CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
HINDU COLLEGE OF DESIGN, ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING
Affiliated to
DEEN BANDHU CHHOTU RAM UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,
MURTHAL (SONIPAT), INDIA –131039

DISSERTATION TITLE

(CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE)

Dissertation Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Bachelor of Architecture

(SHASHANK JAISWAL & Roll No.:- 15025006049)

November 2019

Supervisor
(AR. BRIJESH YADAV)

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DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,
HINDU COLLEGE OF DESIGN, ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING
AFFILIATED TO
DEENBANDHU CHHOTU RAM UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
MURTHAL (SONIPAT)

Declaration by the Candidate

I, SHASHANK JAISWAL , Roll no: 15025006049 , student of Bachelor of Architecture
hereby declare that the Dissertation titled “CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON
ARCHITECTURE” which is submitted by me in 2019 to the Department of Bachelor of
Architecture, Hindu College of Design, Architecture & Planning affiliated to Deenbandhu
Chhotu Ram University of Science &Technology (DCRUST), Murthal (Sonipat)-Haryana in
partial fulfillment of the requirement of the award of the degree of Bachelor of Achitecture
has not previously formed basis for the award of any Degree.

Place: SONIPAT
Date: SHASHANK JAISWAL

(AR. BRIJESH YADAV)

Disseration Supervisor

Prof. (Dr.) Rashmi Ashtt.

Director Principal

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,
HINDU COLLEGE OF DESIGN, ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING
AFFILIATED TO
DEENBANDHU CHHOTU RAM UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
MURTHAL (SONIPAT)

Bonafide Certificate

Certified that this Dissertation titled ‘CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON

ARCHITECTURE’ is the bonafide work of (SHASHANK JAISWAL & 15025006049)
who carried out the work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my
knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other Dissertation on the basis
of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other
candidate.

(AR. BRIJESH YADAV)

Dissertation Supervisor

Prof. (Dr.) Rashmi Ashtt.

Director Principal

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ABOUT THE CONTEXT

CHAPTER 1- Foreword
1.1 Aim
1.2 Objective
1.3 Scope
1.4 Limitations

CHAPTER 2- Introduction

CHAPTER 3- Culture as reflected in architecture.

3.1 Stone age

CHAPTER 4- History
4.1 Changes in Culture

CHAPTER 5- Understanding architecture and culture of Western zones.

5.1 Rajasthan

5.1.1 Important Artifacts of Rajasthan Architecture.

5.2 Brahamapur Settlements, Jodhpur

5.3 Bifurcation of culture through vernacular architecture

5.3.1 Banni, Kutchh

5.3.2 Pols of Ahmedabad

5.3.3 Characteristics of pol house

5.3.4 Planning of Pol houses

5.3.5 Climatic conditions in a house form

CHAPTER 6- Understanding architecture and culture of Northern zones.

6.1 Kashmir

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6.2 Bifurcation of culture through vernacular architecture

6.2.1 Construction techniques

6.2.2 Kashmir bridges

6.2.3 Rural buildings in Kashmir

6.2.4 Ladakh’s houses

6.2.5 Doonga boat

6.2.6 Types of boats

CHAPTER 7- Understanding architecture and culture of Southern zones.

7.1 Kerala

7.1.1 Culture of Kerala

7.1.2 Architecture

7.1.3 Bifurcation of culture through vernacular architecture

CHAPTE 8- Understanding architecture and culture of Eastern zones.

8.1 Nagaland

8.1.1 Culture of Nagaland

8.1.2 Village housing pattern

8.1.3 Bifurcation of culture through vernacular architecture

8.1.4 Material used

CHAPTER 9- Conclusion

References.

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ABOUT THE FIGURES

Figure.1 – Communicative dimension in design

Figure.2 – Impact of culture on architecture

Figure.3 – Architecture is a manifestation of the cultural

Figure.4 – Geographical conditions

Figure.5 – Architecture throughout the ages

Figure.6 – Structural buildings

Figure.7 – Stone Age

Figure.8 – Stone age weapons

Figure.9 – Painting is sculpture

Figure.10 – Evolution of man

Figure.11– Mandapas

Figure.12 – Asoka column

Figure.13 – Diwan-e-Am

Figure.14 – Diwan-e-Khas

Figure.15 – Gita

Figure.16 – Taj Mahal

Figure.17 – ltamad-ud-daullah Tomb

Figure.18 – Lake Palaces

Figure.19 – Chandigarh

Figure.20 – Nasik

Figure.21 – Poona

Figure.22– Architectural form and styles

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Figure.23 – Rajput architecture

Figure.24 – Splendid forts

Figure.25 – The palaces

Figure.26 – Deeg palace

Figure.27 – Ajmer city

Figure.28 – Gigantic gate

Figure.29 – Architecture of Mughal

Figure.30 – Havelis

Figure.31– The Chhatri

Figure.32 – Single dome built inside four pillars

Figure.33 – Jharokha

Figure.34 –Stone window

Figure.35 – Overhanging balcony

Figure.36 – Chand Baori Step Well, Abhaneri

Figure.37 – Dada harir vav, Gujarat

Figure.38 – Town Planning in Rajasthan

Figure.39 – Brahamapur Settlements, Jodhpur

Figure.40 – Outdoors through mutual shading

Figure.41 – Planning of banni, kutchh

Figure.42 – Circular houses of mud

Figure.43 – Roofed with thatch

Figure.44 – Cluster of huts shows walls painted

Figure.45 – Bhungas

Figure.46 – The vistāra through a Banni doorway

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Figure.47 – Woman sewing in foreground typifies

Figure.48 – Pols of Ahmedabad

Figure.49 – Pols are enclosed residential clusters

Figure.50 – Front façade of pols with columns

Figure.51 – Side walls of the house are shared with the house next door

Figure.52 – Minimal frontage on the neighbourhood street

Figure.53 – Plan of Pol houses

Figure.54 – Chabutro- Bird feeder -a stone or wooden tower

Figure.55 – Jammu and Kashmir

Figure.56 – Taq- a traditional construction system

Figure.57 – Dhajji dewari

Figure.58 – Panjrakari

Figure.59 – A framework consisting of a crisscrossed pattern of strips of building

material

Figure.60 – A netted lattice work

Figure.61 – The Chenab Bridge

Figure.62 – Rural buildings

Figure.63 – Thick walls of brick and stone with mud plaster

Figure.64 – Ladakhi Architecture

Figure.65 – Buildings are Two-storeyed

Figure.66 – Long, flat bottomed craft

Figure.67 – Plan and elevation

Figure.68 – Doonga boats

Figure.69 – Shikara

Figure.70 – Khuch

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Figure.71 – The Dal Lake Houseboat

Figure.72 – Classical Antiquity

Figure.73 – Malayali people

Figure.74 – Aryan and Dravidian cultures

Figure.75 – Control system of Kerala

Figure.76 – Vernacular buildings

Figure.77 – Planning of Nalukettu

Figure.78 – Section of Nalukettu

Figure.79 – Pathnabhapuram palace

Figure.80 – Cheri

Figure.81 – Kudi

Figure.82 – Illam

Figure.83 – Wooden "Jalli" (Azhi)

Figure.84 – The open "Mughapa"

Figure.85 – Padippura - gate house

Figure.86 – Thatched or tiled and seen in cluster, usually on the river side or sea shore

Figure.87 – Type of thatches

Figure.88 – Lime mortar

Figure.89 – Red sandstone

Figure.90 – Coconut palm leaves & grass leaves

Figure.91 – Northeast India

Figure.92 – Main tribes of Nagaland

Figure.93 – Naga houses

Figure.94 – Decorating entrances of their dwellings

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Figure.95 – Enclosed by a fence

Figure.96 – Plan of Naga houses

Figure.97 –Timber

Figure.98 –Thatch

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CHAPTER 1- FOREWORD
1.1 AIM:
To study the influence of culture on architecture.

