Board Endorsed October 2015

Specialist Methods
Based on Australian Curriculum

Written under the

Mathematics Course Accredited from 2016 – 2020
Framework 2013

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Board Endorsed October 2015

Student Capabilities
All courses of study for the ACT Senior Secondary Certificate should enable students to develop
essential capabilities for twenty-first century learners. These ‘capabilities’ comprise an integrated
and interconnected set of knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions that students develop and
use in their learning across the curriculum.
The capabilities include:
 Literacy
 Numeracy
 Information and communication technology (ICT) capability
 Critical and creative thinking
 Personal and social capability
 Ethical behaviour
 Intercultural understanding.
Courses of study for the ACT Senior Secondary Certificate should be both relevant to the lives of
students and incorporate the contemporary issues they face. Hence, courses address the following
three priorities:
 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures
 Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia
 Sustainability.
Elaboration of these student capabilities and priorities is available on the ACARA website at:
www.australiancurriculum.edu.au.

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Course Adoption Form for Accredited Courses

B S S S
AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY

College:
Course Title: Specialist Methods
Classification: T
(based on Australian Curriculum)
Framework: Mathematics Course Area: Course Code:

Dates of Course Accreditation: From 2016 to 2019

Identify units to be adopted by ticking the check boxes

Value
Adopt Unit Title Length
(1.0/0.5)
 Unit 1: Specialist Methods 1.0 S
 Unit 1a: Specialist Methods 0.5 Q
 Unit 1b: Specialist Methods 0.5 Q
 Unit 2: Specialist Methods 1.0 S
 Unit 2a: Specialist Methods 0.5 Q
 Unit 2b: Specialist Methods 0.5 Q
 Unit 3: Specialist Methods 1.0 S
 Unit 3a: Specialist Methods 0.5 Q
 Unit 3b: Specialist Methods 0.5 Q
 Unit 4 : Specialist Methods 1.0 S
 Unit 4a: Specialist Methods 0.5 Q
 Unit 4b: Specialist Methods 0.5 Q
Adoption The course and units named above are consistent with the philosophy and goals of the
college and the adopting college has the human and physical resources to implement the course.

Principal: / /20 College Board Chair: / /20

BSSS Office Use

Entered into database: / /20

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Board Endorsed October 2015

Table of Contents
Course Adoption Form for Accredited Courses........................................................................................3
Course Name ..........................................................................................5
Course Classification ..........................................................................................5
Course Framework ..........................................................................................5
Course Developers ..........................................................................................5
Evaluation of Previous Course ..........................................................................................5
Course Length and Composition ..........................................................................................6
Implementation Guidelines ..........................................................................................6
Subject Rationale ..........................................................................................7
Goals ..........................................................................................8
Content ..........................................................................................9
Teaching and Learning Strategies ........................................................................................10
Assessment ........................................................................................11
Achievement Standards ........................................................................................14
Student Capabilities ........................................................................................16
Representation of Cross-curriculum Priorities .......................................................................................17
Moderation ........................................................................................18
Resources ........................................................................................19
Proposed Evaluation Procedures ........................................................................................19
Unit 1: Specialist Methods T Value: 1.0 ........................................................................20
Unit 2: Specialist Methods T Value: 1.0 ........................................................................24
Unit 3: Specialist Methods T Value: 1.0 ........................................................................28
Unit 4: Specialist Methods T Value: 1.0 ........................................................................31
Appendix A – Common Curriculum Elements ........................................................................................35
Appendix B – Glossary for Specialist Methods .......................................................................................37
Appendix C – Achievement Standards ........................................................................................48

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Course Name
Specialist Methods

Course Classification
T

Course Framework
Mathematics

Course Developers

Name College
James Hassall Burgmann Anglican College
Clare Byrne Dickson College
Kim Tae Kyung Dickson College
Gavin Scales Gungahlin College
Sheikh Faisal Hawker College
Jacqueline Howarth Hawker College
Tim Allan Trinity Christian School

Evaluation of Previous Course

This Specialist Methods course integrates the Australian Curriculum.

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Board Endorsed October 2015

Course Length and Composition

The following standard units will be the usual mode of delivery. Half standard units 0.5 (‘a’ and ‘b’)
are for students who leave early or start late in a unit.

Unit Titles Unit Value

Unit 1: Specialist Methods 1.0
Unit 2: Specialist Methods 1.0
Unit 3: Specialist Methods 1.0
Unit 4: Specialist Methods 1.0

Available course pattern

A standard 1.0 value unit is delivered over at least 55 hours and can be as long as 63 hours. To be
awarded a course, students must complete at least the minimum number of hours and units over
the whole minor or major – both requirements must be met. The number of units may vary
according to the school timetable.

Course Number of standard units to meet course requirements

Minor Minimum of 2 units
Major Minimum of 3.5 units
Major Minor Minimum of 5.5 units
Double Major Minimum of 7 units

Implementation Guidelines
Suggested Implementation Patterns
Implementation Pattern Units
Semester 1, Year 11 Unit 1: Specialist Methods
Semester 2 , Year 11 Unit 2: Specialist Methods
Semester 1, Year 12 Unit 3: Specialist Methods
Semester 2, Year 12 Unit 4: Specialist Methods

Prerequisites for the course or units within the course

It is recommended that Units 1-4 are studied sequentially. Content sequencing and delivery within
and across semester units may be varied at the discretion of the Executive Teacher of Mathematics
as per BSSS requirements.
Compulsory units
Nil
Duplication of Content Rules
Students cannot be given credit towards the requirements for a Senior Secondary Certificate for a
unit that significantly duplicates content in a unit studied in another course. The responsibility for

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Board Endorsed October 2015

preventing undesirable overlap of content studied by a student rests with the principal and the
teacher delivering the course. Substantial overlap of content is not permitted and students will only
be given credit for covering the content once.

Relationship to other courses

This course can be studied in conjunction with Specialist Mathematics Options (integrating the
Australian Curriculum) to form a major minor or double major in Specialist Mathematics, according
to the requirements in the Specialist Mathematics course document.
Students who complete a major in Specialist Methods and fewer than 2.0 units of Specialist
Mathematics Options will include these units in a major in Specialist Mathematics.
Students studying Specialist Mathematics T integrating Australian Curriculum must be studying
Specialist Methods T concurrently.
If students start their study in Specialist Mathematics T 2016-2020 Type 2 course and conclude their
course in Mathematical Methods T 2016-2020 Type 2 course then they are awarded the appropriate
course in Mathematical Methods T.
Students studying a combination of Mathematical Applications (integrating Australian Curriculum) T
Type 2 course with Mathematical Methods (integrating Australian Curriculum) T Type 2 course or the
Specialist Methods T Type 2 course will be awarded a course in Further Mathematics.

Subject Rationale
Mathematics is the study of order, relation and pattern. From its origins in counting and measuring it
has evolved in highly sophisticated and elegant ways to become the language now used to describe
much of the modern world. Statistics is concerned with collecting, analysing, modelling and
interpreting data in order to investigate and understand real-world phenomena and solve problems
in context. Together, mathematics and statistics provide a framework for thinking and a means of
communication that is powerful, logical, concise and precise.
The major themes of Specialist Methods are calculus and statistics. They include as necessary
prerequisites studies of algebra, functions and their graphs, and probability. They are developed
systematically, with increasing levels of sophistication and complexity. Calculus is essential for
developing an understanding of the physical world because many of the laws of science are
relationships involving rates of change. Statistics is used to describe and analyse phenomena
involving uncertainty and variation. The Specialist Methods T Type 2 course extends and develops
the Mathematical Methods T Type 2 course with both additional content and greater depth and
breadth of treatment. This is provided by more emphasis on structure and proof, by incorporating
more challenging and abstract problems and the inclusion of more opportunities to develop their
mathematical insight through research and exploration.
For these reasons this subject provides in-depth preparation for further studies in disciplines in which
mathematics and statistics have major roles. In summary, the subject Specialist Methods is designed
for students whose future pathways involve mathematical and statistical applications in a range of
disciplines at the tertiary level. In addition, this course is designed for students who wish pursue the
study of mathematics itself.
For all content areas of Specialist Methods, the proficiency strands of the F-10 curriculum are still
applicable and should be inherent in students’ learning of this subject. These strands are
Understanding, Fluency, Problem solving and Reasoning, and they are both essential and mutually
reinforcing. For all content areas, practice allows students to achieve fluency in skills, such as
calculating derivatives and integrals, or solving quadratic equations, and frees up working memory
for more complex aspects of problem solving. The ability to transfer skills to solve problems based on

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a wide range of applications is a vital part of mathematics in this subject. Because both calculus and
statistics are widely applicable as models of the world around us, there is ample opportunity for
problem solving throughout this subject.
Specialist Methods is structured over four units. The topics in Unit 1 build on students’ mathematical
experience. The topics ‘Functions and graphs’, ‘Trigonometric functions’ and ‘Counting and
probability’ all follow on from topics in the F-10 curriculum from the strands, Number and Algebra,
Measurement and Geometry and Statistics and Probability. In Specialist Methods there is a
progression of content and applications in all areas. For example, in Unit 2 differential calculus is
introduced, and then further developed in Unit 3 where integral calculus is introduced. Unit 4 looks
at topics in probability and statistics, introduces linear regression, and progresses to probability
distributions and inferential statistics.

Goals
Specialist Methods aims to develop students’:
 understanding of concepts and techniques drawn from algebra, the study of functions,
calculus, probability and statistics
 ability to solve applied problems using concepts and techniques drawn from algebra,
functions, calculus, probability and statistics
 reasoning in mathematical and statistical contexts and interpretation of mathematical and
statistical information including ascertaining the reasonableness of solutions to problems
 capacity to communicate in a concise and systematic manner using appropriate mathematical
and statistical language
 capacity to choose and use technology appropriately and efficiently.

