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_______ THREE
Basic Concepts o f Rotating
Electrical Machines

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The basic principles, developed in Chapter 2 for describing the behaviour of
electromechanical energy conversion devices, apply equally well to rotating electrical

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machines. The purpose of this chapter is to develop general expressions for electromagnetic
torque and generated e.m.fs. in rotating machines and to make use of the basic principles of

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Chapter 2 . These basic torque and e.m.f. expressions are applicable to both d.c. and a.c
machines, because the fundamental principles underlying their operation, are the same. The
constructional features of the various types of rotating machines are also described, so that the

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general torque and e.m.f. expressions are modified to suit the particular construction of a
machine. It must be emphasized at the outset that both d.c. and a.c. machines work on the same

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basic principles ; they differ only in construction. The final forms of the generated e m f. and
torque expressions for the two types (a.c. and d.c.) of electrical machines differ only because
their constructional details are different.
3.1. Physical Concepts of Torque Production e eri
« J At thf k in n in g of ‘ his cbaPter' a brief
tion in rotating electrical machines is presented. n g.n
of the physical concepts of torque produc

3.1.1. E lectrom agnetic (or interaction) torque. Fie a \ (n) illnBtmfon „ „ ■■ .

stator magnetic flux is set up and its path is as shown in Fip 3 l („\ «
rotor conductor. If rotor conductor carries a current in d ic t. H i
et
stator with 2 poles and a cylindrical rotor with one conductor. When stator coils are energised6
energisea,
.1 . 1" ° current in the
.

flux picture ia as depicted in Fig. 3.1 ^ ‘ he

and rotor conductor, both carry currents then the flux nrodn . h C ' ” Stat° r C°
with the stator-produced flux, giving the resultant Z n Y r0t° r CU" ent interaCtS
Fig. 3.1 (c ).Since the magnet,c flux lines behave like stretch “ lst1nbukt,on1as illustrated m
ductor experiences a force m the upward direction The cl \ ° bands. the rotor con-
interaction of stator and rotor magnetic fields is calm 1 f* °ckw‘se turciue developed due to the
’ lb t&hed interaction or electromagnetic torque.
Consider now one current-carryint/ coil o n mu ,. . ...
indicated by dot under stator-north pole and hv r a direction of current in the coil is
rotor current produces rotor flux and ^ ^ ,R g ‘ 3 1 ^ ^
attracts rotor N nnle and r(,n«ic o ..., tW0 poles 011 the rotor. The stator S pole

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fa sic Concepts „ f Rotatm. E|Mricill

Machines 235

.Direction of Fixed

ww -■iC rs tor<^ue magnet ■

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(d)
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Fig. 3.1. Illustrating the production of interaction torque.

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Thephysical understanding of interaction torque can further be highlighted by referring to
Fig, 3.1 (e). In this figure, one permanent magnet free to rotate, is placed in the field of a

e
stationarymagnet. The tendency of the two fields to align themselves in the same direction is

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^led interaction torque. The angle between stator-field axis and rotor-field axis is called the
torqueangle 8 [Fig. 3.1 (e)]. Note that the torque angle 5 in Fig. 3.1 (d) is 90°. The magnitude of
eMtromagnetic or interaction torque in all rotating machines is given by
. ••'. Te« (Stator field strength) (Rotor field strength) nsin 8.
g.n .

issh l 2' * ^ uctance (o** alignment) torque. In Fig. 3.1 (a), thepath of the magnetic flux
HamT W^6n stator coils carry current. If a ferromagnetic rotor is suitably placed in this
Weet,1C^leld. the path of stator-produced flux is effected considerably as shown in Fig. 3.2.
refocta 6 ma^ne^ c ^ ux has a tendency to follow a minimum
et
fotoreXl.Ce ° r ^ as a tendency to shorten its flux path, the
lanceor e,1?ences a counter-clockwise torque, called the reluc-
the st ^nment ^orQue- When the long rotor axis coincides
!ero. Note^k'1' ^°^ar ax^s>the reluctance torque is reduced to
^hced n l ^ rehJctance or alignment torque can be
^ges ^ en the reluctance seen by the working flux
Pyn e rotor movement, see Art. 2.3.

Stl t 03ri the

* * a . J » oa r°^a^ nS
. electrical machine, having 2
i ! r° ^ o^ f 0r and 4 d poles on the rotor,
mtnr show that net
t ^°luti tl° i0)(fue developed is i zero.
electrical machine with 2 -pole stator and
'JlJ Cecl- u . ?iUstrated in Fig. 3.3. The rotor poles arc equal-
Fig. 3.2. Production of reluctance
^ by 90° G a^ ernate north and south poles are space- torque.
rnechanical (or 180° electrical).

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236 Electrical Machinery

First consider rotor poles N j and N 2. Since the torque

angle between N lt N is equal to the torque angle between
N 2,S ; the force of repulsion (clockwise) between N, N i i s N
balanced by the force of attraction (anti-clockwise) between
AT2, Similarly, the torque angles between N\, S and N ,N 2
are equal and force of attraction (clockwise) between N\, S is
balanced by force of repulsion (anti-clockwise) between N , N 2. Fig. 3.3. Pertaining to Exa i
Therefore, net electromagnetic torque due to rotor poles 1
and N 2 is zero.
Now consider the rotor poles Si and S2. The torque angles between N, S x and S, S2 are
equal, therefore the force of attraction (anti-clockwise) between N, Si is balanced by force of
repulsion (clockwise) between S, S2. Similarly the force of attraction (clockwise) between
N, S2 is balanced by force of repulsion (anti-clockwise) between S, S v Therefore, no electromag­

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netic torque is developed due to rotor poles and S2.
Hence the resultant electromagnetic torque developed due to 2-stator poles and 4 rotor

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poles is zero. In view of this, it is essential that in all rotating electrical machines, the number
of rotor poles be equal to the number of stator poles for the development of electromagnetic
torque.

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3.2. C onstructional Features o f Rotating E lectrical
M ach in es

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All the rotating electrical machines, used for generation purposes, electric drives or for

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control systems, have many common essential features from the construction point of view. For
example, every rotating electrical machine must possess (i) stator (stationary member) (ii) rotor

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(rotating member) (iii ) air-gap separating the stator and rotor and (iv) shaft, bearing, founda­
tion etc. In addition to it, every electrical machine usually has
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(а) exciting or field winding, which produces the working flux and

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(б ) armature winding in which the working e.m.f. is induced by the working flux.
The current in a winding that varies as the machine is loaded is called load current. The
current that produces only a working magnetic flux and does not vary with the load on the
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machine is called magnetizing current, exciting current or field current. The winding on the
machine that carries only load current is called armature winding. The winding that handles
only exciting current is called field winding. Current in the field winding is always dc. A wind­
ing which handles both the exciting current and load current is called the primary winding of
that device. The primary winding is usually the power-input winding. The power - output wind­
ing for such machines is called the secondary winding.
The armature winding handles all the power that is being converted or transform ed. The
rating of armature winding is equal to the power rating of the machine. The field winding
rating is about \ to 2% of the rated power of the machine. The power input to dc field winding
is dissipated as I2R loss in the field winding (once the required field current is established)-
The armature windings of both the d.c. and a.c. machines have to deal with alternatJJJ
current only-this is the reason why the armature structures of all rotating machm^ ines
laminated in order to reduce the eddy current losses. Further, almost all the rotating ^ oT
have even number of alternate N and S poles (called hetropolar structure). If power is
taken from the rotor it is obvious that sliding contacts are essential. All types of large ro
machines are provided with radial and axial ventilating ducts for cooling purposes.

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 237

tJdne^reede^ribednt COns^ruc^ ona^features of more common types o f rotating electri-

3.2. 1 * ^ ,^ C^1*n es‘ P°lyphase induction machine can work as an

^ K f f n t i o n is directed main? t 6 application>its performance is unsatisfactory. In view
Jfthis, attention is directed mainly towards polyphase induction motors.

^ i ^ ^ u t e d ^ v ^ d i ^ ^ t w n 0^ 0^ m0t° r cons^sts °1 stator frame, stator core, polyphase (3- or

2-Pha etc- 1116 stator core is a of cylindrical
steel laaial „ closelv in thp ca f ° ng .leir inner Pe r i Ph e r y for housing the; 3-phase winding.
* St3t0r frame- 1116 * " » end covers made of cast-iron and
testator t o ™chamcal support to the stator core and are not designed to cany

The essential parts of a 3-phase induction motor are illustrated in Fig. 3.4 (a) and (b ). For
simplicity, the stator n ; shown to have 6 slots, though actually the numbef of stator slots is far

®ore.t^ a of t W h r i! ' Pll aS8 Wlnding design’ Three coils aa'< w and cc' rep-

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T A hv 120° electrical a n ^ ^ ^ ° respectively- Three windings are space dis­
placed by 120 electrical and may be connected in star or delta as illustrated in Fig. 3.4 (c).
Many a time, the six ends of the three phase windings are brought out to the terminal box on

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(hestator frame. The six ends are suitably marked to indicate the starting and finishing ends
! ^ r e e -p h a s e windings. Note that three-phase winding in the stator slots is uniformly
Idistnbuted along the air-gap periphery.

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S lator frame

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et

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Ei Fig. 3.4. Constructional features of polyphase induction motors.

N l v i 8120 motors use open slots so that already prepared and properly insulated coils can
S o r t e d >n open slots. Small size induction motors use semiclosed slots so as to reduce
^eairGgap *en£th between stator and rotor.
*^ N u gap between stator and rotor should be as small as is mechanically possible; this will
^*) leaj 6 fenkage flux between stator and rotor
Qto better operating power factor of the induction motor.
I

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238 Electrical Machinery

Uri3.2

ro to X h
on the cast-iron spider carried by the shaft. • aftt.
_ , . * „ „_ n fvmp the rotor winding consists of uninsulated conductor* •
of “ S n i r r e d d e d in the setni-Cosed slots. These s „ , ^ >
UI —------------------------ .~ j l
•
circuited at both . by
ends . end-rings
. •--------otSkewed
the rotor f-rt.
ho
same material. For good electrical connec- s lo t s
tion, the bars are riveted, brazed or welded
with the two end-rings (Fig. 3.5). In smaller
UmrSa,'»
sizes, say below 40 kW, the assembled rotor r0,0r COr,
core is placed in a mould and the molten
conducting material, usually aluminium, is
forced into the slots. Thus the rotor bars,
end rings and the cooling fan, are cast in
one operation. Without the rotor core, the

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rotor bars and end-rings look like the cage
of a squirrel, hence the name squirrel cage
induction motor. Note that the rotor bars End rings

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form a uniformly distributed winding in the
rotor slots. As the rotor bars are short-cir­
Fig. 3.5. Constructional details of squirrel cagero’xr

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cuited by two end-rings, no external resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit of a squirrel
cage induction motor.

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In the wound-rotor type, the rotor slots accommodate an insulated winding similar tothat
used on the stator. The rotor winding is uniformly distributed and is usually connected instar.

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The three leads from the star connection are then connected to three slip rings or collector rir^s
mounted on but insulated from the shaft, Fig. 3.4 (b ). Carbon brushes pressing on the s/tp rings

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allow, external resistors to be inserted in series with the rotor winding for speed and startmg-

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torque control. Actually, the wound-rotor type of induction motor costs more and requires in­
creased maintenance ; it is therefore only used where (i ) the driven load requires speed contrc:

carries slip rings, it is called wound-rotor or slip-ring induction motor. n

or (ii ) high starting torque is required. Since the rotor is wound with polyphase windings and

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In both the types, the rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft axis, i.e., the rotor slots are
skewed for obtaining a quieter and smoother operation of the induction motor.
The squirrel cage type is simpler and more economical in construction than the wound-
rotor type. Further the cage type is more rugged and requires less maintenance than
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wound-rotor type, since the former does not require slip rings and carbon brushes.
A polyphase induction motor receives electrical energy from one alternating
source ; it is, therefore, called a singly excited machine. The stator carries the field mo ‘
armature winding is on the rotor. The stator winding connected to the supply. is cn *
W,n. }n.?' ‘5' m^ ar to transformer primary winding. The rotor winding15 c , Pf»
tr'insf W1 ? BinC<i rcce*VCfl encrgy from the stator by mutual flux, as in
I T S h o 7 WOrr 8’ an indllcti°n motor may he regarded as a generalized j
a now o f t , r ° WOr ,tran8f° rrnati0n fr™ Rtatnr to rotor, along with a change in f i e * * '
a How of mechanical power, see Art,. 6 . 1 . ***

by means oHndnr t *7 ° cn,lo(* aH induction motor, because stator dcfivcr* ^ jj^ n « n,fd
t h e p a r t c u l l " lr formcr ncti0,' )- The type of the rotor used, dec.de* *
ine particular type of induction motor. . fith'r

expo rts a* nowe r7 !iv° ' U m ach ‘ n° 8* In synchronous machines, the nrmnturt> f^ h cft
exports a.c. power (synchronous generator) or imports a.c. power (synchronous mo

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------------------------- --------------------- -- ---------------Hasic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 239

dHC- ! " words, the synchronous

depends on the relative motion between fieMfi eV1C|f ‘ The ^eneratlon of e.m.f., in general,
aC generator, alternator or synchronous ar™ature winding. In view of this, an
tatfonary armature, or r o t a t i n g ^ r0tating field P° leS and
synchronous machines are invariablv f, 7 Z u field Poles- Nevertheless,
stator and low-power field winding on the rotor th £ hlgh*P° Wef armature windin? on the
reverse arrangement may also be built. ’ ° Ug Sm8 synchronous machines with the

arc ^ e n bdow^ 8 ° f Pr° Viding the fleld ^ d i n g on rotor and armature winding on the stator

(а) More Economical. It is economical to have armature winding on the stator and field
winding on the rotor. In order to illustrate this, consider a 3-phase, star connected 20o1vIVa|

II kV, synchronous machine. Its line current is = 10,500 A. If the armature winding

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thre°f l UP ringS f aCh caPable handling 10,500 A would be required.
ringm ust be properly insulated from the shaft for a voltage of 1 1 /V 3 , i.e.
6.35 kV. The star-point of the 3 phase winding must also be brought out through fourth slip-

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nng, in order to connect it to a grounded metal plate through a resistance.
Assume now that the low-power required for the field winding is 1 MW at 500 volts. Then
the exciting or fleld current is

asy = 2000 A. Only two slip rings, each capable of handling

2000 A, are required. Also each slip ring should be insulated from the shaft for a voltage of 500

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volts only. This shows that it is cheaper to have field winding on the rotor rather than the
armature winding. Thus the construction of synchronous machine with armature winding on
the stator and field winding on the rotor is much more economical.
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(б) More Efficient. With armature winding on the stator and field winding on the rotor, only

losses and a more efficient synchronous machine. e

two slip rings are required in a synchronous machine. There are, therefore, reduced slip ring

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n
(c) Better Insulation. Stationary armature windings can be insulated satisfactorily for
higher voltages, allowing the construction of high-voltage, say 33 kV, synchronous machines.
(d) Efficient Cooling. Stationary armature winding can be cooled more efficiently, thus per­ g.n
mitting the construction of large synchronous machines, say 1000 MW or above.
(c) More Output. Low-power field winding on the rotor gives a lighter rotor and, therefore,
lowcentrifugal forces. In view of this, higher rotor speeds are permissible, thus increasing the
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synchronous machine output for given dimensions.
(f) Lesser Rotor Weight and Inertia. Field winding on the rotor requires less amount of copper and
Insulation. This reduces overall weight of rotor and its inertia. Reduced rotor weight allows the use of
^ ‘Priced bearings and also their longer life because of minimal wear and tear.
l. te) Rigid and Convenient Construction. Three-phase armature winding, capable of handling
niW voltage and high current can be more easily braced against electromagnetic forces when
f 18 Placed in stator slots In addition, flexible water tube connection for water cooling can be
^tailed more conveniently on stator than on the rotor. This all results in a rigid and con-
nient construction of a synchronous machine.
m ature ToothStrength. High-current synchronous machines require more ar.
7 tuta Conner for each idol Greater amount of copper can be accommodated by making the
SO that wider and stronger tooth are prepared for the armature Armature oji
> r would have wider and stronger tacth whereas the armature on rotor would lead to nor­
and weaker teeth Strong teeth also results in less noise due to vibrnt.on and are less
i

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240 Electrical Machinery

likely to be damaged during fabrication and use. Therefore, armatur •

provided on the stator and field winding on the rotor. e w*nding
Synchronous machines are of two types depending upon the geometri 1
rotor, viz., (a) salient-pole type and (b ) cylindrical-rotor, round-rotor or n 3 StrUctur6 of
Salient means standing out, sticking out or projecting and in Fig. 3.6 (a ) f n'Sa^fnt p0je ^
shown on the rotor. The field winding on the salient poles is a concentratedUr.Sa,.ient poleg^6
cylindrical rotor, the field winding is a distributed winding housed in the IncaS(f e.
(6 ). A further distinction between the two types is that the salient pole synch °T^ 0tS' 3?
have non-uniform air-gap — under the pole centres it is minimum and in betwe^ ^ 8machines
air-gap is maximum, Fig. 3.6 (a). In cylindrical rotor synchronous machine^k . 1Ies,the
uniform throughout, neglecting the slot-openings. ’ ae a>r*gapjs
The stators of both the types of synchronous machines are similar to the ' d •
stator. That is the synchronous-machine stator consists of a cast iron stator fr Uct*0n
laminated and uniformly slotted stator core, a polyphase distributed winding’ ? Cylindrical
stator slots, bearings, base etc. Fig. 3.6 (a). As in a polyphase induction motor th etT * “ the

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and end-covers serve merely as a mechanical support to the stator core and
carry the magnetic flux.
„ V ? fr1
ot designedto

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Synchronous generators are usually of 3-phase type because of the several advent
sociated with 3-phase generation, transmission and high-power utilization N e v e r th ^
smgle-phase alternators are also constructed for specific requirements. For the g e n e r a l

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three-phase voltage, at least three coils (one coil per phase), phase displaced by 120 electrical
degrees in apace, are required. In the elementary synchronous machine of Fig. 3.6 (a), the

En ^'^Concentrated
f i e l d w i n d in g

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frame

Stator
core n
D is trib u te d
a rm a tu re
g.n
w in d in g

et
(a)

oa, Ao— A o----------

a,tL
V / Vt>2 <
4a, > Dl
t az
a 1 V
jr» a, J
?2

(6 )
conn*
Fig. 3.6. (a) 4-pole, 3-phase salientpole construction. (6) Schematic diagram of star and delta
with coils m series, (c) Schematic diagram of star connection with coils in pnra

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j a s i c Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 241

ture has a total of 1 2 slots, i.e., 4 slots per phase ; though the stator of an actual machine
larger number of armature slots, depending on the 3-phase winding design. In Fig
< e a c h phase is shown to possess two coils. For example, phase a coils afe d e b a t e d £
36 Vandfl2. ^ tW° COlls ° f eajch phase are connected in series so that their voltages add.
I n the 3-phases may be connected in star or delta as shown in Fig. 3.6 (6 ). In this figure, the
^ terminals are designated by letters a lt &lt c,. The two coils of phase a may be connected
parallel with a x, a 2 as one terminal and a,\ a2' as the second terminal. Similarly, the coils of
lases b and c can be connected. The parallel connection of two coils will increase the current
parallel path to double the value. These parallel-connected coils with six terminals may be
Interconnected in star or delta. Star connection of parallel connected coils is shown in Fig. 3.6 (c).
The frequency of the generated e.m.f., from Eq. (3.5), is
PN
120 H Z ‘

In India and man) other countries, alternators feeding the power systems, generate a fre­

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quencyof 50 Hz.
. . Number of poles,
6,000

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Speed in r.p.m., N
Oil engines and hydraulic turbines operate best at relatively low speeds, therefore, the
...(3.1)

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alternators driven by these prime-movers, must have relatively large number of poles, Eq. (3.1).
Foraccommodating large number of poles, the rotor diameter must be comparatively increased

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andfrom mechanical considerations, salient pole construction has been found to suit best for
lowspeed prime-movers. Salient pole rotor structure is also employed foi comparatively small

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synchronous machines, as depicted in Fig. 3.6 (a). For larger machines, the laminated salient
poles are dove tailed to the spider keyed to the shaft, Fig. 3.7 (a). Damper bars are usually
»uit hi ‘V he P° le S^ °0, t0 damp out
e
rotor osciMations. The pole shoe of a salient pole, is

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' a y shaped so as to obtain a s^ne wave for the radial flux density along the air-gap
nr^Pj ery' ^ommercially, the salient pole synchronous generators are called hydro-alternators
" ’^generators.

Oamper S t o t o r fra m e
n
S ta to r
c o re g.n
,
sl° "

„.> R'vets
S ta to r
core
et
U n ifo rm
0r spmer a ir g a p
(«)
3’7- Syncihn* . (6) (c).
nous machine, (a) Rotor spider and one salient-pole lamination (b) 2-pole cylindrical-rotor
1 ^axn construction and (c) 4-pole cylindrical-rotor construction.
^ ^ r h a t o i ^ ^Ur^>^nes have best operating characteristics at relatively high speeds, there­
a t* con«stJ?V^n ^ these, must have a fewer number of poles, say 2 or 4, Eq. (3.1). If
^ ^ d th e g j. c^ on Is used for such high speeds, the rotor structure may not be able to
^ ^ ^ c t i o n ^ L 118 Cen^rihigal forces developed by the salient poles. Therefore, cylindrical
ls es* suited from mechanical considerations, for high speed primemovers.

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142 Electrical Machinery _

.. J rntnr made of one piece, solid steel forrri«
Fig. 3.7 (6 ) illustrates a 2-pole ^ mngeveral pieces of solid steel forgings placed 8fde °r,a^
core lengths, rotor is fabricated riphery. The mam poles are created , Sidt
The axial slots are cut only in a PaTt0 as shown in Fig. 3.7 (6 ). In this figure I yth*
field current, in the « ns,ott®d " ' . cylindrical-rotor structure with 2 concentric ciiis ^ al°f6
concentric coils are shown A P nux density wave in cylindrical rotor synrk*1*1*
is shown in Fig. 3.7 (c)- wavc than in salient pole machines. Commercially, cylinrf0^
m a c h i n e is more nearer to a . turb0-alternators or turbogenerators. dncal
rotor synchronous generators are calico iu

synchronous motors.
For synchronous machines of largo sizes, adequate cooling arrangements must be int0,
porated to dissipate the heat produced by the various losses. For relatively large sues, close)
circuit cooling, using air, water, hydrogen or helium, is often employed.

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A synchronous machine is usually connected to an energy system, fed by other alternators
In a synchronous generator, the frequency of the generated e.m.f. depends on the rotational

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speed and poles. Thus a synchronous machine can be connected to an energy system, onlywhen
the frequency or rotational speed of the synchronous machine is equal to the frequency ofthe
supply system. In other words, for successful operation, the rotational speed of the synchronous

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machine must synchronize with the frequency of the energy system and this is the reason for
naming it a synchronous machine.

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A single synchronous generator may operate at any frequency or speed, since it is not tobe
synchronized with any energy system. However, a single synchronous motor fed from an energy

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system must synchronize its rotational speed with the system frequency.
3.2.3. Direct Current M achines. In a d.c. machine, the field winding is on the stator

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and the armature winding is on the rotor. The constructional features of a typical two-pole
d.c. machine are depicted in Fig. 3.8.

n
Stator. The stator consists of (t) yoke (or frame) made of unlaminated ferromagnetic

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material, (ii) the salient field poles bolted to the inner periphery of the yoke and (iii) bearings,
brush-rigging carrying brush-holders, end-covers etc. The yoke rests on a supporting base and
iSkml du ° f u3St ir° n f° r SmaH machines- In larger machines, the yoke is made of fabricated steel
w lie as igher permeability than cast iron. In modern dc motors to be driven through power-
electromcs converters, the yoke is constructed from laminations in order to reduce the eddy-
et
current loss.
Yoke or frame
The field poles are made of a stack of
.•Concentrated
stee plates (1 to 1.5 mm thick), rivetted
field winding
together. The pole core, where the exciting
Air gap
mall' , " 1 ? ' 8 W0Und' i8 u8ual‘ y of
polv fa ss' scctlon than the pole shoe (or
Pole face), duoto the following reasons:
com rC? UCCd cro88's®ction of the pole
ing. “ 88 c°W)or for the field wind-

(f>) The large pole shoo : Lominaled

he flux per po|c cntcri ~ Br “ increases armo)urc '

10 th° rtdurti» " - nir-gnprcluctanco'0' “ UC

Fig. 3.8. Constructional features of ft 2-P°lc

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___________________________ Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 243

gs provide mechanical strength and support to the field winding.

(c)P°leSn0inic considerations, the yoke and poles of smaller machines may be made of
fr0*1eC°
jt-tf011, trated field winding, when excited with direct current, produces alternate north
i f,\ bec°nce1n cailed hetropolar construction. It may be seen from Fig. 3.8 that both the
asoi>th P°e aid yoke, carry half of the flux per pole.
^ature c°r r-ggjng B, as shown in Fig. 3.9 consists of a group of brush-holders and their
The b111® yoke or end-cover. Stationary carbon brushes are housed in brush holders
(tjchU1^ °ressed on to the commutator surface by means of tension controlled springs. Thus
„dareKep. nf the armature winding to the external circuit is through the commutator and
. rf»nnecti°n 01111
thec°n
brushes Cut f o r s o l d e r i n g
- L a m in a t e d A rm a tu re Q . .
w in d in g B ru sh r ig g in g a r m a t u r e w ire *
W m a t u r e core • a t t a c h e d to end
R ise r ^ c o v e r
W edge
-^ C o m m u ta to r ' h o p e d s eg m en ts

ww segm ent

M ic a s h e e t

w.E C o m m u ta to r f
Shaft

asy
A rm a tu re

Fig. 3.9. Illustrating the d.c. machine construction.

m En
Rotor. The armature core consists of a stack of circular steel laminations about 0.4 to 0.6
mthick The periphery of these laminations is slotted to receive the distributed armature

gin
winding Fig. 3.8. These laminations are insulated from one another so as to decrease the eddy-
currentiosses. In case of small machines, the laminations are assembled tightly on the shaft,
butonthe cast-iron spider in case of large machines.
e
Inaddition to the field and armature windings, a d.c. generator must have a commutator,
eri
toserveas a mechanical rectifier for the alternating e.m.f. generated in the armature winding
todirect e.m.f. at the brush terminals. For a d.c. motor, the commutator serves as a mechanic a
inverter to invert the direct applied voltage to alternating voltage in the armature winding. n g.n
Theserequirements of mechanical-rectifier and mechanical-inverter operations demand that
4earmature and commutator be placed on the rotor and field winding on the stator.
Thecommutator is a group of wedge-shaped copper segments, insulated from each other by
J^raicasheets. The copper segments are tapered and arranged side by side to form a cylinder.
et
h 3.9illuStrates a hard-drawn copper segment, with two V-shaped grooves, insulated proper-
W a n ite M, from cast-iron sleeve or hub H and from rin g *. The V-shaped construction
h t1te the “ "m utator segments from flying out due to centrifugal force. The threaded nng
totk e^s the various components together and is kept in position by nu . e u is ey
L V haft, taking care that the commutator is kept some distance away (for the armature
> 2 ^ ’ fr0m tha ^m ature core. One end of each commutator segment is Projected to form
^atu COmrautator is 80 placed that riser is facing the armature core, see Fig. 3.9. Two
re wires are soldered to each riser.
be seen that a d.c. machine is equivalent to an a.c. machine Plus a mechanical rec-
'*rlte ; “ mmutator. Since the armature winding is closed on itself, d£
V l ? o a ?elta-c°nnected three-phase alternator, if the armature winding is tapped at inter-
u Metrical degrees, from the other side of the commutator.

jL
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244 Electrical Machinery' (Art. 3.3

3.3. C on cep ts o f G eneral T erm s P ertain in g to R otatin g M ach in es

f
Some of the terms, like pole-pitch, electrical and mechanical degrees etc., are used quite i
frequently in the literature pertaining to rotating electrical machines. The purpose of this ar­
ticle is to make the reader familiar with these terms.
Fig. 3.10 (a) shows an elementary two-pole machine, with its 2 field coils excited by direct
i
y
current. The flux density at the point a in between the 2 poles will be zero. Under the centre of I
the pole indicated by point b, the flux density would be maximum say positive ; at c it is zero 1
and at point d it is again maximum but negative. Note that the flux entering the stator or i
leaving the rotor is considered positive. In other words, south pole on the stator or north pole $
on the rotor, produces positive flux density. According to this convention, the variation of flux
density B, along the air gap periphery is depicted in Fig. 3.10 (b ). If this variation of B, along
the air-gap circumference is assumed sinusoidal as shown in Fig. 3.10 (6 ) ; then it is said that
“in the elementary machine of Fig. 3.10 (a), the flux density is sinusoidally distributed in
space”.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
Fig. 3.10. (a) Elementary two pole machine, (6) Flux density variation along air-gap periphery and
(c) Pulsating flux.

n g.n
Suppose the field coils of Fig. 3.10 (a) are excited with alternating current i = Im sin otf.
/
Then, at art = 0, current is zero and no field flux is produced. At (at = -
Bm K
6 2
. density under the pole is — At this instant of (at = - the variation of flux density wave along
et
i = -77 and maximum flux

x
the air-gap periphery is also sine wave as shown in Fig. 3.10 (c). At (at = the flux density

under the poles is Bm. After (at = the flux density wave starts decreasing. At (at = n, the flux %
density is again zero. After (at = n is crossed, the direction of current in the field coils is reversed
Ow . «
and consequently field poles of reversed polarity are created. At = the flux density is

Note that the axis of .field flux remains along bd. Such a flux is called alternating or
pulsating-stationary flux.
Note that the pulsating flux at any instant is distributed sinusoidally along the air-gap
periphery.
E lectrical and m ech a n ical d egrees. The e.m.f. induced in a conductor is g i'cn ^
Faraday’s law of electro-magnetic induction, which can be expressed in many different orm

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Art. .V,M llcslc Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 245

In one fbnu, (he generated o.m.f. «■in given by 1)1v volts ; where /lux density B in T, length of the
conductor I in metros and velocity t> in m/see, arc orthogonal or normal to each other. If a
conductor of constant length /, moves with a constant velocity u, the e.m.f. e, induced in the
conductor, has the waveform of flux-density variation. That is, for square flux-density wave,
e.m.t. waveform is square ; for rectangular (lux-dcnsity wave, e.m.f. waveform is rectangular
and for sine flux-density wave, o.m.f. waveform is also a sine wave.
In Fig. Jh.ll) hi), assume that one conductor rotates at a uniform angular velocity. When the
conductor is at a, conductor o.m.f. is zero (because I) is zero), at b the conductor e.m.f. is maxi­
mum (because /» is maximum) and so on. In one revolution, one cycle of conductor e.m.f. is
generated, as shown in Fig, 3 ,1 1 (a). Assume now the conductor rotating in a 4 pole machine of
0

ww 2IT Space angle

0

w.E (a)

asy
En
jf O.InElecrad, Pole-
Pitch
Mech rad.

gin
e eri
Time angle
tot
n g.n
(6 )

et
Fig. 3.11. Flux-density variation with spneo nnglo 0 and corresponding e.m.f. variation with time angle col
(a) For two-polo machine nnd ( b) For 4-polo machine (c) An elementary 4-pole machine.

Fig. 3.11 (c). When the conductor is at a, e.m.f. is zero ; at 6 , e.m.f. is maximum ; at c e.m.f. is zero
Md so on. In one complete revolution, two cycles of e.m.f. are generated as shown in Fig. 3.11 (6).
Since one cycle of e.m.f. or current is equal to 360° electrical, in one revolution of 360 mechanical
degrees, 2 cycles are equivalent to 720° electrical for a 4-pole machine. In other words, 720 electrical
degrees in n 4-pole machine enn be related to 360 mechanical degrees as follows :

720 olectricnl degrees = ^ (360 mechanical degrees)

or
^clect q

For a P-polo machine, — cycles of o.m.f. will bo generated in one revolution. Thus for a

^'Pole machine,

Jclrct mrch

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IArt. 3J
246 Electrical Machinery ------- ----------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------

dt
p ...(3.3)

gular speed in electrical radians per second and fflm is the angular speed in
where oo is the an
mechanical radians per second. 4\
of e.m.f.
As has been shown above, for a 4-pole machine , in one revolution, y

are generated. Therefore, for a P-pole machine ; in one revolution, f cycles are generated. For

P
a P-pole machine, in one revolution per second, f cycles per second are generated. This thought
P
process leads to the conclusion that for a P-po,e machine, in n rev./sec„ * - n cycles/second are

ww
generated. But cycles per second is referred to as the frequency f a t the e.m.f. wave.
Pn cycles per oornnrl
f -_ — second nr HftrtZ
or Hertz -(3.4)

w.E
If the speed N is in r.p.m., then
2

asy '
m Hz
120
.-(3.5)

• ,i nfPiu

En
1 1 (a) or (b) rives the variation of flux density B as

gin
rotation involves time, it may be stated that space variable quantity B is transformed to line
variable quantity e, on account of rotor rotation.
e eri
Pole-pitch. The peripheral distance between two adjacent poles, is called pole-pitchyPole-
equal
theti

n
p i t c h , s a l w a y s expressed in electrical degrees, rather than in mechanical degrees It can t o -

fore be inferred that pole pitch is always equal to 180 electrical degrees or a electrical radians.
Pole pitches are indicated in Fig. 3.10 (a) and Fig. 3.11 (c). g.n
*
y,
Mh
Coil. Fig. 3.12 (a) illustrates a 2-pole machine, with one coil a, a housed in^two stator s o
Its developed view, with coil laid out flat is illustrated in Fig. 3.12 (6 ). Fig. 3.12 (c) gives
of the cod a, a'. Fig. 3.12 (c) reveals that coil a, a' has one turn. The e.m f. is generated m active
P
?
1 et
lengths AB and CD only. These active lengths are called the two coil-sides of a coil. Forth eld
of Fig. 3.12 (c), each coil-side has one conductor. Thus it is seen that one turn consu ^ ^pic
conductors and one coil is made up of two coil-sides. In Fig. 3.12 (c), the two coil-si es ^ ^ ^
CD are connected in series by end connection so that the e.m.f. at coil terminals i, *>nVl
summation of two coil-side e.m.fs. en$j
If the plan of the coil o, a' is as depicted in Fig. 3.12 (d), then this coil is seen to» jj.gide ^
It can alternatively be stated that Fig. 3.12 (d) represents single two-turn coil. ba ^ ^
has two conductors and total conductors in the coil are 4, Fig. 3.12 (d). If one c0‘ duct0rs
then it is termed as single AT-turn coil, with N conductors in each coil side ana a
in the coil. Fig. 3.12 if) illustrates one iV-turn or multi-turn coil. .g ^ Ii
A coil, with two coil-sides 180 electrical space degrees apart (or one polc-pitch‘ ^il-sides ^ c
called &full-pitch coil. A full-pitch coil can alternatively be defined as a cod whose ^ jts ,
span one pole-pitch. It may be seen from Fig. 3.12 (a) that coil a, a is a full-piior’coi|.span
two coil-sides are one pole-pitch apart. Thus a full-pitch coil is a coil, with coil-p

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Ar(- 3 3 !_______________________ Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 247

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig. 3.12. (a) Elementary 2-pole machine with one coil. (6) Its developed view
(c) One-turn coil and (d) Two-turn coil.

e
equal to 180 electrical space degrees. Coil-span (or coil-pitch) is defined as the distance between

eri
the two coil-sides of one coil. Coil-span is measured in terms of electrical degrees, coil-sides or
slots. In Fig. 3.12 (e), coil span = 180° electrical space degrees, this coil is, therefore, termed a

n
full-pitch coil. In Fig. 3.12 (/), coil-span is less than 180° ; this coil is, therefore, called a short-

g.n
pitch, or chorded coil. A chording angle e is defined as the angle by which coil-span departs from
180° electrical space degrees. In Fig. 3.12 if), chording angle is e ° , therefore chorded roil of this
figure has a coil-span = 180° - e.
F lux p e r p o le . For calculating the flux per pole, consider Fig. 3.13 (a) and (6 ) ; where the
field windings are taken on the rotor and stator respectively. Field winding in these figures is
et
depicted on the cylindrical structure and note that it does not make any difference if the field
winding were on the salient pole structure. In both the figures, the origin for space angle a, for
convenience, is taken 90° away from field winding axis. In view of this, when a = 0°, the flux
density B is zero, when a = 90°, B is maximum say Bp, when a = 180°, B is again zero. This
variation of flux density with space angle a is illustrated in Fig. 3.13 (c) and if this variation is
assumed sinusoidal, then the flux density B can be expressed as,
B = Bp sin a ...(3.6)

In order to calculate the flux per pole, consider an elemental angle da, a degreesaway from
zero of the flux density wave, Fig. 3.13. If I is the axial length of the armature core and r is its
radiu8, then the pole flux component passing through the elemental surface area Irda, near the
a‘r gap, is given by
dty = B. elemental surface area = B lrda = Bp Ir sin ad a ...(3.7)

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248 Electrical Machinery (Art. 3.3

ww
w.E
asy
(c)
Fig. 3.13. Pertaining to flux per pole. En Fig. 3.13. (d ) Sine distributed flux-density
wave over one pole pitch.

gin
Total flux per pole $ can be found by integrating Eq. (3.7) from a = 0 to a = n

<J>= Jo Bp lr sin a da
e eri
= 2Bp lr
Eq. (3.8) gives the value of flux per pole for a 2-pole machine. Its magnitude for a P-pole
machine will now be obtained. For a machine of given dimensions,
n g.n
. . . ( 3 .8 )

per pole area for a 2 -pole machine

2 nrl
= nrl
et
per pole area for a P-pole machine

2 K rl 2 / IX
= ~ p ~ = p (n r l)

This shows that pole area for a P-pole machine i

times the pole area for a 2 -pole
machine.
For a 2-pole machine, with pole area nrl, flux per pole
= 2 Bp lr.

If a is measured from the field winding axis

then B = Bp cos a
t/ 2
and
-I - k /2
B lr cos ada = 2Bn lr

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3.3 ] Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 249

Art-
2
For a P-pole machine, with pole area — (7trl),

(2 4
flux per pole is given by 2 Bp lr p iir l = p B p lr ...(3.9)
7trZ
. )
Another method of obtaining Eq. (3.9) is as under :
For a P-pole machine, the variation of flux density B with space angle a will again be
imilar to that shown in Fig. 3.13 (c) and will be given by Eq. (3.6). For obtaining the flux per
S le the elemental angle must be expressed in mechanical degrees. So consider an elemental
sp a ce angle d a min mechanical degrees (similar to d a in Fig. 3.13 (a)). The flux passing through
the elemental mechanical surface area lrdam is given by
<f<|>= B lrdam = Bp lr sin a d a m ...(3.10)

Here subscript p is used to denote peak value.