1.2 OBJECTIVES:
 In this study we will find the relation between the basic culture followed at a
place and the architecture.
 We will let to know about various architectural forms varying culture to culture.
 We will get to know the advantages and disadvantages of various forms of
architecture.
 A comparative analysis of different places will be helpful in finding the better
form in every aspect.
 Cultures are followed from religions to beliefs so it will be easy to create a better
vision about each culture.

1.3 SCOPE:
 In this study we will explore different evolutions of architectural forms varying
place to place.
 We will find the difference between the early stages of architecture of various
places through vernacular architecture of different places.
 The architectural buildings of different states will show the impact over the era

1.4 LIMITATIONS:

 This case study is only limited to India.

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CHAPTER 2- Introduction
A society’s culture is a contributing factor to the structure and design of its architecture.
As contemporary globalism brings about the evolution of the world, architectural style
evolves along with it, which can be observed on an international scale.

Cultural Influences on Architecture is the impact of culture on architecture through the

aspects of planning and production, and highlights the importance of communicative
dimension in design.

Featuring exhaustive coverage on a variety of relevant perspectives and topics, such as

the evolution of construction systems, benefits of nature-based architecture, and
fundamentals of social capital, this publication is ideally designed for researchers,
scholars, and students seeking current research on the connection between culture and
architecture on a global level.

Fig.1 Fig.2

"Culture" originates from the term "cultivation," implying that one has "grown" through
knowledge or experience. To be cultured can also mean one is knowledgeable in the arts,
or that one is refined. Cultures are "value-guided systems. Values define cultural man's
need for rationality, meaningfulness in emotional experience, richness of imagination,
and depth of faith."

This implies that cultures are a matrix of aspects which affect many levels of society,
values being one of the primary aspects which organize the system. As one of the primary
organizing aspects of culture, values shape the overall cultural system. The cultural
system can only maintain itself with cohesion of these values.

This means that the system is dependent upon a series of values rather than a single
dominant value. "Culture occurs only with a combination of the values, not with the sole
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perfection of a single value."A systems view of culture states that the entire series of
values are responsible for the overall cohesion of the society with no one aspect of the
culture given imbue importance within a society.

This leads to an exhausting amount of cultural aspects to be considered in the definition

of the society. If a thorough understanding of the culture is to be attained, it would be
useful to at least be able to limit the number of cultural aspects for review.

Architecture is a manifestation and expression of culture. As such it must acknowledge

and respond to the cultural needs and values of the society with which it interacts.
Consequently, a selected set of cultural aspects will be defined which have been found
most likely to influence architectural form.

These aspects of culture will then be utilized in a study of three works of architecture. I
will examine past architectural works and evaluate their cultural conditions to propose
how the architectural form was influenced by the culture.

Architecture is a manifestation of the cultural context in which it resides. The form and
relationships of buildings and spaces act as a kind of "cultural marker" that can be read,
similar to the way one might read a newspaper or road map for information, to describe
the way of life and social status of its inhabitants. "Buildings are, in fact, matrices for
social structure."

Several anthropologists believe that architecture can be read to describe the "whole way
of life" of a society. Encompassing much more than just the basic needs of a particular
society, the architectural form responds to a far more complex system.

Fig.3

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CHAPTER 3- Culture as reflected in architecture

The social order formed by civilization creates cultural progress, and apart from the
country’s political, moral and economic conditions, the pursuit of knowledge and that of
the arts forms the basis of the culture of one’s country.
It is true that various factors affect the culture and civilization of any country; any one
factor may encourage or impede its flow of progress. For instance, the geological
condition of a place, a region which is periodically covered with snow or periodically
affected by volcanic eruptions can hardly contribute a major share of progress.

Fig.4

Likewise adverse geographical conditions do create lethargy either by its tropical

climate, or excessive rain. Both these conditions create parasites, disease and death.
Many of us and particularly the artists deplore the value of money and economic disparity
created by it, but we do not find that prosperous countries with all their balanced
economy are contributing a major share on the cultural side which other countries have
taken centuries to do.
Wealth is a double-edged sword and it is almost a law of history that the same wealth that
generates a civilization announces its decay. For wealth produces ease as well as art, and
it softens a people to the ways of luxury and invites invasion from stronger arms and
hungrier mouths.
Two concrete examples to bear this statement are of Persia and India. It is a popular but
wrong notion prevailing amongst us that modem painting, sculpture and architecture have
little cultural value.
Actually the culture of any country is a living thing; it continues to grow, but it needs
fresh air—good manure and right vitamins. Every one of us has come in contact with our
farmers they are the sons of the soil and they do breathe, even now, the human culture.

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This essence of culture is to appreciate and respect nature. This essence is born in every
man, and fortunately it is preserved most by the man who tills the soil. It is because he is
closer to nature.
We, therefore, naturally try to search for culture in the countryside, and civilization in the
city. Culture and civilization have no color bar; we find them in nearly equal degree
amongst people of all nations. It is a wrong assumption that a great race makes
civilization. Actually it is the great civilization that makes the people.
Architecture throughout the ages was associated with beautiful buildings of grand
proportions, rich in material, often delicate in design and profound in ornament.
Architecture is not a mere building but a beautiful building.
It is true that architecture in the past was more pronounced in the graves, tomb structure
than in huts. The commemorative pillars throughout the world developed into statuary
and the tomb grew into a temple. For primitive man believed that the dead were more
important and powerful than the living and as the dead cannot leave their abode, their
structures unlike huts were more permanent.

Fig.5 Fig.6

3.1 STONE AGE:

The houses of Stone Age reflect their culture in architecture; and architecture gained its
full value. She then became the mother of all arts. The caves were used as houses—they
were made into houses and the walls were decorated with sculptural reliefs.

These reliefs had a three-fold purpose. It is said that primitive artists could sculpture so
well the deer and the reindeer in true form that live deer used to flock around the
sculpture, and it actually helped the Stone-Age men to capture the live deer with the least
effort. The second purpose was to display a sumptuous dinner on the wall.

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Fig.7 Fig.8

The third purpose had a religious belief that the dead may come again to the house and
there are instances of sculptural reliefs in Royal tombs in Egypt where a full dinner table
with food is well laid and ready for the dead king even his queens are shown waiting for
him in bas relief.

We have also examples of mural paintings depicting several phases of culture and from
series of examples, we find that painting developed from statuary, from the carving, from
the round to bas relief and thence to mere outline and coloring; painting is sculpture
minus a dimension.

Fig.9

The Neolithic culture was responsible for training of animals and using them as beasts of
burden. But the monkey and the parrot found their places as companions. They were all
housed in the buildings and architects of those days solved their building problem with
these additional requirements.

We have beautiful examples of architecture of buildings built for horses, and elephants.
In Vienna, Jaipur and Baroda, the visitors are shown the Royal Stables.

The lake dwellers of 5000 B.C. lived more close to the trees and they became skillful
carpenters, and their houses reflected not only the local material namely, timber, but the
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skillful use of timbers in posts, brackets and rafters. We have a parallel in our country at
Kashmir and Nasik and also in the Swiss country of Interlaken and Luzen; we find that
the craftsmen of those days had the desire to produce a work of art out of the local
timber.