Student Group
In Specialist Methods, there is a strong emphasis on mutually reinforcing proficiencies in
Understanding, Fluency, Problem solving and Reasoning. Students gain fluency in a variety of
mathematical and statistical skills, including algebraic manipulations, constructing and interpreting
graphs, calculating derivatives and integrals, applying probabilistic models, estimating probabilities
and parameters from data, and using appropriate technologies. Achieving fluency in skills such as
these allows students to concentrate on more complex aspects of problem solving. In order to study
Specialist Methods, it is highly recommended that students complete the following topics from 10A:

 Define rational and irrational numbers, and perform operations with surds and fractional
indices
 Factorise monic and non-monic quadratic expressions, and solve a wide range of quadratic
equations derived from a variety of contexts
 Calculate and interpret the mean and standard deviation of data, and use these to compare
data sets

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Content
Specialist Methods focuses on the development of the use of calculus and statistical analysis. The
study of calculus in Specialist Methods provides a basis for an understanding of the physical world
involving rates of change, and includes the use of functions, their derivatives and integrals, in
modelling physical processes. The study of statistics in Specialist Methods develops the ability to
describe and analyse phenomena involving uncertainty and variation.
Specialist Methods is organised into four units. The topics broaden students’ mathematical
experience and provide different scenarios for incorporating mathematical arguments and problem
solving. The units provide a blending of algebraic and geometric thinking. In this subject there is a
progression of content, applications, level of sophistication and abstraction. The probability and
statistics topics lead to an introduction to statistical inference.

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4

Specialist  Functions and  Exponential  The  Simple
Methods graphs functions logarithmic linear
 Trigonometric  Arithmetic function regression
functions and  Further  Discrete
 Counting and geometric differentiation random
Probability sequences and variables
and series applications  Continuous
 Introduction  Integrals random
to variables
differential and the
calculus normal
distribution
 Interval
estimates
for
proportions

Units
Unit 1 begins with a review of the basic algebraic concepts and techniques required for a successful
introduction to the study of functions and calculus. Simple relationships between variable quantities
are reviewed, and these are used to introduce the key concepts of a function and its graph. The study
of the trigonometric functions begins with a consideration of the unit circle using degrees and the
trigonometry of triangles and its application. Radian measure is introduced, and the graphs of the
trigonometric functions are examined and their applications in a wide range of settings are explored.
The study of probability begins with a review of the fundamentals and the introduction to the
concepts of conditional probability and independence. The study of probability and statistics allows
students to further develop their counting techniques in combinatorics in Specialist Mathematics.
In Unit 2 exponential functions and logarithms as their inverses are introduced and their properties
and graphs examined. Arithmetic and geometric sequences and their applications are introduced and
their recursive definitions applied. Rates and average rates of change are introduced, and this is
followed by the key concept of the derivative as an ‘instantaneous rate of change’. These concepts
are reinforced numerically (by calculating difference quotients), geometrically (as slopes of chords
and tangents), and algebraically. This first calculus topic concludes with derivatives of polynomial
functions, using simple applications of the derivative to sketch curves, calculate slopes and equations
of tangents, determine instantaneous velocities, and solve optimisation problems.

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In Unit 3 the logarithmic function is studied in more detail. The study of calculus continues by
introducing the derivatives of exponential and trigonometric functions and their applications, as well
as some basic differentiation techniques and the concept of a second derivative, its meaning and
applications. The aim is to demonstrate to students the beauty and power of calculus and the
breadth of its applications. The unit includes integration, both as a process that reverses
differentiation and as a way of calculating areas. The fundamental theorem of calculus as a link
between differentiation and integration is emphasised. Derivatives of logarithmic and exponential
functions are explored.
In Unit 4 simple linear regression is considered for bivariate data. Discrete random variables are
introduced, together with their uses in modelling random processes involving chance and variation.
The purpose here is to develop a framework for statistical inference. Continuous random variables
are introduced and their applications examined. Probabilities associated with continuous
distributions are calculated using definite integrals. In this unit students are introduced to one of the
most important parts of statistics, namely statistical inference, where the goal is to estimate an
unknown parameter associated with a population using a sample of that population. In this unit,
inference is restricted to estimating proportions in two-outcome populations. Students will already
be familiar with many examples of these types of populations.

Teaching and Learning Strategies

Course developers are encouraged to outline teaching strategies that are grounded in the BSSS’
Learning Principles and encompass quality teaching. Pedagogical techniques and assessment tasks
should promote intellectual quality, establish a rich learning environment and generate relevant
connections between learning and life experiences.
Teaching strategies that are particularly relevant and effective in Mathematics include, but are not
limited to the following techniques.
Review prior learning
 brainstorming, individual, pair and group work
 student reflection of relevant concepts and skills
 diagnostic tests
Introduce new material
 link topic to prior mathematical knowledge, practical applications exposure to quality visual
imagery/materials through a variety of media
 experimentation and manipulation of concrete materials
 investigation through the use of technology
 motivate study through the intrinsic beauty of the topic and relevance to future life
experiences
 narrative and historical contexts
Provide demonstration, guided practice and application
 teacher demonstration, modelling and peer tutoring
 teacher scaffolding to facilitate analysis of concepts
 engagement of industry professionals, including guest speakers, demonstrators and mentors
 simulated real life and work scenarios
 online materials
 opportunities to develop modelling or problem solving skills in practical contexts

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Promote independent practice and application

 research strategies and time management
 problem solving strategies
 mentoring and peer tutoring
 practice and reinforcement of learning by way of revision, worksheets, tests and
demonstrations
 encourages responsibility for their own learning
 regular and meaningful feedback
 discussions, debates and student presentations
 longer-term activities such as investigative, research and project tasks
 development of student prepared summaries to be used in supervised assessment tasks
(reducing the need to memorise formulas and procedures). This allows equity of access,
especially for students whose first language is not English
Link to next task or skill area
 links with the broader Mathematics curriculum

Assessment
The identification of assessment task types, together with examples of tasks, provides a common and
agreed basis for the collection of evidence of student achievement. This collection of evidence
enables a comparison of achievement within and across colleges, through moderation processes.
This enables valid, fair and equitable reporting of student achievement on the Senior Secondary
Certificate.
The identification of assessment criteria and assessment tasks types and weightings provide a
common and agreed basis for the collection of evidence of student achievement.
Assessment Criteria (the dimensions of quality that teachers look for in evaluating student work)
provide a common and agreed basis for judgement of performance against unit and course goals,
within and across colleges. Over a course, teachers must use all of these criteria to assess students’
performance, but are not required to use all criteria on each task. Assessment criteria are to be used
holistically on a given task and in determining the unit grade.
Assessment Tasks elicit responses that demonstrate the degree to which students have achieved the
goals of a unit based on the assessment criteria. The Common Curriculum Elements (CCE) is a guide
to developing assessment tasks that promote a range of thinking skills (see Appendix A). It is highly
desirable that assessment tasks engage students in demonstrating higher order thinking.
Rubrics use the assessment criteria relevant for a particular task and can be used to assess a
continuum that indicates levels of student performance against each criterion.

General Assessment Criteria

Technology, its selection and appropriate use, is an integral part of all the following criteria. Students
will be assessed on the degree to which they demonstrate:
 Knowledge – knowledge of mathematical facts, techniques and formulae presented in the
unit
 Application – appropriate selection and application of mathematical skills in mathematical
modelling and problem solving
 Reasoning – ability to use reasoning to support solutions and conclusions (in T courses only)

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 Communication – interpretation and communication of mathematical ideas in a form

appropriate for a given use or audience.

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Guide to Assessment for T Course

Task Type Weighting for 1.0 and 0.5 units
Tests:
For example:
- Multiple choice 40-75%
- Short answer
- Extended questions
Non-Test Tasks (in-class):
For example:
- Validation activities
- Modelling
- Investigations
0-60%
- Problem solving
- Journals
- Portfolios
25-60%
- Presentations
- Practical activities
Take Home Tasks:
For example:
- Modelling
0-30%
- Investigations
- Portfolios
- Practical activities

Additional Assessment Advice for T Courses

 For a standard 1.0 unit, a minimum of three and a maximum of five assessment items.
 For a half-standard 0.5 unit, minimum of two and a maximum of three assessment items.
 Assessment items should not be a compilation of small discrete tasks (e.g. mini tests) as they
distract from assessing depth of knowledge and skills.
 Each unit (standard 1.0 or half standard 0.5) should include at least two different types of
tasks.
 It is recommended that, in standard 1.0 units, no assessment item should carry a weighting of
greater than 45% of the unit assessment.
 Where possible, for tasks completed in unsupervised circumstances, validation of the
students’ work should be undertaken.
 It is recommended that students undertake a take home task. It may be worth 0% and lead
into a non-zero weighted in-class validation.
 It is desirable that students studying at T level investigate Mathematics beyond the classroom
and this should be reflected in the task type.

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Achievement Standards
Achievement standards in the form of unit grades provide a guide for teacher judgement of students’
achievement, based on the assessment criteria, over a unit of work. Grades are organised on an A-E
basis. During 2014-2015 the BSSS grade descriptors will be used in determination of grades.
Grades are awarded on the proviso that the assessment requirements have been met. When
allocating grades, teachers will consider the degree to which students demonstrate their ability to
complete and submit tasks within a specified time frame.
The following descriptors are consistent with the system grade descriptors, which describe generic
standards of student achievement across all courses.
Appendix C lists the Australian Curriculum Standards for Specialist Methods. Colleges implementing
this course will be encouraged to provide advice on these standards to contribute to ACARA’s
validation of the standards.

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Unit Grades for T Courses

Technology, its selection and appropriate use, is an integral part of all the following descriptors.

Knowledge Application Reasoning Communication

A student Demonstrates very high level of Selects, extends and applies Uses mathematical reasoning to Is consistently accurate and
who achieves proficiency in the use of facts, appropriate modelling and develop logical arguments in appropriate in presentation of
the grade A techniques and formulae. problem solving techniques. support of conclusions, results mathematical ideas in different
and/or decisions; justifies contexts.
procedures.
A student Demonstrates high level of Selects and applies appropriate Uses mathematical reasoning to Is generally accurate and
who achieves proficiency in the use of facts, modelling and problem solving develop logical arguments in appropriate in presentation of
the grade B techniques and formulae. techniques. support of conclusions, results mathematical ideas in different
and/or decisions. contexts.
A student Demonstrates some proficiency With direction, applies a model. Uses some mathematical Presents mathematical ideas in
who achieves in the use of facts, techniques Solves most problems. reasoning to develop logical different contexts.
the grade C and formulae studied. arguments.
A student Demonstrates limited use of the Solves some problems Uses some mathematical Presents some mathematical
who achieves facts, techniques and formulae independently. reasoning to develop simple ideas.
the grade D studied. logical arguments.
A student Demonstrates very limited use Solves some problems with Uses limited reasoning to justify Presents some mathematical
who achieves of the facts, techniques and guidance. conclusions. ideas with guidance.
the grade E formulae studied.

