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EXPLANATORY HANDBOOK

AND IS : 4326-1976)
CODES,FOREARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING
ON

(IS : 1893-1975
EXPLANATORY

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HANDBOOK
ONCODES i=OR
EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING
BS:3882-7975 & IS:432S-7878
( Incorporating errata and other editorial corrections )

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS

MANAK BHAVAN, 9 BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR MARG
NEW DELHI 110002
SP 22 : 1982

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FIRSTREPRINTFEBRIJARY 1989
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 SP i-22 - 1982

FOREWORD

Users of various civil engineering codes have been feeling the need for explanatory
handbooks and other compilations based on Indian Standards. The need has been
further emphasized in view of the publication of the National Building Code of
India 1970 and its implementation. In 1972, the Department of Science and
Technology set up an Expert Group on Housing and Construction Technology
under the Chairmanship of Maj-Gen Harkirat Singh. This Group carried out
in-depth studies in various areas of civil engineefmg and construction practices.
During the preparation of the Fifth Five-Year Plan in 1975, the Group was assigned
the task of producing a Science and Technology plan for research, development
and extension work in the sector of housing and construction technology. One of
the items .of this plan was the production of design handbooks, explanatory _
handbooks and design aids based on the National Building Code and various Indian
Standards and other activities in the promotion of the National Building Code. The
Expert Group gave high priority to this item and on the recommendation of the
Department of Science and Technology the Planning Commission approved the
following two projects which were assigned to the Indian Standards Institution.

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a) Development programme on Code implementation for building and civil
engineering construction, and
b) Typification for industrial buildings.

A special Committee for Implementation of Science and Technology Projects

(SCIP) consisting of experts connected with different aspects (see page vi) was set
up in 1974 to advise the IS1 Directorate General in identification and for guiding
the development of the work under the Chairmanship of Maj-Gen Harkirat Singh,
Retired Engineer-in-Chief, Army Headquarters and formerly Adviser (Construction)
Planning Commission, Government of India. The Committee has so far identified
subjects for several explanatory handbooks/compilations covering appropriate Indian
Standards/Codes/Specifications which include the following:

Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS : 456-1978

Explanatory Handbook on Masonry Code
Explanatory Handbook on Codes for Earthquake Engineering (IS : 1893-1975,
IS : 43261976)
Concrete Mixes
Summaries of Indian Standards for Building Materials
Explanatory Handbook on Indian Standard Code of R&ice for Plain and
Reinforced Concrete (IS : 4561978)
Causes and Prevention of Cracks in Buildings
Foundation of Buildings
Timber Engineering
Functional Requirements of Buildings
Functional Requirments of Industrial Buildings
Concrete Reinforcement
Building Construction Practices
Fire Safety
Tall Buildings
Bulk Storage Structures in Steel
Construction Safety Practices
Steel Code (IS : 800)
Form Work
Prefabrication
Loading Code
Design of Industrial Steel Structures
Inspection of Different Items of Building Work
One of the explanatory handbooks identified is on codes for earthquake engineer-
ing. This handbook is-in two parts: Part I Explanations ‘on IS : 1893- 1975 Criteria
SPr22-1982

for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures (third revision) and Part II Explana-
tions on IS : 43261976 Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Design and
\Construction (first revision). This Handbook provides information on the source,
interpretation/explanations to certain clauses and worked out examples to illustrate
the application of coda1 provisions wherever required.
Some important points to be kept in view in the use of this Handbook are as follows:
a) In this Handbook wherever the expression “the Code” is used it refers to either
IS : 1893-1975 or IS : 4326-1976 depending upon the part in which it is used.
b) This Handbook is to be read along with the relevant codes.
c) The clause numbers in the Explanatory Handbook correspond to the corres-
ponding clause numbers in the relevant code. Only those clauses for which
explanations are required find a mention in the Handbook in the same sequence
as they occur in the respective codes.
d) Wherever there is any dispute about the interpretation or opinion expressed
in this Handbook, the provisions of the code only shall apply; the provisions
in this Handbook should be considered as only supplementary and informative.

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The Explanatory Handbook is based on the draft prepared by Department of
Earthquake Engineering, University of Roorkee, Roorkee. The draft Handbook was
circulated for review to Central Public Works Department, New Delhi; India
Meteorological Department, New Delhi; Engineer-in-Chief’s Branch, Army Head-
quarters, New Delhi; Tata Consulting Engineers, Bombay; Dr Jai Krishna,
Chairman of Earthquake Engineering Sectional Committee, BDC 39; International
Airports Authority of India, New Delhi; Geological Survey of India, Calcutta;
Central Water Commission, New Delhi and the views received were taken into
consideration while.finalizing the Handbook.

SPECIAL COMMITTEE FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY PROJECTS (SCIP)

Chairman
MAJ-GEN HARKIRATSINGH
W-51 Greater Kailash 1, New Delhi I 10048

Members Representing

SHRI A. K. BANERJEE Metallurgical and Engineering Consultants (India)

Limited, Ranchi
PROFDINESHMOHAN Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
DR S. MAUDGAL Department of Science and Technology, New Delh
DR M. RAMAIAH Structural Engineering Research Centre, Madras
SHRI A. SANKARAN Central Public Works Department, New Delhi
SHRI A. CHAKRA~ORTY(Alternate)

SHRI T. K. SARAN Bureau of Public Enterprises, New Delhi

DR H. C. VISVESVARAYA Cement Research Institute of India, New Delhi
SHRI G. RAMAN (Member Secretary) Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi
 PART I

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EXPLANATIONS oN
IS : 18934975 CRITERIA FOR EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANT DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
(Third Revision)
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As in the Original Standard, this Page is Intentionally Left Blank
 SP : 22 - 1982

2. TERMINOLOGY in shocks of extreme intensity or the great catas-

trophic degree X in Rossi-Fore1 Scale. In 1904
2.2 Centre of Rigidity - The point through which Cancani suggested that the degrees of the Mercaili
the resultant of the restoring forces due to stiffnes- scale be correlated with the maximum ground
ses of the various structural elements of a system particle acceleration produced by the earthquake.
acts is called the centre of rigidity. In structures An elaboration of the Mercalli scale incorporating
which are symmetrical in plan and elevation and earthquake effects of many kinds was published
having constant stiffness, centre of mass and by Seiberg in 1923, which was subsequently revised
centre of rigidity are coincident. However, by Wood and Newmann in the USA in 1931,
when the structure is unsymmetrical, the centre of and was called the Modified Mercalli Scale or
rigidity would be closer to the stiffer section of the simply the MM scale. Another revision of MM
structure, and the centre of mass could be away scale was made by Richter in 19.56. An abridged
from the centre of rigidity causing torsion. version of MM scale of seismic intensities is given
2.3 Critical Damping - Friction with air, fric- in Appendix D of the Code.
tion between particles constituting a structure,
friction at junctions of structural elements, yielding 3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN
of the structural material and qther processes of CRITERIA
dissipation of energy depress the amplitude of 3.1 The various sub-clauses under this clause
motion of a vibrating structure and the vibrations However, for a few
are self explanatory.

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clauses additional clarifications are given below:
and or external friction fully dissipates the energy
a) Ground vibrates (moves) in all directions
of the structural system during its motion from a during earthquakes. The horizontal com-
displaced position to its initial position of rest, ponents of the ground motion is generally
inhibiting oscillations of the structure, the structure
more intense than that of vertical compo-
is considered to be critically damped. Thus the
nents during strong earthquakes. The
damping beyond which the motion will not be
ground motion is random in nature and
oscillatory, is described as ‘critical damping’.
generally the maximum peaks of various
2.4 Damping -The ecfect of energy dissipation directions may not occur simultaneously.
in reducing the successive amplitude of vibrations Hence, for design purposes, at any one
of a structure displaced from its position of static time. it is assumed that only one hori-
equilibrium is called damping and is expressed as zontal component acts in any one
a percentage of critical damping. direction.
2.5 Epicentre - The point on the earth’s sur- b) All structures are designed for withstand-
face located at the source or vertically above the ing their own weight. This could be
source of such seismic waves originating from an deemed, as though a vertical acceleration
earthquake is known as epicentre and its location of one gravity is applied to various masses
is described by its latitude and longitude. of the system. Since the design vertical
forces proposed in the Code are small as
2.6 Focus - The source propagating seismic compared to the acceleration of one
waves is called focus of the earthquake and is also gravity, the same emphasis has not been
designated as hypocentre. The depth of the given to vertical forces as compared to
source (focus) below the earth’s surface is referred horizontal forces. However, the Code
to as focal depth. emphasizes that in case of structures
2.7 Intensity of Earthquake - The intensity of where stability is a criterion for design,
an earthquake at a place is a measure of the degree vertical seismic forces must be considered.
of shaking caused during the earthquake and thus 3.2 Assumptions - Earthquake causes impul-
charactcrises the erects of the earthquake. Most sive ground motion which is complex and irregu-
of the study of earthquakes up to the begining of lar in character, changing in period and amplitude
the twentieth century dealt only with various effects each lasting for small duration. Therefore, reso-
of ea;.thquakes and in order to express these nance of the type as visualized under steady state
effects in a quantitative way. intensity scales were sinusoidal excitations will not occur as it would
introduced by various investigators. De Rossi in need time to build up such amplitudes.
Italy proposed the first more commonly used
intensity scale between 1874 and 1878. In 1881 a) The first assumption is amply proved by
Fore1 in Switzerland proposed a similar scale and case studies of several strong motion
soon thereafter they jointly developed the Rossi- accelerograms. For example, if the
Fore1 Scale. This Rossi-Fore1 intensity scale had damping in an idealized linear single
ten subdivisions. This scale has undergone several degree freedom system is 5 percent, then
revisions Mercalli in 1888 proposed a scale with for any period the ratio of the peak
twelve subdivisions to permit a clearer distinction response acceleration to the peak ground
SP : 22 - 1982

acceleration is of the order of three, but Ductile coefficients are given in IS : 4326-
in the case of steady state excitation this 1976*.
ratio would be ten. It is, therefore, 3.3.3 Permissible Increase in Allowable Bearing
obvious that full resonance is not achieved Prkure of Soils - Similar to the increase in
during earthquakes. stresses in the materials of construction, the allow-
b) It is a faut that earthquakes are a rare able bearing pressure in ’ soils also has been
phenomena. It is, therefore, very unlikely increased whenever the earthquake forces are
that the maximum earthquake will coin- considered alongwith other normal design forces.
cide with maximum of other occasional However, the factor of safety against failure has
forces like wind, floods, etc. Therefore, been reduced for materials of, construction;. the
for design purposes, these are assumed not same is not true for ah soils under all condrtions.
to occur simultaneously. This is because unlike other materials, the allow-
able bearing pressure of soils is obtained either by
3.3 Permissible Increase in Stresses and Load adopting a factor of safety against shear failure
Factors in the soil or by considering the permissible settle-
3.3.1 The Code specifies the use of elastic design ments of the foundations. If the allowable bearing
(working stress method) permitting an increase of pressure is governed by the former criterion, the
336 percent in the normal working stresses. in permissible increase in its va!ue can be looked
materials (concrete, steel, wood, etc.) when the upon as a permissible reduction in factor of safety.
effects of earthquake load are combined with However, under most of the circumstances, the
other normal dead and live loads. In prestressed latter criterion, namely, settlement of foundation,

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concrete members, the tensile stress in an extreme will be the governing factor. Here, the earthquake
fibre of the concrete is permitted up to a maximum induced settlement which evidently is a function
oft of the modulus of rupture of concrete. It is of the soil-foundation system will govern the
restricted that the stress in steel with a definite permissible increase in the allowable bearing pres-
yield point should remain below the yield stress, sure. Where the earthquakes are not expected to
and in steel without a definite yield point, the cause any significant settlement, it is imperative
stress should remain less than 80 percent of the that the allowable bearing pressure be increased
ultimate strength. The increase in stresses is for earthquake loading conditions so as to avoid
permitted in view of the occasional nature and undesirable differential settlements which can take
instantaneous action of the load. Earthquake and place prior to earthquake occurrence. This is
wind effects are not to be considered simulta- illustrated below:
neously. Since the earthquake resistant designs are
3.3.2 Since the increase of permissible stresses generally performed by pseudo-static analysis, the
cuts into the factor of safety, it is natural that earthquake loads on the foundations are consi-
load factor in the ultimate load method of analysis derel as static loads and thus capable of producing
should be reduced proportionately as compared settlements as under the dead loads. Therefore,
with normal dead and live loads. Taking an as the footings are usually designed for equal
average load factor of 1% for DL and LL for stresses under them, the footings for exterior
reinforced concrete (IS : 456-1961) and .Steel (IS : columns will have to be made wider. This is
800-1962) structures, the load factor for earthquake because the earthquake forces will cause larger
1.85 stresses below the exterior columns (see Fig. 1).
condition was kept as m= 1’4. Similarly taking Prior to the earthquake, however, this design wil:
lead to a condition of unequal stresses and hence
average load factor of 2 for prestressed concrete larger settlements of the column foundations with
(IS : 1343-1964) for DL and LL the load factor heavier stress intensities. The differential settle-
for earthquake condition was kept as 1.5. ments in the structure is thus increased and to
The load factor (partial safety factor) for con- avoid this, the allowable bearing pressure is increas-
crete structures in limit state method of design is ed. Consequently, this will necessitate only
to. be taken as 1.2 when dead load, live load and smaller amount of enlargement of foundations
earthquake load are combined in accordance with when earthquake forces are also included and will
IS : 456-1978 and IS : 1343-1980. thus be causing only smaller amount of differential
settlements. In poor soil foundation systems,
Since earthquake occurs suddenly and without ground shaking of even short duration can cause
warning, it is very necessary to avoid construction fairly large settlements and so any increase in
practices that cause brittle failure (sudden col- allowable bearing pressure will lead to unsafe
lapse). The current philosophy relies heavily on designs. In short, the permissible increase in the
the action of members to absorb the vibrational allowable bearing pressure will have to depend on
energy resulting from strong ground motion by the soil-foundation system. Where Pmall settle-
designing members to behave in a ductile manner. ments are likely to occur during earthquakes
In this manner even if earthquake of greater inten-
sity than foreseen occurs, complete collapse of the *Code of practice for earthquake resistant design and
structure will be avoided. construction of buildings (firsr revision).

4
 SP :22 - 1982

FOOTING DESIGN
FOR STATIC
LOAD

ENLARGED FOR

FOOTING.
ENLARGED TO
SETTLEMENTS ACCOUNT FOR
NO ENLARGEMENT
SEISMIC LOADS

FIG. 1 SEISMIC LOADS ON THB SBTUERENT BEHAVIOUROF A TYPICAL BUILDING

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larger increase can be permitted and vice-versa. only on the soil-foundation systems though there
The quantity of increase in the allowable bearing appears to be some scope of identifying the
pressure has been arrived at on the basis of influence of the superstructure as well. The pre-
experience and engineering judgement. For the sent provisions and explanations to Table 1 of the
present, the permissible increase has been based Code are as below:

PERMISSIBLE IXCREASE IN ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE OR RESISTANCE OF SOILS

TYPE OF SOIL TYPE OF PERMISSIBLE EXPLANATIONS

FOUNDATION INcRi2~st2IN
ALLOWABLE
BEARING
PRESSURE,
PERCENTAGE

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Type I Rock or Hard Soils - Well All types of foun- 50 Only small settlements of foundations
graded gravels and sand gravel mixtures dations are expected duringearthquakes though
with or without clay binder and clayey for cohesionless soils short duration
sands poorly graded or sand clay loads also can cause deformations.
mixtures (GB, CW, SB. SW and SC)* the soils are considered to be stiff
having N above 30, where N is the enough so as to have sufficient factor
s,tandard penetration value of safety against failure under earth-
quake loading conditions

Type II Medium Soil - All soils with Piles passing 50 Since the piles will act as bearing piles
N between 10 and 30 and poorly graded through this soil on Type I, the possibility of large
sands or gravelly sands with little but resting on settlements is ruled out
or no fines (SP*) with N > 15 Type I soil

Piles not covered 25 For friction piles the resisting forces

under the above are fouild to be less during vibration
and hence larger settlements. Same
will hold good even for piles with
enlarged base contained wholly in soil
of Type II

Raft foundation 50 Differential settlements will be much

less and hence larger increase permit-
ted

Other types of 25 The soil itself being less dense thah

foundations Type I, more settlement can be
expected

‘See Is : 1498-1970. (Continued)

5
SP : 22 - 1982

PERMISSIBLE INCREASE IN ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE OR RESISTANCE OF SOILS - Contd

TYPE op !hIL TYPE OF PERMISJIBLE EXPLANATIONS

FOUNDA~ON INCREASEm
ALLOWABLE
BSSARINQ
PRESURE,
PERCENTACH

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Type Ill Soft Soils Piles passing 50 Same as for Type II
through this soil
but resting on
Type I soil

Piles not covered 25 Same as for Type II

under the above

Raft foundations 50 Same as for Type II

Combined or iso- 25 Because of the tie beams, the chances

lated RCC foot- of damage due to differential settle-
ing with tie ments are considered smaller
beams

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Isolated RCC - Under these conditions the founda-
footing without tions are considered to be liable to
tie beams or un- damage when subjected to settlements
reinforced strip and hence no increase is permitted
foundations

Well foundation 25 From the classification of soils it will

be noticed that soils likely to liquefy
have been excluded where liquefaction
does not occur. The well foundations
have been found to be satisfactory with
little settlements and hence 25 percent
increase has been permitted

TABLE 1, NOTB 3 -It has been observed in many liquefaction, preventive measures like densification
earthquakes that the foundation soil consisting of or. use of deep foundations to avoid damages
saturated sand behaved just like a fluid. The during earthquakes are found suitable. If deep
associated phenomenon has been termed as lique- foundations are used, it must be borne in mind
faction; Iiquefaction of loose sand had been solely that it is not a preventive measure of liquefaction
responsible for the damage to many structures during itself. Liquefaction usually initiates at some depth
some of the past earthquakeslike Bihar-Nepal 1934, below the ground surface and propagates down-
Niigata (Japan) 1964, etc. Thestructures resting on wards to different depths depending upon the
such soils experienced large settlements and tilts. The duration of ground shaking. The dissipation of
soils lose shear strength due to earthquake pressure the excess pore pressures also make the top soil to
which is found to be dependent on the earthquake lose its strength. Thus the shear strength of the
parameters, mainly acceleration, amplitude and soil extending from the ground surface to some
duration of ground shaking, and the soil parameters, depth below will be totally lost during liquefaction
like the relative density and grain size. If this factor and hence should not be considered to contribute
is not taken care of, any amount of safety in the any resistance to foundation displacements. The
superstructure will not be of any help in the event lateral resistance of the pile foundations must,
of an earthquake leading to liquefaction of foun- therefore, be calculated taking this factor into
dation soil. Therefore, the zones where earthquakes account as specified in Note 4 of Table 1
large enough to cause liquefaction of soils falling of the Code which states ‘The piles should be
under soil classification SP have been identified with designed for lateral loads neglecting lateral
standard penetration values (see Note 5 of Table 1 resistance of soil layers liable to liquefy’. Some of
of the Code). the references for further study on the evalua-
Methods are available at present to evaluate tion of liquefaction potential of soils are given
the liquefaction potential of soils based on the below:
soil data and the design earthquake force for the
site. Such procedures have been successfully used a) Seed (HB) and Idriss (IM). Simplified
to analyse the.occurrence of liquefaction in some Procedure for Evaluating Liquefaction
of the past cases and are being increasingly used to Potential. Journal of the Soil Mechanics
predict the liquefaction potential of sites of impor- and Foundation Division, ASCE, Vol 97,
tant structures. If a site is found susceptible to SM No. 9; P 1249-1973; (1971).

6
 SP : 22 - 1982

b) Gupta (M K). Liquefaction of Sands 0.04, 0.02 and 0.01 for IV, III, II and I, respectively
During Earthquakes (1977) Ph.D. Thesis, (see Appendix A)..
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
The Code also provides for design to be
cl Arya (A S), Nandakumaran (P), Puri carried out using response spectrum approach.
(V K) and Mukerjee (S) 1978. Verification For this purpose, it is recommended that average
of Liquefaction Potential by Field Blast spectra be used together with different multiplying
Tests. Proc. 2nd International Conference factors for each seismic zone. These factors have
-on___
Microzonation, Seattle, U. S. A. Vol II; been determined in such a way that in the short
‘P 865. period range (small structures like two or three
storeyed buildings) the seismic coefficient derived
d) Nandakumaran (P) and Mukerjee (S). from spectral considerations would be nearly the
Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential for same as the basic seismic coefficients mentioned
Silty Soils (198 1). Proc. National Sympo- earlier. The multiplying factors are interpreted
sium on Earthquake Disaster Mitigation, as seismic zone factors and are given as O-4, 0.25,
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India. 0.20, 0.10 and 0.05 for Zone V, IV, III, II and I,
respectively. It may be noted that these have the
same relative values as the corresponding seismic
3.4 Design Seismic Coefficient for Different Zones
coefficients.
- Background leading to the present seismic
zoning map of India (see Fig. 1 of the Code) is 3.4.2 (a) - Seismic Coc$cient Method - In this

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described in Appendix A.
method, mass of the structure multiplied by design
seismic coefficient, acts statically in a horizontal
Philosophy-The force attracted by a structure direction. It is also assumed here that the
during an earthquake is dynamic in nature and is a magnitude of the coefficient is uniform for the
function of the ground motion and the properties entire members of the structure. Design shears
of the structure itself. The dominant effect is equi- at different levels in a building shall be computed
valent to a horizontal force varying over the height from the assumption of linear distribution horizon-
of structure. Therefore, the assumption of a uniform tal accelerations, varying from zero at the base
force to be applied along one axis at a time is an of the structure to a maximum at the top. For
over simplification which can be justified for important and complicated structures this method
reasons of saving efforts in dynamic analysis. is not adequate (see 4.2 and 5.1.2 of the Code).
However, a large number of structures designed
on this basis have withstood earthquake shocks b) Response Spectrum Method - It is a
during the past eighty years or so, which justifies dynamic method of analysis. In the calculation of
the use of uniform seismic coefficient in a seismic structural response (whether modal analysis or
design. In the Code, therefore, it is considered otherwise), the structure should be so represented
adequate to provide uniform seismic coefficient for by means of an analytical or computational model
ordinary structures. Important and special stru- that reasonable and rational results can be
ctures. however, need to be designed on the basis obtained by its behaviour. Whe:-e response spectrum
of dynamic analysis. method is used with modal analysis procedure. at
least 3 modes of response of the structure should
be considered except in those cases where it can be
Seismic coefficients specified in the Code are shown qualitatively that either third mode or the
based on a compromise with regard to degree of second mode produces negligible response. When
desired safety and the cost of earthquake resistant appropriate. the model maxima should be combined
construction. In an effort to economise, it is using the square root of the sum of the squares of
essential to fully utilise the total energy absorbing the individual model values. In this method the
capacity of the structure without resulting in a building is considered 3s a flexible structure with
complete collapse. This has resulted in the lumped masses concentrated at floor levels, with
current philosophy of earthquake resistant design: each mass having one degree of freedom that of
(a) to adopt lower seismic coefficient and low lateral displacement in the direction under con-
working stresses, and (b) to have high seismic sideration.
coefficient and high working stresses. The values
of coefficients are fixed arbitrarily on safety and 3.4.2.2 In both the above methods, importance
minimum damage criteria. In the Code the of the structure and its soil foundation system shall
maximum value was fixed at 0.08 because the be considered and also the increase in bearing
practice in Assam before the Code was originally stress of the foundation soil shall be checked
written in 1960 was to design structures for this according to Table 1 of the Code.
value arbitrarily. The structures thus designed
withstood the 1950 Assam earthquake (Richter’s 3.4.2.3 The value of p (coefficient depending on
Magnitude 8.3) which had caused Mbf intensity soil-foundation system) shall be obtained from
IX. With this background the basic seismic Table 3 of the Code. The value of I (coefficient
cofficient for Zone V has been fixed at 0.08. In depending upon the importance of the structure)
other zones the values have been reduced as 0.05, shall be based on Table 4 of the Code.

7
SP : 22 - 1982

The value of c(,, (basic horizontal seismic indeed dependent on the soil at site as well as the
coefficient) and F,, (iseismic zone factor for average type of foundation. This is obvious because of
acceleration spectra) shall be obtained from the fact that though the softness of the soil founda-
Table 2 of the Code. tion system will cause only smaller forces to be
transmitted through it to the super-structure, the
IF (average acceleration coefficient) shali be
sa strains in the sub-structure will themselves be
read from Fig. 2 of the Code for appropriate quite large enough thereby causing excessive and
natural period of time (s?e Note below 4.2.1.1 of sometimes objectionable deformations of the super-
the Code) and damping of the structure. The structure. As can be readily seen, the type of
damping to be adopted for different types of soil, has the greatest influence in this regard; the
structures are given in Appendix F of the Code. poorer the soil, larger the chances of damage. A
The method of using the spectra for calculating lot of this possible damage can be avoided by
the horizontal seismic force is also indicated in engineering better type of foundations, to judi-
Appendix F of the Code. ciously transmit the loads to the subsoil.