In various civilizations and cultures, we have found the basic classification of the people,
the King, the priest, the warrior, the craftsman-and the laborer. Whether the said
classification is helpful to the society and particularly to the present Socialistic pattern of
Society is a debatable question, but culture and craftsmen have proved in the past that one
cannot ignore tradition that has come down, the basic training in crafts, father to son.

The cultural heritage of our craftsmen must be maintained at all cost. We know this from
our practical experience as we have come in close contact with many local artists and
craftsmen of this large country and know their ideals, desires and wants.

Civilization and architecture depend upon geological, geographical, climatic, economic

and physical conditions, and culture grows as the result of the assimilation of social
values, namely, the respect for Church, State, Laws; human values such as conception of
truth, manners and customs, education and love for things beautiful as exhibited in the
arts of dancing, singing and sculpture.

Fig.10

We Indians look to the Himalayas; we do not look to the snow. We look beyond and we
look up to regions beyond in veneration. This has given us a guiding principle in our
architecture.

The Himalayas are serene in their atmosphere and only the real devotee can under stand
the true value. Our architects have in the past built temples and they selected a high
plateau, and even the building was made to rise to the sky.

Where there was a level site as in the South India, the temple was built of such grandeur
that the very appearance of it commanded respect. In life, us well as in the temple, the
inner chamber is approached through other halls, and mandapas, and it is only after
patient waiting one can get a glimpse of the deity in the inner chamber. Here we find the
culture and architecture of all god-fearing—I mean all God-loving countries alike.
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Fig.11

The great Cathedral in Milan, The Dumo, is a masterpiece and even today no building
can rise above the Cathedral. St. Peter’s Church of Rome and St. Peter’s Church of
London are glowing examples of their faith. Culture cannot exist if there is no faith in
higher values of life. Work was always worship to our craftsmen. It was a prayer to the
Almighty and the prayer was said with utmost devotion.

The respect given to the king in the past was great. Even today, we respect King Asoka
and his culture through architecture, brought him closer to us. The Asoka column was
respected and valued as an architectural monument, before we adopted it as a national
emblem. The king in a cultural city had his privilege. He had a palace—usually on a high
level—with fortifications but in most of the Indian palaces we find a temple or, mosque
attached, preferably in a secluded place.

Fig.12

Here architecture displaced the culture of the country, firstly by the dignity of site, the
dignity of fortification, and the approach to the palace, the Courts of Justice—known
as Diwan-e-Am and Diwan-e-Khas and the Royal chambers—and a quiet mosque or

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temple. I do not refer only to the Mogul palace of Agra and Delhi but to our palaces at
Gwalior, Jaipur and Udaipur. The palaces were meant for kings but they were the bread
and the very life of the craftsmen.

Fig.13 Fig.14

The two temples of Dilwara known as Vastupal and Tejpal are exquisite architectural
pieces. They are even more valued today because two sisters-in-law contributed their
jewelry for the construction of the temples. It was not only their money but their personal
interest in the craft and the craftsmen in turn showed their gratitude by building another
beautiful temple in stone. Here, we find Indian culture at its best. Here we see the great
Hindu Trinity of Virtues—Karma, Gnana and Bhakti blended in one.

Our Indian culture is great because Indians as a class are deeply religious and closely
follow the gospel of Gita. They honestly believe in Karma marg, Gnana marg and Bhakti
marg, and towards the development of Gnana marg, we have various architectural
examples.

Fig.15

The great Buddhist monastery of Nalanda, south of Patna, accommodated 1,000 Priests,
and for five hundred years it remained a seat of Learning for all pilgrims. The Chinese
pilgrims, who visited India in 400 and 600 A.D., have left interesting descriptions of their
visits to this University and other buildings.
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Many sacred buildings were originally not temples to gods but monasteries or memorial
shrines to holy men. Along with Bhakti came the rituals, and to have the serene
atmosphere for rituals, architecture provided magnificent buildings of great repose.

Indian and Islamic architecture used a few symbols pointing to the authority of the
Almighty. The tope and the umbrella top was accepted symbol of royalty and State.

The Indian builders appreciated the meaning of dominant and subordinate masses, and
even experimented in the rhythmic repetition of a range of small temples. The beautiful
minarets, pointing to heaven were an Islamic creation. It served to call the faithful to
prayer and in bare unity reminded us of the Supreme Architect of the Universe. The
Islamic arch also has the same significance to the faithful.

Religious and monumental structures were built so that we could admire their
architecture during the day and also at night; that is one of the gems of Indian
architecture. The glory of the Taj Mahal, ltamad-ud-daullah Tomb and Lake Palaces give
ample testimony to this statement.

Fig.16 Fig.17 Fig.18

India was and is an open country. Its shores were open to her neighbors and the culture of
Egypt, Persia and Assyria had their influence. The Greek influence was more pronounced
in the Gandhara Period.

These influences are all reflected in the architecture and sculpture of those periods. The
Pathan and the Mogul had their own influence but the culture of India assimilated other
cultures and yet maintained its own individuality.

In Free India, we have no ruling class, and naturally, no more palaces, the common man’s
purse is always nearly empty, but he must enjoy things artistic which were once termed
as luxury. We have, therefore, to cater to the artistic needs of the common man. Let us
again have our Public Squares, our Panchayat halls with murals and sculptures and open-
air-theaters and baths. Let our cities again throb with art and culture.

Our modern Railway Station, for instance, will have the murals and refinements to
educate the common man. It will have more waiting-rooms for the common man—not
because our trains often come late, but we have now realized in Free India that a third-
class-passenger is also a human being.

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We have built Chandigarh—and the social centers of Chandigarh will be a pattern for
other towns. Our future architecture will be more represented in sanatoriums and cultural
centres, and in canteens and factory structures, our new architecture will have to blend
the old culture and tradition to new shops.

Fig.19

This planning is a waste of useful land and money of the State and also of property
owners. Let us study the houses of Jaipur, Nasik and Poona as street architecture. Let us
build Indian homes with a Tulsi plant in the well-laid courtyard, which is the meeting
place of the family in the evenings and a natural source of ventilation.

It is only by the study of our ancient civilization and culture we can rightly solve our
present problem. Let us serve our villages first—let their architecture speak of their
customs, manners, and materials. Let us not import city manners and materials like
cement and steel into villages. Let the villagers themselves build their houses to a guided
pattern varying with the individual.

Today, the term “Architect” is used figuratively and it is hardly associated with
architecture. Let the common man know what architecture is and how it helps civili-
zation. This is the time when the architect must come down fr his high pedestal and lay
his services at the feet of his country.

Indian culture and Indian architecture are synonymous. Both are built on the solid rock of
faith and both serve the Lord. The architects of today must remember that service is now
to be considered before self, not only by Rotarians but by common men—therefore, serve
your Country to your best ability.

Fig.20 Fig.21

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CHAPTER 4- History
In terms of architectural form, styles from various periods of history are often borrowed
through this process of diffusion and reinterpreted by the secondary cultural system. Over
the course of history, various architectural forms and styles have been reinterpreted to
accommodate various cultures.

Fig.22

As a result, architectural style or type is 'pure' in an absolute sense. Complex architectural

styles are agreeable combinations of mainly borrowed elements." This is one reason why
it is often difficult to trace the built form's origins in hopes of acquiring its original
meaning, in research on house form, talks about these forms becoming reinterpreted by a
secondary culture as a model of archetypal form for that culture. "

The model itself is the result of the collaboration of many people over many generations
as well as the collaboration between makers and users of buildings and other artifacts,
which is what is meant by the term traditional”.

The changing condition of cultures makes interpreting the architectural forms difficult.
Outside influences from other cultures constantly change the particular society under
investigation. Research into the cultural values of any society should include a study of
the broader cultural context to determine if any meaning can be ascertained from the
regional or world cultural systems.