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Student Capabilities
Literacy in Mathematics
In the senior years these literacy skills and strategies enable students to express, interpret, and
communicate complex mathematical information, ideas and processes. Mathematics provides a specific
and rich context for students to develop their ability to read, write, visualise and talk about complex
situations involving a range of mathematical ideas. Students can apply and further develop their literacy
skills and strategies by shifting between verbal, graphic, numerical and symbolic forms of representing
problems in order to formulate, understand and solve problems and communicate results. This process of
translation across different systems of representation is essential for complex mathematical reasoning and
expression. Students learn to communicate their findings in different ways, using multiple systems of
representation and data displays to illustrate the relationships they have observed or constructed.
Numeracy in Mathematics
The students who undertake this subject will continue to develop their numeracy skills at a more
sophisticated level than in Years F to 10. This subject contains financial applications of Mathematics that
will assist students to become literate consumers of investments, loans and superannuation products. It
also contains statistics topics that will equip students for the ever-increasing demands of the information
age. Students will also learn about the probability of certain events occurring and will therefore be well
equipped to make informed decisions.
ICT in Mathematics
In the senior years students use ICT both to develop theoretical mathematical understanding and to apply
mathematical knowledge to a range of problems. They use software aligned with areas of work and society
with which they may be involved such as for statistical analysis, algorithm generation, data representation
and manipulation, and complex calculation. They use digital tools to make connections between
mathematical theory, practice and application; for example, to use data, to address problems, and to
operate systems in authentic situations.
Critical and creative thinking in Mathematics
Students compare predictions with observations when evaluating a theory. They check the extent to which
their theory-based predictions match observations. They assess whether, if observations and predictions
don't match, it is due to a flaw in theory or method of applying the theory to make predictions – or both.
They revise, or reapply their theory more skilfully, recognising the importance of self-correction in the
building of useful and accurate theories and making accurate predictions.
Personal and social capability in Mathematics
In the senior years students develop personal and social competence in Mathematics through setting and
monitoring personal and academic goals, taking initiative, building adaptability, communication, teamwork
and decision-making.
The elements of personal and social competence relevant to Mathematics mainly include the application of
mathematical skills for their decision-making, life-long learning, citizenship and self-management. In
addition, students will work collaboratively in teams and independently as part of their mathematical
explorations and investigations.
Ethical understanding in Mathematics
In the senior years students develop ethical understanding in Mathematics through decision-making
connected with ethical dilemmas that arise when engaged in mathematical calculation and the
dissemination of results and the social responsibility associated with teamwork and attribution of input.

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The areas relevant to Mathematics include issues associated with ethical decision-making as students work
collaboratively in teams and independently as part of their mathematical explorations and investigations.
Acknowledging errors rather than denying findings and/or evidence involves resilience and examined
ethical behaviour. Students develop increasingly advanced communication, research, and presentation
skills to express viewpoints.
Intercultural understanding in Mathematics
Students understand Mathematics as a socially constructed body of knowledge that uses universal symbols
but has its origin in many cultures. Students understand that some languages make it easier to acquire
mathematical knowledge than others. Students also understand that there are many culturally diverse
forms of mathematical knowledge, including diverse relationships to number and that diverse cultural
spatial abilities and understandings are shaped by a person’s environment and language.

Representation of Cross-curriculum Priorities

The senior secondary Mathematics curriculum values the histories, cultures, traditions and languages of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples past and ongoing contributions to contemporary Australian
society and culture. Through the study of mathematics within relevant contexts, opportunities will allow for
the development of students’ understanding and appreciation of the diversity of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Peoples histories and cultures.
There are strong social, cultural and economic reasons for Australian students to engage with the countries
of Asia and with the past and ongoing contributions made by the peoples of Asia in Australia. It is through
the study of mathematics in an Asian context that students engage with Australia’s place in the region.
Through analysis of relevant data, students are provided with opportunities to further develop an
understanding of the diverse nature of Asia’s environments and traditional and contemporary cultures.
Each of the senior Mathematics subjects provides the opportunity for the development of informed and
reasoned points of view, discussion of issues, research and problem solving. Therefore, teachers are
encouraged to select contexts for discussion connected with sustainability. Through analysis of data,
students have the opportunity to research and discuss sustainability and learn the importance of respecting
and valuing a wide range of world perspectives.

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Moderation
Moderation is a system designed and implemented to:
 provide comparability in the system of school-based assessment
 form the basis for valid and reliable assessment in senior secondary schools
 involve the ACT Board of Senior Secondary Studies and colleges in cooperation and partnership
 maintain the quality of school-based assessment and the credibility, validity and acceptability of
Board certificates.
Moderation commences within individual colleges. Teachers develop assessment programs and
instruments, apply assessment criteria, and allocate Unit Grades, according to the relevant Course
Framework. Teachers within course teaching groups conduct consensus discussions to moderate marking
or grading of individual assessment instruments and unit grade decisions.
The Moderation Model
Moderation within the ACT encompasses structured, consensus-based peer review of Unit Grades for all
accredited courses, as well as statistical moderation of course scores, including small group procedures, for
T courses.
Moderation by Structured, Consensus-based Peer Review
In the review process, Unit Grades awarded by teachers on the basis of school assessment are moderated
by peer review against system wide assessment criteria and achievement standards. This is done by
matching student performance as demonstrated in portfolios of assessment tasks against the criteria and
standards. Advice is then given to colleges to assist teachers with, and/or reassure them on, their
judgments.
Preparation for Structured, Consensus-based Peer Review
Each year, teachers taking a Year 11 class are asked to retain originals or copies of student work completed
in Semester 2. Similarly, teachers taking a Year 12 class should retain originals or copies of student work
completed in Semester 1. Assessment and other documentation required by the Office of the Board of
Senior Secondary Studies should also be kept. Year 11 work from Semester 2 of the previous year is
presented for review at Moderation Day 1 in March, and Year 12 work from Semester 1 is presented for
review at Moderation Day 2 in August.
In the lead up to Moderation Day, a College Course Presentation (comprised of a document folder and a set
of student portfolios) is prepared for each A, M and T course/units offered by the school, and is sent in to
the Office of the Board of Senior Secondary Studies.
The College Course Presentation
The package of materials (College Course Presentation) presented by a college for review on moderation
days in each course area will comprise the following:
 a folder containing supporting documentation as requested by the Office of the Board through
memoranda to colleges
 a set of student portfolios containing marked and/or graded written and non-written assessment
responses and completed criteria and standards feedback forms. Evidence of all assessment
responses on which the unit grade decision has been made is to be included in the student review
portfolios.
Specific requirements for subject areas and types of evidence to be presented for each Moderation Day will
be outlined by the Board Secretariat through memoranda and Information Papers.

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Visual evidence for judgements made about practical performances

(also refer to BSSS Website Guidelines)
It is a requirement that schools’ judgements of standards to practical performances (A/T/M) be supported
by visual evidence (still photos or video).
The photographic evidence submitted must be drawn from practical skills performed as part of the
assessment process.
Teachers should consult the BSSS guidelines at
http://www.bsss.act.edu.au/grade_moderation/information_for_teachers when preparing photographic
evidence.

Resources
The following links provide up-to-date resources on Australian Curriculum:
www.hasemathematics.com.au
www.amsi.org.au/SAM.SeniorYears
www.nelsonsecondary.com.au
www.pearson.com.au
www.cambridge.com.au
www.macmillan.com.au

Proposed Evaluation Procedures

Course evaluation will be a continuous process. Teachers will meet regularly to discuss the content of the
course and any requirements for modification of activities, teaching strategies and assessment instruments.
The current trends and innovations in the teaching of Specialist Methods will be considered as teachers
attend workshops, seminars and participate in discussion groups with other teachers such as on
Moderation Day.
Teachers will monitor student performance and progress and student responses to various teaching,
learning and assessment strategies. Students and teachers will complete evaluation questionnaires at the
end of each unit. The results of these will be collated and reviewed from year to year. There will also be a
continuous monitoring of student numbers between Years 11 and 12.
Informal discussions between teachers and students, past students, parents and other teachers will
contribute to the evaluation of the course.
In the process of evaluation; students, teachers and others should, as appropriate, consider:
 Are the course and Course Framework still consistent?
 Were the goals achieved?
 Was the course content appropriate?
 Were the teaching strategies used successful?
 Was the assessment program appropriate?
 Have the needs of the students been met?
 Was the course relevant?
 How many students completed the course in each of the years of accreditation?

19
Board Endorsed October 2015

Unit 1: Specialist Methods T Value: 1.0

Unit 1a: Specialist Methods Value: 0.5
Unit 1b: Specialist Methods Value: 0.5
Students are expected to study the accredited semester 1.0 unit unless enrolled in a 0.5 unit due to late
entry or early exit in a semester.

Prerequisites
Nil

Duplication of Content
Nil

Specific Unit Goals

By the end of this unit, students:
 understand the concepts and techniques in algebra, functions, graphs, trigonometric functions and
probability
 solve problems using algebra, functions, graphs, trigonometric functions and probability
 apply reasoning skills in the context of algebra, functions, graphs, trigonometric functions and
probability
 interpret and evaluate mathematical information and ascertain the reasonableness of solutions to
problems
 communicate their arguments and strategies when solving problems.

Content
Further elaboration on the content of this unit is available at:
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/SeniorSecondary/Mathematics/Mathematical-
Methods/Curriculum/SeniorSecondary

Topic 1: Functions and graphs

Functions:
 understand the concept of a function as a mapping between sets, and as a rule or a formula that
defines one variable quantity in terms of another
 use function notation, domain and range, independent and dependent variables
 understand the concept of the graph of a function
 recognise odd and even functions
 examine translations and the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑎 and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑏)
 examine dilations and the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥)
 recognise the distinction between functions and relations, and the vertical line test.
NB: The material on functions needs to be taught at the appropriate time throughout the delivery of Topic 1. It is envisaged that
function ideas, definitions, and notation are taught concurrently with the concepts covered in Topic 1.