Natural period (T) of any structure is a func- Table 3 of the Code is self explanatory as far as
tion of the structural characteristics and the the type of soil and different types of foundations
distribution of the structural masses. It is the time are concerhed, as already explained und.er 3.4.
taken by the system in completing one cycle of Because of the uniform loading on the foundation
vibration. In calculating the natural period of soil and the associated settlements, the value of B
is taken as equal to 1.0 for dams.

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at the base. The values given in 4.2.1.1 of the
Code may be adopted when exact analysis is not As can be seen, isolated RCC footings without
required. tie beams of unreinforced strip foundations and
well foundations have been considered most
3.4.3 Soil-Foundation Factor - To take into vulnerable while in soft soils, only raft founda-
account the soil-foundation systems on which the tions, due to its possibility of reducing differential
structure is founded, a factor @ for various cases settlements have been considered effective.
is given in Table 3 of the Code.
The effect of the soil-foundation system on the It is observed by past experience that founda-
earthquake effect on structures is two-fold: (a) the tion of a building should act in an integral manner
interaction between the soil foundation system and if damage is to be the minimum. In this context
the super-structure, and (b) the behaviour of the it is recommended that foundation units be tied
found&ion itself under the induced load. It is together.
essentially the latter which is taken care of by the
factor specified in the Code. In other words, 3.4.4 Additional factor of safety is required to
since the effect of the soil-foundation system on be provided against earthquake damage for struc-
the natural period of the structure (determined on tures whose functioning is of special importance
the assumption of infinitely rigid foundation) is after an earthquake, such as hospitals. And also
to elongate the natural periods, the use of spectra for structures whose damage is catastrophic to life
given in Fig. 2 of the Code will show smaller and property, such as atomic power reactors and
dams. The same has been identified and given in
values of 2 for larger flexibility of the soil Table 4 of the Code. As per the note the impor-
foundationzystem. The effect of flexibility of the tance factors given are for guidance and it is to be
soil alone (indicated by hardness and softness of based on judgement in every particular case.
the soil) may, to some extent, be taken care of if
soil-dependent spectra were to be used. However, 3.4.5 Since the ground moves in all directions
the effect of foundation type on the soil structure in an earthquake and even tilts and rotates; consi-
interaction can be accounted for, only if the deration of the combined effect of all these motions
structure is modelled properly and a dynamic must be included in the design of important
analysis is carried out. Because of the large structures. In most cases, only lateral forces are
number of variables involved, it would not be created by earthquakes, but in actual fact large
possible nor would it be rational to specify coeffi- vertical accelerations can also occur, particularly
cients to account for this effect without specifying in epicentral regions. The same must be taken
the type of superstructure as well. Moreover, as into account particularly where stability is a
already stated, the natural periods of structures criterion for design. The vertical seismic coefficient
are ordinarily computed on the basis of fixed base (or the average acceleration coefficient in response
and since the flexibility of the foundations elongate spectrum approach) is recommended *to be taken
the periods the spectrum method as given in this as half of horizontal coefficient although it varies
Code gives conservative values of seismic coefficient considerably with distance from epicentre. It may
if soil-structure interaction effects are neglected. be about 0.25 to 0.75 times the horizontal com-
ponent, the higher values being at places close to
The effects of the earthquake ground motion on the epicentre. In the Code therefore, an average
the damage that can be caused to the structure are value of 0.50 is recommended.
 SP : 22 - 1982

4. BUILDINGS tion. The lumped mass system reduces to the

solution of a system of second-order differential
4.1 Design Live Loads equation. These equations are formed by distri-
bution of mass and stiffness in a structure, together
4.1.1 The weight at any floor level of a building
with its damping characteristics and the dynamic
would equal the dead load plus live load present.
characteristics of the ground motion. In this
In case of live load, ,only a fraction of value
method, which is also referred to as seismic coeffi-
normally taken for static design is recommended
cient method, the design base shear is worked out
by the Code. This is in view of the probability of
by the equation given in the Code,
its presence during the time of earthquake and
also because the 1iveJoads provided iti the relevant
code included impact effect of live load which . ..(l)
does not possess mass. For load class 200, 250 and
300 category buildings, only 25 percent of normal This method though called pseudo static method,
design live loads are recommended while for does take into account the fact that with increase
heavier category that is, 400 and above class the in period (r) of a building the seismic shear must
recommended values are 50 percent because reduce. Factor C has a value 1.0 up to period
mostly office buildings and other public buildings equal to about 0.35 seconds and reduces to about
fall in this category where quite a good percentage 0.2 at period of 3.0 seconds. The method, there-
of Iive load is always present. The Code correctly for, requires an estimate of period (T) of the
recommends that if live load at the time of earth- building to choose the value of C in equation (1).

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quake can be assessed, the same may be used in For this purpose the Code provides use of\ two
the seismic design. However the value of design empirical formulae*.
live load assumed shall not be less than the values
specified in the Code. In case, the designer is able toget better estimates
of T, that is, either experimentally or otherwise,
It is to be noted that the same fraction of live the same may be used to obtain the value of C
loads mentioned above: shall also be used for above.
computing stresses due to vertical loads for com-
bining with those due to earthquake forces. The Distribution of Seismic Ford.2 along Height of
Code recommends that under this condition, the Building
entire building frame may be assumed loaded with
the above fraction of live load except the roof. Dynamic analysis of buildings has indicated that
the seismic forces increase from zero at base to
4.2 Design Criteria for Multistoreyed Buildiogs - maximum at the top. One type of distribution of
It is recognized that dynamic forces on multi- this force is an inverted triangle which is used by
storeyed buildings are best computed through a many designers. This is suitable only for structures
detailed vibration analysis. This, however, is a in which mass and stiffness in each storey is equal,
costly preposition for certain buildings and, there- but since it is usually not so the distributios
fore, it is recommended that detailed dynamic suggested in the Code gives parabolic distribution
analysis or modal analysis or pseudo static analysis of seismic forces such that the seismic shears are
should be carried out depending on the importance higher near top storeys for the same base shear.
of the problem. With this background, it is The distribution of forces along with the height of
essential to make detailed dynamic analysis for the building is given by the formula given in the
buildings taller than 90 m in zones III, IV and V Code,
while modal analysis is recommended for such
buildings in Zones I and II. Buildings having
heights between 40m and 90m in Zones IV and V
must be analysed by modal method while either
modal method or pseudo static method is recom-
mended for Zones I to III. Buildings having
height less than 40 m may be analysed by pseudo
static method. The Code restricts the use of pseudo static
method to ordinary or normal structures/buildings
Pseudo Static Method and excludes all special layouts like Plaza type
building or building with flexible first storey or
In all the methods of analysing multistorey building on hill slopes (see Fig. 4 of the Code). For
buildings recommended in the Code, tht structure such buildings, modal method of analysis is
is treated as discrete system having concentrated recommended.
masses at floor levels which include half that
of columns and walls above and below the
floor. In addition, the appropriate amount of *A. W. Andcrson,,J. A. Blume, H. J. Degenkolb, H. B.
Jammill, E. M. Knaplk, H. L. Marchand, H. C. Powers,
live load at this floor is also lumped with it. It is J. E. Rinne, G. A Sedgnick, and H 0. Sioberg. Lateral
also assumed that the structure is flexible and will Forces of Earthquake and Wind. Trans. ASCE, Vol. 117;
deflect with respect to the position of the founda- P 716-780 (1952).

9
SP : 22 - 1982

E
In

z
.
II iD ID
WALL 12 cm
; /ALROUND
ul
.

iii
0

50 cm *JOem

1:1?U)

3@7*5m=22_5m

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L --I

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PLAN

-. __- _----___ -_
ELEVATLON
FIG. 2

In calculations of building as regards the slabs may be assumed’as 15 cm thick. The wall
influence of seismic forces. they will be considered alround is 12 cm thick.
as static. The static parameters (bending moments,
shear and normal forces, moments due to torsion).
which are the result of their influence on the a) Dead weights
building, will be obtained by the usual static
methods. Weight of beams
= 24 x 7.5 x 0.4 x 0.25 x 24
Example 1
= 43.2 t
An eight storeyed RCC framed building with
live load of 300 kg/m” (see Fig. 2) is to be con-
structed in Agra (seismic zone III). Work out Weight of columns
seismic forces on the structure. All beams and
columns may be assumed to be of 25 x 40 cm =16x 3 x 0.4 x 05x 2.4
and 40 x 50 cm respectively. The roof and floor = 23.04 t

10
 SP:22- 1982

Weight of slab - h,=3m,h,=6m,h,=9m,h,=IZm,

= 22.5 x 225 x 0.15 x 24 ** h,= 15m,h,= 18m,h,=21m and
= 18225 t h, = 24 m.
With these forces Q1 to Q, are worked out
Weight of walls
and shear forces in the various storeys are
= 22.5 x 4 x 3 x 0.12 x 2-O also computed as shown in Table 1.
= 64.8 t

b) Live load at all floors except roof floor TABLE 1 NODAL FORCES AND SEISMIC SHEAR
FORCES AT VARIOUS LEVELS
= 22.5 x 22.5 x 0.3 x 0.25
= ,37*97 t FLOOR W, /I, Wih: Qt Vt (SHEAR
FORCE)

0) (4 0) 0)
c) Lumped mass at floor level 1
1 351’26 3 3 161.34 0.35 68.75
= W, = 43.2 + 23.04 + 182-25
2 do 6 12 645.36 1.39 6840
+ 64.8 + 37.97 - 351’26 t 3 do 9 28 45206 314 67.01
Similarly 4 do 12 50 58144 5’58 63.87
5 do 15 79 033.50 8.72 58.29
W, = w, = w, = w, = w,
6 do 18 113 808.24 12.56 49.57

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for internal use by subscribing member only.

7 do 21 154905.66 17.09 37.01

Lumped mass at roof floor, 8 313.29 21 180455tM 19.91 19.91

_-_--
623 042.64
w, = 313.29 t
The seismic shear force for which the building is to be
4 Base shear, VB = Ca, W designed is indicated in the last column of Table 1.

W = Total gravity load of the building

4.2.2 ModalAnalysis - This method of analysis
= 2 772.11 t
is based on the dynamic response of the building
The building is without bracing or shear idealized as having a lumped mass and stiffnesses
walls. in various storeys. It is shown that response of
a N-degree freedom system (or N-storeyed building)
Therefore, T = 0.1 n = 0.1 x 8 can be computed by using the normal mode theory
= 0.8 seconds in which the system can be considered as if made
of N single degrees of freedom systems whose
Design seismic coefficient aA = @Ic+,.
For the response is superimposed. For this purpose, the
present case it is assumed that foundation first three modes of the building response are consi-
is of pile foundation resting on hard soil dered to be adequate [see commentary on 3.4.2
which would give fi = 1.0; importance (b)]. Response in each mode is determined first
factor will be taken as I.0 (since it is an by using the following relationship:
ordinary office building) and a,, = 0.04.
Qy’ = Wi4:’ crarc’ . ..(3)
.. ah = 1 X 1 X 0.04 = 0’04
c ( f& Fig. 3 of the CO+ ) == 0’62 in which Q,V’ = Force at ith floor level when
i=8 vibrating in its-rth mode.
VB = c a,, c w
i=l Wi = dead load + appropriate percentage
of live load at level hi measured above
= 0.62 x 0.03 x 2 772-11 = 68.75 t the ground level,
0) Distribution of lateral seismic shear force 4(i) = mode shape coefficient for ith floor
induced along the height of the building is
given by the formula, level when vibrating in rth mode, and
C, = mode participation factor for
W,h; different floor levels when vibrating
Qi= VB i-n - in the rth mode.
B W,hf ; W#”
1=1
c, = i=l
in which hi is the height of ith floor
measured from the base of the building.

11
SP : 22 - 1982

where n is total number of storeys in the only with amplitude, p represents circular fre-
building quency of the system.
8’h = Design seismiccoefficient correspond- Equation (a) can be rewritten as,
-P’ [Ml Ml + VI Ml = 0 . ..(c)
ing to rth mode given by, or d w-l M = WI Ml . ..(d)
O(C) Premultiplying by K-l on both sides, one
obtains

where p and I are soil-foundation factor and Wl-l[Ml &I = $ Ml . ..(e)

$‘I putting K-l as G (or flexibility matrix),
0 Equation (e) assumes the following form,
importance factor, - is the average accelera-
tion coe&ient in thg rth mode (from Fig. 2 of VI WI Ml =$ Ml -**(f)
Code) and FO is the seismic zone factor.
Equation (f) is of the form
After obtaining Qy’ values, shear forces _ AX=XX
various storeys are obtained by summing up Qs which represents’an eigen value problem whose
values from top and up to the storey in question. solution leads to evaluation of natural fre-
quencies and corresponding mode shapes. The

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These are termed as Vi” values, which must be methods of solution are generally iterative and,
are easily amenable to computer programming*.
computed for at least the first three modes. The To start with, trial shape 4(o) shall be assumed.
combination or superimposition of various modal If the assumed shape were a true mode shape
values of force is then carried out using the 4 (I), then the same frequency would be
following law: obtained by taking the coordinate of the struc-
r-p ture. However, the desired shape will differ
vi = (1 - y) r, Vj” + y J X U+“}r . ..(4) from 4(o), and a different result will be
obtained for each displacement coordinate.
where y is a function of the height of building Because of this reason a better approximation
as defined in the code; V;‘r”= absolute value of of frequency can be obtained by an averaging
process. The best averaging procedure consists
maximum shear at the ith storey in the rth mode. of including the mass distribution a weighting
Determination of mode shape coeficient (#y’
factor. Knowing p, the fundamental period
for mode one may be computed as:
values) - The Code has simply stated that 4:” T1 z2”
Pl
values are obtained from free vibration analysis,
but has not suggested any method of doing so Example 2
because such methods are given in detail in books Analyse a 15-storeyed RC building as shown in
on theory of vibration. However, a brief descrip- Fig. 3. The live load on all the floors is 200 kg/m’
tion of the formulation of problem is included in and.soil below the building is hard. The site lies
the following paragraph‘s: in Zone V. All the beams are of size 40 x 50 cm
A popular method for the determination of and slabs are 15 cm thick. The sizes of columns are
the fundamental mode is the iterative Stodola 60 x 60 cm in all the storeys and the wall alround
method, as this method is usually formulated is 12 cm thick.
using matrix notations, it is also called matrix
Analysis of the Building
iteration. The equation of motion for a freely
vibrating motion of a multi-storeyed lumped a) Calculation of dead load, live load and
mass (undamped) can be written as: storey stiffnesses: As in case of seismic
coefficient method, dead loads and live loads
[Ml [Xl-+ VI VI = 0 . ..(a)
at each floor are computed and lumped.
in which it4 is the diagonal mass matrix, K the Stiffness in a storey is ‘lumped assuming all
stiffness matrix in relation to lateral displace- the columns to be acting in parallel with
ments and, d and X are displacement vector each column contributing stiffness corres-
corresponding to storey displacements and ponding to Kc = 12EI/L3, where I is the
acceleration vector corresponding to storey moment of inertia about bending axis, L the
acclerations matrices, respectively. Assuming column height and E the elastic modulus of
the free vibration is simple harmonic, column material. The total stiffness of a
[X] = [4] sin pt . ..(b) storey is thus CKc. The lumped mass at all
4 represents the shape of vibrating system *For details, reference may be made to any book on
which does not change with time ‘t’ but varies Theory of Vi&ration.

12
 SP:22 - 1982

PLAN
--I 3@7*5m = 22.5 m

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ELEVAl ION

FIG. 3

floor levels is 52.43(t.sa/m) and at roof Horizontal seismic coefficient for design is
level is 40(t.sa/m). The values of I, Kc and given by,
IX, for all the floors/storeys is 1.08 x lo6
cmJ, 9 024 t/m and 180 480 t/m, respectively.
b) The first three natural frequencies and the
corresponding mode shapes are determined
using Stodola Vienello iteration procedure
and are given in Table 2.
Assuming 5 percent damping in all the
TABLE 2 PERIODS AND MODE SHAPE
three modes, I I= 1.0 and 8 = 1’0, from
COEFFICIENTS AT VARIOUS LEVELS Table 5 of Code, the design seismic
FOR FIRST THREE MODES coefficient for zone V(Fo-=0.40)in the
Mode (r) 1 2 3
three mode work out as follows:
Period in 1.042 0,348 0.210
Seconds c(l)

Mode shape coefficients at various floor levels 1st Mode: = 0.105; a:) = 0.042
+I;’ 0,356 -0.355 0.353
+I;’ 0.353 -0.330 0.283
s’2’
&’ 0,347 -0.273 ci.140
4I;’ 0.336 -0.190 -0.039
2nd Mode $ = O-184; a:) = 0.073 7
4;;’ 0.323 -0.089 -0.208
4;b’ 0.305 0.019 -0.324 s’3’

dg’ 0.285 0.127 -0.355

3rd Mode $ = 0.200; c$’ = 0.080
4I;’ o-261 0.222 -0 296
4p’ 0.235 0.296 -0.158
4?’ 0.206 0.342 0.019
d) The next step is to obtain seismic forces
at each floor level in each individual mode
4:” 0.175 0.356 0192
as required in Equation (3). Mode parti-
4:” 0143 0.336 0.315 cipation factors in each mode is to be
4s” 0.108 0.285 0’356 obtained. For this, Table 3 would be
4:” 0 073 0.206 0.305
found convenient wherein the method is’
explained for computation of C, (mode
41
(I) 0.037 0’108 0.175
participation factor for first mode).

13
SP : 22 - 1982

TABLE 3 COMPUTATION OF MODE TABLE 5 COMPUTATION OF LATERAL FORCES

PARTICJPATION FACTOR C, AND SHEAR (MODE 2)

No. p-
4i
0’037 1903 0.70
No.
l
-aw
1 514.34 0.108 1.18 x 4’87 51.53
0’073 37’55 2’74
0.073 7
0.108 55.55 6’00 2 5r4.34 0.206 do 928 46.66
0.143 73.55 10’52 3 51434 0.285 do 1282 37.38
0’175 90.01 15.75
4 51434 0.336 do 15.14 24’56
1 778.88
6 0.206 105.95 21’83 C,=498’08 5 51434 0.356 do 16.03 9.42
6 51434 0.342 do 15.40 -6.61
7 0.235 120.87 2840 =3’571
7 514.34 0.296 do 1332 --a01
8 0.261 13424 35.03
8 51434 0.222 do 9’98 -3533
9 0.285 14659 41.78
9 514.34 0.127 do 5.70 4931
10 0.305 156.87 47.85
10 514.34 0.019 do 0.87 -51.01
11 0.323 166.13 53.66
11 51434 -0.089 do -4.03 -51.88
12 0.336 172.82 58.07
12 514.34 -0.190 do -8.56 47.85
13 0347 178.47 61.93

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13 51434 -0.275 do -1227 -39’29
14 0353 181.56 6409
14 514.34 -0.330 do -14.83 -27.02
15 0.356 139.69 49’73
--- 15 392-40 -0.355 do -12.19 -1219
21 778.88 2498’08
TABLE 6 COMPUTATION OF LATERAL FORCES
AND SHEARS (MODE 3)
Having obtained C, = 3-57, Cs and
C., are obtained similarly as l-18 and FLOOR wi $i
0%98, respectively. -
Wi4i
Seismic force acting at each floor is No’
then computed as per Equation(3) and is 1 514’34 @175 O-698 x 5’01 19.37
given conveniently in tabular form for 0 (~80
mode 1 as shown in Table 4. This table 2 51434 0.305 do 8.73 14’36
also gives the shears in each storey in this 3 514’34 0.356 do 10’18 5.63
mode. Similarly, Tables 5 and 6 tabulate 4 514.34 0.315 do 9.00 -4.55
the forces for the second and third mode i 51434 0.192 do 5.49 -13.55
respectively. 6 514’34 0.019 do 0.56 -19’04
7 514.34 a158 do 4.52 -19’60
TABLE 4 COMPUTATION OF LATERAL FORCES
AND SHEARS (FIRST MODE) 8 514.34 -0.295 do -8.42 -15.08
9 514.54 --0’355 do -10.15 -6.66
10 51434 -0.324 do -925 3.49
11 514’34 -0.208 do -5.95 1274
No. x Widi %?j” 12 514.34 -0.039 do -1’12 18.69
1 514’34 0.037 0-150x 2-81 265.29 13 51434 0.140 do 4.01 19.81
o-042 14 514.34 0.283 do 8.10 15.80
2 51434 o-073 do 5’58 262.98
15 39240 0.353 do 7.70 7.70
3 ,51434 0.108 do 830 25690
4 514-34 0.143 do 1 I.03 248.60
of shears for the three
e) Combination
5 51434 0’175 do 13.45 237 67
modes:
6 51434 0.206 do 15.82 22422
7 514’34 0.235 do 18.03 20840 After getting shear forces in each
190.37
individual mode, the total shear force in
8 51434 0’261 do 2004
each storey is obtained in accordance with
9 514’34 0’285 do 21.84 170.33
4.2.2.2 of the Code, total shear force,
10 514% 0’305 do 23.42 148.49
11 SW34 0.323 do 24.74 125.07
v, = (1 - y) Wj” t Y x(vy)*
12 514’34 0.336 do 25.80 100.33 I/
13 514.34 0.347 do 2659 7453
For height of building equal to 45 m,
14 SW34 0353 do 27.10 4794
Y = 0.65, shear in any storey say top
15 39240 0.356 do 20.84 20.84 (15th), is given by,

14
 FIG. 4 PLAN OF UNSYMMETRICALSTR~~~~RB

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VI;= (1 - 0.65) [(20’84 + 12.19 + 7*70)] TABLE 7 DRurlr OR MAXIMUM INTERSTOREY
DISPLACEMENT OF BUILDING (EXAMPLE
+ 0*65*r(20*84)*+ (1219)% + (7.7)’ MODAL ANALYSIS)

= 30.73 t ST~REY SHEAR, STIFFNESS. RELATIVE

i Vi (t) Ki(t/cm) DISPLACEMENT,
MAX
Similarly, shear in all other storeys Vi/Ki (cm)
(to be taken by all columns) are computed
1 391.37 1 804*80 0217
as follows:
2 38293 1804-80 O-212
3 367.19 1804.80 0.203
V, = 391.37 t V, = 217.14 t
4 346.10 1 804.80 0’192
V, = 38293 t VI, = 188.17 t
5 321.95 1804-80 O-178
V, = 367.19 t V,, = 161.08 t 6 296.95 1 804.80 0.165
v, = 346.10 t 6, = 132.71 t 7 272.81 1 804.80 0.151
V, = 321.95 t v,, = 103.03 t 8 242.96 1804.80 0.136
V,, = 296.95 t V,, = 68.98 t 9 217.14 1804.80 O-120
V, = 272.81 t I’,, = 30.73 t 10 188.17 1 804.80 0.104
11 161’08 1804-80 0’089
V, = 245.96 t
12 132.71 1804.80 O-074
13 103.03 1 804.80 0’057
The above values of shear forces in
14 68’98 1804.80 @038
various storeys are to be taken for seismic
condition in analysis. Tab!e 7 gives 15 30.73 1 804.80 O-017
maximum interstorey displacement of the
building. occupants psychologically. It is felt that @004
of the interstorey height is a good limit for this
NOTE1 - In building in which the floors and roofs purpose. Buildings analysed for seismic forces
consist of solid or hollow slabs, or of other elements must be checked for this drift limitation also.
with an equivalent horizontal rigidity, the shearing force
Vi acting at level i shall be distributed along the various
vertical elements in proportion to their rigidity.
In a 15 storeyed building analysed in Example 2,
the drift is worked out in Table 7. It is seen
NOTE2 - The rigidity and the resistance of the slab that in a few storeys the drift exceeds 0.004 x 3 =
shall be verified to determine that they are capable of 0.012 m and hence the design needs revision from
providing such distribution of loading. If the amount
of deformation of the slab is not negligible, the effect of this point of view;-
their flexibility shall be taken into account in the
distribution of the shearing forces. 4.2.4 Torsion of Buildings - Horizontal twis-
ting occurs in buildings when centre of mass and
4.2.3 Drifi ( Lateral Displacement or Sway ) - centre of rigidity do not caincide. The distance
The drift limitation is necessary to save elements between these two is called eccentricity (e). Lateral
(non-structural elements) which form an integral force multiplied by this ‘e’ cause a’ torsional
part of the structure and to avoid upsetting of the moment which must be resisted by the structure