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4.1 Changes in Culture

As a dynamic or changing system influenced by exterior factors, a culture is constantly
altering to accommodate changes. Society's values are in a constant state of alteration
responding to outside cultural systems with which it interacts. "

The actual values are not fixed to the norms: they fluctuate around them." Responding to
the altering outside world, a culture requires this ability to accommodate change in order
to maintain itself. In a sense, the cultural system fluctuates in order to "repair" itself to
accommodate the altering external situations.

During this fluctuation, the values of the culture are constantly refocusing in an effort to
adjust to the changing world system with which it interacts. More dominant cultures in a
region are constantly being altered and influenced by the smaller subcultures in that area.
Eliot refers to these as "satellite cultures" which are strong enough to influence the
dominant culture in the area without becoming completely absorbed into the larger
system.

This borrowing of values is often referred to as the process of "diffusion." Development

of an individual culture depends upon the outside influences on which they can draw new
values. The changes to the values and needs of a society relate to the diffusion of ideals
within the cultural system from other societies. As open systems, societies are constantly
striving to attain goals by way of their values.

Not all the values are compatible with the other values within the same cultural system.
Therefore, these nonconforming values need to be modified or eliminated to maintain a
balanced overall system. Hence, not all the values in a society are achieved but some may
be altered to accommodate new values and needs.

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CHAPTER-5 Understanding architecture and culture of

western zones
5.1 RAJASTHAN
Rajasthan is the most beautiful and vibrant state or our country. The unique
characteristic of its architecture is very popular in the whole world. The Rajasthan
architecture is significantly depend on Rajput architecture school which was mixture of
Mughal and Hindu structural design. Grand havelis, astonishing forts and elaborately
carved temples are the vital portion of architectural heritage of Rajasthan. Rajput’s
carries the credit of creative builders. Few of most striking and splendid forts along with
palaces with parched Aravali land clearly depict history of Rajasthan’s celebrated
heritage.

Fig.23 Fig.24

Rajasthan architecture arouses from Rajput School of Architecture, a perfect mixture of

Hindu and Mughal structural pattern. The state of Rajasthan hosts few of splendid palaces
and forts of the whole world. Ornamented havelis, elaborately carved temples and also
magnificent forts are section of the Rajasthan’s architectural heritage.

The artistic builders of Rajput designed major architectural styles which are located in
cities like Jaisalmer, Udaipur, Jaipur and Jodhpur. The most significant architectural
designs in Rajasthan include Jantar Mantar, Dilwara Temples, Lake Palace Hotel, City
Palaces, Chittorgarh Fort and Jaisalmer Havelis.

Rajasthan, one of the largest states of our country is well known for their historically
important monuments. The state of Rajasthan was the major regional capital of Indus
Valley Civilization. Conventionally Bhils, Rajputs, Yadavs, Jats, Gujjars and various
other tribal people delivered momentous contribution in constructing Rajasthan state.

The state was earlier called as Rajputana and served as princely state lawed by Rajputs.
Present state of Rajasthan comprises number of Jat kingdoms, Rajput kingdoms and also
Mughal Kingdom. The palaces and forts present in Rajasthan are decorated by Jain and
Muslim architecture.

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Rajasthan’s structural design is generally secular with great motivation from Mughals
whereas the latest architecture carries the touch of European interiors.

Fig.25 Fig.26

The outstanding Rajput architecture present in Rajasthan lies in Deeg palace. Deeg palace
is encircled by large area of gardens based on garden architecture of Mughals. Jaipur
palaces carry strong Islam influence. Rajasthan palaces are designed in Islamic fashion
and all the palaces were declared Islamic names. One example is Hawa Mahal.

This palace is constructed inside the conventional mansion of Rajasthan but not similar to
the residential portion of Mughal palaces. The chambers meant for administrative,
residential and court functions are constructed inside the multi-storied barrier. Jantar
Mandar present in Jaipur is a breathtaking architectural monument.

The place was constructed based on the essentials of natural sciences with unique
architectural marvel which is more than home in modern era.

With a strong effect of Islamic influences several Rajputs initiated the process of
constructing tombs even though they belong to Hindu religion, they are known as empty
commemoratives. The tombs with the design of open umbrella are uniqueness of their
architecture.

The Ajmer city carries maximum influence of Islamic architecture. The significant
monuments in Ajmer city include Dargah Sharif of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
possessing various white marble edifices placed around the two courtyards with a
gigantic gate contributed by the Hyderabad Nizam, a mosque donated by Shah Jahan
along with Akbari mosque.

Fig.27 Fig.28

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One can witness Hindu architecture in Pushkar in the form of various temples and Ghats.
The magnificent temples arranged in a fashion with a touch of Islamic architecture, are
unique in their style.

At the time of British reign, Rajputs were highly inspired by British rulers and the effect
was seen in their architecture too. The buildings constructed by architects can be easily
traced in the city of Jaipur. One such example is the Ranbag Palace which was
constructed in Indo-Saracenic fashion is running as high class hotel now.

Balsamad Lake Palace located at Jodhpur constructed during nineteenth century serves as
summer palace designed in European style carrying a Mughal style garden in front of
man-made lake.

The Rajasthan architecture is an outstanding arrangement o f colonial, Islamic and Hindu

architecture. Rajasthan stays as one among the major tourist spot in India carrying a
lavish architectural heritage.

The very essence of every built form or built up environments is the manifestation of
culture masked behind its layers of abstraction. The manifestation may be royal and
imposing like those of the mighty empires, or may be simple and yet powerful to create
an identity for those who adhere to it.

It’s similar to an artist who paints his canvas and there by builds a sanctuary in the hearts
of people and lives forever through his work.

Elaborating the expression of culture on the built form is usually the unconscious effort
of every designer. In fact, culture plays a dominant role at the very out set of any design
process.

This is because, any design when conceptualized to perform a desired function, is directly
or indirectly derived from or synchronized with the cultural identity of the user. It is what
frames our thought processes. It defines individual identity and helps to recollect past
memories.

5.1.1 Important Artifacts of Rajasthan Architecture:

Haveli:

Between the years of 1830 and 1930, well-heeled Marwaris built gigantic buildings in
Narwar and Shekhawati region. The mansions are known as Havelis.

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These Havelis carry architecture of Mughal in their style.

The Shekhawati haveli consists of two courtyards. The outer courtyard meant for men
whereas inner courtyard was occupied by women.

Havelis also carries marvelous and breath-taking frescoes which are surrounded all sides
with a single main gate.

This barrier provides good security and calm totally separated from the external
environment.

Fig.29 Fig.30

Chhatri:

Located in Rajasthan, the Chhatris are the elevated pavilions in dome shape and are the
best illustrations of the architecture of Rajasthan. The Chhatri stands as a symbol of
honour and pride. The Shekhawati area of Rajasthan holds chhatris in the place meant for
cremation of distinguished and wealthy personalities. Chhatris present in Shekhawati are
generally simple structure with single dome built inside four pillars of a mansion carrying
several domes along with a basement containing various rooms. There are various
significant chhatris present in cities of Jodhpur, Jaipur, Haldighati, Udaipur, Bikaner etc.

Fig.31 Fig.32

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Jharokha:

Jharokha is the form of overhanging enfolded balcony generally witnessed in temples,

havelis and palaces situated in Rajasthan. The Jharokha balcony is basically stone
window. Jharokhas projects from wall plane and are generally employed for additional
architectural beauty to the mansions or for any other specific reasons.