Lines and linear relationships

 examine examples of direct proportion and linearly related variables

20
Board Endorsed October 2015

 recognise features of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, including its linear nature, its intercepts and its
slope or gradient
 find the equation of a straight line given sufficient information; parallel and perpendicular lines
 solve linear equations and inequations
 geometrical applications of the linear function
 determine the coordinates of the point dividing a line in any given ratio – internally and externally
 calculate distances between points, and perpendicular distances from points to lines.
Quadratic relationships:
 examine examples of quadratically related variables
 factorisation techniques including common factor, trinomials, difference of squares and cubes and
grouping in pairs
 recognise features of the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑏)2 + 𝑐, 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐), and 𝑦 =
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, including their parabolic nature, turning points, axes of symmetry and intercepts
 solve quadratic equations using the quadratic formula and by completing the square
 find the equation of a quadratic given sufficient information
 find turning points and zeros of quadratics and understand the role of the discriminant
 determine the nature of the roots of the quadratic considering the discriminant
Powers and polynomials:
 recognise features of the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑵, 𝑛 = −1 and 𝑛 = ½, including shape, and
behaviour as 𝑥 → ∞ and 𝑥 → −∞
 identify the coefficients, leading term, constant term and the degree of a polynomial
 expand quadratic and cubic polynomials from factors
 recognise features of the graphs of cubics and higher-order polynomials, including shape, intercepts
(including repeated factors) and behaviour as 𝑥 → ∞ and 𝑥 → −∞
 Use division of polynomials and remainder and factor theorems to factorise higher-order
polynomials
 solve cubic equations using technology, and algebraically in cases where a linear factor is easily
obtained.
 model real world problems using polynomial functions
Inverse proportion:
 examine examples of inverse proportion
1 𝑎
 recognise features of the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥−𝑏, including their hyperbolic shapes, and their
asymptotes.
1
 Examine functions with oblique asymptotes (eg 𝑦 = + 𝑥) and further rational functions (eg 𝑦 =
𝑥
1
𝑥 2 +𝑎
)

Graphs of relations:
 recognise features of the graphs of 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 and (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 , including their
circular shapes, their centres and their radii
 recognise features of the graph of 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 including its parabolic shape and its axis of symmetry.

Topic 2: Trigonometric functions

Cosine and sine rules:

21
Board Endorsed October 2015

 review sine, cosine and tangent as ratios of side lengths in right-angled triangles
 understand the unit circle definition of cos 𝜃, sin 𝜃 and tan 𝜃 and periodicity using degrees
 examine the relationship between the angle of inclination of a line and the gradient of that line
1
 establish and use the sine and cosine rules and the formula 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝐴 for the area of a
2
triangle.
 examine the ambiguous case
Circular measure and radian measure:
 define and use radian measure and understand its relationship with degree measure
 calculate lengths of arcs and areas of sectors and segments in circles.
Trigonometric functions:
 understand the unit circle definition of cos 𝜃, sin 𝜃 and tan 𝜃 and periodicity using radians
𝜋 𝜋
 recognise the exact values of sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃 and tan 𝜃 at integer multiples of 𝑎𝑛𝑑
6 4
 recognise the graphs of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 , and 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 on extended domains
 examine amplitude changes and the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑥
 examine period changes and the graphs of 𝑦 = sin 𝑏𝑥, 𝑦 = cos 𝑏𝑥, and 𝑦 = tan 𝑏𝑥
 examine phase changes and the graphs of 𝑦 = sin(𝑥 + 𝑐), 𝑦 = cos(𝑥 + 𝑐) and 𝑦 = tan (𝑥 + 𝑐) as
𝜋 𝜋
well as the relationships sin (𝑥 + 2 ) = cos 𝑥 and cos (𝑥 − 2 ) = sin 𝑥
 generalise observed relationships between trigonometric functions (such as the above) as algebraic
identities
 prove and apply the angle sum and difference identities
 identify contexts suitable for modelling by trigonometric functions and use them to solve practical
problems
 solve equations and inequations involving trigonometric functions using technology, and
algebraically using trigonometric identities (including the Pythagorean Identity and reciprocal
ratios).

Topic 3: Counting and probability

Combinations:
 understand the notion of a combination as an unordered set of 𝑟 objects taken from a set of 𝑛
distinct objects
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛!
 use the notation ( ) and the formula ( ) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! for the number of combinations of 𝑟 objects
𝑟 𝑟
taken from a set of 𝑛 distinct objects
 expand (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 for small positive integers 𝑛
𝑛
 recognise the numbers ( ) as binomial coefficients, i.e., as coefficients in the expansion of
𝑟
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)𝑛
 use Pascal’s triangle and its properties.
Language of events and sets:
 review the concepts and language of outcomes, sample spaces and events as sets of outcomes
 ̅ (or 𝐴′ ) for the complement of an event 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩
use set language and notation for events, including A
𝐵 for the intersection of events 𝐴 and 𝐵, and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 for the union, and recognise mutually exclusive
events

22
Board Endorsed October 2015

 use everyday occurrences to illustrate set descriptions and representations of events, and set
operations.
 solve problems using Venn Diagrams
Review of the fundamentals of probability:
 review probability as a measure of ‘the likelihood of occurrence’ of an event
 review the probability scale: 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐴) ≤ 1 for each event 𝐴, with 𝑃(𝐴) = 0 if 𝐴 is an impossibility
and 𝑃(𝐴) = 1 if 𝐴 is a certainty
 review the rules: 𝑃(𝐴′) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴) and 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
 use relative frequencies obtained from data as point estimates of probabilities.
Conditional probability and independence:
 understand the notion of a conditional probability and recognise and use language that indicates
conditionality
 use the notation 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) and the formula P(A  B) = P(A|B)P(B)
 understand the notion of independence of an event 𝐴 from an event 𝐵, as defined by 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) =
𝑃(𝐴)
 use probability trees to evaluate conditional probability
 establish and use the formula 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴)𝑃(𝐵) for independent events 𝐴 and 𝐵, and
recognise the symmetry of independence
 use relative frequencies obtained from data as point estimates of conditional probabilities and as
indications of possible independence of events.

Teaching and Learning Strategies

Refer to page 11.

Assessment
Refer to Assessment Criteria, Task Types table and Achievement Standards for Units 1 and 2 on pages 12-
14.

Suggested Unit Resources

Refer to page 19.

23
Board Endorsed October 2015

Unit 2: Specialist Methods T Value: 1.0

Unit 2a: Specialist Methods Value: 0.5
Unit 2b: Specialist Methods Value: 0.5
Students are expected to study the accredited semester 1.0 unit unless enrolled in a 0.5 unit due to late
entry or early exit in a semester.

Prerequisites
Nil

Duplication of Content
Nil

Specific Unit Goals

By the end of this unit, students:
 understand the concepts and techniques used in algebra, sequences and series, functions, graphs
and calculus
 solve problems in algebra, sequences and series, functions, graphs and calculus
 apply reasoning skills in algebra, sequences and series, functions, graphs and calculus
 interpret and evaluate mathematical and statistical information and ascertain the reasonableness of
solutions to problems
 communicate arguments and strategies when solving problems.

Content
Further elaboration on the content of this unit is available at:
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/SeniorSecondary/Mathematics/Mathematical-
Methods/Curriculum/SeniorSecondary

Topic 1: Exponential functions

Indices and the index laws:
 review indices (including fractional and negative indices) and the index laws
 use radicals and convert to and from fractional indices
 understand and use scientific notation and significant figures
 solve problems involving very large and very small numbers
 solve simple indicial equations and inequations
 define logarithms as the inverses of exponentials: 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 is equivalent to 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑏
 solve equations involving indices using logarithms

Exponential functions:
 establish and use the algebraic properties of exponential functions
 sketch, and hence recognise the qualitative features of, the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 (𝑎 > 0) including
asymptotes, and of its translations (𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑐 ) and dilations (𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎 𝑥 )

24
Board Endorsed October 2015

 identify contexts suitable for modelling by exponential functions and use them to solve practical
problems
 solve equations and inequations involving exponential functions using technology, and algebraically
in simple cases.

Topic 2 Arithmetic and geometric sequences and series

General sequences and number patterns
 consider the role of patterns in defining mathematics generally
 consider a range of types of number patterns and ways of defining and describing them (including
for example Fibonacci, triangular and perfect numbers)
 use difference equations to determine the algebraic rule for a number pattern
 Use sigma notation for series
Arithmetic sequences:
 recognise and use the recursive definition of an arithmetic sequence: 𝑡𝑛+1 = 𝑡𝑛 + 𝑑
 prove and use the formula 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑡1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 for the general term of an arithmetic sequence and
recognise its linear nature
 use arithmetic sequences in contexts involving discrete linear growth or decay, including simple
interest
 establish and use the formulae for the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of an arithmetic sequence.
Geometric sequences:
 recognise and use the recursive definition of a geometric sequence: 𝑡𝑛+1 = 𝑟𝑡𝑛
 use the formula 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛−1 𝑡1 for the general term of a geometric sequence and recognise its
exponential nature
 understand the limiting behaviour as 𝑛 → ∞ of the terms 𝑡𝑛 in a geometric sequence and its
dependence on the value of the common ratio 𝑟
 establish and use the limiting sum of a geometric sequence
𝑟 𝑛 −1
 establish and use the formula 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑡1 𝑟−1
for the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of a geometric sequence
 use geometric sequences in contexts involving geometric growth or decay, including compound
interest and the determination of half-lives

Topic 3: Introduction to differential calculus

Rates of change:
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
 interpret the difference quotient ℎ
as the average rate of change of a function 𝑓
 use the Leibniz notation 𝛿𝑥 and 𝛿𝑦 for changes or increments in the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦
𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
 use the notation 𝛿𝑥 for the difference quotient ℎ
where 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝛿𝑦
 interpret the ratios ℎ
and 𝛿𝑥 as the slope or gradient of a chord or secant of the graph of
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

The concept of the derivative:

 consider continuity of functions and types of discontinuity
 explore limits of functions from the left and from the right

25
Board Endorsed October 2015

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
 examine the behaviour of the difference quotient ℎ
as ℎ → 0 as an informal introduction
to the concept of a limit
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
 define the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) as lim ℎ
ℎ→0
𝑑𝑦 𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 use the Leibniz notation for the derivative: 𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝛿𝑥 and the correspondence 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝛿𝑥→0
where 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
 consider examples of rates of change, eg of flow from different shaped vessels, and sketch graphs
describing these rates
 interpret the derivative as the instantaneous rate of change
 compare average and instantaneous rates of change
 interpret the derivative as the slope or gradient of a tangent line of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), and
explore the relationship between the graphs of f(x) and f’(x)
Computation of derivatives:
 estimate numerically the value of a derivative, for simple power functions
 examine examples of variable rates of change of non-linear functions
𝑑
 establish the formula 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 for positive integers 𝑛 by expanding (𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛 or by
factorising (𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛
𝑑
 extend the formula 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 to apply for all rational n.
Properties of derivatives:
 recognise whether or not a function is differentiable based on understanding the conditions for
differentiability of a function
 understand the concept of the derivative as a function
 recognise and use linearity properties of the derivative
 calculate derivatives of polynomials and other linear combinations of power functions.
 understand where stationary points occur and their nature from graphs of derivative functions and
vice versa
Applications of derivatives:
 find instantaneous rates of change
 find the slope of a tangent and normal and the equation of the tangent and normal
 construct and interpret position-time graphs, with velocity as the slope of the tangent
 sketch curves associated with polynomials; find stationary points, and local and global maxima and
minima; and examine behaviour as 𝑥 → ∞ and 𝑥 → −∞
 solve optimisation problems arising in a variety of contexts involving polynomials on finite interval
domains.
 apply calculus techniques to straight line motion graphs including those of position time, velocity
and acceleration
Anti-derivatives:
 calculate anti-derivatives of polynomial functions and apply to a variety of contexts including motion
in a straight line.

