Unit 5: Non Conventional Machining

Contents
Introduction
Classification
Electric discharge machining (EDM),
Electro-chemical machining (ECM)
Electro-chemical grinding (ECG),
applications of different Nonconventional machining processes
Laser Beam machining and allied process.
 Non Conventional Machining: Intro
Conventional Machining utilize the ability of cutting tool to stress the work material
beyond the yield stress, which requires tool material harder than the work material

The materials having high strength to weight ratio, high heat resistance, and hardness
such as alloys alloying elements (Tungsten, molybdenum and columbium) are difficult to
machine by traditional methods of cutting

Besides these the complex shapes in these materials are either difficult to machine or time
consuming

Further in some applications very high accuracy is desired beside complexity of surface to
be machined

Hence there is need of development of Non Traditional machining process which utilize
the other means of cutting for material removal
 Non Conventional Machining: Intro
Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials using tools that are
harder than the materials themselves.

New and novel materials because of their greatly improved chemical, mechanical
and thermal properties are sometimes impossible to machine using traditional
machining processes.

Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining hard materials

like ceramics and composites or machining under very tight tolerances as in micro
machined components.

The need to a avoid surface damage that often accompanies the stresses created by
conventional machining. Example: aerospace and electronics industries.

They are classified under the domain of non traditional processes.

 Non Conventional Machining: Intro
Need of Non Traditional methods

• Extremely hard and brittle materials or Difficult to machine materials are difficult to machine by
traditional machining processes.

• When the workpiece is too flexible or slender to support the cutting or grinding forces.

• When the shape of the part is too complex.

• Intricate shaped blind hole – e.g. square hole of 15 mmx15 mm with a depth of 30 mm

• Deep hole with small hole diameter – e.g. φ 1.5 mm hole with l/d = 20

• Machining of composites.
 Classification
These can be classified according to the source of energy used to generate such a
machining action: mechanical, thermal, chemical and electrochemical.

Mechanical: Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of

abrasives or fluids (or both)

Thermal: The thermal energy is applied to a very small portion of the work
surface, causing that portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization of the
material. The thermal energy is generated by conversion of electrical energy.

Electrochemical: Mechanism is reverse of electroplating.

• Chemical: Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical attack

by certain acids or other etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals selectively
remove material from portions of the work part, while other portions of the surface
are protected by a mask
Classification
 Mechanical Machining
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Waterjet Machining
(WJM) are typical examples of single action,
mechanical non traditional machining processes.
 The machining medium is solid grains suspended in
an abrasive slurry in the former, while a fluid is
employed in the WJM process.
 The introduction of abrasives to the fluid jet enhances
the machining efficiency and is known as abrasive
water jet machining. Similar case happens when ice
particles are introduced as in Ice Jet Machining.
 Thermal Machining
• Thermal machining removes
materials by melting or
vaporizing the work piece
material.
• Many secondary phenomena
occur during machining such as
micro-cracking, formation of
heat affected zones, striations
etc.
• The source of heat could be
plasma as during EDM and PBM
or photons as during LBM,
electrons in electrons in EBM,
ions in IBM etc.
 Chemical and Electrochemical Machining

Chemical milling and photochemical

machining or photochemical blanking
all use a chemical dissolution action
to remove the machining allowance
through ions in an etchant.
Electrochemical machining uses the
electrochemical dissolution phase to
remove the machining allowance
using ion transfer in an electrolytic
cell.
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM):

•Its a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is obtained using electrical

discharges (sparks).

•Material is removed from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring current

discharges between two electrodes, separated by a dielectric liquid and subject to
an electric voltage.

•One of the electrodes – ‘tool-electrode’ or ‘tool’ or ‘electrode’.

•Other electrode - workpiece-electrode or ‘workpiece’.

•As distance between the two electrodes is reduced, the current intensity becomes
greater than the strength of the dielectric (at least in some points) causing it to
break.
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)(cont..):

•It is a process of metal removal based on the principle of material removal

by an interrupted electric spark discharge between the electrode tool and
the work piece.

•In EDM, a potential difference is applied between the tool and workpiece.

•Essential - Both tool and work material are to be conductors.

•The tool and work material are immersed in a dielectric medium.

•Generally kerosene or deionised water is used as the dielectric medium.