During earlier days, women with purdah use to visualize outside events by hiding
themselves inside this dress. The overhanging balcony is a vital structure of Rajasthani
architecture fulfilling the duty as decoration instrument and also as a sight-seeing
platform. There are many Jharokhas carrying chhajjas with them.

Fig.33 Fig.34 Fig. 35

Stepwell:

Stepwell otherwise known as bawdi is nothing but a pond or well where water can be
filled by climbing downwards on a batch of steps. Bawdis are quite common in the
western part of India particularly in Gujarat and Rajasthan. These Stepwells date back to
several hundreds of years. During olden days, constructors made very deep trenches into
our earth to get dependable groundwater all through the year. The fences of the trenches
were made up of stone blocks with the absence of mortar. There are also stairs to reach
water body. Most of the living stepwells originally acted as leisure spots besides
providing water. Bundi city situated near Kota carries approximately sixty stepwells.

Fig.36 Fig.37

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Town Planning in Rajasthan:

Basically Rajasthan was a rural area with limited number of towns. They also have an
amazing town designing system. The expanded towns were basically villages
transformed in their dimension and population. The town is highly secured with the help
of well-built walls and huge hills. The town is partitioned into various wards linked by
lanes and narrow streets. The palaces, gardens, wells and temples are the significant
portion of this town. Main roads lying in the town was filled with shops trading jewelry,
cloths, food items, fruits etc…

Fig.38

5.2 Brahamapur Settlements, Jodhpur

The appearance of the settlement of Brahmapur is uniform and characteristically similar
at all points. All buildings are of the same height, with similar architectural
ornamentation and placed in close proximity. The very principle of unity is reflected in
every part of their culture and their architecture even today. However, this belief is not
just one that has evolved without scientific reason. Geographically, the area of
Brahmapuri is prone to earthquakes. Thus, sharing a common foundation over vast
stretches of land increases the ability to withstand tectonic shocks. Moreover, the close
proximity of the buildings reduces the urban heat island effect and creates comfortable
thermal conditions even outdoors through mutual shading.

Fig.39 Fig.40

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5.3 BIFURCATION OF CULTURE THROUGH VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE:

5.3.1 Banni, Kutchh

The villagers of Banni build circular houses of mud, roofed with thatch – materials
eminently suited to their hostile desert environment.

The clustering of huts and the arrangement of open spaces reflect their life-styles and
social structure. Faintly discernible – in many many different ways, from painted wall
decorations to jewellery designs – is an underpinning of other aspirations, intimations of
deeper and more primordial myths and images.

For like thousands of other Indian villages, Banni represents both time present as well as
time past.

Fig.41

Fig.42 Fig.43

Cluster of huts shows walls painted with elemental shapes in muted earth colors. These
bhungas, three to five metres in diameter, form the main living space, and the rectangular
choki is used for cooking, etc. Bhungas work well in the desert’s climate

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Mirror-studded clay decoration, embroidered cloths and painted earthenware contribute

to the rich ambience of a Banni interior.

Fig.44 Fig.45 Fig. 46 Fig. 47

Though essentially unchanged, a few homes have tiled roofs instead of thatch. Platform
drains off water which gathers because of the impervious soil, even though the rainfall is
meager. The vistāra through a Banni doorway. Woman sewing in foreground typifies the
area’s strong crafts tradition, especially noted for its fine and delicate embroidery.

5.3.2 POLS of Ahmedabad:

In the urban landscape of India, one of the most visually appealing spaces is the walled
city of Ahmedabad, known for its intricately carved wooden architecture and the
neighborhood settlements of pols. Pols are enclosed residential clusters entered by gates,
which used to be shut at nights.

Fig.48 Fig.49

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The essence of a pol is a network of small streets, side lanes, shrines and open
community spaces with a chabutaro, a birdhouse raised on a pole to feed birds in the
neighbourhood.

The word pol is derived from the Sanskrit word pratoli meaning entrance to an enclosed
area. Pols were originally made as a protection measure when communal riots
necessitated greater security.

The origin of POLS of Ahemdabad:

The pol settlement pattern has a rural origin. One enclosing wall is simultaneously
prevalent in the villages of North Gujarat. It the rear wall of a house. With the ends is
also called khadki type of settlement.

Each house is joined to the next by a closed unit guarded by a single common party wall
and many such houses gateway used by a large number of form a row opposite it and two
rows thus families. The gateway is known as enclose a space in front, which resembles a
khadki. ‘Street’ but which is, in fact, a common yard.

All the families of a khadki are blood, In order to ensure privacy and security, the
relations or belong to the same caste. ends of the common yard are closed off by

Every village has a number of such wall on one side and a gateway on the other. Khadkis
belonging to different castes the rear walls of all the houses.

In cities, khadkis belonging to different exceptionally thick and have no castes may
adjoin each other and may windows, form a continuous line. all open into a common
street, closed at either end with gates. The city khadkis are called pols. Pol Houses of
Ahmedabad.

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5.3.3 PLANNING OF A POL HOUSE:

Pol houses have a minimal frontage on the neighbourhood street, which is itself quite
narrow. Side walls of the house are shared with the house next door. The street façade is
heavily treated with wooden structural and decorative elements, including carved Plan of
chowk Khadkee oatla columns, brackets, window shutters and Pol house balconies.

Fig.50 Fig.51 Fig. 52

5.3.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A POL HOUSE :

Pol housing plan consists of:

Fig.53

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The OATLA – Entrance platform – generally a plinth with a row of columns which
marks the limits of the house on the street, used for sitting outside.

Section sometimes even for washing dishes and of a Pol clothes. In Hindu houses
religious house activities takes place in oatla.

BAITHAK – the formal reception space – used for visitors. The interior rooms were not
designated as living room, dining room or bedroom – rather it is very flexible in use.

Easily movable furniture and bedding allow migration from room to room – to Swing in
the parsal suit the changing family composition or to accommodate to seasonal changes.

The kitchen, storage rooms for drinking water and Puja room usually have definite spaces

ORADA – Central Hall

PANIYARA – For storing water & grains Pol Houses of Ahmedabad

CHOWK – the Courtyard is the primary element of the house. All other rooms are built
around the chowk.

It provides the connection between inside and outside for much of the house. Functions
as a light well and a ventilating shaft; moving vertically from the ground floor through
the roof.

Traditionally, being open to the sky, these spaces infuse in individuals – the
consciousness of nature as well as bringing the Chowk of House occupants into daily
contact with the supernatural and the mythical.

A water tank is usually located beneath the floor of the chowk. Access to the
underground water tank

The PARASAL – The verandah space around the court; most utilized spaces in the
house.

It serves as a transitional space, between interior and exterior as well as public and
private spaces. The swing is hung in the Parasal.

In the parasal, there is a provision for hearth, where the housewife cooks.

DHUMADIYU – chimney

CHULHA – Fire place the roofs of the pol houses are sloping – sheds away the monsoon
rains and provides loft space below for storage.

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Flat roofs/ terraces provide area for drying clothes and sleeping outside during summer.
Pol Houses of Ahmedabad

On the first floor is the DIWANKHANA – the large hall where guests were received.
The living quarters were on the first floor.

The second floor had bedrooms, and in summer the Agashi (rooftop terrace) was a
pleasant place to sleep under the sky, Artwork over a Doorway Pol Houses of
Ahmedabad.

CHABUTARO or CHABUTRO – Bird feeder "a stone or wooden tower with artistic
canopy over it constructed to feed birds" is a salient feature of the ambience of any pol in
Ahmedabad.

There are nearly 120 of them, the architecture of a chabutaro is different from the rest
because it contains intricate carvings and complicated interlocking system of wood.