15
8Pr22-1982

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in addition to the normal seismic force. There- Assuming the origin at point 0, the coordinates.
fore, the Code stipulates that provision shall be of centre of rigidity (geometric centre of stiffnesses
made for increase in shear forces acting on parti- of various vertical resistance elements) or point of
cular elements resulting from the horizontal torsion rotation are computed as follows:
due to an eccentricity between the centre of mass
and the centre of rigidity.
It is desirable to plan structural elements of the in which x, y are the coordinates of and K#, Kv
building in such a way that there is no eccentricity are stiffness of the various elements in the two
or the building is symmetrically planned with directions, respectively. The rotational stiffness
respect to the mass centre. However, it is very Zzr of the structure about centre of rotation C, is
difficult to do so in practice and some provision given by,
has to be made for it.
I,, = B [K, - YOI+ Ky . X2]
Since there could be quite a bit of variation in
in which x and y are the distances of elements.
computed value of i, it is recommended by the
Code that design eccentricity shall be 1.5 e. The from the centre of rigidity C,. If the torsional
net effect of this torsion is to increase shear in moment is T (equal to Ve), the torsional shears.
V, and VV on any column line can be computed
certain structural elements and reduction in certain
as:
others. The Code recommends that reduction in
shear on account of torsion should not be applied
and only increased shears in the elements be V. = f - y - Km, and
P
considered.
The torsional forces shall be distributed to the
vr = f - x
9
. K,,”
various vertical components of the seismic resisting in which K,s and K,, are the total stiffness of the
system with due consideration given to the relative column line under consideration in the x and y
stiffnesses of the vertical components and the directions, respectively.
diaphragm. It is then corrected for torsion taking
into account the increases produced, but not the Example 3
decreases as specified in the Code.
A four storeyed building (with load
In order to understand the method of deter- 300 kg/m*) has the plan as shown in Fig. 5
mining the additional shears due to torsion, the and is to be designed in seismic Zone III. Work
building plan given in Fig. 4 may be examined. out the seismic shears in the various storeys of the

16
 SP : 22 - 1982

proposed building. The factor @may be assumed d) e0 and ev .are computed as:
as 1.0 and importance factor I also as 1-O.
em= 13*75- 13.51 = 0.24 m (design value
a) Total weight of beams in a storey = @36 m)’
= 14 x 7.5 x 0.4 x 0.5 x 2.4
= @35 m (for top floor,
:= 50.4 t
design value
Total weight of columns in a storey = 0.52)
== 18 x 3 x 0.4 x 0.6 x 24 e, = lO*OO- 9.76 = 0.24m (design value
= Jl*lOt = 0.36 m)
Total weight of slab in a storey = 0.30 m (for top floor, design value
= (22.5 x is + 15-x 15) x 0.15 = 0.45 m)
x 2.4 = 202.5 t Total rotational stiffness IP about centre of
rigidity is given by,
Total weight of walls
:= (22’5 + 15 + 7’5 + 30 + 15 + 15) Ip = (J&P + J&P)

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x 0.2 x 3 x 2.0 = 126 t K,P = 2 673.78 [5(10’) $ 5 (2.5*)

Live load in each floor + 5(52) x 3 (12’5J21

= (22.5 x 15 + 15 x 15) x0.3x0.25 = 3 016 023.8
= 42-18 t KvXa = 6 016 [4( 13.753 + 4 (6.25’) +
,Lumped weight at floors 1, 2 and 3 4 (1.25”) + 3 (8.758) + 3 (16’25”)]
= (410.00 + 42.18) = 452.18 t
= 11 674.799.0
Lumped weight at roof floor
I,, = 3 016 023.8 + 11 674 799.0
= 410.00 t
L= 14 690 822.8
Total weight of building
= 452.18 x 3 + 410.00 e) Torsional moment T at various floors is as
= 1 766.5 t follows, considering seismic force in X-
direction only,
b) Base shear: T, = 63.59 x 0.36 = 22.89 t.m
T == 0’1 x 4 = 0.4 s Tz = 61.36 x 0.36 = 22.18 t.m
C (from Fig. 3 of the Code) = 0.90 T3 = 52.44 x 0.26 = 18.88 t.m
VB = lah C.W. Td = 32.36 x 0.45 = 14.56 t.m
==. 1 x 1 x 0.04 x 0.90 x 1 766.5 Torsional shear at each column line is
== 63.59 t worked out in Table 9 by using equation:

c) The shear forces in various storeys are

computed as shown in Table 8:

TABLE 8 NODAL FORCES AND SEISMIC SHEAR TABLE 9 TORSIONAL SHEARS IN VARIOUS
FORCES AT VARIOUS LEVELS STOREYS IN X-DIRECTION (IN TONNES)

COLUMN FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH

FLOOR Wr fit Wihf Qc STOREY STOREY
(SHEAR ?ORCL) LINE STOHEY STOKEY

(0 (m, (t) (0 (1) (2) (3) (4)

1 452.18 3 4 069.62 2.23 63.59 VZ V, V, V&!
2 ,, 6 16 278.48 8.92 61.36 1 0.20 0.178 0.140 0’119
3 9 36 626.58 20.07 52.44 2 0.50 0.044 0’034 0’029
4 41&O 12 59 04om 32G6 32.36 3 0.10 -0’088 -0’071 -0.060
-----
1 16 014.68 4 0.15 -0.132 -0’105 -0.891

17
SP : 22 - 1982

f) Torsional moment in the various storeys tance factor as 1.0 and soil foundation factor 8
considering seismic force to be acting in as 1.2.
Y-direction:
For the Zone III, basic seismic coefficient is
T, = 63.59 x O-36 = 22.89 t.m 0.04. The design horizontal seismic coefficient for
the structure is given by,
Tz = 61.36 x a36 = 22.18 t.m
T, = 52.44 x 0.36 = 18.88 t.m aA = 1.0 x l-2 x 0.04 = 0.048
T, = 32.36 x 0.52 = 16.82 t.m For the appendage the seismic coefficient
Torsional shears at each column line in = 5 x O-048 = O-24. The seismic force on the
this direction are worked out in Table 10 appendage is given bp,
according to expression for F = 0.24 x 0.3 x 0.3 x 1 x 2.4 = O-052t

The appendage connection should be designed

for a shear force equal to O-052 t and bending
NOTE- Itwill be noted from Tables 9 and 10 that moment equal to 0.052 x 0.5 = 0.026 t.m.
column lines 1, 2 (in case of seismic force in X-direction-
left to right or right to left) and A, B (in Y-direction) will
be having increase of shear due to torsion. Other Example 5 .- A horizontal cantilever of. size
column lines will be relieved of some shear but Code 1 x 1 m having average thickness of 6 cm projects
recommends not to reduce the seismic shear on out from the wall of a brick building room (size
account of such relief.
5 x 4.5 m). The building has a height of 3 m and

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TABLE 10 TORSIONAL SHEARS IN VARIOUS with 240 kg/ma. Thickness of wall is 20 cm. The
STOREYS IN Y-DIRECTION (IN TONNES) building is located in seismic Zone V (see Fig. 6).
COLUMN FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH
LINE STOREY STOREY STOREY STOREY The cantilever is to be designed for a vertical
seismic coefficient equal to five times the vertical
(1) (2) (31 (4)
v, VW V” 1'
Y
A 0.49 0.428 0.342 0.362
r12 cm
0.277 0’159 0.162
B 0,194
: .;: c
n
C 0.049 0.039 0.032 0.032 .‘.::: .‘.t.;. ‘;:

D
E
O-242
0.444
0.207
0.380
0.169
0.309
0.175
G-318
---I-
4.4 Miscellaneous 1.0m &- 1-O m ---_ct

4.4.1 and 4.4.2 Under these clauses the Code

advises the designer to be extra careful in design
of vertical and horizontal projections like towers,
tanks, chimneys, balconies and other cantilever
..._...
,...
,..
...:.
I!====4
projections or appendages in buildings. Experience
from past earthquakes has shown that such
appendages get damaged considerably and many
lives are lost due to their collapse. Such systems
1
M
6 cm-t

are subject to larger motions than the building to t -A--0.2m

which they are attached. Therefore. the Code
recommends that the seismic coefficient for the
design of vertical cantilever projections attached
to tne building should be taken as five times the 2-O m
I
ah specified for the main structure. Similarly, the
vertical seismic coefficient for all horizontal pro-
jections shall be 5 times a”. However, it must be
clearly understood that this provision is only for
designing the projecting part and their connections
with the main structure. This provision is not to
be applied to main structure.

Example 4 - A vertical appendage of size

30 x 30 cm and 1.0 m high is attached to a four \I
storeyed building in Zone III. Work out the design
forces for the appendage structure. Take impor- FIG. 6

18
 SP:22-1982

.w
coefficient for the zone :. aI, = 5 x ) x 0.08
- O-20. The cantilever if designed for static
forces will be found to be safe because under
seismic condition the moments and shears will
increase only by 20 percent whereas the allowable
1 1-O m
stresses are to be increased by 339 percent as per
3.3of the Code. W I

For checking the stability of the cantilever,

however, it is important to use a. as acting down-
ward for the cantilever and upward for the main
structure which may be the worst condition in view
of difference in characteristics of the two portions
(main building and cantilever). This leads to
t
W
III”’
l I

increased overturning moment and reduced stabi-

lizing moment. Referring to Fig. 7 where forces d-t-c L/
are indicated, the stabilizing moment is given by:
t
M, = W(1 -aw)--
2

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and overturning moment by:

For stability, M, must be greater than MO.

W, = 1 x 1 x 0.06 x 2.4 = 0,144 t FIG. 7
Alo = 0.144 (1 + 0.2) x 0.5
5.2.4 The analysis based on energy considcra-
= 0.086 4 t.m. tion (Reference 1) shows that when the mass m of
Weight of the wall above the cantilever the tank (including contents) is much greater than
= 0.2 x 1.0 X x 2”O = 0.4 x t the mass of the staging m,, the equivalent mass
will be
Weight of roof slab per metre run including
finishes = 0.8 t M=mfQm,
:. W = 0.4 X + 0.8 X = 1.2 X
and when the mass m is smaller than m,, the
:.M,= 1*2Xx 0.1 x (1 -0.2)
equivalent mass will be
= O-096 X t.m.
M=m+)m,,
Equating M, and M,,,
0.096 X = 0.086 4 In general the mass of the staging would be
smaller than the mass of the tank (including water)
x = 0.086 4
----=0_9m= l’Om(say). and hence the equivalent mass recommended in
0.096 the Code is + of actual mass.
The cantilever will have to be embedded under The reason for considering only Q of the staging
1.0 m length of wall. In other words the anchorage weight at the centroid of the tank is that 4 of the
length will be 1.0 m or equal to the width of the staging weight will act at the bottom of the tank
cantilever itself. at ground level and hence will not contribute to
5.2 Elevated Tower Supported Tanks - No vibration.
empirical formulae are available for prediction of 52.7 Hydrodynamic Pressure in Tanks - When
period of water towers, and even though water a tank containing fluid with a free surface is
towers generally have longer period and effective subjected to earthquake ground motion, it expcri-
acceleratior. coefficients are smaller than the peak ences dynamic fluid pressures of two types.
of the acceleration response spectra, this reduction Firstly, when the walls of tank accelerate,
is not made use of in the seismic coefficient method. the adjacent fluid also accelerates and exerts on
It would be desirable that in future revision of the the wall an impulsive pressure which is directly
Code. response spectrum method for determina- proportional to the acceleration of the wall.
tion of a! is recommended for all zones. Alterna- Secondly, the effect of the impulsive pressure
tively, smce a majority of prototype water towers exerted by the wall on the fluid is to excite the
tested have periods longer than 06 s, for preli- fluid into oscillation and the oscillatory accelera-
minary design a reduction factor of 0.75 be used tion of the fluid produces convective pressures
such that the design seismic coefficient on the walls and bottom whose amplitudes are
a h = O-75 &I. a0 proportional to the amplitude of oscillation.

19
SP : 22 - 1982

stiffness (or its inverse, the flexibility) of the

staging. However, the approximate method as
illustrated in Example 6 would do.

Example 6 - Consider an elevated water tower

supported on a concrete staging of 8 columns
located on the circumference of a circle of 9 m
diameter. The height of the staging is 16 m and
horizontal bracing is provided at a vertical spacing
4 m. The circular columns are 52 cm in diameter.
Diagonal steel bracing in the form of 18 mm dia
bars are provided in all bays (see Fig. 8).

Equivalent Spring Constant I

The staging is assumed to be composed of

springs in series connected at the horizontal brace
level. The stiffness of the spring in one bay is made
up of stiffness of columns and diagonal braces
acting as parallel springs.

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a) Stiffness of a column in a bay
12EI
kb =L8
Let
E - 2 x lo6 t/m’;
L = 4 m (centre to centre distance)
The moment of inertia is assumed to be evaiuat-
ed based on the gross area of concrete.
I F t&/64 = n x (0.52)4/64
= 3.589 x IO-*m4
ASSUMED k,, - 12 x 2 x 10’ x 3.589 x 10-s/4a
DIRECTION
=l 345.9 t/m
Stiffness of 8 columns acting in parallel
EXAMPLE
T;ka = 8 x 1 345.9 = 10 767.2 t/m
b) Stiffness of diagonals in a bay (see Fig. 8)
It is assumed that only the tension diagonals
contribute to stiffness. The stiffness may be taken
FIG. 8 ELEVATEDWATER TANK as:
Assuming the fluid to be incompressible and kb = y COS’8
fluid displacements small, analytical results have
been obtained for rectangular and cylindrical type
where A is the area of cross-section, E the modulus
of tanks (Reference 2). The convective pressures
during earthquakes are considerably less in magni- of elasticity, L the length and 0 the angle with the
tude as compared to impulsive pressures and are horizontal.
therefore usually neglected.
A = vc x (@018)*/4 = 2545 x lbdmS;
53.7.2 and 5.2.7.3 In case of tanks resting on ,?$=2*1 x lO’t/m*
ground, the acceleration of the fluid in the tank is
deemed to be the same as that of ground whereas The projected lengths of the diagonals on a
for tanks supported on staging, the acceleration vertical plane in the direction of earthquake are
may correspond to the response acceleration of different. Denoting them by L, and L,
tank which would be different from that of the L1 = 3.444 set 8,; L, = 2435 see e*
ground.
tan 01 = 413444 and tan 0, = 412435,
Nowadays, sophisticated methods, such as space
frame analysis, are available for evaluation of the kbl = 430.84 t/m and kb%= 308.58 t/m

20
 SP : 22 - 1982

As there are 2 braces in the plane parallel to the Therefore,

direction of motion and 4 braces at an inclination
to it, 2 braces do not contribute to stiffness being
T
in a plane at right angles to the direction of
motion. This gives
Xkb = 2kbI + 4kba = 2 096 t/m
a) Tank empty

c) Stiffness of one bay is given by

k = I;k, + ZZka- 12 863.2 t/m
= O-614 s.
d) There are 4 bays. The equivalent spring
of the system K is obtained by summing the stiff-
nesses of all bays in series. b) Tank full
1 900
K= + T= 2x wf = 2x
c J- CK 9.81 x 3 200
K = k/4 = 12 863.214 = 3 215.8 t/m = I.064 s.
A similar procedure may be used if earthquake
force is applied in any other direction and the

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Average Acceleration Coeficient

for internal use by subscribing member only.

worst situation evaluated for design.
Assuming a damping of 5 percent of critical,
for the above periods, the average acceleration
Example 7 - An elevated water tank has a
coefficient (from Fig. 2 of the Code) would be:
capacity of 600 m3. The tank is circular with an
internal diameter of 12 m and height 6 m. The a) Tank e;npty,
tank is supported on a concrete staging 16 m in
height. The staging consists of columns, and S,,/g = 0.148
horizontal and diagonal braciags. The structure
is located in Zone IV and founded on Type II b) Tank furl,
medium type of soil. s,/g = 0.101
Let the weight of empty tank be 250 t. The a,, = p I.F,. Sa/g
weight of water in the tank when it is full is 600 t.
Let the weight of staging consisting of columns p = 1.0, I = 1.5 and F,, = 0.25
and bracings be 150 t and the stiffness of the
staging in any direction is 3 200 t/m The value a) Tank empty,
of stiffness K may be obtained by any method of
static analysis known to the designer (see Example ah = 0.055 5
6). K is the lateral force required to cause unit
deflection at the centre of gravity of the tank. b) Tank full,
ah = 0’039
Lumped Weights
Shear Force
a>Tank empty V= ahe W
Equivalent weight acting at the centre of
gravity of tank a) Tank empty,
W*=250ffx 150=300t V = ah’ W, = 0.055 5 x 300 = 16.65 t
b) Tank furl,
b) Tank full
V = ah Wf = 0’039 0 X 900 = 35.10 t
Equivalent weight,
Tank full is the severest condition. The force
W, = 300 + 600 = 900 t 35.10 t acts horizontally at the centre of gravity of
the tank in the plane in whit h the structure is
Fundamental Period
- assumed to oscillate.

T = 2n
J Hydrodynamic Pressure
The tank wall will be subjected to an accelera-
Here W is the lumped weight at ceatre of gra- tion of (a,, g) 38.259 cm/$ (corresponding to
vity of the tank and K is the stiffness of the a ,, = WO39)with a natural period of 1 064 s, this
staging. would correspond to a displacement of

21
 SP:22-1982

T” 38.259 x (l-064)’ = le09, cm

O-43 = 4x’
where u is acceleration.

Impulsive Pressure
Height of water in tank
600
= * = 5305 m

Pressure on Wall,

at x=0
pb=o
at x= &:2R
Pv is maximum when cos 4’ pb = 48.77 x 0401 9 = f 19.60 kg/m*
= 1 (for d;’ = 0) at x= =t: 0.4 R

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pb = 48.77 x 0.866 3 = & 42*25 kg/m’
pw= 0’039 x 1 000 X 5.305 x 0 $- + at x= f 0.6 R
C
pb IL 48.77 x 1.465 3 = f 71.46 kg/m4
at x=f@8R
pb = 48.77 x 2.292 1 = &- 111.78 kg/ma
at x=fl.OR
pb = 48.77 x 3.475 3 = f 169.49 kg/m’
The distribution of pressure along the wall
and at the base are as shown in Fig. .9B for
at y = 0.2 h 6’ = 0 and I’ = R. Similarly, pressure distri-
butions along the wall and base at various loca-
pu = 34535 x 0.18 = 6216 kg/ma tions can be found out by changing the values of
at y = 0.4 h 6 and I’ and studied for design.
pv = 345.35 x 0.42 = 145.06 kg/m2
at y = 0.6 h
pm = 345.35 x 0.42 = 14506 kg/ma
at y = O-8 h
pw = 345.35 x 0.48 = 165.76 kg/ma
at y=l*Oh
pv = 345.35 x 0.5 = 172.20 kg/m’
Pressure on the bottom of the tank on a strip of
width 21’ is

taking value of 1’ =I R, the above expression

becomes
0 50 100 150

PRESSURE IN kg/d

FIG. 9A RBCTANGULAR
TANK

22
 SP : 22 - 1982

a) Tank empty
Example 8 - An elevated water tank has a
capacity of 600 ms. The tank is rectangular
12 m x 9 m in size and 6 m in height. The tank is &’ = ij.148
g
supported on a concrete staging 16 m high. The
staging consists of columns, horizontal and diago- b) Tank full
nal bracings. The structure is located in Zone IV
and founded on a Type II medium type of soil. z!J = 0.104
g
Let the weight of the empty tank be 250 t. The
weight of the water in the tank when it is full is Seismic Coeficien t
600 t. Let the weight of the staging, consisting of
columns and bracings be 150 t and the stiffness of ah = p .I.F,, $
the staging in any direction is 3 200 t/m.

Lumped Weights $ = 1.0, F, = 0.25

a) Tank empty a) Tank empty alp = 0.055 5

Equivalent weight acting at the centre of b) Tank fill1 ‘a, = O-039

gravity of tank
Shear Force V = aI. W

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W,=25O+Q x 150=3OOt
a) Tank empty
b) Tank fill
V = ah. W. = @055 5 x 300 = 16.65 t
Equivalent Weight
b) Tank Full
W/ = 300 + 600 = 900 t
V = ah. Wj = O-039 X 900 = 35.10 t
, Fundamental Period Tank full is the severest condition.

T = 2x X The force 35.10 t acts horizontally at the centre

J a of gravity of the tank in the plane in which the
structure is assumed to oscillate.
Here A is the static horizontal deflection at the top
of the tank which can be found out by any of the Hydrodynamic Pressure
methods from structural analysis.
The tank wall will be subjected to an accelera-
tion of (a,.g) 38.259 cm/s* (corresponding to
Using the relation A = 2 an = 0.039) with a natural period of 1.064 s, this
would correspond to a displacement of
where W is the lumped weight at centre of gravity P 38.259 x (1.064)’
of the tank and K the stiffness of the staging the a x z;l = -- 4d - = 1.097 cm
expression for fundamental period becomes
where a is acceleration.
Impulsive Pressure

a) Tank empty Height of water in the tank = -&

7-z 2x _!!? = 2x 300 = 5.556 m

J-- gK J 9.81 x 3 200 Pressure on the wall,
= 0.614 s
pw = a,.w.h *rZ-
full
b) Tank
___
T = 2~
J -!?_
gK
= 2x 900
J 9.81 x 3 200
= 1,064 s. = 0.039 x 1 000 x 5.556
Average Acceleration Coeficient
Assuming damping as 5 percent of the critical
value, for the above periods, the average accelera-
tion coefficients (from Fig. 2 of the Code) would
be

23
SP : 22 - 1982

= 3752629 [$-&( $>“I at 5 = f0.2

I
x 0,953 63
pb E %*464 5 X 0.382 9 = 21.62 kg/m’
= 357.8624 [ $ - +( $)“I at $ = f0.4

at Y -&- I= 0 pb = 56.464 5 X 082 = 46.30 kg/m’

pw = 0 at 5 = *to.6
I
at $ ----.
0.2 pb = 56464 5 X l-373 = 77.54 kg/ma

pw = 357.862 4 x 0.18 = 64.4 kg/m2 at 5 = f0.8

I
at $; == 0.4 pb = 56.464 5 x 2.120 9 = 119.76 kg/m’
pw =- 357~8624 x 0.32 = 114.5 kg/m2
at 5 = f1.0
I
at $- = 0.6

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56.464 5 x 3.168 9 = 178.93 kg/m’

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pb =

pw = 357.862 4 x 0.42 = 150.3 kg/m2 The above type of pressure distribution are
plotted and are shown in Figure 9A
at j. = 0.8

pw = 357862 4 x 0.48 = 171.8 kg/m2

at s = 1.0

pw L- 357.862 4 x 0.5 = 178.9 kg/m2

The pressure on the bottom of the tank

pb = a/,.w.h -
c
2

= 0.039 x 1 000 x 5.556 X 5

2

0 50 100 150 200

PRESSURE IN kg/m2

FIG. 9B CIRCULARTANK
= 0’039 x 1 000 x 5.556 x &-
2 x 3.323
5.3 Stacklike Structure
General - Stacklike structures are those in
x sinh fl
( + > which mass and stiffness is more or less uniformly
distributed along the height. For the purpose of
analysis these could be treated as cantilever beams.
Z 56.464 5 sinh K ( 2 > If the structure is long compared to its cross-
sectional dimensions, bending deformations are
at -T = 0 predominant, but in general shear and rotary
inertia deformations should also be considered in
pb = 0 the analysis.

