List any four applications of computer graphics.

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Pixel :Pixel or Pel is defined as "the smallest addressable screen element". A pixel may be defined as the smallest size object or color spot that can be displayed and addressed on a
monitor.

Frame Buffer The frame buffer is the video memory (RAM) that is used to hold or map the image displayed on the screen. A framebuffer (frame buffer, or sometimes framestore) is a
portion of RAM containing a bitmap that drives a video display.

Define virtual reality. List any two advantages of virtual reality. Ans Virtual reality (VR) means experiencing things through our computers that don't really exist. OR Virtual Reality (VR) is
the use of computer technology to create a simulated environment. Instead of viewing a screen in front of them, users are immersed and able to interact with 3D worlds. Advantages:

in video games, engineering, entertainment, education,

design, films, media, medicine and many more.

ron beam sweeps back and forth from left

to right across the screen. The beam is on, while it moves from left to right. The beam is off, when it moves back from right to left. This phenomenon is c
soon as the beam reaches the bottom of the screen, it is turned off and is rapidly retraced back
the steady image on the screen by repeating scanning of the same image. This process is known as refreshing of screen.

Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) Algorithm Digital Differential Analyzer algorithm generates a line from differential equations of line and hence the name DDA.

e
this method is very similar to the numerical differential equations. The DDA is a mechanical device that solves differential equations by numerical methods.

Bresenham’s Algorithm The Bresenham algorithm is another line drawing algorithm which uses integer calculations for drawing line.

1)STROKE METHOD
follows this method for line drawing.
We can build our own stroke method character generator by calls to the line drawing algorithm. Here it is necessary to decide which line segments are needed for each character and then
drawing these segments using line drawing algorithm.

2)BITMAP METHOD -matrix method as the name suggests this method use array of bits for generating a character. These dots are the points for array
aracters i.e. where the dots appear we represent that position
with numeric his method characters are represented by an array of
dots in the matrix form. It is a two dimensional array having columns and rows
Higher resolution devices such as inkjet printer or laser printer may use character arrays that are over 100x100.

3) Starbust method: In this method a fix pattern of line segments are used to generate characters. Out of these 24 line segments, segments required to display for particular character are
highlighted. This method of character generation is called starbust method because of its characteristic appearance The starbust patterns for characters A and M. the patterns for
particular characters are stored in the form of 24 bit code, each bit representing one line segment. The bit is set to one to highlight the line segment; otherwise it is set to zero. For
example, 24-bit code for Character A is 0011 0000 0011 1100 1110 0001 and for character M is 0000 0011 0000 1100 1111 0011. This method of character generation has some
disadvantages. They are 1. The 24-bits are required to represent a character. Hence more memory is required. 2. Requires code conversion software to display character from its 24-bit
code. 3. Character quality is poor. It is worst for curve shaped characters.

Explain differ types of Text clipping in brief. Many techniques are used to provide text clipping in a computer graphics. It depends on the methods used to generate characters and the
requirements of a particular application. There are three methods for text clipping which are listed below − 1) All or none string clipping: In all or none string clipping method, either we
keep the entire string or we reject entire string based on the clipping window. As shown in the above figure, Hello2 is entirely inside the clipping window so we keep it and Hello1 being
only partially inside the window, we reject. 2) All or none character clipping : This clipping method is based on characters rather than entire string. In this method if the string is entirely
inside the clipping window, then we keep it. If it is partially outside the window, then − You reject only the portion of the string being outside If the character is on the boundary of the
clipping window, then we discard that entire character and keep the rest string. 3) Text clipping This clipping method is based on characters rather than the entire string. In this method if
the string is entirely inside the clipping window, then we keep it. If it is partially outside the window, then you reject only the portion of string being outside. If the character is on the
boundary of the clipping window, then we discard only that portion of character that is outside of the clipping window.

Koch Curve: - In Koch curve, begin at a line segment. Divide it into third and replace the center by the two adjacent sides of an equilateral triangle as shown below. This will give the curve
which starts and ends at same place as the original segment but is built of 4 equal length segments, with each 1/3rd of the original length. So the new curve has 4/3 the length of original
segments. Repeat same process for each of the 4 segment which will give curve more wiggles and its length become 16/9 times the original. Suppose repeating the replacements
indefinitely, since each repetition increases the length by a factor of 4/3, the length of the curve will be infinite but it is folded in lots of tiny wiggles.

Explain curve generation using Interpolation technique. Specify a spline curve by giving a set of coordinate positions, called control points, which indicates the general shape of the curve
These, control points are then fitted with piecewise continuous parametric polynomial functions in one of two ways. When polynomial sections are fitted so that the curve passes through
each control point, the resulting curve is said to interpolate the set of control points. On the other hand, when the polynomials are fitted to the general control-point path without
necessarily passing through any control point, the resulting curve is said to approximate the set of control points interpolation curves are commonly used to digitize drawings or to specify
animation paths. Approximation curves are primarily used as design tools to structure object surfaces an approximation spline surface credited for a design application. Straight lines
connect the control-point positions above the surface.