•A gap is maintained between the tool and the workpiece

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)(cont..):
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)(cont..):

•Depending upon the applied potential difference (50 to 450 V) and the gap
between the tool and workpiece, an electric field would be established.

•Generally the tool is connected to the negative terminal (cathode) of the

generator and the workpiece is connected to positive terminal (anode).

•As the electric field is established between the tool and the job, the free electrons
on the tool are subjected to electrostatic forces.

•If the bonding energy of the electrons is less, electrons would be emitted from
the tool.

•As they gain velocity and energy, and start moving towards the job, there would
be collisions between the electrons and dielectric molecules.

•Such collision may result in ionization of the dielectric molecule.

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)(cont..):
•all of a sudden, a large number of electrons will flow from tool to job and
ions from job to tool.

•Such movement of electrons and ions can be visually seen as a spark.

•Thus the electrical energy is dissipated as the thermal energy of the spark.

•The kinetic energy of the electrons and ions on impact with the surface of
the job and tool respectively would be converted into thermal energy or heat
flux.

•Such intense localized heat flux leads to extreme instantaneous confined

rise in temperature which would be in excess of 10,000oC.

•Such localized extreme rise in temperature leads to material removal.

•Material removal occurs due to instant vaporization of the material as well

as due to melting.

•The molten metal is not removed completely but only partially.

Applications:

 Drilling of micro-holes, thread cutting, helical profile milling, rotary forming,

and curved hole drilling.
 Delicate work piece like copper parts can be produced by EDM.
 Can be applied to all electrically conducting metals and alloys irrespective of
their melting points, hardness, toughness, or brittleness.
 Other applications: deep, small-dia holes using tungsten wire as tool, narrow
slots, cooling holes in super alloy turbine blades, and various intricate shapes.
 EDM can be economically employed for extremely hardened work piece.
 Since there is no mechanical stress present (no physical contact), fragile and
slender work pieces can be machined without distortion.
 Hard and corrosion resistant surfaces, essentially needed for die making, can
be developed.
 Principle:

When a potential difference is applied between two conductors immersed in a

dielectric fluid. The fluid will be ionized and a spark will occurs. If the
potential difference is maintained, the spark will develop into an arc.
Characteristic of EDM:
 A suitable gap between tool and work-piece called spark gap must be
maintained (0.01 to 0.5 mm)

 More erosion on anode (+ve), so the work-piece is kept +ve.

 Dielectric fluid (Paraffin, kerosene, transformer oil etc.)

 D.C. voltage: 40-300V,Current: 0.5to400Amp, local temperature 10000°C

 A true replica of the tool surface will be produced on the work-piece.

 Dielectric fluid is circulated to maintain a certain temperature.

EDM Advantages:

Some of the advantages of EDM include machining of:

 Complex shapes that would otherwise be difficult to produce with

conventional cutting tools.
 Extremely hard material to very close tolerances.
 Very small work pieces where conventional cutting tools may damage the
part from excess cutting tool pressure.
 There is no direct contact between tool and work piece. Therefore delicate
sections and weak materials can be machined without any distortion.
 A good surface finish can be obtained.
Disadvantages:

Some of the disadvantages of EDM include:

 The slow rate of material removal.
 For economic production, the surface finish specified should not be too fine.
 The additional time and cost used for creating electrodes for ram/sinker EDM.
 Reproducing sharp corners on the workpiece is difficult due to electrode wear.
 Specific power consumption is very high.
 Excessive tool wear occurs during machining.
 Electrically non-conductive materials can be machined only with specific set-
up of the process
 Function of Dielectric Fluid:
 Serves as a conducting medium and convey the spark.
 Cools the work-piece and tool.
 Carries away the eroded metal.

 Properties of Dielectric Fluid:

 Should not evolve toxic vapours or gases.
 Must be inflammable.
 Chemically inert on tool and work-piece

 Tool material:
 Brass, copper or alloy of copper, cast iron used as cutting tool material.
 Electrochemical Machining
• The process is actually the reverse of electroplating with some modifications.

• Based on the principle of electrolysis

• Michael faraday discovered that if two electrodes are placed in a bath containing a
conducting liquid and a DC Potential is applied across them then metal can be depleted
from anode and plated on the cathode

• In a metal, electricity is conducted by free electrons but in a solution the conduction of

electricity is achieved through the movement of ions.