24
 SPi22-1982

The formulae given in the Code concerning same in all modes and using flat spectra, maximum
period of vibration, base shear and base moments value of response in each mode has been worked
are based on the research work (Reference 3). The out. The total response has been assumed to
following parameters have been varied in the be equal to the root mean square value of the first
analysis of various types of chimneys: three modes.
The slenderness ratio at base, r,,, has been varied As far as the distribution of the shear forces
from 5 to 50 where the lower limit corresponds and bending moments along the height is concern-
to short and stout chimneys and the upper limit to ed, the formulae have been kept unchanged right
long and slender ones. The radius of gyration, r, from the first version of IS : 1893 and is based on’
as well as the area of cross-section, A, varied Housner’s paper (see Reference 4).
linearly along the length L. That is, at any section, The Code provisions should not apply to those
distance ‘x* from the base, cases where some heavy concentrated masses may
be located at some levels or to structures supported
r,/r,, = AillAo = 1 - (1 - 8) xJL
on stagings like silos.
In addition, for a few cases, the variation of A, The Code also assumes that foundation condi-
is assumed as, tions are reasonably good and structure could be
assumed to be fixed at the foundation level.
AJA, = 1 - [(l - i3) x/U
Example 9 - A reinforced concrete chimney

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The taper ratio p has been varied, from a value of height 28 m is located in seismic Zone V. The
of 1*Oto 0.2 which covers a wide range. In all outer diameters at base and top are 3-O m and
cases, bending moment and shear have been I.8 m, respectively. The wall thickness of the struc-
computed both at the base as well as along the tural shell is @3 m throughout the height and the
length. The term response has been used here to asbestos lining is 0.10 m thick. It is required to
denote such quantities. evaluate earthquake forces on this chimney. The
Recorded ground motion corresponding to modulus of elasticity of the structural material is
actual earthquakes, namely, NS component of El 2’1 x lOa t/ms.
Centro earthquake of 18 May 1940 and N69W a) Period of Vibration
component of Taft earthquake of 21 July 1952
have been used to compute the various response. Area of cross section A at the base
The undamped fundamental period of vibration
had two values, namely, two seconds corresponding = $ (D’ - fl)
to larger values of r,, and one second correspond-
ing to shorter values of r,,. Where r, is slender-
ness ratio = L/r, r being radius of gyration. The = % (38 - 2*4*) = 2.54 m*
first three modes of vibration have been used for
mode superposition purposes. Modes of higher
order have not been considered as the correspond- Moment of inertia I at the base = $(fY - d’)
ing periods are so short that ground motion
accelerations are not defined for such periods. Two = 2 (3.04 - 24”) = 2347 m4
combinations of damping have been considered. In
one case, damping has been assumed to be the
same in al1 modes and in the other, damping Radius of gyration r = I
increased with increase in order of modes thus J -2
representing structural damping phenomenon. The
first case, in which damping is the same in all = O-96 m
modes, would be conservative and gives slightly
larger response. For the combination of modes,
response has been obtained time-wise and maximum Slenderness ratio = L/r = 28 = 29.167
0.96
values have also been determined.
Coefficient CT = 54534
In another method of determining response,
ground motion has been assumed to be such that Weight of Chimney:
the velocity %G,
spectra 2x is independent of
Let the density of the shell and lining be 24 t/ma
period. This has been termed as ‘flat spectra*. and 20 t/m”, respectively.
Such an assumption nearly corresponds to that of
Mean diameter of the shell D,
Housner’s average spectra. Flat spectra criterion
generally gives larger response for higher modes = ) (mean diameter at top + mean dia-
compared to actual ground motion if the data is meter at base)
so normalized such that first mode response is the
same in all cases. Assuming damping to be the = ) (27 + 1.5) = 2.10 m

25
SP:22- 1982

The volume of the shell = x . Dm . T . h’ at X’ = 0

v=o
= x x 2.10 ‘x 0.3 x 28
at x’ = O-2 h’
= 55.39 m3
V = 20.848 (0,333 2 - 0.026 7) = 6.39 t
Mean diameter of lining = 4 (23 + 1.1) = I.7 m
at X’ = @4 h’
Volume of the lining = 1.7 x O-1 x 28
V = 20.848 (0.666 2 - 0.106 62) = 11’67 t
= 1495 ms
at X’ = 0.6 h’

Total weight of chimney V = 20.848 (0.999 6 - 0.229 9) = 15.84 t

at X’ = 0.8 h’
wt = 55.39 x 24 + 14.95
V = 2@848 (1.332 8 - 0.426 5) = 18.89 t
x 2.0
= 162.84 t atX’= h’
V = 20.848 (I.666 - 0.666 4) = 20.85 t
Period of vibration

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The design bending moment M at a distance X’
from the top is calculated by the following
T-CT

J -

EA.g
formula:

162.84 x 28 M - ah WL h [O-6( ;rIa+0.4 ($)(I

= 54534 J 2.1 x lo8 x 2.54 x 9.81

ii- = O-458 h’ = 12.834 m
= 0.509 s
M = 0.0954 x 162.84 x 12.834

b) Design Seismic Coeficient [ 0*6($)tn+04 (;)l

The acceleration coefficient S,/g corresponding
to 5 percent damping is O-159. The design seismic
= 199*375[0*6(;)1”+0.4(;~]
coefficient cc* = p . I . F,, F. For hard and
medium soils for the type of foundation used at X’ = 0
l3 = 1.O. Assuming that the chimney is the part of M=O
power house complex, the importance factor
Z = 1.5. In Zone V, F,, = 0.4. at X’=@2h
a* = 1.0 x 1.5 x 0.4 x 0.159 M = 199.375 (0.6 (0*2)“* + 0.4 (0*2)4]
= 0.095 4 = 199.375 (0.268 3 + 0.000 64)
= 53.62 t . m
at X’ = 0.4 h’
c) Shear Force and Bending Moment
M= 199.375 [0.6 (0*4)1/* + 0.4 (0.4)4]
The design shear force V at a distance X’ from = 199.375 (0.379 5 + 0.010 24)
the top is calculated by the following formula:
= 77.70 t.m
v=Ga*wt[;(;) - +(gy] at X’ = 0.6 h
M = 199.375 [@6 (0’6)l’* + 0.4 (0*6)‘]
Coe5cient C, = I.342 (from Table 5 of the Code)
= ,J99*375 (0464 8 + 0.051 84)
V = 1.342 x 0.095 4 x 162.84 L-0
+ ; = 103fMIt.m
at X’ = 0.8 h’

)I
2 x”
M = 199.375 IO.6 (08)‘R + 0.4 (0*8)4]
-7- ( zs
= 199.375 (0.536 7 + 0.163 8)
= 20.848 [O-O595 X’ - O*OOO
85 (X’)a] = 139.67 t.m

26
 SP:22- 1982
at X’ = l*Oh the centre of gravity of the element. The appli-
M = 199.375[O-6(1-0)1/s+ 0.4 (l-o)‘] cation of seismic force to.various elements in the
two perpendicular directions of the bridge is shown
= 199.37 t.m in Fig. 1OAand JOB.
6. BRIDGES 6.13 The damage study of bridges during past
6.1.1 The safety of bridge as a whole and that earthquakes has clearly shown that masonry arch
of its individual components, such as superstruc- bridges are more vulnerable to damage due to
ture, bearings, piers and foundation is, important brittleness of material. Further, the failure of
during an earthquake. The two directions critical one of the continuous arch spans causes the failure
for the earthquake resistant design are the axis in other spans. Therefore, construction of mason-
along the length of the bridge and perpendicular ry arch bridges of span more than 10 m are not
to the axis of the bridge. The horizontal seismic recommended in Zones IV and V. Slab, box and
force is assumed to act in one of these pipe culverts are usually not designed for earth-
directions at a time. For the purpose of design, quake force. Bridges of length smaller than 60 m
bridge could be divided into several elements, and spans less than 15 m are less susceptible to
such as superstructure, bearings, piers, etc. The damage due to minor shocks and should, therefore,
seismic force equal to weight of the element times be designed for earthquake forces only in severe
the design seismic coefficient should be applied at Zones IV and V. Lengths and spans mentioned

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ahw2
ROCKER
ROLLER
dh”‘3 W,= WEIGHT OF GIRDER ahW2

W2= WEIGHT bF BEARINGS

Wa- WEIGHT OF PIER

i-
W4= WEIGHT OF WELL
FOUNDATION ahwb

FIG. l()A SEISMIC FORCEON BRIDGE

IN DIFPBRBNT
‘~MPONBNTSIN
LoNGITuDINALD~~GN

DECK

&hw2 ahw2

Ft~.loB Sxts~~cFoxcx ONBRXDGBCGMPGNENTSIN TRANSVERSE DIRECTION

SP : 22 - 1982

above are more or less arbitrary taking into could be transmitted to the supporting structure.
consideration the observations during past earth- In view of this, a factor of 50 percent of design
quakes. live load (without impact) for railway bridges and
25 percent of design live load (without impact) for
6.13 The special types of bfidges, such as road bridges for the purpose of seismic load
suspension bridge, bascule bridge, cable stayed evaluation on live load in transverse direction
bridge, horizontally curved bridge, reinforced (current direction) is recommended.
concrete arch bridge or steel bridge and the bridges
having piers taller than 30 m and spans more than 6.4.1 Besides horizontal seismic coefficient, the
120 m, are susceptible to damage due to structural superstructure should also be designed for vertical
vibrations. It is, therefore, recommended that seismic force. The vertical seismic force has
dynamic behaviour of bridge in such cases must caused jumping of girders in some cases and can
be taken into account. The modal analysis should cause additional forces and deflection in the girder
be carried out particularly, for bridges in Zones IV particularly for longer spans. The vertical seismic
and V. All other bridges should be designed by force should also be considered on 100 percent
seismic coefficient method. design live load (without impact) for railway bridges
and 50 percent of design liveload (without impact)
6.1.4 Earthquake force shall be calculated on for road b$dges.
the basis of depth of scour caused by the discharge
corresponding to mean annual flood. The 6.4.2 The proper securing of superstructure with

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discharge corresponding to mean annual flood the substructure through the bearings is I%&&
should be worked out by taking the average of due to following reasons:
maximum yearly flood discharges. The design
value of earthquake and maximum flood shall be a) The anchor bolts can shear off during an
assumed not to occur simultaneously. earthquake. In order to prevent such action,
anchor bolts should be designed for hori-
6.2 The significant point to be noted in this zontal seismic force on the girder.
Clause is regarding the weight W,. The reductions
due to buoyancy or uplift are neglected because ‘4 The rollers can be dislodged off their bearings
buoyancy is a force. The inertia forces are not during an earthquake. In order to prevent
calculated on a force, these are calculated only on such an action connecting plates or segmen-
mass. tal rollers or stoppers should be used. To
avoid the jumping of girder, special hooks
6.3.1 The live load here implies .vehicular must be employed which connect the top and
traffic. The seismic force acting on the live load the bottom shoe. A typical arrangement for
is ignored in the direction of traffic because such roller bearing is shown in Fig. 11.
a force would cause the wheels to roll and very
little or no inertia force would be transmitted to 6.4.3 Overturning of girders in the transverse
the substructure on this account. Since the bridges direction is one of ‘the possible modes of failure
are designed for longitudinal force due to braking of superstructure during an earthquake. Therefore,
effects, it is assumed that any inertia force trans- it is recommended that a factor of safety of l-5
mitted to the substructure in the traffic direction against overturning should be ensured for super-
would be covered by the design for longitudinal structure. The v@cal seismic force should also
braking force. Since the rolling of wheels is not be considered as: explained in 6.4.1 while
possible in transverse direction, the seismic effects considering stability. The direction of vertical
on live loa should be included in this direction. seismic force should be such that it gives the worst
effect.
6.3.2 The amount of design live load to be
considered for seismic force evaluation on live 6.5.1 a) The transfer of forces from super-
load is dependent upon the probability of its structure to substructure through the
presence on the bridge at the time of ?n earth- bearings is worked out in example 1.0
quake. It is assumed that 100 percent of design given below:
live load may be present ia railway bridges and
50 percent of design live load may be present on Example 10 -<see Fig. 7A of the Code)
road bridges at the instant of earthquake. These
figures are based on probabilistic considerations w’ = 800 t, e = 68 m, p = O-3,
and should be used for computing stresses due to
live loads when combined with earthquake effects. ah = 0.05
The seismic force on live load is recommended to L’ = 90 m, a0 - @O
be considered on 50 percent of the design live load
at the time of earthquake. The reduction in design
live load for seismic load evaluation is based on Horizontal seismic force on girder
the fact that the live load is friction supported on
the $cck or on the rail and only partial effect F’ = aI W’=.O*O5 x 800=4Ot

28
 SP : 22 - 1982

SPECIAL HOOK TO
PREVENT JUMPING -,

LPLATES TO PREVENT ’ lLOCK SARS

ESCAPING OF ROLLER

FIG. 11 DESIGNOF ROLLERBEARINGS

FORPREVBNTING
EXAPING OF ROLLERS

Change in vertical reactions ExampleII - Calculation of hydrodynamic

force and pressure distribution on -bridge sub-
structure (see Fig. 12).

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= & 3.022t
15.24
R, = 400 -&3.022= 403.022t
and 396978t For pier portion, 1”;’- 1.2

pR, = 120.90 t and 119.09 t = 12.7 > 4.0 (C, = 0.73)

F’J2 = 20 t h 3055
For well portion,2 = -
2.75
Fl = F'/2= 20t since PR,> F'/2 = 11.09 > 4.0 (C, = 0.73)
F, = F -Fl = 40 - 20 = 20t an= a& a,, = 0.08 x 1.5 X 1.5 = 018
If au = 0.025, there will be further change in Weight of water in enveloping cylinder for pier
vertical reaction = & 0.025 x 800 = f 20 t.
With this change in vertical reaction included, WeI = ; x 2.4’ x 15.24 x 1 = 69*0t
~RI will be still greater than F’/2. Therefore,
Fl = Fz = 20 t in this case also. Weight of water in enveloping cylinder for well

b) Horizontal and vertical seismic forces on we’=; x 55’ x 30.55 x 1 = 7260 t

the piers and wells should be applied at the
centre of masses, respectively. The effects Hydrodynamic force on pier,
of buoyancy and uplift should be neglected
as these are reactive forces. Fl = 0.73 x 0.18 x 69.0 = 9.06 t
6.5.2 The additional dynamic force in the form Hydrodynamic force on well,
of hydrodynamic force arises on the submerged F2 = 0.73 x 0 18 x 726 = 95.50 t
portion of the piers. This force is primarily due
to the vibration of certain mass of water surround- F = Fl + F, = 9.06+ 95.5= 10456t
ing the pier along with the pier and this is assumed
to act in the direction of seismic force. The For pier,
computation of hydrodynamic force is based on
cylinder analogy. For the purpose of simplifying the 9.06
- = 0’714 t/m
analysis, this analogy assumes that certain portion 1524
of water in the enveloping cylinder formed for
the plan of pier acts along with the mass of the The pressure distribution for the pier is worked
pier and gives rise to hydrodynamic force. The out and is presented in Table 11.
circular cross-sectional area to be adopted for
enveloping cylinder is dependent upon orientation F
For Well,Pb2 = 1.2 x _r
of pier with respect to earthquake force. Some h,
typical cases of enveloping cylinders are illustrated
in Fig. 9 of the Code. - 1’2 X g - 3.75 t/m

6.5.2.1 Example 11 below demonstrates the

The pressure distribution for the well portion is
method of calculating hydrodynamic force and
worked out and is presented in Table 12.
hydrodynamic pressure distribution for substrue-
ture of a bridge. The pressure distribution is shown in Fig. 13.

29
 24 m-

S’m
HWL V

-t
15.2b m

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30

10

5000
4 5-S m I_
PRESSURE, kg h2

FIG. ~~~,BRIDGJ~-~~~TR~CTURB FIG. 13 HYDRODYNAMICPRESSURBDISTRIBIJTION

ON BRIDGESTRU~TIJRB
Non - In actual practice earthquake forces would be
calculatedabove scour depth in accordance with 6.1.4 of TABLE 12 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN
the&de. WELL PORTION
c, Cxh, C, C8br (t/m)

3.055 O-410
TABIE 11 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON PIER ;:; 6.110 O-673 ::::42
o-3 9.165 O-832 3.834
C* C,h, Cl c$bl (t/m) 12’220 0.922 4-172
O-1 1’524 0’410 0’292 ;:; 15.275 o-970 4-352
0.6 18330 O?HO 4.427
o-2 3.048 O-673 0.480 08 24440 o-999 4’460
o-3 4’572 0832 o-594 1’0 30-550 1’000 4-464
o-4 6’096 O-922 Q.658 Example 12 - J’he pier well of a submersible
o-5 7.620 O-970 0.692 bridge is shown in Fig. 14.
O-6 9’144 0990 o-707 Design horizontal seismic coefficient
Q-8 12.192 o-999 o-713
1’0 15’240 l’ooo 0.714 a1 = 0.18
Hydrodynamic pressures at A, B, and C are
6.6 Submersible Bridges - Example 12 demons- given below:
trates the method of calculation of hydrodynamic PA = 875 x O-18 436X@ x 5%lO
pressure in a submersible bridge. = 2 1197 kg/m’

30
 SPr22- 1982

Vc = 5 x 5 684.18 x 36.09

-1 136 761.35 kg/m

MC=; x 5 684.18 x 36.09’

= 1 974 287.10 kgm/m

7.3 Gravity Dams - At the time of an earth-

quake, besides the normal forces, namely, self
weight, water pressure and silt or earth pressure,
inertia and hydrodynamic forces act on a dam.
The inertia force is the product of mass and
acceleration and this force acts in the direction
opposite to that of the ground motion. The hori-
zontal inertia force acts from upstream to down
stream as well as from down stream to upstream.
Similarly the vertical inertia force acts from down-

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wards as well as from upwards to downwards
direction. An acceleration downwards decreases
SCOUR LEVEL the weight. The dam is designed for the worst
combination that is for the horizontal and vertical
inertia forces.
The interaction effect between the dam and
reservoir causes the hydrodynamic forces on the
dam. The direction of hydrodynamic force is
opposite to the direction of earthquake accelera-
tion but the acceleration changes sign in practice.
Hence, the force could be either pressure or
suction. Zanger’s method (Reference 5) is generally
adopted in design practice to find the hydrodyna-
mic forces and it is based on the following
FIG. 14 SUBSTRUCTURE FOR S~JBMBR~IBLB
BRIDGE assumptions:
a) The fluid is incompressible, and
PB = 875 x 0.18 436.09 x 20-24 b) The dam is rigid and hence has the same
= 4 256-76 kg/ml motion throughout its body as that of the
base of the dam.
PC = 875 x 0-l 8 436.09 x 36.09
The dynamic behaviour or dam-reservoir system
= 5 684.18 kg/m” is usually evaluated treating the dam and reservoir
as two uncoupled systems, namely, dynamic
Total horizontal shear and moment per metre response of the dam ignoring the effect of reservoir
width.at A, B and C due to hydrodynamic pres- water and hydrodynamic pressure on the dam to
sure are as follows: represent the effect of reservoir water. It is
invariably assumed that the interaction effects
VA = + x 2 115.72 x 5 = 7 052.40 kg/m between the dam and reservoir are small so that’
the solutions of the uncoupled system can be com-
bined to obtain a complete solution for the
MA = ;5 x 2 115.72 x 5’ response of the dam.
= 14 104.80 kgm/m For determination of earthquake forces on dams,
two methods are suggested, (a) one based on
seismic coefficient method, and (b) the other on
VB = + x 4 256.76 x 20.24 response spectrum method. The seismic coefficient
method has been suggested fcr dams up to 100
metres in height and the response spectrum method
= 57 43788 kg/m
has to be used for dams above this height. The
idea of choosing a value of 100 meters is that
MB = $ x 4 25676 x 2@28 most of the dams up to this height will have
periods shorter than O-3sand the spectral accelera-
= 465 017% kgm/m tion may not be influenced by change of period in

31
SP : 22 - 1982

this range. Further, dams beyond 100 metres in value of half implies that the vertical intensity of
height may be thought to be more important earthquake is equal to half the horizontal intensity.
requiring more sophisticated analysis. However, in the case of the response spectrum
method this value may not be exactly half because
In the seismic coefficient method, the horizontal of the different definitions of the term ah.
acceleration is assumed to have the shape of an
inverted triangle. The value at the top has been An example illustrating the pertinent clauses of
taken as 1.5 times the seismic coefficient a,,. If one the Code is given below:
takes the shape of the dam as triangular and the
distribution of acceleration as an inverted triangle, Example 13 - A 100 metre high concrete
the base shear would be equal to 0.5 Wa, (see gravity dam, as shown in Fig. 16 is located in
Fig. 15), but since the section of the dam is not seismic Zone V. Unit weight of the material of
a triangle, the base shear tends to be 0.6 Wa,. dam is 2.5 t/m3 and modulus of elasticity of
the material is 2.1 x 106t/ma. Work out the
vv= J(g Y)(I -Y/H) l*5ah.wmdy
earthquake forces by seismic coefficient method
add as well as by response spectrum method
for a unit length of dam.
= 1*5a,, H“(yT’_&)W” a) Seismic Coeficlent Method - Horizontal

Vtf 4.0-25 BH Wm= 0.5 w seismic coefficient a’, at the top of the

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0th. aI .

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This compares well with the base shear coeffi- dam, is given by
cient given in response spectrum method
T
VB = 0.6 Wa, ‘h
= 1*5gZa,,[from clause 3.4.2.3 (a)1
The various formulae given in the response
spectrum method are based on research work p = 1.0,
carried out at Roorkee University. (Reference
6 and 7). z = 2.0,
a0 = 0.08,
Vertical Earthquake
T
In both the methods, the vertical acceleration ah = I.5 x 1.0 x 2.0 x 0.08 = 0.24.
has ‘been assumed to have a shape of an inverted
triangle with the value at the top of dam being It varies linearly from a value of 0.24 at the
equal to half ths horizontal acceleration. This top to zero at the base.

DAM SECTION ACCELERATION

FIG. 15 -DAM SECTIONWITH ACCELERATION

32
 SP : 22 - 1982

= 39.9 -t_ 680.4 = 720.3 t

MB = M,, + v,, x 90 + ty(l - 0*01x)

10
x (0.24) (1.75~) (100 - x)dx
= 602 + 33 169.5

= 33 771.5 t.m

b) Response Spectrum Method

i) The fundamental period of vibration of
the dam is given by

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L-7Om.i = 0.278 s

ii) Design seismic coeficient

FIG. 16 SBCTIONOF A CONCRETEDAM
ah = $IF,,F
At 10 m from top
WO = weight above this level for a unit length Values of 8 and J are same as taken in
and height dx previous case.
=lx7x2*5xdx=l7’5du S.3
F0 = O-4 and g = O-19, for 5 percent
Shear force damping
10 ah = 1.0 x 20 x 04 x 019 = 0152
= I as . WS where a,, = (1 - 0’01~) 0.24
0
iii) Base shear

v,, = y (1 - 0*01x) (0.24) (175) dx = 39.9 t VB=@6 Wa*=@6 x 1 x 2.5

x 7x100+6~)xo.152
Moment MI, = ra.. w. (10 - x) (
0
= 805.98 t

= i(l - O’OlX)0.24 x 175 (10 - x) dx iv) Base moment

[email protected]
= 203-O t.m
.7 x 100 x y++ ~63x90~~
At the base, z = ____~_ 3 >
7 x 100 + t x 63 x 90
W l = weight for height dx (between 10 m and
base) = 33.96 m
= 1 [7 + 0.7 (x - IO)] dx 25 MB = Q9 X 8 837.5 X 33.96 X 0.152
=0’7x x 2*5dr
= 41 056.62 t.m
= 1.75xdx
v) Shear at depth y from top is given by
vwo=vlo i-1lo - 0.01x) (024) 1.75 dx v, = C”’ v B

33
 At 10 m from top At depth 78 m from reservoir level
C; = O-08, I’,, = O-08 x 805.98 pea = lO%Ot/m’
At depth 98 m from reservoir level
= 64.48 t
ploo = 1@95t/ma
vi) Moment at depth y from top is given by
Mv = CA MB b) Horizontal shear at any deptn y from
reservoir level due to hydrodynamic pressure
At 10 m from top is given by,
C; = O-02, MI, = 0.02 x 41 056.62 VA = !I726 py

= 821.13 t.q At depth 8 m from reservoir level or 10 m

from top of dam
It is seen that seismic coefficient method gives
somewhat lower values at the base but consi- VI0 = 0’726 x 3.023 x 8 = 1756 t/m
derably lower values near the top. This is due to At depth 18 m from reservoir level
the load diagram which is specified in first method,
whereas in the second method shears and moments V,, = @726 x 4.99 x 18 = 692’5 t/m
are specified.