Teaching and Learning Strategies

Refer to page 11.

26
Board Endorsed October 2015

Assessment
Refer to Assessment Criteria, Task Types table and Achievement Standards for Units 1 and 2 on pages 12
and 14.

Suggested Unit Resources

Refer to page 19.

27
Board Endorsed October 2015

Unit 3: Specialist Methods T Value: 1.0

Unit 3a: Specialist Methods Value: 0.5
Unit 3b: Specialist Methods Value: 0.5
Students are expected to study the accredited semester 1.0 unit unless enrolled in a 0.5 unit due to late
entry or early exit in a semester.

Prerequisites
Nil

Duplication of Content
Nil

Specific Unit Goals

By the end of this unit, students:
 understand the concepts and techniques in calculus, probability and statistics
 solve problems in calculus, probability and statistics
 apply reasoning skills in calculus, probability and statistics
 interpret and evaluate mathematical and statistical information and ascertain the reasonableness of
solutions to problems.
 communicate their arguments and strategies when solving problems.

Content
Further elaboration on the content of this unit is available at:
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/SeniorSecondary/Mathematics/Mathematical-
Methods/Curriculum/SeniorSecondary

Topic 1: The logarithmic function

Logarithmic functions:
 review the definition and algebraic properties of logarithms
 interpret and use logarithmic scales such as decibels in acoustics, the Richter Scale for earthquake
magnitude, octaves in music, pH in chemistry
 recognise the qualitative features of the graph of 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 (𝑎 > 1) including asymptotes, and of
its translations 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 and 𝑦 = log 𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑐)
 solve equations involving logarithmic functions algebraically and graphically
 use logarithmic functions to model and solve practical problems

Topic 2: Further differentiation and applications

Differentiation rules:
 understand and use the product and quotient rules
 understand the notion of composition of functions and use the chain rule for determining the
derivatives of composite functions
Exponential functions:

28
Board Endorsed October 2015

𝑎 ℎ −1
 estimate the limit of ℎ as ℎ → 0 using technology, for various values of 𝑎 > 0, and thus
recognise the limit as the gradient of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 at (0,1)
 recognise that 𝑒 is the unique number 𝑎 for which the above limit is 1
𝑑 𝑑
 establish and use the formulae 𝑑𝑥
(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = log 𝑒 (𝑎) 𝑎 𝑥
 use exponential functions and their derivatives to solve practical problems.
Logarithmic functions:
 define the natural logarithm ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥
 recognise and use the inverse relationship of the functions 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑦 = ln 𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑓′(𝑥)
 establish and use the formulae (ln 𝑥) = and (ln 𝑓(𝑥)) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
1 𝑓′(𝑥)
 establish and use the formulae ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝑐 and ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑓(𝑥)| +𝑐
 use logarithmic functions and their derivatives and integrals to solve practical problems.
Trigonometric functions:
𝑑 𝑑
 establish the formulas 𝑑𝑥 (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥, and 𝑑𝑥 (cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 by numerical estimations of
the limits and informal proofs based on geometric constructions
 use trigonometric functions and their derivatives to solve practical problems.
Further Differentiation:
1
 apply the product, quotient and chain rule to differentiate functions such as 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 , tan 𝑥, 𝑥𝑛
,
𝑥 sin 𝑥, 𝑒 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥, ln(sin(𝑥)), ln(𝑓(𝑥)), and 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
 determine the derivatives of the reciprocal trigonometric functions (sec, cosec, cot)
The second derivative and applications of differentiation:
𝑑𝑦
 use the increments formula: 𝛿𝑦 ≅ 𝑑𝑥 × 𝛿𝑥 to estimate the change in the dependent variable 𝑦
resulting from changes in the independent variable 𝑥
 understand the concept of the second derivative as the rate of change of the first derivative
function
 recognise acceleration as the second derivative of position with respect to time
 understand the concepts of concavity and points of inflection and their relationship with the second
derivative
 understand and use the second derivative test for finding local maxima and minima
 sketch the graph of a function using first and second derivatives to locate stationary points and
points of inflection
 solve optimisation problems from a wide variety of fields using first and second derivatives.

Topic 3: Integrals
Anti-differentiation:
 recognise anti-differentiation as the reverse of differentiation
 use the notation ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 for anti-derivatives or indefinite integrals
1
 establish and use the formula ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝑐 for 𝑛 ≠ −1
 establish and use the formula ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑓′(𝑥)
 establish and use the formula ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ln(𝑓(𝑥)) + 𝑐
 recognise the integrals of the derivatives of trigonometric functions (including reciprocal functions)
29
Board Endorsed October 2015

 recognise and use linearity of anti-differentiation

 determine indefinite integrals of the form ∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥
 identify families of curves with the same derivative function
 determine 𝑓(𝑥), given 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑎nd an initial condition 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏
 determine displacement given velocity in linear motion problems.
Definite integrals:
 examine the area problem, and use sums of the form ∑𝑖 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝛿𝑥𝑖 to estimate the area under the
curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑏
 interpret the definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 as area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) > 0
𝑏
 recognise the definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 as a limit of sums of the form ∑𝑖 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 𝛿𝑥𝑖
𝑏
 interpret ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 as a sum of signed areas
 recognise and use the additivity and linearity of definite integrals.
Fundamental theorem:
𝑥
 understand the concept of the signed area function 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑥
 understand and use the theorem: 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥), and illustrate its proof
geometrically
𝑏
 understand the formula ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) and use it to calculate definite integrals.
Applications of integration:
 calculate the area bounded by a curve and either axis
 calculate total change by integrating instantaneous or marginal rate of change
 calculate the area between curves in simple cases
 determine positions given acceleration and initial values of position and velocity
 calculate volumes of solids of revolution formed by rotating simple regions around the x axis

Teaching and Learning Strategies

Refer to page 11.

Assessment
Refer to Assessment Criteria, Task Types table and Achievement Standards for Units 1 and 2 on pages 12
and 14.

Suggested Unit Resources

Refer to page 19.

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Unit 4: Specialist Methods T Value: 1.0

Unit 4a: Specialist Methods Value: 0.5
Unit 4b: Specialist Methods Value: 0.5
Students are expected to study the accredited semester 1.0 unit unless enrolled in a 0.5 unit due to late
entry or early exit in a semester.

Prerequisites
Nil

Duplication of Content Rules

Nil

Specific Unit Goals

By the end of this unit, students:
 understand the concepts and techniques in calculus, probability and statistics
 solve problems in calculus, probability and statistics
 apply reasoning skills in calculus, probability and statistics
 interpret and evaluate mathematical and statistical information and ascertain the reasonableness of
solutions to problems.
 communicate their arguments and strategies when solving problems.

Content
Note that this Unit provides opportunities to address Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives and
AITSL standards
Further elaboration on the content of this unit is available at:
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/SeniorSecondary/Mathematics/Mathematical-
Methods/Curriculum/SeniorSecondary

Topic 1: Simple Linear Regression

 investigate scatter plots of two variables
 apply simple linear regression of y on x (𝑦̂ = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎) using method of least squares, including
Interpolation and Extrapolation

𝑆𝑥𝑦
𝑏= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑦̅ − 𝑏𝑥̅
𝑆𝑥
∑𝑥∑𝑦
Where: 𝑆𝑥𝑦 = ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − and
𝑛

(∑ 𝑥)2
𝑆𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 2 −
𝑛

 compute correlation coefficient (at least Pearson’s Method) and coefficient of determination
 use technology to fit line of best fit eg Excel, Geogebra, Calculator etc
 use real-life data (possible sources are ABS or AIHW (http://www.aihw.gov.au/data/))

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 differentiate between correlation and causation

Topic 2: Discrete random variables

General discrete random variables:
 understand the concepts of a discrete random variable and its associated probability function, and
their use in modelling data
 use relative frequencies obtained from data to obtain point estimates of probabilities associated
with a discrete random variable
 recognise uniform discrete random variables and use them to model random phenomena with
equally likely outcomes
 examine examples of non-uniform discrete random variables, for example Poisson and
Hypergeometric distribution
 recognise the mean or expected value of a discrete random variable as a measurement of centre,
and evaluate it in simple cases
 recognise the variance and standard deviation of a discrete random variable as a measures of
spread, and evaluate them in simple cases
 calculate means and variances of linear combinations of random variables (e.g. (E(aX+b)=aE(X)+b,
2
𝜎𝑎𝑋+𝑐 = 𝑎2 𝜎𝑋2 , etc)
 use discrete random variables and associated probabilities to solve practical problems

Bernoulli distributions:
 use a Bernoulli random variable as a model for two-outcome situations
 identify contexts suitable for modelling by Bernoulli random variables
 recognise the mean 𝑝 and variance 𝑝(1 − 𝑝) of the Bernoulli distribution with parameter 𝑝
 use Bernoulli random variables and associated probabilities to model data and solve practical
problems.
Binomial distributions:
 understand the concepts of Bernoulli trials and the concept of a binomial random variable as the
number of ‘successes’ in 𝑛 independent Bernoulli trials, with the same probability of success 𝑝 in
each trial
 identify contexts suitable for modelling by binomial random variables
𝑛
 determine and use the probabilities 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑟) = ( ) 𝑝𝑟 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑟 associated with the binomial
𝑟
distribution with parameters 𝑛 and p ; note the mean 𝑛𝑝 and variance 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝) of a binomial
distribution
 use binomial distributions and associated probabilities to solve practical problems, such as Markov
Chains
 model real-life data, drawing inferences from specific to general