Convex Polygon: It is a polygon in which if you take any two positions of polygon then all the points on the line segment joining these two points fall within the polygon itself.Concave
Polygon: It is a polygon in which if you take any two positions of polygon then all the points on the line segment joining these two points does not fall entirely within the polygon.

What is homogeneous co-ordinate? Why is it required? Homogeneous coordinates are another way to represent points to simplify the wayn which we express affine transformations. We
have to use 3×3 transformation matrix instead of 2×2 transformation matrix. To convert a 2×2 matrix to 3×3 matrix, we have to add an extra dummy coordinate W. In this way, we can
s are used extensively in computer vision and graphics
because they allow common operations such as translation, rotation, scaling and perspective projection to be implemented as matrix operations 3D graphics hardware can be specialized
to perform matrix multiplications on 4x4 matrices.
Describe Sutherland-Hodgeman algorithm for polygon clipping. -Hodgeman, a polygon is clipped by processing the polygon boundary as a whole against each window
is could be accomplished by processing all polygon vertices against each clip rectangle boundary in turn beginning with the original set
of polygon vertices, first clip the polygon against the left rectangle boundary to produce a new sequence of vertices. Algorithm for Sutherland-Hodgeman Polygon Clipping: Step 1: Read
co-ordinates of all vertices of the polygon. Step 2: Read co-ordinates of the clipping window. Step 3: Consider the left edge of window. Step 4: Compare vertices of each of polygon,
individually with the clipping plane. Step 5: Save the resulting intersections and vertices in the new list of vertices according to four possible relationships between the edge and the
clipping boundary. Step 6: Repeat the steps 4 and 5 for remaining edges of clipping window. Each time resultant list of vertices is successively passed to process next edge of clipping
window. Step 7: Stop.

Describe the vector scan display techniques with neat diagram. is an example of a randomscan, hard-
random- dom scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time
and for this reason are also referred to as vector displays (or stroke-
If we want a line connecting point A with point B on vector graphics display, we simply drive the beam reflection circuitry, which will cause beam to go directly from point A to point B
Refresh rate on a random- ne drawing commands in an area of memory called “refresh
display file” or also called as display list or display program or refresh buffer.

Write the midpoint subdivision algorithm for line clipping. Step 1: Scan two end points for the line P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2). Step 2:
Step 3: Assign the region codes for endpoints P1 and P2 by initializing code with 0000. Bit 1 - - - - ) Step 4: Check

Anding operation of them is al condition in 4 (i) and 4 (ii) then line is

partly visible. Step5: Find midpoint of line and divide it into two equal line segments and repeat steps 3 through 5 for both subdivided line segments until you get completely visible and
completely invisible line segments. Step 6: Exit.

2D TRANFORMATIONS: TRANSLATION: it is process of repositioning an object along a straight line path from one co-ordinate location to co-ordinate location. SCALING: scaling changes
size of object along x or y or both axes. New transformed co-ordinates of a point (x,y) can be calculated by multiplying it with scaling factors Sx,Sy in x and y directions
respectively.ROTATION: rotation of an object is responding it along a circular path in xy plane .we need to specify rotation angle of position of rotation point (pivot point) about which
object is to be rotated. REFLECTION: it is transformation that produces a mirror image of an object relative to an axis of reflection.we can choose an axis of reflection in xy plane or
perpendicular to xy plane. SHEARING: a transformation that slants shape of object is called as shear transformation.

Scaling Transformation ct, scaling transformation is used. In the

an be achieved by multiplying the original co-ordinates of the object with the scaling factor to get
-ordinates are (X, Y), the scaling factors are (SX, SY), and the produced co-ordinates are (X', Y'). This can be mathematically

ADVANTAGES OF HOMOGENEOUS CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS.: very important advantage of this systems is it allows us to express all transformation equations as matrix multiplications ,
which is very much useful in composite transformations. Now lets see homogeneous matrix representation of 2D transformations.

WINDOWING : the process of selecting and viewing the picture with different view is called as windowing. CLIPPING: the process which divides each element of the picture into is visible
and invisible portions, allowing invisible to be discarded is called as clipping. WINDOW: a world co-ordinate area selected for display is called as window. VIEWPORT: a area on display
device to which window is mapped is called view port. POINT CLIPPING: in point clipping,if a specified point is inside the clipping window then it is accepted and displayed on the screen
.And if it is outside the clipping window then it is rejected and not displayed on the screen. Line clipping : lines intersecting a rectangular clip region are always clipped to a single line
segment.line segment inside the clipping window are displayed and line segment outside clipping window are discarded.

Give matrix representation for 2D scaling Let us assume that the original co-ordinates are (X, Y), the scaling factors are (SX, SY), and the produced co-ordinates are (X', Y'). This can be
mathematically represented as shown below e
represented in matrix form as below:

Write matrices in homogeneous co-ordinates system for 3D scaling transformation. It specifies three co-ordinates with their own scaling factors. If scale factors, Sx = Sy = Sz = S > 1 then
the scaling is called as magnification. Sx = Sy = Sz = S < 1 then the scaling is called as reduction. Therefore, point after scaling with respect to origin can be calculat