Fig.54

5.3.5 CLIMATIC CONSIDERATION IN THE HOUSE FORM:

Three walls are common, so reduces surface area exposed to the sun. Only shorter façade
is open for light & Ventilation Chowk provides porosity to the built mass; also gives a
sense of openness.

Chowk also acts as vent shaft – which sucks the hot air from the house, providing thermal
Chowk provides comfort in hot dry climate more surface area responding The balcony
and projections act to the open space as a buffer protecting inner for light & spaces from
direct sunlight &ventilation, hot winds. Even in Ahmedabad’s hot summer, it was
comfortable inside the house. Cool air flowed through the front window into the house,
taking the warm air up and out through the chowk. This cooled the entire house. Wood
and stone used as materials for construction – helps in maintaining the comfort level
inside the house. Use of jaali provides protection from hot winds.
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CHAPTER-6 Understanding architecture and culture of

northern zones
6.1 Kashmir: Jammu and Kashmir is a state in northern India, often denoted
by its acronym, J&K. It is located mostly in the Himalayan mountains, and
shares borders with the states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south.
The Line of Control separates it from the Pakistani-administered territories of
Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan in the west and north respectively, and a
Line of Actual Control separate it from the Chinese-administered territory of
Aksai Chin in the east.

Fig.55

6.2 BIFURCATION OF CULTURE THROUGH VERNACULAR

ARCHITECTURE:

6.2.1 Construction techniques:

TAQ:
Taq is a traditional construction system once common in Srinagar (Kashmir).
Taq designates a timber laced masonry building. A taq building can be several
floors high, but still withstand earthquake thanks to the combined use of
masonry and wood.
Taq walls were traditionally made of a mixture of brick and rubble stone or sun
dried bricks laid in thick mud mortar and faced with hard fired brick, with load
bearing piers at regular intervals. Taq buildings have to be regarded as
composite building systems in which all the parts are interdependent and work
together in a kind of organic balance.

Fig.56

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DHAJJ DEWARI:

Dhajji dewari (Persian for “patch quilt wall”) is a traditional building type
found in the western Himalayas.
Such houses are found in both the Pakistan and Indian Administered Kashmir.
This form of construction is also referred to in the Indian Standard Codes as
brick nogged timber frame construction.
Dhajji most commonly (but not exclusively) consists of a braced timber frame.
The spaces left between the bracing and/or frames is filled with a thin wall
(single wythe) of stone or brick masonry traditionally laid into mud mortar.
Completed walls are plastered in mud mortar.
They are typically founded on shallow foundations made from stone masonry.
Dhajji buildings are typically 1-4 storeys tall and the roof may be a flat timber
and mud roof, or a pitched roof with timber/metal sheeting.
This building system is often used side-by-side or above timber laced masonry
bearing-wall construction known as taq.

Fig.57 Fig.58

PANJRAKARI:
Kashmiri cultural life exhibits a unique intermingling of traditions from the age
of Buddha to the Mughal dynasty.
The Kashmiris capitalized on Mughal art and craft, making it a part of their
culture.
The craft passed down one generation to the other in the valley.
While some Kashmiri handicrafts are still practiced in great numbers, a few
such as Khatamband (a ceiling made of wood work in a geometric pattern) and
Panjrakari (a framework consisting of a crisscrossed pattern of strips of
building material)
Panjrakari is the making of doors and windows, ventilators by filling them with
a netted lattice work. “Small wooden pieces are arranged in geometric forms to
display their edges,” said Maqbool.
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In Panjrakari, the artifacts are “held in position by the pressure they exert upon
each other by certain main lines being doweled together and by the frame of the
panel within which they are fitted. These wooden pieces too made of either
Deodar or walnut wood.”

Fig.59 Fig.60

6.2.2 Kashmir bridges:

Chenab Bridge:

The Chenab Bridge is a railway steel and concrete arch bridge under construction
between Bakkal and Kauri in the Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir in India
The bridge spans the Chenab River at a height of 359 m (1,178 ft.) above the river,
making it the world's highest rail bridge.
In November 2017 the base supports were declared completed allowing for the start of
the construction of the main arch.
Key technical data of the bridge include:
Deck height (height above river): 359 m (1,178 ft.)
Bridge length: 1,315 m (4,314 ft.), including the 650 m (2,130 ft.) long viaduct on the
northern side
Arch span: 467 m (1,532 ft.)
Arch length: 480 m (1,570 ft.)

Fig.61

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Features of Chenab Bridge:

The world's highest railway bridge
The bridge with the widest span in the Indian broad gauge railway network
The Chenab Bridge was designed as a large span single arch steel bridge with approach
viaducts on either side.
The arch is two-ribbed, fabricated from large steel trusses.
The chords of the trusses are sealed steel boxes, internally stiffened and filled with
concrete to assist in controlling wind-induced forces on the bridge.

6.2.3 RURAL BUILDINGS IN KASHMIR

Rural buildings constructed in Kashmir are in a traditional way by the people (often
referred to as vernacular buildings) become an integral part of the local cultural heritage.
These buildings often reflect the strength of the community to house itself independent
of any outside intervention.
They are a manifestation of architectural systems optimized over time for a particular
context with regard to climate, soil or the threat of natural disasters.
Constructed from local materials with local skills and a deep understanding of local
social and economic constraints, traditional architecture is in many aspects sustainable
architecture.
The buildings have depended completely upon stone, mud, bricks and wood for roofing
as well as walling. Until very recently, non-local materials did not represent a valid
option for local constructions.
Winter is cold which is common in Kashmir, Thick walls of brick and stone with mud
plaster provide excellent protection against this, as does a thick mud-timber roof.
The lighter, pitched roof made of timber and CGI sheets in combination with the attic
floor also ensures livable conditions inside the house in winter and summer. The steep
pitch of the light roof permits little accumulation of snow and prevents any water
leakages.

Fig.62 Fig.63

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6.2.4 Ladakh’s houses:

The weather of Ladakh remains chilly and cold for most time of the year. Ladakh's
climate is a little extreme – the summers can get a little harsh with direct sunlight falling
at such a high altitude and winters can be really cold, with temperatures dropping below
freezing point.
The Buddhist influence on Ladakh culture started as early as the 7th century. Mostly the
buildings are 2 storied. Large houses have courtyards for sunlight while small houses do
not have the ground floor is usually a dwarf storey for keeping livestock, storage
purposes and also to collect waste.
Upper storey is used for living purposes usually consists of prayer room, store, toilet and
a large room combining function of drawing, kitchen, bedroom. The timber post is
characteristic of architecture of ladakh. The main living room has a large window facing
sun.
Primary building material is earth and timber available locally which offer climatic
comfort in wide range of Ladakh. Floors of lower storey on the ground are made of mud
while the upper storey in timber.
Roofs are constructed in flat spans by using trunk of the local poplar tree as beams placed
about 50-60cm apart. The diameter of the trunks is 15cm.
A 15 to 20cm layer of dry grass, hay etc. is spread over the layer of willows and finally
finished with plaster of clayey mud.
Quartzite stone is used only in the partial construction of forts and palaces especially the
lower storeys to impart additional strength and provide protection from water.
Sundried earth blocks are the primary unit of masonry construction.
The sills and jambs are articulated by the plaster band often coloured in Red or Black.
These timber lintels and plaster bands are the distinguishable features of the Ladakhi
Architecture.

Fig.64 Fig.65

6.2.5 Doonga boat:

Long, flat bottomed craft usually 55ft in length and 6ft in width.
It is usually covered for more than half its length by a light wooden roof about 1.7m
(55ft) high. And the roof is sloping with a ridge in the middle.