From Eq. (3.2), electrical degrees

ww =
p
(mechanical degrees)
a

w.E P
a =-a m
2
p

asy
da = 2 d a "
Substituting the value of d a m in Eq. (3.10), we get elemental flux cty as
2
En
d<\>= — Bp lr sin a d a

2 f* . gin
Total flux per pole, <J>= — Bp ■lr JQ sin a d a

m± . B p lr
e eri ...(3.11)

n
Alternatively, total flux per pole for a P-pole machine can be obtained as under :
g.n
Sine distributed flux density wave produced by one pole, spans one pole pitch. This sine
wave can be replaced by a rectangular wave of average magnitude B av again spanning one po e
pitch, Fig. 3.13 (d ), provided the flux per pole calculated from Bp or Bav is the same. In view of
et
this, the flux per pole <|>can be written as
<t>= (Average value of constant-amplitude flux density wave under one pole)
x (Area pertaining to one pole of the flux density wave)

- ( \Ba
~ R „) p

. Now recall that the average value of the positive or negative half cycle of a sine wave is
&ven by

\ (Peak value of sine wave).

, h view of this, the average value of the flux density wave over one pole-pitch. Fig- 3.13 «f)
. . of this, the
45 -

by

2 „
= - Bp

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250 Electrical Machinery [Art 3.4

(2 b V 2icr/A
Total flux per pole =
K

= ^ Bp rl

3.4. G enerated em fs
In rotating electrical machines, emfs can be generated in armature windings (a) by rotating
these windings through a magnetic field (6 ) by rotating the magnetic field with respect to these
windings or (c) by designing the magnetic circuit to have variable reluctance with rotor rota­
tion.* In this article, generation of e.m.f. due to relative motion between field flux and armature
winding is only considered. Elementary forms of rotating machines, depicted in Fig. 3.14, are
used in deriving the generated e.m.f. expressions. It does not make any difference whether the
field poles are created on the cylindrical rotor of Fig. 3.14 (a) or on the salient pole rotor of Fig.
3.14 (6 ). Similarly the field poles created by the cylindrical stator of Fig. 3.14 (c), may be
produced by a salient pole stator of Fig. 3.14 id). It is the relative motion between field flux and

ww
armature winding that matters. The distribution of the flux-density wave in the air gap is
assumed a sine wave. In Fig. 3.14 (a) and (b ), stator-coil (or armature-coil) axis is stationary
while field-winding (or field) axis rotates. In Fig. 3.14 (c) and (d ), field axis is stationary but

w.E
armature-coil axis rotates with the rotor.

asy
N -tu rn coil

En
gin
e eri
n
(b)
g.n
N-turn coil
N-turn coil
et
Field axis
Field axis J— 0=0

e=ur t

Armature Armature
coil axis coil axis
(c) (d)
Fig. 3.14. Pertaining to the generation o f e.m.f. in single N-turn full-pitched coil.
of
3.4.1. G enerated e.m .f. in a fu ll-pitch ed coil. In Fig. 3.14, the two coil-sides a, a
one coil, are diametrically opposite to each other, i.e. the coil spans 180 electrical space def reesd
For simplicity, two-pole machines, with one N-turn full pitched armature coil are consider
first in Fig. 3.14. Actually an electrical machine consists of a large number of properly conncc e

* Inductor alternators work on this principle, see the book, “Generalized Theory o f Electrical Machines *>) 111
same author.

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Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 251

e coils. The resultant armature voltage in any machine is obtained by adding the in-
^du al cQ-j e m.fs. in a manner decided by the armature winding design.
^,Vl p. 3 . 14 , the time origin is chosen arbitrarily, at the instant coil axis coincides with the
inding axis. That is at the time origin t = 0, time angle 0 = = 0 and the field winding
■ d coil axis are coincident. Here id,, is the angular velocity in radians per second, at which
3*'S^ r rotates. An examination of Fig. 3.14 reveals that at the instant 0 = 0, the flux passing
f° h (or linking) the coil is maximum (= 0 cos 0°). In other words, at 0 = 0, the entire flux 0
^IwTced by one pole, is passing through the coil. When time angle 0 = o),t = 90°, the field wind-
Pr UC hecomes in quadrature with the armature coil axis and, therefore, the flux passing
ing h the coil is zero ( = 0 cos 90°). For 0 = <D,i = 180°, the flux passing through the coil is
^ r°Umaximum ( = 0 cos 180°), but reversed in direction. In view of the above thought process,
a^am rpccion giving the variation of flux passing through the coil can be written as 0 cos 0 or
^ 6X^ t Therefore, the flux linkages y with the full-pitch A-turn armature coil, at any time t, are .
a cos “V ■ ,

ww y = N (flux passing through the coil at any time t)

= N 0 cos 0),i ...(3.12)

w.E
By Faraday’s law, the e.m.f. induced in N-turn armature coil is given by

e = - ^ = N 0 a), sin o),. t - N ^ cos w.t

at ^
...(3.13)

asy
In Eq. (313), N $ w, sin to, I is the speed-voltage term, because it contains speed to, in it.

The second term N % cos CO,

En t is the transformer-voltage term, because it invol

derivative of the flux <M f thefield flux *

gin
vohage’ tor’ speed e.m.f.) alone. Thus forelectrica^m achinesw.tht™ ^ux, e

e eri
generated e.m.f. is equal to the speed, rotational or motional e.m.t. alone
e = N wr 0 sin <V
g ^
.

In Eq. (3.14), remember that N is the

total flux per pole and (Or is the relative ve oci y
n g.n coil. Note
therefore applicable both to d.c. and
that Eq. (3.14) represents the general e.m.f. e(l uatl0
a.c. machines in which the field flux is
If the single N-turn coil belongs to a .c . machines,
constant).
maldmum value of the speed or et
generated e.m.f. E mai occurs when sin (Ort - 1.
E max = cor N 0 = 2 n fr N 0
The r.m.s. value of the generated e.m.f. in a full pitched coil is
p . .. . ...(3.15)
p_ = V2 it N 0 = 4.44 f. N0
1,2 , w frmuencv since its value depends upon the
Here f t may be called the rotational orspeed / q _’ coi| The magnitude off, is
re!ative velocity between the flux-density wave and the arma
&ven by

f - — Hz
2 Jr r n q ) between the armature coil
Wh» » » , is therelative speed in revolutions per second (i.e. P ■
an<1 nux-density wave. atcd e.m.f. in single turn full-pitch
M°te that Eq. (3.15) gives the r.m.s. value of g
ature coil of an a.c. machine.
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252 Electrical Machinery [Art. 3.4

Eq. (3.14) can be re-written as

71
e = M or <J) cos co^ -
...(3.16)
= E m ax COS (0 ^ - -

An examination of Eqs. (3.12) and (3.16) reveals that the speed or generated e.m.f. lags by
90° the flux that generates it. This statement is true when the flux is time-invariant and is sine
distributed in space. Nothing has been said about whether the armature coil moves or the
flux-density wave travels. It is the relative velocity between flux-density wave and the coil that
matters.
3.4.2. G enerated e.m .f. in a short-pitched coil. Let the AT-turn armature coil be short-
pitched by e electrical space degrees, so that the coil-pitch or coil-span is (180-e) electrical space
degrees. For the short-pitched or chorded coil, Fig. 3.14 (6 ) is redrawn as shown in Fig. 3.15
(a). The chording angle £ is shown as e /2 at two places, in order that coil axis and field winding

ww
axis coincide. A chording angle , as already defined, is that angle by which the coil pitch departs
from 180° electrical. Chording angle is also sometimes called short-pitching angle. It is obvious

w.E
that the flux passing through the fractional pitch or chorded coil of Fig. 3.15 (a) is less than
the flux passing through the full-pitched coil of Fig. 3.14 (6 ).

asy
En
gin
e eri
n g.n
Fig. 3.15. Pertaining to the generated e.m.f. in a short-pitched coil.

Note that the total flux per pole is again equal to 2Bp lr for a 2-pole machine and | Bp lr for
et
nrder°tn o fs? ace anSl e a is aBain taken as 90° away from the field axis. In
order to determine the flux passing through or linking the coil, Eq. (3.7) should be integrated
from a = - t o a = n - | , refer to Figs. 3.15 (a) and (b ).

Flux passing through the chorded coil of Fig. 3.15 (fl)

I*-e /2
= Je/2 Ep lr sin a d a = 2 B n lr cos
But 2J3 lr = <J>

.-. Flux passing through the chorded coil = A cos —

2

mum and is equal to $ cos - = <j> C08 ~ C08 0 C

When 0 = ov< = 90°, refer to Fig. 3.15 (c), the flux

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Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 253

through the coil is zero -<J>cos ^ cos 9 0 ° , In Fig. 3.15 (c), though one flux line is
passing V J
arou n d coil aa', the flux passing through the coil is zero. This fact may further be ascer-
Sh° * 5 , 0bServing that the coil magnetic axis and the field winding axis are 90° away
ta’ne rher. F °r 0 = o^. f = 1 8 0 °, the flux linking the coil would again be maxii
(>8ch ® \
J. cos 180° , but in the reversed direction. Therefore, a general expression for the flux
' ij)cos 2
passing through the chorded coil is
<j>cos ^ cos 0 or f cos ^ cos a\t.
Li L,

■The flux-linkages with short-pitched N-turn coil are

£
\y = N<j> cos — cos (D,.f ...(3.17)

By Faraday’s law, the e.m.f. induced in N-turn short-pitched armature coil is given by

ww e=- ^ = Nty 0)r cos | sin <0,2 ...(3.18)

w.E
In Eq. (3.18), flux <|>is considered time-invariant.
The maximum value of the speed voltage Emax occurs when sin <0,2 = 1.

•••
asy |
Emax=N<ba>r cos

Its r.m.s. value is ,

En
£ = ^ £ = V2Tl/;Ar*cos|

gin
It may be seen from Eqs. (3.15) and (3.19) that the effect of short-pitched coil is to reduce
...(3.19)

e eri
the generated e.m.f. An examination of these equations reveals that this reduction factor is

c°s - and is referred to as coil pitch factor, coil-span factor or pitch factor, symbol kp.

Pitch factor, kp = cos ^ n g.n ...(3.20)

eq (3.19) can be re-written as

E = 'I'M kp f r N t
et
...(3.21)

, E1 (3.21) gives r m s value of the generated e.m.f. in a short-pitched N-turn armature coil
»-c. machine.
, 3; « . A.C. M achines. In rotating electrical machines, the armature turns are usually dis-
b W in sl»te rather than concentrated in single slot. This is essential from the view-po.n
■‘'Bing the completely. The -effect
the armature periphery completely effect of
o f distributing ‘the
he turns in different
turnskin difforen t
t)je re*ults in a
^ ln a further
further reduction
reduction of
of generated
generated e.m.f. by the factor kd. This factor is called
e.m.f. by
stribution, breadth or spread factor (see Art. 3.5.1.).
hus “ >e generated e.m.f. for a short-pitched distributed winding, from Eq. (3.21) is
Of E = ^J2nkp kd fr Nty ^ 22)
% re/fe E = 'l2nklufr N<b
(~ kp kd) is called the winding factor.
n (3.22), note that N is the number of distributed turns in series.

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254 Electrical Machinery (Art.^34

The basic expression for the generated e.m.f. in a.c. machines is given by Eq. (3.22). This ^
expression is now modified for the more common types of a.c. machines, in which the air-gap ^
flux ^ is constant in amplitude.
(t) Synchronous machines #
(а) Arm ature winding. Two or three phase (i.e. poly-phase) armature winding is dis­
tributed in the slots along the armature periphery. The field winding is excited with d.c., there­
fore, the amplitude of the field flux wave does not vary with time. If Nph is the total number of
series turns per phase of the polyphase armature winding, then the e.m.f. generated in any one 4
phase, from Eq. (3.22), is given by ^
E —V2 71 kwf r Nph <}> ...(3.23)
If time origin is taken at the instant when fluxlinkages with phase a aremaximum, then
e.m.f. ea for phase a can be written as
ea = 'l2E sin ayt

ww
For a phase sequence a, b, c ; voltages for phases b, c can be expressed as
eb = V2 E sin {(at - 120°)
f

and

w.E ec = V2 E sin {(at - 240°)

These expressions for ea, eb, ec are phase voltagesand can bemeasured between line ter­
minal and neutral for a star-connected alternator. For a delta-connected alternator •e e, e
*

h ^ t Synf ? T ° U! machine can

asy
represent phase as well as line e.m.fs. ’ c
on]y at synchronous speed. Consequently the relative velocity
3K«
jeri

En
ftni
between the flux-density wave and the armature winding must be synchronous speed. The rota­
tional frequency/;, is equal to
Pns 2 1
gin
In a synchronous machine P ( ^ ^ o n o u s speed in r.p.s.) .
’ 2 B

generated e.m.f. in any one phase of a synchronous machine is given by e

2 is equal to the frequency f in Hz, for which the synchronous machine is designed. Thus the

eri
t J t
Eph = '& K fk wNph§

° “
n g.n
rnr ■ a; e r r r 1na-
(3 2 4 )

**
In

primary and secondary coils. In a r o ta tin /m a rh W f^

and the flux-density wave, causes flux lfn k W th
e.m.f. is induced in the
maximum value of the core flux,
T?

l°
induced in the stationary
1 ^elatlve motlon between armature coil
with time and as a result- an
4U . <•
et Bn

pole. In a transformer, the windings are concent' f machine>flux <t>1S the total flux per
armature winding is distributed and the reducHn f + m a Synchronous machine>the ’
sion. 6 reductl0n factor kw must appear in the e.m.f. expres-
(б) Field-winding. The field winding of a u
direct current. Under steady-state condiHnnc ^ , f ous machine is always energised with
y ’ e e^d 0r exciting current is given by

/, = 7 ...(3.25) ,.
where f t . direct voltage applied to the field winding '
and rf = field winding resistance. ,
(«) Induction Machines v*1
(a) Stator. The polyphase stator winHinrr c • 1 . ^
ture winding of a synchronous machine wru a,n lnduction machine is similar to the arina- b
machine. When balanced polyphase voltages are applied to the 1

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 255

.
^ w i n d i n g , a rotating magnetic field of constant amplitude is produced in the air-gap. The
stBt°d0f this rotating field is referred to as the synchronous speed and is given by Eq. (3.64).
^c'ncc there is relative velocity between the constant amplitude rotating field and the sta­
ler stator winding, an e.m.f. is induced in the stator winding. The magnitude of this e.m. .,
tjonary Dhase is given by Eq. (3.24), which is repeated here, for convenience as
i” an ; E ^ ^ l 2 n f k mNph,(f, - (3-26)
For induction motor, f is the frequency of the applied voltages and Nphs is the stator series
s per phase. The stator induced e.m.f. Es differs from the stator applied voltage by an
I tUrD nt pnual to the stator leakage impedance drop-this phenomenon being similar to what
P amoa primary winding of a transformer. Thus E s given by Eq. (3.26) represents e
* ^ t e r e.m.f. in the stator winding. Actually the stator winding of a polyphase induction motor
- °iay be treated like the primary winding of a transformer.
? 11,3 (b) Rotor. The rotating magnetic field in the air gap of aninduction motor, travels at a
- synchronous speed of co (= rad/sec, determined by the supply frequency f of the currents

J
i
t ti £r ww
the number of stator* p o W P . Assume that the rotor runs at a speed <o,(= nPn,)less than
speed Cl). If the rotor revolves in the direction of rotating field, then the relative

4 w.E
* teed between the rotating fluic wave and rotor is (to - <o,) rad/sec. It has been shown before that
velocity between the coil and flux-density wave, determines the magnitude of in-
I r

tf-turns is given by (refer to Eq. 3.14), asy

dtcedI “ m f.Tn t h f cod In view of this, the induced or generated e.m.f. in one rotor coil of
^
.

En
e = N (to - (o,.) (J) sin (oi - u>r)t
The e.m.f. induced in one phase of the rotor distributed winding is

gin
vl

A- e = Nphr (W - 0),.) k w $ sin (to - cor)t

* where Nphr is the rotor series turns per phase.
* e eri
Eq. (3.28), the relative speed between rotor and rotatingfluxw a v e , ( . - co,), is

referred to as the slip speed in rad/sec.

... Slip speed = (w - cor) rad/sec n g.n
, .fh thp rati0
But it is more convenient to work with the ratio

0 )-
,
et
since it is a dimensionless quantity.

Slip s = CO
S ynchronous_sgeedj^Rotorsgeed ...(3.29 a)
= Synchronous speed

ns ~ n r __ N s - N r ...(3.29 b)

~ ns Ns
o)r - o X l - 5 ) ; n r = ns ( l - s ) ...(3.30)
or Nr = Nt ( l - s )
in r n q and r p in. respectively. Further nr and
Here and N . are the synchronous s p e e d y n ■>"<* ^ P
K are the rotor speeds i n r.p.s. and r.p.m. respectively.

Eq. (3.28) can now be re-written as, .,.(3.31)

e ^ s w N ^ k , ^ Bin sa t

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256 Electrical Machinery_______________________________________________

Its r.m.s. value is E = 1/V2 [s ( 2 k f) Nphr kw <f>1

= <2KsfkwNphrt> (
An examination of Eq. (3.31) reveals that the frequency of the e.m.f. generated in th ^
winding is am rad/sec or s f Hz. It is thus seen that the slip s effects both the magnituH r°t0r
frequency of the rotor e.m.f. The frequency of the rotor e.m.f. sf, is called the slin ^
Hz. p frequency in

If the rotor is made to revolve in a direction opposite to the rotating flux wave th
relative velocity between the rotor winding and the rotating flux wave becomes (to + oi) * j
e.m.f. induced in one phase of the rotor is given by [from Eq. (3.14)]. r 811
e = (o) + <or) Nphr kw <>sin (co + cor)t
Now co+a)r = a) + C D ( l - s ) = o ) ( 2 - s ) - • a)
Eq. (3.33) becomes
e = a) (2 - s) N Ar <j>sin (2 - s) atf
t —\o.6i)
its r.m.s. value is

ww E = y l2 n f( 2 -s )N phrkw$ ^

w.E
Eq- (3-34) indicates that the frequency of the e.m.f. generated in the rotor cirri.;*;
f ( 2 - s) Hz. It can thus be concluded that a polyphase induction motor of the slip-rine or vimmA
rotor type can be used as * frequency converter (or changer) for changing the supply freaurnrv

asy
f to other frequencies s f and (2 - s) f at the slip-ring terminals.
3.4.4. G enerated e m.f. in d.c. m achines. Before deriving the e.m.f. equation for a d c

En
machine, it is worthwhile to know the difference in the construction and operation of an ac

S K £ £ iT ? iE s T t
gino f a n 3 C g“ 311113 d c - "

Fixed
brush*
Active length
e eri
Fixed brushes

1 N- * r I
( X n i
g.n -
i __ ib t u r n __
coil

slip rings
1 ( 1
' • $ r
■Copper
et
segment
(a)
(Ib)
Fig. 3.16. Elementary forms o f (a) a.c. generator and (ft) d.c. generator.

ends o f t h e ^ c ^ * two'p° 1® alternator, with single AT-tum full-pitched coil. The two
Two carbon brushes staF 0nne? two S^P r*nSs mounted on, but insulated from the shaft

r a b on th e s e r o t a t , n g « * * * ° r s lip * * * • for

rmg^^sphet ^ o 1^ o Cn n ^ ne, “ Pitched * shown in Fig. 3.16 (b). One copper

which these are mouhtpd Th ’ h j Fe insu^ated from each other and also from the shaft o
on which two stationary p h u cod are connected to these two copper segmen >

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Art- 3-41
— C° " » p l s °r Rolating B e d r i d Machines
Note that alternating e m n C --------------
fig. 3.16 (a), it is directly collected'C t h e l f i n r i ^ “ 2 ° f b°*h F,« 3 1 6 <a >*"<< (A). In
UK external c.rcmt. In Pig. 3 .16 (b) > “ »''P ngs and brushes in a.c. form and delivered to
and • then collected by the fixed carton b r u s h ^ f o r Z “ h ,'" d'C' by means ° f 1* “ s t a t o r
For understanding the process o f r onward transmission to load circuit,
view of the coil of Fig. 3 .16 (6), seen from^ Catl0n by means of commutator, consider end-
Fig. 3 1 7 ^>- The variation of field flux density^™ Slde‘ Thi® end view is illustrated in
3.17 (a). For the present, only fundamental s W " r g*P PeriPhery * depicted in Fig
ental sine component of the flux-density wave is con
D

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
n g.n
et

. (/)
Fig. 3.17. Rectification o f a.c. to d.c. by means o f commutator

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____________________ IArt. 3.4
25# Kln'tricul M a c h in e r y -------------------------------------------- ' ~ ~
-------------------------- , , a r inrkwise speed of tor rad/second. For the position
sidered. The rotor is assumed to revo vc • ^ ^ ,g gince the instantaneous
of the coil shown in Fig. 3.17 (b ) the e.mX in ^ ^ ^ q{ flux cutting is zero. After 90*
velocity of the coil is parallel to the magne jg maximum, since each coil side lies
travel of the coil, the e.m.f. induced l&iven y' q-■ ^ utting is maximum. The direction of
in the peak of the flux density wave and the rate .g indicated by dot and cross respec-
e.ni.f. in coil-sides a, a', as determined y rig connected via the commutator segments, to
lively. Fig. 3.17 (c). Further, co. -sides a andla are co ^ ]oad current comes
brushes B x and B respectivey. Z Z ™ ^ B ' and *>
from brush B, and enters a b r u s h ^ ^ ^ ^ (<f) ^ ^
positive and negative polarities r p the e m f induced in the coil is maximum, Fig.
induced is zero and after a Ibrthe,■travel o fM , theeap.b ^ contact with coil
8.17 M , but of reversed po anty. Note h a t n Fig. 3.17 M ^ ^
side a which is under south pole and in t i g . J . u iet, . ... .,
coil-side o' under the south pole. In order words, brush B, is always in contact with that coil-
side which is under the south pole and brush B2is always ,n conta

ww
comes under the north pole. Consequently the polarities of the brushes B , and B 2 remain posi­
tive and negative respectively. The e.m.f. induced in the coil is alternating but the voltage
available across the brushes B, and B i2s unidirectional, as depicted in Fig. 3

w.E
The e.m.f. ec induced in one coil at any time t, as given by Eq. (3.14), is
ec = N co, 4>sin a\i

asy
The voltage appearing at the brushes is unidirectional as depicted in lower part of Fig. 3.17

En
(/) and its average or d.c. value is
1 f"
E = - I No),. <J>sin a\t d(u>,t)
71 J0

= - N o ) r <b gin -< 3-36)

71

Here ior is armature speed in electrical radians per second. e eri

Pn
(i)r = 2 n f. = 2n — = kP h .
2 n g.n
Eq. (3.36) can be re-written as
2
Ec = - N (nPn ) et
= 2 N Pn <(> - ( 3-37)
If z is the total number of conductors in one coil of N-turns, then

Note that one turn is made up of two conductors.

Substituting the value of N, Eq. (3.37) becomes ^
Ec = P n * z ...(3-381

E.m.f. per turn, from Eq. (3.37)

= ^ (2 N P n® \
.(3.39)
= 2Pn§

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Art. 3.4]
------------------------- virvuidl
verage e.m.f. per conductor, from Eq. (3,38) or from Eq. (3.37)

E* = 2 (Pn<te)
P • , = Pn<t>
For a single coil of Af-turns o r n f , j ...(3.40)
the e.m.f. available across the tWo b l u s h e " ' A c t a ^ ' 3 '38’ ^ the aver^ e ° r d c value of
coils uniformly distributed at the a r m a t u r e W
' i ndi ng consists °fsevera
appearing across the armature ternrinah, ! ^ r ^ thls has the effect of increasing the voltaee
(3.38) can be used to determine the terminal v o lt a v !T "g the " Pple “ the output voltage. Eq.
now replaced by the number of series c T n ^ L l t g^ ° T a practlcal d.c. machine, provided z is
of armature conductors arranged in a parallel p a th ^ th " brUSheS I tZ is the total number
are « . Thus the voltage E*aooea k Ser“ S COndUCt0rS betWeen brush
n oltage E appearing between the brushes, from Eq. (3.40), is

g emf per conductor) (number of conductors in each parallel path)

ww jZ n P

01 w.E E , = Kr\n
where constant g _ ?F
c a
asy
Now speed in mech. rad/sec. *om = 2nn.

En
Substitution of the value of n in Eq. (3.41) gives

F _ * Z P (om ZP
gin
a ---------- - 7r—= —----<t) Q)„

where constant K =
a 2n 2 na m

e eri
° 2710

Constants Ke and Ka depend upon the armature winding design. n g.n

I, ' tab° ald be --emembered that for d.c. machines, the armature winding is always a double

^
y winding and is of two types, namely lap-connected type and wave-connected type.
n lap winding, the number of parallel paths a is equal to the number of field poles, i.e.
et
fielr/U T aVG windinS, th e number of parallel paths o is always 2 irrespective of the number of
Poles, i.e. a - 2 whatever the number of field poles may be.

for h!!flhj Uld be n0ted that Eq‘ (3 1 4 ) forms the startinS P°int for obtaining the e.m.f. expression
ocn d.c. and a.c. machines.
deQ voltage available across the brushes is unidirectional. For the same value of peak flux
du. S’ y 5 P> It is easy to see that average value of brush voltage would be more for a flat-topped
becg sity wave of Fi&- 3 1 7 than for a sinusoidal flux density wave of Fig. 3.13 (c). It is
ase of this reason that dc machines are designed with flat-topped B-wave.
Xamp^e 3 *2 * A. dc gen era tor has 24 arm ature conductors. Average e.m.f. induced in one
>fthisCtor is 2 V an d each conductor is designed to handle a current o f 5 A. Calculate the rating
generator i f num ber o f pa rallel paths in this machine are (a) 2 (b) 4 and (c) 6.

^ Example 3.2.

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2 60 tb ie c in c a i M
Electrical i vachinery
ia c n m e r y _____________________ (An. 3.4
;

Solution. The arrangement of 24 conductors for parallel paths 2 4 and 6 is illustrated i

Fig. 3.18 (o), (6 ) and (c) respectively. Here each conductor is treated l,ke a 2 -V cell with curren
carrying capacity of 5 A.

U '5 *4- 20A la a 5 «6 -3QA

l a «5*2*10A — ?+ -? +
' + I
I
L i n ,± H i l l
12 12
r y t i T' (T T1 I1 T1 T!
' '< a*1 ™
A** A **
<i Ea- 12A2 «ri S*
< i <1 <* Ea*6«2 i<
▼ vo i ! i ‘ to
! ' ;8 V
<*
vn? “ »? -24V */>)“’ i tn,i m.■
<♦ 12V
,1 i i 1 1 1
2 -I- - 1-2 i 2i | |
1 1 1 1 l l l l l l
I 1 ’ T T TyT T .T
V

ww (6 )
Fig. 3.18. Pertaining to Exsn.pl. 3.2. (a. Twcparali.l paths (6. Fonr-par.Ue, paths <e, Six-parai.e. paths.
(c)

w.E . 10f - — 1 series-connected conductors in each

(а) For two-parallel paths, there are 12 - 0 - 2 J senes c°

asy poi
p ath . o u C t
En
x (Average e.m.f. per conductor)
— - — Ik

Output current,
= 12 x 2 = 24 V
gin
/ . = (Current per path) x (Number of parallel paths)
KC

,.
.% Power rating
= 5 x 2 = 10 A
7 = 24 x 10 = 240 W
-_ Ejya la * e *
eri !he

(б ) For four-parallel paths, there are 6 [ = f

V
n
Conductors in each parallel path.
/
g.n
Output voltage
Output current
Power rating
= 6 x 2 = 12 V
= 5 x 4 - 20 A
= 1 2 x 2 0 = 240W
et
(c) For 6 -parallel paths, Ea = 4 x 2 = 8 , Ia - 5 x 6 - 30 A,
power rating = Ea Ia = 8 x 30 = 240 W . on

This example demonstrates that (i )the power rating of a d ,ch" ‘ “ hin

its n u m b e r of parallel paths and (» ) the voltage between output brushes (a
e m.f. per conductor) x (conductors per parallel path). ^ per
* p I U 4-pole machine has 60 slots and 8 conductors p er slot. I m>
F or arelativespeed o f 1500 rbetween field x
C alculateth^generated artnature voltage if ,h e m achine ,s
(a) a d.c. machine with lap-connected windingand
(b) a three-phase star-connected m achine with winding factor equ
each phase arc in series. _ p _ 4

S o lu tio n , (a) For lap-connected winding, a - P - •

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Art. 3.4]
Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines

Total number of conductors Z = 60 x 8 = 480

Speed in r.p.s. _ 1500
= 25.
60
From Eq. (3.41), the generated e.m.f.

E - §ZnP (20 x IQ"3) (480) (25) (41

a 4 “ 240 volts.

(6) Total number of turns 480

= 240.

Number of series turns per phase,

p n n r

Generated e.m.f. frequency, f = — = 4 x =£- = 50 H z..

z z

ww
From Eq. (3.24), the generated e.m.f. per phase is
Eph = V2 n f N ph kw <(>

w.E = V27t (50) (80) (0.96) (20 x 10“ 3) = 341 volts.

Generated e.m.f. between line terminals

asy = V3 Eph = V3 (341) = 591 volts.

Example 3.4. A 4-pole, 3-phase, slip-ring induction motor is coupled mechanically with a 6

En
pole synchronous motor. The induction motor stator and synchronous motor are energised from
the same 50 Hz voltage source.

gin
(a) What will be the frequency o f the e.m.fs. at the rotor slip rings if the synchronous motor
is driven (i) in a direction opposite to the rotating field produced by the induction motor stator
(ii) in the direction o f the induction motor rotating field.
e eri
(b) I f the frequency o f the 3-phase rotor terminal voltage is required to be 150 Hz, calculate
the number o f poles that the induction motor must have.
n g.n
(c) I f the induction motor is assumed to have 8 poles, calculate the number o f synchronous
motor poles, for obtaining 3-phase, 150 Hz voltages at the induction motor slip rings.

Solution, (a) Synchronous motor runs always at synchronous speed o f—^

et
r.p.m.

•*. Synchronous-motor speed = - ^ = 10^0 r-P-m-

Speed of the rotating field, produced by induction motor stator

_ 120/; _ (120) (50) _ 150Q m
" p ' 4
G) When the induction motor rotor is driven in a direction opposite to the rotating field, the
roUi- , . inaucuu 3 _ rotor conductors and its rotating field is
relative velocity between induction motor rotor wimubiu 0
(1500 + 1000) = 2500 r.p.m.
••• Frequency of the e.m.f. at rotor slip ring terminals
(Rotor poles) (Relative velocity in r.p.m.)

_ (4) (25001 _ 83i Hz

" 120 3
. Note that the rotor poles, equal to the stator poles, are 4.

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I .

262 Finrtrical Machiner) T T T ^ T t h T ^ c t i o n of the rotating field, then

1 (if) When the induction motor rotor »
r e liv e velocity is M iooo) = go0r p m.

, Frequency of the e.m.f. ^

' 12r i to Hs at induction-motor rotor terminals, the rotating

» , For obtaining a ^ " S o n s . 8
field and rotor must run 1 PP ^ rotating ficld
it • The relative speed bctW=e^ otor Speed + Rotating Field Speed]

120 x 50 n
1000 + — ^ •
r im

where P = number of poles on the induction mot

Frequency of the e.m.f. at rotor terminals is gtven by

ww im
"
1000 +
6000n
im

or
w.E 120
Pirn
= 150

= 12 P°leS-
(120) (50) t (120) (50]

asy
(c) Relative speed between rotor and rotating field must be equal to " 8

Here Psnl is the number of poles on the synchronous motor.

Frequency of the rotor e.m.f. is En
8 120 x
'iO
+ 750 gin
e
* sm
= 150
120
eri
n
P sm = 4 P°leS-
Example 3.5. A 3-phase, 4 pole, 50 Hz slip-ring induction m otor has 420 stator turns and
240 rotor turns. The magnitude o f the rotating flux p er pole is 30 m Wb. The winding factors for g.n
both stator and rotor windings are 0.96. Calculate frequency and the magnitude of per phase
e.m.f s. in the stator and rotor windings when the rotor is
(a) stationary
et
(b) revolving in the direction o f rotating flux wave at a speed o f 1440 r.p.m. and
(c) revolving opposite to the direction o f rotating flu x wave at a speed o f 1440 r.p.m.
Solution, (a) Per phase e.m.f. induced in the stator winding is given by Eq. (3.26).
.'. Stator per phase e.m.f.,

B, = 'l2 K fk wNph,^,

= V2tt (50) (0.96) j (30 x 10"3)

= 310 volts at 50 Hz
From Eq. (3.32). the rotor per phase e.m.f. is
Er = V2n s f kw Nphr if

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Art. 3 ^
Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 263

At standstill, slip, s = — ~ °
= 1
n.

E, - ^2 71(50 x 1) (0.96) (M g ' (30 x 10-3}

_ q in 80 ' '
140 = 177 volts at 50 ( = sf) Hz.
(6) Stator per phase e.m.f. is uneflected with the rotation of the rotor.
E* = 310 volts at 50 Hz.
The speed at which rotating flux wave travels is given by
AT 120 x 50
s p r.p .m .- - = 1500 r.p.m.

For rotor speed of 1440 r.p.m. in the direction of rotating flux wave, slip
1500 -1 4 4 0

ww 1500 “ ° -04-
From Eq. (3.32), the rotor per phase e.m.f. is

w.E Er = V27i (0.04) (50) (0.96) (80) (30 x 10" 3) = 0.04 x 177
= 7.08 volts at a frequency of 0.04 x 50 (= sf) i.e. 2 Hz.

sii asy
(c) When the rotor revolves at 1440 r.p.m. opposite to the direction of rotating flux wave
1500+ 1440

From Eq. (3.32),

1500
En
Er = V2ti s f k w Nphr <\>

gin
= V2rc (1.96) (50) (0.96) (80) (30 x 1(T3) = 1.96 x 177

3.5. E.m.f. Polygon e

= 346.92 volts at a frequency of 1.96 x 50, i.e. 98 Hz.

eri
extended to derive the expressions for distribution and pitch factors.
n
This article develops the physical concepts of e.m.f. polygon and these concepts are then

g.n
Consider Fig. 3.19 (a) in which 12 conductors housed in 12 slots are shown. The field cur­
rent produces two poles on the rotor and the field flux is assumed to be sine-distributed in
space. At the instant shown in Fig. 3.19 (a), the conductor 1 is being cut by the maximum flux,
Say ♦«» therefore, the e.m.f. induced in it is also maximum, say Em. This e.m.f. can be repre­
et
sented by a phasor whose projection on the vertical axis must be equal to the r.m.s. value of the
em.f. generated in conductor 1. This is shown in Fig. 3.19 (a) by a phasor E x = E„/\l2 along the
vertical axis. Conductor 2 is being cut by a flux ( = <}>m cos y) less than <J)m, accordingly the mag-
^ude of generated e.m.f. is less than E m. This e.m.f. in conductor 2 is indicated by phasor
2*7 . ' whose vertical component E 2 cos y is equal to the r.m.s. generated e.m.f. in conductor
^ ote that E 2 is displaced from E } by an angle y , equal to the angle between adjacent slots.
8 an^ e Y (gamma) is usually called the angular slot pitch and is given by

v = —— -------^ E l e c t , radians
Total number of slots

- Total n m n bcrofsiots ElecL dcgrCCS'

_ —— — - — — Elect, degrees.
Slots per pole

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[Art 3.5
Electrical Machinery

(b)

ww F ig . 3 . 1 9 . '
The various phasor e.m.fs JEi, * 2, *3 .......*12
I y r ! , ? w l S d ^ o f S e c t o r e.m.fs o r star o f slot e.m.fs.
*

w.E
r Via q 19 (a) Y is equal to 30°. The e.m.f. generated in conductor 3 can similarly be re­
presen tedinFig. 3.19 (a) by phasor E 3 ( = E .) whose vertical component E cos 2 y is equaHo

asy
the r m s generated e.m.f. in conductor 3. Note that E , is drsplaced from E , by 2y and from E,
by y At the instant shown in Fig. 3.19 (a), it may be seen that conductor 4 rs not cuttmg any

En
magnetic flux ; therefore, e.m.f. phasor E 4 ( = E ,) m ust have a zero vertical project,on
” E cos 3v - E cos 90°). The same thought process can further be used for conductor e.m.fs.
£~ e I
gin
E,o . Note that all phasors E „ E 2,...... E 12 are of equal lengths. Their projections on
the vertical axis, determine the magnitude of r.m.s. generated e.m.fs. in the vanous conductors.

e eri
In Fig. 3 .1 9 ( 6 ) ,£ ,( = AB) is drawn parallel to E , of Fig. 3.19 (o). At the point
drawn parallel to E 2 of Fig. 3 .1 9 (a) and so on. It will be found that conductor e.m.fs.
= E2is

E £,
conductor e.m.fs. E „ E 2 n
E 12 constitute a closed e.m.f. polygon. The perpendicular bisectors of each of the

g.n
£ 12 (i.e. A B , BC, CD etc.) will pass through a point O, indicatmg
that if a circle with O as center and OA as radius is drawn, it m ust pass through the points
A, B, C, D etc. The angle subtended by each phasor e.m.f. at the center O is seen to be equal to
the slot-angular pitch y.
Starting from the front end of conductor 1, join the back ends of conductors 1 and 2 in the
et
Fig. 3.19 (a). Further join conductors 2 and 3 by a connection at the front and 3 and 4 at the
back and so on. The resultant e.m.f. appearing between starting end of conductor 1 ana.the
finishing end of conductor 12 (i.e. after having gone through all the conductors once), will e
found to be zero. This is evident from Fig. 3.19 (6) by the phasor addition of e.m.f. phasors
^ 1 . &2> »^12-
3.5.1. Distribution, breadth or belt Factor. The e.m.f. generated in a full-pitched ar
mature coil of iV-turns is given by Eq. (3.14). In rotating electrical machines, however, J
armature winding is not concentrated in a single slot, but distributed uniformly along e
gap periphery. The advantages of distributing the winding in slots are :
(i) reduction of the harmonics in the generated e.m.f. wave, thus making it approach a sin
wave, see Prob. 3.30 (a).
(ii) full utilisation of the armature iron and copper and

(iii) adding rigidity and mechanical strength to the winding.

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Art. 3.5]____________________________
Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 265

assumed to have^8 slot^In Hms^sfots1 f Stribution factor- the stator of Fi&- 3 1 9 (a) is
s, a single layer, 2-pole, 3-phase winding is placed, so that
the number of slots per pole oer dHaqp n o 1 . f 2 x 1 80 >
f p e per pnase qis 3 and the angular slot pitch y is 20° = . * . Its
developed view is illustrated in Fie 3 2 n r M a„ d M l „ , I J
under one pole, are connected in series In nrd ♦ 7 belonging to one phase and
distributing the winding, full-pitched coils are used attentlon entire‘y the effects of

Coil span = dumber of slots _ 18

.. . Number of poles 2

c■ oa ,,!,d :?• a: d,x

.. : : t f xL 7 r e 1mt‘ 'n£i^
l* th! i 1coui sidte r b„ T r . 10 ( = 1 + ^ ^
10 (similar to E ^ and E 7 of Fig, 3.19 (a)] induced
in them, since these are under tha nnlo „ j ... .
instant shown. The direction nfmtnr f *• ■ are cuttm£ ^ e maximum pole flux at the
f j • • • , otor rotation is assumed clockwise The coil-sides 1 and 10 am
connected in series in such a manner that thmr o ™ jj f , es 1 and 10 are
Fig. 3.20 (d ) by a 6 ( = E, + E 1 alnna th C ? e.m.fs. are added up ; this being indicated in

ww
generated in it"then coil-side’ 1
though of opposite polarity. The
0 ^ 5 4 vd* « ’ T r '^ . T ' f ** 1 ^ ^

w.E „ r Fundamental comp,

o f 0 wave

asy Third harmonic

comp, of B -w ave

En 271

ITT
<t( fu n d a m e n ta l)

*■( 3rd h a rm o n ic )
II
r

gin
j i m
1 2 3
: ; :
10 11 12
e
...
eri
n g.n
et
! (

Fig. 3.20. Illustrating the derivation of distribution factor.