Topic 3: Continuous random variables and the normal distribution

General continuous random variables:
 use relative frequencies and histograms obtained from data to estimate probabilities associated
with a continuous random variable
 understand the concepts of a probability density function, cumulative distribution function, and
probabilities associated with a continuous random variable given by integrals; examine simple types
of continuous random variables and use them in appropriate contexts

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 recognise the expected value, variance and standard deviation of a continuous random variable and
evaluate them in simple cases
 understand the effects of linear changes of scale and origin on the mean and the standard deviation.
Normal distributions:
 identify contexts such as naturally occurring variation that are suitable for modelling by normal
random variables
 recognise features of the graph of the probability density function of the normal distribution with
mean 𝜇 and standard deviation 𝜎 and the use of the standard normal distribution
 calculate probabilities and quantiles associated with a given normal distribution using technology,
and use these to solve practical problems.
 calculate interval estimate of the mean (e.g. 95% confidence limits)
 use Normal approximation to Binomial Distribution for np>5 and nq>5, taking into account
correction for continuity

Topic 4: Interval estimates for proportions

Random sampling:
 understand the concept of a random sample
 discuss sources of bias in samples, and procedures to ensure randomness
 use graphical displays of simulated data to investigate the variability of random samples from
various types of distributions, including uniform, normal and Bernoulli.
Sample proportions:
 understand the concept of the sample proportion 𝑝̂ as a random variable whose value varies
between samples, and the formulas for the mean 𝑝 and standard deviation √(𝑝(1 − 𝑝)/𝑛 of the
sample proportion 𝑝̂
 examine the approximate normality of the distribution of 𝑝̂ for large samples
 simulate repeated random sampling, for a variety of values of p and a range of sample sizes, to
𝑝̂ −𝑝
illustrate the distribution of 𝑝̂ and the approximate standard normality of where the
√(𝑝̂(1−𝑝̂)/𝑛
closeness of the approximation depends on both n and p.
Confidence intervals for proportions:
 the concept of an interval estimate for a parameter associated with a random variable
 use the approximate confidence interval (𝑝̂ − 𝑧√(𝑝̂ (1 − 𝑝̂ )/𝑛, 𝑝̂ + 𝑧√(𝑝̂ (1 − 𝑝̂ )/𝑛), as an interval
estimate for 𝑝, where 𝑧 is the appropriate quantile for the standard normal distribution
 define the approximate margin of error 𝐸 = 𝑧√(𝑝̂ (1 − 𝑝̂ )/𝑛 and understand the trade-off
between margin of error and level of confidence
 use simulation to illustrate variations in confidence intervals between samples and to show that
most but not all confidence intervals contain 𝑝.

Teaching and Learning Strategies

Refer to page 11.

Assessment
Refer to Assessment Criteria, Task Types table and Achievement Standards for Units 1 and 2 on pages 12
and 14.

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Suggested Unit Resources

Refer to page 19.

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Appendix A – Common Curriculum Elements

Common curriculum elements assist in the development of high quality assessment tasks by encouraging
breadth and depth and discrimination in levels of achievement.
Organisers Elements Examples
create, compose apply ideas and procedures in unfamiliar situations, content and processes
and apply in non-routine settings
compose oral, written and multimodal texts, music, visual images, responses
to complex topics, new outcomes
represent images, symbols or signs
create creative thinking to identify areas for change, growth and innovation,
recognise opportunities, experiment to achieve innovative solutions,
construct objects, imagine alternatives
manipulate images, text, data, points of view
analyse, justify arguments, points of view, phenomena, choices
synthesise and hypothesise statement/theory that can be tested by data
evaluate
extrapolate trends, cause/effect, impact of a decision
predict data, trends, inferences
evaluate text, images, points of view, solutions, phenomenon, graphics
test validity of assumptions, ideas, procedures, strategies
argue trends, cause/effect, strengths and weaknesses
reflect on strengths and weaknesses
synthesise data and knowledge, points of view from several sources
analyse text, images, graphs, data, points of view
examine data, visual images, arguments, points of view
investigate issues, problems
organise, sequence text, data, relationships, arguments, patterns
sequence and visualise trends, futures, patterns, cause and effect
explain
compare/contrast data, visual images, arguments, points of view
discuss issues, data, relationships, choices/options
interpret symbols, text, images, graphs
explain explicit/implicit assumptions, bias, themes/arguments, cause/effect,
strengths/weaknesses
translate data, visual images, arguments, points of view
assess probabilities, choices/options
select main points, words, ideas in text
identify, reproduce information, data, words, images, graphics
summarise and respond data, visual images, arguments, points of view
plan
relate events, processes, situations
demonstrate probabilities, choices/options
describe data, visual images, arguments, points of view
plan strategies, ideas in text, arguments
classify information, data, words, images
identify spatial relationships, patterns, interrelationships
summarise main points, words, ideas in text, review, draft and edit

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Appendix A – Common Curriculum Elements

Glossary of Verbs
Verbs Definition
Analyse Consider in detail for the purpose of finding meaning or relationships, and identifying patterns,
similarities and differences
Apply Use, utilise or employ in a particular situation
Argue Give reasons for or against something
Assess Make a Judgement about the value of
Classify Arrange into named categories in order to sort, group or identify
Compare Estimate, measure or note how things are similar or dissimilar
Compose The activity that occurs when students produce written, spoken, or visual texts
Contrast Compare in such a way as to emphasise differences
Create Bring into existence, to originate
Demonstrate Give a practical exhibition an explanation
Describe Give an account of characteristics or features
Discuss Talk or write about a topic, taking into account different issues or ideas
Evaluate Examine and judge the merit or significance of something
Examine Determine the nature or condition of
Explain Provide additional information that demonstrates understanding of reasoning and /or
application
Extrapolate Infer from what is known
Hypothesise Put forward a supposition or conjecture to account for certain facts and used as a basis for
further investigation by which it may be proved or disproved
Identify Recognise and name
Interpret Draw meaning from
Investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
Justify Show how argument or conclusion is right or reasonable
Manipulate Adapt or change
Plan Strategies, develop a series of steps, processes
Predict Suggest what might happen in the future or as a consequence of something
Reflect The thought process by which students develop an understanding and appreciation of their
own learning. This process draws on both cognitive and affective experience
Relate Tell or report about happenings, events or circumstances
Represent Use words, images, symbols or signs to convey meaning
Reproduce Copy or make close imitation
Respond React to a person or text
Select Choose in preference to another or others
Sequence Arrange in order
Summarise Give a brief statement of the main points
Synthesise Combine elements (information/ideas/components) into a coherent whole
Test Examine qualities or abilities
Translate Express in another language or form, or in simpler terms
Visualise The ability to decode, interpret, create, question, challenge and evaluate texts that
communicate with visual images as well as, or rather than, words

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Appendix B – Glossary for Specialist Methods
Unit 1

Functions and graphs

Asymptote
A line is an asymptote to a curve if the distance between the line and the curve approaches zero as they
‘tend to infinity’. For example, the line with equation 𝑥 = 𝜋/2 is a vertical asymptote to the graph of 𝑦 =
tan 𝑥, and the line with equation 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of 𝑦 = 1/𝑥.
Binomial distribution
𝑛 𝑛
The expansion (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑦 𝑛 is known as the binomial
1 𝑟
𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛×(𝑛−1)×⋯×(𝑛−𝑟+1)
theorem. The numbers ( ) = = are called binomial coefficients.
𝑟 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! 𝑟×(𝑟−1)×⋯×2×1

Completing the square

𝑏 2 𝑏2
The quadratic expression 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 can be rewritten as 𝑎 (𝑥 + 2𝑎) + (𝑐 − 4𝑎). Rewriting it in this way
is called completing the square.
Discriminant
The discriminant of the quadratic expression 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is the quantity 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
Function
A function 𝑓 is a rule that associates with each element 𝑥 in a set 𝑆 a unique element 𝑓(𝑥) in a set 𝑇. We
write 𝑥 ⟼ 𝑓(𝑥) to indicate the mapping of 𝑥 to 𝑓(𝑥). The set 𝑆 is called the domain of 𝑓 and the set 𝑇 is
called the codomain. The subset of 𝑇 consisting of all the elements 𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 is called the range of 𝑓. If
we write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) we say that 𝑥 is the independent variable and 𝑦 is the dependent variable.
Graph of a function
The graph of a function 𝑓 is the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) in Cartesian plane where 𝑥 is in the domain of 𝑓 and
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Quadratic formula
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 with 𝑎 ≠ 0, then 𝑥 = 2𝑎
. This formula for the roots is called the quadratic
formula.
Vertical line test
A relation between two real variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 is a function and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for some function 𝑓, if and only if
each vertical line, i.e. each line parallel to the 𝑦 − axis, intersects the graph of the relation in at most one
point. This test to determine whether a relation is, in fact, a function is known as the vertical line test.

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Trigonometric functions
Circular measure is the measurement of angle size in radians.
Radian measure
The radian measure 𝜃 of an angle in a sector of a circle is defined by 𝜃 = ℓ/𝑟, where 𝑟 is the radius and ℓ
is the arc length. Thus an angle whose degree measure is 180 has radian measure 𝜋.
Length of an arc
The length of an arc in a circle is given by ℓ = 𝑟𝜃, where ℓ is the arc length, 𝑟 is the radius and 𝜃 is the
angle subtended at the centre, measured in radians. This is simply a rearrangement of the formula defining
the radian measure of an angle.
Sine rule and cosine rule
The lengths of the sides of a triangle are related to the sines of its angles by the equations
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
This is known as the sine rule.

The lengths of the sides of a triangle are related to the cosine of one of its angles by the equation
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶

This is known as the cosine rule.