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Downstream it is propelled by short heart-shaped paddle; Upstream is drawn along the

bank by a long to wing line.
The interior is divided by pine planks; their placement is determined by size of family.
The front triangular space on the deck is used as entrance. The rear is used as wash space
by residents.
In the case of double storied doonga, the wooden ladder to the upper deck is from inside
the room.

Fig.66 Fig.67

Origin of doonga:

The houseboats are used mainly by:

The Dogra royal family of Kashmir was certainly not going to allow British civil servants
to take up homes in Srinagar. Nor would they allow any outsiders to buy land, either for
offices or sanitoria. Casting around for a place to stay, tourists and officials from British
India chanced on Srinagar’s common doonga boats and started converting them to the
floating comfort palaces.
The earlier settlers were fishermen and hence there dwelling on the rivers was only
logical and practical. Their boats which were covered by thatch roofs, were converted
into the Doonga boats over passage of time.
They were later also used by the great Mughal kings for excursions.
Surrounding mountains rose around the banks of this freshwater vastness, leaving little
or no level terrain for habitation. Scarcity of level terrain in the vale compelled a large
section of Kashmiri society to live on water than on land.

Fig.68

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6.2.6 TYPES OF BOATS

Each designed for varying velocities with a specific function assigned to them.
They are made of deodar wood are mostly built in Srinagar Among the different boats
bahat is the largest.
It is used for transportation of grain, hay and other merchandise. Khuch is very large boat
used for the same purpose.
The shikara or pleasure boat is similarly proportioned to doonga, or dwelling boat. But it
is smaller in size.
The smallest, lightest and swiftest of all Kashmiri boats is the tsatawar.
It is able to withstand the most violent windstorms which occur frequently in Kashmiri
water courses.

Fig.69 Fig.70

DAL LAKE HOUSEBOATS

The Dal Lake Houseboats are widely associated with Srinagar and are nicknamed
"floating palaces", built according to British custom the main material used for
construction is timber. They are well furnished and provide the user with all the facilities
of a house.
This houseboat is generally made from local cedar- wood and measure 24–38 meters
(79–125 ft.) in length and 3–6 meters (9.8–20 ft.) in width and are graded in a similar
fashion to hotels according to level of comfort.
Many of them have lavishly furnished rooms, with verandas and a terrace to serve as a
sun-deck or to serve evening cocktails.
They are anchored individually, with interconnecting bridges providing access from one
boat to the other.
The kitchen-boat is annexed to the main houseboat, which also serves as residence of the
boat keeper and his family.
Virtually every houseboat in Srinagar has been provided with a municipal water
connection.

Fig.71

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CHAPTER 7- Understanding architecture and culture of

Southern zones
7.1 KERELA
Kerala is a state of India in the southernmost tip of the sub-continent. Kerala is popularly
called Malabar which means MA (Sanskrit)-Mountain & BAR (Arab)-Sea. The mountain
ranges block the north western wind that flow from the Arabian see to main land India.
Along the coast the scene is entirely different. Wayanad and Idukki are places in the hilly
areas of Kerala dotted with unique folk settlements.

7.1.1 CULTURE
The culture of Kerala is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed and
mixed for centuries, under influences from other parts of India and abroad. It is defined
by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the Malayali people. Modern
Kerala society took shape owing to migrations from different parts of India and abroad
throughout Classical Antiquity. Kerala is having the nick name of “gods own country” or
which is known by the gods own country.

Fig.72 Fig.73 Fig.74

7.1.2 ARCHITECTURE
The orientation of building, internal arrangement of spaces, presence of internal
courtyard, use of locally available materials and special methods of constructions etc.
Have together created the indoor environment.

The passive environment control system of Kerala is very effective and is proven. Kerala
Vernacular buildings are built according to the principle of vastushastra.

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Fig.75 Fig.76

The basic house module of a Vernacular Kerala house is "NALUKETTU", with four
blocks built around an open courtyard.

The blocks are topped with slopping roofs of four sides they are generally rectangular
square in a plan and courtyard is open to sky for letting air and light inside.

The roofs have high pitch up to 30 to 45 degrees to help the rain water drainage easier.
The gables (MUGHAPPU) provided at the ends of roof help to enhance ventilation and to
allow warm air to escape.

Fig.77 Fig.78

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7.1.3 BIFURCATION OF CULTURE THROUGH VERNACULAR

ARCHITECTURE:

TYPES OF HOUSES
VEEDU (HOUSE)

Although "VEEDU" is a very common vernacular term for house among the tribal
communities there are actually various terms for house according to social status and
profession. The house of "PARIAH" (Low caste) is called "CHERI" .While the agrestic
slave chairman lives in "CHALA". The blacksmith goldsmith carpenter, weaver, toddy
drawer inhabits house called "KUDI".

Fig.79 Pathnabhapuram palace

Temple servants reside in VARIYAM. The Ordinary Nayars stay in Veedu while
ordinary Nayar’s authority dwells in an "IDAM". The Raja lives in a "KOVILAKAM",
the Indigenous Brahman resides in “IILAM" or "MANA". Cave dwellings were found
among "CHOLANAIKAN TRIBE".

Fig.80 Cheri Fig.81 Kudi Fig. 82Illam

NALUKETTU a courtyard house (belongs to landlords). If all the four structures above
are joined as one house it is called a Nalukettu.

Among them at the middle of the padnijatini, there will be the Pooja muri (place of
worship) and Nellara (room for keeping paddy). On both the sides there will be two bed
rooms Thekkini and kizhakkini are meant receiving the guests.
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Vadakkini is for cooking and dinning. In the middle of the structure there will be the
central yard which will be in a rectangular shape. Nadumuttam: There is an underground
cave for flowing cut the rain water.

Another remarkable feature in the Kerala Vernacular architecture is the provision of open
GABLES (MUGHAPPU),in the roof and the provision of wooden "JALLI"(AZHI) in the
external walls at appropriate positions. The open "MUGHAPPU" seen mostly in the
southern part of Kerala provides an opening in the roof for internal hot air to escape
where false ceilings is not provided.

The wooden "AZHI" in the external walls in appropriate positions help to draw external
air with the effect of courtyard. In order to achieve thermal insulation wooden ceiling
"TATTU" is also provided under the roof.

Fig.83 Fig.84

MUSLIM HOUSES
MATRILINEAL MAPPILA HOUSES: Family of 3-5 members.

FAMILY HEAD: Eldest male member.

Combination of Hindu and Muslim architecture:

Padippura - gate house

Long kolaya - (verandah)

Irunira: two huge windows on the wall facing the verandah with a thick wooden bench
which can be unfolded.

MIDDLE CLASS HOUSE: Rectangular shape, a miniature of tharawad with ground floor
only. It also consists of areas for couples.

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THE LOWER CLASS HOUSES: Thatched or tiled and seen in cluster, usually on the river
side or sea shore. Small in size, with one or two rooms without toilet facilities.

Fig.85 Fig.86

WRETCHED humble house (belongs to ordinary folks and tribal people).

EKSALA an eye shaped single rectangular hall house (belongs to farmers or middle class
non farmers).

ETTUKETTU and PATINJARUKETTU or much bigger structures (belongs to very rich

landlords).

COMMON HOUSES are simple ordinary houses scattered in cities and villages.

7.1.4 MATERIAL USED

COCONUT PALM LEAVES AND GRASS LEAVES: It is the natural way to keep
your structures cool and dry in any weather. These leaves can withstand sun , rain and
gale force winds, it will last three to five years depending upon the climate are more than
seven years in rare climates. Coconut palm leaves are still used effectively for thatching
the roofs and for making partition walls and along with mud.