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Hydrodynamic Pressure (or Suction) I’,, =’ O-726 x 7-751 x 38
a) The hydrodynamic pressure at depth y below = 213-84 t/m
the reservoir surface is given by,
p ,= C, *aI- w.h At depth 58 m from reservoir level
V,,, = 0.726 x 9.56 x 58 = 40255 t/m
C, = + {x(2 -$)+JX(2-f)j
At depth 78 m from reservoir level
C, = @735 (from Fig. 10 for 0 = 0”) V8Q= 0.726 x 10.606 x 78

= 600%0 t/m
At depth 98 m from reservoir level
I’,,,,, = 0.726 x 1@949 x 98
+&(2-h)] = 778.99 t/m

p+5{yys(2-&)
c) Moment at any depth y from reservoir level
due to hydrodynamic pressure is given by,
+&(2-&)j x 0.152 x 1 x 98 Mn = 0299 pv’
At depth 8 m from reservoir level or 10 m
= 5.474 3 {&(2-i&) from the top of the dam
MI0 = 0.299 x 3.023 x (8)’
= 5785 t.m/m
+ &(2--&j
At depth 18 m from reservoir level
At depth 8 m from reservoir level or 10 m
from top dam Mao = O-299 x 4.99 x (18)’
pi,, = 3.023 t/ma = 483.41 t.m/m
At depth I8 m from reservoir level At depth 38 m from reservoir level
pea = 499 t/m’ M,, = O-299 x 7-751 x (38)’
At depth 38 m from reservoir level = 3 346-54 t.m/m
Peo = 775 t/m’ At depth 58 m from reservoir level
At depth 58 m from reservior level M,, = O-299 x 9.56 x (58)’
pso = 9.56 t/m” = 9 615.79 t.m/m

34
 SP : 22 - 1992

At depth 78 m from reservoir level

M,, = 0299 x 10.606 x (78)O
= 19 293.54 t.m/m C,,, =I 0.725 (from Fig. 10 of the Code)
At depth 98 m from reservoir level
C. q&(2-$)+ &(2- &))
MI,, = 0.299 x 10.949 x (98)’
= 31 441.10 t.m/m
p=~{_?_(2_&)
Example 14 - A 100 m high concrete dam as
shown in Fig. 17 is located in seismic Zone V, has
to resist pressure from 98 m depth of water. Find +mr$)} x0.152x 1x98
the hydrodynamic pressure at base and at depth
10m from top of the dam. Take value of ah as
0.152. = 5.399 8 {&(2-a)
a) The hydrodynamic pressure at any depth y
below the reservoir surface is given by,
p = G.a,.w -h
At depth 8 m from reservoir level or 10 m

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from top of dam
here C, = !$.(2- 5)
plo = 2.982 tIma
At depth 48 m from reservoir level
psO = 8.638 tIma
At depth 98 m from reservoir level
The height of the vertical portion zif the up-
stream face of the dam is less than one half the proo = 10.8 t/m*
total height of dam. Therefore, modified slope for
design purpose is obtained by joining the point of b) Horizontal shear at any depth J*from reser-
Intersection of the upstream face of the dam and voir level due to hydrodynamic pressure is
reservoir surface with the point of intersection of iien by
upstream face of the dam and the foundation vh = 0.726 py

7m
t

1 10 m

r
I

20
I

m -4

FIG. 17 A SEWION
OFA CONCREI-B
DAM

3-5
sp : 22 - 1982

At depth 8 m from reservoir level or 10 m v, = 17*32t

from top of dam
tan0 = 0.05
V,, = O-726 x 2.98 x 8 = 17.32 t/m
WI, = (768.398 - 17.319) 005 = 37.55 t
At dep& 48 m from reservoir level
Eflect of Vertical Earthquake Acceleration
V, 0 = 0.726 x 8.638 x 48
= 301.02 t/m a) Seismic Coe#cient Method

At depth 98 m from reservoir level Vertical Seismic Coefficient a: at the top of

I’,,, = 0.726 x 108 x 98
the dam is taken as,
= 76840 t/m
c) Moment at any depth y from reservoir level = = 0.75 lx=
due to hydrodynamic pressure is given by, %I h

MA = 0.299 py’ where

At depth 8 m from reservoir level or 10 m from a : = pZa0
top of dam
M,, = O-299 x 2’982 x (8)’ = 57.06 t.m/m Here 8, Z and a,, have the same values as used

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At depth 48 m from reservoir level earlier.
M,, = 0299 x 8.638 x (48)’ = 5 95@68 t.m/m a
X
= 1.0 x 2.0 x 0.08 = 0.16
At depth 98 m from reservoir level L

M 1oo= @299 x 10.8 x (98)’ = 31013.26 t-m/m

a: = 0.75 x 0.16 = 0:12
l@kctbf Horizontal &rthquake Coe#cient on the
Vertical Component of Reservoir It varies linearly from a value of @12 at the top
to zero at the base.
Since the hydrodynamic pressure acts normal to
the face of the dam, there will be a vertical com- At 10 m from top
ponent of this force, if the face of the dam against
which it is acting is sloping. The magnitude of this W# = weight above this level for a unit length,
load at any horizontal section is given by and height dx = 1 x 7 x 25 x dx = 17’5 d.x
Increase or decrease in weight
Wn=(Va- VJtan8
where =Taa* Wo.dr(wheream=(l -O*Olx)@l2)
Wn = increase or decrease in vertical compo-
nent of load due to hydrodynamic force,
= ;“(I - 0.01 x) (0’12) (17’5)dr = 19.95 t
V, = total shear due to horizontal component 0
of hydrodynamic force at the elevation of
the section being considered, At the base,
VI = total shear due to horizontal component We, weight for height dx (between 10 m and base)
of hydrodynamic force at the elevation at = 1 x (7 -+ 0’7 (x - 10)) u!x 2.5
which the slope of the dam face com-
mences, and = 1.75 x x dx
0 = angle between the face of the dam and Increase or decrease in weight
vertical.
At the depth 10 m from top of dam from where = 19.9i$l - @lx) (0’12) 1*75x. dx
the upstream slope commences, W,, = @O t
At depth 50 m from top of dam = 1995 + 340.2 = 360.15 t
v, = 3Ol.02 t b) Reiponse Spectrum Method
v, = 17.32 t ah = 0. I52 (as taken earlier)
tane = 0.05
W, = (301.017 - 17319) 0.05 = 1418 t a: = 0’75 x 0.152 = al14
At depth 100 m from top of dam
It varies from a value of 0.114 at the top to zero
V, = 76840 at base.

36
 SP : 22 - 1982

At 10 m from top b) Determination of the strength properties of

the materials under the computed stress con-
Increase or decrease in weight ditions.
10
zzz $ aa:. WpI . dx 4 Determination of the displacement at all
0. points in the dam section from the knowledge
of stresses and stress strain characteristics.
(where aa = (1 - 0.01x) 0’114)
From the above, it can be seen that all the quan-
tities are time dependent and so, very much com-
= ;‘(l - 0.01~) 0.114 x 17.5 dx plicated and difficult to be made use of in design.
0

= 18.95 t New analytical techniques, such as the finite

element method, have made it possible to deter-
At the base mine the stress conditions in the dam section
considering even the non-linear behaviour of soils.
Increase or decrease in weight However, the non-linear behaviour of soils can be
100 determined only after step (b) has been performed.
= 18.95 + llo(i - 0*01x) 0.114 x 1.75 dx Thus step (b) and (c) are complementary to each
other. The lack of proper apparatus for deter-
= 18.95 + 323.19
mining the strength characteristics of earth mate-
rials under dynamic condition, therefore, is a

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= 342.14 t serious draw back in conducting a proper dynamic
analysis of earth and rockfill dams.
7.4 Earthand Rockfill Dams and Embankments -
The dynamic analysis of a dam should be directed In the absence of a proper dynamic analysis it
towards determining the deformations that an will be worthwhile to consider a safe analysis.
earthquake will cause. Once this is known,adesign Unless excess pore pressures are allowed to develop
to prevent catastrophic failure is possible. Thecon- within the dam section .thcreby causing undesirable
cept of a factor of safety is sufficient and reliable consequences, the concept of ‘factor of safety’ can
for design when earthquake forces are absent be seen to be a safe form of design. However, it is
because factor of safety less than unity will mean possible to extend this concept nearer to the actual
failure along the critical slip surface. However, behaviour of dams by considering realistic forces
under the dynamic loads, as during an earthquake, for design.
the factor of safety greater than unity does not 7.4.2 Seismic Force on Soil Mass - The fuoda-
guarantee safety against failure while a value less mental period of an embankment dam can be
than unity does not necessarily mean failure. The
reasons for this are as follows: K.Ht
expressed as Tl = 7
a) The factor of safety is determined from statics I
where an additional horizontal force i:
included to account for the dynamic loads. where
‘4 While the horizontal load as given above is K = a value dependent on the assumption of
taken to act permanently, the earthquake the shape of the dam,
forces are acting only for short periods and
reverse in direction many times during these = 2.404 8 for triangular sections,
periods. = 2.38 for trapezoidal sections. (This value
C) The strength characteristics of the materials becomes 2.9 when the value of shear
forming the dam does not figure in these types modulus is changed to account for ooo-
of analysis. While in certain conditions the uniformity of stresses along horizontal
strength of earth under the dynamic loads are anes.) ,
greater than its static strength, in some others
Ht = height of the dam, and
there may be considerable reduction in
strength due to increase in pore pressures, etc. V, = velocity of shear waves through the dam.
Therefore, a blanket increase or decrease in
strength to account for dynamic loads will The above formula is based on the assumption
furnish erroneous information on the safety of shear deformation only and has been adopted
of dams from the concept of a ‘factor of in the Code.
safety’. It will be seen that the value of the fundamental
natural period is dependent on the velocity of
Therefore, a proper dynamic analysis should shear waves propagating through the dam. This
consist of the following steps: quantity cannot be a constant one as it depends on
a) Determination of stress conditions and dis- the value of the shear modulus of the material
placement in the dam at various points due which increases with increase in confinement prcs-
to earthquake. sure in granular materials. Therefore, it is desirable

37
SP ? 22 - 1982

to consider the value of G in the equation in the weight of the wedge. Where His the height of the
form G = (K&,,oa (u~)O.~. l’he value of (Kz)moo dam. This relationship is shown diagramatically in
may be suitably determined by field or laboratory Fig. 18.
tests and em may be considered at mid-height of
the dam. WI and W, are the weight of the rupture wedges
acting at their centre of gravity.
l%om the elastic analysis of a typical dam
section, it can be found that the crest of the dam If, however, the design spectra for the dam site is
is subjected to much larger forces than the toe, the available after rigorous seismological studies, the
increase in acceleration from the toe to the crest equation (I) can be rewritten as:
being almost parabolic in nature. This behaviour
has been borne out even by actual measurements ay = 2.5 - 1.5 -2 Y$!
in different dams in Japan. Therefore, design of ( >
upper portions of the dam to resist larger forces
become essential. This can be achieved by assuming where So is the spectral acceleration for the com-
probable slip surfaces entirely in the upper ranges puted fundamental period of the dam from the
only, say extending to the upper 7/8 to 314 range spectra for the site.
from the top. Because of the larger horizontal
forces, the stability will be least for such slip circles 7.4.3.3 As hydrodynamic suction due to the
especially in the absence of cohesion. Therefore, in acceleration on water has already been taken into
clauses 7.4.2.1 and 7.4.2.2 of the Code the method account as per 7.4.3.2 of the Code, it is considered
of determining the seismic coefficients have been not necessary to consider any increase in pore

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given for any slip circle whether extending for the pressure also because it is unlikely that in the well
full height from top or contained only for a limited compacted embankments larger pore pressures
portion from top. The procedure can be summari- than the hydrodynamic suction will develop.
zed as below: All the above provisions are for the stability of
After obtaining the fundamental period, the slips alone, assuming that a transverse motion of
spectral acceleration (Sa) can be read from the the ground takes place during an earthquake.
average acceleration spectra as given in Fig. 2 However, there are many more complex problems
of the Code. Damping values of 10 percent of connected with the stability of a dam for which
critical would be appropriate as it is not desirable code provisions are impossible with the present
to permit large deformations. state of knowledge. The important factors to be
considered in this regard are:
From the above value of spectral acceleration,
the design seismic coefficient a,, can be worked out a) Spillways, their connections with the main
as 2 Fo(S,/g) where 2 is the importance factor and dam, spillway lining, etc;
r;b is the zone factor. If the lowest point of the b) Drainage provisions, in case failure of the
rupture wedge considered extends to a distance of dam takes place and emptying of the reservoir
only y below the crest of the dam, instead of the becomes necessary to facilitate repairs;
full height of the dam, then the equivalent uniform
seismic coefficient for design will be given as, c) Abutments of the dam; and
d) Other appurtenant structures which may have
au = 4.0-24y ah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1) any connections with the main dam.
( H )

The inertia force acting at the centre of gravity of For embankment dams, the Code specifies OmY
the rupture wedge will be equal to aLytimes the a pseudo static stability analysis wherein a factor

-I 2. U&- DAM SECTION AND ASSUMED

RUPTURE SURFACE

FIG. 18 SEISMICCO-EFFICIBNTDISTRIBWION WITH HEIGHT-DAM SECTION

AND ASSUMEDRUPTURE SURFACE

38
 SP : 22 - 1982

of safety is ascgtained for the upstream and down- c) Use of averages from a parametric study to
stream slopes. The inertia force considered in the obtain the order of deformations.
above analysis is fairly rational since the height of
the dam, the average material properties and also
8. Retaining Walls
the response characteristics are accounted for to
some extent. The main drawback of this method 8.1 Retaining walls are designed to resist the lateral
however, is that the averaging technique used for earth pressure caused by the backfill. The earth
obtaining the seismic coeflicient considers only the pressure is dependent on the geometry, the back-
shear forces and not the duration for which these till properties as well as the wall movements. The
forces are operative. In other words, the damage stability of retaining walls, therefore, is calculated in
potential. of these forces have not been consi- terms of factors of safety against sliding, against
dered in this method at all. Obviously, the damage overturning and against failureof foundation. Soil-
potential of the forces depends on the magnitude survey of damage during past earthquakes shows
of the forces, the duration for which the forces that earth retaining structures have moved out
act and also the strength (or stress-strain) charac- away from the backfill. in the absence of a theory
teristics of the dam material. Thus even if the to predict the displacement of retaining walls
factor of safety as calculated by the method speci- under earthquake loading conditions, the philo-
fied is less than unity, it may not mean ‘failure’ sophy of design adopted is the one in which the
by any means if the total duration of the earth- active earth pressures have beeh considered to

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increase and the lateral earth resistance to decrease
dam material considered is that corresponding to a during earthquakes.
larger number of cycles of loading than that during
the actual earthquake. Conversely, if the dynamic The earliest approach to account for the above
strength considered is on the unsafe side (whenfew was to consider a reduction in the value of the
number of cycles of loading than the earthquake angle of internal friction of the backfill material.
has been considered for fixing the dynamic strength The reduced value was recommended as +dln,
characteristics) even a f&tot of safety of unity and the angle of repose of a cohesionless material
more cannot guarantee safety of the dam since under the influence of a horizontal acceleration
undesirably large deformation could result. The in addition to the vertical acceleration due to
deformation of the dam will manifest itself on the gravity. The value of $hd “,, to be used for design
dam in the form of settlement or slumping of the would thus be,
crest, flattening of the slopes, minor or major
longitudinal cracks or minor or major transverse 4dln = 4, - tan-’ a*
cracks. If these deformations had been anticipated
and measures adopted to avoid undesirable conse- where $ is the angle of internal friction of the
quences, these deformations could be termed as backfill material and ah is the horizontal seismic
permissible and repairs undertaken after the event. coefficient.
For example, a slumping of the crest of the dam
if anticipated, can be taken care of by provision of When the vertical earthquakes accelerations are
additional free board; cracks in the dam made less also considered,
harmful by engineering the structure to prevent
concentrated leaks, etc, are some of the more com-
monly adopted techniques.

It thus becomes clear that a proper and rational where aD is the vertical seismic coefficient.
method of arriving at the seismic stability of
According to the practice, the modified value of
embankment dams is to ascertain the deformation
&n was used in conjunction with either Rankine’s
of the dam when subjected to the earthquake
theory or Coulomb’s theory, the two classical earth
forces. The methods that can be used are:
pressure theories widely used all over the world.
a) Determining the yield acceleration of the
structure considering the effective stress para- 8.1.1 The formula ,given is the result of the
meters and computing the displacements on modification of the wedge theory of Coulomb. All
the assumption that the ruptured mass is the assumptions of the Coulomb’s theory are, there-
similar to a rigid mass resting on an inclined fore, made in this as well. In addition, it IS assumed
plane (Reference 8). that the earthquake forces can be represented by
inertia forces acting as static forces. The equilibrium
b) Determining the average stress conditions of the wedges are ascertained with two additional
along potential slip circles prior to and during forces besides the forces considered in Coulomb’s
the earthquake and ascertaining the strains theory. These forces are:
these stresses will cause on representative soil
samples tested in the laboratory. Summing up a) A horizontal force equal to the horizontal
the strains to obtain loss of free board has seismic coefficient times the weight of the
also been attempted. wedge, and

39
SP : 22 - 1982

b) A vertical force equal to the vertical seismic forces are marked on the BB’ line (set Fig. 19 of the
coefficient times the weight of the wedge. The Code).
horizontal force has been considered to act
away from the backfill. 8.1.1.2 As has been amply described in literature,
Coulomb theory does not give any idea of the
The vertical force, however, has to be considered distribution of earth pressure on the retaining wall.
in conjunction with the stability of the retaining The magnitude of pressure alone is given by the
wall. Here, depending upon the properties of the theory. However, the form of the final equation
wall, a. vertica1 downward inertia force may mean and the use of Rankine’s theory had led designers
larger pressure as well as larger resistance. There- to adopt a hydrostatic distribution of Coulomb
fore, both the directions of the force will have to pressures. Also, a large number of laboratory tests
be considered to ascertain the critical one for appear to support this assumption. I
design. Accordingly, the sign preceding aa has been
specified as either positive or negative. When Coulomb’s theory was modified by
Japanese investigators Monomobe and Okabe to
When inertia forces are considered in addition derive the equation given under 8.1.1, the
to the forces in Couloinb’s theory, the resultant of distribution of pressures was not considered
the weight and the inertia force is weight com- differently from the static case.
ponent (say W) of the wedge becomes inclined at
Different laboratory tests have led to the distri-
bution of dynamic pressures being assumed to be
an angle /\ equal to tan-l and also its value of different types. All the experimental studies have

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demonstrated that the magnitude of the dynamic
PV(I f a0)
is increased to -----~---------. Now, if the plane of component of the earth pressure does not increase
cos h with depth but has the maximum value somewhere
the problem is given a rotation through an angle X in between the top and the base of the wall. If a
so as to make the resistant weight component ver- simple form of distribution of the dynamic com-
tical, Coulomb’s theory can be used as such. ponent of pressures is desired, a parabola is found
However, the rotation effected as described above to be quite accurate and sufficient. This will mean
causes the inclination of the face of the wall with that the dynamic component will have a point of
vertical to increase from a to (a + A) and the slope application at mid-height of the wall. Thus, the
of the backfill with horizontal to increase from i earth-pressure on the wall, computed in accordance
to (i + h). But, the length of the face of the wall with the formula given in 8.1.1 of the Code and
which consists of the effects of the static forces as
remains equal to &where h is the height of well as the inertia forces, is split into two; the static
component by neglecting the inertia forces and the
the wall. Thus, substituting (a + A) for a and dynamic component being the difference between the
(i + h) for i in the Coulomb’s theory, the active dynamic pressure and the static component. While
earth pressure on the retaining walls is obtained as the static component is assumed to be distributed
per the formula given. hydrostatically, a parabolic pressure distribution
with the maximum value at mid-height of the wall
(1 & a”) . is considered for the dynamic component. As
It will be noticed that the term --cos-x- 1s asso- already described, since the point of application is
immaterial in Coulomb’s theory, none of the con-
ciated with the increase in the weight component ditions of the derivation of the formula is vitiated
while the terms Co? a in the denominator which by such assumptions of the pressure distribution.
remains unaltered as compared to Coulomb’s
theory is indicative of the length of the face of 8.1.2 to 8.1.2.1 The passive pressure which in
the wall remaining unaltered due to the rotation. reality is equal to the lateral earth resistance, is also
calculated on the same principles as for the active
8.1.1.1 The graphical method due to Culmann is earth pressure, that is, as a modification of
a procedure of graphical differentiation of the Coulomb’s theory. The only difference in this case is
problem of the equilibrium of the rupture wedge that the inertia forces are considered to act towards
with a plane rupture surface that is Coulomb’s the backfill as this condition gives the minimum
theory itself. The procedure given in Appendix H value of passive pressures.
of the Code is a modification of the original Cul- 8.1.2.2 In the absence of any laboratory test
mann’s procedure wherein ihe inertia forces are data a very conservative assumption regarding the
also considered. For simple geometry as shown in point of application of the passive pressures is
the method, the rupture wedges are taken to be of made. Accordingly, the dynamic component
weight as simple multiples of the first wedge. This (reduction over the static passive pressures) is
will reduce the calculations to the minimum. ’ arbitrarily assumed to have a point of application
at 4 the height of the wall above its base.
NOTE - If the method is to be used for the cases where
the backfill has a broken surface or carries a surcharge,
suitable modifications will be necessary. It needs to be 8.1.3 The concept is the sarrle as Coulomb’s
remembered that the resultant of the weight and inertia theory.

40
 8.1.3.1 As described earlier, the static earth derived from a stepped triangular distribution
pressure due to the gravity effects is distributed similar to that of Fig. 13 of the Code, the point of
hydrostatically thereby indioating a constant value application of dynamic decrement of passive pres-
of earth pressure coefficient with depth. (The earth sure. will be below 0.66 h from the base, which
pressure coefficient is the ratio between the lateral would be in violation of 8.1.2.2 and 8.1.4.1 of the
pressure and the effective vertical pressure at any Code. The procedure to be utilized in this clause
point). But the dynamic component of earth pres- for evaluation of distribution of dynamic decre-
sure is distributed in a parabolic fashion which ments of passive pressures will have suitable
indicates that the coefficient of earth pressure is inverted triangular distribution of ratio of lateral
distributed as an inverted triangle with the largest dynamic decrement in passive pressures to the
value at the top and decreasing to zero at the base vertical effective pressures so that the point of
of the wall. application of dynamic decrement of passive
pressures is at a height of 0.66 h from the base in
Since the uniform surcharge on the surface of accordance with 8.1.2.2 and 8.1.4.1 of the Code.
the backfill leads to a constant increask in the verti-
cal pressure at all depths, the lateral pressure due 8.4 Concrete or masonry inertia force will have to
to surcharge will have a distribution similar to the be considered while ascertaining the stability of
distribution of the earth pressure coefficient with retaining walls. Also in view of the shorter duration
depth. Accordingly, the dynamic increment in of the earthquake vibrations, the factors of safety
-active pressures due to uniform surcharge shall be against sliding, overtuning and failure of the foun-
applied at an elevation of 0.66 h above the base dation soil have been kept at lower levels than

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of the wall while the static component shall be under a static loading conditions as can be seen in
applied at mid-height of the wall. the Note under 8.4 of the Code.
8.1.4 This forms modification of Coulomb’s
theory. Example 15
8.1.4.1 In the absence of data, the same pro- Height = 12 m
vision as for active pressures will apply.
Slope of earthfill (i) = 5”
8.2.2 The value of tan A is increased by a factor
Inclination of wall with vertical a = 15”
s where ws is the saturated unit weight of the Angle of internal friction Q = 30”
8
Angle of friction between wall and earthfill
backfill material. This is based on the considera-
tion that while the reaction along the rupture plane 6 = 20
is a function of the effective pressures and hence Density of saturated soil wI 1 2 t/mJ
the submerged unit weight, the inertia force is the
Density of dry/moist soil = l-6 t/m3
product of the design acceleration and the mass of
the solid particles as well as the water in the pores. Retaining wall is located in seismic Zone V
Thus, the inertia force on the wedge is equal to Height of water table = 6 m
(Volume) x (wI) x (an) while the effective weight Horizontal seismic coefficient ah = @.I. a0
is equal to (Volume) x (w, - 1) x (I f a”) thus,
= 1 x 1 x 0.08 = 0.08

tan A = <w, - Yj’(r”* a.). Vertical seismic coeffidient may be taken as:
av = 4 ah = O-04
8.2.3 Due to the fact that the inertia force due
to the mass of water contained in the pores has
already been taken into account, as stated above,
hydrodynamic pressure is not taken separately.
h = (Corresponding to + an) = 8.746
8.3 Partially Submerged Backfill - It has already
been described that the earth pressure coefficients h = (Corresponding to - ao) = 9462
are different for the submerged and dry backfills Active Earth Pressure
because of the changes in the values of 6. the
[for Submerged Soil 6 = 4 6 (dry)]
angle of wall friction and X. Thus, the distri-
bution of the coefiicient of dynamic increment For f av :
with height will be as shown in Fig. 13 of the
Code. The value of the earth pressure coefficient cos (4 - h - a) = COS (30 -
8.746 - 15)
at different elevations has been worked out on the = 0994
basis of the total pressure which has been kept COS (6 + a + A) = COS (10 + 15 + 8.746)
equal to thi one computed by the formula given
in 8.1.1 of the Code. = 0.831
8.3.2 If the ratio of dynamic decrement of pas- Sin (# - i - A) = Sin (30 - 5 - 8.746)
sive pressures with the vertical effective stress is = 0279

41
SP I 22 - 1982

Cos X = Cos (8.746) = @988 I x (0*%5y

ra = 1 x (@96S)r x OW6
COS a = Cos (15) = @965

Cos (a - i) = Cos (15 - 5) = a984 1.