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[Art. 3.5
7nh
266 Liecincai
Electrical w
Machinery
w v h _ __^ ^ _
• 1 r to £ and Es of Fig. 3.19 (a). The total
generated in coil-sides 2 and 11 are £ 2 and E „ , sum a .ndicated in Fjg 3 20 (<j)
e.m.f. in coil 2-11 is given by the sum of E2 an »’ s|ot-angular pitch y. The vertical
by b e , phase displaced from the niaximum e m.f p ted jn coi) 2- l l . Similarly the total
projection of b e gives the r.m.s value of « * < * ■ 8 2Q (rf) by cdi phase displaced from
e m f (£3
tj.iii.i. 2) ogenerated
\*-/3 +1 £ ,Yc,t in coil 3-12, is indicated _in r g
-------------------
the maximum e.m.f. position by an angle 2y. of the three (or in general q) coils
The resultant e.m.f. appearing between the te n bc and cd and this resultant is
1-10 2-11 and 3-12 is the phasor sum ot tne e.n__ v denotes the slots per pole
seen to be equal to ad in the right hand side of Fig. 3.2U t ;
per phase. r Une.nr.anh he and cd must meet at a point o and
As indicated earlier, the right bisect.Dr: ofpha ^ draw perpedicuiars oe and 0f
the points, a, b, c, d would lie on a circle with ^ angle aob is equal to
to ab
to ana ad
ab and aa respectively. From Fig. ° d .w w , 1
the slot angular pitch 7, angle a o d = 97 and angle W = 2 -

ww
In the right-angled triangle aoe.
y_ _ ae_
sin ± =

or
w.E oa

ae = oa sin

... E .m .f . per coil

asy
= 06 = 6c = cd = 2(ae) = 2 oa sin

The arithmetic sum of the coil e.m.fs.

En
= q (e.m.f. per coil) = q c< oa sin

In the right-angled triangle aof, gin V

sin 9„ l -=° L
oa e eri
or
a f = oa sin 91
The resultant e.m.f. ad, equal to the phasor sum of emfs ab, bc and cd, is given by n g.n
ad = 2 (a/) = 2 oa sin
91

The distribution, breadth or belt, factor is defined as the ratio of the phasor sum
et tl
j.m.fs. to the arithmetic sum of the coil e.m.fs. Its symbol is kd. ^
P
The distribution factor can alternatively be defined as the ratio of: a
:oils distributed in slots to the resultant e.m.f. with the coils concentrated in • h
Phasor sum of coil e.m.fs. ad nr ad _ general)
Arithmetic sum of coil e.m.fs. 3 ab q •ab
„ . qy
2oa sm ^

2g oa sin

sin 91 ...(3.46)

q sm

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A rt. 3.51___________

T h o u g h E q ~ ( 3 4 6 ) is d e r i ggf!£_ Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 267

to double layer windings aTso.tw ch SimP' idty' “ applias d u ally well

Distribution factor fo r B(| . ‘ a r g e r machi" « -
gap periphery of rotating ° f lux-density wave along the air-
such non-sinusoidal flux density d ia tX m "n ‘ n h. " Fourier sariaa a"a ly S1s of
y isirioution can be expressed as a harmonic series

The space-field har “ + ®3 3“ + ' + S " ai" " “

the generated e.m.f. waviTout of thevarious'hf ^™ ‘ 0.uhe corresPondinB time harmonics in
so here the effect of this harmonic is InW sb„ . ° T ’ thlr<* harmomc is the most dominant,
rnomc flux density waves are shown A third hiTrm E 3 20 (a)' fundamental and third har-
be imagined as produced by 3 poles a s I I ! compon<;nt of the flux density wave, may
this is illustrated in Fig. 3.20 (a) In view of th' f° r the fundamental component-
scale, would become 3y for the third harmoiic slot' anP |lar pitch yon the fundamental
component. Thus the distributun
tioniactor lor the nth harmonic, from Eq.nZ^(3.46)
factorforT ^{° ' the
is nth h3™ 0™

ww s in

w.E k d„ = ~ 2
q sin ^ - (3-47 o)

Examples will show that k w is less than b

monic e.m.f. in comparison with funds.
ing the windings in slots.
ti
asy
tkio u tL «•
m. as the effect of reducing the nth har­
undamental e.m.f. This is certainly an advantage of distribut-

En
gin
tendY!o“ e U rg e t S s t n C t m l farf“ ^ “ oach^ “ * e' eCtriCal <<>r S’ ° tS P" P° ' e per phase

kd
h
sin 2„1
= ----------
O
2

e eri Q t
and k,
sin ^
2

--------± _
n g.n
dn qnj
2 et ..(3.47 b)

thJ ? h Fig h 20 <6) ° r <C>' i( adj ° inil’ e coil-sides 1, 2, 3 (or 1 0 ,1 1 ,12) belong to the same phase
hen this phase group in adjacent slots is called a phase belt or phase band. If slots per pole oer
phase is a whole number, then all the phase belts are alike. The peripheral angular d is ta n t of
a phase belt is called Its ph ase spread o( = qy) in electrical space degrees. Now Eq. (3.46) can be
re-written to include phase spread o as

a
sin­

-------------- a
q sin£

. no
sin —
From Eq. (3.47 a), kdn = (3 48
? s m - -

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(Art. 33
Flectrical Machinet7_

sm -

p or y < 15° e le c tr ic a l, kd = o
2
nO
s in - ...(3.48 b)

and from Eq. (3.47 b), kdn ^

: ; S T r ^ s ,~ « ^ x r : » . : i v
per pole per phase tends to be larg; , ^ ^ The phagor
tends to be small for a ^ c n p drcle whose
diagram of coil emfs now b « o » « the ar ^ The dis.

ww
chord ab is the resultant emt as s
tribution factor is there ore ^

w.E nhasor sum ofkoiUmis__ --------- —

^ = arithmetic sum ot c o d e i a arc
2 oa sin a /2 _
Fig. 3 21. Coil emfs for uniformly
distributed winding.

i- asy . « s - r — ■«— « —
I„ fractional-slot windings (dtscusscd in Chapter
5 o *m En .

, . gin
Here Sis^the number of slots and m, the number of phases. If b is the
is not a whole number. 1kre
highest common factor between S /m and P, then q
S /m
be writtcn as

= -*
e eri
The distribution factor for fractional-slot windings is obtained by replacing n g.n by S„ » H

(3.48 a).

^dn
sin
no

no
et
...(3.48 c)

Sk ol“
sin 9 o
* , . • „ O nhase machine, the
One pole pitch is equivalent to 180 electrical space d egreesan din a p ln other words,
winding is so distributed as to give a phase spreadof60 e ectnca space degr . g
each phase group or each phase belt occupies 60°( = electrical, under^each p
machine and 90° ( = a) electrical under each pole for a 2-phase machin . o statoT
Example 3.6. Calculate the fundamental, third and fifth harmonic e f
having
(a) 54 slots, 3-phase, 6 poles
(b) 48 slots, 3-phase, 6 poles with narrow spread winding.

Solution, (a) Slots per pole per phase, q = =3

, P x 180 6 x 1 8 0
Slot angular pitch, Y= g = ^ - 20

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Art. 3.5]
Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 269

sinn x 3x 20
From Eq. (3.47 a),
n x 20'
3 sin

. _ sin 30° _
dl 3 sin 10° ~ 0 9598
= sin 90°
d3 3 sin 30° " 0,6667
sin 150°
d5 = 3 ^ 5 ^ = 0 2 1 7 6
(6) Here 48 = 16 _ 8 _ S k
3x6 6 ~ 3 ~K
n x 60
sin
From Eq. (3.48 c),
n x 60

ww , _
2x8
sin 30°
8 sin

w.E dl 8 sin 3.75° “ 0 9556

kd3 ~
sin 90°
= 0.6407

asy
8 sin 11.25°
sin 150°
kd 5 = = 0.1944
8 sin 18.75°
This example demonstrates that kd5 < kd3 < k(di-
^.
En
3.5.2.
gin
Pitch (or coil-span) Factor. An expression for the pitch factor has already been
derived in Eq. (3.20). An alternative way of obtaining Eq. (3.20) is presented here, for it leads
to better physical concepts of pitch-factor.

e eri
n g.n
et

Ic '-C
fr jE a -E

Go oh
Ea=E
(b) (c)
Fig. 3.22. E.m.f. induced in one full-pitched coil.

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(Art. 3.5
270 Electrical Machinery

Fig. 3.22 (a, illustrates one full-piteh coil and Fig. 3 .^ i l l u s t r a t e s one fractions,.pitch.
short-pitch or chorded coil with c h o r d m g ang e eq maximum flux, these have, therefore,

m axta^m e.imTs^’^ V ^ 'l n d u c e d in thenTat the instant shown. The r.m.s. values of the e.m.fs.

, p Em . E ,= = E respectively. These e.m.fs. Ea and E0\

in coil-sides a and a are Ea = = * ana V2 ,
Jraut/n in Fie. 3 22 (c) on a larger scale for clarity,
though already shown in Fig^ 3.22 (a),.are - whgre E (^= E E^ ig the f m g
The resultant voltage ER between the coil ends u , n is ,

Va'T n F L hV 2T ( t ) " l - s i r e t “ cuttmeg the maximum flux * it has. therefore, maximum

In Fig. 3.23 (o) the c coil-side a' is cutting a flux of ♦„ cos £ and as a result of it,
e.m.f. E generated in i t m s valucs of the e.m.fs. in coil-sides o and a' are
the e.m.f. generated in it is Em cos t. in .
OR - E - - r 5- = E and OA = cos e = cos e = E cos s. E.m.fs. £ a and Ea' are shown in Fig.

ww
? A in Via 3 23 (c) on a larger scale. The resultant e.m.f. ER across the
3.23 (a) and are re-drawn in Fig. icj on a w b
coil-ends G, H is obtained by reversing £ / and adding it to i.e.,

w.E ER —£ a —£a
F lu x w a v e

asy
En
gin
e eri
n g.n
jE a'cos C et
Ata
G H
(c)
(b)
Fig. 3.23. Pertaining to pitch-factor.

In Fig. 3.23 (c), reversed Ea' is drawn as BC so that E R = OC. In order to obta’?
nitude of the resultant voltage ER, draw BD perpen^cular to OC. Now in triang e -

ZO B C = 1 8 0 - £

ZO B D = | [ZOBC 1 = 90 - 1

Since ZBDO - 90°

ZDOB = e / 2 = ZBCD

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Art. 3.5] .
— Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 271
The resultant voltage E „ from Fig. 3.23 (c) is given by ‘
E r = OC = OD + DC

= OB cos | + CB cos -
2
= 2 E cos ^
. 2
The pitch factor is defined tV»o »on <•
e.m.f. had the same coil been full nitrh ri° ° r®s^ tant e m f. of a chorded coil to the resultant
^ “ -Pitched, symbol kn. Thus

kn = J jg s u ltant e.m.f. of a chordpd coil 2E cos 2

Resultant e.m .f of a full-pitched coil = ~ 2 E
e
= cos­
. 2 ...(3.20)

.ww
chording angk becomts n Z e t o r i c a t S ^ e t f o r e ^ ' t T f l ^ r f o r X h a ™ 2 c " *
l ne

w.E
pn — COS
rnu J 2 ...(3,49)
The advantages of using fractional-pitch winding are •

!‘J Z dZ T
wJ e almost a ^ e w a ™ 0niCS " asy
'Vhh6 C° PPer f0r ° Verhang- This results in leas
^
of the machine
thareb* -n d e n n g the output e.m.f'
\

En
more copper is essential. Since the advantage of reducing the
gin therefore,

s K - a s s ja r
e eri
r 5
as t h !S g fa c t" S

~ X ^p
i r °f diStribUU°n
n
kd“ d the Pitch f a t o
(3 50)
g.n
ia referred to

In case of three-phase alternators, the third harmonic e.m.f. can be suppressed by star or
the a ' on" echon’ as ln ‘ he case of 3-phase transformers. Hence at the time of winding design
; r " ' h nT ” n yf ' T n ar thea“ enUatl° n of 5th and 7th orderharmonics, by I d o p W
a suitable chording angle. A chording angle of e = 30° (coil pitch = 150“ electrical) is most useful
et
since it gives the following pitch factors : ’

9th ha9r6monicfUndamenta1, ^ ^ harm° niC’ 0 259 f° r 5th and 7th harmonics, 0.707 for

Three-phase alternators are invariably star-connected to eliminate 3rd and 9th (i e multi
P es of 3, called triplen) harmonics from line e.m.fs. ; though 5th and 7th harmonic e m fs of
educed magnitude are present in the lines. ^ 01
From Eq. (3.24), the fundamental e.m.f. per phase is
Ephl = < 2 n fk w lNph 0!
For third harmonic, e.m.f. per phase is
Eph3 - (3f) kw3 NphiJ)3
In genera], for nth harmonic, e.m.f. per phase is
Ephn = ^2n n f k wn Nph <J>n

Here subscripts 1, 3 and n denote fundamental, third and nth harmonics respectively.

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lArt 33

.. „ th harmonic and fundamental r.m.s. phase e.m.fs. are

From Ephn and £ „ * , expressions, the nt
related as
ntyn <3.51 a)
Ephn _
)hl kw\ <h
Ephl Jomental flux per pole
Also, 01 - ^AveraVgeUneu0x density) (Area under one pole)

I Peak value o f fundamental component of flux

where density wave
D = Air-gap diameter of armature
L = Core length of armature
and

ww
Similarly,
2DL
4>3 — '3P
B

w.E 2DL n
In general, for nth harmonic, «>„ * ■ * *

From above,
asy
1
On = _____
<j)j n Bi

Eq. (3.51 a) in terms of B v B n becomes

Ephn _ ^wn B. En ...(3.51 b)

Eip/,1
r
gin
e
The r.m.s. phase e.m.f. is
Eph = lE2
phi + E2
ph3 + ~~ + Ephnl
eri
n
The line e.m.f. in star connection does not include triplen harmonics.

g.n
sectfon^th^methods°of efiminating'or sup™ ^ sir^ h a rm o ^ c s'fn rm ^ re 'e n if waveform of an

alternator are discussed briefly.

In alternators, the primary source, or cause, of harmonics in the
non-sinusoidal field flux waveform. In case the field flux^^vrforoi
:D,i„0tnthe
there would
^ haye almost
et
be no harmonics in the alternator generated emf. Thus, first an attempt is fw..,ef„rm
sinusoidal field flux wave and then the means to reduce the harmonics from the emi
should be adopted. . othnds:
Field flux waveform can be made as much sinusoidal as possible by the following ^
(i) Small air gap at the pole centre and large air gap towards the pole en s in
synchronous machines tends to make the field flux sinusoidal.
(ti) Skew the pole faces if possible. the s]0ts
(m) In turbo-alternators, the air gap is uniform. So field winding is distri u e
in such a manner as to make the field flux waveform almost a sine wave. ,g n0t
In spite of all these attempts, field flux waveform along the air-gap can, b°w*
sinusoidal. As a result, harmonic emfs are always generated in an alternator,
ever, be eliminated or suppressed as follows :

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Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 273

, (t'y) Distribution : The distribution of the armature winding along the air-gap periphery
tends to make the emf waveform sinusoidal, see Prob. 3.30.
(a) Chording : With coil-span less than pole pitch, the harmonics can be eliminated, see
gq. (3.49).
(ui) Skewing : By skewing the armature slots, only tooth harmonics or slot harmonics can
be eliminated,
/**»*■----- see
' Example* 3.6 in this chapter and
VW Art
*.Miivi« 5.17.4*
kl VAI•A
(uii) Fractional slot w in d in g : An introduction to fractional-slot windings is given in Art.
7.8 in this book. In fractional-slot windings, the space relation between teeth and slots under a
given pole face is not the same as under the next and the succeeding pole faces. It follows that
the pulsation of flux and the emf produced in the coils under one of the poles are more or less
neutralized by other out of phase pulsations in the remaining coils of the winding.
(viii) Alternator connections : Star or delta connections of alternators suppress triplen
harmonics from appearing across the lines,
see Art 8.4.2.**
Example 3.7. In an alternator, show

ww
that the output e.m.f. wave can’t contain even
harmonics.

w.E
Solution. Fig. 3.24 illustrates one full-
pitch coil a, a'. The fundamental component
of the field flux wave induces maximum

asy
e.m.f. in coil-sides a, a , since these are cut­
ting the maximum flux <>ml. If r.m.s. value of
the e.m.f. in each coil-side is E h then the
resultant e.m.f. of the fundamental frequen­ En
cy across the coil ends A, B is 2E^, as ex­
plained before. gin
The second harmonic component of field
(lux wave also induces maximum e.m.fs. in e eri
coil-sides a, a' , because these are cutting the
maximum flux <\>m2 at the instant shown.
The direction of the second harmonic e.m.fs.
n g.n
is indicated by arrows in the lower diagram
oiriE. m e rresultant
of Fig. 3.24. The of the
e s u iw u n w m o second .har-
—
Fig. 3.24. Pertaining to Example 3.7.
#
monk e.m.f. between coil terminals A .B is seen to be zero, since the two second harmonic
et
e.m.fs. are opposing each other in the coil circuit.
This shows that the second harmonic e.m.fs. or in general, even harmonic e.m.fs., cannot be
generated in an alternator. Consequently the output e.m.f. wave is free from even harmonic
e.m.fs. ‘
This example demonstrates that even if the field flux wave contains second harmonic com­
ponent, the output voltage if1 free from second harmonic ™ ^

contain J w U harmonics. T h u s no even

harmonks can be generated-hence the output e.m.f. is free from even harmonics.

• ‘Generalized Theory of Electrical Machines; by the same Author

M 'Generalized Theory of Electrical Machines by the same Author.

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274 Electrical Machinery

In case even-space-harmonics are present in the field flux wave the positive
a.f cycles will not be identical, which however ,s never the case m rotating o l e c t r i ^ }
Exam ple 3.8. For a 3-phase winding with coil spar,, o f l 6 0 \ determ ine the distrib
nnding factors
winding factors in
in case
case the
the winding
winding has a .ph ase spread o f 120 . Take the three-Pbase
.. r , ,1
(a) to be uniformly distributed and (b) to have 9 slots p e r pole. « Un^
Solution, (a) When the winding is uniformly distributed, the distribution factor*
Eq. (3.48 6) is rffr°'Hi
a • 120
sin — sm 3 sin 60c
ks = = 0.827
a/2 120 n
2 X 180

Chording angle e = 1 8 0 - 160° = 20°

Coil-span factor, kp = cos ^ = cos 10° = 0.9848

ww /. Winding factor = kd •kp = 0.827 x 0.9848 = 0.8144

w.E
(6) Slot angular pitch
180
= 20c

Slots per pole per phase

asy
=- =3
o

En
For a phase spread of 120°, 6 adjacent slots [6 x y = 6 x 20 = 120°) must belong to fh.
phase. Therefore, distribution factor kd, from Eq. (3.48 a) is Same

. o
sm -
gin
sin
120
______________ sin 60°

e
9 s i n ^ ' 6 s i n ^ = 6 s in 10'
2q 2x6
eri
= 8.8312

/. Winding factor = 0.8312 x 0.9848 = 0.8186.

n g.n
How can these higher order harmonics be reducedT

Solution. Slot angular pitch v - —

Sh° W " la‘ the

et
frequ en cy components are equal.

Order of harmonics, n = (2 Q ± l)
Substitution of the values nf v nnw • r-,
(2(? ± l)th harmonics as n m (3 .4 7 a ) gives the distribution factor for

s i n | ( 2 Q ± l,"
qn
qn ±
kd (2Qr 1) = Q 2Q

i si« h (2<? ± i) *
Q q sin
2Q
sin qn cos 2 * + cos qK si„

sin * ~ ± cos x sin "

2Q

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M jjjl Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 275

In t^e.a^° ^5 e^ ress*0^ ’ s*n *n numerator and sin x in denominator, are always zero
any value of q (the number of slots per pole per phase). In view of this, the distribution factor
for
becomes

± cos qn sin
± 1) ^
± q cos n sin —

t [ S al.TayS equal 10 ( ■ 11 and that of cos « ” is « I ual to 1 or - l , depending

uponthe alue of q. Thus the magnitude of the distribution factor for (2Q ± l)th order of har­
monic is ^

. qn
l Sm 2 Q
kdi2Q 1 1) -
q Sin 2 Q

ww
For the fundamental component, the distribution factor, from Eq. (3.46) is

w.E
. qn
k d1 - Sm2<? h
— ~ Kdl2Q 1 1)

asy q Sin 2Q
The pitch factor for (2Q ± l)th harmonic, from Eq. (3.49), is
l
kP (2Q 1 1) “ cos En
(2Q ± 1)
2
e

gin
Here Q is the number of slots per pole. As one pole covers an angle of 180° electrical or n

kp (2q ± i)can be written as

l. {2n ± 1) e
e
electrical radians, the angle covered by Q slots is n radians. In view of this, expression for

eri
*p (2Q11) = COS ------ = COS a e ± f

E, . . £
= COS 71E COS — ± Sin 71 e sin —
n g.n
m z
For any value of chording angle £ in electrical degrees, sin n e = 0 and cos tie is equal to
1 or - 1. Therefore,
et
*p(2Q± 1) - cos ^ = kpx

These higher order harmonics of the order of (2 Q ± 1), are referred to as the slot harmonics,
tooth harmonics, slot ripples or tooth ripples. These harmonics are attenuated by skewing the
slots.

Example 3 . 1 0 . A n alternator, with full-pitched uniformly distributed winding, is wound as

foilows :

faJ Single phase winding placed in (i) two-thirds o f the slots and (ii) all the slots.
(b) All the slots are wound with (i) single phase and (ii) 3-phase windings.
fc) All the slots are wound with (i) two-phase and (ii) 3-phase windings.
For each o f the above cases, calculate the ratio o f outputs and the amount o f copper required.

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■•• a
276 Electrical Machinery

Solution, (a) When two-third of the slots are wound, the phase spread a, for single phase

winding is o = - (180) = 120°. From Eq. (3.48 b ), the distribution factor for the fundamental
3
component is
. 120
sin ——
* ,, = — = 0.827
120 _JL_
2 180
f2 \
Output voltage with two-third of the slots wound is ^ (0.827).
< ) .
When all the slots are wound, phase spread o = 180° and from Eq. (3.48 6 ),
180
sin
K = 1on - = 0.637

ww dl 180
2
x
n
180

w.E
Output voltage with all the slots wound is « (1) (0.637).
In all the cases, it is assumed that frequency f, flux per pole <}) and the conductor cross-sec­

asy
tion are the same.
.. . . . [(Current) (Voltage)] with all the slots wound
.. e ra 10 o ou pu s - Current) (Voltage)] with two-third slots wound

1 x 0.637
En
2 . . rinn.' —1.15.
I x (0.827)
gin
Corresponding ratio of copper required = 7^
e
= 1.5.

eri
It is thus seen that for 50% increase in copper, the output is increased by 15% only. This is

tion machines. n
the reason why approximately two-thirds of the slots are wound in case of single-phase induc­

g.n
(b) For a 3-phase winding, the usual phase spread a is 60° (narrow-spread). .
. 60
sm —
kdi = 6Q = 0.955
et
x
2 180
When all the slots are wound with single-phase winding, then kdl = 0.637, from part (a).

■ Ratio of outputs = t(Current)(Vo^ age)1 for a 3-phase winding with all slots wound
[(Current)(Voltage)] for a single phase winding with
all slots wound
_ (1) (0.955)
(1) (0.637)

Ratio of copper required = ^ = 1.

Thus for the same amount of copper, the output for a 3-phase winding is 50% more than for
a single-phase winding with all the slots wound.

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 111

(C) For a two-phase winding, the phase spread a is 90°.

90
srn

^ i o ^ r - 0 -90
x
2 180
Distribution factor for 3-phase winding, as calculated in part (6) is 0.955.

Ratio of output = Q-utPut for a 3-phase winding _ (1) (0.955)

Output for a 2-phase winding (1) (0.90) ‘ ‘
Ratio of copper required = y = 1.

Example 3.11. (a) A 3-phase, 6 pole, 1000 r.p.m. alternator has an air-gap diameter o f 28 cm
and a core length 23 cm. A two-layer narrow-spread (o = 60°) winding is employed and the wind­
ing is accommodated in 4 slots per pole per phase, with 8 conductors per slot. The coils are

ww
short-pitched by one slot. When the flux density wave covering two pole pitches, is analysed into
space harmonics, the fundamental is found to have an amplitude o f 0.87 T and the 3rd and 5th

w.E
harmonics to have amplitudes o f 0.24 and 0.14 T respectively. Estimate the resultant phase and
line voltages on no load if the alternator is (i) star-connected and (ii) delta-connected.
(b) I f per phase reactance o f the alternator at 50 Hz is 10 fl, calculate the circulating current

asy
when the machine is delta connected. Neglect alternator resistance.
The effect o f slot ripples should be ignored.
Solution. Pole pitch =
r
= -? (0-28) m
6
En
In the presentation leading to Eq. (3.51 b), it is shown that
gin
a,
Also,
0, =

a
03
2DL n 2 x 0 .2 8 x 0 .2 3 e
= 2 x 0 28 x 0 23 x o.87 = 0.0187 Wb

eri
________
x 0.24 = 0.00172 Wb

4>s =
2DL n 2 x 0.28 x 0.23 „ ...........................
B s= -------------- x 0.14 = 0.0006 Wb. n g.n
Slot per pole per phase, q = 4.
Slot-angular pitch or slot angle

Y= I83!_____ = m = 1 5 c
et
Slots per pole 4 x 3
The distribution factors from Eq. (3.47 a) are
qY .6 0
sin f z sm —
kdl = ---------- = --------- yg- = 0.9576
q sin j: 4 sin —

. 3<7Y . 3 x 60
sin sin — - —
kd3 = --------= - = r ^ T - = 0.6533
dd . 3y . . 3 x 15
q sin g 4 sin — 2 —
. 5qy .5x60
sin -?-*■ sin — z—
kd5 = ------------------------------------= 0.2053
. 5y a • 5 x 15
q sin -pf 4 sin — - —
z z

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278 Electrical M achincn

slot. This gives a chording angle of
The coil is short-pitched by one
180
c= = 15° = Y
12
coil-span factors from Eq. (3 49) are
The 15
V — r c o s 2 = 0 -991
= cos f = COS ^ = 0.9238
2
75
kpi = cos § = COS ^ = 0.793
an d 2

... The winding factors are

kwl = kpl x = 0.991 X 0.9576 = 0.949
= '0 .6 5 3 3 x 0 .9 2 3 8 = 0 .6035

and
ww t * . * « x * „ - 0.2053 x 0.793 = 0.163.
IVU ”v *
Subscripts 1, 3, 5 are used to denote fundamental, third and fifth harmonics respectively.

w.E
Total number of slots = 4 x 3 x 6 = 72.
72x8
= 288.

asy
Total number of turns 2
288
Series turns per phase, Nph - ^ - 96.

En
From Eq. (3.24), the fundamental e.m.f. per phase is
Ephi = ^2 n fk,o\NPh$\
gin
= y/2n (50) (0.949) (96) (0.0187) = 378.4 volts.
For third harmonic component, Eq. (3.51 a) gives
e eri
K s 3 <t)3
EPh 3 - Ephi kw] 4>1
- T 7B 4 x 0-6035 x 3 x 0.00172
n g.n
Q 4Q volts.

Similarly, E' ,nL

" 378 4 X 0.949 X

* 5c —E r
0.0187

<(,,
et
= 378.4 x x5* - 10.427 volts.
0.949 0.0187
(t) For star-connected alternator, the magnitude of the p *r ph:u;e e.m.f

Eph = ^Epli i + E)
/vri i — i/,3 + —
£'*/ / no
= V(378.4? + (6 6 .4 ? + (10.427?" = 334.32 volte ^
Recall that for star-conncctcd alternator, the third frequency e.m.fs- dont *I
the lin

’ E linc= ^3 _______
. 655.63
.. = ^3 V(378.4? + (10 .4 27 ? = n/3 (378.54) t
closed^?.r ^c*ta'connected alternator, the third harmonic e.m.fs. are
dosed delta and consequently don’t appear in the lines.

’' Ei>h= EUne = >/(378.4? + (10.427?" £ 378.54 volts-

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Art* 3-51 Basic Concepts or Rotating Electrical Machines 279

(b) When the alternator is delta connected, the resultant of fundamental and 5th harmonic
e.m.fs. m the closed delta is zero, but the resultant of 3rd harmonic e.m.fs. is 3E3. This e.m.f.
3Es gives rise to a circulating current determined by the total 3rd harmonic reactance of
3 x (3 x 10) Q at 150 Hz.

3E* 3 x 6 6 .4
.\ Third harmonic circulating current = = 2.213 A.
3 x (3 x 10) 3 x (3 x 10)
Example 3.12. F c a 3-phase winding with 3 slots per pole per phase and coil span o f 8 slots,
compute the breadth and pitch factors.
The flux density wave in the air gap o f this machine is found to have 20c7( third harmonic.
Calculate percentage increase in per phase r.m.s. e.m.f. due to harmonic.
Solution. Slot per pole per phase, q = 3, Slot per pole = 3 x 3 = 9

Slot angular pitch, y= ~ = 20°

ww sin 91
sin 30°

w.E kd\ =
q sin
_y 3 sin 10°
= 0.9598

asy
For a coil span of 8 slots, the coil is short-pitched by one slot and the chording angle is
e = y = 20°

En
kpl = cos ^ = cos 10° = 0.985
= 0.9598 x 0.985 = 0.9454
u _ sin 90 _
- 3 sin 30 - 0 667 gin
kpj = cos 30° = 0.866
kw3 = 0.667 x 0.866 = 0.5776 e eri
From Eq. (3.51 b),

.-.
EpM = BpM x 0.20 = 0.1222

Eph = VF^1 + (0.1222 Ephx? = 1.00744 Ephx

n g.n
Therefore, percentage increase in generated e.m.f. due to third harmonic flux density com­
ponent
1.00744- 1.0
et
x 100 = 0.744%.
1.0
Example 3.13. A 6-pole, 50 Hz alternator has 42 slots with two-layer winding. The flux per
pole is 0.012 Wb and each full-pitch coil has 8 turns. Determine the phase and line e.m.fs. in case
(he narrow-spread coils are connected to form (a) 2-phase winding and (b) 3-phase star-con­
nected winding.
Solution, (a) Slots per pole per phase,
S/m 4 2 /2 3 x 7 7 H
;•>
q~ P ~ 6 3x2 2 [\
As q is not an integer, the 2-phnso winding is a fractional-slot winding with 5* = 7. Its , ';1
•j
distribution factor for the fundamental from Eq. (3.48 c), is, t»
90 if
sin
r* : •i
= 0.9022
n • 1 90
7 B ,n -T

• ir - ‘ |

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IArt. j
280 Electrical Machinery

kw = 0.9022 as kp = 1
. 42 x 8 _ <ro
Per phase series turns, N ph = ^ ~ A

E nh = ^ 2 K f k wN phto
? =V2n (50) (0.9022) (168) (0.012) = 4 0 3 .9 8 V

E, = V2 x Eph = 571.23 V
4 2 /3 _ 2 x 7 _ 7
(b) 7 - c " o2vxi3t 3

60
sin
From Eq. (3.48 c), = 0.9558
. 1 60
7 sin 2 T

ww
... Eph = V2n (50) (0.9558) (112) (0.012) = 285.322 V

w.E E, = y/3 x 285.322 = 494.18 V.

E x am p le 3.14. A 3-phase star-connected alternator has 81 slots, 6 p oles and double-laye

asy
narrow-spread winding with coil-span equal to 13 slot pitches. The flu x density distribution ii
the air gap is given by B(Q) = sin 8 + 0.4 sin 3Q + 0.25 sin 50.

En
Determine the r.m.s. value o f third and fifth harm onic ph ase e.m .fs. in term s o f fundamenta
phase e.m.f. Also, calculate the ratio o f resultant line e.m.f. to the resultant phase e.m.f.
S olu tion. Slots per pole per phase,
gin
8 1 /3
6
3x9
3x2 e 9
2
eri
Angular slot pitch,
6 x 180
81
f40l
<
3
/
n g.n
= 13y
_ 13 x 40 f520 et
Chording angle, e = (one pole pitch) - (coil span) = 180 - 520 f20^

60
sin
From Eq. (3.48 c), = 0.9555,
Q . 1 60
9 sin — •—
2 9
. £ 20
kp\ = cos - = cos = 0.9988

, sin 90° .
*<*3 - ^77 = 0.6399,
Q • 60
IT
'1 0
kp2 = cos = 0.9848.
T x3

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 281

sin 150
= 0.1937,
300
9 sin

kp3 = COS = 0.958

k wl = 0.9555 x 0.9983 = 0.9539

kw3 = 0.6399 x 0.9848 = 0.6302
kwS = 0.1937 x 0.958 = 0.1856

From Eq. (3.51 b), E phz = E s i l l * 0 4 = 0 2643 £ * >

Ephs - E
>*> S :* ° - 25 = ° 0 4 86
-,1/2
Resultant phase e.m.f., EPs = [ E%hi + E2
ph3 + E,pW] = 1.0355 Ephl

ww
Resultant line e.m.f.,
1/2
E ( = d3 [fipM + Epfts]' 2 = 1.734 Ephi

w.E Ei
Eph
1.734
1.0355
= 1.675

asy
Note that line e.m.f. is not equal to V3 times the phase e.m.f. It is because of the presence
of third harmonic e.m.f. in the phase voltage.
E xam p le 3.15. The flux density distribution along the air-gap periphery o f a salient-pole

En
machine is rectangular as shown in Fig. 3.25 (a). Draw one complete cycle o f the em f generated
in a single-turn coil ofcoil-span 150° electrical. The coil moves with a velocity o f 20 m l sec in a

gin
peak flux density o f l T. The effective length o f armature conductor is 0.8 m. Calculate rms value
of the voltage in the single-turn coil.

e eri
n g.n
et

Solution. The flux density distribution is shown in Fig. 3.25 (a). With coil-span of 180“, the
*»veform of the em f generated in a singleturn coil will bc similar to B-wavcform. For coil-span

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282 Electrical M achinery _______ ________________ _____

, pmf waveform will be different from 5-waveform

th . coil with coil-span of 150- e.ectrical is sketched in

follows: . . )as
(0 For 0”< 6 < 30*. instant 1 , coil on' is shown movrng m zero wave. Theref„re, em
coil for this range is zero as shown. the
(ii) For 30” < 0 < 60”, instant 2, coil-side a is cutting through = l T but cofl.sid .
tine zero B - wave. The resultant emf across the single-turn coil .s ««• ,,
cutting zero
e = Blv = 1 x 0.8 x 20 = 16 V
(m) For 60°< 0 < 150°, instant 3, both coil-sides are cutting through 1 T. Therefore,
net emf
generated in conductors of single-turn coil is
e = 2Blv = 2 x 1 x 0.8 x 20 = 32 V

In this manner, emf waveform of Fig. 3.25 (b ) is sketched. RMS value of this generated
emf

ww
in one single-turn coil

I l 6’ x f x 2 + 32’ x §
1 /2
= 24.44 V

w.E
Example 3.16. A 50 Hz, salient-pole alternator has the field flux-density waveform of Fig.

asy
3.25 (a). This alternator has the following data :
Total turns = 360, phase spread = 60*, pole-pitch = 0.6 m

En
stator length = 0.8 m, coil-span = 180° electrical
Calculate rms value o f the fundamental e m f per phase.

gin
Solution. The fundamental value o f peak flux density, by Fourier scries analysis, is

1 n n 6 e
By = - B „ cos e = - x 1 x cos - = 1.10266 T
eri
n
nD 2nr
Pole pitch = 0.6 m
P P
Fundamental air-gap flux per pole, from Eq. (3.11), is g.n
« , = | B , lr = | B , /

= - x 1.10266 X 0.8 x 0.6 = 0.33695 Wb

= \ •fl, •/ (pole pitch)
et
71

Taking the winding as uniformly distributed

60
sin
= 0.955, kpl - 1
kdl 60 71
2 X 180
Per-phase emf, Ephl = V2x kwl Nph
= V2ji x 50 x 0.33695 x 0.955 x 120 = 8576.7 V. ^ B jS
Example 3.17. The em f generated in a conductor at any instant is given by Blv, Tol
the air-gap flux density in a rotating machine, I is the conductor length and v is
velocity. ...

With the help o f this expression, derive e m f expressions for (a) dc machine (b)
synchronous machine.

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 283

i tion. In c = Blv, as I and u are constants, the waveshape of emf e is the same as that
— *i -. _wave
^°flux-density _■ ■i/\ iin
m oair
i *•rr /\%ra••a rra %
gap. Average t a Ii i a at a 4 % a a aa
value wm*J■•a4aw«■ ■
of emf in one conductor .> given
is ■a. •■a* I.
by ■■
oftbe
Eal, Ba, l v - x / x nDn = P0n

0 = flux per pole

where 2
for a dc machine, there are — conductors in series between the positive and negative
CL

shes. Here Z = total armature conductors and a = number of parallel paths for armature
finding. Therefore, output or brush voltage in a dc machine is given by
Number of conductors Average value of
E= in each parallel path emf generated
between the two brushes in one conductor

ww a a
Here n is the armature speed in rps. The above emf expression is the required expression

w.E
for a dc machine.
(b) From above, average emf generated in one conductor,

asy Pn
Eav = P0n = 2/0, where f = —

En
rms value
Now = form factor
average value

gin
Assuming the waveshape of flux-density wave sinusoidal, its form factor is
1

FF =

n B"
2V2
n

e eri
Also
rms value of emf per conductor _ ^
average value of emf per conductor n g.n
2/0

et
.-. rms value of emf generated in one conductor, E rms ~ EF X Eav 2yj2 X

n
/0
n/2

Emf per turn =2 kp = ^2nf<t>kf

where kp is the coil-span factor.

Per-phase generated emf = V2n /0N p/, kp kd = V2n /0 Nph ktl
where Nph = series turns per phase
Another way of obtaining phase-emf expression is as under :
Maximum emf per conductor, E'mr a x
For a sinusoidal flux density wave,

E,nax = \ (B„) I V

I x nDn = 710/"
nDl
P

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284 Electrical Machinery

IA
j l m a x _____71
Rms value of emf generated in one conductor - ^ ^

Now proceed as above.