Sine and cosine functions

In the unit circle definition of cosine and sine, cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 are the 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates of the point on
the unit circle corresponding to the angle 𝜃
Period of a function
The period of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is the smallest positive number 𝑝 with the property that 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥) for
all 𝑥. The functions sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 both have period 2𝜋 and tan 𝑥 has period 𝜋

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Counting and Probability
Pascal’s triangle
Pascal’s triangle is a triangular arrangement of binomial coefficients. The 𝑛𝑡ℎ row consists of the binomial
𝑛
coefficients ( ), for 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛, each interior entry is the sum of the two entries above it, and sum of the
𝑟
entries in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ row is 2𝑛
Conditional probability
The probability that an event 𝐴 occurs can change if it becomes known that another event 𝐵 occurs. The
new probability is known as a conditional probability and is written as 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵). If 𝐵 has occurred, the
sample space is reduced by discarding all outcomes that are not in the event 𝐵. The new sample space,
𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
called the reduced sample space, is 𝐵. The conditional probability of event 𝐴 is given by 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = .
𝑃(𝐵)

Independent events
Two events are independent if knowing that one occurs tells us nothing about the other. The concept can
be defined formally using probabilities in various ways: events A and B are independent if 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) =
𝑃(𝐴)𝑃(𝐵), if 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) or if 𝑃(𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐵|𝐴). For events 𝐴 and 𝐵 with non-zero probabilities, any
one of these equations implies any other.
Mutually exclusive
Two events are mutually exclusive if there is no outcome in which both events occur.
Point and interval estimates
In statistics estimation is the use of information derived from a sample to produce an estimate of an
unknown probability or population parameter. If the estimate is a single number, this number is called a
point estimate. An interval estimate is an interval derived from the sample that, in some sense, is likely to
contain the parameter.
A simple example of a point estimate of the probability 𝑝 of an event is the relative frequency 𝑓 of the
event in a large number of Bernoulli trials. An example of an interval estimate for 𝑝 is a confidence interval
centred on the relative frequency 𝑓.
Relative frequency
If an event 𝐸 occurs 𝑟 times when a chance experiment is repeated 𝑛 times, the relative frequency of 𝐸 is
𝑟/𝑛.

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Unit 2

Exponential functions
Index laws
1
The index laws are the rules: 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 , 𝑎−𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 , (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 , 𝑎0 = 1, and (𝑎𝑏)𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 , for any
real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎 and 𝑏, with 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0
Algebraic properties of exponential functions
1
The algebraic properties of exponential functions are the index laws: 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 , 𝑎 −𝑥 = , (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 =
𝑎𝑥
𝑎 𝑥𝑦 , 𝑎0 = 1, for any real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑎, with 𝑎 > 0

Arithmetic and Geometric sequences and series

Arithmetic sequence
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference of any two successive members
of the sequence is a constant. For instance, the sequence
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, …
is an arithmetic sequence with common difference 3.
If the initial term of an arithmetic sequence is a and the common difference of successive members is d,
then the nth term tn, of the sequence, is given by:
tn = a + (n – 1)d for n ≥ 1
A recursive definition is
t1 = a, tn+1 = tn + d where d is the common difference and n ≥ 1.
Geometric sequence
A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is found by multiplying the
previous one by a fixed number called the common ratio. For example, the sequence
3, 6, 12, 24, ...
is a geometric sequence with common ratio 2. Similarly the sequence
40, 20, 10, 5, 2.5, …
1
is a geometric sequence with common ratio 2 .

If the initial term of a geometric sequence is a and the common ratio of successive members is r, then the
nth term tn, of the sequence, is given by:
tn = arn – 1 for n ≥ 1
A recursive definition is
t1 = a, tn+1 = rtn for n ≥ 1 and where r is the constant ratio
Partial sums of a sequence (Series)
The sequence of partial sums of a sequence t1,…, ts, … is defined by
Sn = t1 + …+ tn

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Partial sum of an arithmetic sequence (Arithmetic series)
The partial sum Sn of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence with first term a and common difference d.
a, a + d, a + 2d,……, a + (n – 1)d,…
is
n n
Sn = 2 (a + tn) = 2 (2a + (n – 1)d) where tn is the nth term of the sequence.

The partial sums form a sequence with Sn+1 = Sn + tn and S1 = t1

Partial sums of a geometric sequence (Geometric series)
The partial sum Sn of the first n terms of a geometric sequence with first term a and common ratio r,
a, ar, ar2,……, arn – 1,…
is
a(rn – 1)
Sn = r – 1 , r ≠ 1.

The partial sums form a sequence with Sn+1 = Sn + tn and S1 = t1.

Introduction to differential calculus

Gradient (Slope)
𝑦 −𝑦
The gradient of the straight line passing through points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is the ratio 𝑥2 −𝑥1 . Slope is a
2 1
synonym for gradient.
Secant
A secant of the graph of a function is the straight line passing through two points on the graph. The line
segment between the two points is called a chord.
Tangent line
The tangent line (or simply the tangent) to a curve at a given point 𝑃 can be described intuitively as the
straight line that "just touches" the curve at that point. At 𝑃 where the tangent meets the curve, the curve
has "the same direction" as the tangent line. In this sense it is the best straight-line approximation to the
curve at the point 𝑃.
Linearity property of the derivative
The linearity property of the derivative is summarized by the equations:
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
(𝑘𝑦) = 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 for any constant 𝑘
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦1 𝑑𝑦2
and (𝑦 + 𝑦2 ) = +
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Local and global maximum and minimum

A stationary point on the graph 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) of a differentiable function is a point where 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0.
We say that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is a local maximum of the function 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) for all values of 𝑥 near 𝑥0 . We
say that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is a global maximum of the function 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) for all values of 𝑥 in the domain
of 𝑓.

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We say that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is a local minimum of the function 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) for all values of 𝑥 near 𝑥0 . We
say that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is a global minimum of the function 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) for all values of 𝑥 in the domain of
𝑓.

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Unit 3

The logarithmic function

Algebraic properties of logarithms
1
The algebraic properties of logarithms are the rules: log 𝑎 (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦, log 𝑎 𝑥 = − log 𝑎 𝑥 , and
log 𝑎 1 = 0, for any positive real numbers 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑎

Further differentiation and applications

Euler’s number
Euler’s number 𝑒 is an irrational number whose decimal expansion begins
𝑒 = 2.7182818284590452353602874713527 ⋯
It is the base of the natural logarithms, and can be defined in various ways including:
1 1 1 1
𝑒 = 1 + 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ and 𝑒 = lim (1 + 𝑛)𝑛 .
𝑛→∞

Product rule
The product rule relates the derivative of the product of two functions to the functions and their
derivatives.
If ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) then ℎ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥),
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
and in Leibniz notation: 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑣

Quotient rule
The quotient rule relates the derivative of the quotient of two functions to the functions and their
derivatives
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′ (𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
If ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) then ℎ′(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)2

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 −𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
and in Leibniz notation: ( ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

Composition of functions
If 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑦) for functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, then 𝑧 is a composite function of 𝑥.
We write 𝑧 = 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).

For example, 𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 3 expresses 𝑧 as a composite of the functions 𝑓(𝑦) = √𝑦 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3

Chain rule
The chain rule relates the derivative of the composite of two functions to the functions and their
derivatives.

If ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) then (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥),

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
and in Leibniz notation: 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

Concave up and concave down

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A graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is concave up at a point 𝑃 if points on the graph near 𝑃 lie above the tangent at 𝑃. The
graph is concave down at 𝑃 if points on the graph near 𝑃 lie below the tangent at 𝑃.

Point of inflection
A point 𝑃 on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a point of inflection if the concavity changes at 𝑃, i.e. points near 𝑃
on one side of 𝑃 lie above the tangent at 𝑃 and points near 𝑃 on the other side of 𝑃 lie below the tangent
at 𝑃
Second derivative test
According to the second derivative test, if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0, then 𝑓(𝑥) is a local maximum of 𝑓 if 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 and
𝑓(𝑥) is a local minimum if 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0

Integrals
Antidifferentiation
An anti-derivative, primitive or indefinite integral of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is a function 𝐹(𝑥) whose derivative is
𝑓(𝑥), i.e. 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
The process of solving for anti-derivatives is called anti-differentiation.
Anti-derivatives are not unique. If 𝐹(𝑥) is an anti-derivative of 𝑓(𝑥), then so too is the function 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐
where 𝑐 is any number. We write ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐 to denote the set of all anti-derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑
The number 𝑐 is called the constant of integration. For example, since 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) = 3𝑥 2 , we can write
∫ 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑐
The linearity property of anti-differentiation
The linearity property of anti-differentiation is summarized by the equations:

∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 for any constant 𝑘 and

∫(𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 for any two functions 𝑓1 (𝑥) and 𝑓2 (𝑥)
Similar equations describe the linearity property of definite integrals:
𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 for any constant 𝑘 and
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 (𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑎 𝑓2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 for any two functions 𝑓1 (𝑥) and 𝑓2 (𝑥)

Additivity property of definite integrals

The additivity property of definite integrals refers to ‘addition of intervals of integration’:
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 for any numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 and any function 𝑓(𝑥).

The fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus relates differentiation and definite integrals. It has two forms:
𝑑 𝑥 𝑏
(∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡)
𝑑𝑥 𝑎
= 𝑓(𝑥) and ∫𝑎 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)

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Unit 4

Discrete random variables

Random variable
A random variable is a numerical quantity whose value depends on the outcome of a chance experiment.
Typical examples are the number of people who attend an AFL grand final, the proportion of heads
observed in 100 tosses of a coin, and the number of tonnes of wheat produced in Australia in a year.
A discrete random variable is one whose possible values are the counting numbers 0,1,2,3, ⋯, or form a
finite set, as in the first two examples.
A continuous random variable is one whose set of possible values are all of the real numbers in some
interval.
Probability distribution
The probability distribution of a discrete random variable is the set of probabilities for each of its possible
values.
Uniform discrete random variable
A uniform discrete random variable is one whose possible values have equal probability of occurrence. If
there are 𝑛 possible values, the probability of occurrence of any one of them is 1/𝑛.
Expected value
The expected value 𝐸(𝑋) of a random variable 𝑋 is a measure of the central tendency of its distribution.
If 𝑋 is discrete, 𝐸(𝑋) = ∑𝑖 𝑝𝑖 𝑥𝑖 , where the 𝑥𝑖 are the possible values of 𝑋 and
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 ).
∞
If 𝑋 is continuous, 𝐸(𝑥) = ∫−∞ 𝑥𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, where 𝑝(𝑥) is the probability density function of 𝑋

Mean of a random variable

The mean of a random variable is another name for its expected value.
Variance of a random variable
The variance 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) of a random variable 𝑋 is a measure of the ‘spread’ of its distribution.