Sin (4 -I- S) = Sin (30 + 10) = 0642 0.642 x O.422
O.984 x 0906
ca e --_
(1 + aA Cos* (4 - a - A)
COS X COG a COS (6 + a -t A) = 1.103 x 0.415 = 0.457

1 ¶ For Dry/Moist Back Fills, 8 = 20”:

X , + Sin (4 + 6) Sin (4 - i - A) I/*
{ Cos (a -- i) Cos (8 + a + A) h=tan-ll ya, =tan-11f0.04@08
[ 11
1fM x (O-994)” h (corresponding to + ae) = 4.398
=: = 3988 x (0.965)’ x O.831
h (corresponding to - ati) = 4763
For + a0 : .
cos (4 - A- a) = Cos (30 - 4398 - 15)

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= @982
= 1.344 x 0.464 = @623
Cos (6 + a + A) = COS (20 + 15 + 4.398)
For -av :
= 0.772
cos (# - X- a) = Cos (30 - 9462 - 15)
Sin (4 - i - A) = Sin (30 - 5 - 4.398)
= 0.995
= 0351
COS (6 + a + A) = COS(10 + 15 + 9.462)
Cos h = Cos 4.398 = O.997
= 0.824
COS a = COS 15 = O-965
Sin (4 - i - A) = Sin (30 - 5 - 9462)
Cos (a - i) = Cos 10 =0*984
= 0.267
Sin (4 + 6) = Sin (30 + 20) = O-766
Cos (A) = Cos (9.462) = 0.986
1’04 _x JO,98‘2):.
COS (a) = COS (15) = O-965
c, =
0.997 x (0.965)% x 0772
Cos (a - i) = Cos (15 - 5) = 0984 I

Sin (+ + 6) = Sin (30 + 10) = O-642 X

c# = -... ?~96x_P?Y
a @986 x’(O.965)* x 0.824 = 1.399 x 0.393 = 0.549

1 8
-__-___
x I + pyc42 x 0.267 llf For - a. :
__~__
L t 0,984 x 0.824 1 I COS($-A-a)=Cos(30-4.763- 15)
= I.256 x O469 = 0.589 -- 0.984
when ah = a0 = h = 0 COS (6+a+h)=C0~(20+ 15.+4763)
Cos (4 - A- a) = COS 15 = 0.965 = 0.968
Cos (6 + a + A) = COS 25 = O-906 Sin (d; - i - A) = Sin (30 - 5 - 4763)
Sin (4 - i - A) = Sin 25 = 0422 = 0346

cos h = cos 0 = 1 cos x = Cos (4763) = 0.996

Cos a = COS 15 = 0.965 cos cc = cos (15) = 0965

COS (a - i) = Cos 10 = 0.984 COS (a - i) = C& (15 - 5) = @984

Sin (# + 8) = Sin 40 = O-642 Sin ($‘+ S) = Sin (30 + 20) = @766

42
 SPr22- 1982

O-96 x (O-984)’ For - a# :

c, = 0.996 x (0965)* x 0.768
cos (95 + a-l\) = cos (30 + 15 - 9462)
1 = 0.813
X { 0766 x 0346 rJm
’ -i- 0984 x 0768 cos (8 - a + A) = Cos (10 - 15 + 9.462)
= 0.997 \
= I.305 x O.394 = 0514
Sin (I# + i - A) = Sin (30 + 5- 9462)
When ah = act = h= 0 = 0431

- a) = COS (30 - 15) = @965 cos h = Cos 9462 = 0.986

cos(q5-A
5) = @819 COS a = cos 15 = 0.965
Cos (4 + a + A) = COS (20 +
Sin (4 + 6) = Sin (30 + 10) = 0.624
Sin (4 - i - A) = sin (30 - 5) = 0.422
Cos (a - i) = Cos (15 - 5) = 0984.
Gosh- coso = 1 0.96 x (0.813)’
Cl = 0.986 x (0.965)’ x 0.997
COS a = COS 15 = O.965

Cos (a - i)=c0s(15~ 5) =@984

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X
l-
Sin (4 + 6) = Sin (30 + 20) = @766
= 0.693 x 4.406 = 3.053
1 x (0.965)”
x. = 1 x (0.965)a x 0.819 when ah = ae = r\ = 0
Cos (4 + a -A) = cos (30 + 15) = 0.707
COS (S -a + A) = COS (10 - 15) = @996
Sin (# + i - A) = Sin (30 + 5) = O-573
= 1.221 x O-374 = O.456 cos h = cos 0 = 1
Cos a = Cos 15 = 0.965
Pasive Earth Pressure for Submerged Soil:
Sin (+ + 6) = Sin (30 + 10) = 0$42
For -I- av : COS (a - i) = Cos (15 - 5) = 0.984
Cos (4 -I-,a - A) = Cos (30 $ 15 - 8.746) 1 x (0.707p
= O.806 K: = 1 x (0.965)” x (0.996)

cos (6 - a + A) = COS (IO - 15 + 8.746)

= O.997

Sin (4 + i - A) = Sin (30 + 5 - 8.746)

= 0.539 x 6.665 = 3.592
= O.442
Cos h = Cos (8.746) = a988 For Dry]Moist Backfill, 6 = 20”
Cosa = COS (15) = 0965
For + av :
Sin (4 + 6) = Sin (30 + 10) = @624
COS (4 + a - A) = COS (30 + 15 - 4398)
Cos (a - i) = Cos (15 - 5) = @984
= 0.759
1.04 x (0’806)’
‘a = O-988 x (O-965)’ x O.997 Cos (6 - a f A) = COS (20 - 15 + 4.398)

a = 0.986
Sin (4 + i - A) = Sin (30 + 5 : 4398)
= @5q9
= 0’736 x 4531 = 3.335 Cos A = Cos (4398) = 0997

43
SP I 22 - 1982

cosa =&slS = Q%7 = @611 x 7324 = 4475

Cos (a - i) = co8 (15 - n = 0984 For ai = aV = h = 0 :
sin (4 + 8) = Sin(30 +20) = 0766 Cos (4 + a --A) = cos (30 + 15) = 0707
1.04 x (O.759)’
Cl cos (6 - a + A) = Coo (20 -15) = O.996
=@997 x (0*%7y x 0986
Sin (4 + i - h) = Sin (30 + 5) = @573
1
6766 x 0*509 cos A = Cos 0 1
0.984 x 0986 COS a = cos 15 f O.965

= 0651 x 7.462 = 4857 Cos (a - i) = Cos (15 - 5) = 0.984

Sin (4 4 6) = Sin (30 + 20) = 0766
For -a*:
1 x (O.707)’
c-(9 + a-a) = Cos(30 + 15 - 4763) K, =
1 x (O.965)’ x 0.996
= 0.763
Cos (I - a + A) = COS (20 - 15 + 4.763)

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= 0.985
= 0.539 x 9.139 = 4926
Sin ($ + i - X) = Sin (30 + 5 - 4763)
Active Earth Pressure (Dry or Moist Case)
= 0.503
P. (for +av) = * wh” (Cd
co9 h = Cos (4.763) = 0.996
= + x 1.6 x 12 x 12 x 0549
COS‘a = cos (15) = 0.965 = 63.244 t
Cos (a -. I’) = cos (15 - 5) = O.984 P, (for -ao) = 4 wP (Cd
Sin 64 + 8) = Sin (30 + 20) = 0766 = 3 x 1.6 x 12 x 12 x0.514
- 59.212 t
0.96 x (0.763j4
c. = PO (static active pressure)
0.996 x (0.965)’ x 0.985
= 4 x 1.6 x 12 x 12 x 0.456
= 52.531 t
X This will be acting at a height of 4 m from the
@984 x 0.985 base of wall (see Fig. 19).

WALL FACE

FIG. 19 DRY ORMOISTCASEPOR+a*

44
 SP : 22 - 1982

Distribution of the ratio (Lateral

Increment/Vertical
Dynamic
Effective Pressure)

FIG. 20
Vertical Effective
Pressure
3
c
1.3LL

Dynamic

OF PRBWJRE WITHHEIGHTOF WALL

DISTRIBUTION
2.5

Increment Static Pressure Water

1x6

Pressure

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,
Dynamic Increment for Active Pressure 3 (Ca - Ka) = 3 (0.514 - 0.456) = 0.174

(for -I- am) = 63.244 - 52531 = 1@713 t 3 (C;- K;) ; = (3(0.589 - 0.457)) ;
This will -be acting at a height of 6 m from the
base of wall (see Fig. 19 and 20). E 0.198
3 (C, - .K,) = 3 (0.549 - 0.456) = 0.28
6 Passive Earth Pressure (Dry or Moist Case)
3 (C6 - K,’ ) ; = 3 (0.623 - 0.457) B
Pp (for +av) = 4 wh8 Ca
= 0.25
= 4 x 1.6 x 12 x 12 x 3.335
Dynamic Increment for Active Pressure
= 384192
(For -aD)
= 59.212 - 52531 = 6681 P, (for _-an) = 1 wha C,

This will be acting at a height of 6 m from the = fr x 1.6 x 12 x 12 x 3.053

base of wall (Fig. 21). = 351.705t

FIG. 21 DRY OR MOISTCASB FOR -a

45
 SP t 22 - 1982

Distribution of the ratio (L&era/

9.6

Vertical
1
6x1

Dynamic
1
1~1.6~ Ka 4-4
1-6~ 6x K,

1x6

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Static Pressure Water Pressure

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Dynamk Increment/Vertical Effective Pressure Increment
Effective Pressure)

FIG. 22 DISTRIBUTION
OFFRESURBWITH HEIGHTOF WALL

FIG. 23 DRY OR MOISTCASEFOR+ao FIG. 24 DRY OR MOISTCASEFOR -av

PO (sfutic passive pressure) This will be acting at a height of (066 /I) = 792 m
from the base of wall (see Fig. 23).
= 8 x 1.6 x 12 x 12 x3.592 = 413.798 t Dynamic Decrement for Passive Pressure (for - aD)
This will act at a height of 4 m from the base of (‘see Fig. 24)
the wall (see Fig. 22).
= 413.798 - 351.705 = 6209 t
Dynamic Decrement for Passive Pressure for +a,
‘I$i;,9;ill act at a height of (7.92 m) from the base
= 413.798 - 384192 = 29.606 t . /

46
 3P ,22- 19112

APPENDIX A
(Cluuse3.4)

BACKGROUND TO SEISMIC ZONING MAP OF INDIA

Various attempts have been made in the past able in the preparation of the seismic zoning map
for seismic zoning of India based on available included in IS : 1893-1962 consisted of epicentral
data on earthquake occurrence. Zoning maps distribution of earthquakes of Richters magnitude
were prepared in which the country was classified 5 and above, and known tectonic and geological
into different zones indicating intensity of damage feather of the country. The following procedure
or frequency of earthquake occurrence of probable has been followed in preparing the seismic zoning
accelerations or factor of safety to -be adopted in map shown in Fig. 25 :
the seismic design of structures. These maps
provided a qualitative schematization of earth- 4 The epicentres of all known earthquakes
quake effects and thus served limited purpose. of magnitude 5 and above, and maximum
In 1960, the Indian Standards Institution initiated Modified Mercalli intensities at various
action for the formulation of unified recommen- points were plotted from the isoseismals
dations for earthquake resistant design of struc- of major eathquakes for which records
tures which resulted in publication of IS : 1893- were available. Since the 1819 Kutch

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1962 Recommendations for earthquake resistant earthquake, 1897 and 1950 Assam earth-
design of structures. This standard incorporated quakes, 1905 Kangra earthquake, and
a seismic zoning map of India to provide a unified 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake were of
picture of seismicity taking into consideration the very high magnitudes; they adequately
available data on earthquake occurrence and encompassed the effects of the lesser
seismotectonic frame-work of the country. This magnitude eafthquakes occurring in diffe-
portrayed the probable maximum intensity of rent regions. In addition to these severe
earthquake for evaluation of strong ground earthquakes, a number of other earth-
,motion characteristics to evaluate the basic design quakes taken into consideration including a
seismic coefficients for earthquake resistant design few smaller earthquakes in the Himalayas,
of structures in different parts of the country. A Delhi earthquakes, Satpura and Rewa
brief description of the general approach followed earthquakes, Bellary earthquake and
in the preparation of seismic zoning maps in 1962 the Zone of minor tremors from Trivand-
and its subsequent revisions in 1966 and 1970 is rum to Madras and East Coast regions.
given in the following paragraphs.
b) After plotting the idealized isoseismals for
the earthquakes, enveloping lines for
SEISMIC ZONING MAPS different M. M. intensities were drawn.
These lines were modified where necessary,
Seismic zoning was undertaken to demarcate taking into account the magnitude of
the characteristics of earthquake occurrence in intervening earthquakes, local ground
future so that the resulting map of the region can conditions, principal ?ectonic trends as
be utilized to provide information of expected portrayed in the preliminary Tectonic
earthquake effects. Maximum intensity of earth- Map of India (Prepared by the Geological
quake (M. M. Intensity), or peak ground motion Survey of India in 19621, basement confi-
(acceleration, velocity, displacement, etc) to evalu- guration of the Indo-Gangetic Plains and
ate design response spectra or seismic coefficient other alluvial basins as revealed by
(expressed as a fraction of g) are generally port- geophysical surveys of the Oil and Natural
rayed in seismic zoning maps, and associated back- Gas Commission and the likely trend of
ground information in the form of eplcentral map, the Ganga-Brahmaputra rift postulated by
tectonic map, etc, helps in making various Mithal and Srivastava (1959).
decisions for earthquake resistant design of
structures. C! After drawing the modified isoseismals,
the zones with M. M. intensity, V, VI,
VII, VIII, IX and X and above were
SEISMIC ZONING MAP OF INDIA IN
designated as seismic zones I, II, III, IV,
IS : 1893-1962 V and VI and the region with M. M.
With the development of systematic study of intensity less than V was designated as
earthquake engineering problems in the country, seismic Zone 0. This zero Zone was not
it was considered necessary to have a seismic a Zone of zero earthquakes, but the
zoning map to indicate broadly the seismic coeffi- designation was given to suggest that no
cients that could generally be adopted for design earthquake problem of any significance
in different parts of the country. The data avail- may occur in this region.

47
SP:.22-1982

d) Suitable seismic coefficients were assigned epicentral locations assuming all other conditions
based on an engineering judgement of the as being average, and to modify such an average
likely intensity in each zone and variation idealized isoseismal map in the light of tectonics,
of these coefficients according to ground lithology and the maximum intensities as recorded
conditions and type of structure were from damage surveys, etc.
specified. The seismic zoning map of India in IS : 1893-
It is important to note that the seismic 1962 utilized intensity of earthquake based on
coefficient, used in the design of any structure is data on earthquake occurrence as the main para-
dependent on many variable factors including the meter for zoning with the basic assumption that
influence of local soil conditions and soil-founda- the geology of the area is the dominant controlling
tion-structure interaction. It is, therefore, necessary factor, both for intensities and frequencies of
to indicate broadly the seismic coefficients that major earthquake occurrence. Thus, seismic zone
could generally be adopted in different parts of based on intensity evaluation would be in confor-
Zones of the country though of course a rigorous mity with earthquake occurrence and geology
analysis considering all the factors involved has (including tectonics) of the region. However, such
got to be made in the case of all important pro- an assumption will be valid if data on earthquake
jects in order to arrive at suitable time-history of occurrence are available for sufficiently long dura-
ground motion for evaluation of design forces. tion. Epicentral distribution could then be con-
The object of seismic zoning map is to classify the sidered to demonstrate the trend and extent of the
area of the country into a number of zones in seismotectonic belts conforming to the geology

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which one can reasonably forecast the characteris- (and tectonics) of the region and earthquake
tics of the strong ground motion shocks which intensities can be utilized as quantitative measures
will occur in the event of a future earthquake of seismicity in different parts of the region for
which need not necessarily be always the severest preparation of seismic zoning maps. However, as
that would occur anywhere within the given zone. data on earthquake occurrence in India is not
It is possible in some cases that earthquake result- available for a long period, seismic zoning maps
ing in more severe strong ground motion may prepared on statistical evaluation of long term
occur at any particular place which is unpredic- seismicity from limited and or short data on
table. The probabilities, however, are that a earthquake occurrencedue to lack of historical
structure designed on the assumption that strong records and suitable network of seismological
ground motion characteristics indicated for each observatories, presents a picture with greater in-
Zone are about the maximum that are likely to fluence of known earthquakes and does not
occur, would ensure a reasonable amount of necessarily reflect the seismotectonic set up of
safety. the region, in which major earthquakes could
occur due to the occurrence of geotectonic pro-
It has to he appreciated that in view of scanty cesses. With this in view when additional data on
data available, the statistical approach is not geology, tectonics and earthquake occurrence
likely to give realistic estimate of earthquake became available for the revision of the seismic
parameters or ground motion characteristics, and Zoning map 1966 (IS : I893- 1966) shown in
zoning is also not possible based entirely on Fig. 26, in 1970 (IS : 1893-1970) and in 1975
scientific basis. Though the magnitudes of (IS : 1893-1975) shown in Fig. 27 and the seis-
different earthquakes which have occurred in the motectonic set up of the country was given greater
past are known to a reasonable amount of accuracy, significance.
the strong ground motion caused by these earth-
quakes at various distances have so far been mostly SEISMIC ZONING MAP OF INDIA IN
estimated from ratings of intensity of earthquakes IS: 1893-1966AND IS 1893-1970
based on damage surveys and there is little instru-
mental evidence to corroborate the conclusions The seismic zoning map of India in IS : 1893 -
arrived therefrom. Maximum intensity of earth- 1966 (Fig. 26) took into account additional data
quake at different places is rated on the basis of on earthquake occurrence and detailed informa-
the observations made and recorded after the tion on the tectonic framework of the country by
earthquake and thus a zoning map which is based (Geological Survey of India Tectonic Map of
on such ratings is likely to lead in some cases to India published at the time of the International
an incorrect conclusion in view of : (a) incorrect- Geological Congress held at New Delhi in 1964) and
ness in the assessment of earthquake intensity followed the same general approach as for the 1962
rating: (b) human error in judgement during the map except that a greater recognition was given to
damage survey; and (c) variation in quality and the tectonic features.
design of structures causing variation in type and
extent of damage to the structures for the same In both seismic zoning maps of Tndia in IS :
intensity of earthquake. However, in the absence I 893- 1962 and IS : 1893-1966 outlined
of strong ground motion data. a rational approach mostly data on. past earthquake occurrence
to the problem would be to arrive at intensity map and it was assumed that the pattern of earthquake
based on available data on earthquake occurrence occurrence in the past will repeat itself in future.
in terms of intensity rating magnitudes and However, as data on earthquake occurrence and

48
 SP : 22 - 1982

its effects was not still available for a considerably fied Mercalli intensity VI (seismic zones 0 and I
long duration, these maps did not provide realistic of IS : 1893-1962 and IS : 1893-1966 seismic
and reasonable assessment of intensity of earth- zoning maps of India) are insignificant in terms
quake in future and the intensity estimates for of design to call for a separation, Likewise the
many parts of the country were conjectural or seismic zone VI of IS : 1893-1962 and IS :
arbitrary in character. In 1968 after the Koyna 18951966 seismic zoning maps for M.M. inten-
earthquake of 11 December 1967, it was considered sity and above was omitted as recorded strong
essential to give greater emphasis to the geo- ground motion characteristics in regions with
tectonic set up so that the seismotectonic features Modified Mercalli intensity IX and above show
as source regions of earthquake occurrence in comparable ground accelerations, though with
future were identified with genetic significance and longer durations of strong ground motion with
estimates of earthquake intensity were consistent increase in magnitude. Thus the separation
with the geological I cause, seismotectonic frame- between seismic zone V and VI was considered to
work and the pattern of earthquake occurrence in be of little practical utility.
each seismic zone.. Thus taking into consideration
the tectogenesis and geological history of the From the foregoing description it will be noted
country and the understanding of the operative that seismic zoning based on data on past earth-
processes responsible for the development of the quake occurrence had. greater acceptability by the
various structural and related physiographicai users in the initial stages of the implementation
features which could lead to earthquake occurrence of the Indian Standard recommendations for

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in future, the seismic zones were demarcated to earthquake resistant design of structures. The
broadly follaw the area1 extent and distribution of seismic zoning maps in IS : 1893-1962 and IS :
five nrincinal seismotcctonic units of India (see \ 1893-1966 were thus mostly based on data on
Table 13): past earthquake occurrence and probable correla-
tious with known tectonic features. With the
1) the erogenic unit of Cainozonic folding and general understanding of the earthquake engineer-
faulting: ing problems, greater recognition to seismotectonic
framework of the various parts of the country to
2) the unit of Himalayan fore deep and predict new potential earthquake source regions
marginal depression; and their effects could be given in the preparation
3) the unit of Peninsular Shield segmented by of the 1970 seismic zoning map included in IS :
territory; 1893-1970. This made it possible to take into
consideration the probable seismic activity in
4) quaternary fault movements, including the potential earthquake source regions where there
Gondawana graben and adjacent parts had been a gap in activity during the period for
of the Shield as well as marginal parts of which data is available, and serious economic
the Peninsular Shield with platform cover losses could be reduced due to seismological uprise
of Mesozoic-Cainozoic sediments; and in such gaps in future. This has been incorporated
in the third revision of the Code (IS : 1893-19751
5) the unit of generally stabl: Peninsular
without any modification. All these maps are
Shield with locally partitioned areas bearing
relatively ancient faults and localized seismic based on subjective estimates of intensity from
activity (see Table 13). available information on earthquake occurrence,
geology and tectonics of the country. However,
Though a reasonable estimate of the probable as more data on earthquake occurrence in India
maximum magnitude in each of the tectonic units and their associated seismotectonic elements be-
could be obtained, little information was available come available for seismic risk analysis to provide
on depth of focus. It was difficult to establish adequate safety during the desired life of the
<definite associations of earthquake occurrence structures these zones will need revision. It is
with tectouic features in these tectonic units. Thus emphasized that seismic zoning of a country is a
probable maximum intensities around the tecto- continuous process depending on its gradual
nic features, based on known earthquake data, acceptance by users, and the guiding philosophy
were mostly tentative, till evidence of movements and methodology of analysis, evaluation of seismic
along these feature during earthquakes could be risk for seismic zoning depend on the available
confirmed. It was also considered desirable to data and state of knowledge of the fundamental
reduce the number of zones from seven zones in seismological, geological and tectonic principles
IS : 1893-1966 map to five zones in IS : 1893- for the physical understanding and forecasting
1970 map, as the earthquake effects below Modi- earthquake occurrence in future.

49
SP122=1¶s2

TABLE 13 GENERALISED TECTONIC UNITS OF INDIA WITH DECREASING MAGNITUDE AND

FREQUENCY OF EARTHQUAKE OCCURRENCE AFTER KRISHNASWAMY’-’

TIKTONIC UNIT EARTHQUAKE SalSMlC

f ----1 OCCURRENCE zoNas
NalItC Description
Orogenic unit Orogenic unit of Cainozoic Common shocks of magnitude V and IV
folding and faulting. The 5-6-5 with a aumbcr of shocks
Shillong massif. which of magnitude +5-7.5, a few
has been greatly affected shocks of magnitude 7.5-g and
by this faulting has been occasional shocks greater than
included in this zone 8 originating on some of the
major Himalayan thrust and
faults (Satlitta thrust. Panjal
thrust, Central Himalayan
thrust, Dauki fault, etc.)

Foredeep and marginal Unit of Himalayan fore- Common shocks of magnitude IV and III with islet
depression unit deep and marginal depres- 5-6 with a few shocks of mag- of v

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sion (where the boundary nitude 6-7 and occasional
is not positively establi- shocks of magnitude 7.5-8
shed, some of the Shield originatihg along active faults
may really be included in in the basement (Pataa fault of
this Zone. The tectonic other basement faults, Kutch
map provisionally defines faults)
the boundary at 200 to
1 000 m contour of the
basement at margin of
the Shield)

west Coast and Unit of Shield with tertiary Common shocks of magnitude III with islets of M
Narmada Tapti unit quartcrnary fault move- 5-6 with few shocks of magni-
ment including the West tude 6-7 in the Narmada and
Coast seismogenic Zone, Tapti rifts, past epicentres can
the Narmada-Son rift be related to extensions of
Zone, the Tapti rift Zone partly mapped faults. Maxi-
and their postulated mum recorded magnitude on
extensions West Coast Zone 6’6-7, on
Narmda rift 6-5, Tapti rift
6.25

Gondwana Rifts unit Unit of Shield with Mes- Occasional shocks of magni- III
ozoic fault movements and tude 5-6 with few centrcs
later adjustments. includes which may have magnitude
the Gondwana rift zone 6-6.5 and may be related to
and adjacent parts of the boundary faults of the Gond-
Shield, marginal parts of wana basin and faults of
the Peninsular Shield to limited extent in the Mesozoic-
the east and north with C3inozoic cover on the plat-
platform cover of Meso- form
zoic-Cainozoic sediments

Shield unit Generally a seismogenic Occasional shocks of magni- I and II with islets
and partitioned areas of tude 5-6 with exceptional of III
the Peninsular Shield with activity along local faults in the
ancient faults and with Archaeans with magnitude
localized faults and with 6-6.5
localized seismogeoic fea-
tures

50
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 LS
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‘9L6[ ‘,30-r([nf 'lii?!SJQ @llJJU
-!Slq *smap 3uaw~ueqtua JO uB!sap aq3 of SuoyJap
-!SUOCia~ienby$Jt?~'NV~VWflsVaNVN pUE VNHSI2Ix IVf
Z861- Et: dS
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CODE OF PRACTICE

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

FOREARTHQUAKERESISTANT
EXPLANATIONS ON
PART II

IS:4326-1976
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0. FOREWORD Vertical Beams - The exterior walls and
a)
The Code of practice for earthquake resistant interior partitions act ai vertical beams
design of structures was originally brought out in delivering reactions to the floors.
1962 and has been revised three times and the
current version of the Code in use being IS : 1893- b) Horizontal Diaphragms - The floor and
lY75. This Code deals with the seismic forces to roof act as horizontal girders which resist
be taken into account ‘while designing different the reactions from the vertical elements,
structures in various parts of the country. How-
ever, a need was felt to lay down specific provisions
indicating various construction features to be
incorporated in buildings to be constructed in
various seismic regions. IS : 4326 was, therefore,
brought out for this purpose originally in 1967
and has been revised in 1976. This Code takes
into account the prevailing construction practices
in the country and lays down guidelines for
construction of steel, reinforced concrete, masonry
and timber buildings.

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2. TERMINOLOGY

2.1.1 Crumple Section - A separation section GL GL

-
filled with appropriate material like sheet metal
flashing, particle board, cork, etc, which can
crumple or fracture in an earthquake. The mate-
rial filled will not obstruct the free movement of
the building when it vibrates during an earth-
qcake.

2.2 Centre of Rigidity - The centre of rigidity

and centre of mass at which the lateral load acts
are two different terms. Centre of rigidity is
calculated considering the stiffnesses of resisting
elements like columns and walls in the respective
directions. Centre of rigidity is the point in a
structure where a lateral force shall be applied to FIG. 1 SHEARWALL
produce equal deflections of its components at
any one level in any particular direction.

2.3 Shear Watt - See Fig. 1.

2.4 Space Frame - See Fig. 2.

2.4.2 Moment Rcsistarlt Frame - See Fig. 3.

2.4.3. Moment Resistant Frame with Shear Walls

- See Fig. 4.