Example 3.18. A 6-pole alternator, with 54 slots, runs at a speed o f 1000 r.p.m y
coils A and B are placed in slots as under : V-turn
Coil A : coil-sides in slots 1 and 11.
Coil B : coil-sides in slots 2 and 10.
Flux per pole is 0.015 Wb. Find the resultant e.m.f. i f coils A and B are connected «>
Sehes
(a) aiding (b) opposing.
54
Solution. Pole pitch = — = 9 slots = 180°

, , 4 x 180 OAO
Slot-angular pitch, y = — ^ — = 40

ww
A full-pitch coil would have its.one coil-side in slot 1 and its other coil-side in slot 10 B t
here coil A is overpitched by one slot because this coil has its coil-sides in slot 1 and 11 , Fig. 3 L

w.E
(a). Likewise, coil B is short-pitchecf by one slot (= 20°), because its coil-sides are placed in slots
2 and 10, Fig. 3.26 (a).
In Fig. 3.26 (a), e.m.fs generated in coil-sides 1 and 10 of a full-pitch coil would be maximum

O
3.26 (6 ), while thatP afor
/ L \ ...V t C ls N m /% v-k-v
asy
but of opposite sign. Phasor diagram for e.m.fs generated in coil-sides 1 and 11 is shown inFig
e.m.fs generatedi n in/ » coil-sides
n il .P in n c ? O o n n l 10 c n m t m
2 and1 f10 is showni n inI ? Fig.
i/« O O P / \
3.26(c).

—Pole pitch -
=9 Slots =180' En
U J Coil A-> Coil B
LU
gin
y
* 1
e eri
i 2 3 I
•
11
5
1
11 j
*
• 1 \
6 7 8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9 10 11
■IEI n g.n E,= E

I
et
1
fa) (b)
Fig. 3.26. Pertaining to Example 3.18.
One coil-side of 80-turn coil has 80 conductors, r.m.s. value of generated e.m.f. in one con­
ductor, from Example 3.17, is /<j).

E.m.f. generated in one coil-side of coil A or coil B having 80 conductors is given by

2 fty (conductors in one coil-side)

E\ = | x 50 x 0.015 x 80 = 133.306 V

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285
Hasic r w p p u o f Rolaling Electrical M a ch in e

^ ^ ^ T _ 7 _ 133 306 V generated in coil-side 1 of coil A is shown by vertical phasor

i t “ i i a coil * i. . h . . . - r » - ■ » » * • <” *

* js r = r - ^
(6), (as done during ihe derivation of pitch factor).
^ . Resultant e.m.f. generated in coil A is

Ea = 2 E cos * = 2 x 133.306 x cos 10° = 262.56 V

„ , 1 . p. - i.. » . ; C
, ^ng behind Similarly, e.m.f. E 10 is shown leading E n yY >
ofcoil B is 160°. As in coil A, resultant of e.m.f. in coil B is

E b = 2 E cos | = 2 x 133.306 x cos 10°= 262.56 V

ww r Vrre q oa th\ qnd fci reveals that resultant e.m.fs EA and EB are in
(a) An examination of Figs. 3.26 (b) and (c) reveais i connected series
pha e with each other. Therefore, resultant e.m.f., when coils A and B are connecte

w.E
aiding,ER- E A + ED= 2 x 262.56 = 525.12 V.
(5) When series opposing, ER = EA ~ E B~ 0.

asy
En i , i > . ......
is the field winding.
gin
e
The pattern of the magnetic field along w t u n o f i h e m m n t flowing through
rinding, depends upon (O
he winding and ( i n ) & eri
§uch as airJ p length,
m f howcverj depends only on the winding arrangement and

n
he winding^u rrent A knowledge of the air-gap flux distribution in a machine helps in deter-
nining the (i) generated e.m.f. waveform and its magnitude and (u) the electrical torque.
g.n
The object of this article is to investigate the m.m.f. produced by a winding distnbuted in
he slots along the air-gap periphery. For this purpose, the attention is first directed to the
« f variation over one sbt-pitch and the conclusions drawn from it, are applied for■determm-
the distributed-winding m.m.f. For one slot-pitch-m.m.f. variation, refer to Fig 3.27 and
et
all the Amperes Circuital Law. According to this law, the m.m.f acting on any closed path
qual to the total current enclosed by that path. In Fig. 3.27 (a), each slot is assumed to
tain 9 conductors and each conductor carries a current i. If path 1 is traversed the ampere-
ductors enclosed are 3i and this is therefore the m.m.f. change as shown in Fig. 3.27 (6). If
h 2 is traversed the current enclosed is 6i and for the path 3, the total current enclosed is 9i.
s m m f variation is sketched in Fig. 3.27 (6) and it is seen that the m.m f. changes linearly
n zero to 9i over the slot portion or slot width. If the tooth is traversed , the enclosed current
lains 9i till one slot-pitch is covered. When the three conductors of the adjoining slot are
ered, the enclosed current is again 3i as shown in Fig. 3 27 (6). It can, therefore be concluded
t the m.m.f. changes linearly over the slot portion and does not change for the tooth portion
shown in Fig. 3.27 (6). .
In order to moke the analysis simpler, the changi in m.m.f. over the slot portion is taken as
pped at the middle of the slot width. In other words, the total change of m.m.f. li e. 9i tn Fig.

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286 Electrical M achinery

Distance along
air-gap Periphery lc>

along
lb)

ww
air-gap periphery

w.E (a)

asy Tooth

En Conductors

3 27 m gin
Fig 3 27 Variation of m.m.f. along air-gap periphery.

over the slot portion, is taken to occur at the centre of the slot, as depicted ia Fig. 3.27

(Cl 3.6.1. of a coil. Consider

e eri
dfrection^of current irf thetwo'coil'-sides isindicat^ ^ n
ca l ^
g.n
u p b 7 tS

laid out flat) is illustrated in Fig. 3.28 (6).

In order to determine the coil m.m.f. the following assumpt.ons are m
et
simplicity:
^ ^ ^
(/) The permeability of stator and rotor irons is much greater^than biWy Th.s
of this, it may be assumed here that the stator and t o t o r c o r e s h a e n r n ^ p
means that the reluctance to the magnetic flux is offered by the a g P assumpti0n■
(ii) The magnetic flux lines are assumed to cross the air'8®P|‘a ‘the pole pitch-
permissible.
•missible. because the air-gap is much smaller in comparison
compel ^ ^ ^^ cur rent
According to Ampere’s circuital law, the magnetic field intensity an
enclosed are given by the relation.
j> H dl = total current enclosed. d any one c
If any of the dotted closed path in Fig. 3.28 (a) or (b) is traverse
then
ZgH = Ni

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Basic Concepts ol Rotating -Electrical Machines 287

N-TURN
COIL

GAP

MAGNETIC A)Ss
OF STATOR COIL

STATOR ROTOR

I I
f«*— POLE PITCH POLE PITCH—H

STATOR
SURFACE

ROTOR J
ww ~"f l i ? i f r f c T t t w] ’
Ji I LL-i-dJ
SURFACE
N-TURN
w.E
COIL'

asy
En
SPACE A N G L E ,(X
gin
e
Fig. 3.28. (a) F u ll-p itch coil on stator, (6) D evelop ed v iew o f Fig. (a)
and (c) m .m .f. d istrib u tio n alon g a ir-g a p periph ery,

eri
17 N l
g H = ~2
Thus the magnetic potential difference gH across each gap (there are two air-gaps in series) is n
!M, Since any closed path around any coil-side, satisfies Eq. (3.52), the variation of magnetic potential
...(3.52)

g.n
difference along the air-gap periphery is of rectangular waveform and of magnitude ^ Ni. The magnetic
fluxentering the stator (or leaving the rotor) is considered positive, therefore, the variation of mag­
netic potential difference along the air-gap periphery is as shown in Fig. 3.28 (c).
et
It is seen that the air-gap m.m.f. wave at any instant is rectangular. If the coil current is
d.c., the magnitude of m.m.f. wave does not vary with time and space. For a.c. in the coil, the
amplitude of m.m.f. wave varies with time, but not with space, i.e. the air-gap m.m.f. wave is
time-variant but space invariant.
The rectangular m.m.f. wave of magnitude \ Ni can be resolved by Fourier series into its
fundamental and higher order harmonic components. The fundamental component of rectan­
gular wave is found to be
4 Ni ...(3.53 a)
Fa1 = - cos a = F lp cos a

"'here a is electrical space angle measured from the magnetic axis of the stator coil as shown
^ Fig. 3.28. Here F lp, the peak value of the sine m.m.f. wave for a 2-pole machine is given by

...(3.53 6)
Fin-*' ^ ATs per pole

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288 Electrical Machinery

This peak m.m.f., F lp is always aligned along the magnetic axis of the coil.
If i is alternating current, then peak value of the fundamental sine componen(.
accordance with i. That is when i is zero, F Xp is zero, when i is maximum, F Xp is . Vafies jn
so on. When i = Imax = V21, then time maximum of the peak m.m.f. for a 2-pole machi and
4ATV2/ neis-
F'\pm — ATs per pole
71
•■•(3.54)
and for a P-pole machine,
4 NV27
F 1pm ATs per pole
71
(3-55)
3.6.2. M .m .f. o f distributed w indings. Fig. 3.29 (a) depicts three full-pitched •
distributed winding on the stator and Fig. 3.29 (6) illustrates the develoneH
developed view of_r.S?. °f
(a). Each coil has Nc turns and each turn carries i amperes.

M a g n e tic a x is M a g n e tic axis

of d is t r ib u t e d of u n ifo r m
w i n d in g c u rr e n t

ww sheet

w.E
asy (a )
En (6 )

gin
Fig. 3.29. Pertaining to the m.m.f. produced by (a) a distributed winding and (b ) an equivalent current sheet

By referring to Fig. 3.28 (6) and (c), the m.m.f. variation due to coil 1 ,1 ' alone is seen tobe

e eri
a rectangular wave of amplitude ± ±NCi as shown in Fig. 3.29 (c-i). Similarly, the m.m.f. varia­
tions due to coils 2, 2 and 3 ,3 are as shown in Fig. 3.29 ic-ii) and (c-iii) respectively, The

n
combined m.m.f. produced by the three coils can be obtained by summing up the ordinates of
the individual coil m.m.fs. For example to the left of ccil-side 1, the combined m.m.f. is
g.n
- 3 /2 Nc i, between the coil-sides 1 and 2 the combined m.m.f. is —^ N c i, between the coil-sides

2 and 3 the combined m .m .f is + ~ N c i, between coil-sides 3 and 1' the combined m.m.f. is
3 /2 Nc i and so on. This resultant m.m.f. variation along the air-gap periphery is depicted in
et
Fig. 3.29 (c-ii»). It should be noted that the effect of winding distribution has changed the shape
of the m.m.f. wave, from rectangular to stepped.
When the machine has more than three slots per pole per phase, as is usually the case, the
steps are neglected and m.m.f. variation is taken as smooth over these slots. As a consequence,
stepped m.m.f. wave changes to trapezoidal m.m.f. wave as shown in Fig. 3.29 (c-iv).
The smooth variation of m.m.f. over 3 slots per pole per phase in Fig. 3.29 (c) m a y be as­
sumed to be produced by a uniformly distributed current sheet placed on the inner periphery0]
the stator as shown in Fig. 3.29 (d). The current sheet is, therefore, a thin strip of conducting
material attached to the stator and is used here to replace the uniformly distributed wiping'
the slots ofFig. 3.29 (a). In other words, the m.m.f. produced by uniformly distributed™"
® f ° , F'g ,3 '29 (<0 'S Identical, in all respects, with the m.m.f. produced by unlfo? . nthe
tnbuted Winding of Fig. 3.29 (a). If the distributed winding in the slots is on the rotor, then t
umtormly distributed current sheet would be wrapped around the rotor accordingly.

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liable C oncept of Rotating Kledrlcal Machine* 289

3.61
,Af‘
S t a to r 1 2 3 l'2' 3'
surfaci l _ j ® L J © L J © l m js L M j y Dap
R o to r / ' nr
s u rfa ce

Trapezoidal
m m f w ave

ww
w.E
N o rth p o le
asy
- S o u t h p o le
(c )
N o rth p o le -

En
F ig . 3 .2 9 . D evelop ed dia gram and m .m .f. w a v e o f the m a ch in e o f F ig. 3 .2 9 (a).

Actually, the m.m.f. distribution along the air-gap periphery depends on the nature of slots,

gin
winding and the exciting current. In case the m.m.f. produced by uniformly distributed winding
is sinusoidally distributed in space, then the equivalent current sheet must also be sinusoidally
distributed in space.
In Fig. 3.29 (a), the total ampere conductors in the band covering an angle o are 3Nci and, e eri
therefore, the angular current density is J =
n
The trapezoidal m.m.f. wave of amplitude

—— - ( = —J a) of Fig. 3.29 (c), can therefore be obtained as illustrated in Fig. 3.30 (a) by a g.n
2 2
Trapezoidal
m m f w a ve [ /
F u n d a m e n ta l
comp.
M a g n e tic
et •
a xis S in u s o id a l
current i. 2
\ sheet 7 i
/
j
J

-9 0 -

S in u s o id a l'
m m f w ave
M a g n e lic J
axis o f - ^ * 1 (b)
cu rren t sheet
(a)
Fig. 3.30. (a) M.m.f. from current-sheet concept for Fig. 3.29 (c).
(b) M.m.f. wave produced by a sinusoidal current sheet.
•

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290 Electrical Machinery

_ Note that the m.m.f. at the middle of.

uniform current sheet of density J a •iNU v 01 unif0rrn ^

rent sheet is zero and is maxbnun, ( - \ J *> at the end of the unif
1 1
s linearly over the angle o from - ^ J ° to + - J o, because the CUrrent
note that m.m.f. vanes
sheet is uniformly distributed. In case the currerh sheet is Tropezoidal
sinusoidal, then the m.m.f. wave is also sinusoidally dis mmf wave Fundamentoi
Comp
tributed in space as shown in Fig. 3.30 (6). But note from "f
this figure that sinusoidal mmf wave is displaced by 90
Uniform
(electrical) from sinusoidal current sheet. cu rren t
sheet
In general, for Nph full-pitched series turns per phase,
distributed over an angle a under each pole, the angular

ww
current density is The amplitude of magnetic
. 1 1 ., •

w.E
potential difference across each gap is 2

shown in Fig. 3.30 (c).

2 ph * 3S

asy
The Fourier-series analysis of trapezoidal m.m.f. wave
of Fig. 3.30 (c), gives the peak value of the fundamental
M a g n e tic
a x is of y
c u r r e n t sheet
sine-component as,
sin o /2 ( 1 w En (c)
Fig. 3.30. (c ) M.m.f. wave produced by
F ATs per pole

gin
N p h s e r ie s tu rn s distributed over an
n o /2 2 ph a n g le a .

N.ph
= * *■
ATs/pole
e eri
...(3.56)

For F Xp, the subscripts 1 and p stand for fundamental and peak respectively.

n
Note that the effect of distributing the turns in the various slots, has resulted in the intro­
duction of breadth factor kd in Eq. (3.56). If the winding is fractional-pitch winding, then the g.n
coil-span factor^ must also be introduced ; modifying the peak value of the m.m.f. given b> Eq
(3.56) as,
4 N
et
F iP = - k d k
knp - 12— ATs/pole

k —^ —- ATs/pole.
7 1 “’
...(3.57 0)
For P-pole machine, F, = z k ATs/pole
n P
As the fundamental component of m m.f. is a sine wave as shown in Fig- 3.30 (cM
tion of m.m.f. Fol along the air gap periphery can be expressed as

F - z4 l N z_ph__ i ■ J3-57 ^
a] _n K ,i>
... pn cos a = F Xp cos a
where a is measured from the magnetic axis of current sheet.
iiiMf*P
Note that Eq. (3.53 a) gives the space fundamental distribution of m.m.f- aI<^ ft) is th‘‘
periphery for a single full-pitched Af-turn coil having 2 poles, whereas
modified form of Eq. (3.53 or) for a distributed F-polc winding having Nph acr,c8

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Basic Concepts or Rotating Electrical Machines 291

If the winding carries sinusoidal alternating current, then at the instant i = 0, F Ip = 0 and
*’hen i = Iniai>F\p *s a^so maximum. Thus the time maximum of the peak m.m.f. for a 2-pole
machine is

F \pm = £ K 2 7 ATs/poIe ...(3.58)

and for a P-pole machine,

F iPm = J ^ p V 2 / ATs/pole ...(3.59)

flote that the axis of F lp is always along the magnetic axis of distributed winding or along
the magnetic axis of the current sheet as shown in Fig. 3.30.
The field winding in a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine is distributed in rotor slots as
shown in Fig. 3.7 (6) for a 2-pole machine. The number of turns per slot can be varied in order
tominimise the harmonics in the field flux waveform. Like the armature winding mmf given

ww
byEq. (3.59), the peak value of fundamental mmf wave Fy produced by field winding in a P-pole
machine can be expressed as

w.E Fv = ^

where Nf = total number of field turns

ATs/pole ...(3.59 a)t ■

If= field-winding current

kf= field-winding factor asy
En
Single-phase winding. The m.m.f. produced by single-phase winding on the stator, or
rotor, is alternating or pulsating in nature. This can be demonstrated by referring to Fig. 3.31
where
gin
(i) a single-phase winding is represented by a uniform current sheet of spread a and

e eri
(ii) only the fundamental sine component of trapezoidal m.m.f. wave is considered.
The time origin of current in single-phase winding is taken at the instant current is positive

n
and maximum as shown in Fig. 3.31 (a). At a)/! = 0, i j = / max and the m.m.f. waveform along the
air-gap periphery is sinusoidal with a peak value of Fpl (= Fm) proportional to maximum cur­
g.n
rent Imaz. At cof2, the current in single-phase winding is i2 and the m.m.f. waveform is again
sinusoidal with a peak value
.
proportional to *2, see Fig. 3.31. Note that the peaks Fpi> FP2
. . K .
are always along the axis of single-phase winding. At otf3 = —, i3 = 0 and therefore no m.m.f. is
St
et
produced. At a = 7t, i4 = - Iniax and m.m.f. waveform is sinusoidal with peak - Fpi as shown. If the
8Pace angle a along the air-gap periphery is measured from the axis of single-phase winding as shown,
toenm.m.f. Fj at any space angle a can be expressed as
F, =F pi cos a

^ with current variations *,, i2, i3 ■■■ ■ But the currents i,, i2, i3 ... vary sinusoidally with
^•consequently the m.m.fs Fpl, Fp2, Fp3... must also vary sinusoidally with time.

m m
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292 Flpftrical Machinery

S in g le p h a s e d i s t r i b u t e d
.w in d i n g

K -< r - A !

ww
w.E (6 )

Fig. 3.31. P ertain ing to pu lsatin g m .m .f. p rod u ced by s in g le -p h a s e distributed winding.

maximum nositive
fimum positive value.
asy
In Fig. 3.31 (a), the time origin of current i is taken at the instant of its passing through
value Therefore, at (»f x= 0, ix = Imax-
This gives peak value of m.m.f. at instant fj as
En
Fp « (single-phase winding turns) (Jmax COS (Ofx)

- NImax ■cos cofl

gin
e
or FPi = Fm cos cof! = Fm cos 0 = F m
where F„ N I* n
eri
A t (0f2, i-2 =

Similarly
I mux cos T h is P ves
Fp2 = Fmcos
Fp3 ~
Fp2
(0f2
COS (01
Fm cos orf3
= Fm
n g.n
Fpi = - F m cos (of4
Substitution of the values of Fpl, Fp2 ... as given above in Eq. (3.60 (a)) gives the pulsating
et
m.m.f. wave as
at (ofx, F l = F m cos (of x cos a
= Fm cos 0 cos a
at (of F 2 = F m cos cof2 cos a ...(3.60 M
at (of3, Fa = Fm cos (of3 cos a
and at a)f 4, F4 = F m cos oof4 cos a

In Eq. (3.60 (b)\ F3 is zero because at cof3 = ~ , current is zero. An examination of Eq.$-60

(6)) reveals that a general expression for the stationary (or standing) pulsating m.m.f- 'vav' ’
tirmc aS8 d*stributed winding carrying alternating current, can be expr°s
terms of both tune angle mf and space angle a as, f)

F (oc, t) - f m cos tof cos a

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 293

In Eqs. 3.60 (6) and (c), Fm is the m.m.f. per pole corresponding to the maximum current
j ^ and is equal to F ipm as given by Eq. (3.58) for a 2-pole machine or by Eq. (3.59) for a P-pole
machine. In Eq. (3.60 (c)), the term cos oof indicates that m.m.f. varies cosinusoidally (or
sinu soid ally) with time and the term cos a denotes its cosinusoidal, or sinusoidal, distribution
jnSpace along the air-gap periphery.
In order to give physical significance to Eq. (3.60 (c)), the reader should assume himselfTherself
seated at a = 0°, i.e. on the axis of the single-phase winding in Fig 3.31 (6). Now at time t = 0,
inf= 0 and the m.m.f. seen by the reader, as per Eq. (3.60 (c)) is maximum (cos a = cos 0° = 1). As
the time progresses, ait changes and the m.m.f seen by the reader also changes. At oii = 60°, the

reader sitting at a = 0° sees — Fm ; at arf = 90°, the m.m.f. seen is zero ; at arf = 180°, the m.m.f.

seen is - F m and at (of = 270°, m.m.f. seen is zero. This shows that the reader seated at a = 0° on
the axis of single-phase winding, where cos a is always unity, comes across an m.m.f. pulsating
between + Fm and - Fm. Suppose the reader is sitting at 60° away from the phase axis, i.e. at

o
ww
a = 60°, then at cof = 0°, the m .m.f seen by the reader is Fm cos 0° cos 60° = - F m and at

w.E
*
a)f = 180°, the mmf seen is - ^ Fm. Thus the m.m.f. seen by the reader at a = 60° is again pulsating

between + - Fm and - ^ Fm, but he/she can never see maximum m.m.f Fm. If the reader is sitting

asy
at a = 90°, the m.m.f. seen by the reader is always zero for all times to come, because cos 90° is
always zero.
3.6.3.
En
Current-sheet Concept. Concept of current sheet has already been introduced in
Fig. 3.30. It may be summed up that current sheet

gin
(i) is a thin strip of conducting material carrying current in the dot and cross directions,
(ii) is wrapped around the stator or rotor and
e
(im ) develops m.m.f identical to that produced by the winding it replaces.
eri
It is also observed from Art. 3.6.2 that

n g.n
(а) uniformly distributed winding having larger number of slots per pole can be replaced by
an uniformly distributed current sheet,
(б) uniform current sheet produces trapezoidal m.m.f wave and
(c) sinusoidal current sheet gives birth to sinusoidal m.m.f wave leading it by 90°.
The object of this part of the article is to develop a relation between the current sheet and
et
associated m .m .f For this purpose, consider a sinusoidal current sheet producing a
sinusoidal m .m.f wave as shown in Fig. 3.32 (a). Note that sine-current sheet lags the sine-
0-m.f. wave by 90°, as per Fig. 3.30 (b).

The sinusoidal current sheet with peak value A amp per metre length of air-gap periphery
'■an be expressed as J
J = A s i n a amp/m
re a is any angle measured from the origin of current sheet.

Now consider a differential element d 0mat an angle 9 from the origin as shown in Fig. 3.32.
Peripheral width of differential element = r dQm, see Fig. 3.32 (6).

Current in differential element of width r dQm, at an angle 6 from origin, is

i = A sin 6 (r d 0m) Amp.

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294 Electrical M achinery

.M agnetic
Axis
Sinusoidal
current sheet

Si nus o
mmf w a v

Space
angle,*

(0) , i m r wave Oroduced by sinusoidal-current sheet

F K . 3-32. ( . » S im .s .id a U y " S T 3 £ d E S ft

ww D

w.E
Here r = rotor radius = —

where D — rotor diameter.

But »m = f 6
asy
or d
u e
u m = -pd e
D 2 . En AD ...(3.61)
i = (A sin 0)
2 P
gin
sin 0 d0

e
Note that m.m.f. per pole at any angle dependsupon b“
one pole-pitch apart. This means that m.m.f. at mgl
current contained in the angular spread of it rad'an^Thus for det *
th. m.m.f
ated from ato
eri
any angle a, Fig. 3.32 (a) the current expression o fE q .(3 .6 1 )
a + n. As m.m.f. crosses the air-gap twice, m.m.f. t (oc) or tne magneuc p
across each air gap is
difference
n g.n
/ ( a) = \ f
2 *a

=
^ s i n 0 •d 0 = ^

cos a ATs/pole
| - c o s 0 |“
+n
et...(3.62)

It is seen from Fig. 3.32 (o) that peak value of m.m.f. Fp occurs at a = 0. Therefore,

( 3 -62)> jn ...(3.63)
FP = F (a) la=0 = ' p “ ATs/pole

This peak m.m.f. can also be expressed as

r 2 AD 1 ( 2 a } ( k D\
—A
p~ 2 n P 2 71 P . nitchl
1 \ J 2 n /m llP °lep
= - [uniformly distributed current sheet of linear density “ A amp

Fp = - J (pole pitch)

where J=-A am p/m .

ji

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Art. 3.6J Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 295

In general, peak value of m.m.f. Fp can be expressed as

where J = uniform current density in Amp/rad

and <7= spread of uniform current sheet in rad.
Example 3.19. A 3-phase, 2-pole stator has double-layer full-pitched winding with 5 slots
p e r pole per phase. I f each coil hasN c turns and i is the conductor current, then sketch the m.m.f.
waveform produced by phase a alone.
For Nc - 4 and per-phase current 20 A, determine the maximum, as well, as r.m.s., value o f
the peak o f fundamental m.m.f. wave.
Solution. A 2-pole stator structure with 5 slots per pole per phase is shown in Fig. 3.33

(a). The angle subtended by 5 slots is a = 5 y = 5 x -yjy = 60°. The slots of phase a are numbered

ww
1, 2 ,... 5 and 1 , 2 , ... 5 . For double-layer winding, each slot contains 2 coil-sides or 2 Nc con­
ductors. Slots pertaining to phases b and c are also shown. Note that sequence of phase belts is

w.E
a c b a cb clockwise and each belt has phase spread a of 60 degrees electrical. Current flow in
coil-sides is indicated by dots and crosses.
Developed view of Fig. 3.33 (a) is shown in Fig. 3.33 (b). For any closed path around slot 1, the

asy
total current enclosed is 2 Nc i ampere conductors, therefore magnetic potential difference across each

gap is — (2 Nc ij = Nc ■i. Thus, the m.m.f. variation ffom - Nc i to + Nc i is shown at the middle of slot

En
1 in Fig. 3.33 (ci). Like slot 1, the m.m.f variation for slot 1' is from + Nc i to - Nc i as shown. Thus,

gin
m.m.f variation for coil 11' is of rectangular waveform with amplitude ± Nc i. Similarly, the rectan­
gular m.m.f. waveforms of amplitude ± Nc i are sketched for the coils 22', ..., 55' in Fig. 3.33 (c ii) to

e
Fig. 3.33 (c v). The combined m.m.f. produced by 5 coils is obtained by adding the ordinates of the

eri
individual coil m.m.fs. The resultant m.m.f. waveform shown in Fig. 3.33 (c vi) consists of a series

n g.n
et

Fig. 3.33. (a) A 3-phase, 2-pole stator with double-layer winding having 5 slots per pole per phase.

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296 Electrical Machinery •Art- 3.6

, o n i = (conductors per slot) (conductor current). The amplitude of th

of steps each of heig ‘ amplitude of m.m.f. can also be obtained as under ■
resultant m.m.f. wave is b ivc i. f

c b
-A -

1 2 3 4 5 1' 2' 3' W 5'

<r — •j (b)_
! Nct ~
(1)
" t
-* E T

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
n g.n
North
“ pole
■South pole
..
*
North
pole
et
(c)
Fig. 3.33. Pertaining to Example 3.19. (6) developed view o f Fig. 3.33 (a) and (c) m.m.f. wavefo

Uniform current density

. [Ampere conductors in one slot] [Number of adjacent slots inj>ng_
- Angle covered by adjacent slots (i.e. phase spread)
[2 Nc i] [5] 10 N c i
«/ =

Resultant amplitude of m.m.f. = ~ J n = ^ — o = 5 N c i A T /p ole.

2 2 a

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 297

M before, the resultant m.mT. waveform of Fig. 3.33 (c vi) can be resolved into fundamental
,„ d a senes of odd harmon.cs. The peak value of fundamental sine component is
CT
8in 2
[5 N c i] = £ . kd [5 N c i] A T /pole
7T o /2 - ' /I - -
For Ac = 4, / m = < 2 x 2 0 A. This gives the maximum value (h e re /max is used) of the peak
of resultant m.m.f. wave as
60
sin
f 1pm ~ • [5 x 4 V2 x 20] = 687.687 AT/pole
30 x
180
R.m.s. value of this peak is given by
4 3
F \P = ~ ~ • (5 x 4 x 20] = 486.342 AT/pole.

ww 3 'pkaSe balanced wind™S * considered to consist o f

current sheet o f uniform density. Trace out the m .m .f variation due tophase-a belt alone.

w.E
n case this machine has 300 full-pitched turns with phase current o f 24 A, then calculate
[a) peak amplitude o f the m.m.f. wave

3 s /T h ^ r n r r J f 6 asy
(b) peak as well as r.m.s. value o f the fundamental m .m .f wave.
beltS ° f a 2'Pole>3'Phase machine are shown as ac' b a' cb ’ in Fig.
Likewise
•" a
* k
° !? Sh° r En
“ as™ med towards the reader and is therefore indicated by dot.
y Cr° SS- 11,8 m m f variation due to uniform current
currenTih A
gin
T *7 refernne to FiS- 3 -30 (a). The m.m.f. is zero at the middle of
current sheet and vanes uniformly over the spread of phase-belts. In between the phase-belts
varifrionThus^btalnldhasT11 'fcU£ bp
van at ion thus obtained has trapezoidal waveform as shown in Fig. 3.34.
(a) Peak value of uniform current density e
is Positive *this ^ as expected. The m.m.f.

eri
J= <21
phase spread of one belt
300
Series turns per phase, Nph = —^ = 1 00
n g.n
Phase spread, a = 60°
... J
3

100 X V2~x 24 2400 x 3 x <2

et
AT/rad
60 x
180

Peak amplitude of trapezoidal m.m.f. wave = - J o

jfi
b
r § ~ r T~® T 1 1

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798 Electrical Marhiner)

‘ 1 2400 x 3 x V2 n
= - X Q
2 n J
= 1200 x <2 = 1696.8 ATs/pole.
Peak value o f fundamental m.m.f. wave, from Eq. (3.56), is
. o
sin
• [Peak value of trapezoidal m.m.f. wave]
a/2
60
sm
2 [1200 x V2] = 2063 06 ATs/pole

30 * 180
r — F
R.m.s. value of the fundamental m.m .f. wave - ^ Xpm

= 1 x - [1200] = 1459.025 ATs/pole

_ ww n n
, M m f waveform of commutator m achines. The armature winding of all the com-
3.6.4. M anX wav because of the necessity of commutator action. Fig. 3.35 (a) il-

w.E
mutator machin
lustrates the cross-sec *
ourent dtrechons are showri by
p
- mutator machine of both a.c. and d.c. types. In this figure,
d d ts
^
direction of current in any conductor is in one
of current * it gets reversed, see Art.

asy
j T l t a t o direction of current as shown under each pole, remains unaltered despite Uie rotor

Z
En
movement The m.m.f. established by the armature currents is always perpendicuW tothe a.aia.Seld
aTrfmwn Since the current direction under each pole remains unaltered the uadoraily dis-

gin
rtbuted armature winding of Fig. 3.35 (a), may be replaced by a uniformly distributed oarenWiert
wrapped around the rotor as shown in Fig. 3.35 (6). Now according to the current sheet concept, all

e
rnecoWuTtors under each pole are equivalent to a u n i f o r m l y totnbutodsuigle

eri
the whole current under each pole. The developed diagram of Fig. 3.35 (6) is shovm in Fig. 3.35 (c),
where current sheet with cross is shown positive and that with dot is shown negative.
If the total number of armature conductors is Z, then for a P-pole machine,
under each pole are ZIP. For a conductor current it, the total current u n i f o r mn g.n
under each pole is {ZIP) iz. Since the spread of each pole is equivalent to n electrica ra ians,
ly distnnnea

the magnitude of uniform current density J under each pole is given by

1 z
J=- p iz Ampere conductors per electrical rad.
et
Current
A rm a tu re sheet
m a g n e t ic a x is
or q- a x is

M a in field
a x is o r
D ire c t
a x is

(Q) (6 )

Fig. 3.35. Two-pole commutator machine (a) its cro98-section and

(o) current sheet replaces armature winding

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i ? ± C o n c ! pt! r f R ^ , , in(! FJ(ctr.cj|
Machines 299

— 3 -r
J '" : ; U n ifo rm , ,
c u rr e n t lc >
sh e e t

— (d )

ww
w.E q -a x is d - a x is q -a x is d -a x is

Fig 3.35. (c) and (d). Pertaining to the m.m.f. wave produced by
the current sheet of a commutator machine.
q - a x is

asy
By referring to Fig. 3.30 (a), the m.m.f. wave produced by the constant current sheet in Fig.
3.35 (c) is seen to be a triangular m.m.f. wave*. If i is the total current at the armature ter­

En
minals, then for a parallel paths, i / a is the current in each conductor. Since the commutator
winding has a phase spread of o = n radians, the peak of the triangular m.m.f. wave, as per Fig.
3.30 (c) and Eq. 3.64, is given by

-1 Jr o = "1
1Z 1 gin
2 2
\
nP a
—2
n
e eri
* I n o r d e r to s h o w t h a t t h e m .m .f. p r o d u c e d in F ig . 3 .3 5 (c) is a t r ia n g u la r m .m .f. w a v e , o n e m a y p ro ce e d
a s f o llo w s :
n g.n
C o n s i d e r t h e d o t t e d c lo s e d p a t h 1 in F ig . 3 .3 5 (c), w h ic h e x t e n d s o n e p o le - p itc h fro m o n e 17- a x is to th e
a d ja c e n t 9 - a x is . S i n c e t h e c u r r e n t e n c lo s e d b y p a t h 1 is in d ic a t e d b y d o t, t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t e n c lo s e d is

is ^ ^ — 0 r \ j n a n d t h i s is p lo t t e d a s s h o w n in F ig . 3 .3 5 (d ). N o te t h a t ^
2 r a & 2, r a
et - - or
P a
Jn a m p e r e s . T h i s p a t h t r a v e r s e s t h e a i r g a p t w ic e , t h e r e f o r e , th e m a g n e t ic p o te n tia l d iff e r e n c e a c r o s s e a c h g a p

— is s h o w n a s p o s itiv e u n d e r b r u s h
B a n d n e g a t i v e u n d e r b r u s h A, t h is is in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h r ig h t - h a n d g r ip r u le , s e e F ig . 3 .2 8 (a ).
N o w co n sid e r a n oth er path 2 , exten ding one pole-pitch again, n /4 radians away from both the 9 -axes a s
3 Z i 3n ,
sh o w n . T h e t o t a l c u r r e n t e n c l o s e d is — — — w i t h d o t s a n d - 7 ; - |= w it h c r o s s e s . T h u s th e n e t
4 r a =T

* 1 , . Z i [3 n = — - a n d t h e m a g n e t i c p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e a c r o s s e a c h g a p is
c u r r e n t e n c lo s e d is — -
P a 4 4 2 Pa
\ Z i t k ' ; t h i s is p lo t t e d a c c o r d i n g ly in F ig . 3 .3 5 (d). F o r p a t h 3 . e x t e n d in g fr o m o n e d - a x is to th e a d ja c e n t
4 Pa - 7 v

d-axis, t h e c u r r e n t e n c l o s e d is £ w i t h d o t s a n d s a m e c u r r e n t is e n c lo s e d w i t h c r o s s e s , t h e n e t c u r r e n t

e n clo se d , t h e r e f o r e , is z e r o . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e m a g n e t ic p o t e n t i a l d iff e r e n c e a c r o s s e a c h g a p is z e r o a s s h o w m
A lin e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e s e p lo t t e d p o in t s g i v e s t r i a n g u l a r m .m .f. w a v e w i t h it s p e a k v a l u e e q u a l to

1 2 * f= - «/) B u t J - - - ~ a n d t h i s g i v e s a g a i n t h e s a m e p e a k v a l u e o f t r i a n g u l a r m .m .f. w a v e a s .
2P 2 | nP a

nJ (\ Z i } 1Z i ...(3 .6 5 o)
2 n Pa 2 Pa

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300 Electrical M a c h in e r y .

_ AT/pole
"2 Pa F
, • a the Deak of the triangular m.m.f. wave becomes A . i
For a dc commutator ma ^ ^ ^ armature terminals. For a single phase com-

S t S S * of the triangular m.m.f. wave becomes

_Z 1 — AT per pole, where / is the r.m.s. value of the total armature current.