• Thus the flow of current through an electrolyte is always accompanied by the movement
of matter.

• In the ECM process the work-piece is connected to a positive electrode and the tool to the
negative terminal for metal removal.
 Electrochemical Machining
• The dissolution rate is more where the gap is less and vice versa.
• This is because the current density is inversely proportional to the gap.
• Now, if the tool is given a downward motion, the work surface tends to take the same
shape as that of the tool, and at a steady state the gap is uniform.
• Thus the shape of the tool is represented in the job
• In an electrochemical machining process, the electrolyte is pumped at a high pressure
through the tool and the small gap between the tool and the work-piece
 Electrochemical Machining
• The electrolyte is so chosen that the anode is dissolved but there is no deposition
on the cathode.

• The order of the current and voltage are a few 1000 amps and 8-20 volts. The gap
is of the order of 0.1-0.2mm .

• The metal removal rate is typically 1600 mm3/sec for each 1000 Amp.

• Approximately 3 KW-hr. are needed to remove 16000 mm3 of metal which is

almost 30 times the energy required in a conventional process.
Electrochemical Machining (E.C.M.):

•Electrochemical machining (ECM) is an

electrolytic material removal process involving a
negatively charged shaped electrode (cathode), a
conductive fluid (electrolyte), and a conductive
workpiece (anode).

•ECM is an electrolytic process and its basis is the

phenomenon of electrolysis, whose laws were
established by Faraday in 1833.
Electrochemical Machining (E.C.M.)(cont..)

In the ECM process, the dc power source charges the workpiece positively and
charges the tool negatively. As the machine slowly brings the tool and
workpiece close together, perhaps to within 0.010 of an inch, the power and
electrolyte flow are turned on. Electrons flow across the narrow gap from
negative to positive, dissolving the workpiece into the shape as the tool
advances into it. The recirculating electrolytic fluid carries away the dissolved
material as a metal hydroxide.
Electrochemical Machining (E.C.M.)(cont..)

•In ECM one employs a cathode electrode shaped to provide the

complementary structure in an anode work piece.

•A highly conductive electrolyte stream separates the cutting tool from the work
piece, and metal removal is accomplished by passing a dc current of up to
100A/cm2 through the salt solution cell. As the cathode tool approaches the
anode work piece it erodes its complementary shape in it.

•Thus complex shapes may be made from a material such as soft copper and
used to produce negative duplicates of it. The process is also called
electrochemical sinking.
Electrochemical Machining (E.C.M.)(cont..)

Material Removal Rate (MRR):

According to Faraday’s first law of electrolysis, mass of ion liberated by

the substance,
M= ZIt

Where, I = current flowing through the electrolytic cell

t= time in sec
Z= constant known as the electro- chemical equivalent of the
substance.
Principle:
•Based on the principle of Faraday’s law of electrolysis.

Characteristic:
• Small gap between tool and work-piece (≈ 0.5mm).

• Wok-piece stationary, feed by tool.

• Electrolyte: Aqueous solution of common salt, dilute acid.

• Pressure of electrolyte ≈ 14 kg/cm2

• Velocity of electrolyte = 30 to 60 m/sec.

• Temperature of electrolyte = 25 to60°C .

• Voltage of electrolyte = 5 to 15V

ECM: Advantages
•Components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress.

•There is no tool wear in ECM.

•Non-rigid and open work pieces can be machined easily as there is no contact
between the tool and work piece.

•Complex geometrical shapes can be machined repeatedly and accurately.

•ECM is a time saving process when compared with conventional machining

•During drilling, deep holes can be made or several holes at once.

•Fragile parts which cannot take more loads and also brittle material which tend
to develop cracks during machining can be machined easily in ECM

•Surface finishes of 25 µ in. can be achieved in ECM

ECM: Disadvantages

o Keeping the solution conductivity constant.

o More expensive than conventional machining.
o Need more area for installation.
o Electrolytes may destroy the equipment.
o Not environmentally friendly (sludge and other waste)
o High energy consumption.
o Chemical attack by electrolytes.
o The danger of a burn in the case of a short circuit between the positive and
negative leads.
o The danger of a fire damp explosion.
o Material has to be electrically conductive
ECM Applications

•The most common application of ECM is high accuracy duplication. Because

there is no tool wear, it can be used repeatedly with a high degree of accuracy.
• It is also used to make cavities and holes in various products.
• It is commonly used on thin walled, easily deformable and brittle material
because they would probably develop cracks with conventional machining.