2.5 Box System - The box system utilizes

walls which support vertical loads and also resist
seismic forces. There may be other elements, such
as a partial simple frame system, which support
a portion of the vertical loads. This system also
has horizontal resisting elements, such as dia-
phragms and trusses, which transmit the seismic
forces to the walls.
Box system functions in the same manner as a
rectangular box in resisting the internal forces in
an earthquake. As illustrated in Fig. 5, the
principal elements of the system are as follows:
FIG. 2 SPACEFRAME

61
sP:22 -1982
FORCES FROM
fA r DIAPHRAGMS

%i:~FY
ENLARGEMENT Al A

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FORCE = SUM OF
YDATION
BEAM SHEARS
FRAME ELEVATION
FIG. 3 MOM RESISTING
FRAME

SHEAR WALI as well as inertia forces generated from the

\ mass of the floor or roof itself.
c) Shear Walls - The structural walls orient-
ed parallel to the direction of the load
resist the reactions from the diaphragm
as well as inertia forces from the mass of
the wall itself. The shear wall then acts
as a vertical cantilevered beam supported
at the base of its foundation.
The basic elements of the box system listed above
can take any one of a number of forms, but the
basic function will remain same. The diaphragm
can consist of almost any structural material or
could be replaced by horizontal trusses or bracing
systems consisting of steel, wood or concrete
members without departing from the basic system.
Similarly, the shear walls could consist of any of
many different materials or even replaced by a
system of bracing or vertical trusses.
2.6 Band - A reinforced concrete or reinforced
brick runner provided in the walls to tie them
together, so that the structure acts as one unit to
resist the earthquake effects. These bands are
generally provided at plinth, lintel or roof level.
The most common among these is the lintel band.

3.2 Continuity of Construction

3.2.1 Generally all parts of the building should
be tied together in such a manner that the building
acts as one unit. Plinth band, lintel band or roof
band are used for this in brick masonry construc-
tion.
3.23 Continuous rows of openings in a load
bearing wall makes it weak and hence it should be
preferably avoided or otherwise the openings should
FIG. 4 MOMENTRESISTANT
FRAMJJWITH be staggered. The openings should also be reinforc-
SHEARWALLS ed all round.
62
 SP t 22 - 1982

ROOF OIAPHRAGM

BUILDING BOX
pREACTlON AT ROOF

lNERTlAL
FORCES REACTION

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AT FiObR

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SECTION AA

REACTION FROM WALLS

INERTIAL FORCES

l REACTION TO END WALLS

REACTIONS
PLAN OF ROOF AT GROUND
DIAPHRAGM
ELEVATION OF
END WALL
FIG. 5 Box SYSTEM

3.2.4 If a new structure is built by the side of care should be taken to reinforce them and anchor
an existing structure adequate precaution should them to the main structure adequately.
be taken to provide separation between them to
avoid hammering during seismic vibration.
3.3.2 Ceiling plaster should be as thin as possible
and the suspended ceiling should be avoided as
33 Projecting Parts far as possible. Light weight suspended ceiling
33.1 Overhanging parts, such as projecting in any building-should be adequately fastened.
,comices, balconies, parapets and chimneys are the Such ceilings often used for aesthetic reasons are
first to fall during an esrthqnake. Not only that usually brittle and weak and incapable of resisting
there is damage to the building but such parts, horizontal vibrations. Thus special care is requir-
when they fall, injure the people who may be ed in the design of suspended ceilings if they
running out of the houses or moving on the cannot be avoided. They should be strong and
streets. Such projecting and overhanging parts rigidly tied to the roof truss or be ductile enough
should be avoided as far as possible or enough to withstand the strains during ground motion.

63
SP:22-19412

3.4 Shape of Building normally exceed three. Simple rules for plan
layouts are illustrated in Fig. 6.
3.4.1 IJnsym&trical buildings usually develop
torsion due to seismic forces. Hence the 3.5 Strength in Various Directions - The
building should have a simple rectangular plan structure should be designed to nave adequate
and be symmetrical both with respect to mass and strength against earthquake effects along both the
rigidity, so that the centre of mass and centre of horizontal axes. In providing resisting elements
rigidity of the building coincide with each other care should be taken to see that the structure has
and there is no eccentricity. Since zero eccentri- more or less equal stiffness in both directions.
city is very dificult to achieve in design, efforts Large differences in stiffness in two directions may
should be made to have minimum eccentricity in lead to large eccentricity causing torsion in the
the building with suitable provisions for torsional structure.
eflect. Irregular shape buildings may be designed
as a combination of few regular shapes with 3.6 Foundations - The foundations founded
suitabie construction joints. The design require- on soils liable to liquefy need design considera-
ments for torsion are covered in IS : 1893-1975*. tions to avoid damage to the structure due to
foundation failure. However, such designs will
3.4.2 If symmetry of the structure is not be much expensive.
possible in plan and elevation, provisions should

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forces in the structural design by increasing the the structures during an earthquake and to enable
lateral shear. Also parts of different rigidities may them to absorb energy by deformation beyond
be separated. Betwe.en the separation’sections the yield point, the main structural elements aqd their
length to width ratio of the buildings should not connections should be so designed that the failure

PLANS REMARKS
DO
Ideal for behaviour and analysis
a
El

Good symmetry, analysis less easy

Beware of differential behavic ur at opposite ends of long

buildings

Bad for asymmetrical effects

Although symmetrical long wings give behaviour predic-

tion problem

Projecting access towers, problems with analysis and

detailing

Asymmetry of members resisting horizontal shear anaiy-

sis and torsion problems.

FIG. 6 GUIDELINESFOR PLANNING OF SEISMICBUILDINGS

*Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures (third revision).

64
 8P : 22 - 1982

is of a ductile nature. From earthquake consider- I) IS : 108@1980 Code of practice for design
ations a ductile structure is preferable as it has and construction of simple
enough energy to absorb the shocks. Therefore, spread foundations (@St
detailing of the member (including minimum revision)
reinforcement) should be such that the sudden
collapse of structure is avoided in the event of any 2) IS : 1904-1978 Code of practice for struc-
failure. tural safety of buildings :
Shallow foundations
Ductile structure yields and absorbs and (second revision)
dissipates very large amounts of energy by moving
out of the elastic range well into the inelastic 3) IS: 2950 Code of practice for
range. In favourable cases, the displacements of (Part I)-1982 design and construction of
the inelastic structure are similar to those of elastic raft foundations : Part I
structure and, therefore, the forces in the elastic Design ( second revision)
yielding structure are mtich less.
3.8 Damage to Non-Structural Parts - Non- 4) IS:2911 Code of practice for design
structural parts, such as filler walls, partitions, etc, {Par; I/Set l)- and construction of pile
should be designed and connected to the main foundations : Part I Con-
structure in such a manner so as to minimize crete piles, Section 1
their damage during an earthquake. The reason Driven cast irt-situconcrete

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for this are that in addition to being hazardous,
repairs or replacement of such parts is quite
costly. 5) IS : 29 11 (Part I/ Code of practice for
Set 2)- 1979 design and construction
3.9 Fire Safety -- It has been observed that of pile foundations: Part I
fire frequently follows an earthquake and, there- Concrete piles, Section 2
fore, rlie buildings should be constructed to make Bored cast in-siru piles
them fire resistant in accordance with the provi- (jrst revision)
sions of relevant Indian standards for fire safety.
If fire breaks out, the components of the building 6) IS : 29 11 (Part I/ Code of practice for design
should be able to retard the.fire for a few hours. Set 3)- 1979 and construction of pile
that is the material used in construction should foundations : Part I Con-
have fire resistance ratings specified in the National crete piles, Section 3
Building Code. Driven precast concrete
piles (j&W revision)
4. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
7) IS:2911 Code of practice for
4.1 The Code specifies the gap widths for the (Part III)- 1980 design and construction
various types of buildings and for different seismic of pile foundations : Part
coefficients. III Under-reamed piles
(jr3f rel~ision)
The separation of the joints should be complete
except below the plinth level, since the structure 4.3.2 The Code recommends that as far as
is assumed fixed at that level and only the structure possible entire building should be founded on the
above vibrates. same type of soil in order to avoid differential
4.2.1 The clearance between adjacent structures
settlement.
or parts of the same structure which are dissimilar
in mass or stiffness should provide for maximum 4.3.3 Loose fine sand, soft silt and expansive
amplitudes of the motion of each structure or clays may give rise to large differential settlements
part thereof. Fragile crumple joints continuous and should generally be avoided. However, a raft
through.walls and roof, are often used to cover foundation in such soils is less vulnerable and may
this gap. The Code suggests details of such crumple be used. Alternatively, a pile foundation would
sections (see Fig. 2 of the Code). also obviate such a problem. If the structure is
light (where a pile/raft foundation is not required),
4.3 Foundations the Code suggests some methods for improving
the foundation soil.
4.3.1 The following Indian standards are useful
in the design of building foundations which should 4.3.4 To avoid lal.ge differential settlements,
take into account seismic forces on the structure all the individual footings or pile caps in Type III
specified in IS : 1893-1975*: soft soils shall be connected by ties or slab. The
ties or the slab should be designed to take up the
*Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures forces resulting from the seismic forces. The
(third revision). magnitude of these forces is difficult to determine.

65
sP : 22 - 1982

A conservative approach for design of these mem- 5. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

bers is indicated in the Code, recognizing the
buckling aspect of the members. 5.2 Framed Constraction - This construction ia
suitable where heavy loads are expected such as
4.4.1 & 4.4.1.1 .The floor and roof construction in multistoreyed buildings and also in industrial
should be made as rigid as possible in the horizon- structures.
tal plane and shall be built into the walls along
their perimeter. There have been evidences in 5.2.2.1 In the case of design of moment resistant
1934 earthquake of Bihar that the verandah and frames with shear walls the total lateral force due
porches with series of independent pillars with to earthquake should be distributed to frame and
roof merely resting on top had failed badly; jack the shear wall. Although the shear wall would
arched roofs and roofs consisting of beams and take up most of the lateral load in view of its
rafters supporting brick tiles were damaged and large in plane stiffness, the frame by itself should
ill maintained tiled roof proved very hazardous. also be capable of resisting some part of load. A
Due to shaking, the gap. between two joists widened, minimum value equivalent to 25 percent of total
and tiles and bricks fell. Such roofing and flooring earthquake force is recommended by the Code for
units. where used instead of monolithic slabs, are this purpose.
to be tied together and fixed to the supporting
members so as to prevent their dislodging due to 5.2.2.3 On the basis of studies carried out, it
shaking. For this reason, corrugated iron or is observed that if the height of shear walls is
asbestos sheets would be found better than earthern about 85 percent of the total height of building,

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tiles, slates, etc. Joists, timber or reinforced the efficiency is optimum.
concrete, if used for supporting flooring units,
should be blocked at ends and tied together so as 5.3 Box Type Construction - See Fig. 5.
to prevent any relative displacement between
them. 6. STEEL CONSTRUCTION

4.4.2 Pent Rooj? Steel frames consist of four main parts which
play their role in lateral load resistance : beams,
4.4.2.1 Due to the horizontal force acting columns, connections and diaphragms. All parts
on the truss at the time of an earthquake, if the must be so designed that they have adequate
ends are not held down by bolts, the truss stiffness, strength and plastic deformation capacity.
will be displaced horizontally and may fall The significant features are:
off its bearing and may be hazardous. Hence,
it is recommended that ends of the truss should a) Beams - The factors to be checked
be bolted down to take up the required seismic besides bending strength are:
force.
1) Local buckling of plate elements in
4.4.2.2 Diagonal bracing should also be pro- compression,
vided at the tie level of the trusses so as to make 2) Lateral buckling of compressionflange,
them stiffer and distribute the horizontal forces and
due to the earthquakes.
3) Ultimate shear strength.
4.4.3 Jack Arches - The behaviour of arches
has been found to be unsatisfactory in resisting Since the moments due to earthquake
the horizontal loads due to earthquake as they forces are reversible in nature, both
have a tendency to separate out and collapse. flanges must be checked for local and
To prevent this, the Code recom.mends that Jack lateral buckling. It may be pointed out
arch roofs or floors where used should be provided that since the criterion of design now
with mild steel ties in the end spans and where the is deformation capacity, the limits on
number of spans is large, such ties should also be minimum dimensions will be more than
provided in every fourth span. in the elastic range particularly in the
plastic hinge zones. The moment gradient
4.5 Staircases along the length of beam should be taken
into account in determining more economic
4.5.1 Concrete stairways often suffer seismic limits of buckling parameters.
damage due to differential displacement of the
connected floors. This can be avoided by provid- W Columns - Under earthquake condition,
ing open joints in each floor at the stairway to the columns are usually bent into double
eliminate the bracing effects or by providing an curvature and carry axial loading which
adequate load path for the forces by using stair- may be from 15 to 50 percent of the yield
wails extending the full height of stairs. Three load PY of the section. The plastic hinge s,
types of staircases are recommended in the if any, occur at the end of columns.
Code. The buckling of column in the plane of

66
 SP : 22 - 1982

bending or in the perpendicular plane occur near the ends of the beams and columns,
decreases the rotation capacity at the ends. the plastic hinges are likely to occur there and
Therefore, it is important to check the most of the ductility requirement apply to sec-
column section for slenderness ratio in tions near the junctions.
both the principal planes, local buckling
of plate elements, twist buckling of the 7.1.4 The earthquake shear forces can change
section and combined axial load and sign in the beam. The vertical closed stirrups are
bending. Again, the restriction will be preferable to inclined bars because the vertical
much more severe than in the elastic range. closed stirrups can resist shears of any sign. The
Since the collapse of a column will lead Code recommends to restrict the shear capacity of
to the collapse of a part of the building, inclined bars to 50 percent because of its partial
this type of damage is too serious to be effectiveness in resisting reversible shears. The
left to chance. The best course perhaps close spacing of steel stirrups is desirable because
would be to avoid this problem by pre: it increases the ultimate strain in concrete and
paring a weak-girder strong-column design improves the behaviour of beam in diagonal
of the steel frame forcing the plastic hinges tension.
to develop in the beams rather than in the
columns.
7.1.5 The earthquake motion often induces
c) Connectioxs - In steel frame buildings, forces large enough to cause inelastic deforma-
usually the columns are made continuous tions in the structure. If the structure is brittle,

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through the joints and the beams are sudden failure could occur. Hut if the structure
connrscted to them. If the plastic hinges had ductile behaviour, the structure will be able
under earthquake or wind loading are to sustain the earthquake effect with some deflec-
forced to form at the beam ends, *the tion An1 larger than the yield deflection Ay by
connections are automatically required to absorption of energy. Therefore, besides the
have adequate strength and ductility to design for strength of the frame, ductility is also
meet the demand. Where connections are required as an essential element for safety from
made by riveting or bolting, the ductility sudden collapse during severe shocks. The past
is provided by connecting angles and tees. experience on the behaviour of buildings during
Where connections are made by welding, earthquakes has clearly shown that structures
such details should be adopted that the designed for low seismic coefficients of the Code
welds are not required to yield but the survived the severe earthquake because of energy
connecting plates should provide the yield- absorption in plastic deformations. The plastic
ing. In each case, stitfncrs must be included deformations are, therefore, considered to bring
on column webs to prevent web crippling down the effective values of design seismic coefi-
and shear buckling and all plate elements cients. The decision on the extent of admissible
must satisfy the local buckling design plastic deformation should rest with the designer.
criteria for plastic deformations. A ductility factor of about 5 is considered
adequate for reinforced con.:rete. To withstand
d) Diuphrn:~~s - In all tier buildings, th: the severe shocks, the Code recommends that duc-
floors act as the horizontal diaphragms tility provisions be carefully adopted. This recom-
and transmit the lateral load to the stiffer mendation is generally applicable to all seismic
elements, that is, vertical diaphragms like zones but its importance is greater where the
shear walls. The connecting elements severe earthquake loading will become much more
between the two will have to carry heavy significant than other concurrent loads, as may be
axial and lateral forces and must be the case where the design seismic coefficient
designed adequately. Diagonal bracing (including the effects of soil-foundation and
elements including tension members should importance factors) will be 0.05 or more. There-
also have such slenderness ratios that fore, the Code specifies these requirements
elastic buckling does not occur. especially in these cases. It will certainly be safer
to adopt them for smaller design coefficient cases
7. REINFORCED CONCRETE as well.
CONSTRUCTION

7.1.2 The primary members of stiucture, such 7.2 Flexural Members

as beams and columns, are subject to stress reversals
from earthquake loads. The reinforcement must a) OEjecIive of Design - The purpose of
be provided considering the reversal of sign of earthquake resistant design in reinforced
moments in the beams and columns. concrete is to avoid sudden collapse due to
diagonal tension, buckling or bond failure.
7.1.3 The monolithic beam-column connections The possibility of such failures should not
arc desirable so to accommodate reversible lateral arise at all before the members become
deformations after the formation of plastic hinges. fully plastic and achieve their ultimate
The maximum moments caused by earthquake strength in flexure.

67
 SP : 22 - 1982

W Flexural Capacity at Ultimate Strength - Here a ductility factor 5 is included in denomi-

Members designed to resist earthquake nator of equation (3). This meaus that steel strain
effects should be such that the upper limit of is required to be 5 times more than aI. For
strain of compressed concrete reaches after members with compression steel ratio, p, the
yielding of tension steel. This may be expression for K,, takes the following form?
achieved by keeping tensile steel ratio suffi-
ciently less than the balanced value. Such & = Flf
(P - PO)
sections are classified as moderately rein- . ..(4)
f 0”

forced sections, these contain

0.75 to 2 percent steel for Iv?%) concrete. where p = tensile steel ratio.
These sections will attain their ultimate Making use of (3) and (4), the maximum tensile
capacity after development of considerable steel ratio can be obtained from,
inelastic strain in steel. The over reinforced
sections in which the upper limit of strain of ecu
(Pmsx - P$ < .
compressed concrete reaches before yielding 5ru + ecu
of tensile steel are undesirable in earthquake
resistant design because of their restricted Using cc,, = 0’033, tZb = O-024,
energy absorption capacity. fcu = 0.55 F, in Equation (2)
9 Ductility Ratio - The ductility ratio of a
member in the limit state design is often p&n = ~0611;

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V
defined as the ratio of deformation at
ultimate to that at yield. A convenient For M 150 concrete, Fe = 150 kg/cma,
measure of ductility is thus a ratio $u/+V,
the ratio of curvature at ultimate to that at and Fu = 2 600 kg/cma
yield. l pm1n= 0.003 52
7.2.1 For moderately reinforced section with Under the action of an actual earthquake,
minimum tensile steel ratio (IL), the ratio of depth flexural members will probably be subjected to a
of neutral axis at ultimate to effective depth will number of reversals of bending moment. To meet
lie in the following limits: this situation, a minimum amount of compression
steel equal to about 0.35 percent of the section
...(I) must be provided which should be anchored
adequately so as to be able to act as tension
where reinforcement also. Similarly, the same minimum
ecu = Concrete strain at ultimate amount of reinforcement should also be provided
at the top of beam throughout the length so as to
cw = yield strain of steel take care of the shifting of the points of contra-
flexure towards the ccntre of span due to increase
lb = strain at strain hardening in steel of negative moment at one end and decrease at
the other. Not less than 2 bars each should be
provided at top as well as bottom of any section.
7.2.2 The maximum tensile steel ratio in a
p = A&f tensile steel ratio doubly reinforced member specified in this clause
FY = yield stress in steel can be obtained from equation (5) :
f0s= average stress in concrete in the com- Calculation of amount of maximum tensile steel,
pression zone at ultimate pmax : substituting fcu-=0.55 F. in equation (5),
= 0.7f;
pmax = pc -I- 0.55 (5cVc; cO”)% . ..(6)
= 035 Fc
Using, cou = 0.003, cy = 0.001 2
f; = 28 day cylinder strength
pmsx -; pe + @19 Fo/Fv
FO = 28 day cube strength For M 150 concrete, F, = 150 kg/cm*,
and Fv = 2 600 kg/cm=
The minimum and maximum steel ratio can be
pmsx = pc + O*Oll . ..(7)
obtained from equation (I), that is,
For concrete reinforced with cold worked defor-
med bars,
lBlume J. A., Newmark N. M. and Coming L. H.
. ..(3) Design of Multistorey Reinforced Concrete Building for
Earthquake Motions. Portland Cement Association, USA.

68
 SP:22- 1982

rCONflNUOUS BARS NOT

LESS THAN % AREA OF
BARS OF COLUMN

2 STIRRUPS
TIES mh

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Designer should pro- A=distance to point of inflection plus anchorage length but *Provide not less than
vide dimension A. not less than L/4. Designer may cut some bars shorter two stirrup ties throu-
s. d. II anchorage than this but at least one third the area of bars of ghout splice length,
length, cutoff points the column must extend this distance spaced no further
of discontinuous bars, d = beam design depth apart than 16 bar dia-
etc ZR=4D minimum, 6D preferable meters or 30 cm
ZI=t;;ce required by destgn for moment plus anchorage

D=diameter of bar
FIG. 7 EXAMPLEOF TYPICALBAR DETAILSFORSPECIALDUCTILEMOMENTRESISTING
FRAMES

CY == 0.00167, ecu = 0.003 7.2.5 Shear Reinforcement - Let a beam of

Pmax= PC + 0.15 FcjFv
span (I) carry dead and load and live load (D and L)
and let the plastic moment capacities at ends of
the beam be Mpo and M,a for hogging, and Mi.
7.2.3 The required amount of longitudinal
reinforcement shall be continuous through inter- and Afib for sagging moments The respectively.
mediate supports. When framing into external
columns, it shall be extended to the far face of the maximum and minimum shears that can be
confined region and anchored by bond, hooks, or caused at the two ends of the beam will be as
mechanical anchors to develop the yield strength follows:
of the reinforcement at the support. Figure 7
shows the typical detail for a beam framing into
column from one side or two sides. Such an
arrangement will ensure a ductile junction and
.D+.L$ Ma. + Mpk
provide adequate anchorage of beam reinforcement (Vo)mln = PO
-..__
I
into columns. Top and bottom longitudinal steel
for beams framing into both sides of column
Di-L + !!!q: _KVE
should extend through the column without (Vb)max = vb
splicing.

7.2.4 The tensile steel bars should not be spliced 1Od

at sections of maximum tension. Continuous top
bars should be spliced near the centre of a span
in regular frames where earthquake moments are
usually minimum and gravity load moments do
not usually produce tensile stress. For splices in
the reinforcement, full bond length (development
length) preferably with standard hooks at the ends
should be used and the splice should be contained
within at least two stirrup ties so that the splice
does not open out. The stirrup ties should be of
closed type (see Fig. 8). FIG. 8 CLOSED STIRRUP

69
SP : 22 - 1982

7.4 Beam Columu Connections - Joints between

exterior columns and adjoining flexural members
shall be confined by transverse column reinforce-
ment through the joint. Such reinforcement shall
NOTE - In the above stated equations ‘a’ is for left consist of helical reinforcement or ties as required
support and ‘b’ is for right support of the beam. V,, is the
shear force taken upward to the left of the section. at the column ends. This is required because on
Moments are taken positive if M,, and MD* arc hogging exterior and corner columns the joint core is not
and MPi and Mab are sagging. confined by flexural members on all sides. To
provide some measure of confinement in these
It can be seen from the above that theminimum situations givi?! some strength against brittle
sheare forces may change their sign and shear failure in the Jomt core, transverse reinforcement
failure is particularly undesirable. Therefore, as required at the column ends is continued
vertica! closed stirrups will be preferable to inclined through the joint core (see Fig. 9).
bars because the vertical stirrups will be able to
resist shears of any sign. The sectional area as The transverse reinforcement as required at the
of all vertical legs of a stirrup and spacing of the end of the column applies to connection as well.
stirrups may be designed for the maximum :hear If the connection is confined by beams from alt
force using yield stress in steel F,, as usual. For good four sides, the amount of transverse reinforcement
behaviour of beam in diagonal tension, ttieir may be reduced to half this value. The tie
spacing should not exceed (l;-! in a length of the reinforcement may be reduced to half this value.

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The tie reinforcement at beam column joints may
column. The first stirrup may be located 5 cm be provided by U-shaped ties, the length of the
from the face of the column. In the remaining legs beyond the columns being kept is dictated by
ler.gth of the beam, the maximum spacing should bond requirements so as to develop full strength
be I’lmited to d/2. of the ties.

7.3 Columns Subjected to Axial Load and Bend-

ing -- Ductility requirement is more difficult to
achieve in columns because of buckling effects.
The ductility in the column section can be increased
considerably by the con!inement of concrete by
means of special lateral reinforcement in the form
of spirals or closely spaced lateral hoops particu-
larly near the junctions of beam. In addition to
this, the dimensions of the column section s!jould
be chosen so that it does not become a long END REGION (See clause ‘1.3-3)
column.
While designing columns, it is to be kept in
view that columns should not fail before beams,
as loss of the columns support may allow collapse
of the floor system. ’
COLUMN CORE ’
7.3.2 S.prcial Reinforcement in Cohws --- For
working out the amount of lateral hoops for I
necessary confinement, the criterion may be
adopted that the load carrying capacity of the

I-
cross-section of the column may be made equal to
that of the column without the shell concrete.
Load deformation behaviour of such a column
is superior to ordinarily tied columns. Using this END REGION (See etause 7.34)
criterion, the cross-sectional area of the bar for-
ming circular hoops or a spiral used for confine-
ment of concrete is given in the Code.