2P a -^2 Pa triangular m.m.f. wave, obtained by Fourier-series

The fundamental sine c0™Pon* , yalue of the triangular m.m.f. wave). Therefore, the
“ S e S ofthe fundamental* s in e component F„ for a d.c. machine [Fig. 3.35 «f)|, is

(z O __8 'ELlAT/pole ..(3.66)

12P a j n2KP a
/

ww
w.E
^ ^ p ^ f° r 3 Single' PhaSe C° mmUtat0r ^ ;
[Fig. 3.35 (d)] is
' ” 8^2 . ^
E . — AT/pole
AT/Dole -(3 67)
F -A
° n2 2P
asy
Here also W is the total number of a r m a tu r e ih m ^ the armature
In a dc machine, armature currenti oas
wave for a d.c. machine remains con , ; En
mude and.doesnot depend on the armature
tb armature m.m.f. wave, uneffected by
speed. In case of single-phas,^commutator machine, the^a -mat
gin
ponent, coincide with the brush axis or g-axis. e eri ^ two poles

In actual practice, dc machines may h*ve *

These poles on the stator are produced by “ ” "8 “

n
d/m achin e with four poles is shown
on the stator. In Fig. 3.35 (e), schematic diagram of ^ C ^ C ^ ^ teraate Z rth and south
g.n
belts) of slots with c u r re n ts
polarity. Armature conductors are distributed in four bandsit
indicated by cross under S poles and dot under N poles. Fig. . f)
^ developed view
is etched by
of Fig. 3.35 (e), where the triangular armature m.m.f. wave f° ^ . e f° “ J L ment „f field poles
referring to Fig. 3.35 (c) and (d ). As the dc machine has symmetrical arr g
et

Halong
1^air_goP
N peripniU
Uniform
c u r r e n t sheet
Armature
m m f wove

(/)

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j£:
Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 301
A * ill
and armature winding around its periphery, the m.m.f. and magnetic circuit conditions under
one pole-pair repeat under the next pole-pair.
3 ,7 . Rotating Magnetic Field
When balanced polyphase currents flow in balanced polyphase windings, a rotating mag­
field is produced. In other words, all polyphase a.c. machines are associated with rotating
netic
magnetic fields in their air-gaps. Consequently, a knowledge of the rotating field produced by
a polyphase winding is essential for understanding the theory of polyphase ac machines such
as polyphase synchronous and induction machines. As three-phase machines are more com­
t .
mon, attention will primarily be focussed on the production of rotating field in these machines.
For a 3-phase machine, the three windings are displaced from each other by 120 electrical !! .
space degrees along the air-gap periphery. Fig. 3.36 (a) illustrates a 2-pole 3-phase stator wind­ *!
:
ing. Note that each phase is distributed or spread over 60° electrical (called phase-spread a),
under each pole. For convenience, the three-phase winding a, b, c is represented by three full

ww
pitched coils, aa\ bb\ cc' as illustrated in Fig. 3.36 (6). For instance, the concentrated full-
pitched coil aa' represents phase a winding in all respects. A current in phase a winding estab­ i
■i i
lishes magnetic flux directed along the magnetic axis of coil aa'. Positive currents are assumed

w.E
to be flowing as indicated by crosses in coil-sides a', b', c'. It means that when phase a alone
carries positive current, the flux produced by this phase is directed horizontally from left to
right - if phase a current is negative, the flux produced is directed horizontally from right to

asy
left. The three-phase currents flowing in the three-phase windings, are varying sinusoidally
with time as depicted in Fig. 3.36 (c). In order to have better physical insight into the production

phase* b’ Phase c’ Axis of En

of rotating magnetic field, graphical analysis involving magnetic-flux plot as well as space-

w inding winding phase lc’

gin
e eri
n Axis of
'phase'a

g.n
P h a s e‘a ’
w inding
et

I I I

A t

I 'A
'P y
- j.
- -.- I !
' • • j

a•
1
Fig. 3.36, (a) 3-phase winding space displaced by 120 degrees electrical, from each other,
(b) 3-coils aa', bb’, cc' represent three-phase winding and (c) 3-phase instantaneous currents. 1
I

1 '*** i
■
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302 _________________________________________________
Electrical M achinery

phasor representation will b e .t h r e e - w ^ ^ n ^ "

air gap of a 3-phase machine, is due to tne cornu... t «uxcs.
G raphical an alysis-m agn etic flux plot. At the instant 1, [Fig. 3.36 I(c)l, the current in
phase aTs^osithra and maximum, say / . and this current ,s represented by cross and d * i„
c o il-sid e sA n d a respectively in Fig. 3.37 (a). Currents * and are both negahve and equal l0

it ie ib = i = - i t . Since b nd i, are negative, crosses must be shown in c

ia

d lls in coil-sides V.<f. Right hand grip rule gives the distribution of flux at instant 1, as shown

in Fig. 3.37 (a). Note that two poles are created on the stator. At instant 2, i„ = - * =, - = and

i =_ / Therefore, crosses most be shown in coil-sides a’ b' and c [Fig. 3^37 (b)\ and the resul-
0 .* ’ . fn„ nj tn as shown in Fig. 3.37 (b). Note that two poles are created
!“ u » " ° o nf the resultant flux has turned clockwise through 60 electrical degrees in

ww
space. At instant 3, i_ = - ' f , i„ = K and Therefore, the crosses and dots are as shown
in Fig 3 37 (c) and the 2 poles produced by the resultant flux are seen to have turned through

w.E
r f W fin P prtrical soace degrees. At other instants of time, i.e. as the time elapses, the two
poles rotate further. In this manner, a rotating magnetic field is produced. Note that the space
anrie traversed by rotating flux is equal to the time angle traversed by currents. In one cycle,

asy
the two piles musl come to the position indicated in Fig. 3.37 (a). Thus m a 2-pole machme, the
A x i s of
r e s u lt a n t
v
*“\ ^ - l n s t a n t 2

En
gin
e eri
(b)
n g.n
_
4-pole machine, .i
the
Fig. 3.37. Production o f rotating magnetic field illustrated by magnetic flux plot,

rotating field travels a distance covered by two poles (i.e. two pole pitches) m one cycle. For a
mm i t•
rotating /* 1J __ ill i.
field will travel1 a distance
J-I ni a n/nimt'Qr]
covered by ftwo
Wfl T”) fll P.S.
poles, i.e. ^a
et 4A/2
/O y

vered by
revolution in one cycle. For a 6-pole machine, the rotating field will travel a distance cov
. l f — 1 revolution in one cycle and so on. This thought process reveals
two poles, i.e., —
6/2
l . i d therefore
the rotating field speed, for a P-pole machine, is revolution in one cycle a

-zf-z revolutions in f cycles — in other wordsrevolutions in one second, because f y

p/2 P/2 t Tfn denotes tne
completed in one second. Here f is the frequency of the 3 phase currents. s
rotating field speed in revolutions per sec, then
...(3.68)

:• fm

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M - WQf
or " “ ~p r-P-in. U 3m

The speed at which rotating magnetic field revolves is called the synchronous speed.
The graphical analysis presented above brings out clearly the production of rotating mag­
netic field, but it fails to establish that the magnitude of rotating flux remains constant at all
instants of time. The graphical analysis given below, proves this fact.
Graphical analysis-space phasor representation. When phase a alone carries cur­
rent, an m.m.f. is established along its magnetic axis. Neglecting space harmonics, the m.m.f.
issinusoidally distributed along the air-gap periphery. Further, phase a m.m.f. wave is station­
ary but pulsating in nature. For convenience, this sinusoidally distributed m.m.f. is repre­
sented by a space phasor Fa directed along the axis of phase a. Note that the magnitude of Fa
is proportional to current ia and is directed from left to right with positive ia and from right to
left with negative ia (Fig. 3.38). In other words, the space phasor Fa is oscillating along the axis

ww
of phase a. Same state of affairs exist, when phase b alone or phase c alone carry currents.
When currents ia, ib, ic flow in their respective phase windings, then the three stationary pul­

w.E
sating m .m .fs. Fa, F b,F c combine to give the resultant m.m.f. FR which is rotating at
synchronous speed.

asy
©c\

En
J A
'1 I ^R=2Fnri
gin
p --1 F
R2 m e eri ..
(a) (b)

n C (c)
Fig. 3.38. Production of rotating magnetic field illustrated by space phasor m.m.fs.

For obtaining the resultant m.m.f., refer to Fig. 3.36 (c). At the instant 1, the cunent in phase g.n
a is positive and mt ximum, i.e. ia = Im. This current sets up maximum m.m.f. Fnl [ = F lpm of Eq.
(3.59)] in phase a. This m.m.f. Fmis represented in Fig. 3.38 (a) by space phasor Fa = F malong the

axis of phase a. At the same instant, ih = ic = - y and these are indicated by crosses in coil-sides
et
b, c and dots in coil-sides b\ c'. The m.m.f. phasors Fb and Fc are along their respective magnetic
. . . I,n .
axis, but are in the negative direction as shown in Fig. 3.38 (a). Since ib = ic = - the magnitude

of both Fb and F c is equal to Fm/ 2. The resultant of m.m.fs. Fa,F b, Fc in Fig. 3.38 (a) is FR and its
magnitude is given by

2F" cos - 3 rFn

m s 60 =
F»
,R =
= Fm
r nt+
'r ~ - n
2‘ m

The vertical component of Fb and Fc cancel each other.

Note that at instant 1, current in phase a is maximum and the resultant m.m.f. FR = ^ Fm,

air«cted along the phase a axis, is sinusoidally distributed in space

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304 Klectrical Machinery------------------ J?

At insun. 2, Fig. 3.36 (c). <- ~ Th* " " f PhaS" ^

to ^ in magnitude, are along their respective magnetic axis in the positive d„ec„0„ ^

m m f. F( = F „, in phase c, is indicated in the negative direction, butalong the phase

amplitude of the resultant m m f. F „ is again found to be equal to ^ but it is seen to ^

by a space angle of 60° clockwise.

At instant 3, ia = *c = “ jjT and Ife = Inr The m m f PhaSors F°' Ff>, Fc are as shown in Fig. 3 3g
3 .
(c) and the amplitude of resultant m.m.f. FR is again ^ Fm directed along phase 6-axis. In other

words, the resultant m.m.f. has turned through a further space angle of 60° from its position

ww
occupied at instant 2. At other instants of time, i.e. as the time passes, the resultant m mf.

revolves further, but its amplitude remains equal to ^ Fm. In this manner a constant-amplitude

w.E
rotating m.m.f. or rotating field is produced in the air-gap of a three-phase machine.

asy
Note that at instant 3, current in phase b is maximum and the resultant m.m.f. FR= - F„

is directed along the axis of phase 6 . It may be summarised from above that resultant m.m.f.
2

3
En
1 > 1
FR = - F m(or peak o f rotating m.m.f. wave) is directed along the axis o f that phase which carries
£

gin
the maximum current at that instant. Fig. 3.38 reveals that rotating m.m.f. revolves from phase
a towards phase 6 and then phase c in case the phase sequence of supply currents is abc. A

resultant m.m.f. wave.

e
reversal of the phase sequence of supply currents will reverse the direction of rotation of the

eri
n
The speed of this rotating field, as shown above, is given by Eq. (3.68) or Eq. (3.69).
Sinusoidal rotating mmf wave creates in-phase sinusoidal rotating flux-density wave inthe
air gap. With negligible reluctance of the iron path, the peak value of B -wave is given by g.n
to fu 3
8
d
2 gP
The resultant mmf FR crosses one air-gap length g. The expression for the flux per pole
et
rotating at synchronous speed, from Eq. (3.11), is given by

a = — . /. r ^ MoFm _ 6 Fm
e . . p 2 * =P ~ J ~
Substituting the value of Fm from Eq. (3.59), the expression for the fundamental flux pe-
pole is given by

6 |Vr/ 4 Nph n/27

P g n
• * » ' p —

- ^ 2 .3 7(n
M or lk,„NphI '3 ™

The nux given by Eq. <3.70) ie total (lux per pole rotating at synchronous speed.

amplitude merely Ph“ 8C m m f 'S n0t “ r° tat'ne

all the three phase m m r« ih . ? mB its own phase axis. It is the combined
c tnrte phase m.m.fs. that results in constant amplitude rotating m.m.f. * » * •

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f B a s ic C o n c e p t s o f R o t a t in g E le c t r i c a l M a c h in e s 305
---------------------------------------------------------------
. foregoing analysis can be extended to show that a rotating m.m.f. wave of constant
| jjtude Fm is produced by two phase currents flowing in two-phase winding. In general,
^hase currents flowing in m-phase winding results in a rotating m.m.f. wave of constant
fft'P fj7
mplitude equal to F m. Note that F m is the maximum m.m.f. of any one phase when current

i3maximum in that phase.

Thus the effect of polyphase currents in polyphase windings is equivalent to the mechanical
fotation of permanent magnets, or d.c. excited field poles, at synchronous speed.
3 i
In the expression of resultant rotating m.m.f. wave FR = -^Fm, Fm is the m.m.f. per pole

mrresponding to maximum current Im and its value is given by Eq. (3.59). If this value o fF m is
3 •
substituted in FR = — Fm, then the amplitude of rotating m.m.f. wave, in terms o f series turns

ww
per phase N p/„ r.m.s. current I etc., is given by
^ 3 „ 3 4^2 , Nphl Am y ,
F r = g F>» = 2 T " W~P~' ATS/P° le

w.E = 3
n r
ATs/pole -( 3 .7 1 a )

=2
.7
asy k
,^A
Ts/pole -'3 .7 1 A)

For m-phase machine

En
gin
FR = m kw ~^p~ ATs/pole

- 0.90 m ATs/pole
e
In the foregoing analysis, only the fundamental component of the m.m.f. produced by each
eri
...(3.72 6)

phase of a 3-phase winding has been considered. If the space harmonics are also taken into
account in the single phase m.m.f. waves, then the resultant m.m.f. produced by 3-phase cur­
rents flowing in three phase windings, will consist of the following components :
n g.n
(t) Constant amplitude fundamental m.m.f. wave rotating in the air-gap at synchronous
speed.
(ii) Space harmonics of the order of 3, 9, 15...... i.e. triplen harmonics are absent.
et
(iii) Fifth harmonic m.m.f. wave— sinusoidally distributed in space with its amplitude con­
stant and equal to one-fifth of that of the fundamental component. Constant amplitude fifth
harmonic m.m.f. wave rotates in a direction opposite to that of the fundamental component and
at a speed of one-fifth of that of the fundamental synchronous speed.
(iv) Seventh harmonic m.m.f. wave-sinusoidally distributed in space with its amp itude
constant and equal to one-seventh of that of the fundamental component. Constant amplitude
•- seventh harmonic m.m.f. wave rotates in the direction of the fundamental component and at a
speed equal to one-seventh of that of the fundamental synchronous speed.
In general it may be stated for nth harmonic m.m.f. waves that these are sinusoidally
distributed in space with their constant amplitude [refer to Eq. (3.71 6)] equal to

- 1 In n J. N p h ] _ A T s /p o le
2.7 kwn
F"~~n
I is the constant amplitude o f nth harmonic component and kwn is the winding factorfor-nth
\ harmonic. Note that n can be equal to 6k ± 1 only, where k is an integer 1, 2, 3 Space

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306 Electrical Machinery

harmonics of the order of 6* + 1 (7, 1 3 ,1 9 ....... ) have them constant amplitude equal to? ^

and rotate in the direction of fundamental component at a speed of “ I of the ^ m e n t a l

synchronous speed. Space harmonics of the order of 1 ( 5 ,1 1 ,1 7 0 have their coastam

amplitude equal to ^ F t and rotate in a direction oppos.te to that of the fundamental m.m.t

wave ; at a speed of of tire fundamental synchronous speed.

E xam nle 3 21 When single-phase winding is excited by an alternating current, a pulsating

m m f wave is produced. Show that this stationary m.m.f. wave can be resolved into two con-
U a n ta Z l t t u d e travelling m.m.f. v a o es rotating in oppostte d trectw n sat
Solution It is seen from Figs. 3.30 (c) and 3.31 (6) that when smgle-phase wmdmg having
N h turns is excited by current i. trapezoidal m.m.f. wave is produced. The fundamental com­
ponent of this m.m.f. wave is sinusoidally distributed along the a,r-gaP periphery and » gnen

ww
by Eq. (3.57 (6)) as
4 N ph . n

w.E = 2 ^ -< ■ cos a

If single-phase winding carries sinusoidally varying current

...W

i= / maK cos CO/, then m.m f. dis­

tribution, from Eq. (i), is
asy 71
En
Fal = - k w ^ L l max C0S
tr
= F m cos a cos (£>t
C0S 01
•••(**)

v
where rpm~K
_ 1 . Kw
b • p •Ixmax gin ...(u’i)

e eri
Eq. («) is the same as Eq.(3.60 c) and F m as given by Eq. iiii) is equal to F lpmof Eq. (3.59).
As stated earlier, F m is the m.m.f. per pole correspondingto maximum current 7max. As exciting

axis of single-phase winding. n

current varies, magnitude of F m also varies accordingly, but its axis remains along the magnetic

g.n
In Ea. (ii), cos a indicates that m.m.f. is sinusoidally distributed in space along the air-gap
periphery and cos (tit implies that m.m.f. amplitude varies sinusoidally in time at frequency (o
as shown in Fig. 3.31 (b ). et
By using the trigonometric identity, cos a cos b = ^ cos (a - b ) + ^r cos (a + b), Eq. Ui) can be
Z Z
re-written in the form
t-i 1 tx 1 " (iv)
F al = 2 m C° S ~ ^ + 2 F m C° S ((X +
= Ff + F b

Here F f= ^ F m cos (a - (tit) represents a rotating m.m.f. wave travelling in the forvva

(positive a) direction at synchronous speed (o. The other com ponen t^ = | F nl sin {(& + « ) als
a rotating m.m.f. wave but travelling in the backward (negative a) direction at synch*0,101
1 v nf the
speed co. The amplitude of both Fyand F b is ± F in which is half of the amplitude 01
z
sating m.m.f. wave.

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 307

Pulsoting
mmf

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
n g.n
F ig . 3 .3 9 . T o ta l m .m .f. o f s in g le -p h a s e w in d in g re so lv e d in to tw o c o u n te r -r o ta tin g m .m .f w aves.

A physical picture of the two counter-rotating m.m.f. waves can be gained from Fig. 3.39, where
ingle-phase winding is represented by one coil aa on stator. When i = Imax at cut - 0, amplitude ot
et
n.m.f. is Fm along the axis of single-phase winding as shown in Fig. 3.39 (a). The m.m.f. Fm is

esolved into Ff = F b = ^ F m as shown. Both forward and backward m.m.f. waves travel at
ynchronous speed in opposite directions. At angle wth i = •cos <of,, pulsating m.m.f.

=-F and Fb travel through angle 10^ but the

fhplitude is OA = F m cos a)tx. Both Ff 2 m
lasor sum Ff + Fb = 0 A along the magnetic axis of single-phase winding, Fig. 3.39 (6).

At otf2 = - , current is zero, therefore pulsating m.m.f. is zero.

2
( are not zero. However, F f+ F b - 0 as shown in Fig. 3.39
/ 1 x
B u tF , = - F and Fb = - F m
2 m 2

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108 Electrical Machinery ~~
----------------------- T T T ^ s i n g l c - p h a s c winding when excited by an alternating
It must be kept in mind that sing p waves. It always produces one stationarv nt
does not produce two counter-rotating • decomposition of the m.m.f. of a s in g ly ,* 'f
wave pulsating along its magnetic a . . . thi js a very important concept whirl, u
winding into two counter-rotatmg n tn rr w a v ^ _ P wh)ch ^
in the understand,ng of a , , e l ^ t r . c a ' mach.nery „ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

E xam ple 3.22. A sm8 le'pf ° ? * " I " ? 1''decom posed in to tw o cou n ter rotating
one pulsating m.m.f. wave w ' concept to p rove that a rotatin g magnetic field of"**

currents. • .
Solution. A three-phase rotating electrical machine is woundI with three windingsQ fc c
displaced from each other by a space angle of 120 as shown in Fig. 3.36 (&)• Consider that these
windings are excited respectively by three-phase balanced currents given by

ia = Lax C0S
ih = /««,, cos ( o y - 120°) ...Ii)

ww = I m ax C0S " 240O) .

These currents in phase windings a, b, c set up three pulsating m.m.f. waves in the air gap

w.E
These m.m.fs are directed along the magnetic axis of phases a, b, c as indicated in Fig. 3.36
(6 ). For the currents given by Eq. (i ) and with the magnetic axis of 3-phase winding displaced
in space by 120°, the three m.m.fs Fa, Fh and Fc can be expressed mathematically as
36

asy
Fa = Fm cos a cos mt (CM Sf au

En
Fh = F,„ cos (a - 120°) cos (otf - 120°)
Ft = F,„ cos (a - 240°), cos (i»t - 240°)
H <*!>(<' ' V
k>
^

gin
Note that angle a is measured from the axis of phase a as shown in Fig. 3.36 (6). As in
Example 3.21, the pulsating m.m.f. of phase a canbe expressed as

e eri
Fo = 2 F>n cos (« - orf) + | Fni cos (a + mt) ...(in

Similarly, for phases b and c,

n g.n
F b = g F,„ cos (a - 120 ° - wt + 120 °) + | Fm cos (a - 120 ° + cuf - 120 c)
1 „
- 2
1
cos (« - cof) + - Fm cos (a + cof - 240°) et ...Inn

Fc = 2 F>n cos (a - 240° - on + 240°) + | Fm cos (a - 240° + aV - 240°)

_ 1 „ 1
- 2 *•* cos <a ~ w/) + — Fm cos (a + (lit - 120 °)

(i), ( i D X T m m f' F r (a’ ^ can be obtained by adding the three m.m.f.s given by Eq*

F r (a, t ) = F a + Fh + Fc

“ 2 F.„ Icos (a - CO0 + cos (a + cue) + cos (a - a t) + cos (a + c.K - 240’ )

3 + cos (a - oK) + cos (a + uX - )20 '*

2 », ls (o OK) + F ,„Icos (a + ,.X) + cos (a +

-*■ rim 1(1 ♦ aX-M®'1'

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Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 309

But g Fm cos (a + 2 ^ m cos + ~ 120°), ~ Fm cos (a + (at - 240°) represent three

^in.f sinusoids displaced in phase by 120°. Therefore, there sum must be zero, i.e.,

2 F m (cos (a + (at) + cos (a + art - 120) + cos (a + utf - 240)) = 0

Eq. (u). therefore, reduces to

F, (Oi t) = - Fm cos (a - (at) ...(vi)

■j
It can be shown that Eq. (vi) represents a travelling m.m.f. wave of constant amplitude -

L-
» fr-
At (at = 0°, Fr (a, t) -j

At ww
(at = 45°, FR (u ,t) =

At (at = 90°,
w.E F r (a., t ) = | Fm cos (a - 90°) = | Fm sin a I

asy
In the above three expressions for FR (a, t), put different values of a and plot these three
waves with a as the base. These waves are shown in Fig. 3.40 for different instants of time
i i

3
En
corresponding to 0°, 45° and 90°. It is seen from this graphical plot that m.m.f. wave is of con-
,
stant amplitude -= Fm and is travelling in the positive a direction at a speed determined by the
Z
time angular frequency (a.
gin
mmf tot=0
J u>i
Ut=45
wt*90
e
Speed , cj
eri
n g.n
Space
ongle,«t
et
D i r e c t i o n of
a. travelling wave

Fig. 3.40. A graphical plot indicating that | Fmcos (a - wt) is a constant

amplitude m.m.f. wave travelling in the positive a direction.

Thus the snace anele a in Eq. (vi) means that the m.m.f. wave at any moment is sinusoidally
spare thong the air-gap penphe^. Tke hme “ e S
•sveform is travelline alone the air-gap circumference at a constant angular w - Zitf electrical
(called s£>chronous speed). For a E-pole machine, the synchronous speed <o„.

^ E q . (3.3), is
o) = -| to = ^ rad/sec
u ,m p p

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3.7
310 Electrical M a c h i n e r y -------------------------------------------------------------------

^ros
or « . = p rPS

or N .^ r p m

m ln u n , .Eq. (0. and p e a k o f ^

m.m.f. wave ^ F m is along the axis of phase a,

(if)when oot = 120" and a = 120”, current 4 is maximum and peak oftravellmg m.m.f wave

is along the axis of phase 6 ; because, from Eq. (vi). F r = 2 F" C0S (12° ° " 12° ° ’ = 2 F"
m Similarly, when cot = 240” and a = 240”, peak of travelling m.m.f. wave ts aligned aloe*

the axis of phase c. of rotating m .m .f wave travels from phase a, to phase

6 and S

is q bc
ww o 8'phase" he clockwise in Fig. 3.36 (6)1 when phase sequence of three-phase supply

w.E
Example 3.23. In a uniform air gap Inon-salienl pole) machine show that the space har­
monics present in the rotating m.m.f. wave, generate only fundam ental frequency voltages in Ihe
stator winding.
Solution. Flux = m.m.f. x permeance asy
En
Neglecting magnetic saturation, the permeance offered to the magnetic flux is constant for
a uniform air-gap machine. Thus the flux is proportional to the m.m.f. In view of this, nth space
harmonic m.m.f. wave will produce nth space harmonic flux wave.
gin
Let the speed of the fundamental component of rotating flux wave be N sV Then speed of the

nth harmonic flux wave = - N sl.

n e eri
Now number of harmonic poles, produced by nth harmonic
= n (poles P, produced by the fundamental flux wave) = nP
Frequency of the generated e.m.f. in the stator winding, due to fundamental rotating flux
n g.n
wave having P poles is given by
(Relative speed) (Poles P)
N s\P
et
120 = 120
Frequency of the generated e.m.f. in the stator winding, due to nth space harmonic rotating
m.m.f. wave having nP poles is given by
(Relative velocity ) ( Harmonic poles)
120

(nP)
n Nt l P
~120 ~ 120
This
ABMBtJ proves
| V l V T W O the
UIIVw required result.
1VwVj U I I t u 1CO U lt.

Example 3.24. Find the amplitude o f m.m.f. produced by a squirrel cage winding' ^
Solution. A squirrel cage winding, as described before, consists of one bar in each slot
these bars are short-circuited by end rings at both the sides. If rotor has S slots, then
S bars or 8 conductors. In effect S bars are equivalent to f phases, each phase having 1

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 311

^ll.pitched turn. Since the winding factor of single full-pitched turn is unity, the amplitude of
^ultant m.m.f. wave, from Eq. <3.72 b) is

F r = 0.90 | ATs/pole

= 0.45 ~ ATs/pole

Here / is the r.m.s. value of the bar current.

Example 3.25. Three-phase voltages are applied to the three windings o f an electrical
machine. I f any two supply terminals are interchanged, show that the direction o f rotating
tn.nt f wave is reversed, though its amplitude remains unaltered.
Solution. For this example, either graphical or mathematical analysis may be used. For
better physical concepts, first mathematical and then graphical analysis are given here.
The m.m.f. for phase a, pulsating with time and stationary in space, can be written by

ww
referring in Eq. '3 .6 0 c) as
Fa - Fm c o s oX c o s a .

w.E
Suppose the supply terminals to phases b and c are interchanged, then for phase b, the
space angle displacement remains at 120c, but time phase angle must now become 240° instead

asy
o f 120°. In other words., cos o X - ~ f o r phase b m . m . f ,
must be replaced by ccs u it
3
because supply terminals 6 and c arc^interchanged. In view of tnis, phase b m.m.f. Fh should
be written as

En 2*0
cos a - "7T

gin
Fh = Fm cos OX - —
3 3 J
> ^
m.m.f. as

Fc = Fm cos ( . 2nl
v „
3”
COS f
^
4,0
a"T
/
e eri
The resultant of three pulsating m.m.f. waves is
F r ( a , t) = Fa + Fb + Fc
4n
n 2 jO g.n 4n

=
F rr cos ayt cos a + cos 03/ -
=•

Fm
(cos (a - oX) + cos (a + aX) +
cos (la - ~T

cos (a
2n ]

- 03/ -
cos 03/ -

120 + 240) + cos

cos a -

(a ♦ oX -
et
2x)

+ cos ( a - oX - 240 + 120) + cos ( a + 03/ - 2x)l

But cos (a + 03/ - 2rr) = cos (a + 031 ) and cos (a - 03/ + 120°) = cos (a - 03/ - 240°)
Fm
F r (a, t ) = — Icos (a - 03/) + cos (a + 01/) + cos (a - 03/ - 240°) + cos ( a + aX)

+ cos (a - 03/ - 120) + cos (a * oX)]

Now cos (a - 03/) + cos (a - oX - 120) + cos (a - oX - 240) = 0

Fr (a , / ) = g cos (a + oX) ..(i>

3
A plot of Eq. (/) shows that the resultant m.m.f. is of constant amplitude -- Fm, but it is

Celling in the negative a direction, Fig. 3 .41 (a). If the phases and c were not interchanged, b

***« the m.m.f. would travel in the positive a direction as depicted in Fig. 3.40.

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312 Electrical Machinery

ww F ig. 3.41 P e r t a in in g to E x a m p le 3 .2 5 .
(/»

w.E
This proves that if any two supply terminals are interchanged, the amplitude o f rotating
field remains unaltered, but its direction of rotation is reversed.

asy
For graphical analysis, refer to Fig. 3.36 (c) and Fig. 3.38. At instant 1, ia = /,„, ih = ic = _ J£ Since
2
t/, and ic are interchanged, ih = ic = -
En'f,
and the resultant m.m.f. is directed along the phase a

axis, a s shown in Fig. 3.38 (a). At instant 2,

gin = i,, = ' f and I, = - /,„. After s u p p ly terminals

e eri
of phases b and c are interchanged, current - f nows in phase winding c (indicated by cross in
i

n
c' and dot in c) and current - /,„ flows in phase winding 6 (indicated by dot in 6' and cross in b),
Fig. 3.41A b) As a result of it, the resultant m.m.f. wave is as shown in Fig. 3.41 (6). Note that
the resultant m.m.f has rotated anti-clockwise through an angle of 60 electrical space degrees. g.n
At instant 3, F R will travel further by an angle of 60 electrical space degrees. This shows that
f termi" a,T
S/ ° 3phase ™ d i n g are interchanged, the direction of rotating
rotating m m f w I v p ^ ih ^upp teri^*na^s phases b and c were not interchanged, then
et
•rrlnh l i \ W° U ? ,n e clockwise direction, as shown in Fig. 3.38. Thus
graphical analysis also proves the required result.

a b EeXa ^ e ! a l T h v Ft L 3* 4l $hoi“ sf hree ™ ils «. b, c ; with their m agnetic axis coincident. Coils
a, o, c are excited by three phase balanced currents

/„, sin lot, /„, sin . 2n\ 4n\

T and I... sin (Dt -

respectively. Find the magnitude o f resultant m.m.f.

wave.
a b
c

Flg 3 42 ‘ G a i n i n g to Example 3 .2 6 .

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Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 313

Solution. The m.m.fs. produced by three coils a, b, c are proportional to their respective
rr e n ts . These can, therefore, be expressed as
Fu = Fm sin co/ cos a
2rt
Fh = F„. sin C 0 < -y cos a

4k ]
and
Fc = F m sin CO/ - cos a.

The three currents are displaced in time phase by 120° or 2 n/3 radians, but the angle of
<pace displacement between the magnetic axes of the three coils is zero as shown in Fig. 3.42.
It is due to this reason that cos a appears in all the three m.m.f. expressions given above. Their
resultant m.m.f. is
(a, t) = Fa + F/, + Fc (I
.’ 1

S3
r . . f . 4k^

X
= Fm sin co/ cos a + sin c o / - y cos a + sin co/ - — cos OC

ww
u
L I J -

F r ' 2k ] 2rc 1
= - y j^sin (co/ + a) + sin (a)/ - a) + sin co/ + a —— sin co/ - a -

w.E sin co/ + a -

471
+ sin
4k
o tf-n -y

asy
{ 2k ( 47c'
+ sin CO/ + a - y =0
But sin (o)t + a) + sin co/ + a - y

En /

and sin (co/

2n>
c o / - a - y + sin co/, - a - y
471
gin =0

e
t-

The resultant m.m.f. is FH= - y 10 + 0) - 0.

eri
Thus the magnitude of resultant m.m.f. wave is always zero. This example demonstrates
that rotating m m.f. wave of constant amplitude can be produced, only if the time angle dis­
placement between currents and space angle displacement between winding axes, are equal
n g.n
Example 3 27 A three phase star-connected winding is fed from 3-phasc balanced supply,
with their neutrals connected together. (This arrangement results in rotating m.m.f. wave of
constant amplitude). . .i r
et
I f one o f the three supply leads gets disconnected, find what happens to the m.m.f. wave.
Solution. Suppose supply phase c gets disconnected. Then in Fig. 3.36 (c), t'r - 0.
7 F i
. . . • t ■ ; - n •t:.orofnre F = F F, = - F,. = 0 -this is illustrated
At instant l,c a = /„1,ift = - - 2" . ' c - u . t‘ -'ercloro' r " r » " rh 2 ’ e
in Fig. 3.43 (a). The amplitude of the resultant m.m.f. wave is ^
p R = V(Horizontal comp.)"* + (Vertical comp.)

(F ^
A Fm + - f cos 60c
2
sin 60

'\'3 r
A 4
— F
4

V7
F... = 1.32 F„r

.■>1

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314 Electrical Machinery

Resultant m.m.f. 1.32 F _ at instant 1, is displaced from axis of phase a, by an

angle given
by
rv3 4 )
1 f Vert, comp > = ta n "1 — x —
-
tan 4 5
Horiz. comp
V / 'v /
= tan’ 1 (0.3464) = 19.1°
yj3 . .
At an instant 30° away from instant 1, = *6 = 0, ic - 0, therefore, =
I 2
Fb = Fc = 0, Fig. 3.43 (6). Thus the amplitude of the resultant m.m.f. wave is -~ F m= 0.866 f
H
i
and it is centred along phase a-axis.

ww
w.E Fig. 3.43. Pertaining to Example 3.27.

asy
From instant 1 to instant 30° away from it, the time-phase angle covered is 30°, whereas
the space angle covered is only 19.1°. This means that between these two instants, rotating
m.m.f. has changed its amplitude from 1.32 F m to 0.866 F m and travels at a speed less than the
synchronous speed given by Eq. (3.65).
En
I
At instant 2, ia = ib = ~ £ ,ic = 0 and Fa = F b =
F
gin Fc = 0, Fig. 3.43 (c).

e
F r = V(Horiz. comp.)2 + (Vert, comp.)2

F eri
T
m

(F,mY2
_
1 m

T
_ - ,Q*
cos 60
n
— sin 60°

g.n
-V
The resultant m.m.f.
V
4 *m
et
FRat instant 2 is displaced from phase o-axis, by an angle giv
-l N 3 ..4 n
tan = ta n "1 (V3) = 60°
4 XT
Wh tnstant 30 away from instant 1 and upto instant 2, the time-angle covered is 30',
r ™ f & 18 6 r ' TJhiS means that between these two instants, the r t *
ng m.m.f. wave has changed its amplitude from 0.866 F m to 0.5 F m and travels f a s t e r than the
synchronous speed given by Eq. (3.69).

f r o n f l r l T o ?■ thare™ 'taat m m f -wave will be found to be 1.32 Fm and it will be seen that
^ “ m o * than 60 .' ‘ lme Ph38e “ " » * *• where”as the space phase angle

produced! W8Ve ° f varying.an! P^ U

,ttnt
synchronous speed given by E q. ,3.69), but at a T p e T f l u c Z t i n ^ u n d ^ s y n ^

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Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 315

in -ilU — ;------------------------------
^ (.e t^e three-phase winding is delta connected or star-connected without neutral, then
l°nection of one of the supply leads, results in single-phase operation of the machine, i.e.
^,5C° m f becomes stationary and pulsating in nature.
" Example 3.28. Show that self-inductance o f a single N-tum full-pitched coil belonging to a
nlfprm air-gap machine o f gap length g. radius r and core length I is given bx
Mo Wf 2
L=
gP
Saturation and leakage-flux are neglected.
Solution. The magnitude of rectangular m.m.f. waveform from Eq. (3.52) and ig. .
pven by

F -2 'N
■ Uniform flux density over pole pitch.
„ Mo, Mo 1 '

ww B = — (F) = —
g
Flux per p<»lc. 0 = (area under one pole) <B>
g 2 "V

w.E 2 nrl Mo
P g
iN
Mo nr/
gP
Ni

Y Self-inductance of coil. L -
NO
asy
. =
Mo * r l V 2
•

En
s gi ven bx
gin
e
, Ih^ 1 i. u S

eri
p,tched coils, is given bx L „ *
12S \i,/l .
^ gp3 * ' (,r ° *
n
,, phase machine and L„ = L,. -L , -
g.n R
,

MW
, N ‘ /or a 3 phase machine

, 6 1 , 6 , — / m d iir io n r e - i.« n - ^ 1 — W
et
gar phase winding with S , series turn s. given by
/f>Mc i j N I

Solution. ,o ) The peak value of ^ n d a m e n - l sineexponent of man f. produced by a

ill-pitched distributed phase winding, from Eq 13 5 6 1...

Mo - Mo 4 . iN
~kd
Now

From Eq. (3 .11>, the flux per pole 0 is 16 Pqrl

‘ 4
4 « 4 , Mo 4 . iS k .N i
-- -- nr lB
Dp = p —
g
Kk d P tigP2
P

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316 Klcctrical Machinery

r (Effective stator-series turns)J>

Stator self-inductance, L = --------------------- •

I 1 A \I
/ ^ ngP2
J ngF*
(i) For a two-phase winding, the phase spread o is 90
90
sin o /2 sm ¥ 2>/2
k., =
o /2 90 n_ 71
2 * 180
Thus the self-inductance for any one phase of a two-phase machine is

16 Por ^ 2V2 f xr2 1 2 8 Mo^ xt2

= Ln = 5- ----- • Af = — o— o— A r.
ngP2 ( n J Tt^P2
(11) For a 3-phase machine, the phase spread o is usually 60°.

ww sin
60
3

w.E
« , ________
d 60 k 71
y
2 180

asy
La = Lh = Lc =
16Mo^ (3 f N 2 = 144 Pqt/ ^
n
■ -g
C P
- 2
TV.

En
-v S S

(6) Current is in the stator series turns N s produces a fundamental sine-flux 0, given by
16 |i0r/
> (*</* A^s) is
7 lg P gin
Mutual-inductance,
e
A/ = M effective rotor turns) _ 16 p0r/ (kHs N s) js
eri (* rf, A ff.)

w 16por/
1*

M = — p < ** w.) <*„, Wr). n is ngP1

g.n
metres. t e s t a t o r t t u t a n d laid out ^ 8 ^ hat rotT r
m.m.f. wave. Find the linear velocity o f the t r a v e l l i n g 8 ^
° ^ et
diameter of 12
W° Ve n° W becomes a travellin6
so lu tio n , speed of rotating m . ^ f wave “ ““ "

= \p r p .s .

But in one revolution, a peripheral Hi***™ r ^

••• Speed of travelling m.m.f. wave ' ^ metreS ‘ S traverst'd
2f „
- p (7iD) m/sec = 2f kD
m/sec.

For a diameter £> = 1 2 m, the speed o ft ||' Wavc and ‘ s equal to two pole-pitches

= 2f
g - 62.82 m /sec.

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_________________________ Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 317

Example 3.31. Sketch the resultant m.m.f. wave for a 2-pole, 3-phase balanced winding
yhenphase a carries (i) maximum current l m (ii) l mcos 30° and (iii) Imcos 60°. Consider each
fcIt of the winding as a current sheet o f uniform density.
Solution. The stator shown in Fig. 3.36 (o) is cut and laid out flat as shown in Fig. 3.44 (a),
jfote that the sequence of phase belts is a, c', b, a', c, b'.
(i) When ia = Im,ib = ic = - 2. These currents are indicated in Fig. 3.44 (a) by dots and
(posses. For convenience, phase belts a, c\ b etc. are shown in the same plane. Note that dots
jnd crosses in Fig. 3.44(a) are identical to that in Fig. 3.38(a). By referring to Fig. 3.30, m.m.f.
forphase a is as shown. For 7m, maximum m.m.f. is Fmas given by Eq. (3.59). For phaser b and
f the maximum m.m.f. is Fm/2 as |i6 | = |ic| = | / m. Note that for phase belt with dot, the
inm.f. variation has positive slope and for phase belt with cross, the m.m.f. variation has nega­
tive slope. Summation of the ordinates in Fig. 3.44 (6), (c), (d ) gives the resultant m.m.f. varia­
tion as shown in Fig. 3.44 (e).

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
n g.n
et

~*0)

Phase
c-axis
Fig. 3 4 4 . Pertaining to Example 3.31.