Products
•The two most common products of ECM are turbine/compressor blades and
rifle barrels. Each of those parts require machining of extremely hard metals
with certain mechanical specifications
•Some of these mechanical characteristics achieved by ECM are:
*Stress free grooves.
*Any groove geometry.
*Any conductive metal can be machined.
*Repeatable accuracy of 0.0005”.
*High surface finish.
*Fast cycle time.
Function of Electrolyte in ECM:

•Completes the electric circuit between tool and work piece.

•Allows desirable machining to occur.
•Carries away products of reaction from the zone of machining.
•Carries away heat generated during chemical reactions.

Properties of Electrolyte For ECM:

•High electrical conductivity.

•Chemical stability.
•High specific heat and low viscosity.
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
ECG also called electrolytic grinding is similar to ECM, except that the cathode is
an electrically conductive abrasive grinding wheel instead of a tool shaped like the
contour to be machined

Used primarily to machine difficult to cut alloys such as stainless steel, Hastelloy,
Inconel, Monel, Waspally and tungsten carbide, heat treated work peices, fragile
or therm-sensitive parts, or parts for which stress-free and burr-free results are
required

Process introduced in the early 1950s evolving from developments in the USSR
on EDM

ECG removes metal by a combination of electrochemical (responsible for 90% of

material removal) and grinding actions

The grinding action removes the buildup of oxide film on the surface of the
workpiece
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
Less power is needed for ECG than for ECM since the machining area is smaller
and the abrasive in the wheel is removing the oxide film – current ranges from 5 to
1000A are most common, with a voltage of 3 to 15V over an electrolyte gap of
approximately 0.25mm or less and wheel speeds of 1100 to 1800m/min

Many similarities between ECG and conventional grinding make this one of the
easiest ECM based processes to both understand and implement – grinding wheel
closely resemble their conventional counterparts with the exception that ECG
wheels use an electrically conductive abrasive bonding agent; electrolyte is
introduced to the work are
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
Advantages
• No thermal damage to workpiece
• Elimination of grinding burn
• Absence of work hardening
• Long-lasting wheels – less truing
• Higher MRR;
• Single pass grinding - reduced cost of grinding;
• Absence of burrs on the finished surface;
• Improved surface finish with no grinding scratches;
• Reduced pressure of work against the wheel – no distortion;
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
Limitations
• High capital cost / Higher cost of grinding wheel;
• Corrosive environment
• High preventive maintenance cost
• Tolerance achieved are low;
• Difficult to optimize due to the complexity of the process;
• Non-conductive materials cannot be machined
• Not economical for soft materials – noncompetitive removal rates
compared to conventional methods for readily machinable metals •
• Requires disposal and filtering of electrolytes
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
Applications
• Single largest use for ECG is in the manufacturing and remanufacturing of
turbine blades and vanes for aircraft turbine engines
• Grinding of tungsten carbide tool inserts
• Re-profiling worn locomotive traction motor gears
• Burr-free sharpening of hypodermic needles
• Grinding of surgical needles, other thin wall tubes, and fragile parts
• Machining of fragile or very hard and tough material – honey comb, thin
walled tubes and skins
• High MRR’s when grinding hard, tough, stringy, work-hardenable or heat
sensitive materials
 Laser Beam Machining
• LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

 LBM uses the light energy (focused coherent beam of monochromatic light) to remove material by
vaporization and ablation (evaporation or melting of a surface through heating by friction).

 The light energy is pulsed so that the released energy results in an impulse against the work surface
that produces a combination of evaporation and melting with the melted material evacuating the
surface at high velocities.

 Energy densities of the order of 100,000 kW/cm2.

 Many types of laser exist – they can be classified as solid-state, gas or liquid. In metal processing,
solid state and gas are generally used. Principal lasers used in metal processing are the neodymium
-glass (Nd:glass), the carbon dioxide (CO2) and the neodymiumdoped yttrium aluminium garnet
(Nd:YAG) lasers.