7.3.3 As with flexural members the most

critical situation for column is adjacent to the
beam column joint. This dadSe defines the range ~COLUMN
within which the required transverse reinforce-
ment is to be provided.
_L
7.3.4 In addition to the .abovg, transverse
reinforcement should be provided throughout the *Column core has to be confined by hoop or helical rein-
forcement in accordance with end region spacing
length of the column to resist shear force, the
spacing of which shall not be less than (i/2, FIG. 9 BEAM-COLUMNJOINT AT EXTERNAL COLUMNS

70
 SP : 22 - 1982

8. MASONRY CONSTKUCTION cular direction as cross walls. It is thus clear

that in a building the same walls could act as
8.1 Geoer:al - From the numerous observations shear walls or cross walls depending on direction
of damage, it appears that unreinforced brick, of earthquake motion. Referring to Fig. 10, for
composite constructions, and adobe houses are not the X-direction of motion, walls B act as shear
the suitable forms of construction in seismic walls while offering resistance against the collapse
areas since these have large weight and almost of wall A as well. Wall A acts as vertical slab
no lateral strength or ductility. Besides, work- supported on two vertical sides and bottom and
manship is yet another factor which effects subjected to inertia force of its own mass. Near
its performance and hence emphasis should be the edges, the wall will have bending moments in
given on good quality of workmanship in order the horizontal plane for which brickwork has
to achieve best rssults in this material. The basic little strength. This may result in cracking and
advantage of this construction lies in the fact that separation of the walls. If, however, a horizontal
it is possible to use the same elements to perform bsnding member is introduced at a suitable level
a variety of functi0n.s which in a framed building in wall A and continued in wall B, the tension in
have to be provided for separately with conse- horizontal plane may be taken cart: of, Tension
quent complication in detailed construction. This on account or vertical bending may generally get
form thucl simultaneously provides the structure, relieved due to self weight and can be made to
subdivision of space, thermal and acoustic insula- take care of bending tensions. The same will be
tion, fire and other weather protection. There- true for wall B when ground motion is in Y-direc-
fore, finding effective methods of improving their tion. Thus the horizontal bending member is a
earthquake resistance is of utmost importance for very desirable provision in such buildings. Such a

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a vast majority of people throughout the world. member is called a runner or a band and depend-
For closer examination, building components ing on its location it may be called a roof band,
could be studied separately also to establish where lintel band, or gable band.
each one lacks stiength and should be strengthened.
The following paragraphs discuss the behaviour of The roof slab transfers its inertia force at top
such buildings in detail and make a review of of the walls causing shearing and overturning
the methods of strengthzningsuch buildings against forces in them. Major portion of this load is
seismic forces. taken up by the shear walls on account of
their large inplane stiffness compared to the
Srructural Action of Building Elm.ws - Buil- cross walls. However, the slab must have
dings respond to ground motion like al! other enough strength in bending in horizontal plane
structures and attract inertia forces depending on to be able to transfer the force in the aforesaid
their stiKncss and damping characteristics. Follow- manner. Reinforced concrete or reinforced
ing this. the roof tends to separate from supports, brick slabs would normally possess this but other
the roof ‘covering tends to be dislodged and types of roof/floor, such as brick-tile coverings
walls tend to tear apart. if unable to do so, the or timber planks-joists floors, must be connected
walls tend to shear off diagonally in the direction together and fixed to walls suitably to achieve
of motion. In case of filler walls in reinforced this purpose. Shear walls should of course be
concrete or timber frame, these may fall out of the able to take the shear of the slab in addition to
frame unless properly tied to the frame. In this its own inertia forces and should be designed safe
section, however, only load bearing wall type for the bending and normal stresses resulting from
construction are discussed. For this, some of the such forces.
basic ideas must be understood first. The walls
which resist forces in their own planes will be In the barrack type construction, the roof
referred to as shear walls and those in perpendi- trusses rest on walls ‘A’ while the walls ‘B’ are

FIG. 10 SHEARWALLSAND CROSS WALLS

71
SP:22-1982

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TYPESTNJCTURE
FIG. 11 BARRACK

gabled to receive the purlins (see Fig. 11). In assumed that the rotational component of defor-
such cases, the trusses must be anchored into the mations of the portions above and below the
walls by ‘holding down bolts’ and the walls ‘A’ openings are small compared to those of the piers
must be treated as vertical cantilevers. Also a between the openings and are neglected. The
band may be necessary to transfer the horizontal points of contraflexure are assumed at the mid
forces. Alternately, diagonal bracing may be pro- height of such piers and the forces (the lateral
vided at the main tie level extending from one shear) are shared among the piers such that their
gable end to the other. tops deflect by equal amount. The deflection of
each pier is calculated by assuming the ends to be
The above structural behavicur leads to the restrained against rotation. Thus the deflection is
following requirements of structural safety of given by:
brick building against earthquake forces:
a) A free wall must be designed as vertical *= _g+lL?!$ ..4)
cantilever:
b) Shear walls must resist forces transferred to in which V is shear in the pier, h its height, A the
it by its deformation; area of cross-section, I the moment of inertia,
E the modulus of elasticity and G the modulus of
4 Roof/floor elements must be tied together
rigidity of the material. The shear stiffness S, of
and be capable of transferring their inertia
forces to the walls; and the pier is given by,

4 Walls must be effectively tied together to S= V/A . ..(2)

avoid separation at joints due to shaking.
Horizontal bands may be provided for this The total horizontal shear in a wall will, there-
purpose at suitable places. fore, be distributed in the various piers in propor-
tion to their shear stiffnesses. This shear causes
Behaviour of Brick Shear Walls - Shear walls bending moment equal to Vh/2 at the top and
are the main elements resisting the lateral forces bottom sections of the pier. Also, there would be
in a building. In fact, the strength of such walls overturning forces in these piers on account of
determines the lateral load carrying capacity of this horizontal force in addition to the direct
the building. However, their strength depends on stresses due to the dead load of the building above
a number of factors which are sometimes very the lintel level. The total stress a is given by,
difficult to take into account in a theoretical
analysis. The main source of error and uncertainty 0 = ab + ad + a0 . ..(3)
is the workmanship. With this difficult parameter
playing an important part in the strength of a in which ab is the stress due to bending, ad the
shear wall, any effort to use the more sophisticated stress due to the dead load and a,, the stress due to
methods may appear to be an exercise in futility. overturning forces. Such computations should be
Simpler approaches were, therefore, suggested in made along each axis of the building for reversible
which a masonry wall was treated as a series of earthquake force. If the combined stress a exceeds
piers formed by the opening- in a shear wall (see the ultimate strength of brickwork in tension,
Fig. 12). For calculating stresses in such piers, it is cracking would occur. The sections of the piers.

72
 SP I 22 - 1982

PIER A PIER B

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12A Wall with door and window 12B Deflection of a typical pier

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FIG. 12 A TYPICALSHEARWALL WITHPIERSAND THE BEHAVIOUR
OF PER
UNDERLATERAL FORCE

should either be designed such that tension does intervals of 60 cm and also hollow concrete block
not appear or else provision should be made for masonry which possesses adequate strength as Iaid
reinforcing the section at such crucial points. down in the relevant standards.

Sections along the jambs of openings and the 8.1.2 Mortar - Since strength of masonry build-
corners in a shear wall have been identified as the ing is largely dependent upon the strength of mortar
vulnerable points in the walls. Since the ordinary used, it is recommended in the Code that only
brickwork has very little strength in tension, it those mortars which possess adequate strength
may seem essential that such wall sections be characteristics be used in construction. On this
strengthened by reinforcing steel in vertical direc- basis, Table 3 in the Code is formulated.
tion, particularly in active seismic zones. Taking a If a reinforcing bar is used in masonry, it is
clue from here, the efficacy of such strengthening desirable to have richer material around it to
measures was examined-and experimental study of ensure proper bond. For this purpose, either 1 : 4
house models was carried out. Tbe various streng- cement-sand mortar or M 10 or M 15 grade concrete
thening measures studied included vertical steel at is recommended for use.
corners, vertical steel at jambs and their combi-
nations with the lintel band. It was found that the 8.2 Walls
strength of models increased many folds with the
introduction of these methods. Further, it became 8.2.1 The Code recommends that load bearing
very clear that such measures would not allow the masonry walls should not be more than I5 m total
entire building to collapse during an earthquake. height or four storeys. Moinfar (1972) from his
The quantity of such reinforcing steel would experience on observations of earthquake damage
naturally depend on the number of storeys in a to brick masonry buildings in Iran has reported that
building and on the severity of the zone. With for ordinary workmanship 2nd quality of building
these methods, it is possible to go up to four materials the height of a dwelling should not exceed
storeyed construction. The Code provides for three storeys. preferably two, and under no cir-
such special measures in detail. Special features cumstances should the total height of the dwelling
of design and construction for earthquake resis- exceed I 1 m including the height of the parapet.
tance masonry buildings, in Zones 111, IV and V However, this experience is based on observations
are also covered in IS : 1905-1980*. of unreinforced buildings Here up to 4 storeys
are allowed in view of proposed reinforcing.
8.1.1 Materials - In view of the explanation
given under 8.1 the Code recommends good quality Random rubble masonry (brought to courses at
bricks, and prohibits the use of sun dried bricks. It 60 cm vertical intervals) is recommended only up
also permits use of squared stone masonry or ran- to 2 storeys or (8 m in height) in view of its poor
dom rubble masonry brought to courses at regular performance observed during the past earthquakes.
8.2.2 The load bearing walls must be straight
*Code of practice for structural safety of buildings: and symmetrical in plan so that torsional ; shears
Masonry walls (second revision). are avoided or minimized.

13
sp: 22. 1982

8.2.3 As explained. in 8.1(see Fig. 10) wall A . *. Bending stress

acts as a vertical slab supported on two shear
walls, the bottom and the roof slab. It is subject- ob - oyG;7 = 2.4 t/m2 (0’24 kg/c&)
ed to inertia for&c on its own mass and thus
deforms as a plate under the action of such forces. Weight of RB slab per metre
For simplicity of computations, the Code advises
that a check should be made on the strength of a = 0.300 x 6.4 x 4.4 = o_4Q6t
unit width of such walls assuming them to be 2(6’2+42)
vertical beams subjected to inertia forces of their
. *. Direct stress
own mass. This would be a conservative check as
far as safety is concerned. 0.406
Qd =&ix1- = 2.03 t/ma (0.203 kg/cm*)

Example 1 - Check a wall panel of a room Therefore, the net tensile stress in the brick
64 m x 4.4 m in plan having 20 cm thick, 3*5 m element works out as (1.2 - &203) = O-997
high brick masonry walls in I : 6 cement sand kg/cm8 (camp) which is well within the permissible
mortar. The roof is in RB weighing 300 kg/m%. value of tension in brick masonry with 1: 6 cement
The design seismic coefficient is 0.04 (see Fig. 13). mortar.
Considering 1 m wide strip of the wall, the bend- It turns out that panel walls having storey
ing moment at the point A (and B) will be given by heights of the order of 3.5 m or so and laterally

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supported at top will be found to be safe and,
M=J$ therefore, the Code mentions this in the Note
following this clause.
in which w is inertia force per unit length of 8.2.4 A free standing wall is recommended to
vertical strip and h is the height of room. At have a factor of safety of 1.5 in overturning in
section A the compressive stress will be the view of the importance of such walls.
mininium because the self weight of wall is nil and
only the RB slab gives some compression. From Example 2 - Check overturning factor of safety
the safety point of view tension should not exceed for a 3 m high 20 cm thick uniform brick wall
the safe limit for the 1 : 6 cement-sand mortar. forming boundary of a factory, located in seismic
Zone IV (see Fig. 14).
w = 0.04 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 0.20 x 1.92
= I.54 x 1O-a t/m Considering unit length of wall the overturning
moment (due to inertia forces) MO is given by,
Bending moment at A,
MO = @04 x I.0 x 3-o x 0.2 x I.92 ,x 1.5
M” = 1.54 x IO-” x 3.5’
12 = 0.089 t.m
= 1.57 x 10-l kg.m Stabilizing moment (due to dead weight) about
point A is given by
Z = !!?!_ = 0.006 67 ms
6 M‘ = 3 x 1.0 x 0.20 x 1.92 x 0.10
= 0’115 t.m

FIG. 13

74
 SP : 22 - 1982

83.8 Observatiqns in past earthquakes have

shown that use of arches to span across openings
is a source of weakness and must be avoided
unless steel ties are provided.

8.4 Stren8theniag Arrangements

8.4.1 This is the most important operative
clause of the Code. It specifies the strengthening
measures to be adopted in case of masonry build-
ings for which design seismic coefficient is worked
out first in accordance with provisions of IS :
1893-1975*. It may be recalled that design seismic
coefficient is worked out on the basis of seismic,
zone, soil-foundation factor @) and importance
factor (I).
FIG. 14
Depending upon the value of design seismic
The wall, therefore, has a factor of safety against coefficient, the strengthening arrangements vary -
overturning higher seismic coefficient inviting more elaborate
provisions compared to those for lower coefficients.

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= z9 =6> 1.5 (O.K.) Basically the following six provisions are specified:
a) Masonry mortar (see explanatory 8.1.2);
8.2.5 During au earthquake shaking, infills ,in
b) Lintel band alround to tie up the building;
framed building will behave according to Its
physical connection with the frames. The itills c) Roof band (and gable band in case of slop-
usually 8dd to the stiffness and strength of a build- ing roofs);
ing if bonded properly with the frame. It is,
therefore, recommended in the Code that the d) Vertical steel at corners and junctions of
bonding should be done properly either by suitable walls to take up tension which occurs at
mortar or dowels. If this is not achieved, the these points;
infills would behave just like a free standing wall. e) Vertical steel in jambs of openings (see
In either situation, the infill should be checked explanatory 8.3.6); and
for safety against inertia force acting on its own
mass as provided in 8.2.3 or 8.2.4 of the Code. f) Bracing in plan at tie level (see explanatory
4.4.2.2).
8.3 Openings in Bearing Wails
(b), (c) and (d) are explained in the following sub-
8.3.1 to 8.3.6 Openings divide a bearing wall into clauses.
a series of piers whose strength determines the
strength of the wall element. Analysis has shown 8.4.2 to 8.4.5 Bands or Runners -- Lack of
that sections around jambs of openings are the proper connection between various elements of
vulnerable sections and must be safeguarded. It the buildings, like walls or between walls and roof
is also seen that the larger the opening, smaller is (or floor), has often resulted in damage to
the strength of wall. Also the strength of wall masonry buildings during earthquakes. As explain-
depends upon the placing of opening in the wall. ed in 8, runners or bands of reinforced concrete
The more central location of opening leads to a or reinforcEd brickwork provided in all the load
higher strength and higher the opening higher is bearing walls at different levels together with
‘the strength. In view of these, the Code recom- vertical reinforced concrete elements which are
mends certain specifications as regards the size not necessarily load bearing, provide excellent
and placing of openings in load bearing walls. connections for the building to act as one unit
If openings do not comply with the recommen- under earthquake motion. thus increasing consi-
dations made in the various subclauses, the Code derably its resistance and minimizing damage.
recommends strengthening of openings by providing Locating the runners at lintel and/or roof level
steel at jambs or by framing the opening in rein- is recommended depending upon the seismic
forced concrete as shown in Fig. 11 of the Code. intensity, type of construction and soil strength.
It also suggests that as far as possible all open- The various bands may be made in Ml5 or
ings in a storey should have their top at the same richer concrete on reinforced brickwork in cement
level to facilitate provision of continuous rein- sand mortar not leaner than 1 : 3. A minimum
forced concrete band alround the building. thickness of 7.5 cm and width equal to thickness
8.3.7 Projecting parts are always potential of the wall is recommended.
hazards during an earthquake and, therefore, these
must be well anchored in reinforced masonry or. *Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures
concrete. (third revision).

75

m ,.,?
SP : 22 - 1982

One steel bar near each face of the wall is Also maximum shear force is given by
recommended in the reinforced concrete band.
In reinforced brickwork, the reinforcement may F = 53.66 x 6@
be provided in two consecutive courses with two 2
bars near each face of the wall so that the total
area of steel is the same as in a reinforced concrete = 160.98 kg/m
band. That is, with the number of bars doubled,
the diameter of bars may be reduced to 70 percent Taking the normal allowable bending compres-
for obtaining the same total steel area. The sion in concrete as 50 kg/cma and shear as 5
joints in reinforced brickwork containing the steel kg/cm2 with tensile stress in steel as 1 400 kg/cm’
bars should be increased so as to have a minimum and allowing an increase of 33) percent in these
mortar cover of 6 mm around the bar. Figure values for seismic condition, the area of steel
15 shows typical sections of such bands. Exam- reinforcement (on either face) is worked out as
ple 3 illustrates the design of such bands. follows:
Example 3 : 206.66 x 100
At = =0*738 cma
Figure 16 shows a single room building with 1.33 x 1400 x 15
brick masonry walls (20 cm thick) 3.5 m high.
The reinforced brickwork roof slab weighs 300 in which 15 cm is the distance between the steel

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kg/ma. The design seismic coefficient is, @OS. reinforcement at the inner and the outer faces.
Design the lintel band and the roof band.
a) Design of Lintel Band The thickness of band from consideration of
diagonal tension works out to
Neglecting openings, horizontal seismic
load coming on lintel band (perpendicular 160-98
to plane of wall) f =iqx5xo;g&~5=
l-61 cm

However a minimum thickness of 7.5 cm is

recommended in view of the proper cover for steel
= 53.76 kg/m on both the sides. The requirement of steel is
Assuming continuity of band at corners of also less but a minimum of one bar of 12 mm
walls, maximum bending moment in the diameter on each face is recommended together
band (horizont.aI bending) is given by with links of 6 mm dia spaced at 15 cm apart for
tying the two bars together. However, this
6.22
M = 53.76 x -lo arrangement is valid for spans say up to 8 m or
so beyond which the adequacy of band must be
= 206.66 kg. m checked as above.

L EAR S ON EACH :m_cl k2.5 cm

FACE OF WALL

1
6 mm DIA LINKS 2.5 cm
4
/ Y .A 10’cm

.-&
2.5 cm
f
7.5 cm 0
/I 1O’crr
I
-+

11 BAR ON EACH
FACE OF WALL .L_*Ocm ---I

15A Concrete band 15BReinforcedbrick work band

Fw. 15 CROSSSECTIONOF RUNNERS FIG. 15 CROSSSECTIONOF RUNNERS

76
 SPr22-1962

ROOF BAND-/ LINTEL BAN; Mm

-+
2-l m

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FIG. 16 BUILDING WITH KOOF BAND AND LINTEL’BAND

b) Design of Roof Band In case of structures where design seismic

coefficient works out more than 008 (due to impor-
The inertia force due to load coming on roof
tance of the structure or soil foundation system),
band depends upon the arrangement of roofing these bands are provided with more reinforcement
material. Assuming that the roofing elements are as given in Table 4 of the Code.
tied to longitudinal walls, the inertia force on roof
band is given by
Roof band is not required in case of reinforced
concrete or reinforced brick slabs which are conti-
qh = 0.08 X 300 X 4-4
r + 0.20 x 1 920 nuous over the whole building or between crum-
pled sections, if any, and cover the width of walls
I.4 fully as they have a binding action on the walls
= 74.30 kg/m and are also capable of transmitting their inertia
x2
force to the shear walls.
Bending moment is then obtained as
Runners/bands at any level should be ma&
67 continuous at the corners and junctions of walls.
iU= 7430 x -@-= 285.62 kg.m
The gable band should also be continuous with
the roof band at tie level. Typical details for
and shear force continuity are shown in Fig. 17.

F = 74.30 x y = 222.90 kg 8.4.6 Horizontal runners may not be much

effective by themselves in increasing the lateral
resistance of buildings. Vertical steel at corners
Assuming same working stresses as in the earlier and jambs of openings provides much greater
example,
strengthening, particularly in combination with the
Al = l.3yz golr 15 = 1.02 cm*
horizontal steel reinforcement bars in runners.

By reinforcing these critical sections alone, brick

Thickness of band buildings up to four storeys are strengthened
sufficiently at a small extra cost and without addi-
222.90
tional skill required in construction to escape
f = 1.33 x 5 x 0.86 x 17.5 = 2.23 cm collapse even under most severe earthquake forces.
The recommendations of the Code are btied on
Minimum reinforcement and thickness as in this cost consideration rather than on no damage
case of lintel band are to be used. criterion.

In case of sloping roofs, the roof band is made Vertical steel need not be provided in buildings
continuous over the gable ends of the end wall up to 2 storeys in places where design seismic
below the purlins. Obviously, the. specifications coefficient works out as O-06 < ah < @08. HOW-
for the gable band, roof band and lintel band are, ever, if in this situation, 3 or 4 storeyed buildings
therefore, the same. must have vertical steel in view of possible ampli-

77
$P t 22 - 1982

LGAP LENGTH
17A

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FIG. 17 BANDREINFORCEMENT
D~AIL AT CORNER AND JUNCTION OF WALLS

fication of acceleration in such structures. Of 9.2 Timber is not as strong as other materials
course; if the design seismic coefficient is greater of construction, namely, masonry or reinforced
than O-08, all buildings (1 to 4 storeys) must be concrete and although it has a high strength per
reinforced by such steel. The quantity of steel in unit weight its construction is generally advised to
each case i, specified in Table 5 of the Code. The be restricted to two storeys in seismic areas.
d&ails of providjog the vertical steel in brickwork,
hoilow block and stone masonry at corners, T- 9.3 Quite often fire breaks out following an
sections and jambs of openings are also illustrated earthquake on account of electric short circuiting,
in Fig. 8, 9 and 10 of the Code. kitchen fire, etc, and for this reason the Code
recommends that attention should also be paid to
9. TIMBER CONSTRUCTION fire safety in timber construction.

9.0 Timber is often used for structural work 9.4 In order to ensure an integrated action by
particularly in hilly regions as also for tempoiary the structure during an earthquake, it is necessary
construction. It is well known that timber has to make the superstructure rigid by appropriate
poor weather resistance and is liable to seasonal techniques
vibration so that it behaves as one unit during
changes, cracks and warping. . Therefore, attention must be paid to
suitable construction detailing of junctions of the
9.1 Earthquake force attracted by a structure is members and the wall panels since the rigidity is
p~portional to its weight. Also it is well known very intimately associated with such detailing.
that failure occurs on account of tension in struti-
tures as was explained in 8 on masonry. A 9.5 Foundations
titable material for earthquake resistance would,
thczefore, be one in which the strength per unit 9.5.1 to 9.5.2.2 For timber buildings, it must be
weight is higher. Timber has a high strength to ensured that the structure remains intact all the
unit weight ratio and is, therefore, very suitable time for which the Code recommends that the
for earthquake resistant construction. portion of the building below the plinth level must

78
 SP : 22 - 1982

be ecmdm%d in masonry or concrete. This is coefficient for two categories of timber, namely.
de&able in view of the fact that timber may Class I and Class II as defined in IS : 883-1970*.
deteriorate or rot if taken underground. The
superstructure may or may not be rigidly connected 9.8 Brick Nogged Timber Frame
to the plinth masonry. Experience from past
earthquakes has shown that buildings not fixed This form of construction consists of intermedi-
with the foundation escape collapse although they ate verticals, columns, sills, wall plates, horizontal
could move side ways. The Code also suggests nogging members and diagonal members framed
appropriate details of connection of columns with into each other and the space between the remain-
the foundation masonry in case it is desired to have ing members is filled with tight fitting masonry.
the superstructure rigidly fixed into the plinth The minimum size of various timber elements to
masonry/concrete foundation. In case of small be used in this construction is specified in the
buildings, however, the Code permits the vertical Code. The joints of wall plate and sill plate with
Boles to be embedded into the ground. studs must be covered with suitable steel straps.
9.9 Connections Between Timber Members -
9.6 Stud wall construction and brick nogged Cutting and notching are very important and signi-
timber frame construction are generally adopted in ficantly affect the strength of a member. For this
practice while constructing buildings in timber. reason, the Code recommends that notching or
The Code recommends appropriate sizes of struc- cutting should be limited to about 20 mm in depth
tural’members for use in these two types of cons- unless steel strips are provided to strengthen the
truction. These dimensions are based on an notched face of the member to compensate for the,

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estimate of earthquake forces expected in the loss of material. Where it is necessary to cut or
various seismic zones and the minimum sizes notch a member by about 40 mm in depth, the
indicated in the Code correspond to the expected steel reinforcing strip should be placed along the
earthquake forces in Zone V. notch only. However, where the cut is more than
40 mm in depth or a member is completely cut
through steel strips should be placed on both edges
9.7 Stud Wall Construction of the member. Figure 15 of the Code indicates
9.7.1 to 9.7.10 In this form of construction, the the detail of such notching and reinforcing.
timber studs and corner posts are framed into sills, 9.10 Bridging and Blocking -In order to provide
top plates and wall plates. Horizontal studs and rigidity to the timber frame, the Code recommends
diagonal members are used to stiffen the frame cross bridging of wooden joists at every 3.5 m
against latera! forces. The joints must be covered length. The Code also recommends providing
by suitable steel strap. The wall cladding can be blocks at all bearings of such joists to block the
either timber boards or the conventional EKRA space between joists.
construction in some parts of the country. The
Code recommends the minimum size of the studs *Code of practice for design of structural timber in buil-
and diagonal bracings depending on the seismic dings (fhird revision).

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