H
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318 Electrical M achinery

7 7 7 7 £ / , = 0 and 4 = ' I ™ ese currents are shown in Pig. ^

(u) When ia m cos 2 . lid iine and for phase c by dotted line in Fig. 3 44,
(/). M.m.f. variation for phase a is - o T s d t o t m 'm .* 'V a r i a t i o n is shown in Fig. (3.44 h), 44<el
Phase 6 produces no m .m .. as ih• ^ a n d ^ = _ / „ , . The m .m .fs. for individu
m For i„ = / , cos 60° - ^ / « . ^ for ^ reader The resu|tant m m f ^
can be drawn accordingly ; this is lett as a
ever, is shown in Fig. 3.44 (.). ^ ^ M a c h in e s

3 . 8 . P rod u ction o fT o r q u e m neral torque expression for rotating electrical

The purpose of this article is to a produced by stator currents and the other by
machines, in terms of two magnetic , • an elementary two-pole uniform air-
rotor currents. In order to obtain t o torque exp^ , ,g considered.
gap (or non-salient pole) mac ne, s o ^ which is assumed sinusoidally dis-
Currents in the stator winding p . . The peak value of the stator m.m.f. F is

ww
tributed in space, i.e. along the air-gap
directed along stator magnetic: axi .
the stator magnetic axis is taken to be
similarly, currents in the rotor winding produce
horizontal, with F, directed from left fc n g h t S m.la y of rotor „ m f

w.E
rotor m.m.f. which is also assumed a spatial si n,e wsms
directed along the rotor magnetic axis as shown
P^ ^
J .
^ ^ ^ ^
crossmg) respectiveiy. If stator or

asy
rotor has m o r e th ^ ^ n ^ w in trin ^th en ^ is the resultant stator man.f. per pole produced by al,

En
stator windings and F, is the resultant rotor m.m.f. per pole produced by all rotor windmgs.

gin
e
to r q l« ^ d e v e b p e d ” tl"sh o w n bn tlris^rtlcle^m t^h em a^itu de of^Mtromagnetictor^eis

eri
nrnduct of stator m .m .f, rotor m.m.f., and sine of the angle between their

n g.n
et

(a:
Fig. 3.45. Production o f torque in non-salient pole machine
(a) Elementary two-pole machine and (b ) Space phasor diagram for m.m.fs. Fs and Fr-
(jf gfatOf
In Fig. 3.45 (a), the length of the radial air-gap isg and the average radius (averag ^^
and rotor radii) is r. The effective axial length is I. For deriving a general torque expres >
following assumptions are made :
(i ) The stator and rotor iron is assumed to have infinite permeability. This also me
the saturation and hysteresis are neglected.

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Basic Concepts of Rotating Klectrical Machines 319

(jj) Tangential (along the air-gap periphery) component of the magnetic field is negligible
pared with its radial (along the radius) component. In other words, mutual flux path
the gap length g is radial.
? (»i)The length g of the air-gap is assumed much smaller in comparison with average radius
•This effectively means that there is negligible difference between the flux density at the
rjator surface, at the rotor surface or at any radial distance in the air-gap.
(iv) Only the fundamental sine components of the stator and rotor m.m .f. waves are con­
sidered.
Since the m.m.fs. Fs and F,. are spatial sine waves, these can be represented by space
phasors Fs and F,. directed along their respective magnetic axis in Fig. 3.45 (a).
The phasor sum of Fs and F,. gives the peak value of the resultant m.m.f. wave FR acting
across one air-gap. The magnitude of FR is given by
Fp = + F ? + 2F, Fr cos X ...(3.73)
Here X is the space angle between peak values of stator m.m.f. Fs and rotor m.m.f. Fr.

ww
Resultant field intensity H, produced by m.m.f. wave FR, is sinusoidal along the air-gap
periphery. As stated before, F R acts across one air gap, therefore, peak value of magnetic field

w.E
intensity Hp is given by

H = ^R ...(3.74)
P g
asy .
Resultant m.m.f. F R crossing the air gap, gives rise to resultant flux, called resultant

En
mutual flux per pole. Some stator flux may not cross the air gap—this flux linking the stator
winding but not the rotor winding, is called the stator leakage flux. Similarly, the rotor

gin
produced flux, not linking the stator winding, is called the rotor leakage flux. Note that leakage
fluxes do not take part in the production of torque, it is the resultant mutual flux that produces

e
the electromagnetic torque. The effect of leakage fluxes on the electrical charact°ristics can,

eri
however, be accounted for by means of leakage reactances, as done in a transformer.
The co-energy density at a point in the air gap, where magnetic field intensity is H, is given

by ^ Mo H 2 as Per (213).
.-. Peak co-energy density in the air gap
n g.n
1 u2
- 2 Mo p
1 ,
2
g
et
-1 ^ 1 ...(3.75)
” 2 rr2 R
8
Since m.m.fs F s and F , are sine waves, their resultant m.m.f. F R must also be a sine wave.
Now recall that the' average value of the square of a sine wave is equal to half the peak value of
the sine wave. Sine F R is the peak value of sine wave, the average value of the square of FR is

equal to | (F*)2.

.'. Average co-energy density in the air gap, from Eq. (3.75), is

=- ^ (average value of F 2
R)
2g
2
1 Mo 1 (F r ...13.76)
= 4M o
2 8
2 g2

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320 Electrical Machinery

Total magnetic field co-energy stored in the air gap is

Wfid = (average co-energy density in air gap) (volume of air gap)

= 7 •m> y {2Krlg) = 2 ^ 7 ^ ‘ * * Joules

W * ' in terms of peak values of stator and rotor m.m.f. waves is given as

w f t d ' ^ l ~ ( f a. + F r2 + 2 F , F r coS X) (3n

For a 2-pole machine, the number of electrical degrees are equal to the number of m h
cal degrees. Thus, for a 2-pole machine, the electromagnetic torque, as per Ea (2 (n\ \ ^
obtained as Vl can be

^ dWfid
e = - g f - (Fs, F r, X)

ww
In general, for a P-pole machine,

w.E J T

relation o'fEq S a s " 1" * ' 11' 6'

asy “ * * * ” * * * * **“ » - by th,

=
En
ord J. = £ d > . m

• _P
dK ~ 2
gin
From above, torque is given as

T = r . ™ i l , F , ,, e eri
* 2
_P ^0^
3 X ^ s’ r> ^

~ 2 '~% T
a _o _ n n
J l [F1 + F ; + 2 Fs ■Fr . cos X) g.n
_ P
2
Ppnrl
g s ' F r ■sin X Nm ' et ^ yg'

upon the number of poles, ^ electr° map etic torclue dePends

m.m.f. s and sine of the angle between thp r+u gap’ P value of stator and rotor
in the torque expression (3.78) indicates * tW° fields (or m.m.fs). The negative sign
rotor, tend to reduce the angle X between th t6 m -m.fs, one on stator and the other on
tion as to align the two m.m.fs Fs and F ^ ° ° words, the torque acts in such a direc-

Electromagnetic torque given bv En fq 7 a’i *. .

tions. As stator is fixed, it is the rotor that « i S^ ^ stator and rotor in opposite direc-
stator is free to move, then stator would t V° V6 j *S assume<l that rotor is held fixed and
rotated with stator held fixed In other w n ^ “ f dlrection opposite to that in which rotor had
torques as given by Eq. (3.78) In DracHM l * 3nd r° tor exPerience equal and opposite
mitted to ground through its foundation a e\e^ romaenetic torque acting on the stator is trans­
In Fig. 3.45 (6), OA = Ft, OB = Fr, ^ r° tateS'

Fr sin X (= BD) is n o rm a l^ op COmP° nent F ' Sm * (= A E ) is n orm al to F r. Similarly, component

I
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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 321

Hence it can be stated from Eq. (3.78) that electro-magnetic torque can develop only when
0f the two m.m.fs (here F s or F ,) has a component (here Fs sin X or Fr sin X) perpendicular
tothe other m.m.f. or flux.
It is usually more convenient to express Eq. (3.78) in terms of resultant m.m.f. wave FR. In
rder to obtain this expression, refer to Fig. 3.45 (6) which gives
g:
A E - F4 •sin X = CH - FR sin 5f.
BD = F,. sin X = CG = FR sin 5S
Substituting these values in Eq. (3.78), we get
P
W ri „ „ . j.
C 9 Cl 8' ^ S n
2 8 i, ...(3.79)
P uanrl „ „ .
or Te = _ L . * L - . F r . FRsindr
o
An examination of Eq. (3.79) reveals that the torque is proportional to the product of one

ww
m.m.f. (here Fs or Fr) and a normal component of the resultant m.m.f. FR.
Note the difference between the torque expressions given by Eqs. T3.78) and (3.79). In Eq.

w.E
(3.78), torque is proportional to the product of two m.m.f.s (or fields) produced by their respec­
tive currents and sine of the angle between them. In Eq. (3.79), torque is proportional to the

asy
product of resultant m .m .f (or field), one of the two m.m.f.s and sine of the angle between them.
Torque expressions given by Eqs. (3.78) and (3.79) contain fields in terms of their peak

En
m.m.f. waves. When magnetic saturation is neglected, it is permissible to express fields in
terms of their peak flux density waves. For this, refer to Eq. (3.73) from which peak value of
resultant m.m.f. FR is

FM- g Hp = g ^ gin
e eri
where Bp = peak value of flux density wave due to peak resultant m.m.f. wave FR.
Substitution of this value of FR in Eq. (3.79) gives

Te = - ^ nrl Bp Ft sin 5S n g.n ...(3.80)

Te = - ~ nrl Bp - F, sin 8r

During the design of rotating electromagnetic devices, a final check is that flux density m
et
teeth should not exceed 1.8 to 2.2 T. This check imposes a limit on the peak value Bp of the
roenUant flux densitv wave in Eq. (3.80). The maximum value of m.m.f in Eq. (3.80) is also
limited from a consideration of the temperature rise. Thus, Eq. (3.80) is quite suitable to the
designer of electromagnetic devices as it contains important design parameters.
An alternative form of torque expression can be obtained in terms of total flux per pole *.
For a P- pole machine, total flux per pole, from Eq. (3.11), is

0=| Bp l r
_ P± ...(3.81)
or p ~ 4 Ir

Substitution o f Bp from Eq. (3.81) in Eq. (3.80) gives

7 ’, = - | P 2 0 F l, s i n 8s Nm ...(3 .8 2 o )

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322 Electrical M a c h i n e r y ______________________________

> 1. 34,
I.
II or Te = - J P 2 Fr sin 8,. Nm
8 -(3.826)
The interpretation of Eqs. (3.82a) and (3.826) must be clearly understood. He
number of poles. The total or resultant air-gap flux per pole 0, is produced by the^ ^ 'S
effect of stator and rotof m.m.fs Fs and Fr. The m.m.f. F a is resultant of all the stato001^ ' 06^
similarly Fr is the resultant of all the rotor m.m.fs. For example, in a 3-phase rotating e]0* ^ ^ ’
machine, Fs is the resultant stator m.m.f. due to all the three stator m.m.fs ; Fr is the r
rotor m.m.f. due to the combined effect of all the three rotor winding m.m.f.’s. esultant
The electrical space angle X between stator and rotor m.m.fs. is called the torqu
whereas the electrical space angle 8S between Fs and F r ; and 8,. between Fr and FR a r e ^ 6 ’
load angles. The various torque expressions, derived above, reveal that the electro 6 **
torque is proportional to the product of interacting fields and the sine of electrical spa a?netic
between their magnetic axis. The negative sign in the torque expressions indica^311^ 6
electromagnetic torque acts in such a direction as to reduce the space angle between tv,eS>^ at
acting fields. inter-

ww
If load angle Sr is time-varying, say 8,. = Qt, then instantaneous electromagnetic torque f
Eq. (3.826) is, r°m

w.E T, - f P2 $ F,. sin W

asy
The average torque over a complete cycle is zero.
Te = 0.

En
This shows that for the development of electromagnetic torque Te, it is essential that space
phase angle br (8S or X) must remain constant with time. If Fr is a travelling m.m.f. wave at

gin
some speed, then $ must also be a travelling flux wave at the same speed, so that space phase
angle 8r between Fr and <J) remains unaltered with time. Further, if Fr is a stationary m.m.f.

e eri
wave, then <{>must also be a stationary flux wave for 8,. to remain time-invariant.
T orqu e in B asic M achine T ypes. The general torque expressions derived above, apply

n
equally well to all types of rotating electrical machines. In order to obtain torque expressions,

g.n
-identical with those already obtained by conventional methods, different pairs of axes are con­
sidered for different machines.
DC M ach in es. For d.c. machines, use Eq. (3.78), i.e. the magnitude of torque for a d.c.
machine is (replacing Fs and Fr by Ff and Fa respectively),
m p u 0n r l
et
Te = j ^ - F f Fa sinX af ...(3.83)

Here Ff is the peak value of the field m.m.f. per pole and Fn is the peak value of the arma­
ture m.m.f. per pole. Angle Xaf\s the torque angle between i^-and Fa. The p e a k value of th e flux
density under each pole is

The total field flux per pole fy, from Eq. (3.11), is

,or FfSSiLLB_ ...(3-84)

f 4 p 0 lr

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\rt ___________________________ Hasic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 323

Substitution of the value of Ff from Eq. (3.84) in Eq. (3.83) gives

P \x0nrl QfPg
c 2 g 4M0/r a Sin °f

= 8 P\ Fc sin V Nm ...(3.85)

AC Machines. For synchronous and induction machines, Eq. (3.826) is preferable. For
polyphase a.c. machines, the basic torque expression (3.826) can be expressed in a more useful
form, by including the voltage and current in it. This is done as follows :
The rotor m.m.f. F n from Eq. (3.72 a) is

Fr= m^
f= m — k nw
w^ p—ATs/pole.

and the resultant air-gap flux per pole, from Eq. (3.24)' is

ww d. Erh

Substitution of the values ofFr and <t>in Eq. (3.826) gives the magnitude of electromagnetic
torque T. as
w.E , . )rm2v2 z j )
sin 8r
Te = \ P 2
\
asy
V2n f N hk,v
J\
n w P
/
=¥ /^ ^ sin 8f

Speed in mechanical En
2 Speed in electrical
For an a.c. machine,

2
radians per second
2 _ . 4k f gin
P radians per second

.e., “ m= p " = p (2lt/ ) = p

Te = — m Eph I sin 8,.

e eri...(3.86)
m
n
Note that Eph is the per phase voltage induced in the armature by air-gap flux 0 and I is the
per phase armature current. g.n
Load angle 8^ will be shown to be equal to (90 + 9) degrees, where 9 is the time-phase angle
between Eph and /. In view of this, Eq. (3.91) becomes,
et
Tc = — m Eph I cos 9

or Te (om = m Eph I cos 9.

°r Mechanical power developed
= Electrical power developed.
The power balance in case of d.c. machines is demonstrated in the chapter on d.c. machines.
3.8.1. Alternative Derivation for Torque. The object of this part of the article is to
derive expression for electromagnetic torque through the concept of rotor-current sheet.
Stator flux-density wave, in phase with stator m.m.f. wave, are shown in Fig. 3-46 (a) with
^eir respective peak values of B. and Fr Rotor m.m.f. wave, with peak value Fn is shown m
P'g 3.46 (6) lagging stator m.m.f. wave by an angle X as in F i g . Ro^ ' C_U" rfie.n,t'
Wave, with peak value A n leads rotor m.m.f. wave by 90° and is stretched in Fig. 3.4 ( ).

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324 Electrical Machinery________

Ur-
With angle 0 measured from stator d-axis, stator flux-density wave can b e e ^ T ^
B = B , cos 0 T Pes
and rotor current density = A r sin (0 - X) A /m
Consider a differential angle dQ at an angle 0 from the origin as shown in Pi
(6) and (c). The differential angle dQ in radians is equal to rdQ in metres along the
air-p
periphery.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e
Fig. 3.46. (a) Stator m.m.f. and flux-density waves

eri
(6) rotor m.m.f. and current-sheet waves (c) differential angle 00.

Current in differential element,

i = A r - sin (0 - X). (r dQ) Amp n g.n
Differential torque dTe produced by current i is obtained by using the general torque orm
Force x radius = (Bli) (r) = rl (B ) (i )
... dTe= rl (B, cos0) [Ar sin (0 - X) (r d0)l
et
= r2l Bt A r cos 0 sin (0 - A.) dQ

But cos 0 sin (0 - A.) = cos 0 sin 0cos A. - cos20 sin A.

sin 20 , 1 - cos 20 ,
= — - — cos X - ----------- sinA.

= - ^ sin A. - ^ sin (20 + X)

... dTe = r2/ B, •A r |^- 1 sin A. - 1 sin (20 + X) dQ

Total torque can be obtained by integrating the above dTt <C>

expression from 0 = 0 to 0 = 2n (angle covered by one pole-pair).

... - i Si n A .- i 8 i n ( 2 e + X )jd 9

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 325

r2*
value o f J sin (2 0 + X) dQ will be found to be zero. This gives the electromagnetic

torque as

Te = r2l Bt A r - - sin X 0

= - r2Z Bs A r •^ sin X •(2n)

= - nr2l B s A r sin X ...(3.87)

F
Peak value of stator flux density, B , = p0 H„ = p0 —

P ■F P •F
From Eq. (3.63), for a P-pole machine, peak value of rotor-current wave is A r = ^r '

ww
Substituting the values of Bt and A r in Eq. (3.87), we get

w.E rp _ 2. Mo P» P ' Pr
i - —— r / •
g
• n
2r
. .
•sin K

g
P
2
M

asy
' r
o — F .F r 8inX ...(3.78)

This is the same expression as obtained in Eq. (3.78). One can proceed further as in Art. 3.8.

En
E xam p le 3.32. A 2-pole, 50 Hz cylindrical-rotor machine has the following data :
D = 1.6 m, 1 = 1.8 m, g = 12 mm

gin
Peak value o f sinusoidal rotor and stator m.m.fs are 4000 AT Ipole and 6000 A T Ipole

culate
(а) resultant peak gap m.m.f.
e
respectively. Rotor m.m.f. leads stator m.m.f. by 140° and both run at synchronous speed. Cal­

(b) peak gap flux density eri

(c) total gap energy
(e) electromagnetic power
(d) electromagnetic torque and

Solu tion, (a) Resultant peak gap m.m.f. Fr , from Eq. (3.73), is given by
n g.n
F r = [40002 + 60002 + 2 x 4000 x 6000 x cos 140°]1/2 = 3902.55 ATs/pole.

(б) Peak gap flux density, Bp = Ho

Fr
= Mo ~
et
_ 4k x 10\ - 7 x 3902.55 _ q ^Qgq f
1 2 x 1 0 "3
1 M0 Url rfl
(c) Total gap energy = ^ ~

1 4k2 x10~ x 0.8 x 1.8 (3902 .55 )2 = 3607.51 Joules

2 12 x 10" 3
P Mo nrl p P \
(d) Electromagnetic torque, T( = - —— Ft t r sm K

2 4k x 1 0 "7 x tc x 0.8 x 1.8 x 4000 x 6000 x sin 140o = 7308.36 Nm

* "2 12 x 10“ 3

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326 Electrical Machinery

_ . , 4n x 50 , ^ 3ji
(e) Synchronous speed, oom = —
p = ^ “ 100 K rad/sec \

Electromagnetic power, P = T e - o)m

= 7308.36 x lOOn = 2296.05 kW
E xam ple 3.33. A uniform air-gap machine has the following dimensions •
D = 0.8 m, I = 0.5 m, g = 5 mm
When stator and rotor are energized, the stator and rotor windings produc '
rent sheets o f peak density A s = 10,000 A/ m and A,. = 6000 A/m respectively ^ musoi(fo/cur.
stator and rotor are so displaced as to give a torque angle o f 60°. The iron in th ^
assumed to have infinite permeability. mQchine is
Determine the torque in case the machine windings are designed to produce ( ) o
and (b) a 6-pole field. Pole
' field
Solution, (a) Peak value of stator m.m.f. per pole, from Eq. (3.63), is

ww • Fs = — — = 2 x 10,000 x 0.8 = 4000 AT

w.E
Similarly, Fr = = | x 6000 x 0.8 = 2400 AT

p u„ nrl

asy
m
From Eq. (3.78), = sin A.
g
_ 2 4 n x 10-7 x n x 0.4 x 0.5
” 2
En 5 x 1 0 "3
x 4000 x 2400 sin 60°

= 1312.83 Nm

(6) When P = 6, then Fx = ^ x 10000 x 0.8 = gin AT

o
e
F,.= ^ x 6000 x 0.8 = 800 AT
6
3

eri
rp _
e 2
r 7

5 x 10“ 3
n g.n
6 4n x 10 x n x 0.4 x 0.5 4000 onn . cno
x —- — x 800 sin 60
3
= 437.61 Nm
et
Exam ple 3.34. In rotating electrical machines, the component o f rotor m.m.f. norm al to the
stator m.m.f. (or component o f stator m.m.f. normal to rotor m.m.f.) gives rise to the production
o f electromagnetic torque. Explain the function o f rotor m.m.f. component in phase with the
stator m.m.f. (or stator m.m.f. component in phase with rotor m.m.f.).
Solution. Refer to Fig. 3.45 (a). Stator m.m.f. Fs causes the a p p e a r a n c e ofN, S p o I e son ^
stator. The rotor m.m.f. component Fr cos \ in phase with Fs, also cause t h e appearance
N, S poles on the rotor, as illustrated in Fig. 3.47. Now stator poles
produced by Fs attract the rotor poles produced by Fr cos thus caus­
ing the appearance of radial {i.e., along the radius) forces in opposite
directions. If the two air-gaps encountered by m.m.fs. Fs and Fr cos \
are of equal radial lengths, then opposing radial forces are equal. In
case the air-gaps are different, the two radial opposing forces are un­
equal and their difference gives rise to unbalanced magnetic pull,
rapid wear of the bearings, noisy performance etc. Poor workmanship
or wear of the bearings with the passage of time, may be the causes of 3 4?. p«rwifl'ng
different air gaps around the periphery. Example 334

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In Vl“ VVU1 v*»w vw.t.^.ivnv VI »wtui ill.III.I. m WHI1 aldiui III.111.1. \Ul LUIIlJJUIlCllt Ul
tator m.m.f. in phase with rotor m.m.f.) is detrimental to the operation of rotating electrical
Machines and should therefore be made as small as possible (and therefore F, Fs sin A. as large
as possible).
When a machine is switched on, a large thud is heard only because of the presence of
f Fs cos A. in an electrical machine.
Example 3.35. A 4-pole, 3-phase, star-connected, 50 Hz turbo alternator has the following
data:
Field winding has 12 concentric coils distributed in slots with slot-angular pitch o f 8°.
Turns per field coil = 6, Series armature turns per phase = 28
Armature radius = 0.6 m, Armature length = 4 m
Gap length = 0.06 m
Winding factor for armature winding = 0.96

ww
Field current = 1000 A.
Calculate (a) peak value o f fundamental m m f produced by field winding,

w.E
(b) peak value o f fundamental air-gap flux-density wave,
(c) the fundamental value o f air-gap flux per pole and

asy
(d) rms values o f phase and line emfs at no load and at rated speed.
Solution, (a) There are 12 concentric coils for 4 poles. This means there are three con­

En
centric coils distributed in slots to create one pole. Therefore, distribution factor for field wind­
ing,
. 3x8
sin —
gin
kd = Y
3 sin -
= 0" 35
e eri
Coil-span factor, kp = 1
Winding factor for field winding,
kf - kd x kp = 0.9935
n g.n
Number of field turns, Nf = 6 x 12 = 72
From Eq. (3.59 a), the peak value of fundamental mmf produced by field winding is
et
F „ = - x 0.9935 x 72 * 10— = 22769.3 ATs/pole
V K 4
(6) Peak value of fundamental flux density wave is
„ HqTif _ 4n x 10 7 x 22769JS _ Q 47g9 T
5 lp = P o « - g ~ 0.06
(c) From Eq. (3.11), fundamental value of air-gap flux per pole is
. r = — x 0.4769 x 4 x 0.6 = 1.1446 Wb
<P - p D \p v 4
.p . „ E=. V 2 it x 5 0 x 1 .1 4 4 6 x 2 8 x 0 .9 6 = 6833.64 V
(d) Per phase emt, *pk
E = y l3 E h = >/3x 6833.64 = 11835.86 V.
1 , \ n Hz star-connected cylindrical-rotor alternator
Example 3.36. A ■ 3-phase 6-po e ^ has 36 siots with two-layer winding of
bvelops an open-circuit emf of 415 V. IM arm*

* ■
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_ _ _ _ _ _________________________

j 5?? raf c!riea!JV! a c h i ^ ------------- f 1* C<*

fall-pitched coils with 4turns ^ ^ I d w inding has 42 turns wUh wcndm g fact
length 0.4 m and a gap length 2 mm. i n ,
length
Calculate
culate density wave in air gap,
(a) the peak value o f fundamenta t u -d uced by th e field w indi
(b) the peak value o f fundamental m m fw P
current. r i id a t a torque angle o f 146° and at rated
In case this alternator develops a torque o f
voltage, thenvalue
Ic) peak calculate mmf,„
o f the fundam ental arm ature m m r wa v e P
p er rpole and the resultant mmf wave

P Id) th erm s value o f armature current and Us p ow er factor.

Solution, (a) Series turns per phase,

^ = ^ = 4 8

ww ,
Slots per pole per phase, q = 6 x 3 " ^
36 - 9

w.E . _
Slot angular pitch, Y=
180 _ on=
g -

asy
hd -
. 60
sin —
^ = 0.966, kp - l
2 sin —
En
Per-phase emf, Eph - ^2nf Npfl-^ kw
gin
Flux per pole,
e
= V3 x 1/2 x x x 50 x 48 x 0.966 = 0 0233 W b

eri
Peak value of fundamental flux-density wave,
p ° iP

n g.n
(6)
_ g j > _ 6 x 0 .0 2 3 3 _ Q 9 7 1 T
V Mr 4 x 0 . 4 x 0 . 0 9

B » = pc Hf = ^
et
.*. Peak value of fundamental field mmf wave,

0 g &ip 2 x 10“ 3 x 0.971 _ _ _ .

F \ f- „ = = 1545.4 A T s per pole
4 n x 10"

From Eq. (3.59 a), lf = 1545 4 180 62 A

f 4 k fN f 4 x 0.96 x 42 iBU*w A
ic) From Eq. (3.78), the magnitude of torque is given by

T - — • ^°'nr^ p p • *
2 ~ y - \ F irF la*™&af
.*. Peak value of fundamental armature m m f is

F '° = r ~ . ,» ) 1 UX2 ~ 1n' 3 8 1 8 8 ATs/pole

6 x 4it x lO’ ’ x it x 0 .0 9 x 0 .4 "

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Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 329

jultant value of peak mmf per pole,

F r = [Flf2 + F la2 + 2F v ■Fla ■cos 8a/]1/2
= [1545.42 + 618.82 + 2 x 1545.4 x 618.8 x cos 146°]1/2
= 1088.84 ATs/pole
(id) 1° 3 3 -phase synchronous machine, the peak value of rotating mmf wave is given by
p _ 3 „ 34, Nph- <2Ia k
F\a 2 »»*— 2 tc ' P ATs/pole

This gives rms value of armature current as

r 618.8 x 2tc x 6 .
0 12 x 0.966 x 48V2 “
For power balance,
i Q 'T U 271X 1000 10071 j ,
y/3 x 415 Ia cos 0 = Tc com, where com= ----- — ------= —— rad/s

„ 114x 10071 „

ww
... Power factor, 6 = 3 x ^3 x 415 x 29.65 = ° ' 5602
As Fr < Flf, the pf is 0.5602 lagging.
I
w.E
3.9. Losses and Efficiency
In electrical machines, the power input (mechanical or electrical) is always more than the

asy
nower output. The difference between power input and power output, under steady state con­
ditions, is called power loss in watts. Thus, in accordance with the law of conservation of power
\ (or energy),
En
power input = power output + power loss
1 or
gin
power loss = power input - power output
Power loss in a machine does not perform any useful work, it leads only to heating of the

I
e eri
cfflisidemtion of the power losses in electrical machines is essential for the following three

n
' “ ©Losses influence the operating cost of electrical machines. For example, a machine with

, lower efficiency has more losses and therefore increased operating cost. g.n
(® Losses cause heating of the machine and therefore its temperature nse Greater the
\u) uosses cause nearing ui
OSS, more is the temperature rise and th®ref° re'
insulation. Temperature rise determmes h ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
fo0fPr
tj
the deterioration of the machine
through its effect on the life of
and hence ^ ,osses
et
winding insulation. It can, therefore, be stated tn
iotermlne the rating, or safe power < ^ ^ hgreas current component, like core-loss
(iu) Voltage drop IR is associated with ohm Obviously, this suggests that losses
current, pertains to the iron loss m electnca ^ appropriately taken into account
associated with voltage drops or current' ^ m.P°1prtricai machihe analysis can be carried out as
mthe equivalent circuit of a machine so that ele
desired.
Machine efficiency is defined as
^ . Output ...(3.88a)
Efficiency

, 0r Input-Josses
71 =
Input
Losses ...(3.886)
_ 1 Input

‘ '
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330 Electrical Machinery —

For computing the efficiency, an electrical machine may be s u i t e d I to direu load test and
its output and input measured simultaneously. Eq. (3.88a) t:hen gi es the machine efficiency
It is however much difficult to perform the actual load test, because of the cost of providing
large inputs and difficulty of dissipating the large outputs. Moreover a small error m themeas-
urement of either output or input, causes about the same amount of error in the computed
efficiency. ,
Since the losses are a small percentage of output or input these can be measured more
conveniently and economically. Even more important is the fact that a small percentage oferror
in the measurement of losses, results in a still smaller percentage of error in the computation
of efficiency This is now illustrated with an example. Assume an electrical machine to have an
input of 1000 watts and output of 900 watts, so that the total losses are 100 watts and the
efficiency is 90%. Suppose there is an error of 10% less, in the measurement of output, then
efficiency is given by

x 100 = 81%.
1000

ww
If there is 10% error (less) in the measurement of losses, then

w.E i = ( 1 - T § 5 o ) x 1 0 0 = 91% -
Thus a given percentage of error in the measurement of output (here 10 /fr) results in almost

asy
the same percentage of error, in the calculation of efficiency. But a given percentage of error in
the measurement of losses (here 10%), causes about one tenth (here 1%) of that percentage
error, in the computation of efficiency. In view of this, the efficiency is computed by measuring
the losses in a given machine.
En
gin
When a machine is to be selected from a large number of available machines, then their
methods of loss measurement should be same. A machine having larger efficiency and, there­
fore, less energy losses is then selected. But a highly efficient machine is more expensive and,

e eri
therefore, involves more fixed charges such as interest, taxes and insurance. It should, how­
ever, be kept in mind that a more efficient machine is likely to give better performance, wi

compared to a less efficient machine.

n
more reliability, less breakdowns, less running charges and minimum maintenance cost, as

g.n
The various machine losses may be classified as (a) electrical losses and (b) mechanical
losses. These are described below :
(a) Electrical L o s s e s :
(i) Resistance losses or I2R losses. When current flows through various machine vvind^
et
ing, I2R losses occur. The resistance R, by convention, is taken as the d.c. resistance o
machine windings at the operating temperature of 75°C. Actually, effective winding resis
Reff, which is more than its d.c. value R&, should be used in computing the I2R loss. The e e .
winding resistance depends on the operating frequency and actual flux conditions ex*stint°ray
the conductor. This increment of loss, equal to (I2Reff- f R ^ ) , is usually included in thes ^
load loss discussed further. In the field circuits of d.c. and synchronous machines,^ on 3^ ^
resistance loss in the field winding is included for computing their efficiency. The 1 R
their field rheostats and other losses in the sources supplying the field winding are,
included while calculating the system efficiency
2 j. between
In addition to I R loss in the windings, there is brush contact loss at the contacts
the brushes and commutator (d.c. machines) or between the brushes and sllpetween
(synchronous and induction machines). In d.c. machines, the conduction of current in
brushes and commutator is through the short arcs in the tiny air gaps which are inb

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Art-*?!. Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 331

such a contact. As the voltage drop across an arc remains substantially constant, the brush
voltage drop in a d.c. machine is taken as constant at 1 to 2 volts total. Thus, the brush contact
loss in a d.c. machine is proportional to its armature current. In case of synchronous and induc­
tion machines, the brush contact loss is usually neglected for all practical purposes.
(ii) No-load core loss. This loss, also called open-circuit core loss, consists of hysteresis
and eddy-current losses. These losses are present in rotating electrical machines— in case their
stator and rotor irons carry an alternating, or time varying, flux under the condition that only
the main field (or exciting) winding is energized. In a transformer, therefore core losses are
always present. In rotating machines, the hysteresis and eddy current losses can be determined
from Eq. (1.46), but here f should be the frequency of the magnetic flux reversals to which a
given piece of stator or rotor iron is subjected in one second. Physical understanding of
hysteresis and eddy current losses in rotating electrical machines is presented below :
Hysteresis loss. For a 2-pole machine, consider a small iron piece such as ab, subjected to
alternating flux as it rotates under N and S poles, Fig. 3.48. When the small iron piece is under
N-pole, main pole flux passes through it from a to 6, caus­

ww
ing the appearance of S-pole at a and N-pole at b. After half
a revolution, the iron piece comes under the influence of

w.E
main S-pole and now main flux passes through it from b to
a, causing the appearance of S-pole at 6 and N-pole at a.
Thus in half a revolution, the magnetism of iron piece ab is

asy
reversed. When the armature rotates, there are con­
tinuous magnetic reversals of such small iron pieces and Fig. 3.48. Illu stra tin g h ysteresis loss.

En
power required for their reversals is called hysteresis loss.
It may be seen that hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the number of magnetic reversal
per second or the speed.
gin
Eddy current loss. Consider again a 2-pole machine with solid rotor iron. When the rotor

e
rotates, e.m.fs. are generated in the rotor iron in exactly the same way as they are induced in
the rotor conductors. In Fig. 3.49 (a), these e.m.fs. are indicated by dots and crosses. Another
eri
view of this figure (plan) is given in Fig. 3.49 (6). The e.m.fs. generated in the solid iron give rise
A r e a A n o r m a l to
t h e d i r e c t i o n of
eddy c u rre n t v n g.n
I

1 N
I " - - * -------- 1
1 .---------- I
1 1 r —i 1 *
f ♦ *
1 <•— j •;
T*t s
\
et
OMw
c u rre n ts
(a) (Ib)

A re a A / 4, norm al to
d ire c tio n o f eddy
, c u rre n t
T

j
TT
(C)
Fig. 3.49. Illustrating eddy current loss.

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332 Electrical Machinery

■i^-3.9
to circulating currents which are called eddy currents. These eddy currents ar
nitude, because the resistance offered by the rotor iron is quite small. The povverT mag-
(eddy currents)2 (resistance offered to the flow of eddy currents), is referred to °SS ^ Ua|to
loss. as eddy Current
This loss can be minimised by using thin laminations for the rotor structu tu
illustrated by referring to Fig. 3.49 (c), where only 4 laminations are shown for sf i '8 °an *>e
flux linking each lamination is one-fourth of that linking with solid iron ; therefo C'ty' ^
induced in one lamination is one-fourth of that induced in solid iron. At the same f ^ e-m.f.
normal to the direction of eddy currents is reduced to one-fourth of that for solid iron rtf'6 area
resistance R lnd offered to eddy currents in laminated iron is four times the resistanc f°re’
fered in the solid iron, i.e. Rlnd = 4 Rsid. Here subscripts Ind and sld stand for laminate'** °f
solid respectively. In view of this, ^
Eddy current loss per lamination _ (e-m.f per lamination)2/i? /nd
Eddy current loss in solid iron (e.m.f in solid core)2/i?

ww
_
w.E
Eddy current loss in laminated rotor _
Eddy current loss in solid rotor

asy
If axial length of the solid rotor core is unity, then the lamination thickness in Fig 3 49 (C)
is j. Thus it can be concluded from above that eddy current loss is proportional to the square of

En
the lamination thickness. If there are more laminations for a given axial length, the lamination
thickness decreases and hence eddy current losses are also decreased. Thus the use of thin

gin
laminations minimises the eddy current loss. The usual lamination thickness is 0.4 mm to
0.5 mm. If lamination thickness is made less than 0.4 mm, the reduction in eddy current losses

e
is achieved, but at the cost of additional labour charges in assembling the rotor.

eri
The eddy current loss has been found to be given by Eq. (1.46). In case the effect of lamina­
tion thickness t is to be taken into account, then the eddy current loss Pe can be expressed as

P e~ ke(t ■f B m)2 n
For both the expressions for Ph and Pe, the frequency/and B m can be replaced respectively g.n ...(3.89)

by speed and voltage if required.

In d.c. and synchronous machines, the core loss occurs mainly in the armature iron. It is
because the armature in both these machines is subjected to alternating flux as it rotates under
et
the effect of main fleld poles. With the slotted armature passing across the field poles, the flux
density wave pulsates in magnitude as shown in Fig. 3.50. In Fig. 3.50 (a), slot is under the
middle of field pole and the flux density is A S . With the relative motion between armature and
POLAR AXIS

POLE FACE
TEETH ^ | ’- j SLOTS

1 ! 1 1.k. 1 I i i •
FLUX DENSITY
WAVE

Fig. 3.50. Main field-flux distribution in the air-gap aa affected by slotted armature.

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^ ^ 9)______________________________________________ Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 333

field poles, tooth may come un^ er the middle of pole as shown in Fig. 3.50 (6). Under this
rtjjdition, air-gap flux density is A 'B '. The field m.m.f. is same in both these figures. Here
£ ft >AB, as the air gap length along the middle of pole is less in Fig. 3.50 (6) than in Fig. 3.50
(a). These pulsations in flux density wave arising from slot openings cause losses in the field
particularly in the pole faces (or pole shoes). This loss in the pole shoes occurring due to
relative motion between field poles and slotted armature is referred to as pulsation loss. In
order to reduce this loss, pole shoes in d.c. and synchronous machines are laminated. The pul­
sation loss is composed of hysteresis and eddy current losses in the field-pole shoes. As these
lo s s e s occur in the pole-faces of field poles, these are also called pole-face losses. In induction
machines, the stator has core loss, whereas rotor core loss is almost negligible because of
reduced frequency of the flux reversals (equal to slip frequency, sf) in the rotor.
(iii) Stray lo a d lo ss. When a machine is loaded, the load current establishes an m.m.f.
which appreciably changes the space distribution of air-gap flux density wave. This leads to an
increase in the core loss from no load to full load. This increment in core loss caused by distor­
tion of the air-gap flux plus the increment in I2R loss due to non-uniform distribution of conduc­

ww
tor current is called stray load loss. In other words, stray load loss consists of two components,
one originating in iron parts and the other in the armature conductors. In iron parts, the stray

w.E
load loss consists of (a) the eddy current loss in the stator frame, end covers etc. caused by the
armature leakage flux under load and (6) the increased teeth loss due to distortion of the flux
density wave. In the conductors, the stray load loss is due to the circulating currents set up in

asy
the conductors by the alternating leakage flux produced by load current. These circulating, or
eddy currents make the conductor current distribution non-uniform and as a result effective

En
resistance of conductor increases. This gives rise to additional conductor loss, called stray load
loss In d c machines, stray load loss also occurs in the coils undergoing commutation. This loss

gin
is usually taken as proportional to square of the load current. Stray load loss cannot be deter­
mined accurately. In d.c. machines, by convention, it is taken as 1% of the r a t e d output for
rating above 150 kW. For synchronous and induction machines, it is taken as 0.5% of their
rated output.
(6)
__
e eri t
M ech anical loss. This loss consists of bearing-friction, brush-friction and windage os-

n
ses. The windage (wind-friction) loss includes the power required to circulate air through the
machine and ventilating ducts and is approximately proportional to square of the speed.
Brush-friction loss occurs in machines fitted with brushes, for example d.c machinesg.n
synchronous machines, wound-rotor induction machines etc. Squirrel-cage induction motors
h ^ e no brush-friction loss. This loss depends on the brush pressure, coefficient of friction and
speed
et
Bearing-friction loss is approximately proportional to speed. This loss further depends on
the type of bearings, their lubrication etc.

tion, their sum is therefore referred to (the machine may be a generator or a

by running the electrical machine as an uni oa‘ voltage equai to the normal generated
motor) at rated speed or frequency an . minus a small no-load armature ohmic loss
e.m.f. The total power input to the unloaded mot magnitude of no-load rotational
(no load stator ohmic loss in case of induct^ nw dTot be split into mechanical
loss. For efficiency computations, the no-ioaa rui,
nnd open-circuit core losses.