 Laser beams are being used for a variety of industrial applications, including heat treatment,
welding, measurement as well as cutting, drilling, slitting, slotting, marking operations, scribbing.
 Laser Beam Machining

Characteristics of LBM
Highly collimated (light rays in the beam are almost perfectly parallel
– a diverging angle of less than 1-2 milli radians)
Monochromatic (all the photons have the same energy and hence the
same frequency and wavelength)
 Laser Beam Machining

Equipment
Three important elements of any laser device are:
1) Laser medium (collection of atoms, molecules, or ions)
2) Pumping energy source – required to excite these atoms to
higher energy level
3) Optical feedback system
Laser Beam Machining
 Laser Beam Machining
• A light of dual wave-particle is emitted when electrons change the atom
energy levels.
• Light travels across medium as electromagnetic wave, but when it
encounters matter it behaves as energy quantum, photon.
• This phenomenon is an underneath concept of photons used as an
effective engineering tool.
• The light generated by laser is able to break chemical bonds because it is
amplified, hence intense, of monochromatic wavelength, direct, polarised
and coherent.
• Laser beams can be focused over a spot size of 10 – 100 μm with a power
density as high as 1MW/mm2.
• It is estimated that energy required to break chemical bonds of plastic
varies between 3-7 eV; for metals its around 20 eV
 Laser Beam Machining
• Laser Beam Machining deals with machining and material processing
like heat treatment, alloying , cladding, sheet metal bending, etc.
• Such processing is carried out utilizing the energy of coherent
photons or laser beam, which is mostly converted into thermal
energy upon interaction with most of the materials.
• Nowadays, laser is also finding application in regenerative machining
or rapid prototyping as in processes like stereolithography, selective
laser sintering etc.
• As laser interacts with the material, the energy of the photon is
absorbed by the work material leading to rapid substantial rise in
local temperature. This in turn results in melting and vaporisation of
the work material and finally material removal.
 Laser-Material Interaction

• A great advantage of laser machining is capability to machine any kind

of material, not necessarily conductive, depending on laser intensity
and interaction time.
• In contrast to some other processes, laser operates using high energy
photons therefore there is not a typical tool as the laser beam directly
targets the work-piece and machines breaking the work-piece
chemical bonds.
• Laser ablation mechanism makes it possible to introduce the desired
shape geometry of the work-piece without any prior preparations.
 Laser-Material Interaction
• The laser machining is driven by pyrolitic and photolitic mechanisms.

• In pyrolitic mechanism the laser energy is absorbed by the material surface

layer resulting in temperature rise, melting and evaporation.

• In photolitic mechanism laser light introduces chemical reaction, which

may cause the material to disintegrate.

• For metal, ceramic and plastic materials pyrolitic is the leading material
removal mechanism.

• When the laser beam targets the work-piece several affects arise:
reflection, absorption, conduction, melting and vaporisation.
 Laser-Material Interaction
• The surface reflectivity depends on the surface roughness and laser wave
length.

• Generally, the longer the wave length, the higher the reflectivity becomes,
hence the absorption decreases.

• Therefore the highest rates of absorption excimer lasers can offer, due to the
shortest operational wave length.

• The temperature also influences reflection/absorption.

• The higher the temperature, the higher the absorption occur, however the
main factor influencing absorption is the laser wavelength
 Laser-Material Interaction

• LBM processes to a great extent depend on the workpiece properties,

laser intensity and interaction time. For every material there is a
threshold intensity that needs to be achieve for evaporation to occur.
 LBM Applications
• Laser can be used in wide range of manufacturing applications
• Material removal – drilling, cutting and tre-panning
• Drilling micro-sized holes using laser in difficult – to – machine
materials is the most dominant application in industry. In laser drilling
the laser beam is focused over the desired spot size. For thin sheets
pulse laser can be used. For thicker ones continuous laser may be
used.
 LBM Advantages
• In laser machining there is no physical tool. Thus no machining force
or wear of the tool takes place

• Large aspect ratio in laser drilling can be achieved along with

acceptable accuracy or dimension, form or location

• Micro-holes can be drilled in difficult – to – machine materials

• Though laser processing is a thermal processing but heat affected

zone specially in pulse laser processing is not very significant due to
shorter pulse duration
 LBM Limitations
• High initial capital cost
• High maintenance cost
• Not very efficient process
• Presence of Heat Affected Zone – specially in gas assist CO2 laser
cutting
• Thermal process – not suitable for heat sensitive materials like
aluminium glass fibre laminate.