If 𝑋 is discrete, 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = ∑𝑖 𝑝𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 , where 𝜇 = 𝐸(𝑋) is the expected value.

∞
If 𝑋 is continuous, 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = ∫−∞(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Standard deviation of a random variable

The standard deviation of a random variable is the square root of its variance.
Effect of linear change
The effects of linear changes of scale and origin on the mean and variance of a random variable are
summarized as follows:
If 𝑋 is a random variable and 𝑌 = 𝑎𝑋 + 𝑏, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants, then
𝐸(𝑌) = 𝑎𝐸(𝑋) + 𝑏 and 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑌) = 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋)
Bernoulli random variable

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A Bernoulli random variable has two possible values, namely 0 and 1. The parameter associated with such a
random variable is the probability 𝑝 of obtaining a 1.

Bernoulli trial
A Bernoulli trial is a chance experiment with possible outcomes, typically labeled ‘success’ and failure’.

Continuous random variables and the normal distribution

Probability density function
The probability density function of a continuous random variable is a function that describes the relative
likelihood that the random variable takes a particular value. Formally, if 𝑝(𝑥) is the probability density of
the continuous random variable 𝑋, then the probability that 𝑋 takes a value in some interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is given
𝑏
by ∫𝑎 𝑝(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 .

Uniform continuous random variable

A uniform continuous random variable 𝑋 is one whose probability density function 𝑝(𝑥) has constant
value on the range of possible values of 𝑋. If the range of possible values is the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] then 𝑝(𝑥) =
1
𝑏−𝑎
if 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑝(𝑥) = 0 otherwise.

Triangular continuous random variable

A triangular continuous random variable 𝑋 is one whose probability density function 𝑝(𝑥) has a graph with
the shape of a triangle.
Quantile
A quantile 𝑡𝛼 for a continuous random variable 𝑋 is defined by 𝑃(𝑋 > 𝑡𝛼 ) = 𝛼, where 0 < 𝛼 < 1.
The median 𝑚 of 𝑋 is the quantile corresponding to 𝛼 = 0.5: 𝑃(𝑋 > 𝑚) = 0.5

Interval estimates for proportions

Central limit theorem
There are various forms of the Central limit theorem, a result of fundamental importance in statistics. For
the purposes of this course, it can be expressed as follows:
“If 𝑋̅ is the mean of 𝑛 independent values of random variable 𝑋 which has a finite mean 𝜇 and a finite
𝑋̅−𝜇
standard deviation 𝜎, then as 𝑛 → ∞ the distribution of 𝜎/ approaches the standard normal distribution.”
√𝑛

In the special case where 𝑋 is a Bernoulli random variable with parameter 𝑝, 𝑋̅ is the sample proportion 𝑝̂ ,
𝜇 = 𝑝 and 𝜎 = √𝑝(1 − 𝑝). In this case the Central limit theorem is a statement that as 𝑛 → ∞ the
𝑝̂−𝑝
distribution of approaches the standard normal distribution.
√𝑝(1−𝑝)/𝑛

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Margin of error
The margin of error of a confidence interval of the form 𝑓 − 𝐸 < 𝑝 < 𝑓 + 𝐸 is 𝐸, the half-width of the
confidence interval. It is the maximum difference between 𝑓 and 𝑝 if 𝑝 is actually in the confidence interval.
Level of confidence
The level of confidence associated with a confidence interval for an unknown population parameter is the
probability that a random confidence interval will contain the parameter.

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Appendix C – Achievement Standards

Australian Curriculum Achievement Standards for Specialist Methods (T) for Units 1 and 2

A student who achieves an A grade A student who achieves a B A student who achieves a C A student who achieves a D A student who achieves an E
typically grade typically grade typically grade typically grade typically
 demonstrates knowledge of concepts  demonstrates knowledge of  demonstrates knowledge of  demonstrates knowledge of
 demonstrates limited
of functions, calculus and statistics in concepts of functions, calculus and concepts of functions, calculus and concepts of simple functions,
familiarity with concepts of simple
routine and non-routine problems in a statistics in routine and non-routine statistics that apply to routine calculus and statistics
problems
functions, calculus and statistics
variety of contexts problems
 selects and applies techniques in  selects and applies techniques in  selects and applies techniques in  uses simple techniques in  uses simple techniques in a
Concepts and Techniques

functions, calculus and statistics to solve functions, calculus and statistics to functions, calculus and statistics to functions, calculus and statistics in structured context
routine and non-routine problems in a solve routine and non-routine solve routine problems routine problems
variety of contexts problems
 develops, selects and applies  selects and applies mathematical  applies mathematical and  demonstrates familiarity  demonstrates limited
mathematical and statistical models in and statistical models in routine and statistical models in routine problems mathematical and statistical familiarity with mathematical or
routine and non-routine problems in a non-routine problems models statistical models
variety of contexts
 uses digital technologies  uses digital technologies to  uses digital technologies to  uses digital technologies for
 uses digital technologies effectively
appropriately to graph, display and graph, display and organise display some mathematical and arithmetic calculations and to
to graph, display and organise
organise mathematical and mathematical and statistical statistical information in routine display limited mathematical and
mathematical and statistical information
statistical information and to solve a information to solve routine problems problems statistical information
and to solve a range of routine and non-
range of routine and non-routine
routine problems in a variety of contexts
problems
 represents functions, calculus and  represents functions, calculus  represents functions, calculus  represents simple functions  represents limited
statistics in numerical, graphical and and statistics in numerical, graphical and statistics in numerical, graphical and distributions in numerical, mathematical or statistical
symbolic form in routine and non-routine and symbolic form in routine and and symbolic form in routine graphical or symbolic form in information in a structured context
problems in a variety of contexts non-routine problems problems routine problems
Reasoning and Communication

 communicates mathematical and  communicates mathematical and  communicates mathematical and  communicates simple  communicates simple
statistical judgments and arguments, statistical judgments and arguments, statistical arguments using mathematical and statistical mathematical and statistical
which are succinct and reasoned, using which are clear and reasoned, using appropriate language information using appropriate information
appropriate language appropriate language language
 interprets the solutions to routine  interprets the solutions to  interprets the solutions to  describes solutions to routine  identifies solutions to routine
and non-routine problems in a variety of routine and non-routine problems routine problems problems problems
contexts
 explains the reasonableness of the  explains the reasonableness of the  describes the reasonableness of  describes the appropriateness  describes with limited
results and solutions to routine and non- results and solutions to routine and results and solutions to routine of the result of calculations familiarity the appropriateness of
routine problems in a variety of contexts non-routine problems problems the results of calculations
 identifies and explains the validity  identifies and explains the  identifies the limitations of  identifies the limitations of  identifies simple models
and limitations of models used when limitations of models used when models used when developing simple models used
developing solutions to routine and non- developing solutions to routine solutions to routine problems
routine problems problems

48
Board Endorsed October 2015

Appendix C – Achievement Standards

Australian Curriculum Achievement Standards for Specialist Methods (T) for Units 3 and 4

A student who achieves an A grade A student who achieves a B grade A student who achieves a C grade A student who achieves a D grade A student who achieves an E grade
typically typically typically typically typically
 demonstrates knowledge of concepts  demonstrates knowledge of  demonstrates knowledge of  demonstrates knowledge of  demonstrates limited
of functions, integration and distributions concepts of functions, integration concepts of functions, integration concepts of simple functions, familiarity with concepts of simple
in routine and non-routine problems in a and distributions in routine and non- and distributions that apply to integration and distributions functions, integration and
variety of contexts routine problems routine problems distributions
 selects and applies techniques in  selects and applies techniques in  selects and applies techniques in  uses simple techniques in  uses simple techniques in a
Concepts and Techniques

functions, integration and distributions to functions, integration and functions, integration and functions, integration and structured context
solve routine and non-routine problems distributions to solve routine and distributions to solve routine distributions in routine problems
in a variety of contexts non-routine problems problems
 develops, selects and applies  selects and applies mathematical  applies mathematical and  demonstrates familiarity with  demonstrates limited
mathematical and statistical models in and statistical models in routine and statistical models in routine mathematical and statistical familiarity with mathematical or
routine and non-routine problems in a non-routine problems problems models statistical models
variety of contexts
 uses digital technologies effectively  uses digital technologies  uses digital technologies to  uses digital technologies to  uses digital technologies for
to graph, display and organise appropriately to graph, display and graph, display and organise display some mathematical and arithmetic calculations and to
mathematical and statistical information organise mathematical and mathematical and statistical statistical information in routine display limited mathematical and
and to solve a range of routine and non- statistical information and to solve a information to solve routine problems statistical information
routine problems in a variety of contexts range of routine and non-routine problems
problems
 represents functions, integration and  represents functions, integration  represents functions,  represents simple functions  represents limited
distributions in numerical, graphical and and distributions in numerical, integration and distributions in and distributions in numerical, mathematical or statistical
symbolic form in routine and non-routine graphical and symbolic form in numerical, graphical and symbolic graphical or symbolic form in information in a structured context
problems in a variety of contexts routine and non-routine problems form in routine problems routine problems
 communicates mathematical and  communicates mathematical  communicates mathematical  communicates simple  communicates simple
Reasoning and Communication

statistical judgments and arguments, and statistical judgments and and statistical arguments using mathematical and statistical mathematical and statistical
which are succinct and reasoned, using arguments, which are clear and appropriate language information using appropriate information
appropriate language reasoned, using appropriate language
language
 interprets the solutions to routine  interprets the solutions to  interprets the solutions to  describes solutions to routine  identifies solutions to routine
and non-routine problems in a variety of routine and non-routine problems routine problems problems problems
contexts
 explains the reasonableness of the  explains the reasonableness of  describes the reasonableness of  describes the appropriateness  demonstrates limited
results and solutions to routine and non- the results and solutions to routine results and solutions to routine of the result of calculations familiarity with the
routine problems in a variety of contexts and non-routine problems problems appropriateness of the results of
calculations
 identifies and explains the validity  identifies and explains the  identifies the limitations of  identifies limitations of simple  identifies simple models
and limitations of models used when limitations of models used when models used when developing models used
developing solutions to routine and non- developing solutions to routine solutions to routine problems
routine problems problems

49