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^4 Electrical Machinery

p 0r the ,. k c o fa q u ic k overview

account^ the p resen ce of voltages, currents and rotation of thei rotor. This diagram a^ ° »
sents almost all the losses that occur in a transformer in case the losses associated with rotSj
rotation are neglected.
Losses in
rotating electrical m achines

Constant Losses V ariab le Losses

No-load M echanical
loss

ww
core (iron) loss
S tray load Brush contact O hm ic
loss (SLL) lOSS (oe f) loss - h

w.E Hysteresis
loss
Eddy
current
loss
C onductor
SLL
Iron SLL

asy
W in d a g e Friction
Stator
P loss
Rotor
P loss

En
loss (°c speed2) loss (FL)

Brush gin
Bearing
FL (°c speed2)

e
FL (on speed)

Fig. 3.51. Various losses in rotating electrical machines.

eri
M axim um efficiency. It is seen from above that rotating electrical machines have con­
n
stant as well as variable losses. At light loads, output is low, variable loss is low, the efficiency
is also low because of the presence of constant losses. The machine efficiency, however, nses g.n
progressively with the load. But at a particular load, depending upon the design of the machine,
the efficiency is maximum. Beyond this load, efficiency diminishes. Further, efficiency vanes
with the rating (or size) of the machine; for example, efficiency is nearly 75 7c for 1-kW machine,
et
90% for 35 kW, 93% for 350 kW and as high as 97% for 3500 kW machine.
The amount of conductor and iron materials required for a machine of given rating is inNer
sely proportional to its speed. This means that a low-speed machine would r e q u i r e more
material whereas a high-speed machine less material for the same rating. More iron an c
ductor would entail more losses. As a consequence, it can be inferred that for the same ratWj
efficiency of low-speed machines is lower than that ^h igh -sp eed machines, the tota -P
being 3 to 4%.

For qualitative purposes, the various losses in rotating electrical machines, operating
near y constant voltage and speed, may be grouped into three main losses : ^
)l( Constant, or fixed, losses. These losses do not depend on the load current. T h e ^
of no-load core loss, friction and windage loss (i.e. no-load rotational loss! constitute con
losses unless there is an appreciable variation in speed

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^ 3,9 ] _________________ ________ Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 335

(2) Loss proportional to load current. Brush-contact loss occurs when current is to be
conducted to, or from, the rotating parts of the electrical machine through sliding contacts. The
voltage drop across the stationary brush and the rotating parts is essentially independent of
current.
If Vb = brush drop across the sliding contacts, then brush-contact loss or brush-drop loss is
given by Vh/, where I is the load current.
(3) Losses proportional to the square of load current. Resistance loss in various
machine windings and stray load loss are proportional to the square of load current.
In view of the above, losses in rotating electrical machines may be written as a + bl + cl2
and output or input as A VI where
a = constant losses,
bl = loss proportional to load current,
cl2 = losses proportional to square of load current,
A = constant N 3 x p f for 3-phase machines, p f for single-phase machines and unity for

ww
d.c. machines),
V = machine voltage.

w.E
Motor operation. Power input =AVI

AVI
L z £ r2

asy
; ■
t2i
_ „ „ dn ( A V - b - 2cl) (AVI) - [AVI - a - bl - cl2} (AV)
For constant voltage v, 77 = — : 7 72
dl

En (Denominator)
For efficiency to be maximum, dr\/dl must be equal to zero. S !.
(AV - b - 2cl) (AVI) = (AVI - a - b l -C l2) (AV)
. t2
cl = a
gin (n qi 1

e
Its simplification gives, ‘ '

eri
Thus, the motor efficiency is maximum at a load when variable loss cl2 is equal to constant
loss a.
I'

Generator operation. Power output = AVI

... Efficiency, r\ = , ~2
n g.n ...(3.92)

'
For constant V,
AVI + a + bl + c l
dr\ (AV) (AVI + a + bl + cl2) - (AVI) (AV + b + 2c/)
d /= (Denominator)2
et
For maximum efficiency, dv\/d l - 0 and its simplification gives c l - a
i.e. losses proportional to square of current = constant losses
It is seen from above that for both motors and generators, machine efficiency is maximum
when variable losses are equal to constant losses.
The variable loss, proportional to square of load current, depends upon the current density
specific resistance and volume of conductor material. Similarly, the constant loss is dependen
on flux density, specific density and volume of iron used in a machine As variable and constant
losses must be equal to obtain maximum efficiency, the value of maximum efficiency is
governed by the amount of iron and conductor materials used in a machine It is thus seen that
maximum efficiency at a particular load (near the rated load) can be obtained by suitab y
Proportionating the amount and quality of iron and conductor materials used in a machine.

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336 Electrical Machinery

M a x im u m o u tp u t. The power output P 0 for a motor can be expressed as

n = A V I- a - b l- c l 2

The loss proportional to current I (usually brush-contact loss) is quite small '
be neglected without any appreciable error. In fact, this loss is regarded as" ^ ■ a".theref«re
a.c. machines. Under these conditions, n lndustria|

P0 = A V l - a - c I 2
The motor will have maximum efficiency when
dP0
= A V - 2cl = 0
dl
or I = A V / 2c
The maximum power output Pom is, therefore, given by

ww
(A V ) (A V f
Pom = A V -a - c _
2c
\ > K

w.E _ {AV)
2c
—a -
“
(AV)2 _ (AV)2
Ac ~ 4c
- a

asy is * v / = w V)2/2c' the cfnciency under the —

n=
4c
En x 100 = 5 0 -
200 ac
L (AV) /2c
— J
gin (AV)2
)

e
there are nmre^mn^abmiTst^^ ^ maximum Power 0utPut is less than 50%. This means that
power input annpart n l

eri
* osses occuring in the machine. In other words, about halfof the
cause temperature of the°nS U° a F f]Ilaxin™ m Power output conditions. Such a situation would
ture rise Hence it m a v
n
GV1Ces to be much more than the specified allowable tempera
devices used in power s y s t o m ^ ^ e ^ e r a t e d ' that electrom cchamcal
tice these are nnerai*»H ot o i a g.n “ l>versta
operated to deliver maximum power output. Inprac-
maximum. This however is nnftK so” ,ew^lat less than rated load, at which the efficiency is
power devices The electronic
put As the total power hanHW 8mS *** desi&ned to operate to deliver maximum power out-
devices. P
et
* * S1 uat‘on.in electronic equipments which are usually low-

,S VGFy Sma11’ effi«ency is of little significance in electronic

Example 3.37. fa) 77* transformer output in VA is given by

S = K B m 5 A, A u,

“ / r : r forr rA
Solution, (a) For first transformer, the rating is
s i = K B mS A l l A U)1

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„ nI B a s ic C o n c e p ts o f R o ta tin g E le c t r ic a l M a c h in e s 337
" ”
For second transformer, core area
A ,2 = m 2A fl

and window area A lt)2 = m A („i.

The rating of second transformer,
S 2 = K B m 5 A i2 A ,,2 = K B m 5 (m2 A (1) (m 2 A wl) = m 4 5 ,.

The core or iron loss « volume.

Second transformer core losses
= m3 (core losses in first transformer)

Now I2R = («5)2 ‘ ^

First transformer I2R loss = (ax 6)2

ww
Second transformer I2R loss

w.E = (m2 a 5)2 P m— = m3 (First transformer / 2i? loss).

■ Total losses in second transformer

1 m2ai

asy
= m3 (Total losses in first transformer).
Output ______51 — -----—
Now efficiency - Output + Losses
En S x(pf) + Losses x

For second transformer, efficiency

m4[Sx(pf)] gin
m4(Si(pf)) + m Wi
S x(pf) e eri ...(3.93)
=" “ “1 ^
s i (Pf) + ^
n
Eq. (3.93, shows that greater the value of or, greater is the size of transformer and .arger g.n
is the transformer efficiency, because ^ gets reduced.
It can be shown for rotating electrics, machines also that larger them s,ze, greater ,s the,
et
efficiency.
(b) For transformer A , efficiency
Output __ __gijgL>—
^ A = Output + Losses S x (pf) + Wi

^ - 1 [S\ (P/» = ‘ 1 lSl (P/)1 = 0^95 lSl (P/)l

Losses =
TU
Efficiency of transformer B. from, E ,. (3 93) is giv^nby
S x (pf)
Ifl -
C. CnA +
m
= 0.9744 or 97.44%.
1 + 0.0263

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338 Electrical Machinery __________________

-UrUio
3.10. Machine Ratings
A name-plate fixed to the outside frame of an electrical machine records the d t
to its rating. A machine rating specifies the voltage, current, speed, excitation 3 f Perta‘n-ing
power output etc. under which it can operate satisfactorily. Here satisfactory one P/ e^lc’er»cy>
that temperature rise of the machine above ambient (or si -rounding) temper t 10n llnPlies
exceed a specified temperature when machine operates in accordance with the ,re ^0es not
name-plate. For all types of a.c. motors and d.c. machines, output power rating is • °n
(kilowatt). Older practice was to specify the power output of a.c. and d.c. motors in h ^ 'n ^
(1 h.p. = 746 watts). For a.c. generators, rating is in kVA or M VA. orse-power
Electrical machines are rated on the basis of their temperature rise resulti r
power losses in iron and conductor. The temperature rise mentioned on the name^l t°^ tlle
temperature difference between the hottest part of the winding under specified cond't’ ^
load, speed, voltage, excitation, cooling and the ambient temperature. For reliable and ' r"? °f
tory operation of an electrical machine, it should be ensured that its temperature rise re

ww
within specified limits. The temperature rise not only affects the insulation of an elMri ^
machine but also its mechanical parts ; however, the extent of damage is more detriment?

w.E
insulating materials than to the mechanical parts.
Deterioration of insulation depends on the temperature as well as the time It has been
found that time to failure for organic insulation is reduced to half for every 8 to 10°C mp in
0

machine temperature.
asy
In|Ul^ lng ^ a^ f ria1^ m0,re commonly employed in industrial machines, are classified as

En
pi
Class E Class B Class F and Class H. Other classes of insulation are not of much commercial
interest. These classes of insulation can withstand the following maximum temperatures as per

gin
Insulation class :
Maximum temp. °C
E
120 e B
130
F
155
eri
H
180

a 81™ abT
n
average conditions. These classes of insulation consist of the following materials :
g.n
relater t0 20-year working life of an electrical machine under

et
e^c ^ ass ^ ‘ Synthetic resin enamels, cotton and paper laminates with formaldehyde bonding,

Class B : Mica, glass fibre, asbestos etc. with suitable bonding substances.
Class F . The materials of class B with more thermally-resistant b o n d i n g m a t e r i a l s .

L“ r “ ° ns ° f m ka' glass fibre' asbestos etc' in vari“

the had c^'dUion^or^baddu^cycl^

_ J y ' Th^more^ommori1 1^ ofhtemperature
nem °ie common machine rise>is
ratings are g°VernCd *
as under.
. ^ n t i n u o u s rating. It defines the output which a machine can deliver continuously
without exceeding a specified temperature rise above the ambient (40°C as per I.S.I.).
on fnh0rnn'mC " “ " S ; The output which a machine can supply for a specified period (S. 15.
;. I minutes) without exceeding its permissible temperature limb is called short-time
rating. The machine is assumed to start from cold. lLinPcrature limit is calico m

Intermittent rating. It is the output that a machine can give continuously without cx-
rest periods BPe tcmporaturp a "'identical duty cycles c o " l X o f lo a d in g »»«

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,101 B a s ic C o n c e p ts o f R o ta tin g E le c t r ic a l M a c h in e s 339

' - ------------------------------------------------------------------

The continuous, short-time as well as intermittent ratings depend upon the cooling and
^ermal capability of the machine. Out of these, continuous rating is the most common. The
loading period for a continuously-rated motor is so large that all parts of the machine attain
almost a steady temperature. Continuously-rated motors are used for fans, centrifugal pumps,
lathes, conveyors etc. In short-time rated motors, the loading period is so short that machine
does not attain steady temperature while the rest period is long enough for the machine to cool
to ambient temperature. Short-time rated motors are used for opening and closing weirs, bat­
tery-charging unit, sluice gates, lock gates and bridges etc. The machines with intermittent
rating are loaded with a train of identical duty cycles so that finally the rise and fall in tempera­
ture during each duty cycle are equal. Motors used for hoisting mechanisms, trams, trolley­
buses etc. are subjected to intermittent duty.
Short-time rated motors are designed with higher values of flux and current densities in
iron and conductor respectively. As a consequence, these motors have better torque producing
capability but lower thermal capacity as compared to continuous-rated motors.

ww
A provision is usually made in continuous rated motors that they operate successfully for
±\0% variation in rated voltage and ±5% variation in rated frequency. The combined variation

w.E
in rated voltage and frequency should, in no case, exceed ± 10%. Continuous rated motors are
expected to have ample safety margin so that these can withstand short-time overload of 25 /<
at 90% of rated voltage without any damage to the machine.

asy
3.10.1. Choice of power of electric machines. The choice of power rating of a motor
for any type of load depends upon the load-time graph. For loads remaining substantially con­

En
stant with time, the power rating P can be determined from the expression,

P=
Tun
lOOOq
kW
gin
where T = load torque in Nm ; wm= operating speed in rad/sec
and
e eri
x\ = product of the efficiencies of transmitting device (gear, belt etc.) and the driven
equipment (fan, conveyors etc.).
In many industrial applications, the load requirements vary periodically and over a wide
range. For example, during upward journey of a hoist, the motor is fully-loaded but during
downward journey, the motor is almost unloaded. The problem is now to choose a continuous­
n g.n
rated (C.R.) motor for such widely varying load cycles of periodic nature. A crude, yet quite often
used method is based on the assumption that losses and therefore heating of the motor is
proportional to square of the kW load. This assumption overemphasises the role of / R losses
et
as compared to the constant core loss. According to this method, rating of C.R. Motor - average
loss, or average heating, of the motor over a periodic duty cycle.
So for using this method, obtain kW load-time curve. Then rating of C.R. motor = average
value i f (kW l i d )2 - time curve over one periodic load cycle. A little thought process would
reveal that rating of C.R. motor = rms value of kW load - time penodic curve.
As such, this method of estimating the power rating of C.R. mohir for periodically varying
loads has come to be called rms power method. Thus, according to this method,
- , -*I/2
£ (*W r x time
rms power = rating of C.R. motor I time

is the same as

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340 Electrical Machinery

• . '— — fAri
If standstill time is also a part of the duty cycle (os in a lift, crane etc.) thp k " 3.10
modified as under : a 0Ve relatj
•ionis
1/2
__________ £ (kW)2 x time _
r.m.s.-power =
irunning
u n i t i n g time
u n it; +
t (standstill
\ s t u i i u a t n i tim
i n i i ue/k)
/

Here the constant k accounts for the poor ventilation during the standstill t' ^
is no forced cooling. For open-type motors, k = 4 and for closed motors, k ~ \ Wben there
note that r.m.s.-power method can be used only if period of duty cycle'is sm 11 1S 'mportantt0
the time for the motor to attain a steady temperature. as Spared
to
Though r.m.s.-power method does not give precise
results, yet it is used quite often. The error involved in
using this method is partially offset by choosing a higher
standard rating of the motor. Thus the need for precise
computations is avoided with the rounding of calculated- m

ww
rms-power rating to a higher commercially available
motor size. For example, if r.m.s. power method gives 01 B
motor rating as 46 kW, then a motor with continuous w

w.E
rating of 50 kW should be selected.
For duty cycles with high-torque peaks, a motor
selected on the basis of r.m.s.-power method cannot fur­

asy
nish such torques. For these types of duty cycles short­
time rated motors are better suited as they possess better F**■ 3 52- Pertaining to continuous and
torque producing capabilities.
En short-time ratings.

sible temperature rise 9 ,as shown in Fig 3 52 TE p tp ♦

gin
tho ^ C° ntinU0US-rated moto«- can deliver higher power output for short-time ratine Let? he
the power of a continuous-rated motor. Under rated loading P it will heh t ^ g; UtP' be
UP
f

where zh = Heating time constant.

0 = 0^.(1 _ e~t/xi<) e
own in t ig. 3.52, The temperature rise at any time t is given by

eri
as a n g.n
AB, which is much u . +k ..

time rated motor roofs down^o ambient tem'6 ‘ 7

duration the final temperature rise w o u w l
*
k 7
'

™ ^
1,16
^
x» would attain a final temperature rise

short'timCloadiugP.to
et
motor, when used with lonH P f u aga>n be AB. This means that continuous rated
the motor, th^^mnwature^s^H i?8 ^ura^ on is underutilized. F o r full utilization of
that final temperature during t time loadin£ should follow the curve AB’ C®
short-time rating t is more t J CUFVe A B C can be flo w e d only if load during
for short-time loading is less thfl ' t * 1 Ioad be P* which is more than Pr. In case the period
for the permissible temperature Hsp J r n ^ higher than ?x Can be delivered by the ^
reduced, the short-time rating of Hm I- * Can bbus be inferred that as the loading Perl° lS
If the motor is made to dpliv u ° n muous' rated motor rises,
rise would be 0/ as shown in F i / s U ° r ^ ° l0ad continuously. the final temperature
time tx. This can be expressed as U perabure rise, in this case, wcmld be a

0/ = 0 / ( l - e ~ fA>)
or 0 ,

...(3.96)
0 ^ - 1 1 - e x p ( - t x/ x h ) ]

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Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 341

Here temperature rise Qf is never attained by the motor.

As heating, or temperature rise, of the motor depends on loss, Eq. (3.96) can be written as

ff = ^ = | l - e x p ( - ( , / t t )l ...(3.97)

rt.],ere losses Wr and Wx are corresponding to loads Pr and Px respectively. Loss W, at rated load
p is given by
W, = core loss, Wt. + ohmic loss, W0
Let the ratio (Wc/W 0) be a. Then
W,. = aW o + Wo = (l + a )W 0 - (3-98)
But ohmic loss is proportional to current squared. As load on motof is proportional to cur
rent (except series motor), it follows that ohmic loss is proportional to square of load, as
result, ohmic loss at load Px can be written as proportional to (Px) . Since W0 is the o mic os

ww
at rated load P r, total losses Wx at load Px can be expressed as
Wx = Wc + W0 (Px/Pr)2 = a W0 + W0 (Px/ P f

w.E
From Eqs. (3.97) to (3.99),
= [a + (Px/Pr)2] W0
...(3.99)

Wx a + (Px/Pr)
Wr ~ 1+a asy 1 - exp ( - tx/W

1+ a
En
-.1/2
- a

gin
P* = Pr 1 - exp ( - )

In case core loss Wc is neglected, then a = 0 and Eq. (3.100) becomes

p -p \ I-----------
-.1/2
e eri
^ r 1 - exp ( - tx/\h)

n
From Eqs. (3.100) and (3.101), short-time rating PMfor duration tx can be obtained for a
motor with continuous rating P .and heating time constant t*. g.n
Example 3.38. For the periodic load-time plot shown m Fig. 3.47, ft
r.m.s. value over the periodic time T. -iu(,n hv
Solution. For any time 1 measured from <„ the ordinate ,s g,ven by
an expression o
et
„ H2- H , H t^ H ± t

Square of this ordinate is

(Tf)

R M S value o f this e x p r e s s i o n j . .
i. from lft o t ' e from 0 to 7 , ; dividing it by penodie time
T and then taking its square root,
r.m.s. value
77 T Z "(ff, - Hi)2 <‘ d , + U h W i z M i l
1
w T
J , . H 2, dt + ----------- d l+ T,
F ig. 3 63 Pertaining to E x a m p le 3.38.

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342 Electrical Machinery

i \ h ,2 T, + (H22 + H ,2 - 2H, ff 2) Y + (Hi - w ,2) T,]

1 /2

i )(//? + + H , t f2) r , / 3

Exam ple 3.39. A motor driving a coal-mine equipment has to supply a load rising Uny
ly from zero to maximum o f 2000 kW in 30 seconds during the accelerating period, 1000kw/
60 seconds during the full load period. During deceleration period o f 10 seconds when reBe
tive braking takes place, the kW returned to the mains falls from an initial value of600kW°"
zero uniformly. The interval for decking before I•
LOAD ~ IN
the next load cycle starts is 20 seconds. E s­ kw
timate a suitable kW rating o f the motor based
on r.m.s.-power method. 2000
Solution. The variation of load power over
a duty cycle of 120 seconds is illustrated in Fig.

ww
3.54. The r.m.s. value of this cycle gives the kW
rating of a continuous-rated motor. /
1 0 0 0 kw I

w.E
The slope of the load-time curve during ac­
celeration is 2000/30 kW per sec. and that during
deceleration is 600/10 kW per sec. At any time t
1,1
f a

load kW is asy
measured from the zero of the load-time curve, the
f200 ' kW and (60 1) kW respectively
r '4 r

j~30 -|- 60—

-6 0 0 P \
— |

during acceleration and deceleration periods. The

En TIM E IN SEC.-
F ig . 3 .5 4 . P e r ta in in g to E xam ple 3.39.
r.m.s. value is therefore given by r.m.s.-power
* 30 / f t n n \
gin f 10 1/2

120
J

\2
e
dt + (1000)2 x 60 + J0 (60t) * d t + 0 x 2 0

eri 1/2

120
200
®
n
- + 6 0 x 106 + 1200 x 103|

g.n
= 918.33 kW.

So choose a motor of rating above 918.33 kW, say 950 kW.

E xam ple 3.40. Points on the motor-duty cycle, estimated on the basis o f the proposed rolling
schedule and previous experience with rolling mills, are given in the following table:
et
Time, sec 0 5 36 39 55 80
R epeat cycle
Output, kW j 150 1000 1400 300 150 150

The complete curve can be obtained by joinin g these points with straight lines.
Specify the continuous kW-rating o f the motor.
tampk'
Solution. The load-time curve for one duty cycle is shown in Fig. 3.55 for this ex
Continuous kW-rating can be obtained by taking the r.m.s. value of this load-time eye
Example 3.38, the r.m.s. power can be obtained as under :

0 —5 sec ] Hi = 150, H 2 = 1000

5 - 3 6 sec ; H x = 1000, H 2 = 14
and so on.

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Art. 3-101 Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 343

LOAD IN
kw

36 39 55
TIME IN SEC.-
Fig. 3.55. Load time graph for Example 3.40.

.*. r.m.s.-power = I f (1502 + 10002 + 150 x 1000 + ^ (10002 + 14002 + 1000 x 1400)
80 I3 w

ww + - (14002 + 3002 + 1400 x 300) + ^ (3002 + 1502 + 300 x 150) + 25 x 15021

3 « J■
1/2

w.E r i
= — {1954,166.6 + 45,053,333 + 2,470,000 + 840,000 + 562,500[J
80
l l 1/2

= 797.49606 kW
asy
Choose a motor with continuous rating of 800 kW.
E xam ple 3.41. (a) Temperature rise o f a 200
efficiency of9 En
,w as found to be 29°C after one hour and
%
8
unity
on

gin
fuU-load ohmic loss is 3 times the iron loss. What is the final steady temperature rise o f the
transformer on rated load ?
(b)
is increased by 20%, find the new kVA rating e
I f the transformer cooling is improved by using a fan so that the effective heat dissipation

eri
(i)for the same final temperature rise os above and
(ii) for a temperature rise o f 78°C.
Solu tion. (a ) From Eq. (3.95), n g.n
and
20 = 0^(1 —e ~ 1/x>)
34 = 0^(1 —e_2/x*)
34 l - e ~ 2/T* _ i , e-
et
•• 20 l - e ^T7Th~L 6

Its simplification gives T/, = 2.804 hrs.

20 r = 66.67°C
1 - exp ( - 1/2.804)
Hern 0, is the fine! steady temperature rise of the transformer on rated load
(6), ( i)F o r t h e s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e rise , with increased h eat dissipation, new allowable losses

V, are
Wx = 1.2 Wr. Here a = IVC/W 0 = 1 /3

From Eq. (3.98) and (3.99),

W\ a + (Px/Pf
1+ a

M
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344 Electrical Machinery

1
3 + {px/pry
1.2 _ L
or =

l+l
Px = 1.1255 x 2 0 0 = 225.1 kVA
(ii) For allowable temperature rise of 78°C, the new permissible losses are
78
W = x 1.2 Wr. As in part (i ),
* 66.67

78
x 1.2 =
66.67 " i
1+i
or Px = 1.241 x 200 = 248.2 kVA.

ww
Exam ple 3.42. The efficiency o f a 3-phase, 100 kW, 440 V, 50 Hz induction motor is 90% .
rated load. Its final temperature rise under rated load conditions is 40°C and its heatin tim
incase
w.E
constant is 180 minutes. For the same temperature rise, calculate its one hour rating
constant loss is equal to the variable loss at rated load, (b) constant loss is neglected
Solution. Here xh = 3 hours,
(a)

(a)
asy
a= 1
1/2

En
1+ 1
From Eq. (3.100), Pz = 100 - 1 = 246 kW
1 - exp ( - 1/3)

(6) From Eq. (3.101), P = 100

1
1 - exp ( - 1/3) gin 1/2

= 187.8 kW

e eri
This example demonstrates that neglect of core loss gives pessimistic results for the allow­
able one-hour rating.

n
Exam ple 3.43. One hour rating o f a machine is twice its continuous rating. Its final steady

g.n
temperature rise, i f operated on one-hour rating, is twice o f that under rated load. Find the ratio
o f core loss to ohmic loss at rated load.
Solution. From Eqs. (3.97M 3.99),
*f W r i+ a
a + (Px/Prf
et
¥
1 1+ a
or or a = 2.
2 a + (2)"
Thus the ratio of core loss to ohmic loss is 2.
3.11. C ooling (Loss dissipation)
Cooling of electrical machines is essential for dissipating the heat generated by various
losses and thus to prolong the life of insulating materials. In small electrical machines, naW
cooling is adequate. In these machines, cooling by natural radiation and convection associ
with random air circulation inside the machine body is enough to keep their te* pf ef0l-
within limits. However, as the machine size increases, cooling becomes more difficult, i
lowing example illustrates this fact. ,^
Exam ple 3.44. A rotating electrical machine has its linear dimensions n\ ^,neSf 1vesatne
dimensions o f another machine. Compare their losses and cooling. Both the machines ha
flux and current densities.

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^ ■ —

Basic C o n c e p t o f Rotating Electrical Machines 345

«dS As thT w eilh t™1^ ! ? .! 616? " ' 31 ma<* in c’ core or ir° n ioss depends on the weight or iron
used. As the weight - volume o f iron x its density, it can be stated that
Core loss « Volume
First machine coreloss, Pcl « (volume)

Second machine coreloss, Pc2 m 3 (volume)

*'• P c2 = m 3 P cl

Now I2R loss = (a8)2 ^

a

First machine I 2 R ioss = (a,5)2 — 1

Qi
Second machine l 2R loss = (m2 a l 5)2 —™
2_
m aj

ww = m3 (first machine I2R loss)

/. Total losses in second machine

w.E 3 ii •
= m (total losses in first machine)
Cooling surface area of second machine = m2 (cooling surface area of first machine)

_ asy
For second rotating electrical machine of bigger size, the losses per unit area
Losses in second machine

En
Surface area of second machine
or losses per unit area in second machine
_
gin
m3(losses in first machine)
m 2 (cooling area of first machine)

e
= m (losses per unit area in first machine)

eri
This shows that for second machine of bigger size (m > 1), the loss per unit area is m times

n
that in first machine. In other words, heat to be dissipated per unit area rises as the machine
rating, or size, increases. It may therefore be stated that larger machines are difficult to cool
than smaller ones and hence require more elaborate cooling arrangements. g.n
Forced air cooling is used for large machines. In this scheme, air is first passed through
cleaning filter and then forced into the machine for cooling purposes. A still better method of
providing clean cooled air is the closed-circuit ventilation system. This is used for small-rating
et
turboalternators. In closed-circuit scheme, hot air from the machine is cooled by means of a
water-cooled heat-exchanger and then returned to the machine by a fan. In order that heat
arising from the losses is removed more efficiently, cooling ducts are provided in large machines
along their core length.
Hydrogen-cooling. Large-rating turbogenerators require compactness from the view­
point of economy and transportation. For such generators, closed air-circuit ventilation system
is not sufficient to cool the machine effectively. The fan size required to circulate air also in­
creases considerably making the air cooling of large turbogenerators an uneconomical proposi­
tion. For such machines, therefore, a better coolant should replace the air. Hydrogen has been
found a well-suited cooling medium and is more common in the totally enclosed ventilating
system of large turbogenerators. Hydrogen as a coolant has the following advantages over air :
(i) Efficiency and noise. Hydrogen density is only about 0.07 that of air at the same
temperature and pressure. There are, therefore, much less windage and ventilation losses. As
a result, machine efficiency is more.

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i,

346 F.lectricul Machinery

Since tho revolving pnrts rotate in low-density hydrogen, the noise produced is less
(it) Cooling. On an equal-wcight basis, specific heat of hydrogen is about 14.5 times th
of air. Heat storing capacity is given by
mass (m) x specific heat (s) x temperature rise (0)
If heat stored in air is m s 0, then heat stored in hydrogen is given by
(0.07 m) (14.5 s) (0) « ms 0.
This shows that for the same temperature and pressure, heat storing capacity per Unt
volume is same for both hydrogen and air. But heat transfer between hot parts ofthemachin
and the cooling gas is about 1.5 times with hydrogen than with air. This means that cooling
with hydrogen is more rapid.
(iii) Life. When air is used in high-voltage machines, then during corona discharge the
oxygen and nitrogen in air may form ozone, nitric acid and other chemical compounds which
may react with organic insulating material. This reaction may harm the insulation, thus reduc­
ing the life of insulating material.

ww
When hydrogen is used as a coolant, ozone and other chemical compounds due to corona
discharge cannot be formed because of the absence of oxygen. The life of insulation is therefore

w.E
increased and the maintenance expenses are reduced.
(iv ) Fire H azard. Fire hazard inside the machine is minimised because hydrogen-air mix­
ture does not explode so long as the hydrogen content is more than 70%.

asy
(v) Rating. Hydrogen pressure inside the machine system is maintained at a pressure
above atmospheric. With this, the air cannot leak into hydrogen circuit to form an explosive

En
mixture. However, hydrogen leakage can only be outward. Hydrogen cooling at 1,2 and 3 times
the atmospheric pressure can raise the rating of the machine by 15, 30 and 40% respectively
above its air-cooled rating.
gin
The stator of hydrogen cooled machine must be gas tight and explosion proof. For this pur­

e
pose, oil-filled gas-seals at the rotor shaft ends are necessary.

eri
D irect cooling. It is also referred to as conductor cooling or inner cooling. The tur­

n
bogenerator output can be increased by raising the hydrogen pressure inside the machine. But

g.n
beyond a certain pressure, the increase in output is not economical with the rise in hydrogen
pressure. This led to the development of direct cooling of large machines.
With direct cooling of turbogenerators, it is possible almost to double their output with the
same physical size. In other words, for the same output, the physical size of the turbogenerator
can almost be reduced to half. Here the coolant (liquid or gas) is forced through ducts inside the
et
conductors. Thus the thermal barrier presented by the insulating material is largely overcome
and conductor losses are very effectly absorbed by the coolant.
(a) D irect gas cooling. Large stator cores for turbogenerators are provided with bothaxial
and radial cooling ducts as shown in Fig. 3.56. For rotor of 100 M W or above, the rotor conduc or
consists of hollow rectangular tubes as shown in Fig. 3.57. The hydrogen gas is admitte
these tubes through in sulatin g s t a t o r CORE RADIAL COOLING DUCTS
flexible connections at the ends. I ______________________ jL_
D ir e c t w a te r c o o lin g . W ith A X IA L
T
ratings of 1000 M W or so, hydrogen COOLING:/
cooling is not sufficient to cope with DUCTS
the dissipation of large losses. For
such ratings, the volume of hydrogen
of
required is so large that its use be­ Fig. 3.56. Radial and axial cooling ducts in stator c
comes uneconomical. As the rotor core large machines.

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A rt. 3.12)
-------------- B a s ic C o n c e p ts o f R o ta tin g E le c tr ic a l M a c h in e s 347
length in creases for large "WEDGE r-wcnrp
ratings, the middle portion may WtDGE rWEDGE
not be cooled efficiently even
with the use of hydrogen. These
limitations of hydrogen cooling COOLING
^CONDUCTORS DUCTS
can be overcome by employing
~7 CONDUCTORS
water cooling.

Turbogenerators of the
highest ratings are likely to
have hydrogen-cooled stator
cores and direct water cooled —COOLING
DUCT
stator and rotor windings. The (a)
advantages of using water over
Fig. 3.57. Turbo-rotor conductor cooling : (a) conventional
hydrogen are as under : (6) direct gas (c) direct water.

ww
therefore,Tarry “ o r T h e a f “ 8eVera‘ tHa‘ of ^ r o g e n i *«.

w.E
(«) Though water speed in the cooling ducts is limited to about 2.5 m/sec for avoiding
erosion and cavitation, yet water cooling is more efficient than hydrogen.
(itt) The duct area for water may be small, this permits more space for copper in the slot.

asy
The disadvantages of direct water cooling are that (i) cost of cooling system becomes more
and (ii ) water should be highly purified and distilled.
3.12. M achine Applications
En
gin
Machine application means choice of an electrical machine well-suited to meet the demand
of a load. A judicious selection of a machine for a given load requires that machine terminal

e
characteristics and load characteristics are known to a fair degree of accuracy. In addition, it is
essential that machine and load characteristics are compatible with each other for stable and
efficient operation of the machine-load combination.
eri
For many industrial applications, electric motor is usually fed from a constant voltage
source. A motor connected to such a source would have one speed-torque curve as shown in Fig.
3.58 (a) for a 3-phase induction motor. The load requires torque that may, or may not, vary with
n g.n
speed. In Fig. 3.58 (a), the speed-torque curve for a fan type load is shown by a dotted curve.
The steady operating point P is obtained where the load characteristic intersects the motor
characteristic. At this point P, the torque developed by the motor electromagnetically is equal
et
to the torque absorbed by the load mechanically.

TORQUE TORQUE
(fl) (6)
Fig. 3.58. (a) Speed-torque characteristics of a motor-load system,
(ft) Speed-torque curves o f various types of mechanical loads.

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348 Electrical Machinery j ArL 3 J2

The torque required by a mechanical load, in general, depends upon the type of drivo,,
equipment. The speed-torque characteristic of a load represents he change in speed as the lnaJ
torque is varied. For various driven mechanisms, the speed-torque characteristics may broadly
be classified as under :
(а) S p e e d -t o r q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n d e p e n d e n t o f speed . For some driven
mechanisms, load torque T 1 does not depend upon the operating speed. This is indicated bv
curve 1 in Fig. 3.58 (6). Examples of such loads are cranes during hoisting and loads in which
friction is dominant like reciprocating pumps, air compressors etc.
(б) Parabolic speed-torque characteristics. This is illustrated by curve 2 in Fig. 3.55
(6). In such driven equipments, the load torque is proportional to some power of speed. Ex­
amples of such loads are fans, centrifugal pumps, propellers in ships etc. In fans, the load
torque is almost proportional to square of speed.
(c) H vperbolic speed-torque characteristics. These type of characteristics are il­
lustrated by curve 3 in Fig. 3.58 (b). For such loads, the dn\ en equipment requires a torque that

ww
is inversely proportional to speed. In other words, the load torque required is low at high speeds
and high at low speeds. Such type of characteristics are possessed by lathes, milling machines,
machine tools, winches etc. Since these loads are associated with high torque at low speeds and

w.E
low torque at high speeds, the power required to driv e such loads remains substantially con­
stant.

asy
(d) L in ear speed-torque characteristics. These type of characteristics are indicated by
straight line 4 in Fig. 3.58 (6). Such characteristics are possessed by viscous friction and loads
in which loading torque is directly proportional to speed. Calendering machines, eddy-current

En
brakes and generators feeding fixed resistors display such type of speed-torque characteristics.

gin
In all types of mechanical loads discussed above, the motor must be able to supply the
starting as well as the running torques wdthin specified limits of current and temperature rise.

e
The electromagnetic torque developed by a motor may remain constant with load or may

eri
vary wuth it. Based on this, the speed-torque characteristics of motors may be classified as
under:

n g.n
(a) F la t-ty p e ch aracteristics. Some motors develop electro-magnetic torque which does
not depend on their operating speed. Such a characteristic is indicated by curve 1 in Fig. 3.59

et
(a). These type of characteristics are possessed by synchronous and hysteresis motors.
(b) S h u n t-ty p e ch aracteristics. In motors possessing shunt type characteristics, the
speed drops from no-load to full-load by a few percent as shown by curve 2 in Fig. 3.59 (a).
Examples of such motors are a.c. induction motors and d.c. shunt motors.

HI
o
GENERATOR /
p/

CURREnT
{1a) 01
1lb)
Fig. 3.59. (a) Various types o f speed-torque characteristics o f electric motors.
(6 ) Volt-ampere characteristics o f generator-load combination.

