55) = 4517 kNm > MU (OK)

The other checks for web buckling , crippling and shear lag can be calculated as earlier.

Example 3

A simply supported beam has an effective span of 8 m and the beam has a c/s ISWB 600
@ 145.1 kg/m. Calculate the design BM and the safe UDL, the beam can support. The
beam is laterally restrained against torsion but partially restrained against warping. The
grade of the structural steel is Fe 490.

From Table 15, LLT = 0.85 * 8000 = 6800 mm

The value of the Elastic Lateral Torsional Buckling moment, Mcr is calculated
using all the equations given in IS 800 : 2007
i) Mcr = √ { (π2 EIY) / (LLT)2 }* [GIt + (π2 EIw) / (LLT)2 ]} (cl. 8.2.2.1, pp 54)

E = 2 x 105 N/mm2, IY = 5298.3 x 104 mm4 ,G = 0.769 x 105 N/mm2 ( cl. 2.2.4.1 pp - 12),

The equations given below are from Annex E - 1.2 pp - 129

It = Torsional constant = Σ bi (ti)3 / 3

= 2 * 250 * 23.63 / 3 + (600 - 23.6 * 2) * 11.83 / 3 = 2.493 x 106 mm4

Iw = warping constant = (1- βf) βf IY (hy)2

βf = Ifc / (Ifc + Ift) = 0.5 ( for symmetrical sections about both the axis)

hY = c/c distance between the flanges = 600 -23.6 = 576.4 mm

Iw = 4.4 x 1012 mm6

Substituting, Mcr = 926.52 x106 N mm = 926.52 kN m

ii) Mcr = (π2 EIYhf) / [2 * (LLT)2] }* [1+ 1 / 20 { (LLT / ry) / (hf / tf)}2] 0.5

hf = c/c distance between the flanges = 600 -23.6 = 576.4 mm

ry = 53.5 mm and tf = 23.6 mm

Substituting, Mcr = 1000.13 x 106 N mm = 1000.13 kN m

iii) fcr,b = (1.1π2 E) / (LLT / ry)2 * [1+ 1 / 20 { (LLT / ry) / (hf / tf)}2] 0.5

= 206.22 N/mm2

Alternately, fcr,b can also be obtained from Table 14 - pp 57

Mcr = βb * ZP * fcr,b

= 1.0 * 4341.63 x103 * 206.22

= 895.33 x106 N mm = 895.33 kN m

Each equation gives different values of Mcr and the procedure given in Annex E is more
accurate but lengthy and cumbersome.

Consider the third approach as it gives the least values required and simple. If more
accuracy is required, averaging can be done.

Mcr = 895.33 x106 N mm and fcr,b = 206.22 N/mm2 will be used in further calculations.
λLT = √ (fy / fcr,b ) = √ (330 / 206.22) = 1.265

Also, λLT ≤ √ [(1.2 * ZE * fY ) / Mcr] ≤ √ [(1.2 * 3854.2 x 103 * 330) / 895.33 x106

≤ 1.306

Adopt λLT = 1.265 ( > 0.4 Hence lateral buckling analysis required)

φLT = 0.5 * [1+ αLT * (λLT - 0.2) + (λLT)2]

= 0.5 * [1 + 0,21 * (1.265 - 0.2) + 1.2652] = 1.412

χLT = 1/ { φLT + [ (φLT)2 - (λLT)2]0.5}

Substituting, χLT = 0.49 < 1.0

fbd = χLT * fY / 1.1 = 147 N/mm2

Md = βb * ZP * fbd = 1.0 * 4341.63 x103 * 147 = 638.22 x 106 Nmm

= 638.22 kNm

MSAFE = 638.22 / 1.5 = 425.48 kNm

wSAFE * L2 / 8 = MSAFE

wSAFE = 53.185 kN/m (including self weight)

Other calculations can be carried out using an effective span of 8m as in laterally

supported beams.

Design of laterally unsupported beam

The section can be chosen based on two conditions -

i) ZP)REQD = (MU * 1.1) / (βb * fY) * 1.25 to 1.5

ii) δ)PER = L / 360 for Simply supported beams

= L / 180 for cantilever beams

Relevant expressions for deflection are used based on the loadings. The moment of
Inertia required is calculated. .
A suitable section based on the above requirement is chosen and the design bending
strength, Md is calculated as in Example 3. This shall be greater than MU. If required the
section has to be modified for economy. Once the section is chosen, other checks shall be
using the effective span as in laterally supported beams.

Example1 can be treated as laterally unrestrained beam and worked.

Design of Purlins

Purlins are flexural members used in trusses to support the roof covering and
spans between the trusses. Purlins are provided on the top rafter (top chord) at all
the joints. The spacing of the purlins depends on the type of the roofing material and for
normal materials, it ranges from 1.4 to 1.8 m. The sections used for purlins are usually
angles (equal or unequal) as they are economical and variety of sections is available.

A typical view of purlin is shown in the figure.

The new code do not provide the design specifications. Therefore the specifications as
per the old code IS:800 1984 is followed. Cl . 8.9 pp - 69 shall also be followed. Based
on IS : 875 Part 2, LL on inclined roofs shall be taken as -

LL = 0.75 - 0.02 / ° of the slope for slopes > 10° subjected to a minimum of 0.4 kN / m2

For slopes ≤ 10° , LL = 0.75 kN / m2

DL of AC sheets = 0.17 kN / m2 and GI sheets = 0.13 kN / m2

Example 4

Design a suitable single angle purlin having AC sheets as covering with spacing of
trusses = 4.5m. Pitch of the truss is 1 in 5 with spacing of the purlins = 1.6m. Wind
pressure normal to the roof is 1,3 kN / m2. Span of the truss = 18m.

Rise of the truss = 1/5 * 18 = 3.6m

Slope of the truss, tan θ = 3.6 / 9.0 = 0.4
θ = 21.8°

For the given problem, LL = 0.75 - 0.02 * (21.8 - 10) = 0.514 kN / m2

(DL + LL) on plan area = 0.17 + 0.514 = 0.684 kN / m2

Vertical load on each purlin = 0.684 * 1.6 = 1.094 kN/m

Self weight of the purlin = 0.1 kN/m
Total vertical load = 1.194 kN/m

Load acting normal to the purlin = 1.194 * cos θ = 1.12 kN/m (DL + LL)

DL acting normal to the purlin = (0.17 * 1.6 + 0.1) = 0.37 kN/m (Downwards)

WL acting normal to the purlin = 1.3 * 1.6 = 2.08 kN/m (Upwards)

(DL + WL) = 1.71 kN/m (Upwards)

(DL + WL) is governing for the design.

Maximum BM, M = wL2 / 10 = (1.71 * 4.52) / 10 = 3.46 kNm (assumed as continuous

spanned purlins)

ZE)REQD = M / 0.66 fY = 3,46 x 106 / (0.66 * 250) assuming Fe410 grade steel
= 21 x 103 mm3 (21 cm3)

Minimum depth of angle = L / 45 =100 mm

Minimum width of angle = L / 60 =75 mm

From Table IV, SP - 6, choosing an angle ISA 125 x 75 x 6 (9.2 Kg/m)

ZE)PRO = 22.2 x 103 mm3 > 21 x 103 mm3 (OK)

Maximum deflection, δ = (w * L4) / (384EI) (Continuous span)
= (1.71 * 45004) / (384 * 2 x 105 * 187.8 x 104)
= 4.86 mm < L / 360 = 12.5 mm (OK)

The chosen section ISA 125 x 75 x 6 is OK