TIMBER: Timber is the prime building material used for construction in many verities
in Kerala - bamboo to teak. It is abundantly available. Rose wood and teak are popular
hard wood used in construction. The masterful joinery and skillful carvings are common
in olden buildings. The elements are dressed and accurately cut on the ground and joined
to form the wooden roof frame, on which then the tiles are spread.

BAMBOO: These are also used for roofing mainly in tribal colonies. These are having
high strength and are flexible.

CLAY TILES: Clay tiles are used for roofing which are 100% recyclable. These are
mainly used for green roofing. It is produced by baking moulded into tiles. They are
paved on wooden trusses were the most common and elegant roofing. Roofing of
Temples, churches and old and modern houses are finished by clay tiles.

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

KAVI POWDER: Kavi Powder which is a main component in flooring in the houses of
Kerala and is mixed with water and white cement before applying on the floors. It gives
a cool look to the floors and is used in low budget houses.

COW DUNG AND MUD: Cow dung is used to plastering the floors of rustic houses. It
provides cooling and maintains the temperature. The tribal colonies are mainly of these
materials.

STONES: The best flooring material given that it is solid and far from being brittle and
delicate. This type of flooring installation lasts for a lifetime. Granite, marble, quartzite
sandstone etc. examples for different types of stones.

LATERITE: Laterite stone is abundantly found. Excellent thermal insulation is

provided. It is a local stone that gets stronger and durable with exposure to the
atmosphere (sun and moisture). Inner walls are constructed with an exclusive, indigenous
technique adopted in Kerala, i.e. the laterite soil, lime, sugarcane molasses, papers, and
nutmeg, juice are mixed well and grand manually and the mixture is used for constructing
the wall.

MUD MORTAR & LIME MORTAR: Block of this stone may be bonded in mortars of
shell lime, - the classic binding material used in traditional buildings. Such enriched
mortars were utilized for plastering and low relief work. Coconut palm leaves & grass
leaves & bamboo and mud are local materials used for building walls.

Fig.87

Fig.88 Fig.89 Fig. 90

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

CHAPTER 8- Understanding architecture and culture of

Eastern zones
8.1 NAGALAND
One of India's most colorful states is Nagaland, located on the eastern margin of the
Himalayan range in Northeast India bordering Myanmar. Nagas are hill dwellers and
their settlements are highly inaccessible as they are located on hill slopes or the highest
possible points along a hill slope. The state is mostly mountainous except those areas
bordering Assam valley. The gateway of Nagaland is situated at an altitude of 195mts
above sea level .

It has salubrious climate throughout the year, except for the small region in the foothills.
The Naga Hills rise from the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam to about 2,000 feet (610 m)
and rise further to the southeast, as high as 6,000 feet (1,800 m). Mount Saramati at an
elevation of 12,601.70 feet (3,841.00 m) is the state's highest peak.

Rivers such as the Doyang and Diphu to the north, the Barak River in the southwest and
the Chindwin river of Burma in the southeast, dissect the entire state. 20% of the total
area of the state is covered with wooded forest. The evergreen tropical and the sub
tropical forests are found in strategic pockets in the state.

Fig.91

8.1.1 CULTURE
The Nagas were originally referred to as Naka in Burmese language, which means
'people with pierced noses. There are 16 main tribes of Nagaland.

The life revolved around agriculture and spent their most of the time in fields. Weaving is
a traditional art handed down through generations in Nagaland. Each of the tribe has its

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

own unique designs and colours, producing shawls, shoulder bags, decorative spears,
table mats, wood carvings, and bamboo works.

Although most of the Nagas have now become Christians, they still preserve the
remnants of their early animist culture and ancient traditions.

Historically, the Nagas have always been brave warriors. They consider the safety and
security of their guests as an honour and prestige and will never allow any harm to be
done to any of their guests/visitors.

Fig.92

8.1.2 VILLAGE HOUSING PATTERN

The Naga tribes are expert craftsmen. Their dwellings are made of wood and are
systematically carved and arranged. Each tribe has a unique way of constructing huts. A
common practice among all the tribes is decorating entrances of their dwellings with the
heads of buffaloes.

Naga village patterns differ from group to group, ranging from disperse, terrace to linear
arrangement of houses. No two Naga houses are similar-Some are grouped in a compact
block and enclosed by a fence and some are scattered.

Fig.93 Fig.94 Fig.95

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

8.1.3 BIFURCATION OF CULTURE THROUGH VERNACULAR

ARCHITECTURE:

TYPICAL NAGA HOUSES

Naga house is an elongated rectangular plan, a short length forming on side but some
tribes built in circular shapes also. These houses traditionally faces eastern direction.

The scale of the house was also smaller which meant that a smaller heat source was
required to heat the room. In housing units, there is no toilets except in few of them.

This housing type has very limited entrances usually one. Some of the tribes have a rear
or side exit as well in their houses which is used for escaping during an earthquake or
fire. The dwellings are made of wood and are systematically carved and arranged.

It generally representing wildlife, horn bull and horns of the bison. Broad wooden boards
forming the house front are often elaborately carved. The steep sloped roofs worked
beautifully in keeping the interiors dry.

The two bamboos forming the gable were prolonged beyond the roof to form horns called
the tenhaku - ki (snail horns). Thatched roof with paddy straws and palm leaves.
Generally there is no window and no mode of ventilation to gain heat

The interior was divided into 5 parts –

The Akishekhoh - or front room where the rice pounding tables were kept.

The Abidelabo - a narrow room for sleeping place for girls

The Akuzu-Abo – master bedroom

Amiphokiboh- fireplace

The Azhi-Bo - the liquor room where rice beer is stored in bamboo jugs.

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 96 Plan of Naga house

8.1.4 MATERIALS USED

FOUNDATION: Shallow foundation: Wall or column embedded in soil without footing
and no foundation

WALLS: Bamboo, wooden logs, bamboo mat and grass with light weight roof is used in
construction of wall. Bamboo wall matting is mud-plastered for durability.

FLOORING: There is no suspended flooring. Ground floor is simple earthen floor with
mud plaster in some cases. At times the floor of the house is raised slightly. This
safeguards against flooding and dampness during the rainy season. Bamboo matting is
used to cover the mud floors.

ROOFING: Thatch, bamboo or mud, plastic, polythene, G.I. metal, asbestos sheet and
palm leaves.

Fig. 97 Timber Fig. 98 Thatch

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

CHAPTER 9- CONCLUSION
After the whole study we understood that, the culture of each society is identified through
its manifestations such as language, art, and architecture, and analysis in the field of
culture is related to the study of cultural manifestations.

Architecture as a matter of human life reflects the culture in every society interacting
closely with structural, historical, political, economic and social features of society.
People in every country try to follow their norms and maintain their values in making of
architecture by applying the material things.

Changing the cultural and social attitudes in communities has the greatest impact on the
architecture. Therefore, the role of culture in promoting architectural identity seems
essential.

This descriptive article with the assumption that architectural is a complete symbol of
human culture tries to study the role of culture in promoting architectural identity based
on the documents and library studies.

Therefore, after relooking the definitions of culture, identity, architecture and their
interaction with each other. The result is that the culture of each community defines the
identity of the community and architecture as a social phenomenon was originated from
the culture and its effects.

Art and architecture are of the most important symptoms and characteristics of each
nation and every historical period that indicate the environment human's lives at any
time.

So, if architectural identity gets described in culture and tradition, the architecture based
on today's not past culture and traditions is the architecture with identity that is and will
always be with us.

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 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURE

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