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(c) Series-type characteristics. In some motors, high electromagnetic torque is as­

sociated with low speed but low electrical torque with high speed. Such characteristics, indi­
cated by curve 3 in Fig. 3.59 (a), are referred to as series-type characteristics. A.C. series (also
called universal motors in small sizes) and d.c. series motors possess these types of charac­
teristics.
The speed-torque characteristics shown in Fig. 3.59 (a) can be raised or lowered in adjus-
table-speed drives. D.C. motors are best suited for such speed-controlled drives than a.c.
motors.
Just as in a motor, the operating point in generator-load combination is obtained where
there characteristics intersect each other. In Fig. 3.59 (6), solid curve shows variation of output
voltage of a generator (d.c. shunt generator or alternator) as its load current is increased. The
voltage-current graph for a load is shown in this figure by dotted curve. When this generator
feeds power to this load, operating point P is obtained by the intersection of their V-I charac­
teristics. At point P, the power given out by the generator is equal to the power absorbed by the

ww
load. When several generators are operated in parallel, as in power generating stations, it is
desired that terminal voltage should remain almost constant over a wide variation of load.

w.E
However, when a motor is fed from a single generator, the output voltage of the generator may
be adjusted in a particular fashion so as to obtain a wide speed-control of the motor.
It is seen from above that the most outstanding features of electrical machines are the

asy
torque-speed characteristics for a motor and V-I characteristics for a generator. Equally impor­
tant are the limits between which these characteristics can be varied without any damage to

En
the electrical machine. Other relevant economic features are efficiency, pf, initial cost and effect
of losses on operating cost, heating and ratings of electrical machines. Several of these impor­

gin
tant features are discussed for the common types of electrical machines in the present book.
Steady state performance of electrical machines has been discussed in detail in this book.

e
However, the role played by rotating electrical machines in modern technology has become so

eri
wide that an understanding of their transient and dynamic behaviour is of paramount impor­
tance. For this purpose, the mechanical features such as shaft elasticity, system moment of

n
inertia and friction must be included in the equations governing the performance of a machine­
load system. Such an analysis, being quite complex, is beyond the scope of the present book.
This type of analysis is, however, presented in the companion volume “Generalized Theory of g.n
Electrical Machines” written by the author of the present book.

PROBLEM S
et
3.1. (a) Give the physical concepts about the production o f electromagnetic and reluctance torque in rotating
electrical m achines.
(b) Show that the net electromagnetic torque developed is zero if the rotating electrical machine has
different num ber o f poles on its stator and rotor.
3.2. (a) Explain the production o f torque through the concept o f interaction of magnetic fields. Using this
concept, show that no electrom agnetic torque is produced if (i) stator has 4 poles and rotor has 2 poles, (n)
stator has 6 poles and rotor has 2 poles.
0b) Explain the concept o f alignm ent torque. Using this concept discuss the condition under which
reluctance torque will be developed in an electrical machine having cylindrical stator and salient-pole rotor.
[Ans. (6 ) The exciting winding must be on statorl

3.3. fa) From the construction point of view, enumerate the common essential features of rotating electrical
machines.
(6) Describe the constructional features of both types of polyphase induction motors. Why has induction
motor come to be called so ?

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350 Electrical Machinery-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- — -jP rob . 3

3.4. ia)D escr.be the advantages o f providing held w inding on the rotor end arma.nre winding

in “ < » G ilX r n tC Iw o f »o*h < W " ofsyn ch ron ou s machines. W hy has sy n ch ron y ^

Z . G iv e 'fte constructional features o f * machines. W ith a suitable diagram, describe the c o n e t n * ^

details o f a com m utator also.
3.6. Explain, with suitable diagrams, the fo llo w in g :
ia 1stator o f a 3-phase induction machine and the different materials used for its construction,
6 squirrel-cage rotor o f a 3-phase induction motor and the different materials used for its co„ltniclim
(c) w ound-rotor o f a 3-phase induction m otor alongwith the various materials used,
id) 2-pole, 3-phase salient-pole stator o f alternator with arm ature having 6 s ots,
(e) 4-pole, 3-phase salient-pole stator o f alternator w ith arm ature having 12 slots, two parallel paths with

rotTr'spider having four salient poles with damper bars, cylindrical rotor having four-pole field .indin,
and the materials used for their construction,

ww
<g) different parts o f a dc-m achine stator and the m aterials used for their construction,
(h) different parts o f a dc machine rotor and the m aterials used for their construction.
3.7. (a) In what respect are ac and dc generators (i) sim ilar and (ii) different.
(6)
w.E How can a dc generator be converted into a 3-phase delta-connected alternator ?
(c) What is yoke, pole core, pole-shoe in a dc m achine ? W hat purpose do they serve ?

asy
(d) W hy is pole-shoe area more than the pole-core area in dc m achines ?
(e) W hat is a com m utator ? W hat purpose does it serve in a dc generator and motor ?

En
(f) Distinguish between armature w ipding and field winding.
(g ) Distinguish between load current and exciting current.
3.8. (a) W hy are some parts o f electrical m achines lam inated ?

gin
(b) Which parts o f the following m achines are lam inated and w hich are not ? DC machines, 3-phase
--

synchronous m achines, 3-phase induction machines.

(c) Why is yoke lam inated in some dc motors ?
e eri
(d) Which type o f rotor o f a 3-phase induction motor permits the insertion of external resistance in its circuit.
(e) W hy are rotor bars skewed in a squirrel-cage rotor ?
3.9. (a) Give the physical concepts o f the follow ing : n g.n
(i) Flux-density wave is sinusoidally distributed in space.
(ii) Pulsating-stationary flux.
(b) Distinguish clearly between the electrical and m echanical degrees. Show that
P
et
PN
and Hz.

3.10. (a) Explain the follow ing term s with respect to rotatin g electrical machines :
Pole-pitch, coil, coil-side, full-pitch coil, chorded-coil, chording angle, coil span.
(6 ) Show that for a P -pole m achine, the total flux per pole is given by
A

* = p B P lr
' (c) D efine the term s : conductor, end-connection, turn, tw o-turn coi1. 0f its relat‘ve
3.11. (a) D erive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in one N -tu m full-pitch coil because ^ ^ that
motion with respect to tim e-invariant flux (j). H ence show that the generated e.m.f. lag8 ^
produces it.
if •
.
Iternator "
(b) C alculate the phase and line voltages o f a three-phase star-connected 4-pole
total flux per pole 0.30 Wb. Each phase has a concentrated w indin g o f 10 full-pitched ^ 666 33 V, H54‘
velocity between arm ature w inding and field flux is 1500 r.p.m .. * D ’

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----------------------------------------------------------------------Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 351

3.12. (a) Show that e.m.f. generated in a short-pitched coil is reduced by a factor cos | where c is the
chording angle.

* - S th Sh° W aV' ? e' Value ° f e m f generated in one condnctor ia P « n where

=.vDression for the ! m f r L ^ , P J P°.r “ " = relative speed betwee" nul< <“ "> eonductor. Hence derive
an expression tor the e.m.f. generated in the armature winding o f a synchronous machine.
J l Z e o r d J l ' ° f voltage equations, as a function o f time, for the three phases o f synchronous machine
wjth phase order a. b, c. Take time on gin at the instant flux linkages with phase a are (i) zero and (ii) maximum.

» 'yrite, a set o f voltage equations as a function of time for the line e.m.fs for
VrJ? alternator. Show that line voltages are also displaced from each other by a time angle of
1u\J •
(H int, (d) Line voltage ellb = e„ - eb etc.J

[Ans. (c) (i) ea = <2 E cos cof, eb = ^12 E cos (of - 120°), ec = V2 E cos (orf - 240°)
Ui) ea = >f2 E sin tat, eb = <2 E sin (lot - 120°) etc.
(d) (i) eab = V3 Emcos (a* +30°), = V3 Ein cos (col - 90°), eea = V3 Emcos (cot + 150°); E,„ = V2 £

ww
(« ) eab = V3' Emsin (col + 30°), = V J Emsin (col - 90°), efa = V3 E,„ sin (col + 150°)|
3.13. One A^-turn coil on cylindrical stator is short-pitched by e electrical space degrees and salient-pole

w.E
rotor has 2-pole structure which produces sinusoidal flux along the air-gap periphery. Derive general expression
for the flux linkages with the chorded coil in terms o f peak flux density and core dimensions. Find also the
ratio o f fractional-pitch coil flux linkages to that o f the full-pitch coil. |Ans. 2 fl,, l.r cos e/2, cos e/2]

asy
3.14. O ne Af-turn full-pitched coil rotates with an angular velocity o f wf rad/sec with respect to fleld flux.
Give an expression for the flux linkages with the coil as a function o f time t and hence derive therefrom

En
an expression for the em f generated in the coil. Discuss nature of the em f expression so obtained.
3.15. The stator o f a 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction machine is supplied from 3-phase, 50 Hz supply.
The slip rings o f the machine are open circuited. It is desired that frequency o f the voltage across slip rings is

gin
(a) 50 Hz (6 ) 75 Hz (c) 100 Hz (d) 25 Hz. Find the speed of the rotor to obtain these frequencies.
(A ns. (a) Zero speed, (6 ) 750 r.p.m. against the direction o f rotating field, (c) 1500 r.p.m. against the

e
direction o f rotating field, (d) 750 r.p.m. in the direction o f rotating field.)

eri
3.16. (a) Explain how a polyphase induction motor o f the slipring type can be used as a frequency changer.
(b) The frequency o f the e.m.f. in the stator circuit o f a 6-pole induction motor is 50 Hz. If rotor circuit
e.m.f. has a frequency o f 2 Hz, then find :
(*") the direction in which the rotor is revolving with respect to the rotating field.
(ii) the slip and the rotor speed.
n g.n
(Ans. (b) (i) in the direction of rotating field, (it) 0.04, 960 r.p.m.1
3.17. (a) Explain how a.c., generated in the armature circuit o f a d.c. machine, is rectified to d.c. by means
of a com m utator.
(b) D erive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in a d.c. machine.
et
3.18. (a) A 10 kW , 250 V, 8-pole, 600 r.p.m. lap-connected d.c. generator has 400 armature conductors. At
rated voltage and current, arm ature ohm ic losses are 150 watts. Compute the useful flux per pole.
(b) A 6-pole d.c. generator has a rated speed o f 800 r.p.m. Calculate frequency o f the e.m.f.
(i) generated in the arm ature conductors and
Ui) at the brushes.
[H int, (a) = 150 w atts. Calculate E„ from the relation E„ = V, + /„ ru and then the flux per pole.l
(Ans. (a) 0.06344 Wb (b ) 40 Hz ; 0 Hz I.

3.19. (a) W hat are the advantages o f distributing the windings in slots?
(b) Define distribution factor and show that its expression for the fundamental frequency component is
given by gi-n ? Y / 2
q sin y/ 2
(c) Define the term s phase-band and phase-spread. In 3-phase a.c. machines, explain why a phase-spread
of60° is preferred to a phase spread o f 120°.

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352 E le c t r ic a l M a c h in e r y

IH in t, (c) For o = 60°. k = 0.955 and for a = 120°, = 0.827. T h u s the phase e.m.f. js r e .
riven arm ature current, a.c. m ach in e ou tpu t is also reduced. F or a narrow nk ? 3nc*^ a
. . 0.955 . Se'sPread ftr»
the phase e.m.f. and output for a given cu rren t are q ^ 7 = 1-15 tim es their corresp ^
for the w ide phase-spread o f 120°. n8valuej>
Also for o = 60, k^ = 0.637 and for o = 120°, = 0. T h ou gh o = 120° eliminates third
com pletely from the phase and line e.m .fs., yet 60° phase-spread is almost al arrnonics
because third harm onics can be suppressed from the lines by connecting the k ^ * emP'°yed
delta.) b Ie Phases in star oj
3.20. (a) E num erate the advantages o f fractional pitch w inding.
( b ) Define pitch factor and derive an expression for it.
(c) W hat should be the value o f chording angle for elim in atin g
(i) third harm onics,
(ii) 5th harm onics and

ww (iii) 7th harm onics from the phase e.m.fs.

(d) Define w inding factor. W hat is its value for
(i) full-pitched distributed winding and

w.E (ii) short-pitched concentrated w inding ?

3.21. (a) Discuss the effect o f pitch and distribution factors in an alternator.
(Ans. (c) 6Q0 360 ^

is 500
asy
m P^ ! r 0Sl ar‘ ; r neC! ef alternator has a ratinS o f 810 kV A at 2.5 kV and has 12 poles. Ratedspeed
00 r.p.m. There are three slots per pole per phase and nu m ber o f conductors per slot is 5 For a full nitJLi

En
winding, com pute the flux per pole to give rated term inal voltage at no load. * “

IAns. (6 ) 0.07522 Wb!

phase spread I V w t T l W ^ ^ ^
gin ^ ^ phaS6’ Caku,ate the breadth * «

e
(b) An alternator has 3 slots per pole per phase. For a coil span o f 8 slots,find the winding factor.

eri IA ns. (b) 0.9598, 0.8312 (6) 0.94521

n
iron core and r o ta te s ^ a ^ tu w f tu.rn_co d ’ tbe en8s o f which are connected to slip-rings, is wound on a cylindrical

g.n
waveform o f the em f for one rev°\ « 6 ’ <• k p arc being 75% o f the pole pitch. Sketch and account for the

ne o n h e T ^ n T h V p e l e^C* ^ (i> ° f ‘ he “ lh' * * Uf.Ai .S

V., JiyS
wi

T he coil span is 12 slots

em f harm onics is ^ h m in a te d * P°'‘ “ ° 12 W b - et
connec^e3 a p e m a tor has 120 stator slots and each slot has 10 conductors
‘ he induced em f between lines. Which rffc
(I.A .S .,

fa) r X X X X a v e ’ * 2 2 5 ° “ nd the last 2 2 '5’ - For 75% ° f P” 1' P^ 11” 135’ ' “"
(b) 8400.3 V, 5th harmonic.)
3.24. A 3-phase, delta-connected, 4-pole 50 a ir: v • j w . i . a in turn
coils, each short-pitched by one slot I f stator leek induction m otor has 36 stator slots and 101
rotating flux-density wave in case the stator o f b i d u f f ,mpedanc.e 15 neglected, find the flux pei-pole®
winding. induction m otor has (a) single-layer winding (6) d°ublt‘ /L
3 2*5 A A. , J , ‘A ” 8- <«> 0 03295 Wb lb ) 0 016

stator' s L w ; S S , ydeer X r e t n d t , UCt,° " T t " ‘ S SUPPUed from 416 V ’ 3'Pha“ " ^ 2
air-gap radius 10 c m ^ n d aair-rg r p nien^haf m m Urn Ch° rded by ° ne slot Its sta’tor' length iS 3° Cra' "1' 8n
(a) For negligible stator impedance finH ikr. n .
<61 Find the line current drew n by X m o r in ^ ' t ? r° ,a ti" 8 " UX
(H in t. (6 ) Use Eq. 3.701 n° ' load b s s e s ore 1400 w alts' m 1SS67J«

3.26. A 3-phase, 4-pole, 50 He, star-connected l h lAna. (o) 0.0206

and w inding factor is 0.96. Its other data is as under*rbo6enerator has distributed field winding
Arm ature series turns per phase = 42

Arm ature radius = 0.4 m, Arm ature length = 4 m. G ap length = 2 cm.

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Prob. 3]
J r , - Concepts “ < Machines Vta
W indmg factor for arm ature winding = 0 955-------------------------------------------------------- — ------ —
For no-load arm ature em f o f 11 kV finH i

3.27. A 3-phase, 8 -pole, narrow-spread d hi “ CUm!',t reqUired lA

IA"n s'. 165.74 A|
modated in 72 slots w ith 2 coil-sides per s“ t Windi" e of ,h ‘ ‘ " "M u r e o f an alternator Iis accom-
as possible
— — h-
IHint. Order of a,o, J Z Z Z ," ? W " ,t " 0l,‘d “ ,h' irW," d' " 8 ’
IA n a . C oil sp a n = 1 4 0 ° ; = 0.9024,

3.28. (a) How do the winding a- * L ' *..5 = 0.037786 ; 17 and 19, 0.9024)

(6 ) The line to line voltage o f a 3 phase t " WaVrf° ™ 0fth' ° UtPUt ’' 0" ae' " f ‘ synchronous generetor?
of Held Hux, is observed to have no thifd or n f t t i.u T lT c o t 'T n ^ haVi“ 6 Sp‘ “ distrib" ' i» "
. W hat are the most Hkeiy reasons for the absence o f these harmonics? Why ?

in voltage w a v e ? UC “ “ th‘ fundan" " t a l component o f voltage be increased by allowing full fifth harmonic
, J ’ Star connection eliminates third harmonics ;
3.29 The total fi , • ng a n g leof36° eliminat«9 fifth harmonics, (n) 5.1526%)

ww
distribution is given b y * *** P° 8 “ * ^ ^ ° f 3 50 Hz a c’ generator is 0.069 Wb. If the flux density

B = B l s i n 0 + B 3 sin 30 + B s sin 50

where B3
w.E
- B j and f l 5 = - fl, and 0 is the angle measured from interpolar axis, then determine the r.m.s.

asy
value o f the e.m.f. per turn. The coil span is |th o f a pole pitch.

H int, e 180° = 36°

-M )
En
kPt = cos - = 0.951.
k/>3= cos 3 x 18 = 0.588

*/>5 = °'
gin
From the presentation leading to Eq. (3.51 b ),
e eri
.'. Total flux per pole
03 = g 0|.0S = ^3 0|-

0 - 01 + 0J + 05 = 01
, + 9 + 2fil= U 5 1 *
n g.n
Fundamental flux per pole

E.m.f. per turn,

01 “ I T S " 0-06 Wb
= V2 it fkp^$1 = 12.674 V
et
From Eq. (3.51 b), E3 per turn = 12.674 x x ^ = 2.612 V
U.«7Jl «J
^5 = 0
.*. per turn
Total e.m.f. >ium E = ylE'i + E3 + E§ — 12.94 volts j

3.30. (a ) “Even though the field flux density wave o f an alternator is non-sinusoidal, the alternator voltage
can be m ade sinusoidal by distributing the armature winding in slots". Illustrate your answer with e.m.f.
waveforms.
[Hint: (a) N on-sinusoidal distribution o f field flux-density wave along the air-gap periphery is shown in
Fig. 3.60 (a). I f one full-pitch coil rotates with respect to this flux-density wave, then e.m.f. generated in that
coil has the sam e w aveform as that o f the inducing flux-density w ave-this is illustrated in Fig. 3.60 (6).
Suppose there are three slots per pole per phase, i.e. there are 3 coils in the phase-belt or phase-band.
Then w aveform s o f the e.m .fs. generated in the coils numbered 1, 2 and 3 are as shown in Fig. 3.60 (cl Note
that the zero-crossin g o f the e.m.f. w aveform s is displaced from each other by a time angle o f 20° (= slot angular
Pitch o f 20°).

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IProb. 3
354 Electrical Machinery

ww
w.E
asy
En
(c)
Fig 3 60. Effect of distributing the winding. Problem 3.30.

The e m f waveform for each coil fa o f the same

phase belt, the coils are connected in senes, th e r e s d ta n t
gin a si„e wave. Thu
of the three »>veform m F.g. 3.60 fc) d lu stra ^
shows that even though the flux aens y
e
^ a|temator is „ on .sm u Soidal, the alternator voltage can be

eri
alone the air-gap periphery.
made sinusoidal b , distributing the armature w m d.ng m the slots along the g P P .

n
I f the winding consists o f fractional-pitch coils, the resultant e.m .f. w aveform can be mad PP
better sine wave.] x ^ .
(6) The field-flux distribution o f a 3-phase star-connected alternator is give y
g.n
et
100 sin 0 + 30 sin 30 + 20 sin 50.
where 0 is the angle measured from the interpolar axis. fundamental
The alternator has 9 slots per pole and the coil-span is from 1 to 9. If r.m .s. value o
phase voltage is V j, then compute :
(i) r.m.s. value o f the phase voltage and
(ii) r.m.s. value o f the line voltage.
3 03
|A n s .(o ) 1.1507 V, 161 l'7SlV|1
7 f eu'
Kul J inding E*ch
3.31. A 50-Hz, 4-pole synchronous generator with 24 stator slots is w ound with two layer * ^uce(j e.ni f
1-pitch coil has 10 tum s. The sinusoidally distributed flux per pole is 0.02 W b. Calculate e
tween the lines i f the coils are connected to form ^ 594,693V1
(a) a two-phase winding ( b) a three-phase winding. lAns. (a) 686.65 ^j^ing

3.32. A 50-H z salient-pole synchronous generator, w ith tw o-layer fu ll-pitch ed winding, l'as
ta :
D = 7 n i ,f = l m , stator slots = 600, rated speed = 120 r.p.m.
iductors per slot = 2.
The sinusoidal flux density has a peak value o f 1.2 T

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- ° b;— Basic Concepts of Rotating Electrical Machines 355

a re co n n ected to f o r m T ^ l ^ p h ^ s e w lnd T ng V° lta g e th a t C3n be o b ta in e d from th is g e n e r a to r i f th e co n d u c to rs

(W F in d th e p h a s e v o lta g e i f th e c o n d u c to rs a r e co n n ected to g iv e , b a la n c e d th r e e -p h a s e w in d in g .

c o n n ected m is e r ie s . T h e re fo fe .^’ p
p h a se
se SsPread
p re a d -*180®^etc
~180 etc.| ? tPU * V° lt a g e ’ Si" g !(Ans.
! ' p h a s(a)
e w in d in g V
28506.24 a s al1
h (6) th e tu rnV|
14294.47 s

3.33. A 4-pole oc machine has its winding housed in 48 slots with coils o f span i| ,* o f a pole-pitch.
Determine the winding factors and their relative kVA ratings in case this winding is
(a) 3-phase with a phase spread o f 60°,
( b) 3-phase with a phase spread of 120°,
(c) two phase,
(d) single phase. ,A „
IAns. W in din g factors : 0.9 4 9 5 , 0 .8 2 2 2 , 0.8 95, 0.6 33
kVA : 100, 86.593, 94.24, 66.271
3.34. The flux density distribution for a 50-Hz cylindrical-rotor alternator is
B = sin 0 + 0.3 sin 3 0 + 0.2 sin 5 0 + 0.1 sin 7 0
^ ‘I ™ ’ Alternator has pole-pitch = 40 cm and core length = 35 cm. Stator coil-

ww
span is four-fifth o f pole-pitch. Find equation for the e.m.f. generated in one-turn coil and its r.m.s. value.
IAns. e - 26.61 sin 0 + 4.935 sin 3 0 - 1.645 sin 7 0 ; 19.1762 V|
hoc t 3? ' * *

w.E a,ternator with sin8Ie lay er winding and full pitch coils, has 12 slots per pole. Each coil
has 30 turns. The flux is sinusoidally distributed in space and its value per pole is 0.03 Wb. The machine is
af SPf , 7b0 rr p m ’ P 16 current Per conductor is 50 A. For negligible internal voltage drops, find
the kVA output available from the stator if the winding is connected as :
(а) single phase and
(б ) three phase. asy
En
IH i n t : In single layer winding, number o f coils = — (number o f slots).

.-. Total number o f turns = ^ ~ - ^ j ( 3 0 ) = 1440 turns etc.]

gin [Ans. (a) 305.424 kVA (6) 9.465 kVA]

e
3.36. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 10 pole alternator with 90 slots has a star-connected winding to give a generated
e .m .f o f 11 kV at no load. The coils are chorded by one slot. If the flux per pole is 0.110 Wb, compute the
num ber o f series turns required for each phase o f this alternator. -
eri
[ H i n t : Conductors per slot must be a whole number.)
3.37. A 3-phase, 3 kV, 50 Hz, 300 rpm alternator has the following data: n g.n
|Ans 2701

et
Armature diameter = 1.90 m, core length = 0.39 m
Peak air-gap flux density ’ = 0.95 T
Number o f stator slots = 180
Air-gap length = 1 cm

T h is a lt e r n a t o r h a s s in g le - la y e r w in d in g a n d tw o c ir c u its p e r p h a s e . F in d th e to t a l a r m a t u r e t u r n s p e r
p h a s e . A s s u m e s in u s o id a l flu x d is t r ib u t io n . T h e w in d in g is s h o r t p itc h e d b y o n e s lo t. C a lc u la t e a ls o th e p e a k
v a lu e o f f u n d a m e n t a l fie ld m m f.
In c a s e c u r r e n t p e r c o n d u t o r is 10 0 A , e s t im a t e k V A r a t i n g o f th e a lt e r n a to r .
IAns. 240, 7559.9 At/pole, 1039.2 kVA|
3.38. T h e y o k e o f a 6 -p o le d .c. m a c h in e h a s it s e x t e r n a l a n d in t e r n a l d ia m e te r s o f 9 0 a n d 7 6 c m s r e s p e c t iv e ly
an d a x ia l le n g t h o f 3 0 c m s . T h e a r m a t u r e is w a v e c o n n e c te d w it h 7 2 s lo ts a n d 6 c o n d u c to r s p e r s lo t. T h e flu x
d e n s ity in t h e y o k e is 0 .8 6 T . C a l c u l a t e th e g e n e r a t e d e .m .f. a t th e m a c h in e t e r m i r a l s fo r a n a r m a t u r e s p e e d
o f 900 r .p .m .
[Hint: F l u x p e r p o le = 2 ( y o k e flu x ) , s e e F ig . 3.8] ( A n s . 7 0 2 .1 7 3 V|

3 .3 9 . A 3 - p h a s e d e lt a - c o n n e c t e d in d u c t io n m o to r h a s 6 p o le s , 3 6 s lo t s , 2 - la y e r w i n d in g a n d 1 2 - t u m c o ils
s h o r t- p itc h e d b y o n e s lo t . F i n d t h e flu x p e r p o le o f t h e r o t a t in g flu x d e n s it y w a v e , w i t h s t a t o r c o n n e c t e d to 4 0 0
V, 50 H z , 3 - p h a s e s u p p ly . T h e m a g n it u d e o f v o l t a g e d r o p in s t a t o r le a k a g e im p e d a n c e is a s s u m e d to b e 1 % o f
s u p p ly v o lt a g e . lA n s . 0 .0 13 2 7 W b|

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356 Electrical M achinery________________________________ '

— ’ i. avera ge e.m .f. g e n e r a t e d i n o n e c o n d u c to r is 2 / > . H en ce prove t W
3.40. (a) Using " £ v en b y J , f * ■« , * • P* "* “
per-phase e.m.f. genera e star.ctirme cted alternator has 144 slots with 6 conductors per slot, P|ux
(6) A 3-phase 8-pole, .^ O r ^ m -s t a ^ ^ phase and line e.m.fs.
per pole is 0.06 Wb and coi s fs if the coils are reconnected to form a balanced 2-phase winding 7
What will be the phase and 1 • ^ lg34 g ^ 3 m g y . 2595 Q2 y ^

3.41. (a) Show that the m.m.f. changes linearly over the slot width and remains unaltered over the tooth

Wldth‘ . in s is t s of one full-pitch coil on the stator. If the coil has N turns, then for
(6) A uniform air-gap ma^ e h t the m m f . along the air-gap periphery is of rectangular waveform
a current of i amperes in each turn, show tnai m e m e>

with its magnitude equal to -Ni.

Hence introduce the concept of current sheet.

ww
A single-phase distributed winding carries alternating current. Show that the tune-maximum of the pesk
m.m.f. for a P-pole machine is given by

w.E ' *. ATs per pole-

Ib) What would be the magnitude o f the fundamental component of m .m .f produced by Uie held[winding

13 turns and the conductor current is 200 A.

asy
of a S f b r m air-gap 2-poU machine wound with 13 concentric c o „ . and wrih a slot angle

3 43 In a balanced 3-phase stator winding, each phase-belt o f phase a has 100 ampere-conductors at the

En
instant of its carrying maximum current. Sketch the m.m.f. wave for this phase in case slo s per pole per phase
(q) are 1, 2, 3 and 4. Find the amplitude of m.m.f. wave for this phase and comment upon the change in m.m.f.
as q is increased.
gin
[ H i n t : For q = 1, m.m.f. amplitude = ^ (Ni) = 50 etc.)

e eri
[Ans. 50, 100, 150 and 200. M.m.f. wave becomes more closer to sinusoidal m.m.f. as q is increased).

carries maximum current of 16 A, do the following :

n
3.44. A 2-pole, 3-phase a.c. winding has 24 slots. Each slot carries 10 conductors. At the instant phase a

(a) Sketch m.m.f. wave o f phase a only in a developed view of the slots. Comment upon the m.m.f. w a v e s h a p e g.n
and indicate its amplitude in the sketch.
(b ) Calculate the amplitude of the fundamental component o f the m.m.f. wave.
(H in t. Refer to Fig. 3.29 (c)] (Ans. (a) Stepped m.m.f. wave ; 320 ATs (b) 390.2 ATs/pokl
et
3.45. A 3-phase, 100 kW, 6-pole, 50 Hz, delta-connected induction motor has 20 conductors per slot arr“ ^
in 72 slots. For a line current o f 76 A, compute the peak value o f the fundamental m.m.f. wave of any p ^
Also calculate the peak value o f the resultant m.m.f. wave and its speed. The winding is short‘ pltc e i
slot. [Ans. 3000.8 AT/pole ; 4501.2 AT/pole. 1000 r.p.m-

3.46. (a) Show that the pulsating m.m.f. can be expressed in terms o f space angle a and time angle w
F (a, t) = Fm cos cot cos a
where Fm is the m.m.f. corresponding to the maximum current
• nf triangulw
(6) Show that the m.m.f. produced by the armature winding o f a commutator machine is o
1Z i
w a v e fo r m w i t h its p e a k v a lu e e q u a l t o - - - A T s / p o le .

3.47. T w o -
s u p p ly . I f t h e c u r r e n t s
p r o v e t h a t a s y n c h r o n o u s ly
th e s e r ie s t u r n s p e r p h a s e .

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Prob. 31 m
Basic Concepts o f Rotating Electrical Machines 357
Hence show ,h .« » - p h a « in m.phase synchronous|y _ mf
w a v e o f c o n s t a n t a , n p „ t u d e o f f U m e5 th „ m , x im u m ^ ^ » _ 6 f

[ H in t : Proceed as outlined in Art. 3.7]

3 48 For 3 no I* * •
and rotor m.m.fs., statm g^hetlriom t0rqULe exPression in terms of the interacting stator
only when one of the two m.m.fs has a If enceahow that the electromagnetic torque can exist
3 4 9 For m 15 nas a component normal to the other m.m.f.

per pole <>, number o f poles /^andTotor'nf’n frtlr0 ^ £enera* tonlue expression in terms of total air-gap flux
the load angle or t o r ^ e a"gk “ m S S £ 5 w S i I T p U' “ « • * » « n develop J / w h * .

air gap of a rotating electrical machin^hawf* density vary sinusoidally with res
the flux per pole is 20 m Wb the amDlituHe^f »h° ^ * rated sPeed of 960 r.p.m. At rated load conditions,
displacement between S e two w a S r ^ is W,Ve " 53° 3mpere tUmS and the space
necessary relations ‘ ®'s^imate *he power rating of the machine deriving the
„ , U.E.S., 1979) |An s. 4 kW|
A 4‘ P°le cylindrical machine has the following data :

ww
r o to r d ia m e t e r = 0 .4 m, / = 1 m, sta to r bore d ia m e te r = 0.41 m
p e a k v a lu e o f sin u s o id a l g a p flu x d e n s ity = 1 T

Calculate the air-gap reluctance, peak air-gap m .m .f, flux per pole and total air-gap energy.

decomposed
w.E by ZrP0duCeS P
IAns. 12665.15 ATA Vb, 1989.44 A T s, 0.2 W b 1250 J1

» "> f wav. which cm, be

tw oT h a.t l h f l T
X u f u l e fs p ro d u lT
^
*“
asy
amplitude counter-rotating m.m.f. waves. Using this concept, prove that when
y tW0'PhaSe ba'anCed * travelli" ‘

En
halnnr5^' 7711-66 C01,s a - b’ c bave their magnetic axis coincident. These coils a, b, c are excited by three-phase
alanced currents /„, cos cot, /„, cos (o* - 1 2 0 °) and /„, cos (a* - 2 4 0 ) respectively. Find the magnitude of resul­
tant m.m.f. wave.

gin
is 11 essential to know the power losses in electrical machines? Show that the calculation of
efficiency by the measurement of losses is more accurate than by measuring the output.
(b) What are no-load rotational losses? How can these be measured?
e
3.55. (a) Enumerate the various power losses in electrical machines. Which of these losses are affected by
eri
U) rotor rotation (» ) the value of flux (Hi) the load directly and (iv) square of the load.
(b) What happens to the power losses in electrical machines? Are these reversible?
(c) What is the efficiency of a generator or motor at no load?
n g.n
[Ans. (a) (i) No-load rotational loss (ii) Hysteresis and eddy-current losses
(in') Brush contact loss (iu) I2R losses and stray load loss.

3 .5 6 . O u t p u t o f r o t a t in g e le c t r ic a l m a c h in e s is g iv e n b y
(c) Efficiency is zero.]
et
S = K D 2L B ou r c n

w h ere D =s t a t o r b o r e d ia m e t e r , L = c o r e le n g t h , n = r o to r s p e e d in r.p .s ., Bou = a v e r a g e flu x d e n s it y in

T ,a c= a m p e r e c o n d u c to r s p e r u n it le n g t h o f a ir - g a p p e r ip h e r y a n d i f is a c o n s ta n t.
C o m p a r e t h e r a t i n g s a n d lo s s e s o f tw o r o t a t in g e le c t r ic a l m a c h in e s , th e lin e a r d im e n s io n s o f o n e b e in g x
tim e s t h o s e o f t h e o th e r . T h e flu x a n d c u r r e n t d e n s it ie s in b o th a r e th e s a m e .
H e n c e s h o w t h a t larger t h e s iz e o f t h e m a c h in e , g r e a t e r is its e ffic ie n c y .
o 8 •^ _ _
[Hint. F o r f i r s t m a c h in e , act = — — T h e r e fo r e ac2 = x a c j e t c . I
71 L)

[Ana. x4 S lt x3 W, where 5 , and W, are the rating & losses respectively in the first rotating electrical machine.l

3 .5 7 . (a) W h a t a r e t h e v a r i o u s e l e c t r i c a l lo s s e s in r o t a t in g e le c t r ic a l m a c h in e s ? G iv e a p h y s ic a l u n d e r ­
s t a n d in g o f h y s t e r e s i s a n d e d d y - c u r r e n t lo s s e s a n d s h o w t h a t th e u s e o f th in la m in a t io n s m in im is e s th e
e d d y - c u r r e n t lo s s .
(5 ) W h a t lo s s is d e s i g n a t e d a s s t r a y lo a d lo s s ? H o w is t h is c a u s e d in e le c t r ic a l m a c h in e s ?

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[Prob. 3
358 Electrical Machinery

(c) Show that m aximum efficiency occurs when constant loss is equal to variable loss.
3.58. (a) The proposed load schedule for a sm all rolling m ill is as under.
B ille t in th e r o lls , 5 0 0 k W fo r 3 0 sec.
B ille t o u t o f th e r o lls , 8 0 kVV for 4 0 sec.
F in d a c o n t in u o u s k W r a tin g o f th e m o to r.

(fc) The operating cycle for a lift is as under :

1 L o a d g o in g u p (1 m in ) = 60 k W
L o a d in g p e r io d a t top (2 m in ) = 10 k W
L o a d g o in g d o w n (1 m in ) = - 5 0 k W (p o w e r p u m p e d b a c k to s u p p ly )
L o a d in g p e r io d a t b o t to m (2 m in ) = 10 k W
On the basis o f heating select a suitable motor out o f the follow ing available sizes : 25, 30, 35, 40, 50 and
60 kVV [Ans. (a) 350 kW (= 332.866 kW) (6 ) 35 kW ( . 32.94 kW)|

3.59. (a) W hat is m eant by one-hour rating o f an electric motor ? Discuss.

(fc) A motor driving a colliery winding equipm ent has the follow ing points on its load duty cycle :

ww
T im e , sec

O u tp u t, k W
0

0
20

1000
20

1 0 0 0 to 5 0 0
60

500
60

5 0 0 to - 2 0 0
70

0
90

0
R epeat
cycle

w.E
The complete load cycle curve can be obtained by joining these points with straight lines.
Specify a continuous kW rating o f the motor for this load cycle. [Ans. 450 kW (= 432.045 k\V)|

asy
3.60. (a ) A continuous-rated motor can deliver higher power outputs for short-time duty. Discuss.
(6) A 10 kW, 3-phase induction motor has a heating time constant of 2 hours and attains a final steady temperature

ohmic loss is twice the core loss and ambient temperature is 30°C.
En
rise of 50° C with continuous loading. Find the time for which this motor may be safely loaded at 20 kW. The fuU-load
[Ans. 0.811 hr]
3.61. (a) Explain the significance o f machine ratings.

gin
(6) Describe more common types of machine ratings based on thermal considerations.

almost constant torque.

e
(c) Explain the method of determining the power rating o f electric motors for driving the loads requiring

eri
(d ) Describe the method used for the determination of electric-motor rating for a periodically varying load.

n
3.62. (a) An induction motor has a final steady temperature rise o f 40°C when running at its rated output
of 20 kW. Determine its half-hour rating for the same temperature rise if the ohmic losses at rated output are
1.25 times its constant losses. The heating time constant is 90 minutes. g.n
(fc) For the motor o f part (a), the motor cooling is improved by 20% because o f its installation in the hills.
Find its new continuous power rating (i) for the same temperature rise (ii) for a temperature rise of 50°C.
et
[Ans. (a) 47.17 kW (b) 23.324 kW, 27.57 k\V|
3.63. ( a ) What are the more commonly employed classes of insulation in electrical machines ? Discuss these
with respect to the maximum temperature, materials etc.
(fc) An electric motor with continuous rating Pr can deliver much higher output Px for a short-time duration
tx. Develop a relation that gives the short-time rating Px in terms o f P r, tx, heating time constant etc.
3.64. (a) Differentiate between short-time rated and continuous rated motors.
(fc) Temperature rise of an electric motor at rated load of 30 kW was found to be 20°C after one-hour run
and 50°C after three-hour run. In case its full-load ohmic loss is 1.5 times the constant loss, calculate its
one-hour rating without exceeding the specified temperature rise.
(c) In case temperature rise o f 10% is allowed for motor in part (fc), find its new continuous rating.
[Ans. (o) 88.74 kW (fc) 32.4 kWI
3.65. (a) The temperature rise of an 80 kW motor is 25°C after 0.5 h and 40°C after 1 0 h on full load. The
motor I B loss on full load is twice the core loss. When this motor is fitted with a fan to improve the cooling.

b M h ^ i b t i i ’ned1w ^ Z i t “ m ” 15 t0 48°C ' EStimatC the m ° t0r raU ne f° r thc fin al te ™Peraturc riSC 10
Derive the formula used for obtaining this rating.

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Prob. 3]
J t a s i c C o n c e p ts o f M a t i n g E le ctric a l M a c h in e s 359
<6. For the m otor o f par, fa >, determine j(s ^ (j) ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

3.66. (a) What is pulsation loss? Discuss how this , ■ 'T 96 44 “ '° 8 “ ^ ' 3° '95 kWI
(6 ) Describe the advantages o f usinp h H ' S cau ln rotatlng electrical machines.
(c) Discuss where direct c o o , i n i T ” “ * C° ° 'ant ‘“^ " '- t o r s .
W1 npc ., eCt C00hne 15 P a i r e d over hydrogen cooling.

electric motors. n ° US tyPCS ° f sPeed-torque characteristics as possessed by driven equipments and

(e) Answer the following :

<0 M ost outstanding feature o f a generator and a motor.

<u Econom ic features o f rotating electrical machines.
(Hi) Factors leading to the progress in electrical machinery.
lAns. (e) (i) V / and speed-torque characteristics. Ui) Efficiency, p.f„ initial cost etc.
(«») Improvements in the quality and characteristics of steel, conductor and
insulating materials and also in the cooling of machines.l

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